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SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Project-Based Voucher Improvement Act of 2015''. SEC. 2. UNITS OWNED BY PUBLIC HOUSING AGENCIES. Paragraph (11) of section 8(o) of the United States Housing Act of 1937 (42 U.S.C. 1437f(o)(11)) is amended-- (1) by striking ``(11) Leasing of units owned by pha.--If'' and inserting the following: ``(11) Leasing of units owned by pha.-- ``(A) Inspections and rent determinations.--If''; and (2) by adding at the end the following new subparagraph: ``(B) Units owned by pha.--For purposes of this subsection, the term `owned by a public housing agency' means, with respect to a dwelling unit, that the dwelling unit is in a project that is owned by such agency, by an entity wholly controlled by such agency, or by a limited liability company or limited partnership in which such agency (or an entity wholly controlled by such agency) holds a controlling interest in the managing member or general partner. A dwelling unit shall not be deemed to be owned by a public housing agency for purposes of this subsection because the agency holds a fee interest as ground lessor in the property on which the unit is situated, holds a security interest under a mortgage or deed of trust on the unit, or holds a non-controlling interest in an entity which owns the unit or in the managing member or general partner of an entity which owns the unit.''. SEC. 3. PHA PROJECT-BASED ASSISTANCE. (a) In General.--Paragraph (13) of section 8(o) of the United States Housing Act of 1937 (42 U.S.C. 1437f(o)(13)) is amended-- (1) by striking ``structure'' each place such term appears and inserting ``project''; (2) by striking ``structures'' each place such term appears and inserting ``projects''; (3) by striking subparagraph (B) and inserting the following new subparagraph: ``(B) Percentage limitation.-- ``(i) In general.--Subject to clause (ii), a public housing agency may use for project- based assistance under this paragraph not more than 20 percent of the authorized units for the agency. ``(ii) Exception.--A public housing agency may use up to an additional 10 percent of the authorized units for the agency for project- based assistance under this paragraph, to provide units that house individuals and families that meet the definition of homeless under section 103 of the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act (42 U.S.C. 11302), that house families with veterans, that provide supportive housing to persons with disabilities or elderly persons, or that are located in areas where vouchers under this subsection are difficult to use, as specified in subparagraph (D)(ii)(II). Any units of project-based assistance that are attached to units previously subject to federally required rent restrictions or receiving another type of long- term housing subsidy provided by the Secretary shall not count toward the percentage limitation under clause (i) of this subparagraph. The Secretary may, by regulation, establish additional categories for the exception under this clause.''; (4) by striking subparagraph (D) and inserting the following new subparagraph: ``(D) Income-mixing requirement.-- ``(i) In general.--Except as provided in clause (ii), not more than the greater of 25 dwelling units or 25 percent of the dwelling units in any project may be assisted under a housing assistance payment contract for project-based assistance pursuant to this paragraph. For purposes of this subparagraph, the term `project' means a single building, multiple contiguous buildings, or multiple buildings on contiguous parcels of land. ``(ii) Exceptions.-- ``(I) Certain families.--The limitation under clause (i) shall not apply to dwelling units assisted under a contract that are exclusively made available to elderly families or to households eligible for supportive services that are made available to the assisted residents of the project, according to standards for such services the Secretary may establish. ``(II) Certain areas.--With respect to areas in which tenant-based vouchers for assistance under this subsection are difficult to use, as determined by the Secretary, and with respect to census tracts with a poverty rate of 20 percent or less, clause (i) shall be applied by substituting `40 percent' for `25 percent', and the Secretary may, by regulation, establish additional conditions. ``(III) Certain contracts.--The limitation under clause (i) shall not apply with respect to contracts or renewal of contracts under which a greater percentage of the dwelling units in a project were assisted under a housing assistance payment contract for project-based assistance pursuant to this paragraph on the date of the enactment of the Project-Based Voucher Improvement Act of 2015. ``(IV) Certain properties.--Any units of project-based assistance under this paragraph that are attached to units previously subject to federally required rent restrictions or receiving other project-based assistance provided by the Secretary shall not count toward the percentage limitation imposed by this subparagraph (D). ``(iii) Additional monitoring and oversight requirements.--The Secretary may establish additional requirements for monitoring and oversight of projects in which more than 40 percent of the dwelling units are assisted under a housing assistance payment contract for project-based assistance pursuant to this paragraph.''; (5) by striking subparagraph (F) and inserting the following new subparagraph: ``(F) Contract term.-- ``(i) Term.--A housing assistance payment contract pursuant to this paragraph between a public housing agency and the owner of a project may have a term of up to 20 years, subject to-- ``(I) the availability of sufficient appropriated funds for the purpose of renewing expiring contracts for assistance payments, as provided in appropriation Acts and in the agency's annual contributions contract with the Secretary, provided that in the event of insufficient appropriated funds, payments due under contracts under this paragraph shall take priority if other cost-saving measures that do not require the termination of an existing contract are available to the agency; and ``(II) compliance with the inspection requirements under paragraph (8), except that the agency shall not be required to make biennial inspections of each assisted unit in the development. ``(ii) Addition of eligible units.--Subject to the limitations of subparagraphs (B) and (D), the agency and the owner may add eligible units within the same project to a housing assistance payments contract at any time during the term thereof without being subject to any additional competitive selection procedures. ``(iii) Housing under construction or recently constructed.--An agency may enter into a housing assistance payments contract with an owner for any unit that does not qualify as existing housing and is under construction or recently has been constructed whether or not the agency has executed an agreement to enter into a contract with the owner, provided that the owner demonstrates compliance with applicable requirements prior to execution of the housing assistance payments contract. This clause shall not subject a housing assistance payments contract for existing housing under this paragraph to such requirements or otherwise limit the extent to which a unit may be assisted as existing housing. ``(iv) Additional conditions.--The contract may specify additional conditions, including with respect to continuation, termination, or expiration, and shall specify that upon termination or expiration of the contract without extension, each assisted family may elect to use its assistance under this subsection to remain in the same project if its unit complies with the inspection requirements under paragraph (8), the rent for the unit is reasonable as required by paragraph (10)(A), and the family pays its required share of the rent and the amount, if any, by which the unit rent (including the amount allowed for tenant- based utilities) exceeds the applicable payment standard.''; (6) in subparagraph (G), by striking ``15 years'' and inserting ``20 years''; (7) by striking subparagraph (I) and inserting the following new subparagraph: ``(I) Rent adjustments.--A housing assistance payments contract pursuant to this paragraph entered into after the date of the enactment of the Project- Based Voucher Improvement Act of 2015 shall provide for annual rent adjustments upon the request of the owner, except that-- ``(i) by agreement of the parties, a contract may allow a public housing agency to adjust the rent for covered units using an operating cost adjustment factor established by the Secretary pursuant to section 524(c) of the Multifamily Assisted Housing Reform and Affordability Act of 1997 (which shall not result in a negative adjustment), in which case the contract may require an additional adjustment, if requested, up to the reasonable rent periodically during the term of the contract, and shall require such an adjustment, if requested, upon extension pursuant to subparagraph (G); ``(ii) the adjusted rent shall not exceed the maximum rent permitted under subparagraph (H); ``(iii) the contract may provide that the maximum rent permitted for a dwelling unit shall not be less than the initial rent for the dwelling unit under the initial housing assistance payments contract covering the units; and ``(iv) the provisions of subsection (c)(2)(C) shall not apply.''; (8) in subparagraph (J)-- (A) in the first sentence-- (i) by striking ``shall'' and inserting ``may''; and (ii) by inserting before the period the following ``or may permit owners to select applicants from site-based waiting lists as specified in this subparagraph''; (B) by striking the third sentence and inserting the following: ``The agency or owner may establish preferences or criteria for selection for a unit assisted under this paragraph that are consistent with the public housing agency plan for the agency approved under section 5A and that give preference to families who qualify for voluntary services, including disability-specific services, offered in conjunction with assisted units.''; and (C) by striking the fifth and sixth sentences and inserting the following: ``A public housing agency may establish and utilize procedures for owner-maintained site-based waiting lists, under which applicants may apply at, or otherwise designate to the public housing agency, the project or projects in which they seek to reside, except that all eligible applicants on the waiting list of an agency for assistance under this subsection shall be permitted to place their names on such separate list, subject to policies and procedures established by the Secretary. All such procedures shall comply with title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Fair Housing Act, section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and other applicable civil rights laws. The owner or manager of a project assisted under this paragraph shall not admit any family to a dwelling unit assisted under a contract pursuant to this paragraph other than a family referred by the public housing agency from its waiting list, or a family on a site- based waiting list that complies with the requirements of this subparagraph. A public housing agency shall disclose to each applicant all other options in the selection of a project in which to reside that are provided by the public housing agency and are available to the applicant.''; (9) in subparagraph (M)(ii), by inserting before the period at the end the following: ``relating to funding other than housing assistance payments''; and (10) by adding at the end the following new subparagraphs: ``(N) Structure owned by agency.--A public housing agency engaged in an initiative to improve, develop, or replace a public housing property or site may attach assistance to an existing, newly constructed, or rehabilitated structure in which the agency has an ownership interest or which the agency has control of without following a competitive process, provided that the agency has notified the public of its intent through its public housing agency plan and subject to the limitations and requirements of this paragraph. ``(O) Special purpose vouchers.--A public housing agency that administers vouchers authorized under subsection (o)(19) or (x) of this section may provide such assistance in accordance with the limitations and requirements of this paragraph, without additional requirements for approval by the Secretary.''. (b) Effective Date.--The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development shall issue notice or regulations to implement subsection (a) of this section and such subsection shall take effect upon such issuance.	Project-Based Voucher Improvement Act of 2015 This bill amends the United States Housing Act of 1937 with respect to the requirement that the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) require local governments or other HUD-approved entities to make inspections and rent determinations for leased dwelling units (other than public housing dwelling units) that are owned by a public housing agency (PHA) administering section 8 low-income (voucher) rental assistance. "Owned by a PHA," for these purposes, means the dwelling unit is in a project owned by: the PHA, an entity wholly controlled by the PHA, or a limited liability company or limited partnership in which the PHA (or an entity wholly controlled by it) holds a controlling interest in the managing member or general partner. A dwelling unit shall not be deemed to be owned by a PHA for these purposes, however, merely because the PHA holds: a fee interest as ground lessor in the property on which the unit is situated, a security interest under a mortgage or deed of trust on the unit, or a non-controlling interest in an entity which owns the unit or in the managing member or general partner of an entity which owns the unit. In an exception to the prohibition against attaching to a PHA project more than 20% of funding available for tenant-based assistance, a PHA may use up to an additional 10% to provide units that: house homeless individuals and families, house families with veterans, provide supportive housing to persons with disabilities or elderly persons, or are located in areas where vouchers are difficult to use. The bill revises the income-mixing requirement for such projects to add to the current assistance limitation of a maximum 25 dwelling units per project an alternative limitation of 25% of such dwelling units. Neither limitation shall apply to dwelling units exclusively made available to elderly families or to households eligible for certain supportive services. The term of a housing assistance payment contract may increase from 15 to 20 years. The bill also revises requirements for rent adjustments.
participants aged between 4 and 50 years with type 1 diabetes on insulin pump therapy with impaired awareness of hypoglycemia participated in a 6-month intervention trial comparing standard pump therapy ( insulin pump only ) to the veo ( insulin pump with continuous glucose monitoring and lgs function ) . hypoglycemia awareness was determined with the use of the modified clarke s questionnaire ( 7 ) , with a minimum score of 4 suggestive of impaired awareness of hypoglycemia . participants randomly assigned to the veo received a 3-h standardized face - to - face education session followed by ongoing patient - led assistance from an educator and doctor via phone or e - mail , together with scheduled visits every 3 months . participants uploaded their pumps to the carelink therapy management system website weekly , allowing evaluation of patient use and patterns of insulin suspension . the lgs threshold was set at 60 mg / dl for study participants . as the sensor glucose falls below this level if the patient does not respond to the alarm , insulin delivery will be suspended for up to 2 h , after which standard basal insulin is resumed . the patient may intervene at any stage throughout this 2-h period to resume insulin delivery . if there is no patient response , the pump will cycle in a continuous 6-h cycle of 2 h of insulin suspension followed by 4 h of basal insulin delivery . in addition to the lgs alarm and suspend function , a low glucose alert was set at 70 mg / dl . at this level , the pump emits an audible sound or vibratory alert only but does not automatically suspend insulin . a high glucose alert also was set at 324 mg / dl for all participants . participants were requested to check for blood ketones if the first morning finger stick blood glucose level was 270 mg / dl and record the level of ketones , either with a diary or via e - mail to study personnel . ketosis was defined as a blood ketone level of 0.6 mmol / l . data regarding sensor glucose values were obtained from the carelink pump upload . an lgs event was defined as an episode of insulin suspension activated by the lgs alarm set at 60 mg / dl . for each individual subject , each lgs event was evaluated to determine the time and duration of each event ; sensor glucose before , during , and after the period of insulin suspension ; and corresponding meter blood glucose entered as a calibration before or after the event . for each 2-h lgs event , for instance , if a patient has responded to the audible alarm and elected to continue insulin suspension , this was considered to be an lgs event with patient response . if a patient has not responded to the audible alarm at all during the entire 2-h duration of insulin suspension , this was considered to be an lgs event with no response . we then further evaluated overnight lgs events with no patient response occurring prior to 3:00 a.m. , which allowed us to determine the pattern of sensor glucose values with no patient intervention during and after the period of insulin suspension . an lgs event was defined as an episode of insulin suspension activated by the lgs alarm set at 60 mg / dl . for each individual subject , each lgs event was evaluated to determine the time and duration of each event ; sensor glucose before , during , and after the period of insulin suspension ; and corresponding meter blood glucose entered as a calibration before or after the event . for each 2-h lgs event , for instance , if a patient has responded to the audible alarm and elected to continue insulin suspension , this was considered to be an lgs event with patient response . if a patient has not responded to the audible alarm at all during the entire 2-h duration of insulin suspension , this was considered to be an lgs event with no response . we then further evaluated overnight lgs events with no patient response occurring prior to 3:00 a.m. , which allowed us to determine the pattern of sensor glucose values with no patient intervention during and after the period of insulin suspension . twenty - four participants were commenced on the system ( [ means sd ] aged 17.4 9.3 years , duration of diabetes 8.7 6.4 years , and duration of pump therapy 3.8 3.0 years ) , with a median duration of use of 89 days ( range 9211 ) . the incidence of severe hypoglycemia for this cohort of 24 participants was 45.8 events per 100 patient - years prior to commencement of the veo system . this improved to 7.4 0.6% at 3 months ( p = 0.015 ) while using the system . the a1c , however , increased from 3 to 6 months to 7.7 0.9% ( baseline vs. 6 months , p = 0.517 ) for the remainder of the intervention phase . the mean hypoglycemia unawareness score at baseline was 5.6 1.3 , which decreased to 4.5 1.9 ( p = 0.019 ) at the end of the 6-month intervention phase . in total , the system was worn for 2,493 of 4,218 patient - days . the median percentage of sensor use was 72% . during the 2,493 sensor days evaluated , 3,128 lgs events occurred ( 1.3 events per day ) . the duration of lgs events was as follows : 13% ( 406 ) lasted the full 2-h duration , 12% ( 376 ) lasted between 1 and 2 h , 13% ( 400 ) lasted between 30 min and 1 h , 14% ( 446 ) lasted between 10 and 30 min , and 48% ( 1,488 ) lasted < 10 min . thirty - six percent of all events occurred overnight . following the end of the main 6-month intervention phase , 79% of patients chose to continue wearing the system for an additional 6 months . in this cohort , two participants ( 8% ) were not able to tolerate the system and discontinued using the system after several weeks . of the full 2-h suspend events , 80% ( n = 324 ) occurred overnight . in 168 ( 52% ) of these nocturnal events , the patient responded to the alarm and elected to continue insulin suspension . in this case , the pump continued insulin suspension and automatically resumed insulin delivery at the end of the 2-h period . in the remaining 156 ( 48% ) nocturnal events , there was no response from the patient despite an alarm of 60 db lasting 20 s occurring every 2 min during the 2-h period . a total of 126 ( 81% ) overnight suspend events that were associated with no patient response occurred before 3:00 a.m. analysis of these events allowed the evaluation of sensor glucose patterns 4 h following 2 h of insulin suspension and 2 h of basal insulin resumption without the influence of additional insulin therapy or carbohydrate intake ( fig . insulin was always suspended if there was no patient response and sensor glucose dropped below 60 mg / l . as shown in fig . the mean sensor glucose at the end of the 2-h suspend period was 99 6 mg / dl ( [ means se ] 5.5 0.3 mmol / l ) . the mean sensor glucose 2 h after insulin delivery resumed was 155 10 mg / dl ( 8.6 0.6 mmol / l ) . the mean first - morning meter glucose entered into the pump following these events was 185 9 mg / dl ( 10.3 0.5 mmol / l ) . the corresponding mean first - morning sensor glucose values was 144 9 mg / dl ( 8.0 0.5 mmol / l ) . the mean difference between sensor and meter glucose values was 41 mg / dl ( 2.3 mmol / l ) . overnight lgs events with no patient response occurring before 3:00 a.m. ( n = 126 ) to evaluate sensor glucose patterns following insulin suspension . a : insulin delivery is automatically suspended as sensor glucose falls below the 60 mg / dl threshold . b : insulin delivery is automatically resumed after 2 h. at this point , the mean sensor glucose after 2 h of insulin suspension was 99 6 mg / dl ( 5.5 0.3 c : the mean sensor glucose following 2 h of insulin resumption was 155 10 mg / dl ( 8.6 0.6 the frequency of overnight full 2-h suspend events in individual participants is shown in table 1 . the frequency ranged from one event every 2.6 days ( participant 22 ) to one event every 52.8 days ( participant 11 ) . twenty - five percent of participants had one full 2-h suspend overnight at least once per week . frequency of overnight 2-h lgs events in individual participants insulin was suspended for the full 2-h duration more than once overnight on 14 occasions , as shown in table 2 . during these occasions , the patient responded to the alarm and elected to continue insulin suspension . after this time , the sensor glucose again fell below the lgs threshold of 60 mg / dl , and insulin delivery was again suspended . multiple overnight lgs events on these occasions , insulin was suspended for an average of 4.2 0.2 h overnight . the mean sensor glucose at the end of the suspended period was 112 18 mg / dl ( 6.2 1.0 mmol / l ) . following these events , the mean first - morning meter glucose recorded in the pump was 239 22 mg / dl ( 13.3 1.2 the sensor glucose tended to read below the meter glucose by a mean difference of 115 mg / dl ( 6.4 mmol / l ) . on waking , the difference in sensor and meter glucose values resulted in calibration error and in a subsequent request for insertion of a new sensor . there were no episodes of severe hypoglycemia , defined as seizure or coma associated with hypoglycemia , during the time evaluated . of the full 2-h suspend events , 80% ( n = 324 ) occurred overnight . in 168 ( 52% ) of these nocturnal events , the patient responded to the alarm and elected to continue insulin suspension . in this case , the pump continued insulin suspension and automatically resumed insulin delivery at the end of the 2-h period . in the remaining 156 ( 48% ) nocturnal events , there was no response from the patient despite an alarm of 60 db lasting 20 s occurring every 2 min during the 2-h period . a total of 126 ( 81% ) overnight suspend events that were associated with no patient response occurred before 3:00 a.m. analysis of these events allowed the evaluation of sensor glucose patterns 4 h following 2 h of insulin suspension and 2 h of basal insulin resumption without the influence of additional insulin therapy or carbohydrate intake ( fig . insulin was always suspended if there was no patient response and sensor glucose dropped below 60 mg / l . the mean sensor glucose at the end of the 2-h suspend period was 99 6 mg / dl ( [ means se ] 5.5 0.3 mmol / l ) . the mean sensor glucose 2 h after insulin delivery resumed was 155 10 mg / dl ( 8.6 0.6 mmol / l ) . the mean first - morning meter glucose entered into the pump following these events was 185 9 mg / dl ( 10.3 0.5 mmol / l ) . the corresponding mean first - morning sensor glucose values was 144 9 mg / dl ( 8.0 0.5 the mean difference between sensor and meter glucose values was 41 mg / dl ( 2.3 mmol / l ) . overnight lgs events with no patient response occurring before 3:00 a.m. ( n = 126 ) to evaluate sensor glucose patterns following insulin suspension . a : insulin delivery is automatically suspended as sensor glucose falls below the 60 mg / dl threshold . b : insulin delivery is automatically resumed after 2 h. at this point , the mean sensor glucose after 2 h of insulin suspension was 99 6 mg / dl ( 5.5 0.3 mmol / l ) . c : the mean sensor glucose following 2 h of insulin resumption was 155 10 mg / dl ( 8.6 0.6 the frequency of overnight full 2-h suspend events in individual participants is shown in table 1 . the frequency ranged from one event every 2.6 days ( participant 22 ) to one event every 52.8 days ( participant 11 ) . twenty - five percent of participants had one full 2-h suspend overnight at least once per week . insulin was suspended for the full 2-h duration more than once overnight on 14 occasions , as shown in table 2 . during these occasions , the patient responded to the alarm and elected to continue insulin suspension . after this time , the sensor glucose again fell below the lgs threshold of 60 mg / dl , and insulin delivery was again suspended . multiple overnight lgs events on these occasions , insulin was suspended for an average of 4.2 0.2 h overnight . the mean sensor glucose at the end of the suspended period was 112 18 mg / dl ( 6.2 1.0 mmol / l ) . following these events , the mean first - morning meter glucose recorded in the pump was 239 22 mg / dl ( 13.3 1.2 the sensor glucose tended to read below the meter glucose by a mean difference of 115 mg / dl ( 6.4 mmol / l ) . there was no clear pattern in terms of sensor life . on waking , the difference in sensor and meter glucose values resulted in calibration error and in a subsequent request for insertion of a new sensor . there were no episodes of severe hypoglycemia , defined as seizure or coma associated with hypoglycemia , during the time evaluated . the lgs function was frequently activated in patients with type 1 diabetes with impaired awareness of hypoglycemia using sensor - augmented pump therapy . most of these events were of short duration , whereby the patient has overridden insulin suspension and resumed insulin delivery . almost 40% of all lgs events occurred overnight , and one in three events lasted the full 2-h duration . lgs events , including multiple activations , were not associated with severe hypoglycemia or diabetic ketoacidosis . the overnight suspend events with no patient intervention provides a unique opportunity to evaluate the sensor glucose profile following full 2-h insulin suspension when the sensor glucose falls below 60 mg / dl . the initial fall in glucose levels was arrested promptly following insulin suspension and rose steadily during the 2-h suspended period . the mean glucose level at the end of the 2-h suspend event was 99 mg / dl , which is a near - normal value . the mean first - morning meter glucose value entered into the pump was 185 mg / dl , and there was no associated ketosis . these analyses suggest that 2-h insulin suspension overnight is unlikely to be associated with adverse outcomes . the pattern of overnight 2-h suspend events varied widely among our participants . the frequency of overnight full 2-h suspend events ranged from one episode every 2 months to up to one episode every 23 days in others . patients having frequent overnight suspend events were surprised at the frequency of the events and indicated that they did not hear the alarms . despite an auditory and vibratory alarm system to warn patients about hypoglycemia , patients are not responding to the current alarm systems . in a previous study evaluating the acoustic arousal threshold in adolescents with type 1 diabetes , we found that adolescents with type 1 diabetes could sleep through an alarm of 120 db , which is equivalent to standing within 60 m of a jet plane at takeoff ( 8) . these findings again indicate that alarm systems need to be further developed , perhaps to include a system based on varying frequencies and loudness to avoid acclimatization . the finding of multiple activations of insulin suspension was previously reported by danne et al . these events were uncommon ; however , patients should be advised that this can occur if they respond to the lgs alarm and continue insulin suspension . this is easily done by pressing the esc ( escape ) then act button on the pump . these steps effectively silence the lgs alarm and continue insulin suspension . in this case , the system considers this to be a patient response . following insulin resumption at 2 h , if the sensor glucose again falls below the sensor threshold , lgs will again be activated and the 4-h basal insulin delivery cycle does not continue in this case . comparison of finger stick meter glucose and sensor glucose values suggest that the sensor tended to underread glucose values rather than overread them . there were no cases of sensor error resulting in failure to suspend and prolonged hypoglycemia during the night or in the morning . in the trial so far , there have been no episodes of prolonged nocturnal hypoglycemia resulting in seizure or coma , although we still are awaiting the final results . these results are in keeping with the reported accuracy data available for the medtronic veo system ( 10 ) , in particular the low rate of false - negative alarms in the hypoglycemia range of < 70 mg / dl . following 6 months of sensor - augmented pump therapy with the lgs function these findings are preliminary , and the final results will be reported at trial completion .	objectivethe advent of sensor - augmented pump therapy with a low - glucose suspend ( lgs ) function ( medtronic paradigm veo system ) , allowing insulin to be automatically suspended for up to 2 h when sensor glucose falls below a preset threshold , has the potential to reduce the duration of hypoglycemia . in this article , we analyzed blood glucose profiles following a full 2-h insulin suspension activated by the lgs function , as well as examined different patterns of use among patients.research design and methodsdata from a cohort of participants using the veo system for up to 6 months were analyzed to determine the time and duration of insulin suspension activated by the lgs function . we further evaluated overnight suspend events with no patient response occurring prior to 3:00 a.m. , which allowed us to determine the pattern of sensor glucose values with no patient intervention during and after the period of insulin suspension.resultsthere were 3,128 lgs events during the 2,493 days evaluated . the median duration was 11.2 min , and 36% of events occurred overnight . there were 126 full 2-h suspend events that occurred overnight with no patient response , occurring before 3:00 a.m. for these events , the mean sensor glucose at the end of the 2-h suspend period was 99 6 mg / dl ( [ means se ] 5.5 0.3 mmol / l ) . the mean sensor glucose 2 h after insulin delivery resumed was 155 10 mg / dl ( 8.6 0.6 mmol / l ) . there were no episodes of severe hypoglycemia or diabetic ketoacidosis.conclusionsanalyses of sensor glucose patterns following insulin suspension activated by lgs suggest that this technology is safe and unlikely to be associated with adverse outcomes .
the assembly of the basal transcription complex and the tissue - specific and stage - specific features of eukaryotic gene transcription depend on the context and structural organization of the promoter core and the presence of transcription factor binding sites ( tfbss ) in the 5 regulatory region of the gene ( 1,2 ) . most approaches to promoter recognition use information about the distribution features of potential tfbss ( 3,4 ) and of short oligonucleotides along promoters ( 510 ) , derived from the analysis of internet - accessible databases ( 11,12 ) . it is suggested that oligonucleotide composition characteristics of various promoter regions may be determined not only by the presence of tfbss in these regions but also by certain context - dependent specific features of promoter dna local conformation ( 13,14 ) . to reveal such specific oligonucleotide signals , there are methods based on the detection of short conserved motifs that are significantly overrepresented in a sample of promoter sequences compared with the number expected by chance . the methods include analysis of the frequencies of l - mers ( l - letter substrings ) ( 15,16 ) , suffix trees ( 17,18 ) , finding of the largest cliques in the graph induced by the edit distance between the l - mers ( 19 ) , local multiple alignment approaches using a greedy algorithm ( 20 ) , expectation maximization algorithm ( 21,22 ) and stochastic sampling strategy ( 23 ) . genomic sequencing of an increasing number of eukaryotes ( 24,25 ) encouraged the development of methods that use multiple alignment of genomic sequences with expressed sequence tags and mrna sequences during promoter recognition ( 2630 ) and of those utilizing the information about the localization of promoters in orthologous genes ( 29,31 ) . in addition , consensus - based methods are applied , which are based on the combined use of several independent methods for recognizing promoters ( 32 ) . however , despite the diversity of the approaches , the reliable recognition of promoters in eukaryotic genomes remains an open issue ( 33,34 ) . a great hindrance to the development of accurate methods for promoter recognition this makes the search for general context regularities that would serve as the background for recognition of promoters difficult . recent data indicate a certain similarity in the promoter organization in genes with similar expression patterns ( e.g. promoters of genes expressed in particular tissues ) . this manifests itself as the presence of similar tfbs sets in the promoters of such genes ( 1,2,35,36 ) . the detection of such ensembles of regulatory signals characteristic of specific groups of promoters increases promoter recognition accuracy and prediction of specific expression patterns of the analyzed genes . it allows the recognition of oligonucleotide motifs with the following properties : ( i ) degeneracy , i.e. the use of the extended iupac code ( a , t , g , c , r = g / a , y = t / c , m = a / c , k = g / t , w = a / t , s = g / c , b = t / g / c , v = a / g / c , h = a / t / c , d = a / t / g , n = a / t / g / c ) ; ( ii ) region - specificity , i.e. the preferential occurrence in a certain region of a functional sequence ; ( iii ) quasi - invariance , i.e. the occurrence in certain sequence subgroups only ; ( iv ) contrast , i.e. much more frequent occurrence in functional than random sequences . the argo_viewer package was developed ( 37 ) for the recognition of tissue - specific gene promoters based on the presence and distribution of oligonucleotide motifs obtained by the argo_motifs program . five samples of tissue - specific promoters from the transcription regulatory regions database of regulatory sequences ( ) in the [ 300 ; + 100 ] region relative to the transcription start were studied using the argo_motifs program ( 37 ) . the resulting sets of motifs were used to construct methods for recognizing tissue - specific promoters by the argo_viewer program . it was demonstrated that one overprediction error occurred per 100 000 bp with a false negative error in the 48% range for four of the five promoter samples . the search for degenerate motifs in a sample of functional sequences using the argo_motifs program ( figure 1 ) is detailed in ( 37 ) and is implemented by the grouping of similar perfect oligonucleotides from the oligonucleotide vocabularies corresponding to different sequences . each oligonucleotide of the sequence vocabularies is considered , and the group for each oligonucleotide is formed . a group consists of oligonucleotides belonging to the vocabularies of other sequences differing from it by not more than r positions ( r < r0 , where r0 is the threshold similarity value ) . then , the consensus in an extended iupac code is constructed for each oligonucleotide group using an iteration procedure . each position of the consensus is occupied by the most significant of the 15 possible letters and their significance is estimated independently of each other using the binomial criterion . the obtained oligonucleotide motifs are regarded as significant if they meet the requirements in equation 1a c . the significant motif that has the smallest probability to occur by chance is deposited in the databank , while all the perfect oligonucleotides it describes are removed from the vocabularies of the oligonucleotide sequences . the procedure for the detection of the motif ranking next in significance is applied in the same way to the modified vocabularies . the procedure is iterated until the detection of common degenerate motifs that satisfy the condition in equation 1a c is still feasible . the degenerate oligonucleotide motif obtained using this procedure is considered significant if it meets the following criteria : 1af > f0 1bp(n , n)<p0 1cq < q0 . here , f is the proportion of promoters containing the motif in the window under analysis ; f0 is the threshold level of the motif occurrence in the promoter sample ; p(n , n ) is the probability of the accidental occurrence of the motif in the analyzed window in not less than n sequences of n ; p0 is the threshold probability level ( see the estimation method below ) ; q denotes the proportion of sequences of the negative sample containing the motif ; q0 is the threshold level of the motif occurrence in the negative sample . a set of 1000 randomly generated sequences of the length l is used as the negative sample . thus , an oligonucleotide motif is accepted as significant if ( i ) it occurs frequently in a promoter sample , ( ii ) infrequently in a sample of random sequences and ( iii ) its occurrence probability by chance in a sample of promoter sequences is significantly low . , ml of the length l in the extended 15 single letter - based iupac code . the occurrence probability of the motif at a certain position of a sequence of length l is estimated as : p(m)=i=1lpi , where pi is the frequency of the letter mi calculated from the mononucleotide composition of promoters . the binomial occurrence probability of the motif m in n sequences of n , p(n , n ) is p(n , n)=i = nncnipi(1p)ni , where p=1e(ll+1)p(m ) . the probability p(n , n ) calculated in such a way is used to assess the significance of the motif by the significance criteria ( equation 1b ) . then , the oligonucleotides contained in this motif are removed from the oligonucleotide vocabularies of all the sequences . the procedure of clustering and construction of the new motif is repeated for the current oligonucleotide vocabularies thus constructed until it is possible to construct new motifs meeting the criteria of significance ( equation 1a c ) using the continuously decreasing vocabularies . tissue - specific promoters are recognized by the argo_viewer program [ detailed in ( 37 ) ] , in a scanning window sliding with a specified step along the genomic sequence analyzed . in every window , the corresponding region - specific oligonucleotide motifs obtained by the argo_motifs ( figure 2 ) are detected . then , the similarity between the distributions of the motifs found in this window and in promoters of the groups studied is assessed . as a measure of similarity between the jth promoter and the sequence studied , the value pj=k=1llogpk / l is used , where l is the size of the window analyzed and pk is the product of nucleotide frequencies consistent with the motifs covering the kth position ( figure 2 ) . the greater the value of pj , the lower is the probability of chance occurrence of the motif set characteristic of the jth promoter in the sequence . if this value exceeds a certain threshold value , it is thought that the promoter of the considered group is identified in the window . the search for degenerate motifs in a sample of functional sequences using the argo_motifs program ( figure 1 ) is detailed in ( 37 ) and is implemented by the grouping of similar perfect oligonucleotides from the oligonucleotide vocabularies corresponding to different sequences . each oligonucleotide of the sequence vocabularies is considered , and the group for each oligonucleotide is formed . a group consists of oligonucleotides belonging to the vocabularies of other sequences differing from it by not more than r positions ( r < r0 , where r0 is the threshold similarity value ) . then , the consensus in an extended iupac code is constructed for each oligonucleotide group using an iteration procedure . each position of the consensus is occupied by the most significant of the 15 possible letters and their significance is estimated independently of each other using the binomial criterion . the obtained oligonucleotide motifs are regarded as significant if they meet the requirements in equation 1a c . the significant motif that has the smallest probability to occur by chance is deposited in the databank , while all the perfect oligonucleotides it describes are removed from the vocabularies of the oligonucleotide sequences . the procedure for the detection of the motif ranking next in significance is applied in the same way to the modified vocabularies . the procedure is iterated until the detection of common degenerate motifs that satisfy the condition in equation 1a c is still feasible . the degenerate oligonucleotide motif obtained using this procedure is considered significant if it meets the following criteria : 1af > f0 1bp(n , n)<p0 1cq < q0 . here , f is the proportion of promoters containing the motif in the window under analysis ; f0 is the threshold level of the motif occurrence in the promoter sample ; p(n , n ) is the probability of the accidental occurrence of the motif in the analyzed window in not less than n sequences of n ; p0 is the threshold probability level ( see the estimation method below ) ; q denotes the proportion of sequences of the negative sample containing the motif ; q0 is the threshold level of the motif occurrence in the negative sample . a set of 1000 randomly generated sequences of the length l is used as the negative sample . thus , an oligonucleotide motif is accepted as significant if ( i ) it occurs frequently in a promoter sample , ( ii ) infrequently in a sample of random sequences and ( iii ) its occurrence probability by chance in a sample of promoter sequences is significantly low . , ml of the length l in the extended 15 single letter - based iupac code . the occurrence probability of the motif at a certain position of a sequence of length l is estimated as : p(m)=i=1lpi , where pi is the frequency of the letter mi calculated from the mononucleotide composition of promoters . the binomial occurrence probability of the motif m in n sequences of n , p(n , n ) is p(n , n)=i = nncnipi(1p)ni , where p=1e(ll+1)p(m ) . the probability p(n , n ) calculated in such a way is used to assess the significance of the motif by the significance criteria ( equation 1b ) . then , the oligonucleotides contained in this motif are removed from the oligonucleotide vocabularies of all the sequences . the procedure of clustering and construction of the new motif is repeated for the current oligonucleotide vocabularies thus constructed until it is possible to construct new motifs meeting the criteria of significance ( equation 1a c ) using the continuously decreasing vocabularies . tissue - specific promoters are recognized by the argo_viewer program [ detailed in ( 37 ) ] , in a scanning window sliding with a specified step along the genomic sequence analyzed . in every window , the corresponding region - specific oligonucleotide motifs obtained by the argo_motifs ( figure 2 ) are detected . then , the similarity between the distributions of the motifs found in this window and in promoters of the groups studied is assessed . as a measure of similarity between the jth promoter and the sequence studied , the value pj=k=1llogpk / l is used , where l is the size of the window analyzed and pk is the product of nucleotide frequencies consistent with the motifs covering the kth position ( figure 2 ) . the greater the value of pj , the lower is the probability of chance occurrence of the motif set characteristic of the jth promoter in the sequence . if this value exceeds a certain threshold value , it is thought that the promoter of the considered group is identified in the window . the user can paste a set of analyzed sequences of equal lengths in fasta format via the sequence input . all the parameters needed for analysis are specified in the lower part of the window . therefore , once the sample of dna sequences is input , the user can analyze consecutively the regions of interest . in addition , the length of the motifs detected , the hamming 's distance and the degree of similarity between the perfect oligonucleotides clustered in a motif are indicated . the user can search for both perfect oligonucleotide motifs in the 4 single letter - based ( a , t , g and c ) code and degenerate motifs in the 15 single letter - based iupac code . the program allows the motifs meeting the significance criteria to be found in both dna strands . it is possible to specify for the motifs detected both the boundary value of binomial probability of their random occurrence in the examined sample and the threshold occurrence rate ( % ) of a motif , i.e. the fraction of analyzed sequences containing the motif . the results of the sequence analysis are displayed as a table containing the motifs detected and their characteristics . as an example , figure 3b shows the motifs found in the [ 50 ; + 1 ] region of promoters of erythroid - specific genes . the motifs of length l = 8 meeting the parameters below of equation 1a c were considered significant : p(n , n ) < 10 , f0 = 20% and q0 = 100% . as an example , let us consider the first oligonucleotide listed in figure 3b : atawaarg = ( a)(t)(a)(a / t)(a)(a)(a / g)(g ) , found in the [ 50 : + 1 ] region relative to the transcription start . this motif was found in 19 of 41 promoters ( 46% ) , exceeding the threshold ( 20% ) by 2-fold . the random occurrence probability of this motif in 19 or more of the 41 promoters is 10 . in the negative sample , this motif occurred in the queried region only in 4 random sequences of 1000 ( 0.4% ) . in addition to the table output mode , the user can get a distribution pattern of the motifs found in the selected window of the sample analyzed ( figure 3c ) . this representation may be useful for the detection of ensembles of mutually present motifs and subgrouping of the sequences of the total sample . the argo_viewer package was developed for the recognition of tissue - specific gene promoters on the basis of the presence and distribution of oligonucleotide motifs obtained by the argo_motifs program . the public version of the argo_viewer ( figure 4a ) is available at and . the user can paste the genomic sequence analyzed in fasta format into the sequence input box . the class of promoters to be searched for is specified at the bottom of the window . the program provides the search for promoters in both the direct and the complementary dna strands . furthermore , two modes of output recognition results are provided . in the case of text mode , the user gets a list of positions of potential transcription starts . in graphic mode , the program constructs the profile of recognition function . the program implementation is illustrated ( figure 4 ) using the example of the human -globin region ( i d hshbb ) , of 73 308 bp in length , mapped on chromosome 11 . this sequence contains five experimentally detected transcription start sites at positions 19 487 , 34 478 , 39 414 , 54 740 and 62 137 together with the promoter region of a pseudogene in the vicinity of position 45 557 . predicted positions of the transcription starts in five genes of this cluster differed from the real starts by not more than 20 bp . the user can paste a set of analyzed sequences of equal lengths in fasta format via the sequence input . all the parameters needed for analysis are specified in the lower part of the window . therefore , once the sample of dna sequences is input , the user can analyze consecutively the regions of interest . in addition , the length of the motifs detected , the hamming 's distance and the degree of similarity between the perfect oligonucleotides clustered in a motif are indicated . the user can search for both perfect oligonucleotide motifs in the 4 single letter - based ( a , t , g and c ) code and degenerate motifs in the 15 single letter - based iupac code . the program allows the motifs meeting the significance criteria to be found in both dna strands . it is possible to specify for the motifs detected both the boundary value of binomial probability of their random occurrence in the examined sample and the threshold occurrence rate ( % ) of a motif , i.e. the fraction of analyzed sequences containing the motif . the results of the sequence analysis are displayed as a table containing the motifs detected and their characteristics . as an example , figure 3b shows the motifs found in the [ 50 ; + 1 ] region of promoters of erythroid - specific genes . the motifs of length l = 8 meeting the parameters below of equation 1a c were considered significant : p(n , n ) < 10 , f0 = 20% and q0 = 100% . as an example , let us consider the first oligonucleotide listed in figure 3b : atawaarg = ( a)(t)(a)(a / t)(a)(a)(a / g)(g ) , found in the [ 50 : + 1 ] region relative to the transcription start . this motif was found in 19 of 41 promoters ( 46% ) , exceeding the threshold ( 20% ) by 2-fold . the random occurrence probability of this motif in 19 or more of the 41 promoters is 10 . in the negative sample , this motif occurred in the queried region only in 4 random sequences of 1000 ( 0.4% ) . in addition to the table output mode , the user can get a distribution pattern of the motifs found in the selected window of the sample analyzed ( figure 3c ) . this representation may be useful for the detection of ensembles of mutually present motifs and subgrouping of the sequences of the total sample . the argo_viewer package was developed for the recognition of tissue - specific gene promoters on the basis of the presence and distribution of oligonucleotide motifs obtained by the argo_motifs program . the public version of the argo_viewer ( figure 4a ) is available at and . the user can paste the genomic sequence analyzed in fasta format into the sequence input box . the class of promoters to be searched for is specified at the bottom of the window . the program provides the search for promoters in both the direct and the complementary dna strands . furthermore , two modes of output recognition results are provided . in the case of text mode , the user gets a list of positions of potential transcription starts . in graphic mode , the program constructs the profile of recognition function . the program implementation is illustrated ( figure 4 ) using the example of the human -globin region ( i d hshbb ) , of 73 308 bp in length , mapped on chromosome 11 . this sequence contains five experimentally detected transcription start sites at positions 19 487 , 34 478 , 39 414 , 54 740 and 62 137 together with the promoter region of a pseudogene in the vicinity of position 45 557 . predicted positions of the transcription starts in five genes of this cluster differed from the real starts by not more than 20 bp . layout of the algorithm for the recognition of degenerate oligonucleotide motifs in a promoter sample . example of determination of the set of permissible nucleotides for each position of the [ 50 ; 10 ] region of an erythroid - specific promoter . the region [ 50 ; + 1 ] of promoters of erythroid - specific genes is analyzed . ( b ) a table containing the motifs detected and their characteristics . ( c ) a distribution pattern of the motifs found . profile of the promoter recognition function for the sequence of the human -globin gene clusters ( embl i d : hshbb ) . values of the recognition function ( ordinate ) are plotted versus positions of the sequence ( abscissa ) . the triangle shows the position of the 5-terminal region of the pseudogene corresponding to the transcription start point .	reliable recognition of the promoters in eukaryotic genomes remains an open issue . this is largely owing to the poor understanding of the features of the structural functional organization of the eukaryotic promoters essential for their function and recognition . however , it was demonstrated that detection of ensembles of regulatory signals characteristic of specific promoter groups increases the accuracy of promoter recognition and prediction of specific expression features of the queried genes . the argo_motifs package was developed for the detection of sets of region - specific degenerate oligonucleotide motifs in the regulatory regions of the eukaryotic genes . the argo_viewer package was developed for the recognition of tissue - specific gene promoters based on the presence and distribution of oligonucleotide motifs obtained by the argo_motifs program . analysis and recognition of tissue - specific promoters in five gene samples demonstrated high quality of promoter recognition . the public version of the argo system is available at and .
this paper describes a collaboration about collaboration . a mathematics professor and a composition professor devised a series of collaborative writing and peer review activities for a calculus i and ii course sequence . the mathematics professor learned about composition research , which improved her ability to teach writing . the composition professor learned about the disciplinary conventions of writing in applied mathematics , which improved her understanding of writing across the curriculum . she also learned that distinguishing between writing to learn and writing in the disciplines helps faculty stage assignments . the students gained deeper understanding of mathematical content and improved ability to communicate mathematical concepts . we demonstrate how this project connects research in writing pedagogy and mathematics pedagogy . then , we present the process and the results of our collaboration . we hope our work will motivate readers to pursue collaborative , transdisciplinary projects . through collaboration and peer review , we improved our understanding of our work , we improved this paper , and we improved our students learning . collaboration requires clear communication and precise definition of terms . for example , composition studies , a field that focuses on writing and rhetoric , distinguishes between writing - to - learn ( wtl ) and writing - in - the - disciplines ( wid ) . both wtl and wid are aspects of writing across the curriculum ( wac ) . wtl uses informal writing to promote student engagement and to facilitate learning . wid teaches the conventions of disciplinary - specific genres @xcite . writing - to - learn views students errors and mistakes as part of the learning process and emphasizes writing as a way to understand content . examples of wtl activities include journals , informail writing , and online discussion boards or blogs @xcite . writing - in - the - disciplines builds on writing - to - learn activities , with additional attention to the conventions of disciplinary - specific genres . typically , wtl activities are most appropriate for introductory classes , while wid assignments are more appropriate for intermediate and advanced classes , after the students have at least basic understanding of their discipline and of the genres expected in their discipline . while wtl and wid are related in that the former can facilitate the latter , conflating the two is problematic , because each has different goals and requires different attention . reva kasman s 2006 article on peer review in mathematics demonstrates the importance of distinguishing between wtl and wid @xcite . kasman documents an assignment that presented fictional proofs for students to critique . kasman intentionally created proofs with errors . she reports that finding and correcting these errors improved students understanding of content , but that students writing did not improve ( 6 , 11 ) . the activities described in kasman s study fall into the category of wtl . helping students improve their writing in addition to their understanding of content requires several further considerations . research indicates that as students continue to develop their understanding of increasingly complex material , they will make mistakes , which may explain why the writing of the students in kasman s study did not improve @xcite . furthermore , wid activities should explicitly introduce students to the genre expectations of disciplinary - specific writing , while the assignment in kasman s study focused on content . including both wtl and wid in mathematics classes may initially appear too time - consuming . mathematics teachers need to cover content . breaking writing assignments into stages , teaching disciplinary - specific genre expectations , and reading and responding to multiple student drafts all make further demands on in - class and out - of - class time . collaborative writing and peer review address the problem of time because they present writing as a process while reducing the number of assignments faculty read , evaluate , and grade . collaborative writing and peer review allow students to measure their own progress , deepen their understanding of content , and improve exposition by providing early feedback and examples of other student work . collaboration has had a place in writing classes for many years @xcite . in the 1970s , educators in the united states began to employ collaborative pedagogies as a practical means of improving student learning , especially for students who resisted traditional pedagogies . these students , some underprepared and some well prepared , responded to peer assistance more so than faculty interventions . the history of collaboration is rooted in social constructivist theories of learning @xcite . social constructivist theories posit education as a process of making meaning with intellectual and affective dimensions . collaborative pedagogies align with social constructivist theories because they engage students in active participation , in group work , and in dialogue . group writing of assignments engages students in active participation and dialogue , so they gain better understanding of concepts and genre conventions , which prepares them to meet wid expectations . group work and group writing assignments are both examples of collaborative pedagogical techniques . peer review is another collaborative pedagogical tool that is both efficient and effective . empirical studies demonstrate the benefits of peer review over feedback from teaching assistants in science classes @xcite and the importance of teaching students to focus on content @xcite . reflection on the peer review and composition process facilitates metacognition , which the council of writing program administrators defines as `` the ability to reflect on one s own thinking as well as on the individual and cultural processes used to structure knowledge '' @xcite . the skills of metacognition are important to writing because several studies correlate it with transfer . in other words , when students are more aware of the way they think and act in one writing situation , they become more adept at thinking and writing in other situations @xcite . collaboration between faculty from different disciplines can reinforce transfer . for example , in our collaboration , the composition professor learned more about writing in mathematics , so she could explicitly tell her students how to apply lessons from her class to other situations . the mathematics professor learned about how students learn to write , so she could more effectively build upon what they learned in their first - year communication classes . unfortunately , many students and teachers have had negative experiences with peer review and view it as ineffective . in order for peer review to be effective , students need to understand why they are doing it , students need to know how to give good feedback , and students need incentive to take peer review seriously @xcite . while many colleges have writing specialists who could provide resources and onsite support , below we offer a brief overview of how to introduce peer review and then we explain how collaborative writing technologies can facilitate successful peer review . when introducing peer review for the first time , teachers will want to explain to students why they are doing it @xcite . for example , a teacher might assign this short video about peer review created by mit @xcite . this video includes faculty and student voices to convey the three main benefits of peer review : 1 . getting feedback aids revision . 2 . seeing how classmates approached assignments aids revision . 3 . giving feedback aids revision . these three reasons all emphasize how peer review aids revision . thus , for students to effectively engage in peer review , they need to understand that writing , even writing in mathematics , is a process that involves drafting , revising , and editing . separating revision from editing is one step towards teaching students how to give good feedback . revision involves choices about content ; editing involves choices about language . while editing is important , it is best to save it for the very end of the writing process for two reasons . first , editing the language of a section that might get cut out of the final draft wastes time , and second , focusing on correctness when drafting can create writer s block and prevent writers from attempting to represent complex ideas . if we are employing writing as wtl , we need our students to focus on content first @xcite . we also want to address students possible inexperience with peer review . as richard chisholm writes : `` experienced writers and experienced reviewers know that a solo draft is _ only _ a draft and that the purpose of peer review is to stimulate the writer to rethink the entire document '' @xcite . one way to teach inexperienced writers about the relationship between peer review and revision is by asking students to begin peer review by setting an agenda . what this means is that students tell each other where they want feedback and what , if anything , is off limits . faculty who use a grading rubric might direct students to refer to the rubric when they set their agenda . setting the agenda not only provides students with some directions for peer review , it also gets students reflecting on their own work , which contributes to metacognition . another way to emphasize content is to tell students to ask questions about their peers papers . questions help those who are giving feedback , by offering a way to give feedback without direct criticism . they also help those who are getting feedback by showing them that they have choices in terms of what they say and how they say it . thus , these questions should address both form and content . for example : why did you put this point in this paragraph ? or``what do you mean by regression ? '' whether using online collaboration tools or working with print copies , students can include these questions as comments on each other s papers . in addition to questions , students should be directed to write comments at the end of each other s papers . these comments should take the form of summary , praise , and constructive critique . the summary allows writers to see if their main points are clear and ensures that the reviewers are reading carefully . the praise helps writers see their strengths ; it is surprising how often students note that peer review helped them develop confidence in their own writing . finally , the constructive criticism allows writers to see where they need improvement . providing students with models of good peer review is another way to make peer review more effective . chisholm provides such models on pages 16 - 17 of his paper @xcite . while students may complete peer review in class or outside of class , it is useful to devote some time in class for students to set their agenda and to discuss their work . allowing the activity to be completed for homework allows students to work at various paces and accommodates slow readers who need more time to compose useful feedback . the final step in peer review is for students to compose a plan for revision . this takes the form of a paragraph or two or several bullet points about 1 ) what peer review helped them see about their work ; 2 ) the advice they will follow , the advice they will ignore , and why ; and 3 ) what next steps they will take to revise . the plan for revision directs students to revise , facilitates their ownership of their writing , and also contributes to metacognition . in addition , real - time collaborative writing technologies can facilitate collaborative writing and peer review in and out of class . one popular example is googledocs : the suite of editors available within googledrive , https://drive.google.com , a cloud - based drive for housing files . googledocs includes such editors as googlespreadsheet ( which can run script for programming ) , googledocument ( word processing editor with a latex - based equation editor ) , and googlepresentation . students can work on every part of a project collaboratively , from computing figures on a spreadsheet , to writing the lab report , to presenting results to the class . the chat window available during the collaboration session allows for editing suggestions , _ e.g. _ `` can you do some rephrasing to facilitate that section transition ? , '' without compromising the integrity of the working document . google also offers sharing and permissions options , so users can set very specific controls over who has access to their document and how much access they have . individuals participating in group reports with full editing privileges have access to detailed revision histories color coded by account user . this revision history can be useful for both students and teachers when reflecting on group participation or on writing evolution . peer reviewers can be added with editor or comment - only privileges . there are also free , web - based collaborative latex editors . writelatex , https://www.writelatex.com/ , is an example of such an editor that allows for simultaneous cloud editing . its split - screen design allows for the latex editor to appear alongside the pdf document view , and files can be synced with dropbox for cloud - based access from anywhere . we chose to write the majority of this paper in googledocs , using collaborative writing technology to write about collaborative writing technology . after our first draft , we inserted our paper into latex for formatting reasons , then continued the collaborative writing process in writelatex . the advantages of writing collaboratively in latex for mathematical collaborations between math majors and math faculty are clear . however , googledrive offers a suite of features accessible to for non - math majors who may not need to learn latex to write collaboratively . at unity college , all mathematics courses are service courses . our mathematics courses serve many important objectives : content , technology skills , and , ultimately , the development of a fundamental language to support our sustainability science curriculum . as we strive to meet the needs of our students , we pay close attention to critical thinking and communication skills . while writing is an important feature of all mathematics courses at % college , the applied calculus sequence learning outcomes include independently written full laboratory / research reports by the end of the second semester . students work on labs in groups , which helps foster learning @xcite . then they write the resulting research reports in calculus i as a group , and in calculus ii independently . to ease the transition between semesters , the same grading rubric is used @xcite ; however , in the second semester , the bar for an a is raised , which elevates personal responsibility and requires higher target mastery . staging mathematical writing over two semesters follows the recommendations of kelly and ledocq s study of writing in mathematics @xcite . through collaborative writing , students in calculus i work to create a final product that represents the effort and knowledge base of the group . through these group writing assignments , they practice the norms of the discipline , which deepens their knowledge of content and of genre conventions . in this way , they practice writing to learn . when they are asked to transition to independent writing in calculus ii , students lose the informal peer group that collaborative writing provides and they are simultaneously asked to face more challenging disciplinary - specific conventions . some students have no trouble with this transition . other students struggle . formal peer review allows instructors to provide students with formative feedback in the early stages of writing as they make this transition . in this way , students continue to practice writing to learn as a means of improving their ability to write according to disciplinary - specific conventions . appendix a includes a worksheet that describes the peer review process . through class discussion and review of the worksheet , we explain the three benefits of peer review noted above : 1 ) feedback , 2 ) improved ability to critique one s own work , and 3 ) more familiarity with content and genre . students were asked to arrive to class with a draft of their report written . the teacher then randomly created pairs of peer reviewers . ( see the next section for variations ) . next , the pairs set the agenda for each peer review and shared their papers . students worked on the peer review for the remainder of class time and finished it for homework for the next class . the peer review grade included both effort in creating a reasonable first draft for review and effort and thoughtfulness as a reviewer , which can be an additional source of motivation . revisions of the final draft were due the following week , and the revised product was assessed using the standardized research report rubric developed by the unity college center for biodiversity @xcite . students in calculus i who engage in a collaborative project and group writing were asked to reflect on their experience . the following are some quotations from these students : * `` we have been working on another project for calculus , which i really enjoy doing . it s nice to work with peers on something that is applicable in our fields . i think that it s beneficial to have somebody else explain the same thing but in a different way than someone . [ name omitted ] has a really great way of simplifying everything and breaking things down so that i actually understand everything that we are doing in our project . i really enjoy having her point of view . '' * `` the project that we have begun working on this week is very helpful too . not only am i getting to figure it out myself and use a real - life type scenario , but i am also getting the opportunity to explain the process and everything to someone else . this has helped me to really put what i m doing into words and make sure both they and i have it down . '' * `` we used google docs to write it all up , and its so cool how you can literally work on the project at the same exact time but be in two different places ! her and i are planning on finishing up the rest of the paper this weekend and getting it in so we do nt have to worry about it . '' the following are a examples of improved exposition as a result of the peer review process introduced in calculus ii . to give some context , in our particular lab , we developed a program in googlespreadsheet using script to calculate the area under the graph of a positive function . a newer , matlab - based , version of this project is available in appendix b. * draft title : `` student programming project : trapezoid rule project '' * peer comment : `` this is good as a description of the paper , but parts of it are unhelpful as the ` title ' . the title should describe what is going on in your paper . '' * final title : `` calculating area using trapezoid rule project in google documents '' the following example is from the introduction of the same paper . many students struggle with explaining why they are doing this exploration . * draft : `` anti - derivatives are used in integration to find the equation for the integral in question , but there are times in which anti - derivatives are unable to be used . '' * peer comment : `` this is confusing . try re - wording . '' * final : `` anti - derivatives are used in integration to find the equation * for calculating the area under the curve of the given function * , but there are times in which anti - derivatives are unable to be used . '' the writer is still trying to clarify that anti - derivatives can not always be calculated by hand , but still the exposition of this idea is still much improved . even the latter comment , while not particularly as thoughtful , still forces the reviewed student to reflect on what he or she was trying to convey . in both cases , peer review helped the student solidify understanding of the link between using numerical approximations derived using the equivalence of area to antiderivatives . sometimes the peer review comments were a much needed early - intervention in the writing process , and therefore led to a much improved student product . in one case , a student included the code and the function calls and output as an appendix and only referred to it in the results section . however , the student had included no explanation for the code , no words that summarized the results . * peer comment : `` what are your results? ... you need to define your variables and offer more explanation . think of it as if you are writing this for an audience that has no idea what your project was to begin with . '' the peer reviewer also made a similar comment in the summary of review . in the interest of conciseness , the entire re - written results section is not included , however , there was a much improved results section breaking down the results in context to the problem at hand . over time , we have made modifications to some of the activities described above . all our students now have institutional google apps for education accounts and are introduced to googledrive in their freshman seminar course . without this extra assistance , it was necessary to spend some class time engaged in creating google accounts and familiarizing them with the features , though some of this can be abated by using the plethora of tutorials available on the web , see for example @xcite . we now also have matlab available so we do not use the googlespreadsheet script . although googlespreadsheet has programming capability and collaborative ability , matlab is a much easier programming tool to learn and also has more tutorials available online , see for example @xcite . since this was the students first introduction into programming , matlab also allowed students to explore more readily . although these seem like structural changes unrelated to writing , we acknowledge that writing mathematical ideas is in itself a challenge . adding difficult , unfamiliar tools or content mastery requirements to this challenge can sometimes interfere with the students ability to communicate it @xcite . in addition to staging levels of writing between courses , we have now incorporated staged writing within each course . the first lab report in each course is limited to the title , results , discussion , and references sections . in the next lab , students finish the report . this allows students to develop fluency with aspects of the genre as they deepen their content knowledge , using writing to think like mathematicians @xcite . peer review is part of both reports . in the second semester , students have two opportunities before advancing to the final independent project . during the first iteration of the course , only one peer review per person was assigned , and some students were more helpful than others . some students were disappointed by less - than - helpful or late feedback . now each student is assigned two reports to peer review for each assignment . this increases the chance of helpful criticism and also gives students the opportunity to elicit a diversity of opinions . our collaboration has yielded several important lessons : let students know that peer review is how academics craft effective writing in all disciplines . use the peer review handout provided in the appendix and the mit video , @xcite , to reinforce this . metacognition is important , so provide students with opportunities to reflect on their learning @xcite . let students tell their peers that they are depending on them for their feedback . peer pressure sometimes works better than instructor pressure . use the collaborative technology first before assigning the task to students , so you will be prepared to vet their concerns . each technology has its own peculiarities . in addition , students may find a new technological or pedagogical tool , like googledrive or peer review , more tedious if no one else employs it , so learn what your colleagues are doing and volunteer to teach others about your favorite tools . most importantly , do not limit yourself to colleagues within your department ; perhaps your peers in other departments are adapting these tools in their first - year writing curriculum or in other courses . the writers of this paper have benefited tremendously from collaboration and peer review . the problems we face in undergraduate education are complex and interdisciplinary . by being more deliberate in our own learning processes and by sharing this with our students , we explicitly illustrate the deep connections between collaboration , learning , and communication and we model transdisciplinary problem - solving . we would like to acknowledge the work of the unity college center for biodiversity faculty in creating the rubric used to grade biology research reports @xcite . we would also like to thank the gretchen schaefer , a friend and instructional technologist at husson university and for her patience and help while we learned and implemented new technology in our classes . we also thank the organizers of this special issue and the maa contributed sessions on incorporating writing and editing into mathematics classes at mathfest for encouraging this work to be submitted and fostering dialogue . 0 baker , a. , d. potter , a. remsburg , a. arnett , e. batchelder , e. creaser , c. d. eaton , e. latty , a. phillippi . center for biodiversity research report rubric . unity college , unity me . accessed 14 march 2013 . bean , j. 1986 . engaging ideas : the professor s guide to integrating writing , critical thinking , and active learning in the classroom . san francisco : jossey - bass , 1996 . beaufort , a. 2007 . _ college writing and beyond : a new framework for university writing instruction . logan : utah state up , 2007 . _ beidleman , j. , d. jones , p. well . 1995 . increasing students conceptual understanding of mathematics through writing . _ primus_. 5(4 ) . bodine , e. n. tutorials for latex and matlab . https://sites.google.com/site/profbodine/tutorials . accessed 29 may 2013 . bruffee , k. 1984 . collaborative learning and the conversation of mankind . _ college english_. 46(7):635 - 652 . chisholm , r. 1991 . introducing students to peer review of writing . _ wac journal_. 3(1):4 - 19 . cooper , a. 2012 . today s technologies enhance writing in mathematics . _ the clearinghouse : a journal of educational studies . _ 85(2 ) . council of writing program administrators , national association of teachers of english , national writing project . framework for success in postsecondary writing . http://wpacouncil.org/files/framework-for-success-postsecondary-writing.pdf accessed 13 september 2013 douglas , d. , e. wardle . teaching about writing , righting misconceptions : ( re)envisioning ` first - year composition ' as introduction to writing studies . _ college composition and communication . _ 58.4 ( 2007 ) : 552 - 84 . driscoll , d. 2011 . connected , disconnected , or uncertain : student attitudes about future writing contexts and perceptions of transfer from first year writing to the disciplines . accessed 16 march 2013 . english , j. 1988 . moo - based metacognition : incorporating online and offline reflection into the writing process . _ kairos_. 3(1 ) . getting started with google docs , michigan state university , east lansing mi . http://edutech.msu.edu/online/googledocs/googledocs.html . accessed 24 may 2013 . gere , a. r. 1987 writing groups : history , theory , and implications . carbondale , il : southern illinois university press . henry , l. 2011 . teaching intellectual teamwork in wac courses through peer review . _ currents in teaching and learning_. 3(2 ) . accessed 10 may 2013 . herrington , a. 1981 . writing to learn : writing across the disciplines . _ college english_. 43(4 ) : 379 - 387 . irvin , li . reflection in the electronic writing classroom . _ computers and composition online_. spring(2004 ) . kasman , r. 2006 . critique that ! analytical writing assignments in advanced mathematics courses . 16(1 ) : 1 - 15 . kast , d. 1993 . collaborative calculus . _ primus_. 3(1 ) : 53 - 61 . kelly , s. , e. delocq , l. rebecca . 2001 . incorporating writing in an integrated calculus , linear algebra , and differential equations sequence . _ primus_. 11(1 ) : 67 - 87 . kroll , b. , j. schafer . 1978 . error analysis and the teaching of composition . _ college composition and communication_. 29(3 ) : 242248 . kutz , e. 1978 . between students language and academic discourse : interlanguage as middle ground . _ college english_. 48(4):385396 . mcleod , s. 1987 . some thoughts about feelings : the affective domain and the writing process . _ ccc_. 38(4 ) . national research council . 1999 . _ how people learn : brain , mind , experience , and school . _ washington , dc : national academy press . no one writes alone : peer review , a guide for students . massachusetts institute of technology , cambridge , ma . accessed 14 march 2013 . patchan , m. , d. charney , _ et al . a validation study of students end comments . _ the journal of writing research_. 1(2 ) 124 - 152 . patchan , m. , c. schunn . . writing in natural sciences : understanding the effects of different types of reviewers on the writing process . _ the journal of writing research_. 2(3 ) : 365 - 393 . poe , m. , n. lerner , j. craig . 2011 . _ learning to communicate in science and engineering : case studies from mit . _ cambridge , ma : the mit press . sommers , n. 1982 . _ college composition and communication . _ 33(2 ) : 148 - 156 . * appendix a : peer review handout * peer review what have your past experience with peer review been like ? if you have never done it , what do you think you will like / dislike ? + + what are the benefits of peer review ? 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . guidelines for successful peer review : 1 . set the agenda with your partners . tell your partners what sort of feedback you want and what sort of feedback you do nt want . listen to the type of feedback your partners want and do nt want . write this down . as you read their papers , address their concerns . 2 . as you read , address content and form . use questions as a way to point out your concerns . * for example , if you find a section confusing , you might ask : what are you trying to say here ? * for example , if the organization is unclear , you might ask : why did you put the information or pictures in this order ? * you will write these questions in the margins of your partners paper(s ) . 3 . look at most local issues of language in the last draft . you do nt want to wrestle with the language of a section that may get cut from the final copy . if the language interferes with your ability to understand your partners papers , let them know via questions . you should write at least three paragraphs of feedback . * start with summary . this will help your partners see if they conveyed their main points / achieved their purpose . * then , praise what is going well . be specific . * finally , write about what needs improvement . be specific , consider your partner s agenda , and use questions to encourage critical thinking . after you give and receive feedback , review your own work and create a plan for revision . in your plan for revision , you will state the next steps you will take to improve your paper . note which of your peers comment you will heed , which seem off base , and what new possibilities you see in your own work . * student programming project : trapezoid rule project * we have investigated integrals in two ways : by explicitly using antiderivatives and by approximation using sum of rectangles . for example , we can calculate @xmath0 this integral is easy to calculate since the antiderivative of its integrand , @xmath1 , can be found exactly . but what if we want to allow the upper limit to be infinity ? @xmath2 also some important functions do not have antiderivatives that are straightforward to calculate . consider this function , which is used in representing normal distributions : @xmath3 we do not have the tools to calculate the explicit antiderivative for this function , so we must approximate any finite integral of @xmath4 numerically . we will use matlab to calculate integrals numerically with the trapezoid rule which we developed in class . the code can be found in the bodine , gross , and lenhart book . 1 . estimate using the trapezoid rule the area under the curve of @xmath5 on the interval @xmath6 $ ] using 100 subintervals . you will have to modify `` function '' in the f.m file in order to do this . then run it and put in the appropriate values for a , b and n. 2 . now calculate the approximate integrals for @xmath7 note : you may have to modify n in order to get good accuracy , so when you state your results , mention what n you used . you may want to think about what n gives you the same @xmath8 as in # 1 . calculate the exact value of the integrals in # 2 using antiderivatives . compare 1 - 3 . what do you think is the value of @xmath9 ? estimate using the trapezoid rule the area under the curve of @xmath10 over the interval [ -1 , 1 ] using an appropriate number of subintervals ( you choose @xmath11 based on what gives you enough accuracy ) . hint : @xmath12 is actually exp(x ) in matlab , @xmath13 is pi , and the square root function is sqrt(x ) . now calculate the same integral over [ -2,2 ] for the same number of subintervals . then try 10 times as many intervals . repeat , but for [ -5,5 ] , then [ -10,10 ] . conjecture the exact value of this integral from @xmath14 . write up a research report , with a title , results , and conclusions / discussion . also discuss the accuracy of your results as well as comparing and contrasting results . are the results what you expected or different ? include a copy of your modified function files as an appendix . there will be three phases of research report : phase i. due wednesday 2/27 . you must upload your document to canvas or submit a googledoc url ( make sure you change settings to share by link ) . you will be assigned 2 reports to read of peers and give feedback . please review by monday 3/4 . phase iii . final drafts will be due , uploaded to canvas by next monday 3/11 . follow the peer review guidelines from class . your grade will be a combination of completion , effort in draft , peer review quality of comments you make for other people , and the writing quality , insight , and proper conclusions in the final version ( all assessed by the center for biodiversity rubric at @xcite ) . a. carrie diaz eaton received her ba in mathematics and ma in interdisciplinary mathematics from the university of maine and phd in mathematics with a concentration in mathematical ecology and evolutionary theory from university of tennessee . she then returned to maine and is currently associate professor of mathematics in the center for biodiversity at unity college . her goal as a teacher is to get students to see math in the world around them and to use math as a tool to answer scientific questions . as her twitter profile @mathprofcarrie says , carrie has an interest in evolution , ecology , social systems modeling , cloud technology , and becoming a better teacher . b. stephanie wade earned a ba in psychology from wesleyan university , a ma in english at the city college of new york , and a phd in english , with a concentration on composition studies , at stony brook university , in new york . currently director of writing and assistant professor of writing at unity college , she teaches writing and humanities classes that aim to help students see the choices available to them as writers , thinkers , and citizens .	this paper describes a collaboration between a mathematician and a compositionist who developed a sequence of collaborative writing assignments for calculus . this sequence of developmentally - appropriate assignments presents peer review as a collaborative process that promotes reflection , deepens understanding , and improves exposition . first , we distinguish writing - to - learn from writing - in - the - disciplines . then , we review collaborative writing pedagogies and explain best practices for teaching peer review . finally , we present an implementation plan and examples of student work that illustrate improved understanding of content and improved exposition .
following completion of fixed orthodontic treatments and debonding of the brackets , the remnants of adhesive should be eliminated in a manner that tooth enamel remains as intact as possible . change in the superficial layer of enamel , with the most content of minerals and fluoride , is orthodontists concern because following the loss of enamel surface , and exposure of enamel prisms to the mouth environment and organic acids in dental plaque , the susceptibility to decalcification increases . remnants of adhesive on enamel surface can be eliminated through different methods and instruments including : finishing carbide bur , bioactive glass air abrasion , tungsten carbide bur in low or high speed hand pieces , aluminum oxide air abrasion . mechanical elimination of adhesives , which are tooth colored materials , is associated with some degree of damages to enamel surface . studies show that conventional methods of adhesive removal including : ultrasonic and hand scalers , and low speed handpiece with abrasive create visible surface roughness , 10 - 20 m deep gouges , and loss of 100 m thickness of enamel . therefore , any improvement in the technique of adhesive removal is welcomed by orthodontists . in addition , to conventional techniques , fiber reinforced composite burs and different kinds of laser such as free running erbium - doped yttrium aluminum garnet ( er : yag ) , neodymium - doped yttrium aluminum garnet , xecl and millisecond pulsed co2 are investigated . composite burs were initially designed to remove cement , stain , and colors from the tooth surface and were recommended for adhesive removal following orthodontic debracketing . according to the manufacturer , the fiber sections with abrasive property is the advantage of this bur . these sections of zircon / glass fibers are embedded in a matrix of resin and slowly become disintegrated in contact with a hard surface . they evaluated the surface using atomic force microscopy and concluded that composite bur creates smoother surface compared to tungsten carbide bur . the studies of almeida et al . and burkes et al . showed that er : yag laser removed greater volume of enamel compared to tungsten carbide bur . on the other hand , the generated heat during adhesive removal is transferred to the dental pulp and causes histopathological changes that may lead to necrosis through injury to blood vessels . zach and cohen concluded that raised temperature of the dental pulp tissue by 5.5 ( c ) causes irreversible inflammation in 40% of cases , and by 11 ( c ) leads to the dental pulp necrosis . studies show that er : yag laser with water cooling , and tungsten carbide bur without water or air cooling did not significantly raise the temperature of the dental pulp tissue . david et al . reported a cleanup time of 40 s by tungsten carbide bur in high speed hand piece . the roughness of enamel surface has been assessed by different devices including : linear contact measuring tools , optical three - dimensional scanners , and electron microscopy . linear contact measuring tools evaluate a limited area of the enamel surface , but optical three - dimensional scanner considers a large area . electron microscopy is a visual analyzer , which is suitable to evaluate the smoothness of surfaces . considering that no safe method has been suggested to remove residual adhesive , in this in vitro study , the effect of three methods of removing adhesive from enamel surface roughness , dental pulp temperature , and also on the time spent was compared . a sample of 90 intact extracted human premolar teeth were randomly placed in three groups of 30 , although the estimated sample size of each group , through a pilot study on 10 teeth at 95% coefficient of confidence and the power of 80% , was 21 cases . following cleaning the buccal surface of teeth with fluoride free pumice paste and rubber cup in low speed handpiece , the teeth were rinsed with water and dried by air stream . then , the surfaces were etched by phosphoric acid gel 37% ( etching agent , resilient ortho technology , florida , usa ) for 30 s , rinsed for 15 s , and dried to appear a matt and chalky surface . a thin layer of adhesive ( resilient ortho technology , florida , usa ) was applied by a micro brush on the etched surface . a standard stainless steel edgewise premolar bracket ( gac , central islip , new york , ny , usa ) was attached to enamel surface with composite ( resilience ortho technology , florida , usa ) , then all four edges were light cured ( top light , taiwan ) for 40 s after removing the excess composite . the samples were incubated in water for 24 h at 37 ( c ) before debracketing by bracket removal pliers ( ormco , ca , usa ) . teeth surfaces were explored by microscope at 35 magnification to assess the adhesive residue . according to adhesive remnant index ( ari ) , described by artun and bergland , teeth were categorized in 4 grades : 0 = no adhesive , 1 = less than 50% of adhesive , 2 = more than 50% of adhesive and 3 = all the adhesive remains on the tooth surface . since no difference was found between three groups [ table 1 ] , we tried to remove the remnant of adhesive by either eight bladed tungsten carbide bur ( geber . brasseler , komet - lemgo , germany ) in low speed handpiece ; er : yag laser at 2.94 m , 20 hz , 125 mj , 2.5 w and at the distance of 5 mm ; and zircon - rich glass fiber reinforced composite bur ( stainbuster abrasive technology inc . , lewis center , oh , usa ) in low speed hand piece . a thermocouple sensor , connected to a microcontroller , was installed on the buccal wall of the pulp chamber through the access hole . the micro controller was recording time and temperature during the process of removing the adhesive . enamel surface roughness was evaluated using scanning electron micrographs ( sem ) at 100 magnification . the texture of the surface was interpreted by enamel damage index , introduced by howell and weekes . in this index : grade 0 is when the surface is smooth without any scratches ; grade 1 is when some scattered scratches are visible ; grade 2 is when the surface is rough with numerous deep scratches and some grooves , and grade 3 is when deep scratches and wide groves are visible with naked eyes . chi - square test was used to compare the surface roughness and residual adhesive between groups . t - test and also analysis of variance ( anova ) were used to compare the time spent and thermal changes . the results were evaluated at the p < 0.05 significance level , with a 95% confidence interval . the results of enamel surface roughness , assessed under sem at 100 magnification [ figures 13 ] , are shown in table 2 . the comparison between groups showed that enamel surface roughness was significantly more in er : yag laser group , and composite bur created the smoothest surface . figures 1 through 3 show the post - treatment image of surfaces , which are : acceptable with fine scattered scratches created by composite bur , with coarse scratches created by tungsten carbide bur , and with wide grooves and numerous coarse scratches created by er : yag laser , which was the roughest , respectively . scanning electron micrograph of a specimen after adhesive removal by composite bur ( 100 magnification ) . scanning electron micrograph of a specimen after adhesive removal by tungsten carbide bur ( 100 magnification ) . scanning electron micrograph of a specimen after adhesive removal by erbium - doped yttrium aluminum garnet laser ( 100 magnification ) . distribution of enamel damage index * following adhesive removal comparing the thermal changes in each group showed a significant decrease in er : yag laser group , but significant increase in two other groups . the time required for increasing the temperature of the pulp chamber by 5.5c was 56.53 s in tungsten carbide bur , and 37.86 in composite bur groups [ table 4 ] . in none of the cases of er : yag group , the temperature increased by 5.5c . four cases of composite bur and four cases of tungsten carbide bur groups did not show an increase in temperature of the pulp chamber by 5.5c . the time spent ( sec ) that raised temperature of pulp cavity by 5.5 c table 5 shows the time spent in groups . the results revealed that although no statistical significant difference was found , but er : yag group took the longest time , while the shortest time belonged to tungsten carbide bur group . regardless of the methods used , some enamel scarring occurs after debracketing and adhesive removal . however , the advantages of bonding orthodontic attachments unquestionably outweigh the disadvantages . cleaning up of residual bonding resin following debracketing needs to be in a manner that the enamel surface remains intact as much as possible . hence , the clinician must be aware of the best methods for minimizing enamel damage . the results of the present study implied that the texture of enamel surfaces , following adhesive removal in the three groups is different . composite bur created the smoothest , and er : yag laser the roughest surfaces , although at the minimum related power setting . almeida et al . and burkes et al . showed that er : yag laser removed more enamel compared to tungsten carbide bur . in the present study , and the study of karan et al . this result might be related to disintegration of composite bur in contact with enamel surface while the cutting edges of tungsten carbide bur remove a significant amount of enamel . the temperature of the pulp chamber increased significantly in composite bur and tungsten carbide bur groups while decreased significantly in er : yag laser group . this decrease in temperature was apparently related to the cooling air and water system in er : yag laser application . stated that in the absence of air or water cooling system , the temperature of the pulp chamber did not significantly increase while ozer et al . suggested low speed hand piece with air cooling , and uysal et al . showed a decrease in temperature by 5.36c when cooling water was applied . , it took 56.53 s for tungsten carbide bur and 37.85 s for composite bur to increase the temperature by 5.5c . since increased temperature by 5.5c may lead to irreversible pulp tissue inflammation ( in 40% of cases ) , it is suggested to apply air or water cooling system , or work intermittently when using tungsten carbide or composite burs . the time consumed to remove adhesive residue from the enamel surface depends largely on the amount of remnant adhesive . in this study , the distribution of ari scores for the experimental groups were broadly similar and the ari score two was the most frequent score ; hence , the groups were comparable . although , no significant differences were observed between groups , tungsten carbide bur took shorter time than two other methods to remove adhesive residue . this might be related to having sharp cutting edges on this bur while composite bur works by means of abrasion . sem images showed that composite bur created the smoothest enamel surface while er : yag laser the roughest.tungsten carbide and composite burs generated significantly more heat compared to er : yag laser.temperature of the pulp chamber increased by 5.5c in 56.36 and 37.86 s by tungsten carbide and composite burs , respectively.tungsten carbide bur was the fastest and er : yag laser the slowest devices to remove adhesive residue . sem images showed that composite bur created the smoothest enamel surface while er : yag laser the roughest . tungsten carbide and composite burs generated significantly more heat compared to er : yag laser . temperature of the pulp chamber increased by 5.5c in 56.36 and 37.86 s by tungsten carbide and composite burs , respectively . tungsten carbide bur was the fastest and er : yag laser the slowest devices to remove adhesive residue . regarding the results of the present study , composite bur with air or water cooling system , because of being less harmful to enamel and pulp tissue , is recommended to remove the residual adhesive following orthodontic bracket debonding .	background : at the end of fixed orthodontic treatment , the remnant of adhesive should be eliminated from the tooth surface . the purpose of this study was to compare the effect of three methods of removing adhesive on enamel surface roughness , dental pulp temperature , and also on the time spent.materials and methods : the brackets on 90 extracted teeth were debonded using bracket removal pliers . a thermocouple sensor was fitted on the buccal wall of the pulp chamber through access cavity to measure thermal changes during adhesive removal . the residue of adhesive was eliminated from enamel surface of teeth by either tungsten carbide bur , erbium - doped yttrium aluminum garnet laser , or fiber reinforced composite bur . scanning electron micrographs images were taken to assess the roughness of enamel surface . the time spent for adhesive removal was recorded as well . chi - square test was used to evaluate the remnants of adhesive and enamel surface roughness ; t - test and also repeated measurement analysis of variance were applied at p < 0.05 to compare the thermal changes of the pulp chamber and time spent between the methods of surface treatment.results:the results of surface roughness were significantly different ( p < 0.001 ) . the pulp temperature changed significantly ( p < 0.001 ) . tungsten carbide bur increased the temperature by 5.5c significantly slower than reinforced composite bur ( p = 0.004 ) , however removed the adhesive residue faster than two other methods although not significantly ( p = 0.069).conclusion : within the limitations of this study , fiber reinforced composite bur created the smoothest enamel surface while er : yag laser the roughest . tungsten carbide and composite burs generated more heat compared to er : yag laser . in addition , tungsten carbide bur was the fastest and er : yag laser the slowest devices to remove adhesive residue .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``United States Military Academy Bicentennial Commemorative Coin Act of 1993''. SEC. 2. COIN SPECIFICATIONS. (a) Five Dollar Gold Coins.-- (1) Issuance.--The Secretary of the Treasury (hereafter in this Act referred to as the ``Secretary'') shall issue not more than 50,000 $5 coins, which shall weigh 8.359 grams, have a diameter of 0.850 inches, and shall contain 90 percent gold and 10 percent alloy. (2) Design.--The design of the $5 coins shall be emblematic of the United States Military Academy and its motto ``Duty, Honor, Country''. On each such coin there shall be a designation of the value of the coin, an inscription of the year ``2002'', and inscriptions of the words ``Liberty'', ``In God We Trust'', ``United States of America'', and ``E Pluribus Unum''. (b) One Dollar Silver Coins.-- (1) Issuance.--The Secretary shall issue not more than 250,000 $1 coins, which shall weigh 26.73 grams, have a diameter of 1.500 inches, and shall contain 90 percent silver and 10 percent copper. (2) Design.--The design of the $1 coins shall be emblematic of the United States Military Academy and its motto ``Duty, Honor, Country''. On each such coin there shall be a designation of the value of the coin, an inscription of the year ``2002'', and inscriptions of the words ``Liberty'', ``In God We Trust'', ``United States of America'', and ``E Pluribus Unum''. (c) Half Dollar Clad Coins.-- (1) Issuance.--The Secretary shall issue not more than 350,000 half dollar coins, each of which shall weigh 11.34 grams, have a diameter of 1.205 inches; and be minted to the specifications for half dollar coins contained in section 5112(b) of title 31, United States Code. (2) Design.--The design of the half dollar coins shall be emblematic of the United States Military Academy and its motto ``Duty, Honor, Country''. On each such coin there shall be a designation of the value of the coin, an inscription of the year ``2002'', and inscriptions of the words ``Liberty'', ``In God We Trust'', ``United States of America'', and ``E Pluribus Unum''. (d) Legal Tender.--The coins issued under this Act shall be legal tender as provided in section 5103 of title 31, United States Code. SEC. 3. SOURCES OF BULLION. (a) Silver Bullion.--The Secretary shall obtain silver for the coins minted under this Act only from stockpiles established under the Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act. (b) Gold Bullion.--The Secretary shall obtain gold for the coins minted under this Act pursuant to the authority of the Secretary under existing law. SEC. 4. SELECTION OF DESIGN. The design for each coin authorized by this Act shall be selected by the Secretary after consultation with the Commission of Fine Arts and the Bicentennial Steering Group, Association of Graduates, United States Military Academy. As required by section 5135 of title 31, United States Code, the designs shall also be reviewed by the Citizens Commemorative Coin Advisory Committee. SEC. 5. ISSUANCE OF THE COINS. (a) Gold Coins.--The $5 coins authorized under this Act may be issued in uncirculated and proof qualities and shall be struck at the United States Bullion Depository at West Point. (b) Silver and Half Dollar Coins.--The $1 coins and the half dollar coins authorized under this Act may be issued in uncirculated and proof qualities, except that not more than 1 facility of the United States Mint may be used to strike any particular combination of denomination and quality. (c) Commencement of Issuance.--The coins authorized under this Act shall be available for issue not later than March 16, 2002. (d) Sunset Provision.--No coins shall be minted under this Act after December 31, 2002. SEC. 6. SALE OF THE COINS. (a) Sale Price.--The coins issued under this Act shall be sold by the Secretary at a price equal to the sum of the face value of the coins, the surcharge provided in subsection (d) with respect to such coins, and the cost of designing and issuing such coins (including labor, materials, dies, use of machinery, overhead expenses, marketing, and shipping). (b) Bulk Sales.--The Secretary shall make bulk sales at a reasonable discount. (c) Prepaid Orders.--The Secretary shall accept prepaid orders for the coins prior to the issuance of such coins. Sales under this subsection shall be at a reasonable discount. (d) Surcharge Required.--All sales shall include a surcharge of $25 per coin for the $5 coins, $5 per coin for the $1 coins, and $1 per coin for the half dollar coins. SEC. 7. GENERAL WAIVER OF PROCUREMENT REGULATIONS. No provision of law governing procurement or public contracts shall be applicable to the procurement of goods or services necessary for carrying out the provisions of this Act. Nothing in this section shall relieve any person entering into a contract under the authority of this Act from complying with any law relating to equal employment opportunity. SEC. 8. DISTRIBUTION OF SURCHARGES. The total surcharges collected by the Secretary from the sale of the coins issued under this Act shall be promptly paid by the Secretary to the Association of Graduates, United States Military Academy to assist the Association of Graduates' efforts to provide direct support to the academic, military, physical, moral, and ethical development programs of the Corps of Cadets, United States Military Academy. SEC. 9. AUDITS. The Comptroller General of the United States shall have the right to examine such books, records, documents, and other data of the Association of Graduates, United States Military Academy as may be related to the expenditure of amounts paid under section 8. SEC. 10. NUMISMATIC PUBLIC ENTERPRISE FUND. The coins issued under this Act are subject to the provisions of section 5134 of title 31, United States Code, relating to the Numismatic Public Enterprise Fund. SEC. 11. FINANCIAL ASSURANCES. (a) No Net Cost to the Government.--The Secretary shall take all actions necessary to ensure that the issuance of the coins authorized by this Act shall result in no net cost to the United States Government. (b) Adequate Security for Payment Required.--No coin shall be issued under this Act unless the Secretary has received-- (1) full payment therefore; (2) security satisfactory to the Secretary to indemnify the United States for full payment; or (3) a guarantee of full payment satisfactory to the Secretary from a depository institution whose deposits are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation or the National Credit Union Administration Board.	United States Military Academy Bicentennial Commemorative Coin Act of 1993 - Directs the Secretary of the Treasury to issue five-dollar gold coins, one-dollar silver coins, and half dollar clad coins emblematic of the U.S. Military Academy. Mandates that surcharges collected from coin sales be paid to the Association of Graduates, U.S. Military Academy, to assist its efforts to provide direct support to the Corps of Cadets, U.S. Military Academy.
See more of Lauren Michele Emerson on Facebook \|\|\|\|\| When flight attendant Lauren Gibbs boarded the plane to Detroit to Oklahoma City just before Christmas, she already knew it was a special day. Gibbs, 23, from Nashville, Tennessee, would be in control of the cabin, while her boyfriend, pilot Jon Emerson, was on the flight deck. Not only that, but it was their anniversary. But she was in for a surprise when Emerson, 24, made the pre-flight announcements to the cabin. After informing them about the flight time (2 hours 30 minutes), altitude (36,000 feet) and likelihood of turbulence (“a few light bumps in the air”), Emerson got personal. Introducing Gibbs to the cabin, he said: “This is a very special day for Lauren and me. It’s our anniversary today and she’s one of our very best flight attendants.” He went on: “I want this day to be known for the rest of our lives. I want to spend the rest of my life with her.” He then whipped out an engagement ring, got down on one knee and asked her to marry him. The answer was an enthusiastic yes, and the whole thing was filmed by an off-duty pilot sitting in first class, whom Emerson had primed in advance. “I was caught so off guard,” Gibbs told The Independent. “Jon is a really quiet guy, with a very shy personality so for him to do it in front of passengers was so not like him, but for me it was perfect and so thoughtful. We spend almost all of our time together on planes and working together so the timing and place was absolutely perfect.” The couple – who asked The Independent not to name the airline they work for – met when they were assigned a trip together, and have flown together ever since, turning their long layovers into “mini vacations”. Emerson and Gibb met on a flight and have been together ever since (Lauren Gibb) “The best thing about having a pilot as my significant other is always having someone there after a long day of working,” Gibbs told The Independent. “Layovers can be really boring so always having someone there with me makes the experience so much better.” Emerson had spent the past three months planning the proposal for their 23 December anniversary, he said. So will the wedding be onboard a plane? “I think Jon would absolutely love to have planes involved for our wedding,” says Gibbs. “However we will probably have something more quiet and smaller for our friends and family.” The planning has yet to start, though, so there’s always time to change her mind. Click here to compare flight options with Skyscanner	– Call it the tamer (and more romantic) version of the Mile High Club, before the plane even left the ground. The Independent reports on an airline pilot who decided to surprise his flight attendant girlfriend, who works with him, two days before Christmas. As Jon Emerson, 24, gave passengers weather, altitude, and turbulence details before their SkyWest flight took off from Detroit to Oklahoma City, he suddenly changed the subject. He introduced 23-year-old Lauren Gibbs as his girlfriend, and also as "one of our very best flight attendants," then said he wanted her to not only remember this day as their anniversary, but also as a "day to be known for the rest of our lives." In a video Gibbs posted to her Facebook page, Emerson can then be seen whipping out a ring box and getting down on one knee in front of Gibbs to offer his marriage proposal amid clapping and cheers from the flight's passengers. (Emerson headed back to the PA system to note, "She said yes" for those who couldn't hear in the back.) "I got to say the easiest YES of my life to my best friend!" Gibbs writes in her post. "It still feels like a dream and I cannot explain how blessed I am to spend forever with Jon." She included the hashtag #LaurenLandedEmerson, then added a bit of news about the venue for their nuptials: "Sorry to disappoint, but the wedding will not be on a plane!" (Another holiday season proposal, this one in subzero temperatures.)
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Escambia County Land Conveyance Act''. SEC. 2. DEFINITIONS. In this Act: (1) County.--The term ``County'' means Escambia County, Florida. (2) Non-federal land.--The term ``non-Federal land'' means the former Santa Rosa Island National Monument land in the State that was conveyed by the United States to the County under the Act of July 30, 1946 (60 Stat. 712, chapter 699), and by deed dated January 15, 1947. (3) State.--The term ``State'' means the State of Florida. SEC. 3. RECONVEYANCE OF NON-FEDERAL LAND TO ESCAMBIA COUNTY, FLORIDA. (a) In General.--Notwithstanding the restrictions on conveyance in the Act of July 30, 1946 (60 Stat. 712, chapter 699), and the deed to the non-Federal land from the United States to the County dated January 15, 1947, and subject to subsections (c) through (g), the County may convey all right, title, and interest of the County in and to the non- Federal land or any portion of the non-Federal land, to any person or entity, without any restriction on conveyance or reconveyance imposed by the United States in that Act or deed. (b) Effect on Leasehold Interests.--No person or entity holding a leasehold interest in the non-Federal land as of the date of enactment of this Act shall be required to involuntarily accept a fee interest to the non-Federal land in place of the leasehold interest in the non- Federal land. (c) Conveyance of Land Within Santa Rosa County, Florida.-- (1) In general.--As a condition of the authority granted to the County to convey the non-Federal land under subsection (a), all right, title, and interest of the County in and to any portion of the non-Federal land that is within the jurisdictional boundaries of Santa Rosa County, Florida, shall be conveyed by the County to Santa Rosa County, Florida, by the date that is 2 years after the date of enactment of this Act. (2) Requirements.--A conveyance under paragraph (1) shall-- (A) be absolute; (B) terminate-- (i) any subjugation of Santa Rosa County, Florida, to the County; or (ii) any regulation of Santa Rosa County, Florida, by the County; and (C) be without consideration, except that the County may require Santa Rosa County, Florida, to pay the actual costs associated with the conveyance of the non-Federal land to Santa Rosa County, Florida. (3) Assumption of ownership; imposition of restrictions.-- On conveyance of the non-Federal land to Santa Rosa County, Florida, under paragraph (1), Santa Rosa County, Florida-- (A) shall assume ownership of the non-Federal land free of the restrictions on the non-Federal land described in subsection (g); and (B) may establish any lawful restrictions on, or criteria for the reconveyance of, the non-Federal land to any leaseholder of the non-Federal land. (4) Reconveyance.--Santa Rosa County, Florida, or any other person to whom Santa Rosa County, Florida, reconveys the non- Federal land may reconvey the non-Federal land or any portion of the non-Federal land conveyed to Santa Rosa County, Florida, under paragraph (1). (d) Incorporation or Annexation.--An owner or leaseholder of the non-Federal land conveyed under this section may pursue incorporation, annexation, or any other governmental status for the non-Federal land, if the owner or leaseholder complies with the legal conditions required for incorporation, annexation, or the other governmental status. (e) Jurisdiction.--The non-Federal land shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the county or unit of local government in which the non-Federal land is located. (f) Proceeds.--Any proceeds from the conveyance of the non-Federal land by the County or Santa Rosa County, Florida (other than amounts paid for the direct and incidental costs associated with the conveyance), under this section shall-- (1) be considered to be windfall profits; and (2) revert to the United States. (g) Preservation.--As a condition of the grant of the authority to convey the non-Federal land under subsection (a), the County shall preserve in perpetuity the areas of the non-Federal land that, as of the date of enactment of this Act, are dedicated for conservation, preservation, public recreation access, and public parking, in accordance with any resolutions of the Board of Commissioners of the County. (h) Determination of Compliance.--The County and Santa Rosa County, Florida-- (1) except as provided in subsection (c)(1), shall not be subject to a deadline or requirement to make any conveyance or reconveyance of the non-Federal land authorized under this section; and (2) may establish terms for the conveyance or reconveyance of the non-Federal land authorized under this section, subject to this Act and applicable State law.	Escambia County Land Conveyance Act This bill authorizes Escambia County, Florida, to convey its interest in any part of the former Santa Rosa Island National Monument land that was conveyed to it by the federal government in 1947 to any person or entity, without restriction. The bill prohibits any person or entity holding a leasehold interest in such land from being required to involuntarily accept a fee interest to such land in place of the leasehold interest. The bill conditions such conveyance on requirements that: (1) all interest of Escambia County in any part of such land that is within the jurisdictional boundaries of Santa Rosa County, Florida, must be conveyed to Santa Rosa County within two years of the enactment of this bill; and (2) Escambia County must preserve in perpetuity the areas of the conveyed monument land that, as of this bill's enactment, are dedicated for conservation, preservation, public recreation access, and public parking. Santa Rosa County shall assume ownership of the non-federal land conveyed to it free of such restrictions. Santa Rosa County or any other person to whom such county reconveys such land may reconvey any part of it. Any proceeds from the conveyance of such land by either county shall be considered to be windfall profits that shall revert to the United States.
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Shelter, Land, and Urban Management (SLUM) Assistance Act of 2009''. SEC. 2. FINDINGS. Congress makes the following findings: (1) Approximately 51 percent of the world's population currently lives in cities of all sizes and produces the majority of the world's economic output. (2) Approximately one billion people currently live in slums, and more than half of this population is under the age of 25. (3) It is estimated that by 2030 the number of people living in slums will double. (4) Slums are characterized by inadequate access to safe water, sanitation, and other essential infrastructure, overcrowding, poorly structured housing, and insecure residential and property ownership status. (5) Eighty-eight percent of all disease is caused by unsafe drinking water, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygiene and almost 50 percent of all people in developing countries suffer health problems caused by water and sanitation deficits. (6) Over 1.1 billion people lack adequate access to safe water and nearly 2.5 billion lack access to sanitation services. (7) The costs of diseases and productivity losses linked to water and sanitation in less developed countries amount to two percent of gross domestic product and up to five percent in sub-Saharan Africa. (8) Insecure lease and real property ownership tenure often subject slum dwellers to arbitrary, often supra-market rents, forced evictions, threats, and harassment. (9) In 2007, approximately five million people were subject to forced evictions, and projections show that the number of forced evictions are likely to increase to between 40 million and 70 million in the next 20 years. (10) Insecurity of tenure severely inhibits economic development by undermining investment incentives and constraining the growth of credit markets, imperils the ability of families to achieve sustainable livelihoods and assured access to shelter, and often contributes to conflict over property rights. (11) Women make up 66 percent of the world's work force, but own less than 15 percent of the property globally. (12) Women are affected disproportionally by forced evictions and insecure tenure as a result of gender discrimination, often including gender-biased laws that define women as legal minors or otherwise prevent them from acquiring and securing land, property, and housing lease or ownership rights, making them more vulnerable to poverty, violence, and sexual abuse. (13) Adequate housing and universal access to basic shelter serve as catalysts for social and democratic development. (14) The 2006 National Security Strategy states, ``America's national interests and moral values drive us in the same direction: to assist the world's poor citizens and least developed nations and help integrate them into the global economy.''. (15) Goal 7 Target 11 of the Millennium Development Goals sets the target that ``By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum- dwellers.''. (16) The United States formerly provided significant levels of overseas development assistance for shelter and affordable housing, but in recent years this amount has declined. SEC. 3. STATEMENT OF POLICY. It should be the policy of the United States-- (1) to establish and implement, as a major objective of United States overseas development assistance strategy, particularly in developing countries, programs that foster improved urban management, that foster sustainable urban development, that increase the security of real property tenure, and that expand access to basic shelter, affordable urban housing, and essential urban services and infrastructure, particularly by the poor and others who lack such access in whole or in part; (2) to allocate increased levels of United States bilateral assistance for programs described in paragraph (1); and (3) in order to prevent waste and duplication in the use of United States overseas development assistance with respect to the programs described in paragraph (1) and in order to foster cooperative relations with foreign governments, intergovernmental organizations, and private business and nonprofit entities that singly or jointly support or implement programs similar to those described in paragraph (1), to seek and actively support innovative international mechanisms designed to increase coordination and mutual complementarity in the planning, financing, and implementation of sustainable urban development policies and programs implemented by the United States and other donors described in this paragraph. SEC. 4. ASSISTANCE TO PROVIDE AFFORDABLE HOUSING AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. (a) Purposes of Assistance.--The purposes of assistance under this section are to-- (1) support economically and environmentally sustainable and administratively feasible urban socioeconomic growth, development, and poverty reduction efforts and to produce improved health and other basic quality of life indicators for residents of slums, other densely populated, impoverished urban areas, and urban areas experiencing rapid population growth in developing countries, including by increasing-- (A) access to basic shelter and affordable housing, particularly by residents of slums and similar densely populated, impoverished urban areas; (B) affordable and equitable access to safe water, sanitation, and solid waste removal services, and shared communal infrastructure, such as sidewalks, roads, public lighting; (C) access to and security of land and other real property use, lease, and ownership rights and legal recognition and protections thereof by all income groups, including by supporting efforts to enhance the effectiveness of transaction and dispute resolution systems, equitable and sustainable national land policies, and enhanced land administration services; and (D) support for efforts to enhance the capacity of developing country governments, including regional and municipal governments, to plan and manage urban growth in an operationally and financially effective and transparent, participatory, and accountable manner, to pursue policy reforms that foster such objectives, and to provide urban services and infrastructure, such as basic water and sanitation, transport, solid waste removal, and electrical power service delivery, including in impoverished urban zones; and (2) achieve the objectives described in paragraph (1) by-- (A) promoting the growth of functional, commercially oriented housing markets in target countries and expanding access to individual and institutional investment capital and financing for housing and municipal infrastructure, including by public-private partnerships, municipal bonds, micro- credit financing, and strengthening national and regional public or private institutions involved in the regulation or provision of finance of such purposes; (B) supporting institutional, procedural, and legal reforms that seek to enhance the rights and access to shelter, urban infrastructure and services, and property ownership and lease rights of groups that are socioeconomically vulnerable or marginalized, or subject to discrimination, including women, children, the poor, and people living in urban slums and informal settlements; (C) prioritizing support for cross-sectoral, multi- purpose projects that simultaneously advance one or more of the objectives described in subparagraphs (A) and (B); and (D) promoting partnerships between the public and private sectors and community-based organizations to plan and implement projects described in subparagraph (C). (b) Authorization of Assistance.--To carry out the purposes of subsection (a), the President is authorized-- (1) to furnish technical assistance and financial support to developing countries, to include, as appropriate, diverse means of support, including technical or financial assistance to public-private partnerships, grants, direct loans, seed credit, contracted technical services, investment insurance, loan guarantees, and other forms of assistance; (2) to carry out paragraph (1) during fiscal year 2009 through the use of existing United States Government programs, implementing authorities, and organizations, including-- (A) specialized organizational units of the United States Agency for International Development, including the Urban Programs Team (EGAT/PR/UP), the Development Credit Authority (EGAT/DC/DCA), the Land Resources Management Team (EGAT/NRM/LRM), the Water Team (EGAT/ NRM/W), the Office of Infrastructure and Engineering (EGAT/IE), and the Engineering Services Team (EGAT/I&E/ ES); (B) the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC); and (C) other United States Government agencies with relevant technical expertise or policy mandates pertaining to urban development and housing in foreign countries; and (3) to strengthen and enhance the operational capabilities and capacities of United States Government programs, implementing authorities, and organizations described in subparagraphs (A), (B), and (C) of paragraph (2) in furtherance of the purposes and objectives described in subsection (a)(1), including efforts to increase their manpower, diversity of expertise, and levels of funding, and to enhance their ability to jointly coordinate and collaborate in carrying out such purposes and objectives. SEC. 5. AFFORDABLE HOUSING AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY. (a) Strategy.--The President, acting through the Secretary of State and the Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development, shall develop a strategy to provide affordable housing and sustainable urban development in developing countries. (b) Consultation.--The strategy required by subsection (a) shall be developed in part through a process of consultation between the Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development and the heads of units of such Agency and other United States Government agencies with relevant technical expertise or policy mandates pertaining to urban development and housing in foreign countries, and shall draw upon best practices and successful models of urban development undertaken or developed by international intergovernmental organizations, international finance institutions, recipient countries, United States and international nongovernmental organizations, and other appropriate entities. (c) Content.--The strategy required by the subsection (a) shall include or address-- (1) a review and assessment of existing or past United States programs and foreign assistance strategies designed to increase access to basic shelter and affordable housing in developing countries, extending affordable and equitable access to safe water, sanitation, and solid waste removal services, and shared communal infrastructure, such as sidewalks, roads, public lighting, enhancing security of real property use, lease, and ownership rights; (2) a review and assessment of small scale, grassroots, and community-based efforts that have successfully improved access to basic shelter and urban services; (3) a process to define short- and long-term objectives and performance measures by which progress should be measured; (4) measures necessary to improve and expand United States programs and foreign assistance strategies in existence on the date of enactment of this Act that address urban development issues in foreign countries; (5) operational plans to improve the ability of United States foreign assistance agencies to develop and implement programs described in section 4 of this Act, including through support for innovative international mechanisms; (6) a plan for integrating into the broader strategic foreign assistance plans of the Department of State and United Stated Agency for International Development the programs and objectives described in section 4 of this Act; and (7) a plan for providing long-term United States support for sustainable urban growth and development initiatives in developing countries involving a process of regular coordination between United States Government agencies with relevant technical expertise or policy mandates, where appropriate, including the United States Agency for International Development, the Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Department of the Treasury, and the Overseas Private Investment Corporation, and drawing upon the expertise, whenever possible, of United States-based mayors and professionals in community, public and banking sectors, major United States private foundations, and United Nations organizations and multilateral development banks, among others. (d) Report.--Not later than 12 months after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary of State shall submit to Congress a report that describes the strategy required by subsection (a). SEC. 6. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. There are authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year 2009 and each subsequent fiscal year such sums as may be necessary to carry out this Act.	Shelter, Land, and Urban Management (SLUM) Assistance Act of 2009 - Directs the President, through the Secretary of State and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), to develop a strategy to provide affordable housing and sustainable urban development in developing countries. Authorizes the President to provide technical assistance and financial support to developing countries for: (1) basic shelter and affordable housing, particularly for residents of impoverished urban areas; (2) safe water, sanitation, and solid waste removal services; (3) real property use and ownership rights; and (4) governmental urban planning.
SEC. 1. SHORT TITLE; TABLE OF CONTENTS. (a) Short Title.--This Act may be cited as the ``Water Resources Development Act of 1994''. (b) Table of Contents.-- Sec. 1. Short title; table of contents. Sec. 2. Definitions. Sec. 3. Project authorizations. Sec. 4. Project modifications. Sec. 5. Cost-sharing of environmental projects. Sec. 6. Recovery of costs for clean up of hazardous or toxic substances. Sec. 7. Collaborative research and development. Sec. 8. National inventory of dams. Sec. 9. Hydroelectric power project uprating. Sec. 10. Engineering and environmental innovations of national significance. Sec. 11. Federal lump-sum payments for federal operation and maintenance costs. Sec. 12. Cost-sharing for removal of existing project features. Sec. 13. Technical advisory committee. Sec. 14. Technical corrections. Sec. 15. Project deauthorizations. Sec. 16. Contract goals for small disadvantaged business concerns and historically black colleges and universities or minority institutions. Sec. 17. Cost-sharing for dam safety work. Sec. 18. Revocation of section 211, River and Harbor Act of 1950. Sec. 19. Research and development in support of Army Civil Works Program. Sec. 20. Interagency and international support authority. Sec. 21. Expansion of section 1135 program. Sec. 22. Regulatory program fund. SEC. 2. DEFINITIONS. For purposes of this Act, the term ``Secretary'' means the Secretary of the Army. SEC. 3. PROJECT AUTHORIZATIONS. [RESERVED] SEC. 4. PROJECT MODIFICATIONS. [RESERVED] SEC. 5. COST-SHARING OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS. Section 103(c) of the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 (100 Stat. 4085) is amended by adding the following new subsection: ``(7) environmental protection and restoration: 25 percent.''. SEC. 6. RECOVERY OF COSTS FOR CLEAN UP OF HAZARDOUS OR TOXIC SUBSTANCES. Amounts recovered under section 107 of the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (42 U.S.C. 9607) for any response action taken by the Secretary in support of the Army Civil Works Program shall be credited to the appropriate trust fund account from which the cost of such response action has been paid or will be charged. SEC. 7. COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. Section 7 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1988 (102 Stat. 4022) is amended by-- (1) redesignating subsections (b), (c) and (d) as paragraphs (1), (2) and (3); (2) deleting subsection (e); and, (3) adding the following new subsection: ``(b) Pre-agreement Temporary Protection of Technology.--If the Secretary determines that information developed as a result of research and development activities conducted by the Corps of Engineers is likely to be subject to a cooperative research and development agreement within 2 years of its development and that such information would be a trade secret or commercial or financial information that would be privileged or confidential if the information had been obtained from a non-Federal party participating in a cooperative research and development agreement under section 12 of the Stevenson- Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1980, the Secretary may provide appropriate protection against the dissemination of such information, including exemption from subchapter II of chapter 5 of title 5, United States Code, until the earlier of the date the Secretary enters into such an agreement with respect to such information or the last day of the 2-year period beginning on the date of such determination. Any information covered by this subsection which becomes the subject of a cooperative research and development agreement shall be accorded the protection provided under 15 U.S.C. 3710a(c)(7)(B) as if such information had been developed under a cooperative research and development agreement.''. SEC. 8. NATIONAL INVENTORY OF DAMS. Section 13 of Public Law 92-367, 33 U.S.C. 467l, is amended by striking the second sentence in its entirety and replacing it with the following: ``There is authorized to be appropriated up to $500,000 each fiscal year for the purpose of carrying out this section.''. SEC. 9. HYDROELECTRIC POWER PROJECT UPRATING. (a) In accomplishing the maintenance, rehabilitation, and modernization of hydroelectric power generating facilities at water resources projects under the justification of the Department of the Army, the Secretary is authorized to increase the efficiency of energy production and the capacity of these facilities if, after consulting with other appropriate Federal and State agencies, the Secretary determines that such uprating-- (1) is economically justified and financially feasible; (2) will not result in significant adverse effects on the other purposes for which the project is authorized; (3) will not result in significant adverse environmental impacts; and (4) will not involve major structural or operation changes in the project. (b) This section does not affect the authority of the Secretary and the Administrator of the Bonneville Power Administration under section 2406 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (16 U.S.C. 839d-1). SEC. 10. ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL INNOVATIONS OF NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE. To encourage innovative and environmentally sound engineering solutions and innovative environmental solutions to problems of national significance, the Secretary may undertake surveys, plans, and studies and prepare reports which may lead to work under existing civil works authorities or to recommendations for authorizations. There is authorized to be appropriated up to $3,000,000 each fiscal year for the purpose of carrying out this section. The Secretary may also accept and expend additional funds from other Federal agencies, States, or non- Federal entities for purposes of carrying out this section. SEC. 11. FEDERAL LUMP-SUM PAYMENTS FOR FEDERAL OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS. (a) At a water resources project where the non-Federal interest is responsible for performing the operation, maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of the project and the Federal Government is responsible for paying a portion of the operation, maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation costs, the Secretary may provide, under terms and conditions acceptable to the Secretary, a payment of the estimated total Federal share of such costs to the non-Federal interest after completion of construction of the project or a separable element thereof. (b) The amount to be paid shall be equal to the present value of the Federal payments over the life of the project, as estimated by the Government, and shall be computed using an interest rate determined by the Secretary of the Treasury taking into consideration current market yields on outstanding marketable obligations of the United States with maturities comparable to the remaining life of the project. (c) The Secretary may make a payment under this section only if the non-Federal interest has entered into a binding agreement with the Secretary to perform the operation, maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of the project or separable element. The agreement must be in accordance with the requirements of section 221 of the Flood Control Act of 1970 (84 Stat. 1818), and must contain provisions specifying the terms and conditions under which a payment may be made under this section and the rights of, and remedies available to, the Federal Government to recover all or a portion of a payment made under this section in the event the non-Federal interest suspends or terminates its performance of operation, maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of the project or separable element, or fails to perform such activities in a manner satisfactory to the Secretary. (d) Except as provided in subsection (c), a payment provided to the non-Federal interest under this section shall relieve the Government of any future obligations for paying any of the operation, maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation costs for the project or separable element. SEC. 12. COST-SHARING FOR REMOVAL OF EXISTING PROJECT FEATURES. After the date of enactment of this Act, any proposal submitted to the Congress by the Secretary for modification of an existing authorized water resources development project by removal of one or more of the project features which would significantly and adversely impact the authorized project purposes or outputs shall include the recommendation that the non-Federal sponsor shall bear 50 percent of the cost of any such modification, including the costs of acquiring any additional interests in lands which become necessary for accomplishing the modification. SEC. 13. TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE. The Technical Advisory Committee established pursuant to section 310(a) of Public Law 101-640 shall no longer exist after the date of enactment of this Act. SEC. 14. TECHNICAL CORRECTIONS. (a) Section 203(b) of the Water Resources Development Act of 1992 (106 Stat. 4826) is amended by striking out ``(8662)'' and inserting in lieu thereof ``(8862)''. (b) Section 225(c) of the Water Resources Development Act of 1992 (106 Stat. 4838) is amended by striking out ``(8662)'' in the second sentence and inserting in lieu thereof ``(8862)''. SEC. 15. PROJECT DEAUTHORIZATIONS. (a) Section 1001 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 as amended (33 U.S.C. 579a) is further amended by-- (1) striking ``10'' where it appears in the first sentence of paragraph (2) of subsection (b) and replacing it with ``5''; (2) striking the word ``Before'' at the beginning of the second sentence of paragraph (2) of subsection (b) and replacing it with the words ``Upon official''; and (3) inserting the words ``planning, designing, or'' immediately before the word ``construction'' in the last sentence of paragraph (2) of subsection (b). (b) Section 52(a) of the Water Resources Development Act of 1988 (102 Stat. 4044) is repealed. SEC. 16. CONTRACT GOALS FOR SMALL DISADVANTAGED BUSINESS CONCERNS AND HISTORICALLY BLACK COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES OR MINORITY INSTITUTIONS. (a) Goal.--Except as provided in subsection (c), the Secretary shall establish a goal of 5 percent of the total amount of civil works funds obligated for contracts and subcontracts entered into by the Department of the Army for fiscal years 1994 through 2000 for award to small business concerns owned and controlled by socially and economically disadvantaged individuals (as such term is used in section 8(d) of the Small Business Act (15 U.S.C. 637(d)) and regulations under that section), the majority of the earnings of which directly accrue to such individuals, and to historically Black colleges and universities or minority institutions (as defined in paragraphs (3), (4), and (5) of section 312(b) of the Higher Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 1058)). (b) Competitive Procedure.--To the extent practicable and when necessary to facilitate achievement of the 5 percent goal in subsection (a)-- (1) the Secretary is authorized to enter into contracts using less than full and open competitive procedures, but shall pay a price not exceeding the fair market cost by more than 10 percent in payment per contract to contractors or subcontractors of contracts described in subsection (a); and (2) the Secretary shall maximize the number of small disadvantaged business concerns, historically Black colleges and universities, and minority institutions participating in the program. (c) Exception.--The Secretary shall adjust the percentage specified in subsection (b)(1) of this section for any industry category if available information clearly indicates that nondisadvantaged small business concerns in such industry category are generally being denied a reasonable opportunity to compete for contracts because of the use of that percentage. (d) Nonapplicability.--Subsection (a) does not apply if-- (1) the Secretary determines that the existence of a national emergency requires otherwise; and (2) the Secretary notifies the Congress of such determination and the reasons therefor. SEC. 17. COST-SHARING FOR DAM SAFETY WORK. Section 1203(a)(1) of the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 is amended by inserting the following language immediately after the first sentence: ``Where cost sharing was not based on a cost allocation, 15 percent of the modification costs shall be assigned among project purposes in the same manner as costs were originally assigned, as determined by the Secretary.''. SEC. 18. REVOCATION OF SECTION 211, RIVER AND HARBOR ACT OF 1950. Section 211 of the River and Harbor Act of 1950, Public Law 516, 81st Congress, is hereby repealed. SEC. 19. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN SUPPORT OF ARMY CIVIL WORKERS PROGRAM. (a) In carrying out research and development in support of the Civil Works program of the Department of the Army, the Secretary may utilize contracts, cooperative research and development agreements, cooperative agreements, and grants with non-Federal entities, including State and local governments, colleges and universities, consortia, professional and technical societies, public and private scientific and technical foundations, research institutions, educational organizations, and non-profit organizations. (b) With respect to contracts for research and development, the Secretary may include requirements that have potential commercial application and may also use such potential application as an evaluation factor where appropriate. SEC. 20. INTERAGENCY AND INTERNATIONAL SUPPORT AUTHORITY. The Secretary may engage in activities in support of other Federal agencies or international organizations on problems of national significance to the United States. The Secretary may engage in activities in support of international organizations only after consulting with the Department of State. The Secretary may apply the technical and managerial expertise of the Army Corps of Engineers to domestic and international problems related to water resources, infrastructure development and environmental protection. There is authorized to be appropriated up to $3,000,000 each fiscal year for the purpose of carrying out this section. The Secretary may also accept and expend additional funds from other Federal agencies or international organizations for purposes of carrying out this section. SEC. 21. EXPANSION OF SECTION 1135 PROGRAM. Section 1135 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 (33 U.S.C. 2309a) is amended by-- (1) striking the period at the end of subsection (a) and inserting the following: ``and to determine if the operation of such projects has contributed to the degradation of the quality of the environment.''; (2) striking the last two sentences of subsection (b); and, (3) redesignating subsections (c), (d), and (e) as (e), (f), and (g) and inserting the following new subsections: ``(c) If the Secretary determines that operation of a water resources project has contributed to the degradation of the quality of the environment, the Secretary may also undertake measures for restoration of environmental quality, provided such measures are feasible and consistent with the authorized project purposes. ``(d) The non-Federal share of the cost of any modifications or measures carried out or undertaken pursuant to subsections (b) or (c) of this section shall be 25 percent. No more than $5,000,000 in Federal funds may be expended on any single modification or measure carried out or undertaken pursuant to this section.''. SEC. 22. REGULATORY PROGRAM FUND. (a) There is hereby established in the Treasury of the United States the ``Army Civil Works Regulatory Program Fund'' (hereafter referred to as the ``Regulatory Program Fund'') into which shall be deposited fees collected by the Secretary of the Army pursuant to paragraph (b) of this section. Amounts deposited into the Regulatory Program Fund are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of the Army to cover a portion of the expenses incurred by the Department of the Army in administering laws pertaining to the regulation of the navigable waters of the United States as well as wetlands. (b) Regulatory Fees.--(1) To the extent provided for in appropriation Acts, the Secretary of the Army shall establish and collect fees for the evaluation of commercial permit applications; for the recovery of costs associated with the preparation of Environmental Impact Statements required by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969; and for the recovery of costs associated with wetlands delineations for major developments affecting wetlands. Amounts collected pursuant to this paragraph shall be deposited into the Regulatory Program Fund established by paragraph (a) of this section. (2) The fees described in paragraph (1) of this subsection shall be established by the Secretary of the Army at rates that will allow for the recovery of receipts at amounts as provided for in appropriation Acts. S 2233 IS----2 S 2233 IS----3	Water Resources Development Act of 1994 - Amends the Water Resources Development Act of 1986 to require a 25 percent non-Federal share of the cost of environmental protection and restoration activities under the Act. (Sec. 6) Requires amounts recovered by the Secretary of the Army for the cleanup of hazardous or toxic substances in support of the Army Civil Works program to be credited to the appropriate trust fund Account from which the cost of taking such action is paid. (Sec. 7) Amends the Act to provide for the temporary protection of technology developed as a result of research and development (R&D) activities conducted by the Corps of Engineers which is likely to be subject to a cooperative R&D agreement within two years of such development. (Sec. 8) Amends the National Dam Safety Act to authorize appropriations annually (currently through FY 1992) for continuously maintaining an updated inventory of all dams located in the United States. (Sec. 9) Authorizes the Secretary, in maintaining hydroelectric power generating facilities at projects under the jurisdiction of the Army, to increase the efficiency of energy production and the capacity of such facilities, if certain conditions are met. (Sec. 10) Authorizes the Secretary to undertake surveys, plans, and studies and to prepare reports which may lead to work under existing civil works authorities or to recommendations for authorizations. Authorizes appropriations. (Sec. 11) Authorizes the Secretary to make lump-sum payments to non-Federal sponsors for the Federal share of operation, maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation costs of civil works projects after completion of construction of the project or a separation element thereof, with conditions. (Sec. 12) Requires recommendation to the Congress by the Secretary that a non-Federal sponsor bear 50 percent of the cost of any proposed modification of an existing authorized project by removal of a project feature which would significantly and adversely impact the project purpose or output. (Sec. 13) Amends the Water Resources Development Act of 1990 to terminate the technical advisory committee established to provide to the Secretary and the Corps recommendations on reservoir monitoring and research. (Sec. 15) Amends the: (1) Act to revise a reporting requirement and to defeat a project deauthorization if funds for planning or design (currently, only construction) have been obligated within a 30-month period; and (2) Water Resources Development Act of 1988 to repeal a five-year limitation on the period during which funds must be obligated to prevent project deauthorization. (Sec. 16) Directs the Secretary to establish a goal of awarding five percent of the total amount of civil works funds obligated for Army contracts and subcontracts for FY 1994 through 2000 to small business concerns owned and controlled by socially and economically disadvantaged individuals and to historically Black colleges and minority institutions. Outlines procurement procedures. (Sec. 17) Amends the Act to revise provisions concerning cost-sharing for dam safety work. (Sec. 18) Repeals a provision of the River and Harbor Act of 1950 providing for expenses of Corps representatives at international engineering or scientific conferences. (Sec. 19) Authorizes the Secretary to enter into contracts, cooperative agreements, and grants with non-Federal entities for R&D in support of Army civil works programs. (Sec. 20) Authorizes the Secretary to engage in activities in interagency or international support of problems of national significance to the United States, with conditions. Authorizes appropriations. (Sec. 21) Amends the Act to allow the Secretary to take appropriate measures if he determines that the operation of a water resource project has contributed to the degradation of the quality of the environment. (Sec. 22) Establishes in the Treasury the Army Civil Works Regulatory Program Fund for deposit of fees collected for commercial permits, environmental impact statements, and wetlands delineations. Authorizes the appropriation of the funds collected to the Secretary for administrative costs related to regulation of navigable waters and wetlands of the United States.
direct imaging of exoplanets has been a field in rapid development over the past few years , with detections of several planets ( e.g. * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? * ) and low - mass brown - dwarfs ( e.g. * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? * ) that have been enabled by the advent of high - quality adaptive optics correction and sophisticated psf subtraction techniques . this has allowed for various kinds of characterization of such systems ( e.g. * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? * ) , and opened up new domains for the types of planets that can be studied ; for instance , observations within the disk gap of the transitional disk lkca15 ( e.g. * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? * ) using sparse aperture masking has recently revealed what could potentially be a planet in the process of forming @xcite . among these discoveries , one claimed planet detection that stands out as peculiar in many ways is that of fomalhaut b ( * ? ? ? * hereafter k08 ) . the presence of a planet around fomalhaut has been predicted on the basis of the geometry of the debris disk in the system @xcite , which has a sharp inner edge and a center that is offset from that of the star . this implies that it must be eccentric , which could in turn be indicative of the presence of a planetary companion ( or several ) exerting a gravitational influence on the disk ( e.g. * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? * ) , although alternative interpretations do exist @xcite . hence , when a point - source was discovered in two epochs within the disk gap ( k08 ) , with a direction of motion largely parallel to the disk edge , it was assumed that this was an image of the predicted disk - perturbing planet . however , the observed properties of the point - source are hard to consolidate with such an interpretation . unlike the other detections mentioned above , which were made at near - infrared wavelengths where young substellar objects radiate the bulk of their energy , the fomalhaut b candidate is detected only at visible wavelengths , where the expected emission is near zero . no corresponding near - infrared radiation has so far been detected , despite several attempts @xcite . several alternative interpretations of the observed properties have been made , which will be discussed in sect . [ sec_discuss ] . regardless of interpretation , it remains the case that the best way to increase our understanding of the system and test whether a planet is associated with the observed point - source is to better constrain its near - infrared properties . motivated by this , we have performed a study with the _ spitzer space telescope _ in order to improve the detection limits at 4.5 @xmath1 m , which is the wavelength range where fomalhaut b is expected to emit its peak flux . we describe our observational methods and data reduction in sect . [ sec_obs ] , our various data analysis approaches and results in sect . [ sec_result ] , and discuss the implications for the fomalhaut system in sect . [ sec_discuss ] . our observations were taken with the infrared array camera ( irac ; * ? ? ? * ) of the _ spitzer space telescope _ as part of program 70009 , and consist of eight individual runs spread over cycle 7 , from august 2010 through july 2011 ( see table [ t : obslog ] ) . each run consists of 48 exposures , structured as a cycle of a 12-point reuleaux dither pattern with four exposures per position , which enables efficient spatial oversampling and bad pixel removal . the individual exposures have integration times of 10.4 s each with an execution time of 12 s , leaving the primary saturated in individual frames . all observations were taken in the 4.5 @xmath1 m band where the peak flux of fomalhaut b is expected . the observing strategy was optimized for angular differential imaging ( adi ) purposes , with a large spread in telescope roll angles . since active rotation around the optical axis of the telescope is not possible , we exploited the fact that nominal rotation occurs naturally over the course of the year and distributed the observations as uniformly over the observing cycle as the scheduling allowed . given the observing windows for fomalhaut , this led to observations being acquired in august and december of 2010 , and january and july of 2011 , with a range of position angles as summarized in table [ t : obslog ] . [ cols="<,^,^,^,^,^",options="header " , ] basic data reduction for all the observations was performed with the _ spitzer _ science center ( ssc ) irac pipeline ( version s18.18.0 ) , which produced basic calibrated data ( bcd ) frames and data quality masks for each individual exposure . we also used the post - bcd iracproc package ( version 4.3 ; * ? ? ? * ) for the sole purpose of removing outliers ( cosmic - rays ) for each frame . subsequent steps were performed with custom procedures in idl . an extra bad pixel removal step was introduced in order to identify and remove residual bad pixels that occurred only in single frames . this was done by identifying outliers from the median of each quadruplet of frames that were taken contiguously for a given dither position . the absolute center of the psf in each frame was determined by cross - correlating the spider pattern with itself after a rotation by 180 degrees . all frames were then shifted to a common center and oversampled to a pixel scale of 300 mas / pixel , after which the adi - based psf subtraction could commence . this procedure is based on the locally optimized combination of images ( loci ) procedure @xcite , with adaptations to suit the new type of observational scheme and the science goals . the main aspects of the data set that distinguish it from most types of situations in which loci is applied are the extremely high psf stability for space - based observations , the very large number of frames ( @xmath2 ) , and the relatively small separation of the region of primary interest ( compared to the psf size , fwhm of 1.72 ) . particularly the latter two factors make the data prone to substantial self - subtraction in a regular loci context . since one of our main objectives in this study is to set a firm upper flux limit in case no detection would be made , we adapted the procedure in such a way as to avoid self - subtraction to a very high degree , while still maintaining a strong contrast performance . this is a conservative approach , and we note that it is entirely possible that the contrast could be even further enhanced with a more aggressive loci implementation . this will be a subject of future studies . our adapted loci implementation follows the following procedure : first , each frame is sequentially subjected to an individual optimized reference psf construction and subtraction . the basic optimization area is an annulus with an inner radius of 15 pixels and an outer radius of 60 pixels , centered on the star . this optimization area is split up into pieces of approximately 9-by-9 pixels ( @xmath01.5 fwhm ) . in practice , this is done in such a way that the basic annulus is split up into four annuli , each 9 pixels in width , and each annulus is split up azimuthally in such a way that an integer number of segments of equal angular width are created , and such that the length of the inner edge of the segment is as close to 9 pixels as possible . we will refer to these segments as ` exclusion areas ' henceforth . for each area , an individual loci optimization is executed where the optimization area consists of the full 1560 pixel annulus , but with the exclusion area removed . based on the resulting loci coefficients , a subtraction is then made only in the exclusion area . the resulting small area is saved to a frame which is put together piece by piece from the subtractions corresponding to the respective exclusion areas . hence , in this procedure , the subtraction area is equal to the exclusion area , and is completely non - overlapping with the optimization area . the advantage of this approach is that it becomes impossible for the algorithm to systematically fit for any companion in the data , and thus the self - subtraction will be approximately zero . the possible cost comes from the fact that we exclude the stellar psf regions that are physically the closest to the companion , and which may therefore correlate best with the actual psf noise at the exact position of the companion . as we will see in the testing described in sect . [ sec_result ] , the procedure indeed works extremely well for avoiding any self - subtraction . for the procedure described above , the reference frames are chosen from the available library of frames based on how far separated the position angles are between the subtraction frame and a given reference frame . since we wish to ensure a very low degree of self - subtraction of any real companion , we conservatively choose that the separation must be at least 1.72(1 fwhm ) at the inner edge of the exclusion area . this corresponds to different position angles at different separations from the star , hence the subtraction areas at larger separation typically have access to a larger number of reference frames . however , since the position angles are spread over a large range ( see table [ t : obslog ] ) , every examined position has access to a sufficient number of reference frames for a very high quality psf subtraction . once all frames have been subjected to the psf subtraction , they are de - rotated to a common sky orientation where north is up and east is to the left , and collapsed into a final frame using the median of the individual frames . another step is then performed , in order to take boundary effects into account . if a real companion happens to be positioned exactly on the boundary between two or more exclusion zones , it is partially vulnerable to residual oversubtraction even in the above procedure . to overcome this effect , we perform three additional loci procedures in exactly the same way as described above , with only one difference : in the first additional procedure , the exclusion zones are shifted one half step in the azimuthal direction , in the second one , they are shifted one half step in the radial direction , and in the final one , they are shifted half a step in each direction . in this way , four different reduced frames are available to check if some companion gets fainter due to boundary effects in some of the frames , and additionally allows to check for spurious features that could occur in some reductions but not in others . in this case there is a box - like artefact in two of the images but otherwise they all show nicely consistent patterns , hence for the further analysis we use the mean of the frames from the four reductions . in order to evaluate the achieved contrast as a function of separation , we use the same procedure as described in @xcite , evaluated from the standard deviation in consecutive 1-pixel annuli . an important difference is that we always use a 5@xmath3 criterion here for our measurements , rather than 3@xmath3 as in @xcite . this is more stringent in the presence of speckle noise , although note also that there is a fairly close equivalence between a 5@xmath3 single - signature criterion and a 3@xmath3 double - signature criterion @xcite , the latter of which is relevant for the @xcite data . we show the final reduced image in fig . [ f : fomaltile ] and the corresponding sensitivity limits in fig . [ f : contrast ] , where we also plot the expected brightnesses for planets of a few different masses at ages of 200 and 400 myr . a very substantial improvement in contrast performance is achieved with our loci implementation , with an order of magnitude improvement in flux detectability compared to the conventional adi reduction in @xcite , and with a more stringent detection criterion . no signature is found at the position where fomalhaut b would be expected . hence , we estimate an upper limit ( 5@xmath3 ) at the relevant position based on the standard deviation in a 7-by-7 pixel box ( @xmath01.2 fwhm on the side ) . this gives an upper limit of 16.7 mag , which corresponds to 38.8 @xmath1jy , again more than an order of magnitude improvement over previous data . in order to test that the non - detection is real and not an effect of any unexpected oversubtraction in the loci procedure , we make a full reduction following the exact same procedure as described in the previous section , except we also introduce a faint artificial companion ( a gaussian with 1.72fwhm ) in all the pre - loci frames , at the expected position of fomalhaut b , with a flux of 57 @xmath1jy ( this corresponds to an effective temperature of @xmath0250 k , or equivalently 0.51 @xmath4 at 200 myr and 12 @xmath4 at 400 myr ) . the artificial companion passes through the loci reduction entirely unaffected , with the same measured flux in the final frame as the flux that was put in within the error bars , and is well visible at 7@xmath3 confidence in the final frame ( see fig . [ f : fomaltile ] ) . note that the introduction of a new feature in the data affects the loci reduction itself since the artificial companion exists in most reference frames as an additional feature that has to be fit for by the algorithm , the fit quality will in general be slightly worse on average . since the extent of the companion is small with respect to the optimization area and it is faint with respect to the stellar psf , the effect is small but noticeable as a marginally higher general noise level in the final reduced frame . in summary , the procedure described here validates that the non - detection is real , and thus the upper flux limit is relevant . we show our upper limit in fig . [ f:400k ] , along with other upper limits from the literature at various wavelengths , as well as the detection values in the visual wavelength range . we also compare these values with various theoretical models . one model spectrum is from @xcite ( henceforth bsl03 ) , corresponding to a 23 @xmath4 planet ( interpolated between 2 @xmath4 and 5 @xmath4 to match the flux value at f814w600 and @xmath0800 nm , respectively ] ) at @xmath0200 myr . as noted in k08 and @xcite , this model is similar to e.g. the @xcite model except in h - band where the bsl03 flux is higher . it can be seen from the comparison to the data that in the context of this model , a thermal flux interpretation is entirely inconsistent with both the non - detection in h - band and our non - detection in the irac 4.5 @xmath1 m channel . the h - band flux is strongly model - dependent as it is sensitive to uncertainties in opacity and the treatment of clouds . however , by contrast , the 4.5 @xmath1 m flux is very insensitive to these effects , and varies only very marginally across different models . to show this , we use newer models from @xcite based on @xcite ( henceforth bhn11 ) , which has improved opacities and cloud treatment , and also includes a set of entirely cloud - free models for comparison . . [ f:400k ] by using these new models and including clouds , it is possible to suppress the h - band flux to a significant extent ( though typically still not quite to a sufficient extent for a non - detection to be consistent with thermal flux in f814w ) . however , this is not the case at 4.5 @xmath1 m . the flux remains very stable for a constant effective temperature ( typically @xmath0400 k for these model comparisons ) , regardless of how the clouds are treated including the cloud - free case , independently of opacity treatment and also of specific metallicity ( the bhn11 models provide both solar and super - solar metallicity cases ) . we conclude that the effective temperatures required to get any substantial contribution of thermal flux to the observed f814w data point are simply inconsistent with the non - detection at 4.5 @xmath1 m . in order to comply with the upper limit at 4.5 @xmath1 m , we need effective temperatures in the range of @xmath0200 k or lower , corresponding to , e.g. , 1 @xmath4 at 400 myr ( see fig . [ f:200k ] ) . as a side point , this latter age would correspond to a new but so far unpublished estimate ( e. mamajek , priv . comm . ) which is a bit older than the mean estimate of 200 myr used in k08 and @xcite . here we do not make any assessment of the relative credibility of these two estimates , but simply remark that it has no real relevance for the spectral comparisons we are performing here . the main factor ( beyond cloud treatment and opacity ) that affects the spectral energy distribution is the effective temperature . the mass to which this temperature corresponds depends on the age and vice versa , but this has little impact on the spectrum , especially for the small discrepancy in age that we are concerned with here . hence , as long as we do not actually try to determine the mass , we do not need to assess which of 200 myr or 400 myr is the better estimate . while on this note , it is worth pointing out that hot / warm / cold - start models are of no significant relevance to this discussion , since convergence will have occurred at these ages and masses , regardless of initial entropy @xcite . for the colder models required to match the 4.5 @xmath1 m upper flux limit , virtually all flux at shorter wavelengths is lost , and there is no way to match the f814w point with any thermal flux . the closest case is the extreme case of a completely cloud - free atmosphere and solar metallicity , but also in this case the flux is more than an order of magnitude too small ( see fig . [ f:200k ] ) . increasing metallicity has the effect of decreasing flux at 800 nm compared to 4.5 @xmath1 m , hence decreasing metallicity could have the opposite effect . however , fomalhaut a has a super - solar metallicity with a mean measured value of 0.3 dex in a compilation of literature values in @xcite . fomalhaut b should have an equal or larger metallicity thus , adjusting the metallicity is not a feasible route toward reaching consistency with the observational data . based on the above results and considering the further aspects of the collected body of observations of fomalhaut as will be discussed in detail in sect . [ sec_discuss ] , it is highly unlikely that the observed flux at visible wavelengths has any direct connection to the suspected giant planet that might shepherd the debris disk of fomalhaut and force it into an eccentric state @xcite . in this context , and considering our very strong detection limits , it is interesting to assess whether this shepherding planet ( what might be referred to as the ` real ' fomalhaut b ) can be seen in our images . since the shepherding planet can be as low in mass as 0.5 @xmath4 @xcite , it is fully plausible that it could remain undetected in our images if the age is as old as 400 myr , and since its orbit covers a range of projected separations , it can also hide in some parts of the orbit even if the mass is slightly higher . however , we do cover a very large fraction of its possible parameter space , and it is noteworthy that the brightest possible point - source in the field with a significance of 4.3@xmath3 is in fact located at a position that would be consistent with a ring - nested orbit ( arrow 2 in fig . [ f : fomaltile ] ) . however , the fact that the possible point source is not at a 5@xmath3 confidence level obviously means that more data or an even further improved psf reduction would be necessary in order to test its validity . in this section , we discuss in detail how our non - detection at 4.5 @xmath1 m affects the interpretation of fomalhaut b , and what can be deduced about the system from the full body of existing data . the data points that exist for the detected point - source in k08 are two detections in the f606w filter from 2004 and 2006 , and one detection in the f814w filter from 2006 . these data points are shown in figs . [ f:400k ] and [ f:200k ] . note that the object is variable between 2004 and 2006 . this is not a small effect ; in fact , it corresponds to a change in brightness ( dimming ) of a factor 2 , at a confidence of 8@xmath3 . this is the same level of confidence as , e.g. , the second - epoch f606w detection of the point - source altogether . hence , to the extent that we can trust the data at all , we must consider this variability as a real effect , and it needs to be accounted for in a comprehensive interpretation of the object . in addition to these data , a third epoch hst observation has also been acquired but has not yet been published at the time of writing ( p. kalas , priv . there are also upper flux limits from non - detections in a range of bands in @xcite : f435w , h , ch4s , ch4l , and l , and upper limits at 3.6 , 4.5 , 5.8 and 8.0 @xmath1 m from _ spitzer _ @xcite , the second of which we improve on in this article . there are two main lines of interpretation of the point source in k08 , only one of which actually includes any flux from a planet . in this scenario , the flux at f814w originates from the thermal emission of a planet , which has to be close to a mass of @xmath03 @xmath4 in order to fit the data point assuming an age of 200 myr ( e.g. * ? ? ? * ; * ? ? ? this is however poorly consistent with the rest of the available data . most obviously , it is a factor 2040 brighter in f606w than expected in such a scenario . in order to explain the f606w data in terms of brightness and variability , k08 infer a hypothesis of h@xmath5 accretion on the planet . given that this would require gas accretion at the same rate of a few myr old ttauri stars like gq lup ( accretion rate calculated in the supplemental material of k08 ) , whereas fomalhaut is 200400 myr and has no other known signs of gas anywhere in the system , we consider this hypothesis highly unlikely . aside from this , there is the issue that a @xmath03 @xmath4 companion should also be detectable in the near - infrared . this was an issue already in k08 , where the h - band flux predicted by theoretical models was significantly higher than the upper limit from observations , and became an even larger issue given the _ spitzer _ data published by @xcite , where the additional limits at larger wavelengths provided very little opportunity for any flux to remain undetected from such a companion . as was shown in the previous section , our new _ spitzer _ data now provides even much tighter constraints on the thermal emission hypothesis , and provides the opportunity to conclusively address this issue . we find that any thermally emitting companion responsible for the f814w flux ( effective temperatures of @xmath0400 k , e.g. 23 @xmath4 at 200 myr ) would have emitted more than an order of magnitude more flux at 4.5 @xmath1 m than our 5@xmath3 upper limit , regardless of the choice of theoretical models . conversely , any companion that thermally emits radiation at 4.5 @xmath1 m at levels comparable to our upper limit ( effective temperatures of @xmath0200 k , e.g. 1 @xmath4 at 400 myr ) would emit at least an order of magnitude too little flux at f814w to explain the observations , and for most realistic model parameters ( e.g. any inclusion of clouds ) the flux would be even much smaller . hence , we can firmly exclude the hypothesis that any of the observed flux in k08 actually originates from a giant planet . given that the sed of the k08 point source can be interpreted as having a reasonable match to the stellar sed , it seems more likely that what is seen in the k08 images is some form of reflected or scattered radiation from the star . given the large effective area that is required for this , the only plausible origin for reflected / scattered radiation is dust . hence , it is likely that we are seeing a concentration of dust , which may or may not be associated with a planet . we will discuss some dust - related interpretations in the following : firstly , we will consider the hypothesis of an optically thick disk around a giant planet . this is the second preferred scenario in k08 , and requires a disk radius of at least @xmath020 @xmath6 ( for the case of high albedo ; larger for the case of low albedo ) . it may not be unreasonable that circumplanetary rings start out with such properties . however , it might also be argued that the age of the fomalhaut system of 200400 myr should have provided adequate time for moons to form and excavate the disk , leaving only rings of a much smaller effective size . regardless of whether the optically thick disk scenario is fundamentally realistic or not , there are several reasons for why this scenario is inconsistent with the existing data . one very important constraint is that such a disk can not account for the factor 2 variability observed in f606w . furthermore , the spin of the star has been recently measured with interferometry @xcite . if the spin of the star is aligned with the plane of the disk , this means that the fainter western side is closer to us than the brighter eastern side . although this is opposite to what would be expected for purely forward - scattering dust , it is shown in @xcite to be consistent with the scattering behaviour of large dust grains . if it is indeed the case that the western side of the disk is closer to us , and the k08 point source orbits within the disk , then it follows that the object is located between the parent star and earth , in the radial direction . it would be very difficult for an optically thick disk to reflect large amounts of light to earth under such circumstances . in addition to these points , another important argument against the involvement of a giant planet ( which also applies to the thermal emission case discussed above ) is the orbit of the object . the third epoch astrometric measurement implies a ring - crossing orbit for the point source ( p. kalas , priv . although this is not yet published , it would not be surprising given the previously published data , because , in fact , already the first two epochs are inconsistent with an orbit that traces the edge of the ring , at a @xmath02@xmath3 level ( the direction is largely consistent with such an orbit , but the speed is not ) . this is pointed out by @xcite , who do not put a large emphasis on this fact , as they argue that the error bars are probably underestimated . however , we note that this is diametrically opposite to the interpretation of the astrometric errors in k08 , where it is concluded that they are an upper limit to the real error ( k08 , supplemental material ) . a ring - crossing orbit would be inconsistent with an association of the point source to a giant planet , as it would strongly affect the geometry of the disk , hence any planet associated with the point source would need to be low in mass . in the context of a low - mass planet , we note that one way to suppress the 4.5 @xmath1 m flux with respect to shorter wavelengths is to consider hotter temperatures and smaller surfaces . effective temperatures higher than the @xmath0200400 k that we have considered thus far are not reasonable for isolated objects at the system age , particularly for smaller ( and thus lower - mass ) objects than jupiter - class planets . however , following intense bombardment of planetesimals , rocky protoplanets may acquire molten surfaces and reach effective temperatures of @xmath010003000 k over brief periods of time @xcite . hence , the possibility that the observed light - source could be a hot collisional afterglow of a @xmath710 @xmath8 object should not be dismissed out of hand . still , it would probably be difficult to reproduce all the observed data points in such an interpretation , particularly the detection in f606w , and the simultaneous non - detections in h - band and at 4.5 @xmath1 m . the @xcite models do not cover the full relevant wavelength range , but if we consider , for example , a planet of 10 @xmath8 and 1.8 @xmath9 and work from pure blackbody considerations , we can establish that the brightness temperature required to reproduce even the lowest of the f606w data points ( 0.30 @xmath1jy ) is more than 1500 k , whereas the upper limits in h - band ( 0.71 @xmath1jy ) and at 4.5 @xmath1 m ( 38.8 @xmath1jy ) both require brightness temperatures of @xmath0700 k or less . we consider that future modelling efforts would be worthwhile to examine whether these conditions and the rest of the flux limits can all be simultaneously fulfilled , but for the purpose of our discussion here , we simply treat it as an option that can not be categorically excluded . on balance , it should be noted that an observation of this type of scenario is probably rather unlikely , for several reasons , including the fact that it is expected to last over timescales of @xmath010@xmath10 yr for the case of a thin atmosphere , very short compared to the age of fomalhaut . the timescale can be extended if the atmosphere is thickened and clouds are included , but the observable brightness temperature decreases accordingly . as a side note , if clouds were involved , they could possibly account for the variability in f606w in this scenario . given the sed of the point source and its variability , along with the considerations above , the perhaps most plausible way to consistently explain the observed properties of the k08 point source is through a cloud of dust , which is either transient or has a transient component . there are two possible scenarios associated with such an interpretation that have been suggested in the literature . in one scenario , the observed point source is a residual ( gradually dispersing ) dust cloud from a recent planetesimal collision . we certainly know that such collisions should occur frequently in the fomalhaut system , given that they are the very origin of dust in debris disks . this scenario is mentioned by k08 , who argue against it based on the fact that such collisions should be much more common within the actual ring feature than just outside of it where the point source is observed , hence the relative probability to observe it where it is observed should be low . this is certainly true , but we note that there is a clear selection effect involved due to the high visual brightness of the ring and the speckle - like nature of the noise , any number of equivalent events that hypothetically do happen within the ring feature would be likely to pass unnoticed . one might also hypothetically imagine that the cloud is in the present position for some specific dynamical reason , for instance if the material is trapped in resonance with a giant planet situated elsewhere . the second scenario is essentially the same as the first , but involves a central rocky / icy object with a mass less than @xmath010 @xmath8 , to which a swarm of planetesimals is gravitationally bound @xcite . collisions between these planetesimals produce the observed dust . we consider both of these scenarios to be reasonable within the constraints set by the data , and simply conclude that the k08 point source is well consistent with a transient or semi - transient dust cloud , which may or may not be gravitationally bound to a central object of planetary mass . with regards to the fact that the point source has been frequently referred to as a directly imaged planet in the literature , we note that this is incompatible with the observational evidence , for two independent reasons : ( 1 ) although it can not be formally excluded , there is insufficient evidence to support that there is any compact object of planetary mass associated with the point source altogether . ( 2 ) even if such an object is present , in several of our considered scenarios we do not observe any photons from this object itself , hence it can not be established that it has been directly imaged . in this paper , we have presented observations performed with _ spitzer_/irac in the 4.5 @xmath1 m band for the purpose of trying to detect thermal emission from fomalhaut b. a new loci - based psf subtraction scheme was implemented to achieve high contrast with minimal companion flux loss , which enabled an order of magnitude improvement in contrast - limited sensitivity with respect to previous efforts . the non - detection of any flux at the expected position can therefore be used to provide strong constraints on the underlying physics of the point - source seen at visible wavelengths . in particular , we find that there is almost certainly no direct flux from a planet contributing to the visible - light signature . this , in combination with the existing body of data for the fomalhaut system , strongly implies that the dynamically inferred giant planet companion and the visible - light point source are physically unrelated . this in turn implies that the ` real ' fomalhaut b still hides in the system . although we do find a tentative point source in our images that could in principle correspond to this object , its significance is too low to distinguish whether it is real or not at this point . concerning the visible - light point source , its underlying physics is unclear , but the only hypothesis that can be shown to reasonably fit all existing data is an optically thin dust cloud , which is transient or has a transient component . if this interpretation is valid , the cloud may or may not be physically bound to a central object in the super - earth mass regime . the fomalhaut system is a rich topic of conversation , and we thank adam burrows , carsten dominik , james graham , ray jayawardhana , paul kalas , michiel min , and many others for interesting discussions . this work is based on observations made with the _ spitzer space telescope _ , which is operated by the jet propulsion laboratory , california institute of technology under a contract with nasa . is funded by the hubble fellowship . j.c.c . , j.r.b . , and p.w . were supported by grant ast-1009203 from the national science foundation . d.s.s . gratefully acknowledges support from nsf grant ast-0807444 and the keck fellowship . bowler , b. , liu , m. , dupuy , t. , & cushing , m. 2010 , apj , 723 , 850 burrows , a. , sudarsky , d. , & lunine , j.i . 2003 , apj , 596 , 587 burrows , a. , heng , k. , & nampaisarn , t. 2011 , apj , 736 , 47 chauvin , g. et al . 2005 , a&a , 438 , 29 chiang , e. , kite , e. , kalas , p. , graham , j.r . , & clampin , m. 2009 , apj , 693 , 734 currie , t. et al . 2011 , apj , 729 , 128 espaillat , c. , calvet , n. , dalessio , p. , hernndez , j. , qi , c. , hartmann , l. , furlan , e. , & watson , d.m . 2007 , apj , 670 , 135 fazio , g.g . 2004 , apjs , 154 , 10 fortney , j. , marley , m. , saumon , d. , & lodders , k. 2008 , apj , 678 , 1419 jalali , m.a . & tremaine , s. 2011 , mnras , 421 , 2368 janson , m. , reffert , s. , brandner , w. , henning , t. , lenzen , r. , & hippler , s. 2008 , a&a , 488 , 771 janson , m. , bergfors , c. , goto , m. , brandner , w. , & lafrenire , d. 2010 , apj , 710 , l35 janson , m. et al . 2011 , apj , 728 , 85 kalas , p. , graham , j. , & clampin , m. 2005 , nature , 435 , 1067 kalas , p. et al . 2008 , science , 322 , 1345 kennedy , g.m . & wyatt , m.c . 2011 , mnras , 412 , 2137 kraus , a.l . & ireland , m.j . 2011 , apj , 745 , 5 lafrenire , d. , marois , c. , doyon , r. , nadeau , d. , & artigau , e. 2007 , apj , 660 , 770 lafrenire , d. , marois , c. , doyon , r. , & barman , t. 2009 , apj , 694 , 148 lagrange , a .- m . , et al . 2010 , science , 329 , 57 le bouquin , j .- b . , absil , o. , benisty , m. , massi , f. , mrand , a. , & stefl , s. 2009 , a&a , 498 , 41 marengo , m. , stapelfeldt , k. , werner , m.w . , hora , j.l . , fazio , g.g . , schuster , m.t . , carson , j.c . , & megeath , s.t . 2009 , apj , 700 , 1647 marois , c. , zuckerman , b. , konopacky , q. , macintosh , b. , barman , t. 2010 , nature , 468 , 1080 miller - ricci , e. , meyer , m.r . , seager , s. , & elkins - tanton , l. 2009 , apj 704 , 770 min , m. , kama , m. , dominik , c. , waters , l.b.f.m . 2010 , a&a 509 , 6 quillen , a.c . 2006 , mnras 372 , l14 schuster , m.t . , marengo , m. , & patten , b.m . 2006 , , 6270 , 65 soubiran , c. , le campion , j .- f . , cayrel de strobel , g. , & caillo , a. 2010 , a&a , 515 , 111 spiegel , d.s . & burrows , a. 2011 , apj , 745 , 174 thalmann , c. , et al . 2009 , apj , 707 , l123 thalmann , c. , et al . 2010 , apj , 718 , l87	the nearby a4-type star fomalhaut hosts a debris belt in the form of an eccentric ring , which is thought to be caused by dynamical influence from a giant planet companion . in 2008 , a detection of a point - source inside the inner edge of the ring was reported and was interpreted as a direct image of the planet , named fomalhaut b. the detection was made at @xmath0600800 nm , but no corresponding signatures were found in the near - infrared range , where the bulk emission of such a planet should be expected . here we present deep observations of fomalhaut with _ spitzer_/irac at 4.5 @xmath1 m , using a novel psf subtraction technique based on adi and loci , in order to substantially improve the _ spitzer _ contrast at small separations . the results provide more than an order of magnitude improvement in the upper flux limit of fomalhaut b and exclude the possibility that any flux from a giant planet surface contributes to the observed flux at visible wavelengths . this renders any direct connection between the observed light source and the dynamically inferred giant planet highly unlikely . we discuss several possible interpretations of the total body of observations of the fomalhaut system , and find that the interpretation that best matches the available data for the observed source is scattered light from transient or semi - transient dust cloud .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Consequences in Sentencing for Young Offenders Act''. SEC. 2. FINDINGS AND PURPOSES. (a) Findings.--Congress finds the following: (1) The juvenile justice system in this country is built around an outdated philosophy that places the goal of rehabilitation above community safety concerns. (2) Violent juvenile crime is increasing at a rate that is double that for adults, and few juveniles are held accountable for their offenses. (3) Many juvenile justice programs do not collect data or analyze whether sanctions or treatment programs now in use are effective in reducing recidivism. (4) The Federal Government should encourage the States to pursue new juvenile justice policies that emphasize community safety, individual accountability, work, restitution to victims, parental involvement, and zero-tolerance for repeated criminal acts. (b) Purposes.--The purposes of the Act are as follows: (1) To provide States with an incentive to establish a system of graduated sanctions for juvenile delinquents with sentencing options ranging from restitution and community service to youth correctional facilities to remand to adult court for older violent juvenile offenders. If a juvenile continues to commit offenses, he or she will move up a ladder of increasing consequences. (2) To promote parental involvement and responsibility in the juvenile justice system. (3) To provide incentives for States to develop periodic evaluations of the effectiveness of their juvenile justice systems in keeping communities safe and working to reduce rates of juvenile recidivism. SEC. 3. GRANTS FOR CORRECTIONAL FACILITIES. The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 is amended-- (1) in section 20101(a), by inserting ``adult and juvenile'' before ``correctional facilities'' each place it appears; (2) in section 20103(b)(2), by adding at the end: ``In making allocations under this paragraph, the Attorney General shall give a preference to States that provide assurances to the Attorney General that such States have in effect graduated sanctions for the State's juvenile justice system.''; and (3) in section 20102(b)(2), by striking ``shall transfer'' and all that follows through ``paragraph (1).'' and inserting ``shall-- ``(A) make grants from a portion, determined by the Attorney General, of any funds made available to carry out this section that are not allocated to an eligible State under paragraph (1), to a State or States that provide assurances to the Attorney General that such State or States have in effect graduated sanctions, for the construction, development, expansion, modification, operation, or improvement of juvenile facilities; and ``(B) transfer to the funds to be allocated under section 20103(b)(1) any remainder of the funds so made available but not allocated under paragraph (1) or used for grants under subparagraph (A).'' SEC. 4. OPTIONAL USE OF GRANTS FOR CORRECTIONAL FACILITIES. (a) Use of Grant Money.--A State, or States organized as multi- State compact, may opt to use any Federal grant money allocated to such State or States for adult correctional facilities to construct, develop, expand, modify, operate, or improve youth correctional facilities, such as secure youth correctional facilities, youth academies, juvenile boot camps, and restitution centers, which provide the State with a range of dispositional options and promote reduced recidivism. (b) Eligibility.--To be eligible to opt to use grant money in the manner provided in subsection (a), the State or States shall submit an application to the Attorney General which includes, at a minimum-- (1) assurances that-- (A) the State or States has established or is in the process of establishing a system of graduated sanctions for the State's juvenile justice system in which the State bases dispositions for juveniles on a scale of increasingly severe sanctions for the commission of a repeat offense, particularly if the subsequent offense committed by such juvenile is of similar or greater seriousness or if a court dispositional order for a delinquent act is violated; (B) such dispositions should, to the extent practicable, require the juvenile delinquent to compensate victims for losses and compensates the juvenile justice authorities for supervision costs; (2) assurances that the State or States imposes a sanction on each juvenile adjudicated delinquent; (3) assurances that the State or States requires that a State court concur in allowing a juvenile to be sent to a diversionary program in lieu of juvenile court proceedings; (4) assurances that the State or States has programs that address the need for effective bindover systems or for the prosecution as adults of juveniles, 15 years of age or older, who are charged with a crime of violence as defined in section 16 of title 18, United States Code; (5) assurances that where practicable and appropriate, the State or States requires parents to participate in meeting the dispositional requirements imposed on the juvenile by the court; (6) assurances that the State or States has consulted with any units of local government responsible for youth secure facilities in setting priorities for construction, development, expansion and modification, operation or improvement of juvenile facilities, and to the extent practicable, ensures that the needs of entities currently administering juvenile facilities are addressed; and (7) assurances that the State or States have in place or are putting in place systems to provide objective evaluations of State and local juvenile justice systems to determine such systems' effectiveness in protecting the community, reducing recidivism, and ensuring compliance with dispositions. SEC. 5. DEFINITIONS. Section 20108 of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 is amended by adding at the end the following: ```youth academy' means a residential facility that provides basic education, rehabilitation services, job skills training and apprenticeship programs to young offenders. ```restitution center' means a residential facility with an intensive program of accountability centered activities that provide a needed community service. ```juvenile boot camps' means a residential facility or program based on a military basic training model that includes extensive discipline, physical work, physical exercise, and military drill. ```secure youth correctional facility' means a facility that provides the highest level of security and direct supervision for juvenile offenders. ```youth correctional facility' means any public or private residential facility which-- ``(A) includes construction fixtures de-signed to physically restrict the movements and activities of juveniles held in lawful custody; and ``(B) is used for the placement, after adjudication and disposition, for any juvenile who has been adjusted as having committed on offense, or any juvenile tried and convicted of a crime as an adult. ```sanctions' means a penalty for a delinquent act that ensures accountability and may range from community service and restitution requirements to incarceration in a secure youth correctional facility, and, to the extent practicable, that ensures compensation to victims for losses and compensation to the juvenile justice authorities for supervision costs. ```offense' means an act by a juvenile that would be considered a crime if it were committed by an adult. ```delinquent act' has the same meaning as the term offense. ```graduated sanctions' means that-- ``(A) the State or States has established or is in the process of establishing a system of sanctions for the State's juvenile justice system in which the State bases dispositions for juveniles on a scale of increasingly severe sanctions for the commission of a repeat offense, particularly if the subsequent offense committed by such juvenile is of similar or greater seriousness or if a court dispositional order for a delinquent act is violated; ``(B) such dispositions should, to the extent practicable, require the juvenile delinquent to compensate victims for losses and compensates the juvenile justice authorities for supervision costs; ``(C) the State or States imposes a sanction on each juvenile adjudicated delinquent; ``(D) the State or States requires that a State court concur in allowing a juvenile to be sent to a diversionary program in lieu of juvenile court proceedings; ``(E) the State or States has programs that address the need for effective bindover systems or for the prosecution as adults of juveniles, 15 years of age or older, who are charged with a crime of violence as defined in section 16 of title 18, United States Code; ``(F) where practicable and appropriate, the State or States requires parents to participate in meeting the dispositional requirements imposed on the juvenile by the court; ``(G) the State or States has consulted with any units of local government responsible for youth secure facilities in setting priorities for construction, development, expansion and modification, operation or improvement of juvenile facilities, and to the extent practicable, ensures that the needs of entities currently administering juvenile facilities are addressed; and ``(H) the State or States have in place or are putting in place systems to provide objective evaluations of State and local juvenile justice systems to determine such systems' effectiveness in protecting the community, reducing recidivism, and ensuring compliance with dispositions.'';''.	Consequences in Sentencing for Young Offenders Act - Revises provisions of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 regarding grants for correctional facilities (under the violent offender incarceration and truth in sentencing incentive grant program). Authorizes the Attorney General to make grants to States to construct, develop, expand, modify, operate, or improve adult and juvenile correctional facilities. Directs the Attorney General: (1) in making allocations, to give preference to States that provide assurances that they have in effect graduated sanctions for the State's juvenile justice system; and (2) from a portion of any funds made available under such grant program that are not allocated to an eligible State, to make truth in sentencing incentive grants for the construction, development, expansion, modification, operation, or improvement of juvenile facilities to States that provide assurances to the Attorney General that they have graduated sanctions in effect. Authorizes a State, or States organized as a multi-State compact, to opt to use any Federal grant money allocated for adult correctional facilities to construct, develop, expand, modify, operate, or improve youth correctional facilities which provide the State with a range of dispositional options and promote reduced recidivism. Sets forth eligibility requirements.
as a typical family of strongly - correlated electron materials , transition metal oxides ( tmos ) possess immense novel functionalities that have drawn intensive interest in the fields of fundamental condensed matter physics , materials science , and electronic applications . the signature of tmos is the collective electron behaviors determined by the delicate equilibrium of multiple low energy excitation states or competing ground states that are sensitively influenced by doping , strain induction , or the application of external field . in the tmos with reduced dimensionality , broken symmetry , or spatial confinement , the coupling between different degrees of freedom is normally enhanced and exotic phenomena emerge . a tremendous amount of evidence has shown that thin films , superlattices and heterostructures of tmos display an even richer diversity of remarkable properties that are related , but not identical to the bulk phenomena@xcite . one of the important and intriguing discoveries is the quasi - two - dimensional electron gas ( 2deg ) formed at the interface between srtio@xmath0 and laalo@xmath0 @xcite , which might be the basis of the transformative concept for the new generation of electronic devices . additionally , hwang _ _ found that the formation of 2deg critically depends on the atomic arrangement at the interface it can be formed only if the srtio@xmath0 substrate is terminated by the tio@xmath3 layer , while the interface is insulating when the substrate exposes the sro layer @xcite . therefore the fabrication of artificial oxide heterostructures with desired functionalities must be controllable with atomic precision . among all the techniques for the growth of low - dimensional materials , pulsed laser deposition ( pld ) and oxide molecular beam epitaxy ( ombe ) , developed with the intensive efforts to grow the high - temperature superconductor films over the past two decades , have been demonstrated to be effective for the tailored construction of multilayered oxide films @xcite . besides the capability to achieve the precision of monoatomic layer along the growth direction , it is also promising in tuning the in - plane microscopic structures in atomic scale . single crystalline srtio@xmath0 is widely used as the epitaxial growth substrate for a variety of complex oxide films and heterostructures . by selective chemical etching of the sro layer followed by thermal annealing , atomically well - defined srtio@xmath0(001 ) surface can be achieved @xcite . microscopic studies @xcite showed a series of surface reconstructions c(2@xmath12 ) , ( 2@xmath12 ) , c(4@xmath12 ) , two kinds of c(4@xmath14 ) , ( 4@xmath14 ) , ( @xmath4)-r26.6@xmath5 , and ( @xmath6)-r33.7@xmath5 , depending on the annealing temperatures in vacuum . the sr adatom model consisting of ordered sr adatoms on a tio@xmath7-terminated layer has been proposed based on the first - principles total - energy calculation @xcite . a transmission electron microscopy ( tem ) study showed different surface structures that appear to be exceptionally stable in air @xcite . the stability of the surface phases strongly correlates to the stoichiometry @xcite . different reconstructions or even one - dimensional nanolines can be formed with varied surface chemical concentration ratio of sr to ti or the degree of oxygen deficiency . it has also been revealed that the tio@xmath7 termination is stable and predominantly exposes on the chemically etched srtio@xmath0(001 ) surface , while the epitaxially grown sro layer is unstable and can not cover the surface fully @xcite . along ( 110 ) direction , the srtio@xmath0 single crystal is composed of alternately stacked ( srtio)@xmath8 and ( o@xmath3)@xmath9 atomic layers , which creates a macroscopic dipole perpendicular to the surface @xcite . therefore the surface is inherently unstable . on one hand , this means that manipulating the polarity provides us an additional degree of freedom to tune the properties of the oxide multilayers @xcite . electronic reconstructionat the polar and non - polar oxide interface has been proposed recently @xcite . on the other hand , in order to cancel the surface polarity and thus making the electrostatic energy converged , a polar surface bears high reconstruction instability @xcite . besides several ( 1@xmath11 ) terminations proposed by the _ ab initio _ calculations @xcite , a large family of reconstruction has been observed on srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface . the surface oxygen vacancies can induce new long - range orders that differ from that in the bulk @xcite . brunen and zegenhagen @xcite observed ( 2@xmath15 ) , ( 3@xmath14 ) , ( 4@xmath14 ) , ( 4@xmath17 ) , and ( 6@xmath14 ) reconstructions by scanning tunneling microscopy ( stm ) , low energy electron diffraction ( leed ) , and auger electron spectroscopy ( aes ) measurements and found that the surface sr concentration increases with the elevated annealing temperature . @xcite obtained ( 5@xmath12 ) and c(2@xmath16 ) reconstructed surfaces exhibiting metallic characteristics . recently , m. r. castell _ et al . _ @xcite obtained an ( n@xmath11 ) ( 3@xmath10n@xmath106 ) family of reconstruction at different annealing temperatures . their aes analyses revealed that the ( 3@xmath11 ) and ( 4@xmath11 ) were ti - enriched , while the ( 6@xmath11 ) was sr - enriched . combined with the transmission electron diffraction and density functional theory studies , they proposed a corner - sharing tio@xmath11 tetrahedra model @xcite . our previous studies showed that the thermodynamically stable srtio and o - terminations on the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface can be obtained by ar@xmath12 sputtering followed by annealing in ultra high vacuum ( uhv ) @xcite . in this paper we establish the phase diagram of the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface in a wide scale , covering from the ( 5@xmath11)- to the ( 4@xmath11)-reconstructed surface of srtio termination , then to the ( 2@xmath18)- and finally to the ( 6@xmath18)-reconstructed surface of o termination . the concentration ratio of surface metal cations , [ ti]/[sr ] , increases when the reconstruction evolves between the above phases sequentially as determined by the x - ray photoelectron spectroscopy ( xps ) analyses . these reconstruction phases can be selected by adjusting the sputtering dose or the amount of sr / ti adsorption onto the surface . it is revealed that the thermodynamic stability of the reconstruction phases is determined by [ ti]/[sr ] on the surface , which is influenced by the diffusion of under - coordinated ti induced by sputtering towards the surface upon annealing the as - sputtered sample or directly varied by evaporating sr and ti metals onto the surface . the properties of the surface with different reconstructions are also examined . this paper is organized as follows : after the description of sample preparation and characterization in sec . iii reports how the surface reconstruction and composition are tuned by ar@xmath12 sputtering followed by uhv annealing , as well as by adsorption of sr / ti metals ( also followed by uhv annealing ) that is more direct and easier to control . we are then enabled to establish the phase diagram of the surface in a wide range . in sec . iv , we discuss that the ti diffuses towards the surface upon annealing and is responsible for the selective stabilization of different phases . furthermore , we study the influence of different surface reconstructions on the electronic structures and metal adsorption behaviors . finally the summary is given in sec . the experiments were performed in two separate uhv combined systems . the reconstruction phases and the surface chemical compositions of the sample were characterized in an omicron system equipped with variable temperature stm , leed and xps . in xps measurements , mg _ _ k__@xmath13 radiation and a pass energy of 20 ev were used . the binding energy was calibrated by using the copper metal ( cu 2__p__@xmath14 , energy of 932.9 ev relative to the fermi level ) . in the other system equipped with low - temperature stm and reflective high - energy electron diffraction ( rheed ) , we carried out detailed and systematic imaging with high resolution in the real space . the base pressure of both systems was better than 1@xmath110@xmath15 mbar . ( 110 ) surface with srtio and o terminations coexisting with each other . ( b ) and ( c ) high resolution stm images of the srtio ( 4@xmath14 nm@xmath16 , 1.0 v/200 pa ) and o ( [email protected] nm@xmath16 , 1.2 v/20 pa ) terminations , respectively . the unit cell of the ( 4@xmath11 ) reconstruction is labeled in the inset . ( d ) the line profile along the arrow in ( a ) , indicating an @xmath17@xmath110periodicity of the clusters along [ 1@xmath180 ] . , width=268 ] nd - doped ( 0.7 wt@xmath19 ) srtio@xmath0(110 ) single crystal ( 12 mm@xmath13 mm ) were purchased from hefei kmt company , china . after loaded into the system , the as - received sample was sputtered with ar@xmath12 beam at room temperature ( rt ) followed by annealing in uhv . the energy of the ion beam was varied from 0.5 to 2 kev without any difference detected . the sample was heated by resistively passing a direct current through the crystal and the temperature was measured with an optical pyrometer . the annealing temperature was 1000 @xmath5c for 1 hour unless otherwise specified . the maximum pressure during annealing did not exceed 2@xmath110@xmath20 mbar . ti metal was evaporated by using an electron beam evaporator and sr metal was evaporated with a low temperature effusion cell . the flux of sr and ti was calibrated by monitoring the rheed intensity oscillation during the homoepitaxial growth of srtio@xmath0(110 ) thin films ( 1 ml=4.64@xmath110@xmath21 atoms / cm@xmath16 ) . ( 110 ) treated with different ar@xmath12 sputtering dose followed by annealing . as the sputtering dose increases , the surface evolves from ( a ) the single type of srtio termination to ( b ) the mixed srtio and o terminations , and to ( c ) the single type of o termination . , width=220 ] figure 1 ( a ) shows two kinds of domains coexisting with each other on the surface of srtio@xmath0(110 ) single crystal after ar@xmath12 sputtering and uhv annealing . as shown in fig . 1 ( b ) , one type of the domains consists of periodic stripes along the [ 1@xmath180 ] direction , separated with a dark trench , and each contains two obvious bright rows of periodic dots . the long - range ordering is characterized with the lattice constant of @xmath170.6 nm along [ 1@xmath180 ] and 1.6 nm along [ 001 ] , respectively . such a structure corresponds to the ( 4@xmath11)-reconstructed srtio termination , which has been observed by another group @xcite . there are clusters with uniform size adsorbed on the ( 4@xmath11 ) domain . the distribution of the clusters also exhibits a quasi - long - range ordering they form meandering lines along [ 001 ] direction and are separated by approximate @xmath110periodicity along [ 1@xmath180 ] direction . the nature and the ordering mechanism of these magicclusters are under investigations . [ b ] ( 110 ) surface after sputtering and annealing as determined by xps . , title="fig:",width=268 ] as reported previously @xcite , the height between the ( 4@xmath11 ) and the other domain is about 0.138 nm , equivalent to the interspacing of adjacent srtio and o atomic layers along the [ 110 ] direction . the high - resolution stm image shows periodic protrusions along [ 1@xmath180 ] direction with the interspacing of @xmath17 0.3 nm , as marked by the dots in fig . 1 ( c ) . this is quite close to the value of @xmath23a [ a=0.3905 nm , the lattice constant of srtio@xmath0(110 ) bulk crystal ] that only possibly exists on the o - terminated ( 110 ) surface , consistently indicating that the domain corresponds to the o termination . the detailed structure of the o - terminated surface will be discussed in the following . we are able to tune the termination type on the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface by adjusting the sputtering dose . as the sputtering dose increasing , the areal ratio of the srtio termination to the entire surface ( s@xmath24 ) decreases . the surface with a single type of termination ( either srtio or o ) can be obtained , as shown in fig . 2 ( a ) and ( c ) , respectively . we determine the surface atomic concentration with the analyses of xps spectra following : @xmath25= \frac{i_{m}/\sigma_{m}}{i_{sr}/\sigma_{sr}+i_{ti}/\sigma_{ti}+i_{o}/\sigma_{o}},\ ] ] where m donates sr , ti or o , i is the integrated intensity of the characteristic peak in xps for each element , and @xmath26 is the element sensitivity factor that has been calibrated with vacuum fractured srtio@xmath0(001 ) surface @xcite . as shown in fig . 3 , the surface chemical composition changes with the s@xmath24 on the surface . the nominal composition of the srtio - terminated surface ( s@xmath24=1 ) is srti@xmath27o@xmath28 , while it is srti@xmath29o@xmath30 for the o - terminated surface ( s@xmath24=0 ) . the [ ti]/[sr ] ratio increases from 1.19 to 1.5 monotonically as the surface evolves from srtio to o termination . it also should be noted that the ( 110 ) surface treated with ar@xmath12 sputtering followed by uhv annealing is not oxygen - deficient for either termination , at least not more deficient than the vacuum fractured srtio@xmath0(001 ) surface that has been used for calibration . treated with ar@xmath12 sputtering followed by annealing , the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface is stable against high temperature or oxygen partial pressure @xcite . this indicates that the thermodynamic equilibrium has been established on the surface and the stabilization process of the termination layers is strongly related to the surface chemical composition . therefore by directly evaporating sr and/or ti metals onto the surface , we can change the relative ratio of the termination types . figure 4 shows the stm observations . on the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface with srtio and o terminations coexisting , a submonolayer of sr metal is evaporated . after annealing we obtain the surface with the single type of srtio termination . to further evaporate 0.08 ml ti metal followed by annealing , o - terminated islands are formed . as the dosage of ti increasing , the area of o - terminated domains increases until the surface is fully covered by the single type of o termination . to evaporate sr or ti metal followed by annealing induces the formation of srtio or o termination on the ( 110 ) surface , respectively . it is a reversible process in which the s@xmath31 value is determined by the dosage of sr and ti only , _ i.e. _ , the surface [ ti]/[sr ] as detected by the xps . moreover , adjusting the evaporation dosage of sr or ti metal is practically easier and more precisely , which enables the detailed investigations of the evolution of different surface reconstructions beyond the simple identification of termination . [ t ] 1)-reconstructed srtio termination coexisting with the o termination . ( b ) the single type of srtio termination obtained by evaporating @xmath17 0.35 ml sr onto the surface in ( a ) followed by annealing ( 2.0 v/20 pa ) . ( c ) the surface after depositing @xmath170.08 ml ti onto ( b ) followed by annealing ( 2.0 v/20 pa ) . the arrows indicate the o - terminated islands . , title="fig:",width=211 ] on the srtio termination , we further increase the sr concentration by evaporating a small amount of sr metal onto the ( 4@xmath11 ) monophased surface . new stripes are observed after annealing , as shown in fig . 5 ( a ) . each new stripe contains three bright rows of periodic dots along the [ 1@xmath180 ] direction . there also exist hole - like defects on the center row of the stripe , forming the quasi - ordering of @xmath110along [ 1@xmath180 ] . the domain area of the new stripes enlarges with the sr evaporation dosage increasing until a monophased surface formed with @xmath170.15 ml sr , as shown in fig . 5 ( b ) . the high - resolution stm image shows the new long - range ordering with the lattice constant of @xmath170.6 nm along [ 1@xmath180 ] and @xmath171.95 nm along [ 001 ] , respectively , consistent with the rheed patterns that clearly indicate the ( 5@xmath11 ) reconstruction . there are clusters adsorbed on the ( 5@xmath11 ) surface . comparing to the clusters on the ( 4@xmath11 ) surface , their size and distribution are random and do not relate to the annealing temperature or the cleanliness of the chamber . evaporating ti metal onto the surface enlarges the ( 4@xmath11 ) domain over the ( 5@xmath11 ) . the reversed phase transition from ( 5@xmath11 ) to ( 4@xmath11 ) reconstruction can be realized by evaporating @xmath170.15 ml ti followed by annealing . 1 ) and ( 4@xmath11 ) phases coexisting with each other ( 1.6 v/20 pa ) . the unit cells are labeled in the inset with the rectangles , respectively . ( b ) the monophased ( 5@xmath11 ) surface ( 1.5 v/20 pa ) . ( c ) and ( d ) the rheed patterns of the ( 5@xmath11 ) along [ 001 ] and [ 1@xmath180 ] directions , respectively . the integral diffractions are indicated with the arrows . , width=326 ] as discussed above , ti induces the formation of termination on the surface . by evaporating @xmath170.75 ml ti onto the ( 4@xmath11 ) monophased surface , we tune it to the single type of o termination after annealing . the high - resolution stm image is presented in fig . 6 ( a ) . bright rows along [ 1@xmath180 ] are observed . they slightly pair up along [ 001 ] , resulting in the narrow dark trench between every 2@xmath1stripe . along the [ 1@xmath180 ] direction , each pair of the rows are separated by the dark kinks that are periodically distributed . such that the stm measurements indicate the lattice constant of @xmath170.75 nm along [ 001 ] and @xmath172.3 nm along [ 1@xmath180 ] , respectively . such a long - range order corresponds to the ( 2@xmath18 ) reconstruction in relative to the lattice of o atomic layer , which is clearly visible in the rheed patterns shown in fig . 6 ( b ) and ( c ) . the surface is densely adsorbed by clusters that can be divided into two categories by size . the small clusters are on the top of the paired rows with random distribution . the big clusters are over the trenches between the paired rows , and align to straight lines along [ 001 ] . these clusters seem to be intrinsic for the ( 2@xmath18 ) phase and are responsible for the charge compensation on the polar o - terminated srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface , although the detailed mechanism is not understood yet . 8) surface . two kinds of clusters are labeled with up and down arrows , respectively . the ( 2@xmath18 ) unit cell is labeled on the zoom - in image in the inset . ( b ) and ( c ) the ( 2@xmath18 ) rheed patterns along [ 001 ] and [ 1@xmath180 ] directions , respectively , with the integral diffractions indicated with the arrows . , width=268 ] further increasing the ti dosage on the ( 2@xmath18 ) surface , a structural phase transition to ( 6@xmath18 ) occurs with the dosage of @xmath170.1 ml followed by annealing . comparing to the uniform row pairs in the ( 2@xmath18 ) phase , wide stripes with four protrusions in across appear and are arranged alternatively with the row pairs , as shown in fig . 7 ( a ) . the ( 6@xmath18 ) long - range ordering is clearly shown by the rheed patterns . there are two different kinds of clusters adsorbed on the surface . one is the bean - like cluster adsorbed on top of the 4@xmath1stripe , arranged in a perfect ( 6@xmath18 ) order . the other is the round cluster adsorbed between the 4@xmath1and 2@xmath1stripes with a lower density . it should be noted that in the high - resolution stm image , there are only 7 protrusions in one @xmath18unit cell along [ 1@xmath180 ] either on the 2@xmath1 or 4@xmath1 stripes . the interspacing between two protrusions is uniformly @xmath170.32 nm , showing the 8/7 magiclattice match to the bulk truncated o atomic layer . 8) surface . the unit cell is labeled with the rectangle . ( b ) and ( c ) line profiles along the black and red ( grey ) arrows in ( a ) , respectively . ( d ) and ( e ) the ( 6@xmath18 ) rheed patterns along [ 001 ] and [ 1@xmath180 ] directions , respectively , with the integral diffractions indicated with the arrows . , width=288 ] figure 8 shows the surface after evaporating @xmath170.05 ml sr onto the monophased ( 6@xmath18 ) followed by annealing . some 2@xmath1stripes condensate together forming the ( 2@xmath18 ) domains . the reversible structural phase transition between ( 2@xmath18 ) and ( 6@xmath18 ) can be realized by evaporating @xmath170.1 ml ti or sr metal . 0.05 ml sr onto the ( 6@xmath18 ) followed by annealing . the 4@xmath1and 2@xmath1stripes are indicated with black and blue ( grey ) arrows , respectively . , width=288 ] we establish a clear surface phase diagram in a broad range of chemical concentrations by evaporating sr or ti metals onto the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface followed by annealing . as the ti dosage increases , the surface transforms from the ( 5@xmath11)-reconstructed srtio termination to the ( 4@xmath11 ) , then to the ( 2@xmath18)-reconstructed o termination , and finally to the ( 6@xmath18 ) . reversible phase transitions can be induced by increasing sr dosage . all the surface reconstructions are stable at high temperatures up to 1100 @xmath32c and under oxygen partial pressure from uhv to 1@xmath110@xmath33 mbar . on the surface with mixed phases , the relative ratio of the two types of domains keeps constant as well within the ranges of temperature and oxygen partial pressure , without any other phase developed . therefore it is concluded that thermodynamic equilibrium has been reached on the surface and the stabilization of the observed reconstructions is determined by the relative metal cation concentration , _ i.e. _ , [ ti]/[sr ] . the surface composition can also be varied reversibly by different dose of ar@xmath12 sputtering followed by annealing , resulting in different areal ratio of srtio and o terminations , _ i.e. _ , s@xmath24 ( see fig . 2 and 3 ) . this is also a thermodynamic process determined by [ ti]/[sr ] on the surface . as shown in fig . 9 , both s@xmath24 and [ ti]/[sr ] on the annealed surface get saturated quickly after a few repeated treatment cycles with fixed parameters , unrelated to the initial configuration on the surface . detailed high - resolution stm investigations actually reveal the reversible phase transitions between ( 5@xmath11 ) , ( 4@xmath11 ) , ( 2@xmath18 ) , and ( 6@xmath18 ) by elaborately tuning the sputtering dose . of the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface with repeated cycles of cleaning ( 500 ev - sputtering followed by annealing ) . the statistics are done over 8 stm images ( 500@xmath1500 nm@xmath16 ) for each data point . ( b ) surface concentration ratio [ ti]/[sr ] with different repeated cycles . the sputtering dose is fixed for each series of cleaning cycles , respectively . , width=326 ] ( 110 ) surface determined by xps . ( b ) [ ti]/[sr ] ratio of the as - sputtered and annealed surface , respectively . each data point in ( a ) and ( b ) is the saturated value after repeated cycles of treatment with the fixed sputtering dose , respectively . , width=326 ] 1.65 ev . ( b ) the sr _ 3d _ core - level spectra of the annealed ( lower panel ) and as - sputtered ( upper panel ) surfaces , respectively . , width=326 ] it has been proposed that the oxide polar surfaces can be stabilized by the nonstoichiometry @xcite . the chemical composition of the srtio@xmath0 surface is related to various factors including thermal treatment , sputtering , adsorption , as well as crystalline orientation . for example , it is commonly agreed that sr will be removed preferentially from the srtio@xmath0(001 ) by sputtering , while on the ( 111)-orientated sample ti will be preferentially removed @xcite . in contrast , on the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface in our experiments , we found that the atomic concentration ratio [ ti]/[sr ] is equal to 1 on the as - sputtered surface , and almost keeps constant for different sputtering dose , as shown in fig . 10 ( a ) . no preferential sputtering by ar@xmath12 has been observed within the ion energy range of 0.5 to 2 kev . however , the surface [ ti]/[sr ] ratio increases dramatically after annealing in relative to the as - sputtered sample , and the increment becomes larger monotonically as the sputtering dose increasing , as plotted in fig . 10 ( b ) . it is suggested that ti ( or ti - o species ) tend to diffuse towards the surface upon annealing to establish the thermodynamic equilibrium . similarly , ti - enriched nanostructures or even anatase tio@xmath3 islands have been obtained on the srtio@xmath0(001 ) surfaces by intensive ar@xmath12 sputtering followed by annealing @xcite . 1 ) and ( 6@xmath18 ) surfaces , respectively . the inset zooms in their difference showing the appearance of the ti@xmath34 component on the ( 6@xmath18 ) surface . ( b ) the valence - band spectra of the two reconstructions , respectively . the in - gap states are labeled with the arrow . , width=326 ] in order to get the detailed information of such a picture , we carry out high - resolution xps analyses on the ( 110 ) surface as presented in fig well - defined ti _ 2p _ and sr _ 3d _ core - level spectra are observed on the annealed surface . the ti _ 2p _ spectrum shows the single spin - orbital doublet feature of the ti@xmath8 state as in the bulk crystal of srtio@xmath0 . the sr _ 3d _ spectrum can be fitted with two spin - orbital doublet pairs that originate from the different chemical coordination of sr . the main doublet feature centered at @xmath17133 ev is the characteristic of the perovskite crystal , while the other feature shifting towards the higher energy by @xmath170.9 ev can be attributed to sr - o bond on the surface @xcite . depending on different surface reconstructions , we detect a small change in the fine structure of ti _ 2p _ spectrum only . but dramatic difference is observed in the core - level spectra of both elements in comparison to the as - sputtered surface . without annealing , the two peaks corresponding to the ti _ 2p _ single doublet state show broad shoulders at @xmath17 456.7 ev and 462.5 ev , respectively , indicating the appearance of ti@xmath34 on the as - sputtered surface @xcite . this is consistent with the recent first - principles calculations that have revealed the existence of significant ti antilike defects @xcite . in the sr _ spectrum , the weight of the high - energy doublet feature is higher than that on the annealed surface , consistently showing that the as - sputtered surface is deeply separated into sro and tio@xmath35 chemical coordinations . 1 ) and ( 2@xmath18 ) surfaces evaporated with 0.02 ml sr at room temperature , respectively . the original clusters and the evaporated sr are indicated with black and blue ( grey ) arrows , respectively . ( c ) and ( d ) stm images ( 1.5 v/20 pa ) of the ( 4@xmath11 ) and ( 2@xmath18 ) surfaces evaporated with 0.02 ml ti at rt , respectively . the as - deposited ti are indicated with black arrows . , width=307 ] considering the fact that titanium oxide have lower surface free energy as compared to the srtio@xmath0 @xcite , the under - coordinated ti induced by sputtering is driven to diffuse towards the surface upon annealing . such a process is further assisted by the attractive interaction with the oxygen vacancies in the surface region that could also be induced by ar@xmath12 bombardment @xcite . therefore the established thermodynamic equilibrium can be described as a ti - enriched surface covering the stoichiometric srtio@xmath0 bulk crystal . as the sputtering dose increases , the depth of the affected region increases and consequently the overall amount of ti defects available to diffuse to the surface increases . such an increase can not be detected by xps since the depth of xps signal is much smaller than that of the region affected by sputtering . however , after annealing , the increment of the surface ti concentration will be fully manifested by xps within few top layers . on the other hand , it is commonly agreed that the formation energy and the migration barriers of oxygen vacancies are low in the bulk srtio@xmath0 crystal . therefore the oxygen ions diffuse to the surface upon annealing , keeping the metal cations sufficiently coordinated to reduce the surface energy . more importantly , such a mechanism determines the intrinsic dependence of the surface chemical composition of srtio@xmath0(110 ) on the sputtering dose , offering the tunability of different reconstructions by adjusting the sputtering dose that is equivalent to evaporating sr or ti metal . to further examine the properties of the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface with different reconstructions , the xps core - level and valence - band spectra are carefully compared . figure 12 ( a ) shows the ti _ 2p _ core - level spectra taken from the monophased ( 4@xmath11 ) and ( 6@xmath18 ) surface , respectively . the ( 4@xmath11 ) surface shows mainly the ti@xmath8 characteristic , while the ( 6@xmath18 ) surface also shows the existence of the ti@xmath34 species as revealed by the low - energy shoulder @xcite . this is consistent with the chemical composition analyses that indicates the ti enrichment on the o termination . figure 12 ( b ) compares the valence - band spectra of the ( 4@xmath11)- and ( 6@xmath18)-reconstructed surface . the highest occupied state is determined by linearly extrapolating the onset edge of the signals in the spectra . the corresponding binding energy in relative to the fermi energy ( _ _ e__@xmath36 ) is _ _ e__@xmath36-__e__@xmath37=3.3 ev . as the bandgap of the srtio@xmath0 is _ _ e__@xmath38=3.3 ev @xcite , this value indicates that the _ _ e__@xmath36 is near the minimum of the conduction band . in - gap states arise at @xmath172.0 ev below _ _ e__@xmath36 in the ( 6@xmath18 ) phase , indicating the existence of the ti@xmath34 species @xcite that is consistent with the ti _ 2p _ core - level spectra . the appearance of the in - gap states also suggests that the o - terminated srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface can be stabilized by filling electrons to the new states , in addition to the stoichiometry modification and adsorption of ( charged ) clusters as on the ( 4@xmath11 ) surface that also could be responsible for the charge compensation . since the surface electronic structure is varied with different reconstructions , the initial epitaxial growth behavior is also influenced . figure 13 shows the different adsorption behaviors of sr and ti metals on the ( 4@xmath11)- and ( 2@xmath18)-reconstructed surfaces . with @xmath170.02 ml sr adsorbed onto the ( 4@xmath11 ) phase at rt , there are round protrusions appearing in the stm image , darker and smaller than those original clusters , as shown in fig . 13 ( a ) . by the statistics of the density of the adsorbed clusters , we found that sr adsorbs as isolated single adatoms on top of the 4@xmath1stripes . increasing the sr dosage results in a higher density of the adatoms whose distribution still strictly follows the stripes . the sr atoms adsorbed on the ( 2@xmath18 ) phase aggregate into randomly distributed clusters with nonuniform size . this might be the result of the strong interaction of sr atoms with the ( 2@xmath18)-reconstructed surface due to its high reactivity . however , the adsorption behavior of ti atoms is different from that of sr adatoms . they aggregate into randomly distributed clusters with nonuniform size on the both ( 4@xmath11 ) and ( 2@xmath18 ) reconstructions . we establish a clear phase diagram of the srtio@xmath0(110 ) surface , as shown in fig . 14 . the surface reconstruction phase can be tuned from the ( 5@xmath11)- to ( 4@xmath11)-reconstructed surface of the srtio termination , then to the ( 2@xmath18)- and finally to the ( 6@xmath18)-reconstructed surface of the o termination . all the structural phase transitions are reversibly driven by the change of the [ ti]/[sr ] , which can be tuned by adjusting the sputtering dose or the amount of sr / ti adsorption . these two tuning methods are equivalent because the under - coordinated ti induced by sputtering tend to diffuse towards the surface upon annealing . the electronic states of pure ti@xmath8 valence are detected on the ( 4@xmath11 ) surface . in contrast , they are mixed with ti@xmath34 on the ( 6@xmath18 ) surface . this causes the o termination more active than the ( 4@xmath11)-reconstructed srtio termination , resulting in the different absorption behaviors during the initial epitaxial growth . s. j. may , p. j. ryan , j. l. robertson , j .- w . kim , t. s. santos , e. karapetrova , j. l. zarestky , x. zhai , s. g. e. te velthuis , j. n. eckstein , s. d. bader , and a. bhattacharya , nature mater . * 8 * , 892 ( 2009 ) m. takizawa , y. hotta , t. susaki , y. ishida , h. wadati , y. takata , k. horiba , m. matsunami , s. shin , m. yabashi , k. tamasaku , y. nishino , t. ishikawa , a. fujimori , and h. y. hwang , phys . rev . lett . * 102 * , 236401 ( 2009 ) .	the surface structure of the srtio@xmath0(110 ) polar surface is studied by scanning tunneling microscopy and x - ray photoelectron spectroscopy . monophased reconstructions in ( 5@xmath11 ) , ( 4@xmath11 ) , ( 2@xmath18 ) , and ( 6@xmath18 ) are obtained , respectively , and the evolution between these phases can be tuned reversibly by adjusting the ar@xmath2 sputtering dose or the amount of sr / ti evaporation . upon annealing , the surface reaches the thermodynamic equilibrium that is determined by the surface metal concentration . the different electronic structures and absorption behaviors of the surface with different reconstructions are investigated .
bppv was first described by barany in 1921 , and he attributed the disorder to otolith disease . the clinical diagnosis of this disorder was not well defined until dix and hallpike described the classic positioning which causes a characteristic nystagmus . benign paroxysmal positioning vertigo is a disorder characterized by brief attacks of vertigo , with associated nystagmus , precipitated by certain changes in head position with respect to gravity . the incidence is difficult to estimate because of the benign , typically self - limited course of the disease . it is thought to range from 10.7 per 100,000 to 17.3 per 100,000 population in japan and has been reported as 64 per 100,000 in a population study from minnesota . the mean age at onset is in the fourth and fifth decades , but bppv also may occur in childhood . symptoms occur suddenly and last on the order of seconds but never in excess of a minute . the subjective impression of attack reported by the patient frequently is longer . in most cases of bppv other cited predisposing events include infections and certain surgical procedures , including stapedectomy and insertion of a cochlear implant . schuknecht observed granular deposits on the cupula of the posterior semicircular canal in temporal bone specimens and proposed the this theory provides a basis for understanding the disorder , although more recent work has shown that the disorder is more commonly due to free - floating particles in the semicircular canal ( canalithiasis ) , rather than cupulolithiasis . the suggestion that the mechanism of bppv could result from deflection of the posterior canal cupula by the movement of debris in the posterior canal was revisited by hall and colleagues . the posterior semicircular canal was affected in the majority of cases of bppv ( 93% of cases ) , with 85% being unilateral and 8% affecting the psc on both sides . the bedside dix - hallpike test combined with an appropriate history is key in making the diagnosis . standard electrooculography and the many videonystagmography devices do not record the torsional eye movements associated with bppv . it was noted that the disease could be cured by a chemical labyrinthectomy and eighth nerve section . gacek proposed transection of only the posterior ampullary nerve for relief of bppv , confirming the posterior canal origin . in most patients , however , epley 's canalith repositioning maneuver is adequate treatment , and no surgery is required . first - line therapy for bppv is organized around repositioning maneuvers . for posterior canal bppv , this prospective observational study was conducted among patients attending the department of ent , sharda hospital , school of medical sciences and research , greater noida , for a period of two years from june 2013 to june 2015 . the clinical case patients above 18 years of age with posterior semicircular canal benign positional paroxysmal vertigo were included in this study . informed written consent the patients with cervical spondylosis , ongoing cns disease ( stroke or tia ) , and cardiovascular disease and pregnant women beyond 24 weeks were excluded from this study . 50 study participants with positive positional test were divided into two groups each consisting of 25 patients . one group of 25 patients who received medical therapy with epley 's maneuver were considered as the cases and the other group of 25 patients who received only medical therapy were considered as the controls . the results were classified after treatment with and without the epley maneuver into resolution of vertigo , presence of nonpositional vertigo , partial resolution , and same or worse . the maneuver begins with placement of the head into the dix - hallpike position , to evoke vertigo . the posterior canal on the affected side is in the earth vertical plane with the head in this position . after the initial nystagmus subsides , a 180-degree roll of the head to the position in which the offending ear is up is performed . the maneuver is likely to be successful when nystagmus of the same direction continues to be elicited in each of the new positions . the patients were given concomitantly both the drugs betahistine 16 mg thrice daily and cinnarizine 25 mg twice daily , till the patient had complete resolution of symptoms . we collected baseline information and clinical history and documented the procedures and treatment assigned to the study participants . we followed the patients for one year with review visit at the 1st week , 4 weeks , 3 months , 6 months , and at the end of one year . the followup process was explained to the patients and they were followed up throughout the study period . the identification forms were separated from data collection instruments and kept under lock and key . chi square test was used to test the significance of association in the observed data . the median age of the participants was 55 years and mean age was 53 years with standard deviation of 13 years . the age distribution of patients was comparable between the two groups with no significance in age distribution between the two groups ( p = 0.500 ) , implying that there is no age related factors in the incidence of adverse events . among all participants , 30 participants ( 60% ) were female . gender ratio was comparable between two groups of patients with no significant difference ( table 2 ) . the cases and controls were studied for the associated symptoms which may be variable factor among the two groups influencing the results . 19 ( 38% ) patients had associated symptoms of nausea and vomiting . the incidence of the associated symptoms was comparable among the two groups ( table 3 ) . hypertension and diabetes were found among 18 ( 36% ) participants ( table 4 ) . 28% of cases and 40% of controls had right - sided and 72% of cases and 60% of controls had left - sided bppv ( figure 1 ) . among 25 case patients , 18 ( 72% ) recovered from vertigo immediately after the epley maneuver and 23 ( 92% ) the remaining 2 case patients recovered from vertigo during the second and third follow - up visits , whereas , among 25 control patients , 3 ( 12% ) recovered from vertigo at first followup and 19 ( 76% ) participants recovered from the vertigo at third followup . in dose response analysis , control patients needed 2 more visits than case patients ; chi square for linear trend was 16.82 and it was significant ( p value : 0.00004 ) ( table 5 ) . case patients were 6 times more likely to recover than control patients ( rr : 5.95 , 95% ci : 3.858.78 ) and it is statistically significant ( p < 0.005 ) . the recovery was attributed to epley maneuver among 67% ( 95% ci : 43%81% ) of case patients ( table 6 ) . in regression analysis , preexisting hypertension and diabetes mellitus were confounding the result of epley maneuver which is evidenced by differing stratum odds ratio ( or : 70.5 , adjusted or : 55.4 , 95% ci : 10.5457.5 , p value : < 0.05 ) ( table 7 ) . when controlling the past history , current medications , and associated symptoms , the case patients showed protective cox proportional hazard ratio of 0.18 ( 95% ci : 0.060.4 , p value : 0.0007 ) and it is statistically significant . bppv affects all age groups , though it appears to be more common in the elderly . this condition seems to have a predilection for the older population . in our study , the median age of the participants was 55 years and mean age was 53 years with standard deviation of 13 years correlating with the literature [ 5 , 11 ] . the sex distribution seems to indicate a predilection for women . among all participants , 30 participants ( 60% ) predilection to side was found as left side was affected among 33 ( 66% ) participants . on the other hand some researchers have found that bppv affects predominantly the right labyrinth . diabetes was found to be unusually prevalent in bppv patients in a study done by cohen et al . . in the present study , we found that up to 92% of patients reported benefit after the first follow - up period of one week . in a randomised study , 90% of patients were either improved or cured after a single session with either semont 's or epley maneuver . epley himself reported a success rate of more than 90% following a single treatment session . among 25 case patients , 18 ( 72% ) recovered from vertigo immediately after the epley maneuver and 23 ( 92% ) the remaining 2 case patients recovered from vertigo during second and third follow - up visits , whereas , among 25 control patients , 3 ( 12% ) recovered from vertigo at first followup and 19 ( 76% ) participants recovered from the vertigo at third followup . this clearly indicates the efficacy of epley maneuver in treatment of bppv against the medical therapy . in our study labyrinthine sedatives were used in both case and control groups . in the control group of 25 patients , labyrinthine sedatives were given from the time of first visit to the period when patient is symptom - free . labyrinthine sedatives failed to control the symptoms of bppv even after a prolonged use , although they may provide minimal relief for some patients . a review of the literature revealed the extremely good results of the epley maneuver . in one study , the success rate after 1 week was 63.6% , which increased to 72.7% after 2 weeks . one brazilian study also revealed similar results . a meta - analysis done by prim - espada et al . on the efficacy of epley 's maneuver in benign paroxysmal positional vertigo using a critical review of the medical literature concluded that the patients on whom epley 's maneuver was performed had six and half times more chance of their clinical symptoms improving compared to the control group of patients ( or = 6.52 ; 95% ci , 4.1710.20 ) . the efficacy of epley 's maneuver in the treatment of bppv was assessed in a study of 62 patients conducted by khatri et al . patients were selected based on symptoms of positional vertigo and positive dix - hallpike 's test . at the end of 1 month patients were assessed subjectively by visual analogue scale ( vas ) and objectively by dix - hallpike 's positional test . on vas , 85.7% of patients had complete resolution of symptoms of bppv in both groups . objectively 88.2% did not have positional nystagmus after 1 month in first group , whereas in the second group 86% had complete response at the end of 1 month of therapy . in a study of four hundred and twelve patients with unilateral benign paroxysmal positional vertigo of the posterior semicircular canal , the patients were treated with the semont maneuver and if symptoms did not resolve , successive application of three epley maneuvers plus brandt - daroff exercises was given . the study concluded that , in unilateral benign paroxysmal positional vertigo of the posterior semicircular canal , the above treatment protocol cured 98% of patients . in a prospective study liberatory maneuver - betahistine and brandt - daroff - betahistine groups did significantly better than liberatory maneuver and brandt and daroff groups ( p < 0.05 ) . this study signifies the added efficiency of betahistine with particle repositioning maneuver in treating bppv . however there are very few studies which have compared the medical therapy with the particle repositioning maneuver . bppv is common among the elderly with a sex predilection for women and affecting the left side in majority of patients . epley 's maneuver was more effective than medicines alone not only in treating the condition but also in preventing the recurrence . this maneuver gave recovery among majority of the case patients during their first visit itself . those who were treated with medicines alone needed more number of visits than those who were treated with epley 's maneuver and medicines . epley maneuver can be considered safe and effective procedure to treat benign paroxysmal positional vertigo in majority of patients as a bedside maneuver . after controlling the confounders , epley maneuver with medicines was found more effective than medicines alone .	vertigo and balance disorders are among the most common symptoms encountered in patients who visit ent outpatient department . this is associated with risk of falling and is compounded in elderly persons with other neurologic deficits and chronic medical problems . bppv is the most common cause of peripheral vertigo . bppv is a common vestibular disorder leading to significant morbidity , psychosocial impact , and medical costs . the objective of epley 's maneuver , which is noninvasive , inexpensive , and easily administered , is to move the canaliths out of the canal to the utricle where they no longer affect the canal dynamics . our study aims to analyze the response to epley 's maneuver in a series of patients with posterior canal bppv and compares the results with those treated exclusively by medical management alone . even though many studies have been conducted to prove the efficacy of this maneuver , this study reinforces the validity of epley 's maneuver by comparison with the medical management .
semiconductor spintronics @xcite is a growing field where the fundamentals of spin - polarized transport and spin relaxation processes @xcite in homogeneous and inhomogeneous semiconductors are being developed , and novel electronic device schemes based on active control of spin in semiconductor heterostructures are being proposed . semiconductor spintronic devices now include various spin field - effect transistors , spin valves and spin detectors , and spin bipolar diodes and transistors @xcite . the potential of semiconductor spintronics is underscored by the discoveries of novel magnetic semiconductors ( some of which are reported to remain ferromagnetic even at room temperature @xcite ) , which can be successfully incorporated with nonmagnetic semiconductors to extend the functionality of traditional semiconductor devices . furthermore , it has been demonstrated that the ferromagnetism in semiconductors can be controlled both optically @xcite and electrically @xcite . while some of the interest , stimulated by possible applications , to actively manipulate spin in semiconductors has only emerged in recent years , theoretical understanding for spin manipulation in electronic materials has been steadily accumulated over the last several decades @xcite . often the concepts currently applied to spintronics schemes involving semiconductors have been initially investigated in other materials systems or in simpler nonmagnetic homogeneous semiconductors . crucial for spintronics is spin - charge coupling , where spin degrees of freedom influence transport of charges and , _ vice versa _ , where spin transport depends on nonequilibrium charges . spin - charge coupling appears at a microscopic level , where individual electron dynamics depends on the electron spin orientation , the fact usually expressed by the spin - orbit term in the hamiltonian . another form of spin - charge coupling occurs in statistical ensembles of electrons where spin and charge are coupled because electrons carry both spin and charge and because the pauli principle limits the occupation of the states to single spins . as a result , the transport properties of an electronic system are greatly influenced by spin polarization , since electrons taking part in transport will have different densities of states , fermi velocities , scattering times , etc . , for different spin orientations . the microscopic nature of spin - charge coupling is exemplified by the rashba effect @xcite occurring typically in gaas - like semiconductor interfaces , where the spin - orbit interaction and thus the spin - charge coupling in the system can be effectively controlled by electric fields ( say from a biasing gate @xcite ) . additional studies have examined the rashba spin - orbit interaction in many other systems ( for example , near the interfaces with superconductors @xcite and in interacting quantum wires @xcite ) . the statistical spin - charge coupling was initially suggested by aronov and pikus @xcite . they were the first to realize that electrical spin injection is possible : the charge current flowing from a ferromagnetic electrode can give rise to nonequilibrium spin in the connected paramagnetic metal or semiconductor . the reverse process , that of generating charge current ( or emf in an open circuit ) by nonequilibrium spin , was first described by silsbee @xcite , and later demonstrated experimentally and developed further theoretically by johnson and silsbee @xcite , to serve the purpose of detecting the amount of the injected spin by electrical means . the silsbee - johnson spin - charge coupling was realized as the phenomenon where the presence of nonequilibrium ( ensemble ) spin influences charge properties of the interfacial system . in particular , the silsbee - johnson spin - charge coupling states that an emf appears across the interface of a magnetic and a paramagnetic metal , if nonequilibrium magnetization is maintained ( by external spin injection , for example ) in the paramagnetic metal . rashba s ideas significantly influenced spintronics by giving rise to the concept of the spin field - effect transistor of datta and das @xcite . this proposal stimulated an extensive body of work on spintronic devices and ballistic and mesoscopic spin - polarized transport . our own work on spin - polarized bipolar transport what we call _ bipolar spintronics_drew from the ideas of silsbee and johnson on spin - charge coupling as a statistical notion . the motivation we had in mind was to examine the effect of both electrons and holes on spin - polarized transport in inhomogeneous semiconductors and to propose simple device structures @xcite where possible applications of bipolar spintronics can be studied . one of the devices we consider , the magnetic _ p - n _ junction @xcite , is a generalization of the silsbee - jonhson coupling to nondegenerate semiconductor interfaces ( essentially depletion regions ) . when the minority region of a _ p - n _ junction is magnetic ( that is , it has a significant , on the level of thermal energy , equilibrium spin band splitting of the minority carriers ) and the corresponding majority region is nonmagnetic , electric current will flow through the junction if nonequilibrium spin is maintained at the depletion layer in the nonmagnetic majority side . this is the spin - voltaic effect @xcite in magnetic _ p - n _ junctions , which is also manifest as a giant magnetoresistance of the junction when forward bias is applied . in this paper we first review the silsbee - johnson concept of spin - charge coupling , then introduce the equations for spin - polarized bipolar transport in inhomogeneous magnetic semiconductors , and finally discuss two specific bipolar spintronic schemes : spin - polarized _ p - n _ junctions @xcite and magnetic diodes @xcite . as recently emphasized by rashba , spin emf is a specific manifestation of the general principle that macroscopic ( dissipative ) currents flow in nonequilibrium situations @xcite . since both spin and charge are carried by electrons , nonequilibrium spin can give rise not only to spin current , but to electric current ( or emf , properly called spin emf , in an open circuit ) as well . this is a purely statistical property of the charge and spin carriers , not of the microscopic dynamics of electrons according to a spin - dependent hamiltonian ( of the rashba type , for example ) . spin - dependent dynamics manifests itself here only on the macroscopic level in limiting the amount of the accumulated nonequlibrium spin and in the conversion of the spin energy into thermal energy in the process of spin relaxation . in the silsbee - johnson effect the ferromagnetic and paramagnetic degenerate electron systems ( metals or degenerate semiconductors ) form an electrical and spin contact . generating nonequilibrium spin in the paramagnetic system makes , say , spin up electrons flowing into the ferromagnet , and , vice versa , spin down electrons ( if the spin down subband is not fully occupied ) flow in the opposite direction . these two currents are not in balance , due to the unequal conductances of the two spin species in the ferromagnet , resulting in a charge current . if the two systems were paramagnetic metals , no charge current would flow , since equal currents would flow in both directions . the only flowing current ( this is a nonequilibrium situation after all ) would be spin current . the silsbee - johnson effect is also a spin - valve effect , since the electric current direction can be reversed by reversing either the nonequilbrium spin in the paramagnet or the equilibrium magnetization of the ferromagnet . silsbee and johnson succeeded to measure the induced open circuit spin emf of the order of pico volts , which is equivalent to measuring one spin per 10@xmath0 @xcite . to obtain the value of spin emf , consider for simplicity the ferromagnet to be an ideal stoner ferromagnet with only the minority ( say , spin up ) spin electrons participating in current conduction ( the majority spin subband is fully occupied ) . maintaining nonequilbrium spin in the paramagnet means maintaining a difference in the chemical potentials between the two spins . this difference leads to charge current across the interface , proportional to the difference between the chemical potential of spin up electrons in the paramagnet and in the ferromagnet . in an open circuit , the current does not flow and the chemical potential for spin up electrons will be constant across the interface , which will be achieved by the build up of the spin emf @xmath1 . the spin emf is simply the difference between the chemical potentials when current flows . this difference can be written for degenerate statistics as @xmath2 , where @xmath3 is the bohr magneton , @xmath4 is the nonequilbrium magnetization in the paramagnet , and @xmath5 is the density of states in the paramagnet at the fermi level . considering that for degenerate electron gas paramagnetic susceptibility is @xmath6 , the spin emf becomes @xmath7 for a realistic ferromagnet in which both spin states are conducting the right hand side of eq . [ eq : spinemf ] is multiplied by a suitably defined spin polarization @xcite . the described spin - charge coupling can be used to detect nonequilibrium spins at magnetic - paramagnetic interfaces , and , when combined with spin injection , inquire about spin diffusion lengths in the paramagnet without the need to apply magnetic field . we will show below that a nonlinear ( in bias voltage ) analogue of the spin - charge coupling in degenerate systems exists in nondegenerate semiconductors , where the role of the interface is played by the depletion layer sandwiched between a magnetic and nonmagnetic semiconductor forming a _ p - n _ junction . spin - polarized bipolar transport refers to transport in doped semiconductors where both electrons and holes contribute to charge and spin currents . usefulness of the concept of spin - polarized bipolar transport is demonstrated in microelectronic device schemes , most prominently in novel magnetic _ p - n _ junctions which are formed by inhomogeneously doped both with donors and acceptors , and with magnetic impurities inducing large carrier @xmath8-factors semiconductors . traditional _ junctions @xcite are the basis for all electronic ( and part of optical ) information technology , since they form both bipolar junction transistors and unipolar mosfets , as well as photodiodes , light emitting diodes , and diode lasers . it is a great challenge for spintronics to take advantage of the existing semiconductor technology and extend its capabilities , for example , to build on - single - chip computer logic processors and nonvolatile random access memory . we believe that magnetic diodes may prove fundamental devices also in semiconductor spintronics . nonequilibrium spin can be injected into semiconductors and then be transported by drift and diffusion throughout the sample . the transport is limited by spin relaxation . if , in addition , both electrons and holes form the current , the transport is further limited by carrier ( electron and hole ) recombination . this bipolar transport is particularly important in _ p - n _ junctions , where charge current depends on how fast electrons and holes recombine ( in other words , on how fast the minority , say electron current , is converted to the majority hole current in the @xmath9 region of the junction ) . the presence of nonequilibrium spin either enhances the current by helping building up the minority carrier density , or inhibits the current by reducing the minority carrier density . we will demonstrate this response of charges to nonequilbrium spin in magnetic _ p - n _ junctions in a subsequent chapter . the general drift - diffusion equations for bipolar carrier and spin transport in inhomogeneous magnetic semiconductors were first written in ref . several limiting cases of these equations , for a homogeneous magnetic @xcite and nonmagnetic @xcite semiconductor , have been subsequently investigated . for illustration , consider only electrons to be spin polarized , leaving holes spin unpolarized . denote as @xmath10 , @xmath9 , and @xmath11 electron , hole , and ( electron ) spin densities . electron ( @xmath12 ) and spin ( @xmath13 ) currents are @xcite @xmath14 where @xmath15 is electron diffusivity , @xmath16 is the electric potential ( from the applied bias and built - up internal charges ) , and @xmath17 is the equilibrium spin splitting of the conduction band ( arising from the large electron @xmath8 factor and applied magnetic field ) . the first terms on the right hand sides are the electric drift , the second terms are the magnetic drift , while the last terms represent electron and spin diffusion arising from nonuniform electron and spin densities . in this paper we write the potentials in the units of @xmath18 , where @xmath19 is the boltzmann constant , @xmath20 is temperature , and @xmath21 is proton charge . the drift and diffusion of electrons and spin are limited by electron - hole recombination processes , as well as by spin relaxation processes . this limitation can be expressed by continuity relations , which in a steady state read @xmath22 where @xmath23 is the constant of the electron - hole recombination rate and @xmath24 is the spin relaxation time . the subscript zero denotes the equilibrium values ( when no external bias is applied and spin is in equilibrium ) . spin polarization is denoted here as @xmath25 . together with poisson s equation relating the built - up charge density to electric potential @xmath16 , the above equations for carrier and spin drift and diffusion , and carrier recombination and spin relaxation fully describe the steady state density and current profiles of carriers and spins in inhomogeneous magnetic semiconductors . the equations can not be solved exactly analytically , and one must resort to numerical methods for general cases . we have solved the equations for a few cases of interest , including spin - polarized _ p - n _ junctions @xcite , spin - polarized solar cells @xcite , and magnetic _ p - n _ junctions @xcite . we have also succeeded in solving the equations analytically for the general case of spin - polarized magnetic _ p - n _ junctions at low biases @xcite , the regime in which most devices based on _ p - n _ junctions operate . in the subsequent sections we describe several elementary bipolar spintronic devices , and illustrate their properties using mainly the results of our numerical calculations . the most fundamental bipolar spintronic device is a spin - polarized magnetic _ p - n _ junction . such a device in equilibrium has , in general inhomogeneous , spin splitting of the carrier bands , and the nonequilibrium spin can be externally injected . the equilibrium spin splitting can be caused , for example , by doping the junction inhomogeneously with magnetic impurities and placing the junction in a magnetic field . another possibility is to use ferromagnetic semiconductors ( ferromagnetic at a specific donor or acceptor doping density to achieve inhomogeneity ) . since spin - polarized magnetic _ p - n _ junctions form quite a general group of devices , it is useful to consider particular cases of interest . below we consider spin - polarized nonmagnetic _ p - n _ junctions , which are just ordinary _ p - n _ junctions but with nonequilibrium spin added ( by illumination of circularly polarized light or external spin injection , for example ) and spin - polarized magnetic _ p - n _ junctions in which one of the regions , @xmath9 or @xmath10 , is magnetic in equilibrium , but the equilibrium spin splitting is constant throughout this specific region . fascinating phenomena occur also in _ p - n _ junctions in which the magnetic region itself is magnetically inhomogeneous ( as described in ref . @xcite ) , and where magnetic drift plays active role in determining charge transport . we will not discuss such devices here , due to their added complexity . what all the spin - polarized ( magnetic and nonmagnetic _ p - n _ junctions ) have in common is the interplay between charges and spins , and the fundamental concept which we have formulated , namely the spin injection through the depletion layer . bipolar spintronics is useful only so far as spins can be injected from the majority region into the minority one ( and _ vice versa _ ) through the depletion layer . we will illustrate below how this concept of spin injection is realized in the two cases of nonmagnetic and magnetic spin - polarized _ p - n _ junctions . a spin - polarized _ p - n _ junction is a _ p - n _ junction where spin - polarized current flows as a result of external spin excitation . we have considered the cases where nonequilibrium spin is created by shining circularly polarized light on one of the ends of the junction ( see fig . [ fig:1 ] ) . in all our simulations we keep only electrons spin polarized and the externally injected ( what we call source ) spin was implemented as a boundary condition in the drift - diffusion equations . the fundamental question of whether source spin can be further transported across the depletion layer has positive answer . both spin injection from the @xmath9 region to the @xmath10 region , and vice versa , from the @xmath10 region to the @xmath9 region are very effective . if source spin appears in the @xmath9 region , this means that the minority electrons are spin polarized . since both carrier ( here synonymous for electron ) and spin densities are out of equilibrium if light illuminates the sample in the @xmath9 region , the electrons carrying spin diffuse towards the depletion layer where they are swept by the large built - in field to the @xmath10 side , where they form the majority carriers . in the @xmath10 region the spin can further diffuse away from the depletion layer , or relax by @xmath24 processes . if the light illumination creates @xmath26 electrons per second per unit volume , with spin polarization @xmath27 , the spins at the depletion layer in the @xmath9 side appear with the rate of roughly @xmath28 . considering that all the electrons ( and thus spins ) arriving at the depletion layer are swept to the @xmath10 side , this rate must equal , in a steady state , the rate of spin relaxation and spin diffusion in the @xmath10 side . a typical scale for these rates is @xmath29 . as a result , the nonequilibrium injected spin in the majority region is @xmath30 ( more complete considerations better theory give @xmath31 , where @xmath32 is the effective spin relaxation time in the minority @xmath9 region ) . this is normally larger than the spin in the minority region itself , an effect we called spin amplification @xcite . the descriptive name for the effect is spin pumping of the majority carriers by the minority channel , since it is analogous to spin pumping by circularly polarized light of majority carriers in semiconductors . our numerical calculation demonstrating the effect is given in fig . [ fig:2 ] . one application of a spin - polarized _ p - n _ junction is a spin - polarized solar cell ( fig . [ fig:1 ] ) . if circularly polarized light illuminates the junction close to the depletion layer , nonequilibrium charges and spins can arrive in the layer and be powered by the equilibrium built - in electric field to form a spin - polarized current . this could be useful in generating spin - polarized currents @xcite . another use of spin pumping by the minority carriers is in significantly extending the effective spin diffusion length ( again the effect of the built - in field ) and in making it possible to control , by an applied reverse bias to the junction , the amount of the injected nonequilibrium spin @xcite . the width of a depletion layer changes with the applied bias , which changes the amount of spin arriving in the @xmath9 side at the depletion layer . this significantly affects the amount of injected spin . we called this effect the spin capacitance effect @xcite , since it is an analogue of the voltage to charge relation in capacitors . the question of injected spin across the depletion layer from the majority ( here @xmath10 ) side to the minority one is of equal importance , since diodes operating under forward biases would be able to carry the spin information from one lead to the other across the junction . injecting spin from the majority to the minority side is also important for potential applications of spintronics in bipolar junction transistors @xcite , where two _ p - n _ junctions would operate back - to - back and both spin injection regimes would be needed for injecting spin all the way through the transistor , as well as for amplifying the spin - polarized current from the emitter to the collector . our numerical calculations@xcite demonstrate that spin injection by the majority carriers is very effective . spin polarization does not change significantly upon entering the @xmath9 region . as we have shown analytically @xcite , the _ nonequilibrium _ spin polarization is actually uniform across the depletion layer . so whatever spin - polarization arrives at the depletion layer from the @xmath10 region , it must appear across in the @xmath9 side . a magnetic _ p - n _ junction would typically contain magnetic impurities to amplify its magnetic response . an applied magnetic field would lead to significant ( on the scale of the thermal energy ) spin splitting @xcite of carrier bands in such a junction . here we consider a particular case where only one of the regions is magnetic , and the equilbrium spin splitting is constant within the region ( that is , the spin splitting varies only in the transition region of the junction ) . the fundamental question of spin injection through the depletion layer is more complicated than in nonmagnetic junctions . it would be natural to expect that if , say , the @xmath10 region is magnetic and the junction is under forward bias , spin injection would occur since spin - polarized electrons from the @xmath10 region carry the spin into the minority side , similarly to what happens in ferromagnet - paramagnetic metal spin injection we have demonstrated rather that spin injection in magnetic _ p - n _ junctions can occur only at large biases , beyond the usual region of interest for devices . at small biases , where the junctions show their typical exponential rectification i - v characteristics , spin injection is not possible . the reason is as follows . let there be more spin up than spin down electrons in the @xmath10 region . the current electrons with a particular spin orientation across the depletion layer depends on the number of electrons available for transport and on the barrier height for thermal transport across the junction s depletion layer . this barrier is higher for spin up than for spin down electrons , exactly compensating for the greater density of the former . as a result , spin current will not flow across the depletion layer and spin will not be injected . this is the consequence of the fact that at low biases the depletion layer can be considered to be ( quasi)equilibrium , and only nonequilibrium spin can be injected through the depletion layer . once the bias is increased , nonequilibrium spin accumulates already in the magnetic region , and the spin is then injected thought the depletion layer to the minority nonmagnetic side . the corresponding numerical calculation is shown in fig . [ fig:4 ] , where we also discuss the opposite case of spin injection from the minority magnetic side . there spin injection appears rather as spin extraction , and contains the same physics as large bias spin injection from the magnetic majority side . magnetic _ p - n _ junctions are potentially useful for their nonlinear spin - charge coupling . this coupling appears at low biases if nonequilibrium source spin is introduced into the junction . spin polarization can then be injected through the depletion layer without difficulties . in addition , the nonequilibrium spin significantly affects charge transport across the junctions . consider the case when the minority @xmath9 region is magnetic and the majority @xmath10 region is nonmagnetic , but a source spin is externally injected into the region ( either by illuminating with a circularly polarized light or by a third - terminal spin injection @xcite ) . as the source spin diffuses towards the depletion layer , it will come into contact with the equilibrium magnetization of the minority region . the nonequilibrium spin perturbs the balance between the generation and recombination currents across the depletion layer , leading to a net charge current . remarkably , this current flows even if the external biasing battery is switched off . the current is powered by nonequilbrium spin , in analogy with the current across the ferromagnet - paramagnetic metal in the silsbee - johnson effect . and similarly to the silsbee - johnson effect , the charge current can change its direction by reversing the external magnetic field ( that is , by reversing the equilibrium polarization of the magnetic side ) or by reversing the orientation of the source spin . this is the spin - voltaic and the spin valve effect of magnetic _ p - n _ junctions introduced in refs . @xcite . more important is the effect of source spin on the i - v characteristic of the junction . by applying forward bias , the spin - charge coupling is magnified ( exponentially in ideal junction diodes ) , leading to large giant magnetoresistance of the junction . we illustrate here this effect with the help of our analytic formula derived using the model introduced in ref . the charge current in the junction with nonequilibrium source spin polarization @xmath33 in the @xmath10 side of the depletion layer and the equilibrium spin polarization @xmath34 on the @xmath9 side of the junction is @xmath35,\ ] ] where @xmath36 is the generation current of the diode ( a material constant , which , however , depends on magnetic field through the dependence of the equilibrium minority carrier density on it ) . in fig . [ fig:5 ] we plot the i - v characteristic ( with the current rescaled by @xmath36 ) for a magnetic _ p - n _ junction with @xmath37 , and the source spin polarizations @xmath38 , 0 , and 0.9 . giant magnetoresistance is manifest by changes in the magnitude of the current upon changing the relative sign of @xmath33 and @xmath34 . in the example shown , the change in the current is one order of magnitude , which is a relative change of 1000% . giant magnetoresistance would further increase with the magnitudes of @xmath33 and @xmath34 . we do not see fundamental reasons why such large magnetoresistance changes ( to be compared to typically 30 - 50% in metal - based giant magnetoresistance and 25% in all - semiconductor structures @xcite ) would not be reproduced . we have reviewed the fundamental concepts of spin - charge coupling and of bipolar spintronics . we have formulated spin - polarized bipolar transport in inhomogeneously doped magnetic semiconductors as carrier ( electron and hole ) recombination and spin relaxation limited drift and diffusion , and discussed the solutions both numerical and analytic of these equations for particular cases . the first important case was a nonmagnetic but spin - polarized _ p - n _ junction , with spin introduced into the minority region . we have discussed how the spin can be injected through the depletion layer leading to spin pumping in the majority side and to spin amplification . the other device scheme where our equations can be solved to predict the charge response to nonequilibrium spin is magnetic diode , in which magnetic doping in one of the two regions is inhomogeneous . the diode can serve to inject spin from the magnetic majority region only at large biases where nonequilibrium spin develops first in the magnetic region . the most striking phenomena of the spin - voltaic effects , spin - valve effects , and giant magnetoresistance appear in magnetic _ p - n _ junctions if nonequilibrium spin is externally injected to the majority nonmagnetic region , and the minority region is magnetic . the predicted phenomena ( particularly giant magnetoresistance with possibly more than 1000% efficiency ) should be technologically useful for sensing magnetic fields and , more generally , for injecting , manipulating , and storing spin in spintronic devices .	in spin - polarized bipolar transport both electrons and holes in doped semiconductors contribute to spin - charge coupling . the current conversion between the minority ( as referred to carriers and not spin ) and majority carriers leads to novel spintronic schemes if nonequilibrium spin is present . most striking phenomena occur in inhomogeneously doped magnetic _ p - n _ junctions , where the presence of nonequilibrium spin at the depletion layer leads to the spin - voltaic effect : electric current flows without external bias , powered only by spin . the spin - voltaic effect manifests itself in giant magnetoresistance of magnetic _ p - n _ junctions , where the relative change of the magnitude of electric current upon reversing magnetic field can be more than 1000% . the paper reviews nonmagnetic and magnetic spin - polarized _ p - n _ junctions , formulates the essentials of spin - polarized bipolar transport as carrier recombination and spin relaxation limited drift and diffusion , and discusses specific device schemes of spin - polarized solar cells and magnetic diodes .
cryo - recanalization has attained its place in the management of malignant endobronchial obstruction , both with and without life - threatening obstruction of the airways . it is a cheap and effective method to achieve recanalization of the obstructed airway , and most safe as compared to other costly procedures . typical carcinoid tumors of the lung represent the most well - differentiated and least biologically aggressive type of pulmonary neuroendocrine tumor . they metastasize at a considerably higher rate than do typical carcinoid tumors and , therefore , carry a poor prognosis . we came across such a patient who had histologically proved carcinoid tumor of the lung . we are performing an advanced technique , cryo - recanalization , which has emerged for immediate debulking of exophytic endobronchial tumors . in this technique , the bronchoscopist retracts frozen tumor tissue at the tip of the cryo - probe through a bronchoscope and gradually removes it resulting in recanalization of the airway lumen . this technique is feasible and has many advantages , including its use with flexible bronchoscopes , immediate efficacy , and low risk of complications . a 28-year - old non - smoker , non - diabetic , normotensive male was admitted to the hospital with complaints of cough and breathlessness for last 2 months . breathlessness gradually kept on progressing ; initially it was with strenuous exercise , but now he feels breathless even on climbing stairs . there was no hemoptysis , fever , chest pain , loss of weight or weakness . pulse was - 90/minute , bp - 124/82 mmhg and respiratory rate - 20/minute . on inspection respiratory movements were decreased on the left side of the chest along with reduced chest expansion . on palpation trachea was shifted to left with reduced vocal fremitus over axillary area and breath sounds were absent over left axillary , lower axillary , scapular , infra - scapular , mammary and infra - mammary regions . investigations showed hb - 13.5 g / dl , tlc - 6460/mm , dlc - p61l35e03m01 . x - ray chest pa view done on admission ( 08 - 02 - 2014 ) showed homogenous opacity in the left mid and lower zones with ipsilateral pulling of mediastinum [ figure 1 ] . cect chest was done which showed intraluminal soft tissue density in left main bronchus [ figure 2 ] . x - ray on admission showing left homogenous opacity and pulling of the mediastinum towards the same side ct chest showing intraluminal soft tissue density in lmb ct chest showing well - aerated left lung distal to the obstruction fibreoptic bronchoscopy was performed which showed endobronchial pedunculated growth in left main bronchus , [ figure 4 ] , bronchoscope could not be negotiated beyond the growth . video bronchoscopy guided cryo - biopsy was done for histopathology , which revealed neuroendocrine tumor grade 1 [ figure 5 ] . bronchoscopic view of pedunculated growth in lmb with cryo - probe cryo - biopsy ( hematoxylin and eosin stain , 40 x ) showing sheets of small round cells with uniform nuclei and cytoplasm the video - bronchoscopic guided cryo - recanalization was done under conscious sedation after intubating the patient with 8 french gauge endotracheal tube . flexible cryo - recanalization probe ( 90-cm long , 2.4-mm wide , erbe , medizintechnik gmbh , tubingen , germany ) was inserted through the channel of therapeutic bronchoscope ( olympus , japan ) . the procedures were performed with continuous oxygen flow at 4 l / min and spo2 was maintained between 94 and 96% . the cryoprobe , guided through the working channel of the bronchoscope , was placed inside the tumor ( 1 - 2 cm ) . control of the ice front allowed good assessment of the local extension of tissue freezing . before the ice front reached the healthy bronchial wall , frozen tumor tissue was extracted from its surrounding tissue by pulling strongly on the probe . together with the bronchoscope , the tissue stuck to the tip of the cryoprobe was pulled out of the respiratory tract . frozen tumor tissue was then released from the probe tip by thawing it in a water bath . the procedure was repeated till all of the tumor tissue causing stenosis from exophytic portions of the tumor had been removed . chest roentgenogram was taken , which showed marked improvement and reduction of opacification of the left lower lobe [ figure 6 ] . bronchoscopy was repeated after 3 months , which did not show any re - stenosis . airway obstruction is a common feature of endobronchial tumors , presenting as dyspnea , cough , and hemoptysis . recently , a new technique , cryo - recanalization , has evolved , in which the bronchoscopist freeze - kills the endobronchial tumor mass and keeps on removing the frozen , malignant tissue resulting in a very affordable de - bulking of the tumor and recanalization of the airway lumen . this technique has many advantages , including use of flexible probes , immediate clinical recovery and minimal complications . we performed cryo - recanalization in our patient and achieved excellent patency of the airway and marked improvement and reduction of opacification of the left lung [ figure 6 ] . there is a long list of conditions that are treated by cryosurgery , both benign and malignant , including moles , solar keratoses , warts , hemorrhoids , plantar fasciitis ( jogger 's heel ) and fibromas . , liver cancer , retinoblastoma , prostate cancer , oral cancers , cervical neoplasia and lung cancers . generally , all tumors that can be reached by the cryoprobes during an operation are manageable . although found to be effective , this method of treatment is only appropriate for use against localized disease , and solid tumors larger than 1 cm and tiny , diffuse metastases can not be handled with cryotherapy . in our patient other therapeutic modalities , although have immediate clinical responses ( argon plasma coagulation , laser and electrocautery ) , but are associated with significant complications , including bleeding , fire , airway perforation and re - stenosis . ( 2008 ) have observed that the tissue samples collected during the cryo - recanalization procedure are of high quality and much larger than conventional biopsy samples . reported restenosis rates after cryotherapy range between 24 and 28% occurring within 2 months to 4 years of the procedure . another advantage of cryotherapy is that o2 may not be stopped during the procedure , as is mandated during other modalities . we maintained spo2 between 94 and 96% with o2 flow during the procedure at 4 - 6 l / min . also , large fragments of tissue are removed with a cryoprobe , which , besides achieving an excellent recanalization , also give a better chance to obtain a proper histopathological diagnosis . patients who are not fit for general anesthesia are potential candidates for cryosurgery ; only a small incision through the skin or insertion of the cryoprobe is required to initiate the therapy ; consequently , bleeding , pain and other complications of surgery are minimized . it is less expensive than other modalities and requires shorter recovery time and a shorter hospital stay . also , there is least damage to the nearby healthy tissue and the procedure can be safely repeated . the only disadvantage of cryosurgery is that micro - metastases can be missed with this technique . furthermore , in contrast to laser therapy , with its high - thermal energy release , cryo - recanalization can be performed in patients with coated airway stents . another advantage of cryo is that it does not damage bronchial cartilage because of its lower water content . on histopathological examination , the biopsy showed features of typical carcinoid tumor , that is monotonous sheets of small round cells with uniform nuclei and cytoplasm without pleomorphism [ figure 5 ] . three - fourths of carcinoids are endobronchial and central , and present with post - obstructive pneumonia , hemoptysis , or wheezing , as was seen in the present case . our patient did not have any symptoms or signs of carcinoid syndrome , which is known to occur in less than 2% of cases . on ct , we had observed the distal healthy bronchial tubes before the procedure which helped in the favorable outcome . interventions usually fail when the distal respiratory tract can not be reached or tumor extends and grows back again . in our patient after the recanalization , we could successfully reach beyond the growth and visualize the carina and both of the bronchial bifurcations . we did not encounter any of such complication in our patient . despite its high efficacy , low cost , and relative safety the technique is easy to learn and has a low cost compared with other endobronchial treatment modalities . thus , cryo - recanalization is a safe , cheap and effective method for the immediate management of airway obstruction . recently , this technique has gained its place in the treatment of malignant endobronchial obstructions both with and without critical airway narrowing .	the term cryotherapy comes from the greek cryo ( ) meaning cold , and therapy ( ) meaning cure . cryosurgery is the application of extreme cold to destroy abnormal or diseased tissue . carcinoid tumors of the lung are a fascinating but uncommon group of pulmonary neoplasms . in the past , these tumors were grouped with benign or less aggressive malignant pulmonary tumors , namely bronchial adenomas . recent studies have revealed that carcinoid lung tumors are the most indolent form of a spectrum of bronchopulmonary neuroendocrine tumors that , at its extreme , include small cell carcinoma of the lung as its most malignant member . they commonly present as endobronchial obstructions , and if complete , can be life - threatening and require immediate intervention.[1 ] recently , we have treated a patient of carcinoid tumor of lung who was managed with cryo - recanalization with excellent response .
diabetes mellitus is a systemic disease in which blood glucose levels become chronically , and often severely , elevated either because insulin is not secreted from the pancreatic islet cells ( type 1 diabetes ) , or because the insulin that is secreted is , for a variety of reasons , less than normally efficacious ( type 2 diabetes ) . over years of chronic hyperglycemia , many individuals develop severe damage to different organs and tissues : among others , the kidneys , the peripheral nervous system , the heart and great vessels , and the topic of this discussion , the retina . while treatments to the specific organs that are involved in these complications have been developed , e.g. , laser photocoagulation and intraocular injections of antiangiogenic agents for diabetic complications in the retina , it also follows that systemic treatments for this systemic disease should be beneficial as well . this last statement should be self - evident , but it was heavily debated for many years by investigators who felt that the late complications of diabetes in many organs were genetic , perhaps related in some fashion to the aberrant genes leading to the hyperglycemia of diabetes but independent of the chronic hyperglycemia itself . recent work , in particular a number of randomized , controlled clinical trials reported over the last 25 years , have shown that this hypothesis is untrue as a single , unifying explanation for the pathogenesis of retinopathy and other complications of diabetes , but , as i will explain , neither is it completely irrelevant . this review will discuss the effects of controlling chronic hyperglycemia , as well as other systemic therapies , on the development and progression of diabetic retinopathy . this topic has also been discussed by lingam and wong1 in a recent review in this journal , and i have discussed certain aspects of it in a recently published editorial.2 systemic medical management for diabetic retinopathy can be divided into four categories : this issue was hotly debated for many years , but its rigorous investigation could not be undertaken until the development of methods for home blood glucose monitoring using electronic assays based on glucose oxidase and test devices that retained the results in memory ; and the recognition that nonenzymatic protein glycation produced long - lived glycated molecules whose blood levels averaged systemic blood glucose values for the lifetime of the protein . these include , in particular , glycated hemoglobin , which has an average lifetime of 120 days , and whose blood level , therefore , represents the average blood glucose concentration for that period of time.34 glycated hemoglobin levels are usually expressed as the percentage of total hemoglobin , either as the percentage of total glycated hemoglobin , or as the percentage of its largest fraction , hemoglobin a1c ( usually abbreviated hba1c ; other , lesser , glycated fractions are hba1a and hba1b ) period , the level of hba1c is usually about two percentage points lower than that of total glycated hemoglobin . hba1c levels in nondiabetic humans range between 4% and 6% , and the risk for development of the microvascular complications of diabetes ( retinopathy , nephropathy , and neuropathy ) in controlled clinical trials has been shown to decrease steadily with decreasing hba1c levels.567 a study of over 44,000 individuals from 9 countries,7 which evaluated fasting and 2-h postprandial plasma glucose and hba1c levels found a curvilinear plot of diabetic retinopathy versus hba1c , and suggested a threshold for the diagnosis of diabetes , based on several different statistical criteria , defined by the presence of diabetes - specific retinopathy in this large population as a function of hba1c level . the statistical cutoff point for this diagnosis was determined to be an hba1c threshold of > 6.5% , which is the accepted international standard . threshold is not absolute , however , because individuals with even lower hba1c levels have , on infrequent occasions , been found to have retinopathy , albeit minimal [ figure 1 ] . this patient , who had type 1 diabetes of 30 years duration , maintains a vegetarian diet with excellent blood glucose control . nevertheless , he has minimal diabetic retinopathy ( note arrows ) in both eyes with the use of these techniques for determining objectively blood glucose levels in individual patients , several randomized , controlled clinical trials of the effect of reducing blood glucose levels on the microvascular complications of the disease over time were undertaken in subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.56891011 all of these studies clearly indicated that chronically lowering blood glucose levels reduced the risk of retinopathy . the largest and most prolonged of these , the diabetes control and complications trial ( dcct in the united states and canada ) for type 1 diabetes5 and the united kingdom prospective diabetes study ( ukpds , in the united kingdom ) for type 2 diabetes,6 showed statistically highly significant reductions in the incidence of retinopathy and in its progression by several criteria in patients who were randomized to tight blood glucose control , by comparison with those randomized to the standard blood glucose control group over at least 10 years of study . the differential effect of tight blood glucose control on retinopathy in the treatment and control groups in these studies was slow , requiring approximately 2 1/2 years from trial entry to become evident . control for prevention of diabetic retinopathy in subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes , two other , unexpected results had important implications for the biology of this microvascular disorder . these results were more dramatically shown in studies of type 1 than in those of type 2 diabetes , perhaps because of the greater reduction in hba1c in the type 1 treatment groups than was evident in subjects with type 2 . in two clinical trials,1012 about 10% of individuals with retinopathy at the outset of the study showed transient photographic worsening , primarily the appearance of multiple cotton wool spots , lesions that are usually taken to indicate the presence of ischemia in the retina , a tissue that is the most metabolically active in the body in terms of its requirements for glucose and oxygen as energy sources . the explanation for this early worsening has been the subject of some speculation by several authors , but i believe the explanation that arose from in vitro experiments in my own laboratory seems most reasonable.13 using cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells as models for the high metabolic activity of retinal tissue and their production of vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ) , a stimulus for vasoproliferation , as an indicator of ischemia , we found that vegf production by these cells increased substantially when the oxygen supply in the incubation chamber was reduced . vegf production in this circumstance could be partially reduced when the glucose concentration of the medium was increased . alternatively , in a normoxic environment , reducing the glucose concentration in the medium also increased vegf production , perhaps because this maneuver reduced the cells other major energy source , and therefore also led to an ischemic situation . in a human retina that already has some retinopathy , the vascular disease presumably also reduces the blood supply and the retina has become relatively ischemic , but this ischemic situation is partially redeemed by the chronic hyperglycemia in the tissue . if , however , as a condition of the clinical trial , the available glucose is severely reduced , the result , in this already somewhat ischemic tissue , is the imposition of severe ischemia with the resultant appearance of ischemic lesion , namely , cotton wool spots . the second very important result of the long - term follow - up of the dcct , the epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications ( edic ) , was the finding that in the 10 years following the conclusion of the treatment phase of the dcct , when hba1c values in the original intensive and standard blood glucose control groups had now come together to an intermediate value of ca . tight control group continued to show much slower progression than for those individuals in the standard group.14 this long - term process , that in the dcct / edic outlived the period of tight blood glucose control imposed by the study , has been called metabolic memory.14 the mechanism of metabolic memory is unknown but is the subject of speculation : what long - term metabolic processes can be induced by chronic hyperglycemia but then are reversible by normoglycemia ? possibilities include direct changes in the genome , perhaps by acetylation or methylation ; epigenetic changes,151617 or modification of proteins , such as the formation of advanced glycation endproducts18 that are long - lived and can themselves modify physiologic processes . i would personally speculate that this process , chronic in its onset and its resolution is central to the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy itself . working out this mechanism would , i believe , be an important step to understanding the mechanisms of this disease and its potential reversal . a large number of studies have evaluated the effect of elevated blood pressure on the development and progression of diabetic retinopathy and conversely , the effect of blood pressure reduction on preventing such progression . among the more , notable was the ukpds , which evaluated blood pressure reduction using either an angiotensin - converting enzyme inhibitor or a beta - adrenergic blocker , in conjunction with other drugs as needed to reduce blood pressure , by comparison with controls , who received no antihypertensive medication , in type 2 diabetics.19 most of these patients were hypertensive ( systolic blood pressure more than 150 mm hg ) at the outset of the study . other studies , some with diabetic patients who were normotensive at the outset , showed little or no effect of blood pressure reduction . the action to control cardiovascular risk in diabetes ( accord)-eye study , for example , showed that blood pressure reduction in type 2 diabetic patients had no effect on the development or progression of diabetic retinopathy.2021 a recently published systematic review of clinical trials dealing with blood pressure reduction in individuals with type 1 or type 2 diabetes , whether normotensive or hypertensive at the outset , concluded that there is a modest evidence overall for a benefit of blood pressure reduction on the incidence of diabetic retinopathy over a 45 years trial period , but , in summarizing results from several clinical trials , there is little overall evidence for a beneficial effect on progression.22 a publication several years ago from the early treatment diabetic retinopathy study ( etdrs ) , a clinical trial of argon laser photocoagulation with or without 650 mg / day aspirin treatment for diabetic macular edema and moderate nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy , reported that individuals with macular edema that resolved poorly with the study treatment , and who had extensive macular lipid exudates , had higher blood lipid levels [ figure 2].23 more recently , the accord - eye study2021 and the field study24 found that treatment of type 2 diabetic subjects with fenofibrate significantly reduced progression of diabetic retinopathy . although it had been introduced several years ago as a lipid - lowering preventive therapy for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease , fenofibrate has been little used more recently because of its lack of efficacy for that indication . an explanation for these different results in two different diseases is not apparent , but one possibility is that the lipid - lowering effect of fenofibrate is not the mechanism by which this drug is acting to prevent progression of diabetic retinopathy . for example , diabetes - induced hyperglycemia downregulates the peroxisome proliferator - activated receptor alpha ( ppar ) pathway,25 with adverse effects on retinal vascular cells.26 fenofibrate is an agonist of ppar 2728 which may explain its efficacy in preventing progression of diabetic retinopathy without invoking a specific antilipid role . although the use of systemic drugs , including fenofibrate , is largely not undertaken by ophthalmologists , the apparent special effect of this particular systemic agent on diabetic retinopathy merits a possible re - examination of this custom . i have discussed this point also in a recently published editorial.2 this patient with type 2 diabetes has very extensive lipid deposits in both retinas , with macular edema shown by optical coherence tomography . although he is using a statin drug , his most recent serum triglycerides were 470 mg / dl , and his serum cholesterol was 325 mg / dl . high - density lipoprotein cholesterol was 42 mg / dl , and low - density lipoprotein cholesterol was not calculated the dcct and ukpds showed unequivocally the importance of tight blood glucose control for reducing the incidence and progression of retinopathy and other microvascular complications of diabetes . but such tight control does not entirely prevent these complications . lachin et al.29 have presented extensive statistical analyses from the dcct cohort to show that total glycemic exposure ( hba1c levels over time ) accounts for only about 11% of the reduction in microvascular complications . another paper from the same study30 showed that diabetic first - degree family members of study subjects who progressed to proliferative or severe nonproliferative retinopathy had a risk ratio for such progression of approximately 3.1 compared to diabetic first - degree family members of study subjects who did not develop such severe progression of retinopathy . reported an association between certain human leukocyte ( hla ) antigens and proliferative diabetic retinopathy , with a protective effect of other hla phenotypes . these associations were negated by the presence of > 5 diopters of myopia.31 ( other investigators have also noted the protective effect of myopia on diabetic retinopathy , with increasing degrees of myopia providing steadily increasing protection).32 this strong suggestion of a genetic influence on the development of retinopathy , and similar results suggesting genetic influences on the development of diabetic nephropathy , have led to attempts to find a gene , or genes , responsible for the development of severe retinopathy or nephropathy . one such large - scale , but negative , study in the united states , the familial investigation of the nephropathy in diabetes ( find ) study evaluated a genetic basis for end - stage diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy in four different ethnic groups in the united states : caucasians ( whites ) , african - americans ( blacks ) , hispanic - americans , and native americans ( american indians).33 a second large investigation , the candidate gene association resource found some suggestive loci but again , made no definitive genetic associations.34 similar results were reported from two genome - wide association studies.3536 a paper from the dcct cohort37 reported modifications in the vegf gene in study subjects with proliferative retinopathy compared to individuals who did not develop proliferative disease . however , the number of subjects who developed these severe complications in the dcct cohort was small , and these results have not been repeated in other populations . while there is little doubt that genetic influences are important in the pathogenesis of retinopathy and other complications of diabetes , discovery of these genes , even with the study of large population cohorts and the availability of powerful statistical methods and computational resources , will not be easy . oxidative stress and inflammation are broad - based pathologies that are common to many diseases . a number of investigators have presented evidence that the mechanisms involved in diabetic retinopathy involve inflammatory and/or oxidative insults.38394041 however , attempts to advance these insights by developing preventive therapies or treatments for diabetic retinopathy have to date been unsuccessful . the etdrs tested aspirin , 650 mg / day , as a treatment for established diabetic retinopathy and found that this effort was unsuccessful,42 although it is of interest that this high dose aspirin therapy did not increase the risk for vitreous hemorrhage in these subjects with diabetic retinopathy,43 an important point because many diabetic patients will be using low - dose aspirin as a prevention for coronary , cerebral and lower extremity vascular occlusions . another approach that has been used in small clinical studies with uncertain benefit is treatment with tetracycline antibiotics , agents that may have an antioxidant / anti - inflammatory effect in addition to their efficacy as antibiotics.444546 although the evidence of a beneficial effect from these small studies is unclear , larger clinical trials are probably worthwhile , as would trials using the antioxidant vitamin / zinc combination therapy that was employed in the age - related eye disease study , part 1.47 this issue was hotly debated for many years , but its rigorous investigation could not be undertaken until the development of methods for home blood glucose monitoring using electronic assays based on glucose oxidase and test devices that retained the results in memory ; and the recognition that nonenzymatic protein glycation produced long - lived glycated molecules whose blood levels averaged systemic blood glucose values for the lifetime of the protein . these include , in particular , glycated hemoglobin , which has an average lifetime of 120 days , and whose blood level , therefore , represents the average blood glucose concentration for that period of time.34 glycated hemoglobin levels are usually expressed as the percentage of total hemoglobin , either as the percentage of total glycated hemoglobin , or as the percentage of its largest fraction , hemoglobin a1c ( usually abbreviated hba1c ; other , lesser , glycated fractions are hba1a and hba1b ) period , the level of hba1c is usually about two percentage points lower than that of total glycated hemoglobin . hba1c levels in nondiabetic humans range between 4% and 6% , and the risk for development of the microvascular complications of diabetes ( retinopathy , nephropathy , and neuropathy ) in controlled clinical trials has been shown to decrease steadily with decreasing hba1c levels.567 a study of over 44,000 individuals from 9 countries,7 which evaluated fasting and 2-h postprandial plasma glucose and hba1c levels found a curvilinear plot of diabetic retinopathy versus hba1c , and suggested a threshold for the diagnosis of diabetes , based on several different statistical criteria , defined by the presence of diabetes - specific retinopathy in this large population as a function of hba1c level . the statistical cutoff point for this diagnosis was determined to be an hba1c threshold of > 6.5% , which is the accepted international standard . threshold is not absolute , however , because individuals with even lower hba1c levels have , on infrequent occasions , been found to have retinopathy , albeit minimal [ figure 1 ] . this patient , who had type 1 diabetes of 30 years duration , maintains a vegetarian diet with excellent blood glucose control . nevertheless , he has minimal diabetic retinopathy ( note arrows ) in both eyes with the use of these techniques for determining objectively blood glucose levels in individual patients , several randomized , controlled clinical trials of the effect of reducing blood glucose levels on the microvascular complications of the disease over time were undertaken in subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes.56891011 all of these studies clearly indicated that chronically lowering blood glucose levels reduced the risk of retinopathy . the largest and most prolonged of these , the diabetes control and complications trial ( dcct in the united states and canada ) for type 1 diabetes5 and the united kingdom prospective diabetes study ( ukpds , in the united kingdom ) for type 2 diabetes,6 showed statistically highly significant reductions in the incidence of retinopathy and in its progression by several criteria in patients who were randomized to tight blood glucose control , by comparison with those randomized to the standard blood glucose control group over at least 10 years of study . the differential effect of tight blood glucose control on retinopathy in the treatment and control groups in these studies was slow , requiring approximately 2 1/2 years from trial entry to become evident . control for prevention of diabetic retinopathy in subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes , two other , unexpected results had important implications for the biology of this microvascular disorder . these results were more dramatically shown in studies of type 1 than in those of type 2 diabetes , perhaps because of the greater reduction in hba1c in the type 1 treatment groups than was evident in subjects with type 2 . in two clinical trials,1012 about 10% of individuals with retinopathy at the outset of the study showed transient photographic worsening , primarily the appearance of multiple cotton wool spots , lesions that are usually taken to indicate the presence of ischemia in the retina , a tissue that is the most metabolically active in the body in terms of its requirements for glucose and oxygen as energy sources . the explanation for this early worsening has been the subject of some speculation by several authors , but i believe the explanation that arose from in vitro experiments in my own laboratory seems most reasonable.13 using cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells as models for the high metabolic activity of retinal tissue and their production of vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ) , a stimulus for vasoproliferation , as an indicator of ischemia , we found that vegf production by these cells increased substantially when the oxygen supply in the incubation chamber was reduced . vegf production in this circumstance could be partially reduced when the glucose concentration of the medium was increased . alternatively , in a normoxic environment , reducing the glucose concentration in the medium also increased vegf production , perhaps because this maneuver reduced the cells other major energy source , and therefore also led to an ischemic situation . in a human retina that already has some retinopathy , the vascular disease presumably also reduces the blood supply and the retina has become relatively ischemic , but this ischemic situation is partially redeemed by the chronic hyperglycemia in the tissue . if , however , as a condition of the clinical trial , the available glucose is severely reduced , the result , in this already somewhat ischemic tissue , is the imposition of severe ischemia with the resultant appearance of ischemic lesion , namely , cotton wool spots . the second very important result of the long - term follow - up of the dcct , the epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications ( edic ) , was the finding that in the 10 years following the conclusion of the treatment phase of the dcct , when hba1c values in the original intensive and standard blood glucose control groups had now come together to an intermediate value of ca . tight control group continued to show much slower progression than for those individuals in the standard group.14 this long - term process , that in the dcct / edic outlived the period of tight blood glucose control imposed by the study , has been called metabolic memory.14 the mechanism of metabolic memory is unknown but is the subject of speculation : what long - term metabolic processes can be induced by chronic hyperglycemia but then are reversible by normoglycemia ? possibilities include direct changes in the genome , perhaps by acetylation or methylation ; epigenetic changes,151617 or modification of proteins , such as the formation of advanced glycation endproducts18 that are long - lived and can themselves modify physiologic processes . i would personally speculate that this process , chronic in its onset and its resolution is central to the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy itself . working out this mechanism would , i believe , be an important step to understanding the mechanisms of this disease and its potential reversal . a large number of studies have evaluated the effect of elevated blood pressure on the development and progression of diabetic retinopathy and conversely , the effect of blood pressure reduction on preventing such progression . among the more , notable was the ukpds , which evaluated blood pressure reduction using either an angiotensin - converting enzyme inhibitor or a beta - adrenergic blocker , in conjunction with other drugs as needed to reduce blood pressure , by comparison with controls , who received no antihypertensive medication , in type 2 diabetics.19 most of these patients were hypertensive ( systolic blood pressure more than 150 mm hg ) at the outset of the study . other studies , some with diabetic patients who were normotensive at the outset , showed little or no effect of blood pressure reduction . the action to control cardiovascular risk in diabetes ( accord)-eye study , for example , showed that blood pressure reduction in type 2 diabetic patients had no effect on the development or progression of diabetic retinopathy.2021 a recently published systematic review of clinical trials dealing with blood pressure reduction in individuals with type 1 or type 2 diabetes , whether normotensive or hypertensive at the outset , concluded that there is a modest evidence overall for a benefit of blood pressure reduction on the incidence of diabetic retinopathy over a 45 years trial period , but , in summarizing results from several clinical trials , there is little overall evidence for a beneficial effect on progression.22 a publication several years ago from the early treatment diabetic retinopathy study ( etdrs ) , a clinical trial of argon laser photocoagulation with or without 650 mg / day aspirin treatment for diabetic macular edema and moderate nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy , reported that individuals with macular edema that resolved poorly with the study treatment , and who had extensive macular lipid exudates , had higher blood lipid levels [ figure 2].23 more recently , the accord - eye study2021 and the field study24 found that treatment of type 2 diabetic subjects with fenofibrate significantly reduced progression of diabetic retinopathy . although it had been introduced several years ago as a lipid - lowering preventive therapy for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease , fenofibrate has been little used more recently because of its lack of efficacy for that indication . an explanation for these different results in two different diseases is not apparent , but one possibility is that the lipid - lowering effect of fenofibrate is not the mechanism by which this drug is acting to prevent progression of diabetic retinopathy . for example , diabetes - induced hyperglycemia downregulates the peroxisome proliferator - activated receptor alpha ( ppar ) pathway,25 with adverse effects on retinal vascular cells.26 fenofibrate is an agonist of ppar 2728 which may explain its efficacy in preventing progression of diabetic retinopathy without invoking a specific antilipid role . although the use of systemic drugs , including fenofibrate , is largely not undertaken by ophthalmologists , the apparent special effect of this particular systemic agent on diabetic retinopathy merits a possible re - examination of this custom . i have discussed this point also in a recently published editorial.2 this patient with type 2 diabetes has very extensive lipid deposits in both retinas , with macular edema shown by optical coherence tomography . although he is using a statin drug , his most recent serum triglycerides were 470 mg / dl , and his serum cholesterol was 325 mg / dl . high - density lipoprotein cholesterol was 42 mg / dl , and low - density lipoprotein cholesterol was not calculated the dcct and ukpds showed unequivocally the importance of tight blood glucose control for reducing the incidence and progression of retinopathy and other microvascular complications of diabetes . lachin et al.29 have presented extensive statistical analyses from the dcct cohort to show that total glycemic exposure ( hba1c levels over time ) accounts for only about 11% of the reduction in microvascular complications . another paper from the same study30 showed that diabetic first - degree family members of study subjects who progressed to proliferative or severe nonproliferative retinopathy had a risk ratio for such progression of approximately 3.1 compared to diabetic first - degree family members of study subjects who did not develop such severe progression of retinopathy . reported an association between certain human leukocyte ( hla ) antigens and proliferative diabetic retinopathy , with a protective effect of other hla phenotypes . these associations were negated by the presence of > 5 diopters of myopia.31 ( other investigators have also noted the protective effect of myopia on diabetic retinopathy , with increasing degrees of myopia providing steadily increasing protection).32 this strong suggestion of a genetic influence on the development of retinopathy , and similar results suggesting genetic influences on the development of diabetic nephropathy , have led to attempts to find a gene , or genes , responsible for the development of severe retinopathy or nephropathy . one such large - scale , but negative , study in the united states , the familial investigation of the nephropathy in diabetes ( find ) study evaluated a genetic basis for end - stage diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy in four different ethnic groups in the united states : caucasians ( whites ) , african - americans ( blacks ) , hispanic - americans , and native americans ( american indians).33 a second large investigation , the candidate gene association resource found some suggestive loci but again , made no definitive genetic associations.34 similar results were reported from two genome - wide association studies.3536 a paper from the dcct cohort37 reported modifications in the vegf gene in study subjects with proliferative retinopathy compared to individuals who did not develop proliferative disease . however , the number of subjects who developed these severe complications in the dcct cohort was small , and these results have not been repeated in other populations . while there is little doubt that genetic influences are important in the pathogenesis of retinopathy and other complications of diabetes , discovery of these genes , even with the study of large population cohorts and the availability of powerful statistical methods and computational resources , will not be easy . oxidative stress and inflammation are broad - based pathologies that are common to many diseases . a number of investigators have presented evidence that the mechanisms involved in diabetic retinopathy involve inflammatory and/or oxidative insults.38394041 however , attempts to advance these insights by developing preventive therapies or treatments for diabetic retinopathy have to date been unsuccessful . the etdrs tested aspirin , 650 mg / day , as a treatment for established diabetic retinopathy and found that this effort was unsuccessful,42 although it is of interest that this high dose aspirin therapy did not increase the risk for vitreous hemorrhage in these subjects with diabetic retinopathy,43 an important point because many diabetic patients will be using low - dose aspirin as a prevention for coronary , cerebral and lower extremity vascular occlusions . another approach that has been used in small clinical studies with uncertain benefit is treatment with tetracycline antibiotics , agents that may have an antioxidant / anti - inflammatory effect in addition to their efficacy as antibiotics.444546 although the evidence of a beneficial effect from these small studies is unclear , larger clinical trials are probably worthwhile , as would trials using the antioxidant vitamin / zinc combination therapy that was employed in the age - related eye disease study , part 1.47	diabetic retinopathy , an oculardisease , is governed by systemic as well as local ocular factors . these include primarily chronic levels of blood glucose . individuals with chronically elevated blood glucose levels have substantially more , and more severe , retinopathy than those with lower blood glucose levels . the relationship of blood glucose to retinopathy is continuous , with no threshold although individuals with hemoglobin a1c levels ( a measure of chronic glycemia ) < 6.5% , generally develop little or no retinopathy . blood pressure levels have been claimed to influence retinopathy development and progression , but multiple controlled clinical trials of antihypertensive agents in diabetic subjects have produced only weak evidence of benefit from blood pressure lowering on the incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy . elevated blood lipids seem to play a role in the progression of retinopathy , and two trials of fenofibrate , a lipid - lowering agent that has not proved effective in preventing cardiovascular disease , have shown benefit in preventing retinopathy progression . the mechanism of this effect may not , however , be directly related to the reduction in blood lipids . finally , there is strong , but only circumstantial , evidence for a genetic or epigenetic influence on the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy . despite the power of large - scale epidemiologic studies and modern molecular biological and computational techniques , the gene or genes , which predispose or protect against the development and progression of diabetic retinopathy remain elusive .
in 2005 , three years after the first h.e.s.s . 12 m telescope was commissioned and one year after the fourth was installed , the decision was taken by french and german agencies to build a fifth instrument . this new imaging atmospheric cherenkov telescope was mainly designed to obtain an energy threshold of @xmath1 , increasing the sensitivity of the array towards low energies @xcite . in order to achieve this goal , a new fast , high sensitivity and low dead - time 2048 pixel camera was designed to equip the focal plane of a parabolic tessellated mirror of @xmath0 . with this new telescope , the h.e.s.s . project was entering its second phase . the goal of the h.e.s.s . telescopes is to record and analyze the short and faint cherenkov light flash created by very high energy gamma - rays when they interact with the atmosphere and produce an extensive electromagnetic shower @xcite . this technique , used by several experiments around the world , has allowed the detection and characterization of more than a hundred galactic and extragalactic objects so far @xcite . most of the high energy gamma - ray sources studied by h.e.s.s . , as well as the hadronic background , have spectra which can be parameterized with a power - law in the range between tens of gev and tev energies . this implies that lowering the energy threshold from hundreds of gev to tens of gev requires the data acquisition chain to be able to handle much higher trigger rates . the dead - time has also to be reduced . the camera of the fifth h.e.s.s . telescope ( simply called `` ct5 '' in the following ) is a complete new design allowing to meet these challenging constraints : the dead time was lowered to @xmath2 and the trigger rate . ] can reach @xmath3 . since it was designed several years after the first four h.e.s.s . cameras ( in the following , the first four telescopes of h.e.s.s . will be referred to as `` ct14 '' ) @xcite , the new camera benefits from the latest progress in electronics integration : fpgas and fifo buffers are used extensively and dedicated asics were specifically designed for ct5 . the paper is divided in two parts . this first part gives a complete description of the ct5 camera . the main improvements as compared to the ct14 technology will be pointed out when relevant . the second part of the paper , to appear later , will deal with the performance of the camera in its nominal working configuration on - site in namibia . the present part is organized as follows . in [ sec : conespm ] , the light guides , photomultiplier tubes and very front - end electronics are described . [ sec : elec ] deals with the electronics , giving details on the front - end and the trigger as well as on the safety , slow control and monitoring ( [ sec : slc ] ) . the mechanics of the camera are discussed in [ sec : meca ] , the calibration instrumentation in [ sec : calib ] and embedded software in [ sec : soft ] . comes from the new coating used for ct5 cones.,width=336 ] the photomultiplier tube ( pmt ) which was chosen for ct5 is photonis xp-29600 . this pmt is a minor update of the xp-2960 used for ct14 : the length of the pmt was reduced to decrease the ringing of the anode signal and the average quantum efficiency was improved from 25% to 30% . the main characteristics of these pmts are cited in table [ tab : h1h2comp ] . each pmt is soldered on a circular base where the resistive divider is located . this base itself is connected to a board where the high voltage ( hv ) is obtained using a cockcroft - walton generator . the high voltage can be set between 0 and @xmath4 with a @xmath5 resolution . to protect the pmt from high light levels ( bright stars , shooting stars ) , the current ( noted hvi in the following ) drawn by the pmt is monitored and the high voltage is turned off by the board itself when the current exceeds @xmath6 , independently of the slow control and safety management system . the circular base and the hv generation board have been designed and produced by the iseg company . 2500 pmts were tested for use in the ct5 camera , including spares . the tests included gain calibration , measurement of the linearity and of after - pulse rate , as well as photo - cathode uniformity . each pmt is equipped with a `` winston cone '' light guide @xcite to minimize dead - space between the pmt sensitive areas and to cut down on albedo light ( not coming from the mirror ) . the use of winston cones in vhe gamma - ray imaging astronomy was introduced in 1994 @xcite , and is currently used by all imaging cherenkov cameras . each winston cone guides photons which impinge on it with an angle below its `` cut - off '' angle ( defined by its geometry ) towards the pmt entry window after on average a single reflection , while reflecting back the photons above this cut - off angle . for a cut - off angle set to be close to the arrival direction of photons coming from the edge of the mirror , this provides almost complete protection from albedo light from the night - sky or from light sources and diffusive reflections from the ground . for ct5 , the cut - off angle used for the winston cones is about @xmath7 . the same physical size of pmt is used as in the first cameras , which combined with the similar @xmath8 , allows an identical winston cone design to be used , for which details can be found in @xcite . this incidentally gives a similar night - sky background ( nsb ) rate per pixel in ct5 as in the first four telescopes ( on average @xmath9100mhz of nsb photo - electrons ) , so the pmts can operate at the same gain . the cones are assembled from injection moulded polycarbonate half - cones with aluminization and mgf@xmath10 protection , and have a hexagonal symmetry around their axis , to minimize the dead - space between the cones . the winston cone entry aperture ( at the mirror - facing side ) of @xmath11 flat - to - flat on each hexagon defines the pixel field of view ( fov ) of @xmath12 ( compared to @xmath13 for the first cameras ) . the wall thickness of the cone entry is @xmath14 , to minimize the dead area in the focal plane . in order to reduce their cost and to improve their performance reproducibility , they were produced by an industrial process optimised for this production at the company . in order to validate the light guide design and to measure each cone after the mass production , the automatic test bench used for the winston cones of the first cameras was re - used . measurements of the cut - off angle and of the absolute optical transmission are made with a diffusive source covering the same angular aperture as the ct5 mirror as seen from the camera . 2669 cones have been measured following the production . [ fig : lctrans ] shows their average absolute optical transmission as a function of the wavelength , defined as the ratio of the amount of light detected by a photo - sensor to that entering the winston cones . while the transmission is about the same for ct14 and ct5 cones above @xmath15 , it has been improved by 15% below that wavelength in the range detectable by the pmt . this difference is due to the new coating used for ct5 winston cones and should result in an improvement of the global optical efficiency of the telescope by a few percent . as the winston cone geometry is strictly identical that used in ct14 , the measured transmission for ct5 as a function of the angle of incidence is identical to that of ct14 ( see figure 13 of @xcite ) the front - end of the camera is modular , made - up of 128 identical electronics modules ( hereafter called _ drawers _ , fig . [ fig : photodrawer ] ) inserted in the camera from the front so that they can easily be replaced . each drawer carries 16 pmts ( for a total of 2048 pixels ) and three electronics boards : two boards for data acquisition ( level 0 trigger ( l0 ) , amplification , sampling , conversion of pmt signals ) and one board for slow control . the drawers can receive and send data through dedicated communication buses , using a token - passing mechanism . one bus ( parallel , @xmath16 ) is devoted to data transfer and the other to slow control messages ( serial , @xmath17 ) . there are 16 data buses of 8 drawers each , and 8 slow control buses of 16 drawers each . at the rear of the camera , three compact pci ( cpci ) crates are used for data management , trigger , safety and slow control . each of these tasks is managed by a cpu , except for data management for which two cpus are used to optimize data transfer and sustain the required trigger rate of @xmath3 . other equipment include five power supplies , a gps receiver used for time stamping , a terminal server used to access the consoles of the cpus for maintenance as well as the gps serial interface . all the cpus , the power supplies and the terminal server are connected to each other and to the computers on the ground through a gigabit ethernet switch . while normally located in the focal plane during observations , the camera can be unloaded from the telescope and moved inside a shelter during full - moon period or for maintenance and calibration operations . a dedicated , fully - automatic loading / unloading system was designed for this purpose . as a consequence , the number of connections going from the camera to the ground has been minimized to a single @xmath18 power cable , 3 optical fibres for data transfer and trigger , and a compressed air tube . electrical and optical links are grouped in a single connector . the front - end electronics consists of three boards in each drawer ( figure [ fig : drawer ] ) . two boards ( analogue memory boards , `` analo '' ) are used to process the signals from the pmts ( 8 pmts per board ) and one board ( slow control board , `` slow '' ) is used for the control and monitoring of the two analo boards connected to it . the sam chip is a two - channel analogue memory , based on switched capacitors , that is used as a buffer , in which the photomultiplier tube signal is sampled and stored while waiting for a decision from the fixed - latency trigger electronics . this chip , described in more detail in @xcite , has been specially designed for ct5 to overcome the main limitations of the ars chip @xcite equipping the cameras of the first h.e.s.s . sam can operate with sampling frequencies in the range from 0.5 to @xmath19 ( giga - samples per second ) with a dynamic range exceeding 11 bits . this high signal over noise ratio is obtained thanks to a full differential architecture rejecting the pick - up noise coming from the digital activity inside the chip and on the front - end boards . the chip memory depth has been extended from 128 to 256 cells to be compatible with trigger latencies higher than @xmath20 for a @xmath21 sampling frequency . the chip analogue bandwidth , increased from @xmath22 to @xmath23 , is fast enough to avoid the widening of the fast pulses from the photodetectors . it allows for use of short integration windows to calculate the pulse s charge , minimizing the effect of the night sky background ( nsb ) . an spi slow - control link permits to program many parameters and to access to the various modes of operation of the chip . for each event , only few samples , corresponding to a region of interest within a window located at a fixed time ( programmable using a slow - control parameter ) with respect to the trigger , are read out . the consecutive samples from the two channels are multiplexed in parallel toward an external 10 msps 12-bit 2-channel external adc for digitization . for a 16-sample event , the readout time is only @xmath24 , instead of @xmath25 with the ars chip . this major improvement allows the camera dead time to be decreased below 1% for a typical trigger rate of @xmath3 . because of its very good and stable cell - to - cell uniformity of pedestal and gain , the sam chip only requires a very simple calibration . this operation consists of equalizing 32 dc values using on - chip spi digital to analogue converters to cancel offsets due to the matrix chip structure . once this operation has been performed , it remains valid ( less than 10% change of noise ) for a few days and for temperature variations within a range of @xmath26 , with the digitized sam output data being directly usable for online processing by the fpga of the analogue memory board , without additional correction . a batch of 6000 sam chips has been produced using a @xmath27 cmos process from ams . each chip has been tested using a fully - automated procedure to ensure its functionality and compatibility with ct5 requirements . this procedure includes power consumption , baseline and noise measurements but also tests performed using input pulses simulating the photomultiplier response such as signal shape , linearity , jitter and crosstalk characterizations . the on - chip time delay between the trigger and the signal paths defining the timing precision for the beginning of the region - of - interest was also extracted . the uniformity of this parameter is better than @xmath28 over the whole batch . all the parameters extracted during the tests were recorded in a database for further chip sorting and analysis . to guarantee its stability , the test bench was monitored over the 6 months of tests by retesting a set of reference chips every day . fewer than 10% of the chips were found to be out of specifications . the negative pulse from a pmt is amplified ( or attenuated ) with three different gains : a gain @xmath29 ( high gain ) used for low energy events ( typically under 400 p.e . ) and to measure the single p.e . response for pmt calibration , a gain @xmath30 ( low gain ) used for high energy events ( up to 5000 p.e . ) and a gain @xmath31 , used for the trigger signal generation . in addition , the signal is inverted in high gain and low gain channels . high - gain and low - gain signals ( fig . [ fig : display]a , [ fig : display]b ) are stored into two 256-cell analogue memories ( within the sam chip , [ subsubsec : sam ] ) , acting as circular buffers . each cell corresponds to a @xmath28 sample of the signal . if no trigger occurs , the analogue memory content is overwritten as new data are recorded . if a trigger occurs , the buffering is stopped and a given number of cells in the memory is read and digitized . this number is programmable and defines the width of the readout window , which depends only on the pmt pulse width and nsb . for all h.e.s.s . cameras , it is set to 16 cells , corresponding to @xmath32 . the digitization is done by a 12 bit , @xmath33 adc and the output digital is in the range @xmath342048 ( decimal ) . ] . in order to use the full dynamic range of the adc , the digitized signal ( positive pulse ) is shifted towards negative values , fig . [ fig : display]a and fig . [ fig : display]b . ] . the 12 bits , corresponding to one @xmath28 sample of the pmt signal , are then sent to a @xmath35 first - in first - out ( fifo ) chip . this buffer allows to store new events ( to a maximum of 64 ) while waiting for a l2 decision signal ( _ l2 accept _ or _ l2 reject _ , [ subsec : trigger ] ) and is therefore extremely important to reduce the overall dead - time . each analo board has a fpga chip performing several operations . first , it is used to control the sam chips . in particular , it stops the buffering and starts the digitization when a l1 trigger occurs . after digitization , the data are stored in the fifo buffers . second , the fpga also controls the readout of the fifos and processes their content when a l2 trigger happens . from the 16 signals provided by the pmts ( 8 pmts @xmath36 2 gains ) , the fpga builds the data blocks in the mode specified during the configuration of the camera . two modes can be used : the `` sample mode '' , for which the fpga sends all the samples for each pmt for the two gains , and the `` charge mode '' , for which the fpga integrates the pulse and sends the total charge , as an adc count coded on 16 bits , for the two gains . in addition , the fpga computes the time of the maximum of the pulse ( @xmath37 , fig . [ fig : display]c ) with respect to the l1a trigger time and the time spent by the signal over a given absolute threshold ( tot , for _ time over threshold _ , fig . [ fig : display]d ) . [ fig : spe ] shows the charge distribution obtained through the high gain channel when a pmt receives an amount of light which results in the occasional emission of one single photo - electron ( spe ) . following @xcite and according to what was done previously in h.e.s.s . @xcite , the distribution is fitted with a sum of gaussian curves with poisson - distributed relative weights to extract the mean of the gaussian corresponding to the spe relative to the position of the pedestal ( noted @xmath38 ) , the standard deviation of the pedestal ( @xmath39 ) and the standard deviation of the spe ( @xmath40 ) . the pedestal variation that can be seen in the figure is mainly due to the pmt and the amplifier and has a standard deviation of 10 adc counts ( @xmath41 ) . the sam and the adc contribute only marginally with a noise standard deviation of @xmath42 and @xmath43 respectively . and @xmath40 ) , and the separation between the two peaks ( @xmath38).,width=336 ] the slow control board ( slow ) is used to control all the parameters of the drawer and to encapsulate these parameters for their transmission in the data pipeline . some quantities are obtained directly by the slow board ( e.g. , the temperature , hv and hvi . ] for each pixel ) and some others through the fpga located on each analo board ( e.g. , the l0 trigger threshold , the trigger rate for each pixel , @xmath37 and tot values for each pixel ) . as in the first four cameras , each pixel can provide a level 0 ( l0 ) trigger and the readout of the whole camera is triggered by a level 1 ( l1 ) decision if several pixels are triggered in a contiguous sector of the focal plane . for the fifth camera , an additional level of triggering was introduced , a level 2 ( or l2 ) topological trigger . the l2 trigger is used to reduce the data rate and select gamma - like events . during regular data taking , the camera uses the l1 trigger with l2 activated or not , while during calibration runs such as single photo - electron runs , the trigger can be provided by an external source , or generated by the software . given the fact the fifth telescope has a lower threshold and a higher event rate than the others , it triggers alone most of the time75% of the events . ] . the cameras of the five telescopes are connected to the central trigger of the array @xcite through optical fibres . the central trigger hardware , located in the control - room building , receives trigger signals from the five cameras and provides an event number to the cameras triggered in coincidence . in the case of ct5 , the central trigger also informs the camera if it has triggered alone ( monoscopic event ) or in coincidence with another telescope ( stereoscopic event ) . this information is used by the l2 trigger . the l0 trigger is produced on each analo board ( fig . [ fig : trigger ] ) . the trigger signal for each pixel is compared to a given threshold @xmath44 by a comparator . the threshold ( expressed in p.e . ) is programmable and the same value is set for all the pixels . the outputs of the eight comparators of a analo board ( one per pixel ) are summed and sent to dedicated boards in the trigger crate . it is possible to enable or disable a pixel so that it participates in the trigger decision or not . a pixel is disabled when the hvi exceeds @xmath45 . this value is reached typically when a star of magnitude 78 enters its field of view . the value of @xmath44 is set so as to minimize the influence of the nsb on the trigger rate . to determine @xmath44 , the pmts are illuminated with a continuous white light , which represents the nsb . for h.e.s.s . , the nsb rate seen by one pixel can vary from @xmath46 to @xmath47 ( p.e . ) depending on the region of the sky observed , for an average of @xmath48 . [ fig : afterpulse ] shows the evolution of the l0 trigger rate as a function of the l0 threshold . two contributions can be seen : below 5 p.e . the nsb dominates , and above this charge the pmt after - pulses dominate . the l0 threshold is set just below the break of the curve . the present setting is @xmath49 . for the next - level trigger ( l1 ) , the drawers are grouped in sectors ( fig . [ fig : sectors ] , fig . [ fig : display]e ) . a sector is a group of 64 contiguous pmts , with a vertical and horizontal overlap of 16 and 32 pixels respectively . the l1 trigger is obtained when a sector has at least @xmath50 pixels satisfying the l0 condition . @xmath50 is currently set to 3.5 . the trigger decision is issued by a signal called l1a ( _ l1 accept _ ) in the following . when a l1a occurs , the data stored in sam memories are read out , digitized , and buffered in the fifos . at this point , the sam chips are available for a new event . therefore , the use of fifo buffers in the front - end pipeline allows to release the l1 trigger just 7 to @xmath51 after the l1a . this is a major improvement as compared to the value of @xmath52 measured on the ct14 cameras , for which no buffering is used . during the readout of sams , other triggers can happen , but the camera is not read - out and a `` busy '' state is transmitted to the central trigger . this information is used to calculate the dead - time of the whole array . the parameters @xmath44 and @xmath50 are stored in a database and loaded in drawer fpgas when the camera is configured at the beginning of each night . different values can be used depending on nsb conditions . as already mentioned , monoscopic events ( i.e. , events triggered by ct5 only ) constitute a large fraction of the l1a rate of the ct5 telescope . among the latter , only very few are gamma events , so the purpose of the l2 trigger @xcite is to reject as much as possible of the residual nsb and of the hadronic background . the 2048 camera pixel signals go through the l0 comparators and a second comparator with threshold @xmath53 . the comparator outputs are shaped and stored in a delay - line buffer implemented within a dedicated pre - l2 asic in order to compensate the l1 trigger latency . when a l1a occurs , a ternary image giving the list of pixels above @xmath54 and @xmath44 , resynchronized with respect to the l1a signal , is transmitted to the l2 trigger system ( fig . [ fig : display]f ) . the l2 behaviour depends on the type of the event : monoscopic or stereoscopic . this information is provided by the central trigger . in the case of monoscopic events , the ternary pixel map transmitted to the l2 trigger is processed by a real - time implementation of the l2 selection algorithm based on the detection of clusters of active pixels , and the computation of first and second order hillas moments @xcite to identify gamma - like or hadron - like images . in the first case , a signal l2a ( _ l2 accept _ ) is generated , which triggers the read - out of the fifos for the whole camera . otherwise , an l2r signal ( _ l2 reject _ ) is issued to reject the current event : the event is dumped from the fifos and discarded , and the l2 system is ready to process a new l1a event . in the case of stereoscopic events , the l2 trigger skips the selection algorithm and generates a l2a signal . in other words , a l2a is generated for all events triggering more than one telescope . when a l2a occurs for an event , all the data corresponding to that event are read from the drawer fifos , for all pixels . this operation is performed by the fpgas and requires @xmath55 in total . the readout is done in parallel for the sixteen data buses . then , all data are sent to fifos located in the data management crate . this second level of buffers is used to store the data blocks until they are merged to form the full event and sent to a farm of computers located in the control - room building , for further processing @xcite . the overall dead - time of @xmath2 quoted in table [ tab : h1h2comp ] includes the time to release the trigger plus the time interval necessary for the central trigger to send the event number and event type ( monoscopic or stereoscopic ) . the safety and slow control system monitors the camera environment parameters ( temperature , level of ambient light ) and the status of different camera sub - devices such as the position of the lids , the position of the mylar plate ( see [ sec : meca ] and [ sec : calib ] ) , etc . it also controls the fans and allows to enable or disable the opening / closing of the lids , the pmt high voltage and the camera power supplies . the outputs of the positioning leds ( [ sec : calib ] ) , seen by a ccd camera located on the dish , can be controlled individually . these outputs are used to measure the camera position precisely . in addition , the system includes safety functions that protect the camera in case a failure in critical components is detected . for this purpose , the system is able to take fast , standalone decisions . for example , the system can make an emergency stop of the pmt power supply , or prohibit the opening of the camera lids if the safety conditions are not fulfilled . this main logic is implemented in a fpga hosted in a cpci crate placed at the rear of the camera . due to the high number of required interfaces and connections , the safety and slow control system is implemented in several boards . one board is dedicated to the main logic , the cpci interface with the cpu crate and the photo - diode reading . a second board drives the positioning leds . three others are dedicated to the fan control and the last one to the camera temperature monitoring . even though the safety and slow control hardware logic is located inside the camera and interfaces directly with the different devices , the system is piloted remotely from the h.e.s.s . array data acquisition system @xcite through a cpu board . thus , the slow control can be configured with different levels of safety . in addition , all monitored data or the standalone decisions taken locally can be reported . as soon as the camera is powered , the safety system is active . the mechanics of the ct5 camera relies on the same general concepts successfully applied in the previous cameras . because of the much larger size of this camera relative to those of ct14 , slight adjustments of the camera concept have been made and the experience gained in building the ct14 cameras allowed us to improve the mechanical design in some respects . the requirements of the ct5 camera are given in table [ tab : h1h2comp ] , with a special care on the minimization of the shadowing by the camera , improved reliability of the electronics cooling and improved accuracy of the pixel location . the camera is attached to the telescope quadrupod such that its distance to the dish can be remotely controlled to adjust the image plane to focus on the shower maximum ( [ subsec : autofocus ] ) . it can also be unloaded and loaded remotely by a trolley system to allow it to be parked into a shelter for maintenance and protection . as a consequence , the camera does not need to be fully waterproof . the fully equipped camera has a total weight of 3 tonnes , which corresponds to the weight budget allowed by the design of the mechanical structure of the telescope . and its outside diameter with a partial coverage is @xmath56 . for comparison , the lighter grey area in the centre corresponds to the ct14 camera layout ( same physical scale).,width=336 ] the heart of the detection system of the camera is located close to the focal plane ( fig . [ fig : camerafront ] ) and hosts the photo - detection system composed of 2048 pixels arranged as shown in fig . [ fig : fp ] and consisting of the winston cones , the pmts ( [ sec : conespm ] ) , and their associated electronics , i.e. , the front - end boards ( [ subsec : fe ] ) . the pmts and the front - end boards are embedded into a modular mechanics structure called a _ drawer _ [ fig : photodrawer ] ) . they can be manually extracted from the camera front , which requires to unscrew just two screws . this system , very similar to the drawer concept used for ct14 , brings a high modularity for the assembly , the integration , the use of interchangeable drawers and the maintainability . the power and electronics connections with the rest of the camera are made via three connectors placed on the rear of the drawers . these connections impose that the drawers must be positioned with an accuracy better than @xmath57 . to form the focal plane and to insure a good electrical connection when the drawers are inserted from the front , the drawers are placed into the central part of the mechanics , called the `` sandwich '' ( fig . [ fig : sand ] ) . it is made of two thin aluminium sheets ( @xmath58 ) assembled from 146 aluminium profiles ( with a length of @xmath59 ) , developed specifically for this camera . with this system , the drawers location within the focal plane has an accuracy of @xmath60 . by design , this sandwich s second function is to provide mechanical stiffness to the whole camera . the management of all the interfaces ( mechanical , electrical , optical ) was thus an important aspect during the design process . the system of winston cones is placed in front of the sandwich and drawers . they are held and placed within the telescope optical focal plane by a large aluminium plate ( @xmath61 ) , on which the winston cones are clipped with plastic washers . as the cone localisation determines the astrometric accuracy of the pixels and the optical transmission between them and the pmts , this aluminium plate is machined with a high accuracy such that the winston cones are localised at @xmath62 on it ( or 0.01 arcsec ) . its distance to the drawers ( @xmath63 ) is finely controlled by screws distributed over the whole surface of the plate and limiting the effect of its gravity deformation . these accuracy values have been measured by a company specialised in metrology . the instrumentation of the focal plane and all the camera equipment and services are integrated into the camera body ( fig . [ fig : explodedview ] ) . this is a skeleton of thin aluminium profiles , whose shape has been specially designed for the project . the profiles are welded together to avoid any ageing . a company specialised in producing and integrating large and complex aluminium pieces assembled these profiles to the required accuracy , reaching a measured @xmath64 of the external dimension of the camera body . the camera envelope , made with thin aluminium plates , is riveted on this skeleton . the plates provide a thermal isolation from the direct sun - light power . this envelope integrates also a system for cooling , as described in [ subsec : cooling ] . this skeleton holds also all the internal equipment , the sandwich with its 128 drawers , the two 19-inch electronics racks carrying electronics boards and services such as the power supplies , and the front , lateral and rear lids . it should be noted that front lids have several functions . first , they protect the focal plane from the outside environment and second , they hold calibration instrumentation ( [ sec : calib ] ) . they are motorized by pneumatic pistons and controlled either manually or remotely by the camera slow control system ( [ sec : slc ] ) . the pressurized air is generated by an on - ground air compressor and is brought to the camera by pneumatic tubes fixed on the telescope structure . three air - tanks are used along the path to create buffer volumes for safety . the choice of a pressurized air system fully managed by pneumatic logic has been driven by the need to be able to close the camera lids automatically in case of a general power failure . finally , the skeleton supports the two large mechanics parts making the interface to the telescope quadrupod structure ( [ subsec : autofocus ] ) . during the design process , finite element simulations ( fem using the ansys module within the catia software @xcite ) have been carried out by modelling mechanics pieces as hollow components . this allowed to optimise the design with a focus on the ratio of stiffness to weight and to achieve a rigid and accurate body . this process led us to choose components made of aluminium profiles welded together , despite the fact that only a few companies have the technology and the know - how to produce such large objects . the main camera dimensions are summarized in table [ tab : h1h2comp ] . the electronics components dissipate about @xmath65 of thermal power inside the camera . for proper operation and extended lifetime of the electronics , this heat must be evacuated so that the temperature of the camera is kept as stable as possible during data taking . as for the ct14 cameras , the cooling is obtained by convection and by forced - air flows . fresh filtered air is injected inside the camera by large fans located on the camera envelope and protected from rain by lightweight hoods . this fresh air is convected to the rear of the sandwich . for each drawer , two fans blow the air towards the electronic boards . then the warm air is drawn by large fans that blow it out of the camera . the speed of the different groups of fans can be changed under slow control , depending on atmospheric conditions . this ventilation system , despite its simplicity , allows to efficiently cool the fe electronics and the instrumentation located into the racks at the rear of the camera . the nominal distance between the position of the camera and the centre of the mirror is @xmath66 , which corresponds to the focal length of the telescope . however , as the atmospheric showers develop at a finite altitude between @xmath67 and @xmath68 , the position of the camera can be adjusted to optimize the trigger rate and angular resolution depending on observation conditions ( in particular the zenith angle ) @xcite . the change in position is done thanks to a system which can move the camera along the optical axis of the telescope . this focusing system has been designed to operate in the sometimes harsh environmental conditions of the namibian site . its main technical specifications are given in table [ tablefocus ] . .[tablefocus ] main requirements of the focusing system . [ cols=">,^ " , ] the mechanical design of the focus system aims at two main functionalities : * install and lock the camera into the telescope quadrupod structure with an accuracy of @xmath69 . as mentioned earlier , the camera can be loaded or unloaded from the telescope for maintenance or calibration purposes . the camera is locked and unlocked in the focal plane by using a pneumatic system composed of four toggle fasteners and four jacks ( fig . [ fig : autofocaus ] ) . * adjust the position of the camera along the optical axis , within the camera support mast structures . the focusing system is made of two components , one is fixed to the telescope structure while the other can move in order to allow the translation of the camera . this motion is driven by two ball screws and two brushless motors which guarantee a speed of @xmath70 and a position accuracy of @xmath71 . the camera can be moved by @xmath72 . the data acquisition software controls the camera position during the focusing process . while the translation has started , this process has to be guaranteed until the end of the programmed movement , even in case of an unexpected stop ( e.g. , due to a power cut ) . the system is controlled through a programmable logic controller architecture composed of two cpus , two field - buses and two specific variators used to react to power cuts and to manage synchronized operations of the two motors . the first estimations , obtained through simulations , have shown that adjusting the focus height to the altitude of the shower maximum allows an increase of 510% of the trigger rate and a 10% improvement on the angular resolution at low energies ( @xmath73 ) , without any alteration of the performances at higher energies . to be able to properly analyze and interpret the data produced by the camera , it is necessary to be able to monitor the gain of each channel , the uniformity of the pmt responses , and the exact position of the camera in the focal plane . the conversion factor between adc channels and charges is monitored by illuminating the camera such that each pmt s photo - cathode emits a single p.e . ( spe ) , on average . this calibration can be done either with the camera in the shelter or outside when the camera is in the focal plane . in the first case , a pulser is used to generate flashes of blue light ( @xmath74 ) at the required intensity and rate , and the light illuminates the pmts directly through a diffuser . the same pulser is used to trigger the camera via the external trigger input . when the camera is in the focal plane , it is necessary to filter out the light from the nsb . for this , mylar sheets are placed in front of the winston cones , providing an attenuation of light intensity by a factor @xmath75 . as a consequence , to illuminate the pmts at a spe level , the intensity of the calibration light source , located at the centre of the telescope dish , has to be far greater than the intensity of the source in the shelter . the mylar sheets ( fig . [ fig : camerafront ] ) are held by two large aluminium plates that can either be in contact with the cone plate during spe runs , or kept attached to the front lids by the use of small pneumatic clamps during normal observations . when in the focal plane , the camera is triggered by an additional pmt , not covered by the mylar plate , located on the top of the focal plane . when the flasher illuminates this calibration pmt , it delivers a signal that , shaped and delayed , is used as a trigger signal . the calibration light source is used to provide either spe pulses or flat fielding patterns , used for pixel inter - calibration . a @xmath76 pulsed laser ( @xmath77 ) is installed in a stainless steel container mounted at the centre of the telescope dish . this container is under constant overpressure to avoid environmental pollution . the repetition rate of the flashes is software selectable and set at @xmath78 by default . a holographic filter expands the beam to a flat distribution over the camera fov . a number of neutral density filters , mounted in front of the laser on a motorized filter wheel , are used to vary the intensity of the light output . a dedicated processor board is mounted inside the camera housing and ensures control functions and communications with the daq . the role of this board is to control the laser , the filter wheel , as well as the delay and the threshold applied to the calibration pmt signal to deliver a proper external trigger signal to the camera . for pixel inter - calibration ( the _ flat fielding _ ) , the camera is illuminated directly by the laser ( i.e. , the mylar plates are on the opened front lids ) at an intensity of @xmath9200 p.e . the non - uniformity of the light intensity does not exceed 12% ( standard deviation ) . the charge seen by each pmt is analyzed off - line and correction coefficients are applied to each pixel to compensate for collection and quantum efficiency inhomogeneities . it is necessary to have the exact position of the camera in the focal plane in order to build an accurate model of the pointing and optical system for use during the data analysis @xcite . this has a direct effect on the point spread function of the instrument . 16 red leds ( @xmath79 ) , with intensity controlled individually by the slow control system ( [ sec : slc ] ) , are accurately fixed on the winston cone plate , and are monitored during observations with a dedicated ccd camera located at the centre of the dish . in that case , the camera lids are opened . when taking measurements for the pointing correction model and for the main mirror facets alignment , the camera front lids are closed and used as a screen to project the images of stars . in that case , the light from the leds passes through the lids via specific holes which , in other circumstances , are closed by movable covers remotely controlled by pneumatic actuators . from the software viewpoint , the ct5 camera functionally consists of an array of 2048 photomultipliers which take the digital images , and which are serviced by various equipment such as power supplies , front - end electronics , triggering apparatus , gauges , fans , actuators , etc . the control of the whole apparatus must be done remotely through a graphical user interface running on a control computer , and the different types of data generated during a run must be sent back to a central farm of analysis computers . the embedded software of the ct5 camera interfaces between the camera hardware and the array control room , to which it is connected via a gigabit ethernet link . it addresses the following : programming and monitoring the various hardware parameters ( `` slow - control '' ) , acquisition of the shower image data , acquisition of the trigger data , and real - time on - board control of the camera security . each of these points is handled by dedicated branches comprising a cpci crate , a processor board , miscellaneous proprietary interface boards and buses . as seen by the software , a branch is a server application running on the branch processor ( under a standard linux system with posix real - time extensions ) and servicing requests sent by the camera controller software as a client . the server of the slow - control branch is particular because , besides being in charge of controlling the hardware parameters , it is used as a gateway for communications between the control computer and the three other servers . each server is organized as a multi - thread process . the scheduling policy of the different threads is set so as to ensure the deterministic behaviour needed for real time applications . in such a scheduling policy , the running thread keeps running indefinitely until either it voluntarily relinquishes the control of the processor or until it is pre - empted by a thread of greater priority . in each server , one thread listens to an ethernet socket in order to read the commands sent by the controller and a variable number of other threads execute the requested tasks . the thread listening to ethernet is given the highest priority of execution . the command and control server has three principal tasks to execute periodically ( in addition to several transitory on - request ones ) : read the gps time and distribute it to the data and trigger branch servers , so that they can remain correctly synchronized ; monitor the front - end electronics voltage , current and temperature , and shut down the power supplies if anything goes wrong ; ensure that the on / off status of each photo - multiplier is properly managed throughout the run , according both to the predicted movement of the stars through the detector and to any transient or accidental event that may occur during the programmed observation ( e.g. , shooting stars ) . the server dedicated to image data acquisition has only one important task to do : read quickly the data from the drawers and send them as formatted blocks to the farm of analysis processors via a 1 gbits / s ethernet link . in order to avoid overloading the data receiver , several nodes are used and a switch of the receiving node is made every 4 seconds . to be able to sustain high acquisition rates ( more than 6 khz ) , the server is currently distributed over two separate processors operating alternatively , one reading the data while the other is writing them . this way , constant data reading can be maintained whatever happens on the receiver side . this is a crucial feature to avoid the loss of data coherency that may happen if data overflow occurs at the front - end level . synchronization of the two processes is carried out through a set of customized `` test - and - set '' devices implemented on the proprietary interface board . the server can automatically reconfigure itself to execute on a single processor if necessary . this is possible , however , only if the acquisition rate is relatively low ( less than 2 khz ) and if the network is sufficiently stable . the server dedicated to the acquisition of the `` trigger '' data is similar in functionality to the data acquisition server but it is structured differently because it always has to run on a single processor . besides the thread listening to the ethernet socket , it is composed of two threads instead of one . one low - priority thread reads and formats the data from the trigger front - end boards ( hereafter called the `` reading thread '' ) and the other ( the `` sending thread '' ) sends them with higher priority , packed into multi - events bunches , to the farm of processors . as writing to the socket is done in synchronous mode , it may happen that the sending thread gets stuck while waiting for the end of a data transfer . in that case the reading thread simply goes on reading without trying any longer to transfer the data . this allows to guarantee the events integrity , even when the trigger rate is very high . besides its main function of data transfer , the server also executes miscellaneous on - request transitory tasks related to the management of the trigger set - up . regarding calibration , the embedded software ( running on dedicated cards : one controlling the source unit and the other the trigger unit ) has also to implement the interfaces between the calibration hardware on the one hand and the daq processes on the other hand , in order to program and monitor the various hardware parameters . the most important requirement of the ct5 camera is to be able to handle a trigger rate of several khz without any data corruption , i.e. , a factor of ten higher than the previous h.e.s.s . cameras . this goal was achieved through a complete re - design of the electronics and of the acquisition pipeline . in particular , the dead - time was reduced significantly using new analogue memories , introducing fifo buffers at several stages of the acquisition chain and optimizing the data transfers . the ct5 camera brings a lot of improvements , not only for the main acquisition electronics . ct5 is the first cherenkov telescope in the world to actively move the focal plane in order to adjust to the depth of the shower development in the atmosphere . the camera can be also unloaded from the telescope focal plane to protect it from the weather conditions or for maintenance operations . many of these features could be considered seriously for a future project like the c.t.a . array @xcite . the ct5 camera was delivered on site in namibia in spring 2012 . since then , the new telescope was fully integrated in the h.e.s.s . array and data are being accumulated to fully understand the camera response , the efficiency of the trigger decisions and the acquisition system performance . this testing phase consists of taking calibration runs ( flat field runs , pedestal runs , spe runs ) as well as regular observation runs on selected `` benchmark '' targets . the results of this operating period will be described and discussed in the second part of this paper . we would like to acknowledge the support of our host institutions . we also want to thank the whole h.e.s.s . collaboration for its support , and the referees , who helped us a lot improving the quality of the draft . m. punch , proc . `` towards a network of atmospheric cherenkov detectors vii '' , ed . b. degrange , g. fontaine , ecole polytechnique , 2005 . m. holler , et al . 33rd icrc ( rio de janeiro ) , 2013 . t. weekes , aip conference proceedings 1085 ( 2008 ) 3 . j. a. hinton & w. hofmann , annual review of astronomy and astrophysics 47 ( 2009 ) 523 . http://tevcat.in2p3.fr m. punch , proc . 27th icrc ( hamburg ) , 2001 . p. vincent , proc . 28th icrc ( tsukuba ) , 2003 . f. aharonian et al . ( h.e.s.s . collaboration ) , astroparticle physics 22 ( 2004 ) 109 . r. winston & w. t. welford , `` high collection for nonimaging optics '' , academic press ( 1989 ) . m. punch , proc . `` towards a major atmospheric cerenkov detector iii '' , ed . t. kifune . tokyo , japan , universal academy press , 1994 . k. bernlhr et al . , astroparticle physics 20 ( 2003 ) 111 . e. delagnes , et al . , nuclear instruments and methods a 567 ( 2006 ) 21 . e. ballamy et al . , nuclear instruments and methods a 339 ( 1994 ) 468 . a. wright , nuclear instruments and methods a 579 ( 2007 ) , 967 . d. lachartre & f. feinstein , nuclear instruments and methods a 442 ( 2000 ) 99 . s. funk , et al . , astroparticle physics 22 ( 2004 ) 285 . a. m. hillas , proc . 19th icrc ( la jolla ) , 1985 . y. moudden , et al . , astroparticle physics 34 ( 2011 ) 568 . y. moudden , et al . , ieee transactions on nuclear science 58 ( 2011 ) 1685 . a. balzer , et al . , astroparticle physics 54 ( 2014 ) 67 . r. mirzoyan , v. fomin & a. stepanian , nim a 373 ( 1996 ) 153 . s. gillessen , for the h.e.s.s . collaboration , proc . cosmic ray conf . , tsukuba ( 2003 ) , univ . academy press , tokyo , the cta consortium , experimental astronomy 32 ( 2011 ) 193 .	in july 2012 , as the four ground - based gamma - ray telescopes of the h.e.s.s . ( _ high energy stereoscopic system _ ) array reached their tenth year of operation in khomas highlands , namibia , a fifth telescope took its first data as part of the system . this new cherenkov detector , comprising a @xmath0 reflector with a highly pixelized camera in its focal plane , improves the sensitivity of the current array by a factor two and extends its energy domain down to a few tens of gev . the present part i of the paper gives a detailed description of the fifth h.e.s.s . telescope s camera , presenting the details of both the hardware and the software , emphasizing the main improvements as compared to previous h.e.s.s . camera technology . high energy stereoscopic system , h.e.s.s . , camera , electronics , hardware , software , calibration
dentinal sensitivity is a significant dental health problem , characterized by short , sharp , pain arising from exposed dentine in response to stimuli typically thermal , evaporative , tactile , osmotic , or chemical which can not be ascribed to any other form of dental defect or pathology.13 it is commonly encountered , with prevalence as high as 74%,4 standing it out , as one of the most painful dental conditions affecting oral comfort and function . although , dentinal sensitivity negatively impacts on individual 's quality of life as it limits dietary choices , impedes effective oral hygiene , and adversely affects verbal expression , enjoyment of food , and aesthetics , many afflicted individuals do not specifically seek treatment for this problem5 but may mention it at a routine dental visit6 . this signifies that the predominant dental clinic epidemiological data on the prevalence of dentinal sensitivity is deficient as many afflicted will depend on self - care . the utilization of dangerous substances in self - care for dental problem in developing countries7 and its overwhelming consequences justifies the increasing need to assess prevalence of dental problem like dentinal sensitivity in the community . dentinal sensitivity being an episodic pain condition , is likely to become a more frequent dental complaint in the future due to the increase in longevity of the dentition and the rise in tooth wear.8 the noted increasing prevalence of dentinal sensitivity in the modern society with most dominance in young adults.9 usually due to overzealous brushing and other factors that begin to take their toll at this age group1011 justified the selection of young adults for this study . the objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of dentinal sensitivity among young adults . a cross - sectional survey was conducted among undergraduates of university of benin , edo state , nigeria , in august , 2010 . the students were recruited at three entry and exit points of the ugbowo campus of university of benin . those in hurry , almost late to lecture and refused to be interviewed were excluded from this survey . those who had dental caries reported as hole in tooth or teeth and fractured teeth reported as broken teeth were also excluded . at the end of 4 week period , the objective of the study was explained to the participants , and informed consent was obtained before the interview . participants interviewed were in the age range of 17 - 35 years , with those aged < 21 years ; 82 ( 20.3% ) , 21 - 25 years ; 151 ( 37.8% ) , 26 - 30 years ; 125 ( 31.3% ) and > 30 years ; 42 ( 10.5% ) . out of the consenting interviewed participants , males were 201 ( 50.3% ) in number and the remaining 199 ( 49.8% ) were females . the tool of data collection was an interviewer - administered questionnaire that elicited information on demography , self - reported dentinal sensitivity , the trigger factor , action taken , functional , and psychological impact . the data were analyzed using statistical package for social sciences ( spss ) version 17.0 . the entered data were subjected to descriptive statistics in the form of frequency , percentages , cross tabulation . out of 211 participants who reported dentinal sensitivity , 199 ( 94.3% ) , were right handed and 12 ( 5.7% ) were left handed . the shocking sensation were experienced by the participant on the left side 95 ( 45.0% ) , right side 59 ( 28.0% ) , and both sides 57 ( 27.0% ) . the prevalence of dentinal sensitivity was significantly higher in females than males ( p=0.027 ) [ table 1 ] . the trigger factors for the dentinal sensitivity include cold drink [ 169 ( 80.1% ) ] , sweet food [ 27 ( 12.8% ) ] , and air entering the mouth [ 15 ( 7.1% ) ] [ table 2 ] . among the participants with dentinal sensitivity , majority 139 ( 65.9% ) have not taken any action and only 24 ( 11.4% ) have visited the dentist because of the problem [ table 3 ] . in this study , 44 ( 20.9% ) and 22 ( 10.4% ) of participants that reported dentinal sensitivity ingest soft drink and citrus fruit regularly . a total of 167 ( 79.1% ) and 44 ( 20.9% ) participants ingest soft drinks with and without straw , respectively [ table 4 ] . dentinal sensitivity exhibited psychological impact among the participants as 64 ( 30.3% ) asserted unhappiness due to the shocking sensation . in 59 ( 28.0% ) and 12 ( 5.7% ) of the participants , eating and talking were disturbed , respectively [ table 5 ] . prevalence of dentinal sensitivity among the participants precipitant of dentinal sensitivity among the participants action taken by the participants experiencing dentinal sensitivity soft drink and citrus fruit ingestion among the participants the impact of dentinal sensitivity among the participants dentine sensitivity is a relatively common problem which may disturb the patient during eating , drinking , brushing , and sometimes even breathing.12 the oral discomfort generated by pain in dentinal sensitivity , leads to nutritional deficiency due to dietary restrictions in some individuals . in this study , this was comparable to 52.0%6 and 57.2%9 dentinal sensitivity reported in general dental practice population but lower than 68.4% obtained in previous survey among similar population in another geographic location in nigeria.13 67.7% reported in a periodontology clinic population in hong kong14 and 62.0% obtained in a telephone community survey conducted in hong kong.15 however it was higher than 32.58% reported among adults in shanghai municipality,16 25.5% reported among chinese urban adults residing in communities in chengdu and xian city.17 other lower prevalence include 25.5% and 17.27% reported among of urban adult population18 and young people19 in chengdu city , china respectively , 25% reporting dentinal sensitivity among dental patients in rio de janeiro , brazil20 and 16.3% reported among patients attending a specialist restorative dental clinic in a teaching hospital in nigeria.21 the cultural and ethnic influence on lifestyle , disease perception , view , and reporting may be the reason for the variation in prevalence of dentinal sensitivity in community based surveys . the varied differences could also be due to the difference in the methodology of compared studies in the literature in terms of diagnosis of dentinal sensitivity , if it was self - reported only as in this study or confirmed with the oral test ; the age of participants was restricted to young adults in this study and hospital based or community - based study which was the case in this study . dentinal sensitivity was significantly much common among right - handed individuals than the left - handed ones . bamise et al.22 reported the preponderance of dentinal sensitivity aetiologies on left - side of the mouth among right - handed patients in nigeria . the reason may be due to the fact that the most right - handed individuals applied greater force during brushing on the left - side leading to abrasion and recession with consequent dentinal sensitivity . in this study , this is similar to the findings of tan et al.19 in a study among young people in the chengdu city , china and ye et al.16 among adults in shanghai municipality . specialist restorative dental - clinic - based study also reported a higher incidence of dentinal sensitivity in women than in men.21 fischer et al.20 reported non - statistically significant higher prevalence of dentinal sensitivity among female dental patients than males in rio de janeiro , brazil . a contrasting study that reported a higher prevalence of dentine hypersensitivity among males than females was conducted among dental patients in a nigerian teaching the explanation is that dentinal sensitivity is more common in individuals who are meticulous and have good oral hygiene,21 and women of any age , generally speaking , are more attentive to basic hygiene than an age - matched group of males reflecting their overall healthcare and better oral hygiene awareness.24 . in this study , shocking sensation due to dentine sensitivity were experienced by about half [ 95 ( 45.0% ) ] of the participants only on the left - side . it could be explained by the fact that right - handed people who are majority among the participants , tend to brush their left - side teeth more zealously and vice versa , which results in hypersensitivity in those teeth . in a study , all the patients with dentinal hypersensitivity studied in a tertiary hospital in nigeria were right - handed.22 however , the finding of this research contrasted with tan et al.19 who reported the right maxillary first premolar as most common affected tooth . in this study , the main trigger factor for the dentinal sensitivity was cold drink [ 169 ( 80.1% ) ] , which is similar to findings of previous research.91419232627 the significantly induced dentinal fluid movement cold drinks as explained by hydrodynamic theory results in a change in osmotic pressure , which is transmitted as a stimulus to the odontoblastic process , generating action potential on the afferent nerve ending located at the pulp - dentine border.25 among the participants with dentinal sensitivity , majority [ 139 ( 65.9% ) ] have not taken any action and only 24 ( 11.4% ) have visited the dentist because of the problem . it collaborated the finding of a study in rio de janeiro , brazil where only a few patients who claimed to have dentine hypersensitivity had tried treatment with desensitizing toothpastes or sought professional help.20 in comparison , professional treatment had been sought by 32% of adult patients attending general dental practice9 and 16.6% of urban adult population in chengdu city who reported dentinal sensitivity had received desensitising treatment.18 the explanation for not seeking dental care is due to the fact that dentinal sensitivity is not spontaneous but rather stimulated , so affected individuals develop adaptive behavior of restricting self - from precipitants and avoid affected using side of the mouth as about three - quarters of the participants had dentinal sensitivity on only one side of the mouth.28 scientists have postulated that many patients assume that their condition is a natural occurrence developing with age , or that it is untreatable.28 the dependence of nigeria on self - care for oral health problem and seeking dental care only when situations are unbearable may also be contributory . self - care inform of warm saline mouth bath , use of densensitization toothpaste 12 ( 5.7% ) , change from regular toothpaste to herbal toothpaste , and chewing stick and use of snuff are reported in this study . in a study , in a developed country , densentizing toothpastes were used by 67.9% individuals reporting sensitivity.11 in this study , 44 ( 20.9% ) and 22 ( 10.4% ) participants who reported dentinal sensitivity ingest soft drink and citrus fruit regularly . although , the habitual ingestion of soft drinks , which are mostly carbonated causes tooth wear by erosion of enamel and dentine leading subsequently to dentinal sensitivity , ingestion of soft drinks with straw is a precautionary measure that limits its contact with surfaces of teeth by directing the drink towards the oropharynx and this was practiced by 167 ( 79.1% ) participants . this implies that erosion may have limited contribution to prevalence of dentinal sensitivity among the studied participants . oral conditions are known to exert adverse impact on oral functions such as eating , talking , swallowing , etc and also mental wellbeing . individuals with dentinal sensitivity avoid certain foods and beverages that trigger painful response , thus reducing the type of foods and drink one can enjoy . individuals with dentinal sensitivity have considerably more impaired oral health - related quality of life ( ohrqol ) than the general population.29 among the participants with dentinal sensitivity , 59 ( 28.0% ) and 12 ( 5.7% ) of the participants , eating and talking were respectively disturbed . the discomfort and pain caused by dentinal sensitivity makes consumption of hot , cold , and sweet food difficult to relish . the less number of participants who reported adverse effect on verbal communication may be linked with the fact that about 15 ( 7.1% ) had air entering the mouth as the precipitant of their dentinal sensitivity . in this study , dentinal sensitivity exhibited psychological impact among the participants as 64 ( 30.3% ) asserted unhappiness due to the shocking sensation . this collaborated with evidence in the literature that showed negative impact of dentinal sensitivity on almost of all the seven domains of quality of life . the very unpleasant nature of dentinal sensitivity , the limitation of the daily habits of affected individual especially in restricting choice diets and drinks may be the reasons for the unhappiness . the interpretation of dentinal sensitivity as very unpleasant by individuals may be contributory.30 it is therefore important for that affected individual to seek and receive appropriate treatment in order to improve their quality of life of individuals . the prevalence of dentinal sensitivity was high and also exhibited negative functional and psychological impact . despite the negative functional and psychological impact among the participants , screening for dentinal sensitivity at community level is required to proffer early treatment and ameliorate its impact on the populace .	background : there is paucity of data on the prevalence of dentinal sensitivity outside the hospital setting and impact of dentinal sensitivity among young adults in africa . this study aimed to determine the prevalence and impact of dentinal sensitivity among young adults in nigeria.materials and methods : a cross - sectional survey was conducted among the undergraduates of university of benin in august , 2010 . self - administered questionnaire elicited information on demography , self - reported dentinal sensitivity , the trigger factor , action taken , functional , and psychological impact.results:the prevalence of dentinal sensitivity was 211 ( 52.8% ) among the participants and it was significantly higher in females than males ( p=0.027 ) . participants experienced shocking sensation more on the left - side of the mouth . the most common trigger factor for the dentinal sensitivity was due to cold drink [ 169 ( 80.1% ) ] . among the participants with dentinal sensitivity , majority [ 139 ( 65.9% ) ] have not taken any action and only 24 ( 11.4% ) have visited the dentist because of the problem . dentinal sensitivity exhibited psychological impact among the participants as 64 ( 30.3 ) reported unhappiness due to the shocking sensation . eating and talking were disturbed , respectively , in 59 ( 28.0% ) and 12 ( 5.7% ) of the participants.conclusion:the prevalence of dentinal sensitivity was high which was significantly higher in females than males . despite the negative functional and psychological impact among the participants , only a few sought dental professional care . screening for dentinal sensitivity at community level is required to proffer early treatment and ameliorate its impact on the populace .
To a certain generation of people, the Beastie Boys were as monumental and important as the Beatles, as groundbreaking, as formative, as sweeping and meaningful in their celebrity but also in their music, always the music. Personally, there are milliseconds of certain Beastie Boys songs that have the power to transport me to another time and place: With "So What'cha Want," I'm riding around in the back of a friend's new car packed with four other girls—I can't remember the car, but I can almost smell the seats—the tape deck (yes, tape deck) turned up to full volume, us sing-chanting along. With "Professor Booty" I'm listening to tapes with my brother as my mom yells at us to come down to dinner. With "Fight for Your Right," I'm jumping up and down at a party with friends after trying my first sip of vodka. Those of us of around the same age, and those of us still younger and also older, have similar stories and experiences with the music of the Beastie Boys. As evidence of our connection with the band and the Boys-turned-men in it, more than 20 years later, "Fight for Your Right Revisited" is no less transportive. At the same time it's highly applicable on a meta level, as perfect for our Internet time now as it was for its original release in 1986. The Internet reacts to the news of celebrity death in a particular way, with a fast wave of responses and #RIPs and acknowledgements of sadness and how, even though generally we didn't actually "know" these people, we were affected by them deeply. But the response to the untimely death of MCA, who has died nearly three years after a tumor was discovered in his parotid gland, is somehow bigger than usual, the grief more pronounced. His representation, Nasty Little Man, imparts the news: "It is with great sadness that we confirm that musician, rapper, activist and director Adam 'MCA' Yauch, founding member of Beastie Boys and also of the Milarepa Foundation that produced the Tibetan Freedom Concert benefits, and film production and distribution company Oscilloscope Laboratories, passed away in his native New York City this morning after a near-three-year battle with cancer. He was 47 years old." Yauch was born in Brooklyn, and the Beastie Boys represented a particular brand of New York cool that, more nationally and even globally, the world embraced. In some ways, the band was a form of musical New York PR—at least, a "PR" based in coolness, a new style of music, a new form of flouting the rules, a new kind of joy and energy. For those of us who did not grow up here, this was the New York we wanted to live in; for those of us who did, these were our hometown heroes. The Beasties created songs that were also inside jokes reflective of our collective imagination, memes before we were throwing around the word meme. This was something that captured the imagination in its uniqueness and unlikelihood, in the way it challenged the norms. As Brian Braiker writes in the Guardian, "Their lyrics were packed with goofy couplets, in-jokes and pop-culture references. And each of the Beasties cultivated distinct personas and vocal deliveries that meshed well together and could stand alone." He continues, "After eschewing punk for an exaggerated fratty b-boy posture, the trio would go on to become the unlikely first white rap group to achieve massive mainstream success – to the initial chagrin of hip-hop purists." These guys, they were rebels. They were awesome. Yauch formed the band for his 17th birthday party with Mike "Mike D" Diamond, drummer Kate Schellenbach, and guitarist John Berry; they started out in the underground scene in New York City. Eventually Berry and Schellenbach would leave, with Adam "Ad-Rock" Horowitz joining in their stead. The band went on to sell more than 40 million records, release four #1 albums (Licensed to Ill, the band's 1986 debut, was the first hip hop album to top the Billboard 200), win three Grammys, win the MTV Video Vanguard Lifetime Achievement award, and be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. A little more than thirty years later, much too soon, we're mourning the loss of this key player in our collective musical memory. Yauch went on to direct, including several of the band's videos—most recently, "Fight For Your Right Revisited," in which Elijah Wood, Danny McBride, and Seth Rogen face "the Beastie Boys of the future"—an idea now more poignant than ever—played by Jack Black, Will Ferrell, and John C. Reilly. Standing as he did for the music we grew up on and also continue to listen to, the tributes have been coming fast and furiously. At The New Yorker, Ben Greenman has put together a video playlist of our favorites. Spotify playlists are also circulating. The Village Voice's Camille Dodero tweeted a gorgeous, now terribly sad photo of Yauch and his now 13-year-old daughter Tenzin: He was a dad, too. The refrain of "Fuck Cancer" has been heard around the Internet (as has the charge to do something, to donate to cancer research, to use this moment to make a difference). Sara Benincasa tweeted, "Every small business worth its salt in NYC is blasting Beastie Boys today." Similarly, every Beastie Boys fan worth his or her salt has their favorite albums or songs on repeat today, and tonight. The way DListed writer Michael K. introduced the news of Yauch's death is telling: "Well, this one's going to hurt like a piece of your childhood is getting ripped away." And as Matt Langer, 32, a New York Times product developer, put it, "Those albums tack perfectly with the years of my life—this hits harder than [the death of] Michael Jackson." A key difference: we never saw Yauch go down the troubled road Jackson traveled; we never saw him fall apart in front of us, though we noticed his absence, his thinness, as he battled cancer, and we worried. To us, he stood for not only a particular time in our lives, but the ability to grow up and become adults and still keep doing what we loved, living on our own terms. Maura Johnston, music editor for The Village Voice, told The Atlantic Wire, "One of the things that I think makes the loss of one of the Beastie Boys so hard is that at their best moments they had this vitality about them -- their big breakthrough hit was about fighting for their right to party, it's true. But even as they aged and got more into supporting causes than cat-calling 'Girls,' They matured along with their audience, and I think that's a big part of what's making this such a hard loss to process -- it's a really strong reminder of everyone's mortality." That song "Girls" is worth pausing on, since MCA himself rebuked its sexist message in "Sure Shot," saying, "I want to say a little something that's long overdue/ The disrespect to women has got to be through/ To all the mothers and sisters and the wives and friends I want to offer my love and respect to the end." Later in their careers, the band renounced their loutish earlier antics, showing a generation how to grow up with grace and go from Boys to men and women. That Yauch would be felled at 47 by cancer, a disease that we as a generation have grown up to fear, makes the loss all the more tragic and resonant. As Hypervocal's Slade Sohmer writes, "It’s disheartening when the heroes of your youth, too young themselves, pass away. You almost want it to be from drugs, from an accident, from growing old. But disease? Universe, you’re awful." The universe, you'd imagine, rather agrees. Want to add to this story? Let us know in comments or send an email to the author at jdoll at theatlantic dot com. You can share ideas for stories on the Open Wire. Jen Doll \|\|\|\|\| For a band that broke out with the indelible slacker declaration “(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party),” the Beastie Boys weren't exactly the most likely group to turn into human rights activists. Yet it was the trio -- that included Adam Yauch, the Buddhist who lost his battle with cancer Friday at 47 -- that led the battle for Tibet in the late '90s at a time when changing the world through music events wasn’t so fashionable. Their transformation from bratty, delinquent teenagers into altruistic, socially engaged cultural figures may have paralleled the coming-of-age and awareness of a generation of Americans. Starting as a teenage punk band in the late '70s, the Beastie Boys latched onto the hip-hop culture that was rising all around them, hooked up with young producer Rick Rubin and became a mainstay of his new Def Jam label. Armed with their 12-inch hits that preceded it, the debut “Licensed to Ill" was a time bomb on hip-hop that few albums were, creating instant anthems, top-rated videos and opening slots on tours from Public Image Ltd. to Madonna to Run DMC. They did so with personas that imitated the nicknames of rap: Yauch was MCA, the first party-crasher to burst through the door in the “(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (to Party!)” video, alongside Mike Diamond’s Mike D and Adam Horowitz’s Ad Rock. It wasn’t just that they were gangly white guys in a field of African-American expression, it’s the goofy body language they explored that showed them to be heirs to goony physical borough comedy dating back to the Bowery Boys and the vaudeville that preceded it. The real wit came in their perfectly honed rhymes combining brand names and unexpected pop culture references embedded in the usual braggadocio trade-offs. “I’m not ‘James at 15’ or ‘Chachi in Charge’/I’m Adam and I’m adamant about living large,” went one couplet. “Got more stories than J.D. got Salinger/I hold the title and you are the challenger” was another. By their second album, 1988’s “Paul’s Boutique," they were unveiling themselves as genuine artists, with an exhilaratingly dense, sample-heavy masterpiece, produced by the Dust Brothers, that would stand as their greatest, even as their rhymes (“Hey Ladies!”) disguised them in clown masks. By then the Beasties were patrons in a multimedia arts empire that included their own Grand Royal label and magazine, setting style even when they weren’t in the recording studio. Their ever-creative videos gave a showcase for someone who would become a leading and sought-after film director, Spike Jonze. Jonze's deliriously old-school cop show approach to “Sabotage” may have led to a whole string of similarly mustachioed big-screen homages. When Jonze failed to win the MTV Video Music Award for best direction in 1994, it was Yauch, disguised as his character Nathanial Hornblower, who stormed the stage to protest -- years before Kanye West would have a similar idea. It was under the name Hornblower that Yauch directed a number of the Beasties’ music videos. By organizing the fan-shot footage that combined to make the concert film “Awesome, I Fuckin’ Shot That,” he was a pioneer in creating the new field of fan-interactive filmmaking. He continued that interest when his label Oscilloscope Laboratories, which had produced a comeback album for Bad Brains, became more of a film concern, producing Yauch’s basketball documentary about high school hopefuls in 2006, “Gunnin’ for that No. 1 Spot” and later the acclaimed indie films “Wendy and Lucy,” “The Messenger” and the art-house favorite about street artist Banksy, “Exit Through the Gift Shop.” It was his Tibetan activism that may have been closest to his heart, organizing a few huge series of Tibetan Freedom Concerts that began in San Francisco in 1996 and continued in subsequent years in New York and Washington, D.C.. They had the biggest gathering in 1988, drawing 120,000 and a lightning strike that injured 12. Subsequent concerts in Tokyo and Taipei in 2001 and 2003 drew fewer fans, but by then they had raised millions of dollars and succeeded in drawing enormous attention to the issue. This seriousness didn’t spoil the deep goofy humor of their approach, although the diagnosis of Yauch’s cancer cut into plans for videos or tours to accompany their latest albums. He was not physically present either at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony in Cleveland last month -- a ceremony that will ironically get its first national telecast this Saturday on HBO. Their portion of the event, which concluded with the induction of the Red Hot Chili Peppers (who dedicated their live performance to Yauch), was the only time during the ceremony when the Cleveland crowd sang along to the film clips being shown. “There’s no adequate measure for the impact that the Beastie Boys had on rap music and yours truly, Public Enemy, during our formative years, ” Chuck D says in the induction ceremony. "They challenged the conventions in the music business and made up their own rules about what it means to be world class hip-hop cats." More than that, he added, they always insisted on "maturing as musicians and human beings." Unlike other inductees at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Mike D and Ad Rock did not take the stage to perform, leaving a medley of their hits to the Roots, with help from Kid Rock and Travie McCoy of Gym Class Heroes. Despite his absence, Yauch wrote an acceptance speech Ad Rock read that may serve as his last public message to his fans: "I'd like to dedicate this award to my brothers Adam and Mike, who walked the globe with me. To anyone who has been touched by our band, whose music has meant something to, this induction is as much ours as it is yours." In the same way, the group's maturation from partying hooligans to responsible world citizens mirrored their fans' growth into world awareness. Although their last albums came when they were in their 40s, the Beastie Boys retained the spirit of earlier recordings while slowly injecting more thought, including Yauch's remarkable apology to all women on behalf of rap, in the 1994 track "Sure Shot": "I want to say a little something that's long overdue: The disrespect to women has got to be through. To all the mothers and sisters and the wives and friends: I want to offer my love and respect to the end." It was Yauch's damnable disease that caused the delay in the release of albums, the impossibility of tours and the inability to make videos that eventually cut into the Beasties' sales. The longer-lasting traces of social consciousness embedded in their message and how they operated -- cutting the parenthetical clauses from their first hit's title makes it "Fight for Your Right" -- will make the spirit of the Beasties endure in the activism of the generations that followed. \|\|\|\|\| Most fans of the Beastie Boys' early hits know Adam Yauch, or MCA as he was known, for a few choice boasts, like “I got more juice than Picasso's got paint” (from the 1986 song “The New Style”). Despite the group's early reputation as party animals, however, peace, mindfulness and positive energy were subjects the rapper wanted to represent in his work. Any remembrance of Yauch has to focus on the more spiritual lines he wrote, as on 1998's “Intergalactic,” where he perfectly described himself with: “Well I got to keep it going keep it going full steam/ Too sweet to be sour too nice to be mean/ On the tough guy style I'm not too keen/ To try to change the world I will plot and scheme.” The most tethered and thoughtful of a trio of New York rappers who became the Beastie Boys, Yauch died on Friday after a three-year struggle with cancer. He was 47, and in that half-century he managed to carve a path at once so admirable and unlikely that his contributions should serve as a model for a life worth living. PHOTOS: Adam Yauch \|1964 - 2012 But from a cultural perspective, his biggest influence came as one-third of a group whose debut album, 1986's “Licensed to Ill,” landed at the top of the Billboard 200, the first hip-hop album to achieve that milestone, and sold 9 million copies. The group changed rap at that moment, and over the next quarter century continually pushed at the boundaries of a music they helped define. That early success, in turn, helped establish the budding Def Jam Records as a cultural juggernaut. After the Beasties' success, the label would go on to release seminal records by LL Cool J, Public Enemy, EPMD and Warren G. Equally important, the Beasties' follow-up, “Paul's Boutique,” remains, 23 years after its release, one of the most artistically accomplished hip-hop albums ever recorded, a surreal, tripped-out sample-fest that's been rightly called the “Sgt. Pepper's” of hip-hop. At the center of it all, pushing for self-transformation, was MCA, whose gruff bark stuck out amid Ad Rock's whine and Mike D's straight-ahead honesty. America's introduction to Yauch wasn't great for his image as a peacemaker: In the breakout video for “(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party),” we watch as he and his fellow Beasties enter a tame party, where Yauch steals someone's beer, takes a swig, spits it in someone's face, then crunches the can on his victim's head. It's probably not the first impression he would have preferred, given his later enlightenment. He was, after all, the member of the group who made the biggest arc from party animal to Buddhist peace activist. VIDEO: Beastie Boys' evolution over the decades The history doesn't lie: Over the course of eight studio albums, the most recent being the acclaimed “Hot Sauce Committee, Part 2,” Beastie Boys sold more than 40 million records, released four No. 1 albums and created some of the most iconic videos in the history of the medium, one of which, for “Sabotage,” helped launch the career of a young skate punk named Spike Jonze. They injected punk rock antics into hip-hop with the utterly weird 1983 single, “Cooky Puss,” and of course, “(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (To Party),” an anthem to teenage angst spouting from the mouths of three white kids with ridiculously big chains and cockeyed baseball caps — and a hit not only with the rising rap crowd digging into Run DMC, Whodini and Kurtis Blow, but also frat houses the nation over. Ridiculous antics can carry an act only so far, but the Beastie Boys harnessed their newfound industry power to create freedom to experiment, and over the next decade the trio released a string of records that continually rewrote the books. After “Paul's Boutique,” the group softened much of its early misogyny and general misanthropy. One of Yauch's key mid-career verses, in “Sure Shot,” in fact, directly addresses some of his early rhymes: “I want to say a little something that's long overdue/ The disrespect to women has got to be through/ To all the mothers and sisters and the wives and friends/ I want to offer my love and respect to the end.” He expressed these kinds of sentiments whenever he got a chance, through his rhymes and his actions. As the Beasties grew older, Yauch stretched to form the successful production company Oscilloscope Pictures, which released acclaimed films such as “Wendy and Lucy,” “Burma VJ” and “We Need to Talk About Kevin.” The Tibetan Freedom Concerts, which between 1996 and 2003 helped raise money for Tibetan independence, were the product of his work with the Milarepa Fund, a nonprofit advocacy group. His passion is most apparent in the gorgeous song-poem “Namaste,” which closes the band's 1992 album “Check Your Head.” A Zen ode to living in which Yauch acknowledges “riding on a thought to see where it's from/Gliding through a memory of a time yet to come” on a sunlit afternoon, he recites the work while a smooth, ethereal funk jam plays along. A woman's voice drifts into his head: “She said, dark is not the opposite of light; it's the absence of light.” And with Yauch's passing, that absence has become a little more pronounced. RELATED: PHOTOS: Celebrities react to Adam Yauch's death Beastie Boy Adam Yauch was also a force in film world Adam Yauch, founding member of the Beastie Boys, dies at 47 -- Randall Roberts @liledit Photo: In this 2006 photo, Beastie Boys members Adam Yauch, right, Adam Horovitz, center, and Mike Diamond, reflected in a mirror, pose in Toronto. Yauch, the gravelly voiced Beastie Boys rapper who co-founded the seminal hip-hop group, died Friday at age 47. Yauch, who was also known as MCA, was diagnosed with a cancerous parotid gland in 2009. Credit: Aaron Harris / AP Photo / The Canadian Press	– The effusive tributes to Beastie Boy Adam Yauch continue, and one of his lyrics in particular is being frequently quoted. From "Sure Shot" in 1994: “I want to say a little something that’s long overdue/The disrespect to women has got to be through/ To all the mothers and sisters and the wives and friends/ I want to offer my love and respect to the end" That mind you, comes from the same Yauch who years earlier sang that "(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (to Party)." But that's part of what's so special about Yauch: Jen Doll, AtlanticWire: "Later in their careers, the band renounced their loutish earlier antics, showing a generation how to grow up with grace and go from Boys to men and women." Roger Catlin, Salon: "Their transformation from bratty, delinquent teenagers into altruistic, socially engaged cultural figures may have paralleled the coming-of-age and awareness of a generation of Americans." Randall Roberts, Los Angeles Times: The peace-loving, grown-up Yauch probably wasn't thrilled that his public debut came in the raunchy "Fight for Your Right" video. But in the end, Yauch managed in his 47 years to "carve a path at once so admirable and unlikely that his contributions should serve as a model for a life worth living." Dave Bry, the Awl: "(A)s time went by, he became a voice for peace and sensitivity and caring about the world—without ever turning shrill or holier-than-thou. He became gentle and soft-spoken without losing his sense of humor." And Yauch didn't get defensive when challenged about his wild early days. "He said most everyone has a time in their life that they look back on with regret."
‘People love the gory ones,” a newspaper editor tells Edgar Allan Poe (John Cusack) early on in “The Raven,” and presumably that line was part of the producers’ original pitch meeting. I’m guessing the phrase “ ‘Se7en’ meets ‘Sherlock Holmes’” was tossed about, too. A grimly preposterous serial-killer thriller set in 19th-century Baltimore, this riff on the final days of the author of “The Tell-Tale Heart” and other masterpieces of the macabre might qualify as literary desecration if it weren’t so silly. Cusack’s Poe — conceived here as close cousin to Robert Downey Jr’s Holmes — is a talented wreck whose best days are behind him but who can still rear up and spit in the eye of the philistines, of which there are many in 1849 Baltimore. They include his editor (Kevin McNally) and Captain Hamilton (Brendan Gleeson), wealthy and extremely hostile father to Poe’s beloved Emily (Alice Eve). A depraved murderer is stalking the city, killing citizens in ways that copycat the author’s famous stories. A gruesome early highlight is the longtime Poe rival (John Warnaby) who gets the pit-and-pendulum treatment in disgusting detail. “But I’m only a critic!” he shrieks before expiring. I felt much the same way. Initially a suspect, Poe ends up joining forces with the police inspector on the case, the manly Detective Fields (Luke Evans). The two race desperately from one horrific crime scene to the next — at a masked ball, in a church, backstage at a theater, in the sewers of Baltimore — and they’re led hither and thither by a mastermind whose cunning and resources seem increasingly far-fetched. “The Masque of the Red Death,” “The Cask of Amontillado,” “The Mystery of Marie Roget” — so many tales to choose from. “The Premature Burial” is reserved for Emily, who in Eve’s performance treats the ordeal as a particularly bad hair day. “The Raven” has been directed by James McTeigue (”V for Vendetta”) with dark style and at galloping speed, neither of which disguise the fact that the movie often doesn’t make a lick of sense. If it were content to lighten up and admit it was trash, there might be some fun to be had, but the dialogue by Ben Livingston and Hannah Shakespeare mistakes the florid for the eloquent. (“God gave him a spark of genius and quenched it with misery,” someone says about Poe.) The jolts are effective in their Pavlovian way; it’s everything else that lets you down. Sadly, the overripe notion of Edgar Allan Poe, action hero, never takes off. Cusack wants to give a serious performance — historically inaccurate goatee and all — in a movie that isn’t built for it. (Let’s hope Benjamin Walker in this summer’s “Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter” doesn’t have the same problem.) The star is pale enough to qualify for a Tim Burton movie but he’s awfully well-fed to play late-stage Poe, and he never summons up the glint of madness you get in photographs of the author. Behind the blowhard arrogance, Edgar seems eminently sane — not exactly what’s called for. What “The Raven” lacks in narrative invention it makes up for by pushing the audience’s face in blood, guts, and hacked flesh. You get that the filmmakers are going for a modern take on Poe’s Gothic vision, but their approach has no poetry and barely any prose. After the “Holmes” movies, “The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen,” and this, the steampunk-action genre may be played out. Quoth the audience, “Nevermore.” Ty Burr can be reached at [email protected]. Follow him on Twitter @tyburr. © Copyright 2012 Globe Newspaper Company. \|\|\|\|\| The Raven April 25, 2012 Cast & Credits Edgar Allan Poe John Cusack Det. Fields Luke Evans Emily Alice Eve Col. Hamilton Brendan Gleeson Maddox Kevin McNally Relativity Media presents a film directed by James McTeigue. Written by Ben Livingston and Hannah Shakespeare. Running time: 111 minutes. Rated R (for bloody violence and grisly images). Printer-friendly » E-mail this to a friend » On Oct. 3, 1849, Edgar Allan Poe was found wandering the streets of Baltimore, raving and incoherent. He died on Oct. 7, at age 40. His death was about as much of a surprise as the passing of such modern icons as Kurt Cobain and Amy Winehouse. Poe was an acute alcoholic, particularly fond by the notorious spirit absinthe. He also used opium and who knows what other substances, and as a man supported only by his writings, may have been badly nourished. This is a lifestyle known to lend itself to incoherent wanderings. "The Raven," a feverish costume thriller, attempts to explain Poe's death by cobbling together spare parts from thrillers about serial killers. It should not be mistaken for a movie about Edgar Allan Poe, although to be sure, he buys a drink for a man in a tavern who is able to complete this line of poetry: "Quoth the raven…" When I heard that John Cusack had been cast for this film, it sounded like good news: I could imagine him as Poe, tortured and brilliant, lashing out at a cruel world. But that isn't the historical Poe the movie has in mind. It is a melodramatic Poe, calling for the gifts of Nicolas Cage. The film opens with Poe on a Baltimore park bench, beneath a tree limb holding a large, malevolent raven. Mad magazine would know what to do with that image. Then it flashes back to Poe, broke and in serious need of a drink, bursting into a tavern and expecting to imbibe on credit. He boasts of his fame, issues "The Raven"-quoting challenge and immediately establishes himself as a disappointment to those who find Poe a complex and fascinating man. Poe wrote fiction that is read for pleasure to this day. He has possibly inspired more movies than anyone except Shakespeare. In "The Raven," we quickly meet one of his editors, Henry Maddox (Kevin McNally), editor of a trashy Baltimore tabloid, who orders Poe to return to the lurid horror tales he's famous for, instead of his more introspective recent stuff. Poe soon finds the inspiration for macabre material. Two women are discovered murdered in a locked room. Emmett Fields (Luke Evans), the detective on the case, discovers that the killer must have escaped in the same way used in Poe's "The Murders in the Rue Morgue." It has slipped from Fields' memory that the killer in that tale was an orangutan, but never mind: Poe becomes a suspect. Shortly after, a man is discovered sliced in two in the manner used in Poe's "The Pit and the Pendulum." It is a grievous death: The victim cries out that he is too insignificant to justify such a laborious means of death; after all, he screams, "I'm only a critic." Now Poe and Fields find themselves working in tandem, since the killer is apparently a man willing to go to much trouble to draw attention to the works of Poe. A rich young woman named Emily (Alice Eve) is kidnapped, and ransom notes demand that Poe write an account of their investigation for Henry Maddox's scandal sheet. "The Raven" now indulges in a plot that will remind you of any number of serial-killer movies, in which we're expected to believe that a madman goes to astonishing trouble while killing a lot of people simply to devise an elegant puzzle for the hero to solve. This can work nicely, as in "Se7en," but in "The Raven," it is all concoction, a device to link Edgar Allan Poe with modern serial-killer formulas and shovel in a great deal of special-effects violence. The use of sensational effects may be a temptation for a director like James McTeigue, whose first feature, "V for Vendetta" (2005), was actually pretty good. They create a problem of proportion for a period film like this, where personality and atmosphere should create suspense; extreme violence is unnecessary, although I realize that at least some Friday-night moviegoers will be hoping for it and have only a vague notion of when 1849 might have been.	– As far as critics are concerned, The Raven ought to be tossed in a cellar, sealed in with brick, and left to be forgotten. The thriller, which imagines Poe hunting down a serial killer inspired by his work, currently has a 20% on Rotten Tomatoes. Here's what critics are saying: James McTeigue directs with "dark style and at galloping speed, neither of which disguise the fact that the movie often doesn’t make a lick of sense," writes Ty Burr of the Boston Globe. "If it were content to lighten up and admit it was trash, there might be some fun to be had." The Raven "should not be mistaken for a movie about Edgar Allan Poe," warns Roger Ebert, at least not if you "find Poe a complex and fascinating man." This movie's more interested in "cobbling together spare parts from thrillers about serial killers," and its "melodramatic" Poe would have been better cast as Nick Cage. It should have been called, "Edgar Allen Poe: Drunk Poet Detective," laments Leslie Felperin of Variety. "But that would have implied more entertainment value than this dreary exercise delivers." John Cusack tries to "project erratic temper by shouting a lot and bugging out his eyes," but the script gives him absolutely nothing to work with. AO Scott of the New York Times was tickled by its "fannish obsessiveness" with all things Poe. "The film’s heart is in the right place (which is to say beating insistently under the floorboards)," he writes. But the plot, sadly, is an incoherent mess. "I suspect Poe’s review of it would have been much more savage than mine."
peripheral arterial disease ( pad ) represents an advanced stage of atherosclerosis that is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events and can result in clinically significant limb ischemia . in the united states , pad affects approximately 5 million adults over the age of 40 and is prevalent in more than 20% of patients over the age of 70 . in patients who are not candidates for revascularization with either open surgical or endovascular therapies , amputations in the elderly have been associated with poor functional outcome , particularly in those who are unable to live independently [ 3 , 4 ] . as a result , preclinical and clinical research in the area of pad has focused on improving proangiogenic therapy to promote limb salvage , usually by injecting agents directly into ischemic muscle . these studies have included injection of advegf121 , an adenovirus encoding a 121-amino - acid sequence of vegf , fibroblast growth factor ( fgf ) , plasmid containing recombinant hepatocyte growth factor ( hgf ) , and more recently cell - based therapies that are harvested from the patient 's own bone marrow . results have been mixed , as some have been performed in the setting of intermittent claudication , and others were performed for critical limb ischemia and tissue loss [ 5 , 8 , 9 ] . single agent therapy has not been shown to improve wound healing or prevent amputation [ 5 , 7 ] . while therapies using autogenous tissue repair cells from the bone marrow appear promising in the 6-month interim analysis , the process of harvesting cells and reinjecting them is intensive and requires anesthesia . furthermore , the mechanisms that drive the short - term success of cell - based therapy are not known . thus , a novel nonsurgical approach to pad to improve muscle recovery and angiogenesis in the setting of limb ischemia would be very useful clinically . the role of innate immunity in promoting angiogenesis and skeletal muscle recovery after ischemic injury and the ways in which it may be modulated to improve outcomes in pad have not been extensively studied . the innate immune system , including toll - like receptors ( tlrs ) , is likely to play an important role in angiogenesis in response to limb ischemia from arterial disease . after ischemic injury , release of damage - associated molecular patterns ( damps ) such as the nuclear protein high mobility group box 1 ( hmgb1 ) from necrotic muscle and endothelial cells alerts the immune system via pattern recognition receptors like tlrs . tlrs mediate inflammatory responses to both endogenous and exogenous pathogens , and inflammation is a critical component of neovascularization and tissue repair . for example , arteriogenesis involves the recruitment of inflammatory cells that respond to endothelial cell activation when shear stress is elevated , resulting in the maturation of preexisting , thin - walled collaterals . similarly , angiogenesis is supported by macrophages that infiltrate into wounded or ischemic tissue and secrete factors such as vegf . studies that have investigated the role of tlr4 signaling in neovascularization have found it to mediate critical events such as arteriogenesis and hmgb-1 mediated angiogenesis in animal models [ 15 , 16 ] . a number of papers have described potential roles for tlr signaling in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease , specifically addressing ways in which tlr activity can modulate systemic inflammation after ischemia , development of atherosclerotic plaques , and modulation of cardiac function following ischemic injury [ 1722 ] . other lines of research have focused on ways in which tlr signaling contributes to muscle development and pathology in the lower extremity , distinct from cardiac physiology . however , there is a paucity of research describing a potential role for tlr function , danger signaling , and innate immunity in the etiology of ischemic myopathy associated with peripheral arterial disease . the following report will present a review of innate immunity and danger signaling , focusing on the relevance in cardiac disease , myopathy , and ischemia - induced angiogenesis . the purpose of this report is to lay the groundwork for more research into how modulation of tlr signaling may be clinically useful in pad . janeway hypothesized that , during pathogen invasion , the host is able to mount an immediate response via preexisting receptors . pattern recognition receptors ( prrs ) detect conserved components of microorganisms , which signify the presence of microbial nonself . the downstream reactions initiate a cascade of cellular events to eliminate the invading pathogens , making up the earliest stages of an immune response . prrs detect and bind both pathogen - associated molecular patterns ( pamps ) and damage - associated molecular patterns ( damps ) . pamps are small molecules of microbial components such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide ( lps ) , a constitutive component of the outer cell membrane of gram - negative bacteria . other examples of pamps include bacterial flagellin , a protein that forms the bacterial flagellum , peptidoglycans , a polymer layer of amino acids and sugar that forms the bacterial cell , glucans on gram - negative bacteria , and bacterial dna and rna [ 2628 ] . the evolutionarily conserved nature of pamps allows the innate immune system to quickly recruit immune cells , such as macrophages and leukocytes , remove foreign substances , and initiate processes to protect the host from infection . in addition to pamps , damps are a group of tissue or cell - derived molecules that are released following tissue injury that can activate the innate immune system through prr . immune responses are therefore initiated by tissue damage , trauma , and ischemia and are independent of the presence of invasive pathogens . hmgb1 is a nuclear protein and damp which functions in this way , promoting systemic inflammation following hemorrhage and hepatic ischemia - reperfusion injury [ 10 , 29 , 30 ] . it can be actively or passively released during injury and ischemia to modulate local and systemic effects . damps such as those derived by degradation of extracellular matrix may also signal the body to repair and replace damaged tissue . heat - shock proteins ( hsp ) are damps released by cells when they are exposed to stress such as uv light , heat , and cold . clinically , damps have been linked to inflammatory diseases such as atherosclerosis , sepsis , and arthritis [ 3336 ] . while damps may contribute to the etiology of disease , some signals may be reparative which is a particularly important concept in the development of novel therapeutics . the toll - like receptors ( tlrs ) are a class of prrs known to recognize a number of bacterial and viral components , as well as endogenous danger signals [ 19 , 37 ] . tlr4 is the principal receptor for lps , working with coreceptors such as cd14 and md2 to enhance reactivity [ 38 , 39 ] . while tlr4 plays an important role in lps recognition as a prr , it lacks lps - binding activity without md2 . upon recognition of lps , tlr4 stimulates downstream signaling pathways mediated by myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 ( myd88 ) and tir - domain - containing adaptor - inducing interferon ( trif ) . myd88 signals through interleukin-1 receptor - associated kinase ( irak ) , an enzyme that results in translocation of nfb to the nucleus in a rapid fashion . both tlr4 and tlr2 have been shown to play a role in mediating repair and recovery in cardiovascular disease , and both also recognize the danger signal hmgb1 . the role of toll - like receptor signaling in the etiology of atherosclerosis as well as in cardiomyocyte function following ischemic injury has been well documented [ 17 , 4245 ] . a review of these studies can be found in table 1 . in vitro , tlr4 has been detected in endothelial cells and has also been shown to upregulate the expression of tlr2 in both arterial and pulmonary ecs [ 46 , 47 ] . those studies have typically demonstrated upregulation of tlr4 ( and tlr2 ) by hypoxia or some other inflammatory insult . in vivo , however , tlr4 expression in normal human arteries such as the superficial temporal artery has been shown to be quite minimal on the endothelial surface , existing only in dendritic cells near the adventitial border . in that same study , both tlr4 and tlr5 were found to be differentially expressed spatially within the arterial wall , stimulating different types of immune activation and vasculitis when stimulated with either lps ( a tlr4 agonist ) or flagellin ( a tlr5 agonist ) . while tlr4 expression in normal arterial segments may be diminutive , expression in atherosclerotic plaques has consistently been found to be elevated both in endothelial cells and in macrophages of endarterectomy specimens [ 22 , 4951 ] . because of its elevated presence in these lesions , a role has been proposed for tlr4 in atherosclerotic plaque formation . a known human tlr4 polymorphism ( tlr4 asp299gly ) in which responsiveness to tlr4 ligands is diminished has been studied quite rigorously as possibly being associated with an attenuated risk of cardiovascular diseases [ 42 , 52 , 53 ] . one study evaluated 15 case - control studies to better define the association between tlr4 asp299gly and atherosclerotic risk , with the premise that polymorphisms may be protective against disease . thus , an increase in tlr4 expression within plaque is likely a reactive finding rather than an etiologic target . once present on a pathologic arterial lesion , tlr4 may mediate plaque activation and rupture . in one study published in 2012 , microvascular endothelial cells were found to be significantly more responsive to lps than macrovascular endothelial cells . the authors suggested that microvascular endothelial cell activation by tlr4 agonists might promote plaque destabilization , a critical event in acute cardiovascular syndromes . this group also identified that microvascular endothelial cells contained higher levels of cd14 , an important coreceptor for tlr4 that can enhance reactivity . levels of md2 , another important coreceptor , did not differ between the cell types in that study . recently , yang et al . have demonstrated that md2 is critical for hmgb1-tlr4 interactions as well as hmgb1-mediated inflammatory responses in vivo . these experiments were performed in vitro using macrophages and monocytes , as well as in vivo in models of hepatic injury . however , one hypothesis is that md2 is likely to be important for hmgb-1-tlr4 interactions in endothelial cells as well . an important etiologic factor in the development of atherosclerosis is the incorporation of lipids into inflammatory cells and intimal lesions . tlr4 has been demonstrated to mediate uptake of minimally oxidized ldl ( mmldl ) in circulation by monocytes , as well as in tissue by activated macrophages . cytoskeletal rearrangements in macrophages exposed to mmldl appear to be a response to bioactive cholesteryl esters within the molecule . macropinocytosis , or uptake of small particles within fluid that is associated with the ruffled appearance of activated macrophages , occurred in tlr4-competent cells exposed to mmldl . interestingly , this phenomenon was largely a myd88-independent event , perhaps signifying an important role for trif - mediated signaling downstream of tlr4 in these processes . other tlrs have been posited to play a role in atherosclerotic lesion formation . citing inflammation as an initial insult for plaque development , zimmer et al . investigated the role of tlr3 , a receptor for viral double stranded rna that signals through trif . tlr3 can also respond to endogenous ligands released locally from tissue damage . in this paper , control mice , or those with deficient tlr3 signaling , were injected with the double stranded rna analog polyinosinic polycytidylic acid ( poly : ic ) . wild - type mice injected with poly : ic developed impaired endothelium - dependent vasodilation and development of reactive oxygen species from aortic rings . tlr3 knockout mice maintained normal vasodilatation and attenuated reactive oxygen species with poly : ic treatment . reendothelialization after denudation injury was also impaired in wt mice exposed to poly : ic but maintained in tlr3 knockout mice . the authors of this report suggested that tlr3 activation by endogenous ligands released at the time of arterial injury may be an etiologic factor of all stages of atherosclerosis , given its constitutive expression on ec , and the potential for injury in surrounding areas . toll - like receptors like tlr4 expression have also been demonstrated on cardiomyocytes . in 1999 , frantz et al . demonstrated tlr4 expression in both normal and failing myocardium . in that early report , tlr4 expression was found to be present not only in cardiomyocytes but also in microvascular cells within the hearts of both rodents and humans . additionally , the presence of congestive heart failure resulted in focal , intense staining of tlr4 . one of the prevailing theories regarding the role of tlr signaling in the heart during sterile conditions was its ability to mediate engulfment of apoptotic cells . since that time , a number of studies have postulated a role for tlr4 in cardiomyocyte apoptosis as well as cardiac muscle remodeling after injury [ 45 , 57 ] . interestingly , lps , the main ligand for tlr4 , has been shown to be antiapoptotic and protective in the heart . administration of lps to cardiomyocytes in culture as well as in vivo resulted in improved contractility as well as diminished apoptosis in a myd88 and nos2 dependent manner . in contrast , activation of tlr4 through endogenous danger signals such as hsp60 has been shown to be proapoptotic and attenuated using antagonists of tlr4 activity . administration of hsp60 resulted in greater expression of activated caspase-3 as well as increased dna fragmentation in cardiac myocytes . antibodies against tlr2 and cd14 had no effect on apoptosis under similar conditions . in another study by timmer et al . , functional tlr4 was associated with negative left ventricular remodeling and function following myocardial infection . in those experiments , investigators utilized c3h / hej mice , which exhibit tlr4 incompetence rather than absence . tlr4 incompetence was associated with preservation of systolic function , diminished interstitial fibrosis , and attenuated myocardial hypertrophy . these findings were similarly associated with diminished expression of inflammatory cytokines , tumor necrosis factor alpha , interferon - gamma , granulocyte / macrophage - colony - stimulating factor , and matrix metalloproteinase-2 in c3h / hej mice compared to controls . these data suggest that attenuating tlr4 activity in muscle ischemia may be an important therapeutic intervention in the management of ischemic cardiomyopathy and congestive heart failure . tlr2 has also been shown to play a role in apoptotic pathways within cardiac muscle . in one study by frantz et al . , neutralizing antibodies to tlr2 enhanced oxidative stress in rat ventricular myocytes . hydrogen peroxide- ( h2o2- ) induced cytotoxicity was promoted in cells treated with tlr2 antagonism , suggested by higher levels of annexin - staining cells . tlr2 also was shown to result in nfb translocation in hamster ovary cells in response to h2o2 , suggesting that reactive oxygen species may be a target of tlr2 signaling . in this study , others have also demonstrated a protective , proangiogenic role for tlr2 in response to endogenous oxidative signals . a role for toll - like receptor activity has been described in the etiology of myopathy and myositis , distinct from ischemic insults . in 2006 , schreiner et al . they demonstrated that muscle cells demonstrated low levels of tlrs 17 as well as tlr9 by analysis of protein as well as mrna levels . interestingly , expression of tlr3 could be upregulated with activation by its own ligand poly : ic as well as interferon - gamma . not surprisingly , the expression of tlr3 was largely intracellular , as it is an endosomal receptor for double stranded rna . activation of tlr3 resulted in translocation of nf-b and release of interleukin-8 in cultured cells . finally , these researchers demonstrated high levels of tlr3 in inclusion bodies found within myocytes of patients with hiv induced inclusion - body myositis . in one recent study by zong et al . , tlr4 was found to be expressed in the myoplasm of skeletal muscle biopsies taken from both healthy subjects as well as those from polymyositis ( pm ) and dermatomyositis ( dm ) patients . while the amount of tlr4 in patients and control subjects was not different , colocalization with major histocompatibility complex-1 ( mhc-1 ) furthermore , in mice , hmgb1 was found to increase the expression of mhc-1 on flexor digitorum brevis ( fdb ) fibers in a tlr4-dependent manner . the redox state of hmgb1 has been shown by others to be critical to its functionality as well as its localization within the cell . further specified that maintenance of a thiol group in cysteine ( c ) 106 and a disulfide bond between c23 and c45 on the hmgb1 molecule was required for interaction between hmgb1 and tlr4 on fdb muscle fibers . in another study evaluating mouse models of muscular dystrophy , tlr7 appeared to play an important role in inflammatory responses in dystrophin - deficient muscle cells . specifically , myoblasts harvested from the diaphragm , gastrocnemius , and soleus of dystrophic mice ( mdx ) expressed a number of toll - like receptors including tlr2 , tlr4 , tlr7 , and tlr9 . additionally , myoblasts produced cytokines when activated by specific tlr ligands , including single stranded rna ( ssrna ) , an activator of tlr7 signaling . when mdx mice were bred with myd88 knockout mice , they demonstrated improved hindlimb strength , suggesting that this critical mediator of most tlr signaling contributes to the pathophysiology of weakness in dystrophic mice . tlr4 antagonism has not been proposed as a therapy for the management of ischemic muscle injury and its clinical sequelae . furthermore , the majority of studies have investigated tlr function in the setting of cardiomyocyte ischemia and not the ischemia that affects skeletal muscle induced by peripheral arterial disease . for this reason , our laboratory has been invested in studying how danger signaling and tlr activity modulates responses to skeletal muscle ischemia , using mouse models of induced myocardial injury . if modulation of tlr signaling improves skeletal muscle function in the setting of ischemia , many patients with significant peripheral arterial disease who are not candidates for revascularization , or who are impaired by intermittent claudication , may benefit from this novel line of therapy . the innate immune system is likely to play an important role in angiogenesis , particularly in response to tissue ischemia . ischemia in brain , muscle , and liver has been shown to result in release of the danger signal hmgb1 from its normal nuclear stores [ 65 , 66 ] . release suggests that hmgb1 can then act locally and/or systemically to mediate both inflammatory and restorative processes . hmgb1 is a highly conserved and ubiquitous nuclear protein that can be secreted by activated macrophages and dendritic cells . it is passively released by necrotic but not apoptotic cells [ 10 , 6769 ] . extracellular hmgb1 functions as a cytokine and , in animal models , has been shown to be a late mediator of lethality in sepsis , as well as a mediator of remote organ damage after tissue injury [ 29 , 30 , 67 , 70 , 71 ] . neutralizing antibodies to hmgb1 attenuates liver damage in animal models of ischemia - reperfusion injury , supporting its role in mediating systemic inflammatory effects [ 29 , 30 , 71 ] . in the setting of lower extremity ischemia , hypoxic muscle cell injury is prominent and may serve as a large source of local hmgb1 release . palumbo et al . have shown that hmgb1 induces the proliferation and migration of mesoangioblasts , vessel - associated stem cells that are home to damaged muscle and engage in regeneration . degryse et al . reported an effect of hmgb1 on chemotaxis and cytoskeletal reorganization in rat smooth muscle cells . additionally , hmgb1 has been shown to induce migration of endothelial progenitor cells , ec sprouting , and cell migration in wounded endothelial monolayers . in vivo , hmgb1 has been shown to be critical to axonal elongation in the central nervous system [ 7881 ] and may play an analogous role in the vascular system . administration of intramuscular hmgb1 in the setting of hindlimb ischemia increased limb perfusion by laser doppler perfusion imaging ( ldpi ) , led to the development of more mature collaterals than in control treated animals , and increased the number of regenerating muscle fibers . rage has been implicated in a variety of diseases including diabetes and neurological disorders and has been shown to mediate axonal regeneration in a hmgb1 dependent fashion [ 78 , 79 , 85 ] . rage has been shown to mediate ec sprouting and migration in response to hmgb1 and until recently had been the only receptor linked to a possible role in hmgb1-mediated angiogenesis . tlr4-mediated inflammation has been shown to be important in arteriogenesis , the maturation of preexisting collaterals in the setting of increased shear stress . this would suggest that tlr4 is protective in the setting of tissue ischemia , promoting neovascularization and improved tissue perfusion . however , others , including our laboratory , have demonstrated mixed results regarding the role of tlr4 in response to muscle ischemia . in mice in which tlr4 is present but nonfunctional , loss of tlr4 is detrimental leading to increased tissue necrosis and a poor angiogenic response . in contrast , c57b6 mice in which tlr4 is genetically absent ( tlr4ko ) demonstrate faster return of perfusion to a limb rendered ischemic by femoral artery ligation . loss of the lipoprotein receptor tlr2 , however , results in pronounced necrosis , abnormal appearing vessels , and potentially lack of protection against tlr4 mediated inflammation [ 47 , 86 ] . these findings would suggest that the interplay of tlr4 and other tlrs such as tlr2 is critical in stemming overwhelming inflammation and tissue damage . genetic absence of myd88 results in diminished il-6 levels after ischemia and attenuated recruitment of inflammatory cells . in contrast , trif absence resulted in a prolonged inflammatory state , with il6 levels remaining elevated up to a week after the initial injury . furthermore , inflammatory cell recruitment was elevated in the absence of trif , and regeneration severely diminished [ 86 , 87 ] . these results mimicked those of tlr2ko mice ; however , tlr2 is not known to signal through trif . these findings suggest that , in the setting of limb ischemia , tlr pathways may demonstrate complex and potentially novel interactions to promote both inflammation and recovery from the injury ( figure 1 ) . modulation of innate immunity , danger signaling , and toll - like receptor activity has not been a major focus in the management of pad . however , inferences from their roles in cardiac pathology in both human disease and animal models suggest that their pathways may present new therapeutic targets for arterial disease . tlr4 antagonism has been tested in sepsis with disappointing results , but it is possible that these agents can be repurposed to help manage the consequences of peripheral ischemia . this avenue of research may be beneficial to pursue to help define a new line of therapy for patients with severe pad . a theoretical concern exists that overwhelming immunosuppression may occur by employing antagonists of tlr function to combat disease . however , antagonism of tlr signaling has been proposed and investigated in a variety of infectious disease processes without such consequences and is reviewed by savva and roger . because tlr function is often redundant , inhibition of single tlrs may not necessarily result in overwhelming immunosuppression . by the same argument , eritoran tetrasodium ( e5564 ; eritoran , eisai ; andover , ma ) is a second - generation lipid - a analog that targets lps - tlr4-md2 interaction . in preclinical studies , it was found to diminish cytokine release from human monocytes exposed to lps , including expression of tnf - alpha . furthermore , it reduced mortality in mice exposed to lps in a dose - dependent fashion . however , in the access trial , eritoran had no effect in reducing 28-day patient mortality due to sepsis . treatment - emergent adverse events including atrial fibrillation , hepatic dysfunction , hemorrhagic events , and phlebitis were similar between treatment and placebo groups . in regard to side effects , when administered to normal volunteers in early phase studies , eritoran was associated with a dose - dependent phlebitis at the injection site . other side effects such as dyspepsia , gastrointestinal discomfort , fever , vasodilation , lft abnormalities , pharyngitis , and conjunctivitis were not different between placebo and eritoran groups . whether anti - tlr4 treatments would be effective in managing pad remains to be investigated , but the suggestion represents a novel approach to treating patients with cardiovascular disease . while data from knockout mice suggest that diminishing tlr4 activity may offer promising results in improving both perfusion and muscle recovery in the short term , further studies employing exogenously administered tlr4 antagonists would be required in preclinical experiments . modulation of tlr activity in cardiovascular biology remains an intriguing line of investigation , particularly as it relates to patients with severe lower extremity arterial insufficiency .	peripheral artery disease ( pad ) can result in limb loss within six months of diagnosis in a subset of patients who can not undergo endovascular or surgical revascularization yet continues to maintain a marginal position in cardiovascular research . while a body of literature continues to grow describing the role of danger signaling and innate immunity in cardiac biology , the role of these pathways in the ischemic myopathy associated with pad has not been extensively studied . the following report will review the current literature on the role of toll - like receptor ( tlr ) signaling in cardiovascular biology as well as in nonischemic myopathy . while attenuation of tlr signaling has not been shown to be clinically useful in the treatment of infectious inflammation , it may show promise in the management of severe arterial insufficiency .
cytomegalovirus ( cmv ) disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients , particularly recipients of solid organ or bone marrow allograft , and patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome . although cmv pneumonia is well recognized as the commonest infectious cause of death in bone marrow allograft recipients , the morbidity associated with cmv gastroenteritis is sometimes overlooked . while chemoradiation treatment , graft - versus - host disease and various medications may lead to nausea and vomiting following bone marrow transplantation(bmt ) , persistent symptoms can not be explained in many cases and some cases may represent unrecognized gastrointestinal(gi ) infections . cytomegalovirus is the most prevalent infectious agent in the upper gi tract of symptomatic bmt recipients . before the introduction of effective antiviral therapy , mortality of cmv infection was very high , but the use of ganciclovir has improved the prognosis . however , the appropriate method for treatment of cmv - associated enteritis is still unknown . we report here a case of cmv duodenitis which developed following allogenic bmt and was successfully treated with ganciclovir . he received induction chemotherapy consisting of daunorubicin , vincristine , prednisolone and l - asparaginase . after two cycles of induction chemotherapy , complete remission was achieved and allogenic bmt was performed . preparative chemotherapy for bmt consisted of busulfan ( 1mg / kg p.o every 6 hours for 4 days ) and cytoxan ( 60mg / kg iv for 2 days ) . granulocyte colony - stimulating factor ( 450 g / day ) was given beginning on day 5 . enteral decontamination was done with ciprofloxacin and acyclovir was given for the prophylaxis of viral infection . the early post - bmt course was uneventful and the patient was considered to achieve engraftment by bone marrow aspiration and biopsy on post - transplant day 21 . he had , however , prolonged nausea and vomiting for 5 weeks after bmt and mild fever and watery diarrhea was developed , all of which necessitated hyperalimentation persistently . laboratory values included a wbc 4,200/mm , hemoglobin 9.0 mg / dl , hematocrit 25.7% , platelet 34,000/mm , bilirubin , liver transaminase , bun and creatinine were normal and the stool was negative for c. difficile toxin . weekly cmv blood cultures were all negative . for the evaluation of the prolonged nausea , vomiting and diarrhea , gastrofibroscopy and flexible sigmoidoscopy were performed on post - transplant day 39 . by gastroscopic finding , the stomach showed multiple hyperemic patchy erosions mainly in the greater curvature of the body and , on the second portion of the duodenum , an octopus sucker - like elevated lesion with central hyperemic erosion and several hyperemic flat erosive lesions were noted(fig . duodenal mucosal biopsy revealed cytomegalic cells which showed a large , densely staining nucleus and abundant cytoplasms with intracytoplasmic inclusion body(fig . the patient was treated with ganciclovir ( 5 mg / kg iv , twice a day for 3 weeks ) for the cmv duodenitis . nausea and vomiting were decreased and total parenteral nutrition could be stopped . at the end of 3 week s the gastrointestinal disorders which are seen between day 0 and 20 post - transplant are generally related to toxicity of conditioning therapy , bacterial and fungal infection and side effects of drugs . between day 20 to 30 post - transplant , the marrow graft becomes functional , but there is incomplete immunologic reconstitution . the abdominal symptoms at this time are commonly related to acute gvhd or viral infections , although venoocclusive disease may persist as well . thus , endoscopy with biopsy in symptomatic patients is an essential method for a definite diagnosis . conditions that specifically predispose to cmv disease of the gi tract in bmt recipients have not been identified , but presumably are similar to those identified as predisposing to cmv infection of any type . the relationship between gi gvhd and gi cmv infection or disease is not well understood . both of these conditions commonly coexist following bmt . whether gvhd of the gut may predispose to secondary invasion with cmv is not proven . in our patient , we could not find evidence of gvhd . an indication of the incidence of gi cmv disease was provided in a study by spencer et al , in which they performed upper gi endoscopy to investigate unexplained nausea and vomiting in bmt recipients . nineteen(38 % ) of the 50 patients had cmv infections of the esophagus and/or small intestine . in another study , 3 ( 12.5 % ) of 24 bmt recipients had gi involvement with cmv at autopsy . all levels of the gi tract have been reported as the sites of cmv infection . bmt recipients have a much higher likelihood of having involvement of the upper gi tract ( esophagus , stomach and duodenum ) than the lower gi tract . however studies that systematically examine the entire gi tract of these patient populations are not available . einsele et al reported that , because of the preferential involvement of the ascending colon and terminal ileum by cmv virus , a colonoscopy of the entire colon and terminal ileum , including biopsies from these sites , should be performed in all patients with severe diarrhea following allogenic bmt . since endoscopic findings are variable , such as erythema , erosions , ulcerations , hemorrhage , nodules and polyps , and radiological findings were nonspecific for cmv infection , a biopsy was required for a definite diagnosis . the presence of cytomegalic cells on mucosal biopsy specimens stained with hematoxylin and eosin has been considered as the gold standard for establishing a diagnosis of cmv gi disease . to enhance the sensitivity and specificity of histopathologic analysis immunohistochemical staining methods for cmv antigens , using monoclonal antibodies , have been developed and utilized effectively . in our patient , we could be convinced of the diagnosis because the immunohistochemical staining confirmed the presence of cmv antigen in the biopsy specimen . although ganciclovir , an antiviral agent with both in - vitro and in - vivo activity against cmv , has been used in treatment of cmv disease , the appropriate method for treatment of cmv enteritis is currently unknown , and therapy with ganciclovir has been less successful in the treatment of gi cmv disease in the bmt population than in the solid organ transplantation population . a placebo - controlled trial by reed et al found no evidence of clinical or endoscopic improvement of gi cmv disease after 2 weeks of treatment with ganciclovir as compared with supportive care . however , on the basis of experiences in cmv pneumonitis , it is common practice to use ganciclovir . the usual induction dose is 10 to 15 mg / kg per day administered in 2 to 3 divided doses daily for 3 weeks . ganciclovir therapy for 3 weeks resulted in both a clinical and endoscopic remission of cmv duodenitis in our patient . it is not established whether maintenance therapy with ganciclovir should be given . in patients with severe and persistent immune deficiency , such as gvhd or aids , the relapse rate is high and some physicians advise maintenance therapy after induction therapy to prevent or delay relapse . so , we decided not to give maintenance ganciclovir therapy and he was free of cmv infection post - transplant day 288 . in conclusion , cmv disease should be suspected in the bmt patients complaining of prolonged nausea and vomiting , and appropriate biopsies and cultures should be done to confirm the diagnosis .	cytomegalovirus ( cmv ) disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised patients . cmv enteritis should be considered when nausea and vomiting continue 3 to 4 weeks after bone marrow transplantation ( bmt ) . the treatment of cmv enteritis is not well established . we report a cmv duodenitis patient following allogenic bone marrow transplantation . the patient had prolonged nausea and vomiting for 5 weeks after bone marrow transplantation and cmv duodenitis was diagnosed by the gastroduodenoscopic mucosal biopsy which showed cytomegalic cells . ganciclovir treatment for 3 weeks resulted in the resolution of symptoms and promoted healing of the lesion . the patient was free of cmv infection until 288 days after allogenic bmt without maintenance ganciclovir treatment .
irreversible hair cell loss is a major cause of permanent sensorineural hearing loss with no effective treatment . pathogenic variants in hundreds of genes are responsible for many forms of hereditary hearing loss . the development of strategies for hair cell regeneration and for gene delivery has become a major focus in the search for potential therapeutic approaches to restoring hearing [ 13 ] . lower vertebrates including birds and fish can regenerate hair cells throughout life after hair cell loss by two mechanisms . first , inner ear supporting cells and remaining hair cells may reenter the cell cycle and differentiate into new hair cells . second , surrounding cells located under the lost hair cells may also directly transdifferentiate into new hair cells [ 46 ] . however , the mammalian inner ear has lost the capacity to regenerate hair cells spontaneously . one strategy to regenerate hair cells in mammals to restore hearing is to induce surrounding cells especially supporting cells to transdifferentiate into hair cells directly . another approach is to induce remaining hair cells or supporting cells to reenter the cell cycle and for supporting cells to further differentiate to hair cells [ 1 , 7 ] . either approach requires efficient delivery of genes necessary for the induction of these processes into mammalian inner ear cells . the inner ear is a particularly attractive organ for targeted gene therapy , because vectors can be locally delivered to the enclosed structure , which significantly reduces systemic side effects . one of the major hurdles to achieve hair cell regeneration or gene correction by gene therapy is the lack of efficient and specific vehicle to deliver genes into mammalian inner ear cells . adenovirus ( ad ) and adeno - associated virus ( aav ) are the most common vectors used for inner ear gene delivery . both have been used to successfully transfer functional genes into the mammalian inner ear for gene therapy [ 823 ] . ad vector is a good choice due to its high transfection efficiency in diverse tissues and cell types , with high level of expression soon after infection . furthermore , ad vector has low immunogenicity and toxicity [ 1523 ] . comparing to aav vectors , for example , the most commonly used adenovirus vectors , which are e1/e3 deletion mutants , allow the insertion of up to 10 kb of foreign dna into the viral vector genome , while an aav can only carry up to 4.7 kb of foreign dna [ 13 , 24 ] . previous studies have demonstrated the ability of ad vectors to transduce cochlear hair cells and supporting cells [ 513 ] . in mammalian inner ear , transduction by ad vectors is organ ( cochlea versus vestibule ) , cell type ( inner hair cells ( ihcs ) , outer hair cells ( ohcs ) , and supporting cells ( scs ) ) , region ( base , middle , and apical turns ) , and age dependence . the transduction patterns of ad vectors in the inner ear vary . in order to use ad vectors to effectively deliver genes into specific inner ear cell subtypes , it is important to characterize the transduction patterns of viral vector subtypes under various experimental conditions , including animal age , route of inoculation , viral preparations , volume , and number of viral particles . to identify commercially available ad vectors for their inner ear delivery patterns , we analyzed ad vectors carrying a gfp from baylor college of medicine ( ad - gfp - baylor ) and from vector biolabs ( ad - gfp - vb ) and an ad vector carrying gfp linked with a genome editing gene cre recombinase ( cre ) from baylor college of medicine ( ad - cre - gfp - baylor ) in vivo for their potential for inner ear gene delivery in p0 and p4 mouse cochleae . we obtained three commercially available ad vectors : ad - gfp - baylor ( baylor college of medicine , houston , tx , usa ) , ad - gfp - vb ( vector biolabs , malvern , pa , usa ) , and ad - cre - gfp - baylor ( baylor college of medicine , houston , tx , usa ) . the titers of ad - gfp - baylor , ad - gfp - vb , and ad - cre - gfp - baylor were 2.5 105 10 plaque - forming unit ( pfu)/ml , 1 10 pfu / ml , and 1.7 10 pfu / ml , respectively . we consider the titer of ad - gfp - baylor as 10 10 pfu / ml for dilution . we diluted all ads to 1 10 pfu / ml with storage buffer according to the vectors instructions from two vendors for microinjection . p0 and p4 cd1 mice ( charles river laboratory , wilmington , ma , usa ) were used for ad - cre - gfp - baylor , ad - gfp - baylor , and ad - gfp - vb injection , according to protocols approved by the massachusetts eye & ear infirmary iacuc committee . cochleostomies were performed by making an incision behind the right ear to expose the cochlea . glass micropipettes ( wpi , sarasota , fl , usa ) held by a nanoliter microinjection system ( wpi , sarasota , fl , usa ) were used to deliver the ad into the scala media , which allows access to inner ear cells . a total volume of ~0.2 l was injected per cochlea on the right side and the release was controlled by a micromanipulator at the speed of 3 nl / sec . four days after injection , mice were sacrificed and cochleae were harvested by standard protocols [ 1 , 17 ] . for whole - mount immunofluorescence , primary antibodies against hc ( myo7a , # 25 - 6790 , proteus biosciences ) and sc ( sox2 , # sc-17320 , santa cruz biotech ) markers and fluorescent - labeled secondary antibodies ( invitrogen ) were used following a previously described protocol . to quantify the proportion of gfp positive cells after ad injection , we counted the number of gfp positive ihcs , ohcs , and scs , which were then divided by the total number of ihcs , ohcs , and scs , respectively , in a region spanning 200 m in the apical , middle , or basal turn of the cochlea . we injected ad vectors into the neonatal mouse inner ear at p0 or p4 via cochleostomy , because previous studies have shown that injection of aav into the neonatal mouse cochlea by cochleostomy resulted in efficient transduction in vivo without adversely affecting hearing . four days after injection of any of the three ad vectors into p0 or p4 mouse inner ears , cochlear structures remained intact and hair cells and supporting cells survived , indicating that the injection and ad transduction did not damage inner ear cells ( figures 17 ) . we assessed the transduction efficiency of the viral vectors by calculating the proportion of gfp positive cells , because all three ad vectors carried the gfp gene . whole - mount immunofluorescence labeling of hc and sc markers myo7a and sox2 identified hair cells and supporting cells , respectively . we found that the ad - cre - gfp - baylor transduction was restricted to the injected side and no gfp expression was observed in the uninjected inner ear ( figure 1(d ) ) . same was true for ad - gfp - baylor and ad - gfp - vb ( data not shown ) . our results confirmed that targeted delivery of ad vectors via cochleostomy was confined within the injected inner ear . our results showed that three different ad vectors injected at two different ages transduced different cell types in different cochlear regions with varying efficiencies ( table 1 ) . ad - cre - gfp - baylor , when injected at p0 , efficiently transduced more than 70% of scs but not hcs in the basal and middle turns ( figures 1(a ) and 1(b ) ) . it transduced few cells in the apical turn ( figure 1(c ) ) . comparing to injection at p0 , injected at p4 , ad - cre - gfp - baylor transduced fewer scs in the basal and middle turns , but more scs in the apical turn ( figure 4 ) . a similar trend of transduction efficiency in scs was observed for ad - gfp - baylor ( table 1 ) . it transduced inner ear cells more efficiently than ad - cre - gfp - baylor when injected at either p0 ( figure 2 ) or p4 ( figure 5 ) . furthermore , it also transduced a majority of ohcs in the apical turn and some ihcs in the basal turn when injected at p0 and ihcs in the middle turn and ohcs in the apical turn when injected at p4 . in contrast , ad - gfp - vb transduced fewer scs than either of the ad - gfp - baylor vectors with an opposite temporal trend : more efficiently when injected at p4 than at p0 ( table 1 , figures 3 and 6 ) . further , it more consistently transduced ihcs in the middle and apical turns and ohcs along the whole cochlear coil when injected at p0 ( table 1 ) . ad - gfp - baylor and ad - gfp - vb transduced vestibular hcs and scs with similar patterns when injected at either p0 or p4 ( figure 7 ) , whereas ad - cre - gfp - baylor transduced no utricular hcs or scs . in summary , we compared the transduction patterns of three ad vectors injected at two different ages . all three ad vectors consistently transduced scs , with ad - gfp - baylor exhibiting the highest transduction rate across the whole cochlea . ad - cre - gfp - baylor transduced only scs in the basal and middle turns . ad - gfp - baylor and ad - gfp - vb also transduced some hcs including both ihcs and ohcs ( table 1 ) . the overall transduction efficiency was lower for ad - gfp - baylor vectors when injected at p4 than at p0 but higher for ad - gfp - vb in scs . furthermore , ad - gfp - vb had a broader transduction pattern when injected at p0 as it transduced ohcs along the whole cochlea and ihcs at middle and apex turns , but it only transduced a few ohcs at the apical turn when injected at p4 . this study identified commercial adenovirus viral vectors that target mouse inner ear cell subtypes for gene delivery . three adenovirus vectors transduced p0 and p4 inner ear , with different specificities and expression levels that are dependent on the type of adenoviral vectors and the age of mice . the cochlear sensory epithelium , which harbors auditory hair cells and supporting cells , is transduced with higher efficiency . the infected cells survived at the time of the study ( four days after injection ) . the study shows that ad vectors are capable of transducing mammalian inner ear efficiently and provides useful tools to evaluate gene therapy and to study inner ear gene function . there are two approaches of hair cell regeneration : ( 1 ) direct transdifferentiation of surrounding cells especially supporting cells to change cell fate to become hair cells and ( 2 ) induction of cell cycle re - entry in cells such as supporting cells , which then further differentiate to replace damaged hair cells [ 1 , 25 , 26 ] . thus , supporting cells are ideal candidates for hair cell regeneration by direct transdifferentiation or by renewed proliferation with subsequent transdifferentiation . moreover many cases of sensorineural hearing loss and vestibular dysfunction are caused by a primary pathology in the sensory epithelium [ 17 , 18 ] . it is therefore important to express transgenes in the sensory epithelial cells such as supporting cells specifically . three ad vectors transduced scs efficiently , an indication that they could be useful for potential hair cell regeneration studies . ad - cre - gfp - baylor transduced scs only at middle and base turns when injected at p0 . the lack of transduction of the apical scs was likely due to limited diffusion of the viral particles . ad - cre - gfp - baylor transduces only scs , whereas ad - gfp - baylor transduced 80% ohcs at apex turn and some ihcs at base turn at p0 . can therefore be selected to deliver genes to only scs , hcs , or both . the volume and titer of vector inoculation influence the cell types and location of cells transduced by the virus . to compare the difference of three virus infection it is interesting that ad - gfp - baylor and ad - cre - gfp - baylor had different transduction specificities . however , according to the instruction of ad - gfp - baylor from baylor college of medicine , the virus particle ( vp ) to plaque - forming unit ( pfu ) ratio is in a range of 1 : 10 to 1 : 200 and the titer is 2.5 105 10 pfu / ml . we used the titer of 10 10 pfu / ml for dilution , which may be an underestimate of the actual titer as it had the highest transduction efficiency . injection into mouse cochlea through scala media by cochleostomy maximizes the efficiency as it allows virus to have access to many cochlear cell types . previous studies suggested that , a better outcome of cell survival , mice younger than p5 should be used , as ohcs will generally die due to surgery in mice older than p5 , especially at adult stage [ 8 , 9 , 13 ] . future study needs to focus on identification of a route by which injection can be performed in adult without causing cell death or hearing loss . combining a therapeutic transgene with a reporter gene would be informative for easy identification of the cell types targeted . the human inner ear is much larger in size and would facilitate a more accurate delivery , which could help with the development of gene therapy in patients . the present study explored commercial three ad vectors into the mouse inner ear in vivo . the results show the feasibility of gene transfer into mouse inner ear via ad vectors with different specificity and efficiency . future application of gene delivery for the inner ear may include the induction of hair cell regeneration and treatment of hereditary deafness and vestibular dysfunction . the ability of the cochleostomy to deliver reporter transgenes into a variety of cell types in the inner ear , including the sensory epithelium , makes this method attractive to target inner ear cell subtypes . continuous improvement in identification of highly efficient vectors targeting inner ear cell subtypes would advance their eventual use to treat hearing loss in human .	mammalian inner ear harbors diverse cell types that are essential for hearing and balance . adenovirus is one of the major vectors to deliver genes into the inner ear for functional studies and hair cell regeneration . to identify adenovirus vectors that target specific cell subtypes in the inner ear , we studied three adenovirus vectors , carrying a reporter gene encoding green fluorescent protein ( gfp ) from two vendors or with a genome editing gene cre recombinase ( cre ) , by injection into postnatal days 0 ( p0 ) and 4 ( p4 ) mouse cochlea through scala media by cochleostomy in vivo . we found three adenovirus vectors transduced mouse inner ear cells with different specificities and expression levels , depending on the type of adenoviral vectors and the age of mice . the most frequently targeted region was the cochlear sensory epithelium , including auditory hair cells and supporting cells . adenovirus with gfp transduced utricular supporting cells as well . this study shows that adenovirus vectors are capable of efficiently and specifically transducing different cell types in the mammalian inner ear and provides useful tools to study inner ear gene function and to evaluate gene therapy to treat hearing loss and vestibular dysfunction .
The firmness of your hand grip is better than your blood pressure at assessing your health, Hamilton researchers have found, and reduced muscular strength, measured by your grip, is consistently linked with early death, disability and illness. The research by the Population Health Research Institute of McMaster University and Hamilton Health Sciences was published in the journal The Lancet today. "Grip strength could be an easy and inexpensive test to assess an individual's risk of death and cardiovascular disease," said principal investigator Dr. Darryl Leong, an assistant professor of medicine of McMaster's Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine and cardiologist for the hospital. "Doctors or other healthcare professionals can measure grip strength to identify patients with major illnesses such as heart failure or stoke who are at particularly high risk of dying from their illness." The study followed almost 140,000 adults aged 35 to 70 over four years in 17 countries. Their muscle strength was measured using a handgrip dynamometer. They were taking part in the institute's Prospective Urban-Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study. The researchers found that for every five kilogram decline in grip strength, there was a one in six increased risk of death from any cause. There was the same 17% higher risk of death from either heart disease or stroke, or non-cardiovascular conditions. These associations with grip strength were not accounted for by differences in age, sex, education level, employment status, physical activity, tobacco and alcohol use, diet, BMI, waist-to-hip ratio or other conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, cancer, coronary artery disease, COPD, stroke or heart failure, or their country's wealth. Healthy grip strength does depend on the individual's size and weight, and in this study appeared to vary with ethnicity. Further analysis is needed to identify the cut-offs for healthy grip strength in people from different countries. Leong added that more research is also needed to establish whether efforts to improve muscle strength are likely to reduce an individual's risk of death and cardiovascular disease. The study was funded by the Canadian Institutes for Health Research, the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Ontario and grants from national health institutions of 15 other countries or pharmaceutical companies. \|\|\|\|\| A strong or weak hand grip carries more than just social cues. It may also help measure an individual’s risk for having a heart attack or stroke, or dying from cardiovascular disease. As part of the international Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study, researchers measured grip strength in nearly 140,000 adults in 17 countries and followed their health for an average of four years. A device called a dynamometer was used to assess grip strength. Each 11-pound decrease in grip strength over the course of the study was linked to a 16% higher risk of dying from any cause, a 17% higher risk of dying from heart disease, a 9% higher risk of stroke, and a 7% higher risk of heart attack. The connections between grip strength and death or cardiovascular disease remained strong even after the researchers adjusted for other things that can contribute to heart disease or death, such as age, smoking, exercise, and other factors. The findings were published online in The Lancet. Interestingly, grip strength was a better predictor of death or cardiovascular disease than blood pressure. “Grip strength could be an easy and inexpensive test to assess an individual’s risk of death and cardiovascular disease,” said lead author Dr. Darryl Leong, from the Population Health Research Institute at Hamilton Health Sciences and McMaster University in Canada, in a news release. Is grip strength a measure of biological age? The findings from the PURE study aren’t new. Previous research has also linked grip strength with future disability, death, and the onset of cardiovascular disease in adults. But this is the largest study to have made the connection. The fact that grip strength was a relevant measure across high-income, middle-income, and low-income countries lends credence to the findings. An individual’s age in years (chronological age) can be quite different from his or her biological age. Although there’s no exact definition for biological age, it generally indicates whether the body is functioning better or worse than its chronological age. Many things influence biological age. Key factors include overall physical fitness, the presence or absence of certain medical conditions, and muscle strength. The PURE study suggests that simply measuring one’s hand grip strength could be a good way to assess biological age. In an editorial accompanying the PURE results, Avan Aihie Sayer and Thomas Kirkwood of the University of Southampton and Newcastle University, both in the United Kingdom, suggest that “grip strength might act as a biomarker of ageing across the life course.” One intriguing finding was that a weaker hand grip wasn’t associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes, cancer, or other chronic conditions. So why would it be linked with a greater risk of dying? The researchers suggest that weaker muscle strength makes it more likely that a person will die sooner if he or she develops a chronic medical problem, compared with those who have more muscle strength. In other words, muscle strength could be good for survival. Strong muscles need work, nutrients, rest To build muscle strength, do resistance training two or three times per week. Give your muscles one or two days off in between workouts. Most people turn to dumbbells and weight machines to build muscles. Resistance bands work just as well. They are flat or tubular rubber bands that provide resistance as you move your arms and legs through different ranges of motion. You don’t have to limit muscle building to workouts. Take advantage of daily activities to challenge your muscles. For example: Lift a carton of milk a few times before you put it back in the refrigerator to build your arm muscles. Take the stairs whenever possible. This will build the muscles in your legs, hips, buttocks, and abdomen. Get active while talking on the phone or standing in line by doing leg lifts and heel raises. This will help strengthen the muscles in your legs and buttocks. It’s also important to get enough sleep. Sleep is critical for muscle recovery and proper healing of stressed tissues. Aim for seven to eight hours per night. That will give your body time to repair muscle tissue and replenish your muscle’s energy stores. Finally, your muscles need healthy nutrients to get stronger. You don’t need protein supplements or lots of meat. Beans, nuts, and fish can provide plenty of healthy protein. Get your carbs from whole grains and foods made from them. And eat five or more servings of fruits and vegetables a day. \|\|\|\|\| Image copyright Thinkstock The chances of having a heart attack, stroke or dying young may be hidden in the palm of the hand, a study suggests. A trial on nearly 140,000 people in 14 countries, published in the Lancet, suggests grip strength is better than blood pressure at predicting risk. The international research team said it would be a "simple, inexpensive" tool for doctors. Experts argued the link between grip and the heart was unclear and needed more study. The maximum crushing force you can exert in your grip naturally declines with age. But those whose grip strength declines fastest may be at greater risk of health problems, the study suggests. Women in their mid-20s have a grip strength about 75lb (34kg), which falls to 53lb in a 70-year-old. The equivalent figures for men are 119lb (54kg) falling to 84lb. The huge trial, in 14 countries, showed each 11lb (5kg) reduction in grip strength increased the odds of an early death by 16%. The odds of a fatal heart problem increased by 17% and a stroke by 9%. Doctors currently calculate the chances of a heart attack or stroke by filling in a questionnaire with the patient by assessing age, whether they smoke, obesity, cholesterol levels, blood pressure where they live and family history. The researchers argue grip strength makes more accurate predictions than blood pressure alone and could be a new tool for assessing risk. 'Easy test' Dr Darryl Leong, one of the researchers at McMaster University in Canada, said: "Grip strength could be an easy and inexpensive test to assess an individual's risk of death and cardiovascular disease. "Further research is needed to establish whether efforts to improve muscle strength are likely to reduce an individual's risk of death and cardiovascular disease." It is still unknown why worsening heart health could manifest as a weaker grip. Suggestions included hardening arteries reducing muscle strength. Doireann Maddock, from the British Heart Foundation, said: "The findings of this study are interesting. However, it doesn't explain why grip strength should be related to cardiovascular disease. "More research is needed to understand any possible link between the two. "The good news is we already know there are several established risk factors for cardiovascular disease and an NHS health check can assess your risk."	– Perhaps palm readers are on to something. A massive study of some 140,000 people aged 35 to 70 in 17 countries finds the palms of a person's hands may be better than blood pressure at indicating their risk of heart attack, stroke, or an early death. Specifically, researchers say quick declines in the force of a person's grip—as opposed to a slower, natural decline with age—show an increased risk for health problems, the BBC reports. Researchers monitored participants’ health over four years and used a handgrip dynamometer to measure grip strength, Harvard Health reports. Each 11-pound drop in grip strength was associated with an increase in a person's risk of dying from heart disease by 17% and from any cause by 16%. The weaker grip was also associated with an increased risk of stroke by 9% and heart attack by 7%, researchers say. There was no connection, however, to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cancer, or other chronic conditions. Researchers aren't sure why evidence of a weak heart might appear in a person's grip, but it's possible that hardened arteries hinder muscle strength. Experts also say a person’s grip is a strong indicator of a person’s biological age—a measure of body function influenced by physical fitness, illnesses, and strength—rather than their chronological age. "Grip strength could be an easy and inexpensive test to assess an individual's risk of death and cardiovascular disease," a researcher says in a press release. "Further research is needed to establish whether efforts to improve muscle strength are likely to reduce an individual's risk of death and cardiovascular disease." (A study claims our hands were designed to punch.)
The New York City area may receive 6 to 12 inches of snow from a storm that has crippled air traffic in Atlanta and prompted officials across the South to urge people to stay off the roads. Delta Air Lines Inc. and AirTran Holdings Inc. canceled most of their flights to and from Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International, the world’s busiest airport, after 6 inches (15 centimeters) of snow blanketed the area overnight. That system will combine with another by tomorrow and move up the East Coast with heavy snow that will disrupt travel, said Allan Huffman, a meteorologist for AirDat LLC in North Carolina, which installs weather-gathering sensors on commercial aircraft. “I would expect travel to be difficult up and down the East Coast for the next two or three days,” said Meredith Croke, also a meteorologist for AirDat. “Atlanta is a mess right now because they are not used to handling snow.” Delta scrubbed 1,450 flights today, or about 25 percent of its regular schedule, with the “overwhelming bulk” into and out of Atlanta, said Anthony Black, a spokesman for the Atlanta- based carrier. Delta and its regional partners account for about two-thirds of passengers in Atlanta, according to the Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Hartsfield-Jackson handles about 88 million passengers a year. Georgia Emergencies Georgia Governor Sonny Perdue, South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford and Atlanta Mayor Kasim Reed declared states of emergency and urged people to stay indoors and avoid driving. Hundreds of schools, government offices and businesses were closed, and thousands were without power. Sanford ordered 120 National Guard troops to help clear roads and respond to accidents. Some roads in northern Alabama also have been closed, according to the state’s Department of Transportation. Huntsville, Alabama, recorded its third-largest snowfall, with 8.9 inches, according to the National Weather Service. The record was 17.1 inches set Dec. 31, 1963, into Jan. 1, 1964, the agency said. As of 1:30 p.m. East Coast time, 12.5 inches of snow had fallen in western North Carolina, according to the weather service. Pickens County, in South Carolina, reported 9 inches as of 12:27 p.m. Alerts Posted Winter weather advisories and storm warnings stretch from New Mexico to Virginia and cover all or part of 21 states, according to the weather service. A winter storm watch for tomorrow’s system stretches from Virginia to New Hampshire and includes New York City, Baltimore, Philadelphia and Boston. “We’re looking at another significant snowfall with 6 or more inches of snow,” said Brian Ciemnecki, a weather service meteorologist in Upton, New York. “There’s a pretty strong storm system moving through the southeastern portion of the U.S. and that low is expected to move off the southeast coast and take a track northeast.” As much as 12 inches may fall in New York and its suburbs in New Jersey, Long Island and Connecticut, according to the weather service. “The key accumulating period is tomorrow night into Wednesday morning,” said Matt Rogers, president of Commodity Weather Group LLC, a commercial forecaster in Bethesda, Maryland. “I don’t think it will be as bad as the Christmas storm, but it will definitely be worse than last week’s little guy.” Last Big Storm A winter storm struck New York and the Northeast the day after Christmas, dropping at least 20 inches of snow on Central Park and forcing the cancellation of more than 8,000 flights. The Dec. 26-27 storm left some New York City streets unplowed for days and garbage pickups backlogged. It cost New York at least $20 million of its $38.8 million snow-removal budget, according to the city’s Sanitation Department. The storm currently bringing snow and ice across the South will merge with one making its way across the Ohio Valley, Huffman said. That combined system will move up the East Coast, said Travis Hartman, a meteorologist with MDA Federal Inc.’s EarthSat Energy Weather in Rockville, Maryland. ‘Impressive-Looking System’ “As the low approaches the Jersey coast, rapid intensification is seen to commence which will help bring heavier snow falls to New York City, Connecticut, Rhode Island and into Massachusetts,” Hartman said. “Models have begun to converge on a pretty impressive-looking system.” In Philadelphia, the forecast calls for 4 or more inches of snow to start falling tomorrow. Boston can expect to receive from 7 to 12 inches of snow, according to the weather service. Snow will probably start in Boston tomorrow before midnight and then continue through the next day, said Alan Dunham, a weather service meteorologist in Taunton, Massachusetts. “The Wednesday morning commute is going to be pretty much a nightmare all over,” Dunham said of Boston and Providence, Rhode Island. After the snow leaves, southern New England will be clear and cold, with maybe a snow shower, through the weekend, when the National Football League’s New England Patriots will host the New York Jets in the second round of the American Football Conference playoffs. To contact the reporters on this story: Brian K. Sullivan in Boston at [email protected]; Mary Jane Credeur in Atlanta at [email protected]. To contact the editor responsible for this story: Dan Stets at [email protected] \|\|\|\|\| Sorry, the page you requested was not found. Please check the URL for proper spelling and capitalization. If you're having trouble locating a destination on Yahoo!, try visiting the Yahoo! home page or look through a list of Yahoo!'s online services. Also, you may find what you're looking for if you try searching below. Search the Web advanced search \| most popular Please try Yahoo! Help Central if you need more assistance.	– Uh-oh: Is New York City's sanitation department ready for another epic snowstorm? The storm currently wreaking havoc on the southern US will merge with a Midwest storm today, potentially resulting in another blizzard tomorrow night in the same northeastern area that got pounded by snow after Christmas. The storm could bring six to 12 inches or more of snow, plus high winds, AOL News reports. It is expected to affect northern New Jersey all the way to eastern New England. Click for more on the coming storm. Meanwhile, the storm in the South caused at least two airlines to cancel most of their flights into and out of Atlanta, the world’s busiest airport, Bloomberg notes. Says one meteorologist, “I would expect travel to be difficult up and down the East Coast for the next two or three days.”
subarachnoid hemorrhage- ( sah- ) induced cerebral vasospasm remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients suffering from aneurism rupture [ 13 ] . as effective therapies to change this condition are lacking , a growing body of researches indicates that two hypotheses include the role of endothelins and free nitric oxide and another role of inflammation in the development and maintenance of delayed vasoconstriction [ 612 ] . if sah occurs , a cascade of cellular and molecular events is elicited by the presence of oxyhemolysate in the subarachnoid space , and these culminate in a vigorous inflammatory response . the putative importance of inflammatory activity has not been fully emphasized , even though its role in the genesis of cerebral vasospasm has been recognized . till now , various inflammatory constituents including adhesion molecules , cytokines , leukocytes , immunoglobulins , and complements have been observed in the pathogenesis of sah - induced early brain injury and delayed cerebral vasospasm [ 1 , 3 , 4 , 79 ] . the levels of cytokines have been found over time to increase in cerebrospinal fluid ( csf ) after sah in our previous study . however , the benefits of inflammation development after sah remain unclear . toll - like receptors ( tlrs ) are a family of pattern recognition receptors and act as a signal - transducer for microbial peptidoglycan and lipoglycan , which initiate innate immunity [ 7 , 11 , 1416 ] . tlr-2 is expressed on microglia , schwann cells , monocytes , dendritic cells , polymorphonuclear leukocytes , pulmonary alveoli , and renal tubules [ 17 , 18 ] ; tlr-3 is abundant in placental , pancreatic , and dendritic cells ; tlr-4 exists in placental cells and myelocytes . recent studies indicate whether tlr-2 knock - out mice expressed severe neurological deterioration in the presence of -amyloid deposit or not . in cole 's study , tlr-3 showed a protective role in mouse models of atherosclerosis through activating interferon regulatory factor 3 and inducing type i interferons . likewise , through acting with endogenous ox - ldl , heat shock protein 60 and 70 , fibrinogen , and fibronectin in the csf or brain , tlr-4 has been demonstrated to be able to initiate inflammation related to stroke , alzheimer 's disease , huntington 's disease , and parkinson 's disease [ 19 , 20 ] . a spinal cord injury study shows that both tlr-2 and -4 play a protective role through regulating inflammation , gliosis , and demyelination . the novel interpretation illustrates that tlrs can lead to new exciting avenues for future investigation into the prevention and treatment of stroke and other neurological degenerative disorders . it may be reasonable to postulate that tlrs are involved in inflammation in the brain and play a putative role in early brain damage after sah . glycyrrhizin , a traditional herbal remedy , has been used for the treatment of chronic virus hepatitis and gastric ulcer in asia . recently , several studies have demonstrated that the chemical constituents of glycyrrhizin have a variety of biological effects such as anti - inflammatory , antioxidant activities and free radical scavenging activity , antiulcer , antihepatotoxic , antimicrobial , cytoprotective , cytotoxic activities ( 7y11 ) , and also neuroprotective effects against forebrain ischemic damage [ 2226 ] . moreover , glycyrrhizin 's anti - inflammatory effects can be attributed to its inhibition of de novo tlrs . in kim et al . 's study , glycyrrhizin was reported to be neuroprotective by binding the high - mobility group box 1 protein and reducing proinflammatory cytokine activities in an ischemic brain [ 27 , 28 ] . in our pilot study , purified glycyrrhizin extract in 0.01% ammonium chloride solution made the compound easily dissolved in vehicle ( 0.9% sodium chloride ) for transportation to the central nerve system and ready for further study . taking these findings together , we designed this study to evaluate the relationship between sah - induced vasospasm and expressed levels of tlr-2 , -3 , and -4 , which are believed to play a critical role in sterile inflammation and against sah - induced ischemic brain injury and delayed vasoconstriction . the effects of glycyrrhizin on the prevention of cerebral vasospasm after sah and alterations of tlrs mrna were estimated . glycyrrhizin was further purified according to the modified protocol described by cui et al . . the extract was inoculated with ammonium chloride for 2 hr and then let dry in methanol overnight in 24c , so glycyrrhizin was obtained ( purity 75 to 90% via chromatographic analysis ) . monoclonal anti - rat interleukin 1- antibody was bought from sigma - aldrich ( no 1010 huai hai zhong road , shanghai 200031 , prc ) . anti - rat interleukin 2 , monoclonal anti - rat interleukin 6 , and horseradish peroxidase - labeled goat anti - mouse igg antibodies were obtained from abcam ( 1 kendall square , ste 341 cambridge , ma 02139 - 1517 , usa ) , bd transduction lab ( bd biosciences 2350 qume drivesan jose , ca , usa ) , upstate biotech ( 10 old barn road lake placid , ny , usa ) , santa cruz biotech ( santa cruz biotechnology inc . , 2145 delaware avenuesanta cruz , ca 95060 , usa ) , and chemicon international ( 28820 single oak drive temecula , ca 92590 , usa ) , respectively . cnm protein extraction kits were from biochain ( 3517 breakwater avenue , hayward , ca 94545 , usa ) . wu sc ( kaohsiung medical university hospital , 100 tzyou 1st road , kaohsiung 807 . taiwan , roc ) and further extracted by sephadex lh-20 multiple column chromatography for four times . ( pharmacia fine chemicals , piscataway , nj , usa ) . forty - five male sprague - dawley rats , weighing between 350450 g ( biolasco taiwan co. , ltd . , authorized by charles river lab ) , were used in this study . all experimental protocols were approved and under supervision by the university of kaohsiung medicine animal research committee . the rats were anesthetized by an intramuscular injection of a mixture of 0.9 mg/100 gm xylazine and 5.5 mg/100 gm ketaved . 0.3 ml arterial blood was withdrawn and injected into the cisterna magna using a 30-gauge needle under a stereotactic apparatus ( stoelting , wood dale , il , us ) . after the induction , animals were placed in ventral recumbent position for 15 minutes to allow ventral blood clot formation . after close monitoring for respiratory distress and giving mechanical ventilation if necessary , the animals were returned to the vivarium when fully awake . they were placed in a habitat with a 12 hr light - dark cycle and had access to food and water ad libitum . the rats were randomly divided into the following five groups ( nine animals / group ) : ( 1 ) sham operated ( no sah ) ; ( 2 ) sah only ; ( 3 ) sah plus vehicle ; ( 4 ) sah plus glycyrrhizin ( 5 mg / kg / day ) ; and ( 5 ) sah plus precondition glycyrrhizin ( 5 mg / kg / day ) . the dosage was adjusted according to our pilot study . the first injections given to animals were administered 24 hr before ( pretreatment ) and 1 hr after induction of sah ( treatment ) by using an osmotic mini - pump ( alzet corp , palo alto , ca ) . after the animals received reanesthesia , csf sampling was obtained through a 30-gauge needle into the cranial - cervical junction by using stereotactic apparatus ( stoelting , wood dale , il , us ) . cortical tissue samples were obtained by means of placing a 22-gauge needle inserted 5 mm in depth into the skull bone ( n = 5 ) through a burr hole craniectomy ( 2 mm apart from the bregma ) at 24 , 48 , and 72 hrs . by the end of sah , the animals were reanesthetized by administration of pancuronium bromide ( 0.3 mg / kg ) . the femoral artery was catheterized to monitor blood pressure and obtain blood samples to determine arterial blood gas , na , k , got , and gpt levels . as the thorax was opened , the left ventricle was canalled with a no16 catheter , the descending aorta was clamped , and the right atrium was opened . perfusion with 100 ml of 70 mm hg of 0.01 m phosphate buffer ( ph 7.4 ) was begun , followed by fixation with 160 ml 2% paraformaldehyde in the pbs solution at 36c under a perfusion pressure of 60 mm hg . thereafter , the brain was harvested and immersed in a fixative at 4c overnight . visual inspection showed that formed subarachnoid clots covered the basilar artery ( ba ) in all sah animals . the ba was rinsed repeatedly with 0.1 mol / l pbs ( ph 7.4 ) , fixed in 1% osmium tetroxide in pbs for 1 hr , and then washed with pbs at 24c . the arterial segments were dehydrated in a 1 : 1 mixture of propylene oxide and placed in an epoxy resin overnight . the specimens were flat - embedded in 100% epoxy resin and allowed to polymerize at 60c for 48 hrs . 0.25 m in thickness of the bas was cross - sectioned on an ultracut e ultramicrotome ( reichert ) and stained with 0.5% toluidine blue for further analysis . five selected arterial sections of each animal were analyzed by an investigator blinded to the experiment assigned . measurement of the ba cross - sectional area was made using an automatic computer - assisted morphometer ( image 1 , universal imaging corp . ) . a single value for each animal was obtained from an average of five cross - sections from a given animal . the abi prism 7900 system ( applied biosystems , foster city , usa ) was applied to establish the expression of mrna ( rt - pcr ) , according to the manufacturer 's instructions . the mrnas for il-1 , il-6 , il-8 , and mcp-1 expression were examined , while 18s was assigned as a housekeeping gene owing to its stable expression . in brief , each sample was launched into a taqman human cytokine card that enclosed probes and primers for specific targets as well as the 18s ribosomal rna control . this procedure was operated through an affixed filling reservoir and a vacuum loading process by using the abi prism card filling station . target mrnas were standardized next to the reference gene ( 18s ) and final data were expressed as a relative fold from baseline values . the results were analyzed only if there were at least a 5-fold increase in the mrna levels compared with baseline in order to allow for data consistency . the frozen cerebral homogenates , lysed in 20 mm tris , ph 7.6 , which contained 0.2% sds , 1% triton x-100 , 1% deoxycholate , 1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride ( pmsf ) , and 0.11 iu / ml aprotinin ( sigma - aldrich , inc . , taipei , taiwan . ) , were centrifuged at 12,000 r.p.m . for 20 min at 4c . 60 g per lane of the protein extracts was obtained on 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate - polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis ( sds - page ) and conveyed onto a nitrocellulose membrane . these membranes were then nurtured in a blocking buffer ( 5% skim milk in tris - buffered saline containing tween 20 ( tbs - t ) ( 50 mmol / l tris , ph 7.5 , 0.15 mmol / l nacl , 0.05% tween 20 ) ) and incubated with anti - tlr-2 , -3 and -4 protein in pbs + tween 20 ( pbst ) ( 1 : 200 ) and -actin ( 1 : 8,000 ) , respectively , and left overnight at 4c . subsequently , the incubated membranes were then treated with secondary antibody conjugated with horseradish peroxidase ( hrp ) in tbs - t at room temperature for 1 hr . the protein levels were estimated by the bradford method using the sigma - aldrich protein assay kit . the blots were developed via an enhanced pierce chemiluminescence , a gs-700 digitally scanned and molecular analyst . relative optical densities were obtained by comparison of the measured values with the mean values from the sah groups . relative optical densities were obtained by comparison of the measured values with the mean values from the sah plus vehicle group . the blot proteins were visualized by enhanced chemiluminescence ( ecl ) western blot detection reagents ( amersham pharmacia , il , usa ) . developed films were digitized by means of an epson perfection 1260 scanner ( seiko corp , nagano , japan ) . the levels of expressed tlr-2 and -4 mrna were determined by tripure rt - pcr reagent ( roche diagnostics corp . in , usa ) according to the manufacturer 's instructions . the pcr primer sequences were designed according to the tlr-2 and -4 and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase ( gapdh ) gene sequences reported in genbank . tlr-2 ( 429 bp ; forward : 5-gaattgcatcaccggtcagaa-3 ; reverse : 5-cctctgagatttgacgctttgtc-3 ) ; tlr-4 ( 235 bp ; forward : 5-ttcagaacttcagtggctggatt-3 ; reverse : 5-ccatgccttgtcttcaattgttt-3 ) ; gapdh ( 347 bp ; forward : 5-ggagccaaaagggtcatc-3 ; reverse : 5-ccagtgagtttcccgttc-3 ) . by being incubated with avian myeloblastosis virus reverse transcriptase ( amv rt ) ( promega , wi , usa ) , the amplified cdna fragments were detected by agarose gel electrophoresis swirl with 1 l of ethidium bromide . gapdh mrna was used as a housekeeping gene for multiplexing because of its stable expression under subarachnoid hemorrhage stimuli . the tissue of seven animals was employed for rt - pcr and three measurements were used per animal to get a mean value . for group comparisons , an analysis of variance with the bonferroni post hoc test was used . prior to decapitation , no significant differences were observed in the recorded physiological parameters , including body weight , body temperature , ph , blood pressure , and electrolytes among all groups . morphologically , corrugated internal elastic layer ( iel ) , vacuolated endothelial cells in the bas of the sah only and sah plus vehicle groups were exhibited . ( figure 1(a ) ) vessels from healthy control animals and glycyrrhizin - pretreated animals had similar iels . the mean cross - sectional areas of bas in the sah - only and sah - plus vehicle groups were significantly reduced by 48% and 55% , respectively , when compared with the healthy controls ( figure 1(b ) ) . significant cerebral vasospasm did not develop in rats treated with glycyrrhizin , and its mean cross - sectional area was similar to that in the controls ( p = 0.140 ; figure 1 ) . the anti - vasospastic effect of glycyrrhizin achieved statistical significance when compared with the sah - only or sah - plus vehicle group ( p < 0.01 ) . subsequent to the induction of sah , the serum concentrations of il-1 , il-6 , il-8 , and mcp-1 were found to increase 1000- and 3000-fold at 72 hr , when compared with the sham operated group . administration with glycyrrhizin significantly reduced cytokine levels by 8% , 16% , 37% , and 18% for il-1 , il-6 , il-8 , and mcp-1 , respectively , after sah ( figure 2 ) . the level of il-6 was reduced in the glycyrrhizin treatment groups in a dose dependent mechanism in the pilot study . both precondition and treatment with glycyrrhizin significantly reduced the levels of il-1 and mcp-1 in animals subject to sah . meanwhile , treatment with glycyrrhizin tended to reduce the level of proinflammatory cytokines ; the il-6 and il-8 levels failed to achieve statistical difference from the vehicle - treated + sah group ( figure 2 ) . western blot analysis showed increased tlr-2 , -3 , and -4 protein expression in the sah rats ( 48 11% , 13 8% and 51 9% , resp . ) , when compared with the healthy controls . treatment with glycyrrhizin significantly reduced the expression of tlr-2 and -4 protein in the animals subjected to sah ( p < 0.01 ) to the levels of the controls ( figures 3 , 4 , and 5 ) . levels of tlr-2 and -4 mrna were increased significantly in animals subjected to sah ( sah - only and sah - plus vehicle treatment groups ) when compared with those in the healthy controls ( p < 0.05 , and p < 0.01 , resp . ) . treatment with glycyrrhizin decreased the levels of tlr-2 and -4 mrna after sah ( p = 0.76 and p < 0.05 , resp . ) , while pretreatment with the same compound reduced the levels of tlr-2 and -4 mrna to the normal controls when compared with that of sah groups ( p < 0.05 and p < 0.01 , resp . ; figures 6 - 7 ) . glycyrrhizin was proven able to attenuate the activation of tlrs subfamily in this sah study . activated tlr2 , 3 , and 4 associated with the release of inflammatory cytokines are important molecules that trigger an innate immune response . the inflammatory constituents produced by sah were believed to mediate early brain injury and develop delayed vasoconstriction . among the tlr family , only the tlr subfamily , especially tlr1 to 9 , has the capacity to induce inflammatory signal transduction and elicit cerebral ischemic injury in rodents and humans [ 29 , 30 ] . in a mammalian model , tlr1 was expressed in microglia and astrocytes ; tlr2 was found to exist in oligodendrocytes and microglia , while tlr4 was expressed in the meninges , choroid plexus , and periventricle of the rat brain . tlr2 , 3 , and 4 play a role in pathogen recognition in the central nerve system by activation of both microglia - related neuroinflammation and dendritic cells and macrophage - related t - cell immunity . these molecules also mediate the production of cytokines , which are necessary for the development of t and b lymphocyte - related immune responses . in smithason el al . 's study , lps , a selective tlr4-receptor agonist , is responsible for the systemic inflammatory response - induced septic shock . likewise , a tlr4 agonist is found to be able to worsen both vasospasm and cognitive behavior in mice as well as induce some type - i interferon after stimulation with lps . the study of tlr4 and tlr2 knockout mice revealed reduced infarct size was found after ischemic injury compared to the wild - type . our previous study revealed increased adhesion molecules and cytokine levels in cerebrospinal fluid ( csf ) after aneurysmal sah . however , the relationships among the development of inflammatory response , early brain injury , and delayed cerebral ischemia in the brain after sah need to be clarified . in carr 's study , the csf inflammatory intermediaries increase after sah , while the change in serum is not reliable . subsequently through negative feedback , activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthetase ( enos ) depletes no , which plays a critical role in mediating vascular tone through a na - k channel and further results in vasodilation . . also demonstrated that a polyclonal antibody targeted against il-6 was able to alleviate sah - induced vasoconstriction in a femoral artery study . the cumulative findings indicate that the upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines is antecedent to radiographic vasospasm ( peak at 4th to 14th days after sah ) , and attenuation of cytokines tends to minimize vascular constriction and reduced early brain ischemia in animals . kim et al . also declared monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 ( mcp-1 ) is able to predict outcome and vasospasm following aneurysmal sah . elevation in the mrna levels for il-1 , il-6 , il-8 , tnf- , and adhesion molecules has been observed in the pilot study . tlrs are proven to be involved in a cascade of inflammation related stroke , alzheimer 's disease , huntington 's disease , and parkinson 's disease . the activation of these pathways leads to the expression of various proinflammatory cytokines , -chemokines such as tnf- , il-1 and regulated upon activation , normal t - cell expressed and secreted ( rantes ) , and the secretion of ifns . the induction of these responses is mainly triggered by the activation of nf-b and mapk pathways , a consequence common to the stimulation of all tlrs , which has been proven to induce neuron apoptosis . in this study , induced tlr4 mrna was observed in the sah groups as well as the expression of tlr4 protein . however , tlr4 mrna levels in the glycyrrhizin treatment group were lower than those in the sah only and sah plus vehicle groups and did not differ significantly from those in the control group . this finding implies that glycyrrhizin may attenuate sah - induced vasospasm by decreasing immune - related tlr4 signaling . furthermore , in this study , upregulation of tlr2 protein and mrna expressions were also significantly induced by experimental sah . unlike tlr4 which was observed in microglia in cerebral ischemia , activated tlr2 was short - lived and believed primary to the activation of tlr4 , and both were induced by various inflammasome in the episode of sah . an on - growing body of evidence indicates that stress on the central nervous system triggers an innate immune intervention in order to respond to risky stimuli . endothelium and smooth muscle of the cerebral blood vessels express tlrs and can respond to stimulation [ 29 , 30 ] . tlr4 , prominently observed in the endothelial cells of the capillaries , are found to trigger the endothelium dysfunction and vascular inflammation following experimental sah [ 11 , 36 ] . a series of neuro- and perivascular inflammations would lead to the disruption or dysfunction of the blood - brain barrier ( bbb ) , which ends in profound cerebral reperfusion injury and early brain damage . conclusively , continuous release minipump aids to the immunosuppressant effect of glycyrrhizin on the upregulation of tlr2 , 3 , and 4 . significant attenuation of tlr2 , and 4 mrna in the glycyrrhizin groups corresponds to the level of tlr2 and 4 as well as the change of proinflammatory cytokines in animals subject to sah . these findings also provide evidence that neuroinflammation mediates sah - induced vasospasm and also suggests that glycyrrhizin could play a role in therapeutics in future studies . further study of glycyrrhizin will focus on the mark pathway and sah - induced early brain injury .	upregulated tlrs are observed in the serum of animals following experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage . this study was to examine glycyrrhizin 's effect on proinflammatory cytokines and tlrs in sah rats . administration with glycyrrhizin was initiated 24 hr before and 1 hr later using osmotic minipump . basilar arteries were harvested to examine tlrs mrna and protein ( rt - pcr and western blot ) and csf cytokines ( rt - pcr ) . morphologically , deformed endothelium , tortuous elastic lamina , and smooth muscle necrosis were observed in the sah rats , but were absent in the glycyrrhizin pretreatment group . the tlr-3 protein level was not increased in sah animals , compared with the controls , while that of tlr-2 and -4 in the sah only and sah plus vehicle groups was significantly elevated ( p < 0.01 ) . pretreatment and treatment with glycyrrhizin reduced tlr-2 and -4 by 28 8% and 33.4 9.2% , respectively . likewise , glycyrrhizin was able to reduce the il-1 and mcp-1 mrna levels . this study shows glycyrrhizin exerts anti - inflammatory effects on sah induced vasospasm and attenuates the ultrashort time expression of tlrs , like tlr-2 and -4 . it corresponds to sah induced early brain injury . these findings offer credit to the antivasospastic effect of glycyrrhizin and its effect on sah induced early brain injury .
metabolic syndrome ( mets ) represents a cluster of risk factors associated with cardiometabolic risk . even though a subject of debate , the importance of mets lies in its epidemic proportions and in its association with a significantly increased mortality from atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and diabetes . how each of the risk factors included in mets definition is involved in atherosclerosis have been areas of intense research in the last decade but are still poorly understood . a panel of experts assembled by the national institutes of health concluded that the study of mechanisms by which mets components contribute to atherogenesis should be a high priority . therefore , it is of great interest to study the relationship of mets components with oxidative stress ( os ) which is considered a key mechanism in atherogenesis excessive production of reactive oxygen species ( ros ) , which surpasses antioxidant defense mechanisms , has been implicated in pathophysiological conditions that have an impact on the cardiovascular system . but few studies have focused on the role of both os and inflammation concomitantly . regarding this , the isoprostanes ( isop ) synthesized from arachidonic acid namely , 8-isoprostaglandin - f2alpa ( 8-isopgf2 ) could be a suitable parameter to investigate simultaneously os and inflammation , in diseases where both are supposed to be involved . moreover , in a recent multi - investigator study ( bio - markers of oxidative stress study , sponsored by the national institute of health ) , the most accurate method to assess in vivo os was proved to be the quantification of plasma or urinary isop , which is now considered the gold standard for oxidative injury in vivo . as the in mammalian cells , glutathione and the glutathione peroxidases ( gpx ) constitute the principal antioxidant defense system , it is reasonable to assume that the quantification of plasma gpx would accurately reflect the antioxidant status . uric acid ( ua ) is a powerful chemical antioxidant present in human plasma despite its physiological intention , hyperuricemia is strongly associated with cardiovascular disease , kidney disease , and hypertension , increasing the risk of mortality . the purpose of this study was to analyze the clinical correlates of systemic os ( evaluated by 8-isopgf2 , ua and gpx levels ) in a well characterized group of patients with mets . we also calculated the odds ratio of mets based on the levels of the os biomarkers . the studied group comprised 72 hospitalized patients with mets studied between october 2010 and june 2011 . all patients gave written informed consent and the study was approved by the local ethics committee no . the mean age of the study group was 59.19+/5.26 years and the sex distribution was 46 ( 63.89% ) females and 26 ( 36.11% ) males . mets was diagnosed based on the aha / nhlbi / idf 2009 definition , if three of the following five criteria were met : 1 ) abdominal obesity : waist circumference > 94 cm in men and > 80 cm in women ; 2 ) hypertriglyceridemia : 150 mg / dl or specific treatment ; 3 ) low levels of hdl - c : < 40 mg / dl in men and < 50 mg / dl in women or specific treatment ; 4 ) high blood pressure ( hbp ) : 130/85 mmhg or specific treatment ; 5 ) high fasting glucose : 100 mg / dl or antidiabetes drugs . the exclusion criteria were defined as following : acute infections , stroke , acute coronary syndrome , autoimmune diseases , pulmonary thrombembolism , chronic pulmonary diseases , seric creatinin 1,2 mg / dl , chronic liver diseases including liver cirrhosis . body mass index ( bmi ) was computed as weight divided by height squared ( kg / m ) . obesity was classified based on who / nih recommendations : overweight ( bmi=2530 kg / m ) , class i obesity ( bmi=3034.9 kg / m ) , class ii obesity ( bmi=3539.9 kg / m ) , and class iii obesity ( bmi 40 kg / m ) . waist circumference was measured with a fiberglass measuring tape at the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest . blood pressure was determined based on esc / esh 2007 guidelines for the management of high blood pressure ( hbp ) , after 10 minutes of rest , in both arms , in standing and sitting position and the highest value was taken into account . the data obtained in the study group were compared to those of a control group comprising 100 subjects who did not meet the criteria for mets . the mean age of the control group was 59.93+/4.7 years with a sex distribution of 55% females and 45% males . peripheral venous blood was collected after an overnight fasting period , into 5 ml potassium edta tubes . serum was separated by centrifugation ( 2000 rpm for 20 minutes at 40c ) , and stored at 80 c until measurement . morning urine ( mid portion of first void ) was collected and transferred into eppendorf tubes without any addition of preservative and stored at 80 c until measurement . ua , glucose and lipid parameters were determined using routine laboratory techniques in samples from all subjects . urinary levels of 8-isopgf2 were measured using a commercially available enzyme immunoassay ( eia ) kit ( cayman chemical , ann arbor , mi ) . urinary creatinine was quantified using a method based on the reaction of creatinine and alkaline picrate with an average intra- and interassay cv of 2% and 4% , respectively . urinary content of 8-isopgf2 was indexed to creatinine and expressed as ng / mmol creatinine . gpx activity was measured using a spectrophotometric method ( cayman chemical , ann arbor , mi ) . the intra- and interassay cv were 5.7% and 7.2% and the detection limit 50 nmol / min / ml . the differences between groups were analyzed using student s t - test for normally distributed variables and the mann whitney rank sum test for non - normally distributed . for categorical response variables , differences between the two groups were assessed using the chi square test or fisher s exact test . pearson s correlation or spearman rank order correlation analyses were performed to examine the correlations between the levels of os markers and the components of mets . adjusted odds ratios ( ors ) with 95% confidence intervals ( ci ) for mets were calculated from the logistic regression models based on the levels of os markers . the data are expressed as mean+/ standard deviation ( sd ) for normally distributed variables and as median ( 2575% interquartilic range ) for non - normally distributed variables the studied group comprised 72 hospitalized patients with mets studied between october 2010 and june 2011 . all patients gave written informed consent and the study was approved by the local ethics committee no . the mean age of the study group was 59.19+/5.26 years and the sex distribution was 46 ( 63.89% ) females and 26 ( 36.11% ) males . mets was diagnosed based on the aha / nhlbi / idf 2009 definition , if three of the following five criteria were met : 1 ) abdominal obesity : waist circumference > 94 cm in men and > 80 cm in women ; 2 ) hypertriglyceridemia : 150 mg / dl or specific treatment ; 3 ) low levels of hdl - c : < 40 mg / dl in men and < 50 mg / dl in women or specific treatment ; 4 ) high blood pressure ( hbp ) : 130/85 mmhg or specific treatment ; 5 ) high fasting glucose : 100 mg / dl or antidiabetes drugs . the exclusion criteria were defined as following : acute infections , stroke , acute coronary syndrome , autoimmune diseases , pulmonary thrombembolism , chronic pulmonary diseases , seric creatinin 1,2 mg / dl , chronic liver diseases including liver cirrhosis . body mass index ( bmi ) was computed as weight divided by height squared ( kg / m ) . obesity was classified based on who / nih recommendations : overweight ( bmi=2530 kg / m ) , class i obesity ( bmi=3034.9 kg / m ) , class ii obesity ( bmi=3539.9 kg / m ) , and class iii obesity ( bmi 40 kg / m ) . waist circumference was measured with a fiberglass measuring tape at the midpoint between the lowest rib and the iliac crest . blood pressure was determined based on esc / esh 2007 guidelines for the management of high blood pressure ( hbp ) , after 10 minutes of rest , in both arms , in standing and sitting position and the highest value was taken into account . the data obtained in the study group were compared to those of a control group comprising 100 subjects who did not meet the criteria for mets . the mean age of the control group was 59.93+/4.7 years with a sex distribution of 55% females and 45% males . peripheral venous blood was collected after an overnight fasting period , into 5 ml potassium edta tubes . serum was separated by centrifugation ( 2000 rpm for 20 minutes at 40c ) , and stored at 80 c until measurement . morning urine ( mid portion of first void ) was collected and transferred into eppendorf tubes without any addition of preservative and stored at 80 c until measurement . ua , glucose and lipid parameters were determined using routine laboratory techniques in samples from all subjects . urinary levels of 8-isopgf2 were measured using a commercially available enzyme immunoassay ( eia ) kit ( cayman chemical , ann arbor , mi ) . urinary creatinine was quantified using a method based on the reaction of creatinine and alkaline picrate with an average intra- and interassay cv of 2% and 4% , respectively . urinary content of 8-isopgf2 was indexed to creatinine and expressed as ng / mmol creatinine . gpx activity was measured using a spectrophotometric method ( cayman chemical , ann arbor , mi ) . the intra- and interassay cv were 5.7% and 7.2% and the detection limit 50 nmol / min / ml . the differences between groups were analyzed using student s t - test for normally distributed variables and the mann whitney rank sum test for non - normally distributed . for categorical response variables , differences between the two groups were assessed using the chi square test or fisher s exact test . pearson s correlation or spearman rank order correlation analyses were performed to examine the correlations between the levels of os markers and the components of mets . adjusted odds ratios ( ors ) with 95% confidence intervals ( ci ) for mets were calculated from the logistic regression models based on the levels of os markers . the data are expressed as mean+/ standard deviation ( sd ) for normally distributed variables and as median ( 2575% interquartilic range ) for non - normally distributed variables the demographic , clinical and biological characteristics of the subjects are shown in table i. the subjects in the mets group had statistically significant higher values for sbp , dbp , bmi , waist circumference , hematological parameters ( i.e. , fasting glucose , tg and ldl - c ) , and lower hdl - c level than the control group . hypertensive patients were under medication as follows : 44 ( 64.7% ) ace inhibitors , 17 ( 25% ) angiotensin receptors blockers , 49 ( 72.05% beta - blockers ) , 27 ( 39.7% ) calcium channels blockers and 34 ( 50% ) diuretics . abdominal obesity was identified in 64 subjects ( 88.88% ) . high tgl was present in 47 subjects ( 65.28% ) , and low hdl - c 29 ( 40.28% ) . 51 ( 83.6% ) of the dislipidemic patients were taking statins and 10 ( 16.39% ) were taking fibrates . impaired fasting glucose ( ifg ) was present in 53 of the subjects ( 73.61% ) and 8 ( 15.27% ) of those had overt type 2 diabetes mellitus ( t2 dm ) . 8-isopgf2 levels were statistically significantly ( p<0.001 ) higher in the mets group ( 118.76+/53.18 ng / mmol creatinin ) as compared to the control group ( 68.13+/32.15 ng / mmol creatinin ) . ua concentrations were also increased in mets patients ( 6.03+/1.72 mg / dl ) as compared with the control group ( 4.74+/1.61 mg / dl ) , with statistical significance ( p=0.009 ) . gpx levels were statistically significantly ( p<0.001 ) lower in the mets group ( 33.71+/9.54 nmol / min / ml ) as compared with those without mets ( 45.2 + /7.71 nmol / min / ml ) . after grouping the patients according to the presence of each mets component we found higher concentrations of 8-isopgf2 in hypertensive patients , in those with high tgl levels , higher ua levels in obese patients , in those with hbp , high tgl and ifg . all studied biomarkers were well correlated to sbp and/or dbp , being influenced by the presence of hbp . 8-isopgf2 concentrations were influenced by sbp ( r=0.236 , p=0.048 ) , dbp ( r=0.339 , p=0.004 ) , fasting glucose ( r=0.441 , p<0.001 ) and triglycerides ( r=0.260 , p=0.029 ) , as shown in figure 1 and did not correlate with hdl - c ( r=0.180 , p=0.880 ) and waist circumference ( r=0.139 , p=0.250 ) . ua levels were directly and positively correlated to dbp ( r=0.318 , p=0.006 ) , waist circumference ( r=0.255 , p=0.03 ) , fasting glucose ( r=0.332 , p=0.004 ) and triglycerides ( r=0.413 , p<0.001 ) as are presented in figure 2 . the relationship of ua with sbp ( r=0.184 , p=0.12 ) and hdl - c ( r=0.094 , p=0.43 ) was not statistically significant . gpx levels were inversely and significantly correlated with sbp ( r=0.274 , p=0.021 ) ( figure 3 ) , but the correlations to the other mets components were not statistically significant : dbp : r=0.084 , p=0.488 ; waist circumference : r=0.004 , p=0.968 ; tgl : r=0.007 , p=0.944 ; hdl - c : r=0.132 , p=0.91 ; fasting glucose : r=0.0620 , p=0.95 ) . ua exhibited significant negative correlations with gpx ( r=0.216 , p=0.018 ) ( table iii ) . subjects with a lower level of gpx had a significantly greater risk of mets ( or 0.85 ) ( table iv ) . in the present study the concentrations of os biomarkers together with powerful antioxidant enzyme activity were simultaneously evaluated in patients with mets . the results obtained indicate that the increase of os biomarkers and decrease of antioxidant capacity are associated with the presence of mets . these data are in agreement with others demonstrating that mets is associated with proinflammatory state and os as part of a very complex mechanism underlying cardiometabolic disorders . os damage was assessed by urinary 8-isopgf2 which is considered the gold - standard for os injury in vivo . 8-isopgf2 is an eicosanoid biosynthesized from esterified arachidonic acid mainly through non - enzymatic free radical - catalyzed reactions in vivo . in general , they have short half - lives , but they are chemically stable compounds , not sensitive to dietary intake of lipids relatively stable within individuals ( especially when assayed in first morning urine void ) , but are widely variable in human populations . a substantial portion of isop appears to undergo -oxidation in tissues prior to release into the plasma . intact isop , together with their -oxidized metabolites , are efficiently excreted into the urine . thus , urinary levels of 8-isopgf2 should better reflect actual changes in total body lipid peroxidation , and are easier to determine as they are much higher ( ~ng / ml ) than plasma levels ( ~pg / ml ) . severe methods were developed to quantify isop levels : the gas chromatographic / negative ion chemical ionization mass spectrometric ( gc / ms ) method , liquid chromatographic ( lc)/ms method and the eia method . in the present study 8-isopgf2 was determined by eia . a potential drawback of eia is that limited information is currently available regarding their precision and accuracy . despite potential limitations , eia have expanded isop research due to their low cost and relative ease of use . according to aha / nhlbi / idf 2009 definition of mets used to conduct our study , hypertension proved to be the key component influencing the concentrations of all the studied biomarkers . hypertension was present in 68 patients ( 94.4% ) and sbp and/or dbp was related to both os biomarkers and antioxidant status . the role of os in the pathogenicity of hypertension is still not completely understood , explaining the need for further research regarding hypertension - induced target organ damage by os - derived products . the current hypothesis is that endothelial cells play a major role in arterial relaxation by releasing nitric oxide ( no ) and thus a decrease in no bioavailability and an increase in os ( based in general on increased levels of biomarkers of lipid peroxidation ) might be responsible for the development of hypertension in human subjects . accordingly , abdilla et al . observed that the increase in os and the reduction in activity of antioxidant enzymes in hypertensives were not affected by the presence of additional components of the mets ( high triglycerides and fasting glucose ) . this observation sustains the hypothesis that hypertension might be a pivotal factor for the development of os and endothelial dysfunction . another argument to this hypothesis is represented by the correlation between gpx levels and bp . no correlation was observed between gpx and the other features of mets , marking the importance of hypertension in our study group . decreased antioxidant activity , and reduced levels of ros scavengers ( vitamin e , glutathione ) may contribute to os . activation of the renin - angiotensin system has been proposed as a mediator of ros production . moreover , among the studied biomarkers , only gpx levels were correlated to the number of mets components , being associated with the risk for mets ( or 0.85 ) . . also demonstrated that gpx 1 activity was among the strongest univariate predictors of the risk of cardiovascular events , which was inversely associated with increasing quartiles of gpx1 activity ( p for trend < 0.001 ) . patients in the highest quartile of gpx 1 activity had a hazard ratio of 0.29 ( 95% ci , 0.15 to 0.58 ; p<0.001 ) , as compared with those in the lowest quartile . the positive relationship between 8-isopgf2 and fasting plasma glucose is concordant with other studies , elevated levels of 8-isopgf2 being found in plasma or urinary samples from type 2 diabetic patients , compared to the non - diabetic controls . in a large cross - sectional study in elderly men ( 77 years ) , helmersson et al . showed that the 24-h urinary level of 8-isopgf2 was significantly higher in men with type 2 diabetes ( n=101 ) as compared to the control group ( n=585 ) . on the other hand , there are authors that observed no associations or even inverse association between isop levels and t2 dm . it is worth mentioning that 8-isopgf2 was not significantly correlated with abdominal circumference and bmi . a positive correlation between bmi and 8-isopgf2 levels is claimed in some studies , but not corroborated with others , leaving the subject opened for research . interestingly , we found no correlation between 8-isopgf2 and the other markers of os , as expected , even though ua and gpx concentrations were equally and significantly influenced by the presence of mets . we can only presume ( as the study type does not allow us to draw ethio - pathogenetic conclusions ) that a decrease in antioxidant capacity ( as shown by gpx levels ) may induce an increase in ua which should have a potent antioxidant activity . but as was demonstrated in previous studies , hyperuricemia induces os through endothelial dysfunction , by reducing the bioavailability of no . thus the ua turns from a powerful and benefic antioxidant into a pro - oxidant damaging molecule . our data are in line with literature suggesting that the worsening of the lipid profile is associated with an increased burden of os biomarkers . feri j et al . found that 8-oxo - dg , an indicator of dna damage , was directly correlated with insulin and tgl , but inversely correlated with hdl - c . os identified by o2 production by polymorphonuclear leucocytes in hyperlipidemic subjects is raised and positively correlated with serum cholesterol , triglycerides and ldl - cl levels and negatively correlated with hdl - c levels . moreover , ua exhibited an important correlation both with mets components , especially with hbp and the gpx levels . our results are supported by the fact that hyperuricemia was found in 2540% of newly diagnosed hypertensive subjects without any treatment , in 50% of those treated with diuretics , and in over 80% of those with malignant hypertension . the link between hyperuricemia and hbp is not completely understood , but there are several mechanisms that try to explain it : 1 ) decreased renal blood flow frequently associated with hbp stimulates urate reabsorption in the proximal tubule ; 2 ) local tissue ischaemia due to microvascular disease is responsible for the release of lactate thus blocking urate secretion in the proximal tubule and increasing ua synthesis . both increased xanthine and xanthine oxidase result in the increased generation of ua and oxidant ( o2 ) formation ; and 3 ) impaired renal ua excretion associated with enhanced sodium reabsorption in conditions such as obesity , insulin resistance , low sodium intake and diuretic therapy . by contrast with observational findings , a very recent online publication has used mendelian randomization to investigate the association of plasma ua ( slc2a9 ) with ischaemic heart disease and hypertension and concluded that there is no strong evidence for a causal association . this finding strongly suggests bmi as a confounder in observational associations , and suggests a role for elevated bmi or obesity in the development of ua related conditions . thus , the close association of ua concentrations and waist circumference found in our study group is of great importance . recent findings showed that serum urate was the best predictor of metabolically unhealthy obesity ( defined as obesity associated with mets features ) , with increased cardiovascular risk in adolescents and adults . there are studies showing an association , no association , and even an inverse association , and have been reviewed recently by li et al . . the authors concluded that there is a great body of evidence to suggest that insulin resistance plays a potentially key role in the causal relationship between mets , t2 dm and hyperuricemia . the most important limitation of the present study is the small number of the subjects , mainly due to multiple exclusion criteria . moreover , mets patients were under drug therapy that could modify the studied pathology , but because of ethical reasons could not be interrupted . it is important to mention that the study type does not allow us to draw any conclusions regarding the causality and the pathogenetic mechanism linking os to traditional risk factors . larger , prospective studies with rigorous epidemiological methodology are required to establish whether os is a cause or a consequence of mets . the most important limitation of the present study is the small number of the subjects , mainly due to multiple exclusion criteria . moreover , mets patients were under drug therapy that could modify the studied pathology , but because of ethical reasons could not be interrupted . it is important to mention that the study type does not allow us to draw any conclusions regarding the causality and the pathogenetic mechanism linking os to traditional risk factors . larger , prospective studies with rigorous epidemiological methodology are required to establish whether os is a cause or a consequence of mets . antioxidant status is influenced by the number of mets components with gpx being a risk factor for mets . the decrease in antioxidant capacity might be the trigger of hyperuricemia associated with mets explaining the ua paradox , but more experimental studies are needed to confirm these hypothesis .	introductionthe potential role of oxidative stress ( os ) in metabolic syndrome ( mets ) is rapidly evolving . reported results support the concept that increased os may play a key role in the development of atherosclerosis , hypertension and diabetes.study aimthe purpose of this study was to analyze the clinical correlates of systemic os markers in a well characterized group of patients with mets.material and method72 hospitalized patients with a mean age 59.19+/5.26 years were studied between october 2010 and june 2011 . mets was diagnosed based on the aha / nhlbi / idf 2009 definition . os was assessed by urinary 8-isoprostaglandinf2 ( 8-isopgf2 ) ( immunometric assays ) and plasmatic uric acid ( ua ) . antioxidant status was evaluated by plasmatic glutathione peroxidase ( gpx ) . these data were compared to those of 100 subjects without mets ( mean age 59.93+/4.7 years).resultsall biomarkers were significantly higher in mets patients as compared with healthy individuals ( p<0.05 ) , except gpx which was significantly lower ( p<0.001 ) . gpx and ua were statistically significant correlated . in multivariate analysis 8-isopgf2 concentrations were influenced by hypertension , fasting glucose and triglycerides , ua levels were directly influenced by hypertension , waist circumference , fasting glucose and triglycerides . gpx levels were inversely correlated with blood pressure ( all p<0.05 ) . only gpx was influenced by the number of mets components . subjects with a lower level of gpx had a significantly greater risk of mets ( or 0.85).conclusionshigher 8-isopgf2 and uric acid and lower gpx levels are associated with mets . the os biomarkers are differently influenced by each component of the mets . high blood pressure seems to be the key component linking os to mets . antioxidant status is influenced by the number of mets components with gpx being a risk factor for mets .
during recent years , wireless ad hoc networks have received considerable attention of researchers for their increasing applications in various fields , e.g , military communications , disaster relief , rescue operations , etc . there exist different schemes for transmitting data in a wireless network . depending on the situation , either both 0 and 1 are represented by non - zero voltage levels , or one of the bit values is represented by a zero voltage level while a non - zero voltage level is used to distinguish the other bit value . an example of the latter is the polar return - to - zero ( polar - rz ) transmission scheme , where a 0 corresponds to a zero voltage level , while a 1 is represented by a non - zero voltage level . however , most existing transmission schemes utilize non - zero voltage levels for both 0 and 1 so as to distinguish between a silent and a busy channel . communication strategies that require energy expenditure for transmitting both 0 and 1 bit values are known as _ energy based transmission _ ( ebt ) schemes . for example , in order to communicate a value of 278 , a node will transmit the bit sequence @xmath1 , consuming energy for every bit it transmits . thus , if the energy required per bit transmitted is @xmath2 , the total energy consumed to transmit the value 278 would be @xmath3 . in this paper , we propose a communication technique that first recodes a binary data in redundant radix based number ( rbn ) representation @xcite and then uses silent periods to communicate the bit value of 0. we show that by using the redundant binary number system ( rbns ) that utilizes the digits from the set \{-1 , 0 , 1 } to represent a number with radix 2 , we can significantly reduce the number of non - zero digits that need to be transmitted . the transmission time remains linear in the number of bits used for data representation , as in the binary number system . we finally propose a mac protocol that would support the communication of such rbn encoded data frames with a significant amount of energy savings . we have simulated our proposed transmission algorithm with both ideal device characteristics and parameters of several commercially available radio devices . the results of these experiments show that , for ideal device characteristics and even for some commercial device characteristics , the increase in energy savings with our proposed algorithm over the existing energy based transmission schemes is , on an average , equal to 69% . recent research efforts on reducing energy consumption have mainly been focussed on the mac layer design @xcite , optimizing data transmissions by reducing collisions and retransmissions @xcite and through intelligent selection of paths or special architectures for sending data @xcite . a survey of routing protocols in wireless sensor networks can be found in @xcite . in all such schemes , the underlying communication strategy of sending a string of binary bits is _ energy based transmissions _ ( ebt ) @xcite , which implies that the communication of any information between two nodes involves the expenditure of energy for the transmission of data bits . in @xcite , a new communication strategy called _ communication through silence _ ( cts ) has been proposed that involves the use of silent periods as opposed to energy based transmissions . cts , however , suffers from the disadvantage of being exponential in time . an alternative strategy , called variable - base tacit communication ( varbatac ) has been proposed in @xcite that uses a variable radix - based information coding coupled with cts for communication . the redundant binary number system ( rbns ) @xcite utilizes the digits from the set \{-1 , 0 , 1 } for representing numbers using radix 2 . in the rest of the paper , for convenience , we denote the digit -1 by @xmath4 . in rbns , there can be more than one possible representation of a given number . for example , the number 7 can be represented as either @xmath5 or @xmath6 in rbns . in this work , we utilize this property of rbns to recode a message string so as to reduce the number of 1 s in the string while transmitting the message @xcite . the original binary message can , however , be obtained at the receiver end by reconverting the received message from rbn to binary number system @xcite . the basic idea of our recoding scheme is as follows : consider a run of @xmath7 1 s , @xmath8 . let @xmath9 be the bit position for the first 1 in this run , @xmath10 ( bit position 0 refers to the least significant bit at the rightmost end ) . let @xmath11 represent the value of this run of @xmath7 1 s . then , @xmath12 alternatively , we can rewrite equation [ rbneqn1 ] as , @xmath13 equation [ equation2 ] can be represented in rbns by a 1 at bit position @xmath14 and a @xmath4 at bit position @xmath9 , while all the intermediate 1 s between them are converted to 0 s . thus , a long run of 1 s can equivalently be replaced by a run of 0 s and only two non - zero digits , 1 and @xmath4 . observe that for a run of @xmath7 1 s , @xmath8 , the savings in terms of the number of non - zero digits is @xmath15 . however , the number of non - zero digits remain unchanged for @xmath16 . thus , if we keep the transmitter switched - off for 0 bit - values , the power consumption of the transmitter will be less than that in _ energy based transmission _ ( ebt ) schemes . hence , by combining this approach of silent zero transmission with our rbns - based recoding strategy , a significant reduction in the energy expenditure during data transmission can be achieved when compared to the energy based transmission ( ebt ) of binary data . our proposed low energy transmission strategy involves the execution of the following two steps : + * algorithm transmitrbndata * * step 1 * : recode the @xmath17-bit binary data frame to its equivalent rbns data frame using steps 1.1 and 1.2 stated below . * step 1.1 * : starting from the least significant bit ( lsb ) position , scan the string for a run 1 s of length @xmath18 . a run of @xmath7 1 s ( @xmath8 ) starting from bit position @xmath9 , is replaced by an equivalent representation consisting of a 1 at bit position @xmath19 and a @xmath4 at bit position @xmath9 , with 0 s in all intermediate bit positions . [ reduction1 ] * step 1.2 * : every occurrence of the bit pattern @xmath20 in a string obtained after step 1.1 , is replaced by the equivalent bit pattern @xmath21 . [ reduction2 ] * step 2 * : transmit the rbns data frame obtained from step 1 above . note that the encoding process of an @xmath17-bit binary string to its equivalent rbns representation can result in a rbns string of length of either @xmath17 or @xmath22 symbols . if a run of 1 s of length @xmath18 ends in the most significant bit ( msb ) , then by virtue of step 1.1 of _ transmitrbndata _ algorithm , the symbol @xmath23 is placed at the position @xmath24 . otherwise , if the msb was 0 , then the rbns string also has exactly @xmath17 symbols . [ examplereduction ] consider in a given binary string , a substring , say @xmath25 , with only one 0 trapped between runs of 1 s . then following step 1.1 , we would get the string @xmath26 . note the presence of the pattern @xmath20 for this trapped 0. application of step 1.2 of algorithm transmitrbndata to the bit pattern @xmath20 replaces it by @xmath21 , thus resulting in a further reduction in the number of non - zero symbols to be transmitted . we now present the receiver side algorithm to receive a rbns data frame and convert it back to binary : + * algorithm receiverbndata * * step 1 * : receive the rbns data frame in a buffer , say @xmath27 . * step 2 * : set @xmath28 . now starting from lsb , scan the rbns string in @xmath27 sequentially to obtain the binary equivalent using steps 2.1 through 2.3 : * step 2.1 * : if the @xmath29 bit , @xmath30 = \bar{1}$ ] then execute steps 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 , otherwise execute step 2.2 : * step 2.1.1 * : if @xmath31 then the corresponding output binary bit is 1 . also set @xmath32 . * step 2.1.2 * : if @xmath33 then the corresponding output binary bit is 0 . * step 2.2 * : if the @xmath29 bit , @xmath30 = 1 $ ] then execute steps 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 , otherwise execute step 2.3 : * step 2.2.1 * : if @xmath33 then the corresponding output binary bit is 0 . also set @xmath28 . * step 2.2.2 * : if @xmath31 then the corresponding output binary bit is 1 . * step 2.3 * : if the @xmath29 bit , @xmath30 = 0 $ ] then execute steps 2.3.1 and 2.3.2 : * step 2.3.1 * : if @xmath33 then the corresponding output binary bit is 1 . * step 2.3.2 * : if @xmath31 then the corresponding output binary bit is 0 . * step 3 * : set @xmath34 and repeat from step 2 until the entire received rbns data frame is scanned and converted to the binary equivalent . the equivalent binary data is then passed onto the higher layers of the network stack . [ cols="^,^,^ " , ] considering the mean of the values reported for the _ size protocol _ , we find that binary encoded files consists of 42.5% zeroes on an average which thus translates into an increased energy savings of 42.5% , as compared to an ebt transmission scheme . application of algorithm transmitrbndata on binary encoded files to create rbn encoded files cause on an average , an increased savings in energy from 42.5% to 69% , when averaged over the values reported in figure [ figure2 ] . experimental results also showed that increasing the data frame size increases the fractional savings in energy as longer runs of ones can then be reduced . it increases steeply with the increase in frame size , when the size of the frames is small ( 8 , 16 , 32 , 64 , @xmath35 bits ) and plateaus out for larger frame sizes . we observed that in general , for frame sizes larger than 1024 bits , the increase in fractional savings is either very small or none . the results show that the maximum increase in energy savings ( 34.4% ) with our proposed algorithm over the size protocol is obtained for the maximum compression test suite @xcite , while the minimum ( 21.8% ) is for the large canterbury suite @xcite . from the results in figure [ figure2 ] we see that there is an increase of @xmath36 in transmission energy savings , when averaged over all benchmark suites considered in the figure , by using the proposed _ transmitrbndata _ algorithm over the size protocol . the effect of real life device characteristics on the energy savings was studied in details in @xcite . it was shown in @xcite that the fractional energy savings generated by the _ algorithm over ebt transmission scheme is , @xmath37 while the fractional energy savings generated by the _ size _ protocol compared to an ebt transmission scheme is given by , @xmath38 where , @xmath39 and @xmath40 denote the current drawn in the _ transmit _ ( tx ) and the _ active _ states , respectively . in order to evaluate the performance of our _ transmitrbndata _ algorithm on real - life devices , we considered some of the commercially available radios for our simulation purpose . the results of our simulation are presented in table [ tabledevices ] . in table [ tabledevices ] , @xmath41 and @xmath42 refer to the values obtained by substituting the corresponding device parameter values in equations [ gammasize ] and [ gammaequation ] , respectively . table [ tabledevices ] shows that @xmath42 is higher than @xmath41 by at least 16% for maxim 2820 and chipcon cc2510fx chips , while it is higher by nearly 25% for rfm tr1000 and maxim 1479 . the values of @xmath43 and @xmath44 in figures [ figure3 ] and [ figure4 ] refer to the energy saving results with the size transmission scheme and our proposed algorithm respectively , obtained by running the simulation on the benchmark suites with the corresponding device parameters . the results show that for the transmitrbndata algorithm , the performance in energy savings is always much better than the size transmission scheme . however , while the graphs of rfm tr1000 and the maxim 1479 devices show savings that are nearly equal to those reported in figure [ figure2 ] , the savings are somewhat lower for the cc2510fx and maxim 2820 , due to the fact that the current drawn in the active state for both of these devices is not negligible compared to the current in the tx state . we present in this section a medium access control for the _ transmitrbndata _ algorithm . issues related to the design of a mac protocol such as representation of rbn encoded numbers in the internal buffers at the mac layer , consideration of suitable modulation schemes for the _ transmitrbndata _ algorithm and receiver - transmitter synchronization for the duration of transmission of a data packet were addressed in @xcite . we now present rbnsizemac - an asynchronous mac protocol that allows the transmission of rbn encoded data , for single channel wireless networks . in order to transmit a frame successfully , a node must compete with other nodes within its neighborhood to win the channel for the time duration it requires to transmit its frame . it is important to prevent simultaneous transmission to the same receiving node as that would garble the frames beyond recovery . our protocol uses two classes of frames : data and control . the format of the data frame is shown in figure [ dataframe ] . the _ data frame _ consists of three parts : i ) a header ii ) payload and , iii ) a frame trailer . the frame header and the trailer are in binary while the payload is in rbn . the header part consists of a preamble , destination and source addresses , type , length and sync fields . each frame starts with a _ preamble _ of 2 bytes , each containing the bit pattern 10101010 , similar to that of the ieee 802.3 mac header . the receiver synchronizes its clock with that of the sender on this preamble field @xcite . the next two fields in the frame header are the _ destination _ and the _ source _ addresses respectively , each 6 bytes long . as in the 802.3 standard , the high order bit of the destination address is a 0 for ordinary addresses and 1 for group addresses . a frame with destination address consisting of all 1s is accepted by all nodes in the neighborhood of the transmitter . next comes a 2 bit _ type _ field which indicates whether this is a data or a control frame . the value 00 is used to indicate a data frame while the remaining 3 possible bit patterns ( 01 , 10 and 11 ) are reserved for the control frames . the 2 byte _ length _ field gives the length of the _ payload _ part of the frame . finally , there are another 2 bytes of _ sync _ field , each consisting of the binary bit pattern 10101010 to ensure that the receiver and the sender clocks remain synchronized during the entire period of transmission of the payload . this is necessary as we assume that no signal is transmitted by the sender for the symbol @xmath45 in the rbn encoded payload . as our proposed algorithm _ transmitrbndata _ can lead to the creation of long runs of 0 s in the rbn encoded data , it is important to ensure that the sender and receiver clocks remain synchronized for the entire duration of the transmission of the payload . the payload field can be maximum 1500 bytes , again similar to the 802.3 frame . the payload part is followed by the binary encoded _ frame trailer _ which consists of a 4 byte _ field computed only on the binary equivalent of the payload of the frame . the checksum algorithm is the standard cyclic redundancy check ( crc ) used by ieee 802 . the format of the _ control frame _ is shown in figure [ controlframe ] . the control frame is in binary . it consists of a 2 byte _ , similar to that in a data frame , followed by the destination , source and the type fields respectively . the size and interpretation of these three fields are same as in the data frame . the _ type _ field is set according to the type of the intended control message , namely rts , cts or ack . the way these three message types are used is exactly the same as in the 802.11 mac protocol @xcite . this is followed by a _ length _ field which indicates the length of the payload that a node wishes to send in the data frame . in the case of a cts or ack frame from a receiving node , if the receiver too has some data to send to the sender , it sets the length field accordingly , otherwise it is set to zero . the last field is the usual 4 byte checksum computed over the rest of the control frame fields . each node in the network is assumed to possess channel status sensing capability - i.e. , whether the channel is idle or busy . the protocol that we propose here is a csma / ca ( csma with collision avoidance ) protocol , very similar to the 802.11 protocol . when a node @xmath46 wants to transmit , it senses the channel . if it remains idle for a time period of @xmath47 , where @xmath47 is the maximum possible duration of a frame transmission in rbnsizemac protocol , @xmath46 sends an rts ( request to send ) control message to the receiver ( say @xmath48 ) . the reason for waiting for at least @xmath47 time is to avoid interrupting any ongoing frame transmission . due to encoding of the payload in rbn , it is possible that there may be a long run of the symbol @xmath45 in the data which may otherwise be wrongly interpreted as the channel being idle without any ongoing transmission . if @xmath48 receives the rts , it may decide to grant permission to @xmath46 to transmit , in which case it sends a cts frame back . if @xmath46 does not receive any cts from @xmath48 or a collision occurs for the rts frame , each of the colliding nodes waits for a random time , using the binary exponential back - off algorithm , and then retry . the behavior of other nodes in the vicinity of both @xmath46 and @xmath48 on hearing the rts or cts frames is the same as in 802.11 . after a frame has been sent , there is a certain amount of dead time before any node may send a frame . we define two different intervals , similar to the 802.11 @xcite , for the rbnsizemac protocol : 1 . the shortest interval is sifs ( short interframe spacing ) that is used in exactly the same way as in 802.11 . after a sifs interval , the receiver can send a cts in response to an rts or an ack to indicate a correctly received data frame . if there is no transmission after a sifs interval has elapsed and a time nifs ( normal interframe spacing ) elapses , any node may attempt to acquire the channel to send a new frame in the manner described previously . we use nifs in exactly the same way as the 802.11 protocol uses the difs ( dcf interframe spacing ) interval . the redundant binary number system can be used instead of the binary number system in order to increase the number of zero bits in the data . coupled with this , the use of silent periods for communicating the 0 s in the bit pattern provides a significant amount of energy savings in data transmissions . the transmission time also remains linear in the number of bits used for data representation , as in the binary number system . simulation results on various benchmark suites show that with ideal as well as some commercial device characteristics , our proposed algorithm offers a reduction in energy consumption of 69% on an average , when compared to existing energy based transmission schemes . based on this transmission strategy , we have designed a mac protocol that would support the communication of such rbn encoded data frames for asynchronous communication in a wireless network . y. p. chen , d. wang and j. zhang , variable - base tacit communication : a new energy efficient communication scheme for sensor networks , _ proc . 1st int . conf . on integrated internet ad hoc and sensor networks _ ( intersense ) , nice , france , 2006 . k. sinha and p. k. srimani , broadcast and gossiping algorithms for mobile ad hoc networks based on breadth - first traversal , workshop on distributed computing _ , ( iwdc ) , lncs , vol . 3326 , pp . 459470 , 2004 .	in this paper , we first propose a redundant radix based number ( rbn ) representation for encoding the data to be transmitted in a wireless network . this rbn encoding uses three possible values - 0 , 1 and @xmath0 , for each digit to be transmitted . we then propose to use silent periods ( zero energy transmission ) for transmitting the 0 s in the rbn encoded data thus obtained . this is in contrast to most conventional communication strategies that utilize energy based transmission ( ebt ) schemes , where energy expenditure occurs for transmitting both 0 and 1 bit values . the binary to rbn conversion algorithm presented here offers a significant reduction in the number of non - zero bits in the resulting rbn encoded data . as a result , it provides a highly energy - efficient technique for data transmission with silent periods for transmitting 0 s . we simulated our proposed technique with ideal radio device characteristics and also with parameters of various commercially available radio devices . experimental results on various benchmark suites show that with ideal as well as some commercial device characteristics , our proposed transmission scheme requires 69% less energy on an average , compared to the energy based transmission schemes . this makes it very attractive for application scenarios where the devices are highly energy constrained . finally , based on this transmission strategy , we have designed a mac protocol that would support the communication of such rbn encoded data frames .
type ia supernova ( sne ia ) are believed to result from the thermonuclear explosion of a chandrasekhar mass white dwarf . a thermonuclear flame , born at or near the center of the white dwarf must accelerate tremendously , approaching the speed of sound , in order to account for observational constraints . uncertainties remain at all stages of the process , from how it ignites , to how the flame accelerates , to whether it may at some point transition to a detonation ( see @xcite for a review ) . speculation on the latter has suggested @xcite that the optimal conditions for a transition to detonation to occur are when the flame enters the distributed burning regime , at densities of @xmath0 , although other mechanisms have recently been proposed @xcite . the range of relevant length scales in the white dwarf is enormous from the @xmath1 cm radius of the white dwarf down to the @xmath2@xmath3 cm thickness of the flame . no single simulation can encompass all length scales , so approximations must be made . large scale 3-d simulations ( e.g. @xcite ) put the entire star on the grid and resolve scales down to @xmath4 cm , and use a subgrid model to describe the physics of the turbulent burning on the small scales . we have chosen to take a complimentary approach , investigating the physics of turbulent thermonuclear burning on the flame scales , with the hope to use what we ve learned to push up to large scales . over the last few years , as part of a collaboration between the scidac supernova science center at ucsc and the center for computational science and engineering at lbl , we ve introduced a low mach number model for simulating thermonuclear flames in sne ia @xcite . in the low mach number limit , the pressure is decomposed into a thermodynamic component , @xmath5 , and an @xmath6 dynamic component , @xmath7 . this leads to the set of low mach number thermonuclear flame equations @xmath8 where @xmath9 , @xmath10 , and @xmath11 are the density , velocity , and enthalpy respectively . the enthalpy is related to the internal energy , @xmath12 through @xmath13 . @xmath14 is the abundance of the @xmath15 isotope , with reaction rate @xmath16 and energy release @xmath17 . @xmath18 is the temperature and @xmath19 is the thermal conductivity . finally , @xmath20 is the gravitational acceleration . this system is constrained to evolve at constant pressure , @xmath5 , and differentiating the pressure along particle paths yields an elliptic equation for the velocity : @xmath21 this system filters out sound waves , allowing for much larger timesteps than a compressible code . ( [ eq : sn_constraint ] ) is similar to the incompressible constraint , with sources representing thermal diffusion and energy generation across the flame . the solution method is based on second - order projection methods for incompressible flow , embedded in an adaptive mesh refinement framework . further details of our derivation of the low mach number model for nuclear flames are given in @xcite . we have applied this numerical model to several multidimensional studies of thermonuclear flame propagation in sne ia @xcite . our approach to date has been to resolve the thermal structure of the flame numerically , eliminating the need for a flame model . the propagation of the flame is entirely determined by the input physics ( reaction rate , conductivity ) and the flow field . this constrains the regimes we can study however , as we need to have both the flame thickness resolved and several unstable wavelengths contained on our grid . 2-d rt unstable carbon flames at @xmath22 ( left ) , @xmath23 ( middle ) , and @xmath24 ( right ) , showing the carbon mass fraction . as the density decreases , rt dominates over the burning and we enter the distributed burning regime @xcite . + , width=366 ] fig . [ fig:2d ] shows 2-d rayleigh - taylor ( rt ) unstable flames at three different densities @xcite . at the highest density , the reactions proceed quickly , suppressing the rt instability on the small scales . at the low density end , the small modes of the rt instability grow quickly , and the reactions are unable to burn them away . here , modes smaller than even the flame thickness itself are unstable , and a large mixed region of fuel and ash appears . this is the beginning of the distributed burning regime . in all cases , the rt instability greatly wrinkles the flame , creating more surface area , and dramatically accelerating the flame . the nature of the turbulence cascading down to the flame scale will directly affect the density at which we enter the distributed burning regime . it was argued that the rt instability would lead to a potential energy cascade , and that bolgiano - obukhov ( bo ) statistics ( @xmath25 ) should be used @xcite , leading to a lower transition density than kolmogorov statistics ( @xmath26 ) . [ fig : regimes ] illustrates this by computing the gibson scale for both statistics as a function of density this is the scale at which the flame can burn away a turbulent eddy before it can turnover . here we have assumed that the integral scale , @xmath27 , is @xmath28 cm and the turbulent velocity on that scale , @xmath29 , is @xmath30 , consistent with the numbers presented in @xcite . if the transition is at a lower density , as dictated by bo scaling , it was suggested that a deflagration - detonation transition ( ddt ) initiated in the distributed burning regime would be more difficult @xcite , due to the density sensitivity of the carbon reaction rates . our 2-d rt studies @xcite also suggest that a ddt is not possible . the true nature of the turbulent cascade can be determined through resolved flame simulations . turbulent flame properties in the supernova . shown are the flame thickness ( solid ) , the gibson scale assuming kolmogorov scaling ( dotted line ) , and the gibson scale assuming bo statistics ( dashed line ) . the transition to distributed burning , when the gibson scale is less than the flame thickness , is smaller for bo scaling than for kolmogorov scaling , as first discussed in @xcite . the flame parameters for this figure were computed with the low mach number algorithm discussed above and a single , screened @xmath31c + @xmath31c reaction rate . + , width=211 ] we studied a 3-d rt unstable flame in detail @xcite , and found that after the linear growth , turbulence dominates the dynamics . [ fig:3d ] shows a volume rendering of the carbon mass fraction and the associated kinetic energy power spectrum . we see that it is a kolmogorov power spectrum , not bo , as previously suggested @xcite . gravity creates a preferred direction in the domain , and the turbulence is strongly anisotropic on the large scales . however , on the small scales , the turbulence becomes more and more isotropic , as determined by looking at isosurfaces of the fourier transform of the turbulent kinetic energy in @xmath32-space @xcite . 2-d ( left ) and 3-d @xcite ( center ) rt unstable carbon flame at @xmath22 . the kinetic energy power spectrum ( right ) shows the 3-d flame ( blue line ) following a @xmath33 power law ( gray solid ) and the 2-d flame ( red line ) following a @xmath34 power law ( gray dashed ) . the 2-d simulation was run in a large domain ( 216 cm wide vs. 53.5 cm wide for the 3-d ) , necessary to see the scaling trend . this wider domain accounts for the higher peak kinetic energy.,title="fig:",height=201 ] 3 mm 2-d ( left ) and 3-d @xcite ( center ) rt unstable carbon flame at @xmath22 . the kinetic energy power spectrum ( right ) shows the 3-d flame ( blue line ) following a @xmath33 power law ( gray solid ) and the 2-d flame ( red line ) following a @xmath34 power law ( gray dashed ) . the 2-d simulation was run in a large domain ( 216 cm wide vs. 53.5 cm wide for the 3-d ) , necessary to see the scaling trend . this wider domain accounts for the higher peak kinetic energy.,title="fig:",height=201 ] 3 mm 2-d ( left ) and 3-d @xcite ( center ) rt unstable carbon flame at @xmath22 . the kinetic energy power spectrum ( right ) shows the 3-d flame ( blue line ) following a @xmath33 power law ( gray solid ) and the 2-d flame ( red line ) following a @xmath34 power law ( gray dashed ) . the 2-d simulation was run in a large domain ( 216 cm wide vs. 53.5 cm wide for the 3-d ) , necessary to see the scaling trend . this wider domain accounts for the higher peak kinetic energy.,title="fig:",height=201 ] recent analytic work @xcite argued that bo statistics should only apply in 2-d . [ fig:3d ] also shows a 2-d reactive rt instability , and the power spectrum shows a clear @xmath34 scaling over more than a decade in wavenumber . it is essential to use a large domain , with many unstable modes to see this scaling in 2-d this 2-d simulation is effectively @xmath35 zones . this comparison between 2-d and 3-d confirms the assertions in @xcite , and therefore , for sne ia , 3-d turbulence models should assume kolmogorov scaling , not bo . with this dimensionality dependence , together with fig . [ fig : regimes ] , we can understand why our 2-d study @xcite showed a lower transition density to distributed burning than our corresponding 3-d rt flame @xcite . this difference in rt generated turbulence demands that any sne ia simulations be run in 3-d , since turbulence acts on all scales of the problem . since the transition density is higher with kolmogorov turbulence , it may be easier to ignite a detonation than our 2-d estimates @xcite have suggested . studies of flames interacting with kolmogorov turbulence in 3-d are underway , and will allow us to explore more fully whether a transition to detonation is possible . finally , we consider an alternate configuration from the flame sheets that we have been studying , a burning bubble . the ignition of an sne ia likely begins with one or many hotspots that begin to burn faster than they can cool by expansion . these bubbles are buoyant and rise as they grow , possibly merging as they consume the carbon fuel in the star . the drag force on a rising bubble is smaller than that on a sheet , so we would expect different dynamics to ensue . of particular interest is the small scale structure that develops on the bubble . the exploding white dwarf has an extremely large reynolds number , so we expect turbulence to dominant early in the evolution of the reacting bubble . it is possible that this turbulence will shed sparks from the bubble as it rises , and if these are small enough , they can be entrained in the ambient flow instead of buoyantly rising on their own , igniting the star in new regions . [ bubble ] shows the preliminary results of a burning rising bubble . this was again done at a density of @xmath22 , far from the conditions of ignition , but approachable by dns calculations . the general features of the evolution should be qualitatively the same as those of a bubble near ignition conditions . this is an exceptionally large calculation , corresponding to a @xmath36 zone effective grid . at present , over 200 million zones are carried , and this calculation is still in progress . as the figure shows , at late times , a hole develops in the center of the bubble , due to the strong shear at the top of the bubble , which suppresses the burning . at higher densities , the faster reaction rate may suppress this hole formation . also apparent is the growth of small scale structure on the sides of the bubble , driven by shear . this is only seen in high resolution 3-d studies of reacting bubbles . large scale simulations employing flame models would likely wash this structure away , preventing the shedding of sparks , and perhaps missing a key component of the ignition process . more studies of resolved burning rising bubbles at high reynolds number are needed to determine how large of an effect this spark shedding may be . 3-d simulation of a buoyant rising bubble at @xmath22 , at four different times . the reactions are slow enough at this density that the initially spherical bubble deforms into a torus due to shear at the top . at late times , the bubble is becoming turbulent , with lots of small scale structure appearing . we presented results from a program of study of small - scale flame physics . we showed that in 3-d , the turbulent cascade obeys kolmogorov scaling while in 2-d , bo scaling is observed . this difference in turbulence scaling demands that sne ia simulations be run in 3-d . it is interesting to note that the sharp - wheeler model for rt @xcite predicts a speed , @xmath37 , between bo and kolmogorov scaling . flame models using different assumptions of the turbulence speed on small scales will lead to differing results . if large scale simulations accurately capture the turbulent cascade for more than a decade in wavenumber , then it is a good approximation that the turbulence fed into the subgrid model is kolmogorov and isotropic . of critical importance to understanding the early stages of the explosion is the dynamics of reacting bubbles . resolved calculations are very difficult , but can have enormous consequences . if the bubbles quickly become turbulent , as expected in the high reynolds number flow in the white dwarf , then it is likely that sparks will be shed and advect with the background convective motions to ignite other regions of the star . this may make multipoint , time - dependent ignition an essential ingredient in the explosion process . current work involves extending our low mach number model to accommodate multiple scale heights . this would allow for full star calculations , while retaining the ability to take timesteps restricted by only the fluid velocity rather than the sound speed . this would be ideal for studies of the ignition process itself , and allow for the evolution to continue directly into the explosion phase . these large scale simulation will be the focus of the next years of our collaboration . support for this work was provided by doe grant no . de - fc02 - 01er41176 to the supernova science center / ucsc and the applied mathematics program of the doe office of mathematics , information , and computational sciences under contract no . de - ac03 - 76sf00098 . work presented used the nersc seaborg , ornl cheetah , and the nasa ames columbia machines .	we extend a low mach number hydrodynamics method developed for terrestrial combustion , to the study of thermonuclear flames in type ia supernovae . we discuss the differences between 2-d and 3-d rayleigh - taylor unstable flame simulations , and give detailed diagnostics on the turbulence , showing that the kinetic energy power spectrum obeys bolgiano - obukhov statistics in 2-d , but kolmogorov statistics in 3-d . preliminary results from 3-d reacting bubble calculations are shown , and their implications for ignition are discussed .
esophageal ph monitoring is an essential investigation in patients with suspected gastroesophageal reflux disease ( gerd ) with refractory symptoms and in patients who are considered for antireflux surgery in the absence of endoscopic changes of gerd.1 it is also utilized for evaluation of patients with extraesophageal manifestations of gerd . esophageal ph monitoring was traditionally performed by passing a catheter with a ph electrode transnasally and positioning the electrode 5 cm above the upper border of the lower esophageal sphincter . there were several drawbacks with the conventional method of testing , which include nose and throat discomfort , dysphagia , and nasal discharge , as a result of the catheter passing through the nose and throat into the lower esophagus . in the majority of cases , the patient is unable to perform daily activities with these catheters in place.2 furthermore , the ph probe could potentially become displaced with changing body position , talking , or swallowing , which could alter the study results.3 in recent years , the traditional approach of catheter - based ph monitoring has been replaced by the wireless ph monitor , ie , the bravo ph testing system ( medtronic inc . , shoreview , mn ) . in this system , the bravo capsule is placed into the esophagus with the assistance of the bravo delivery system . the conventional ( indirect ) method of placing the capsule in the esophagus involves an initial endoscopy to determine the distance from the incisor teeth to the gastroesophageal ( ge ) junction . the endoscope is then removed and the device is placed blindly using the bravo delivery system as per the measurements obtained by endoscopy . after placement of the bravo capsule , this conventional method is a blind technique and usually requires performing endoscopy twice to confirm the attachment and correct positioning of the capsule in the esophageal wall.4 another technique that has been used for placing the bravo capsule provides accurate positioning and confirms attachment of the capsule under direct endoscopic visualization . in this technique ( direct method ) , the bravo delivery system is concurrently placed without removing the endoscope and the device is released at a desired location.5 endoscopists have their own arbitrary preference for a particular technique of placing a device . there are no studies to compare the two methods of placing the device in terms of safety , patient tolerability , and reliability of the technique . the objective of this study was to compare the safety , performance , and tolerability of the technique of bravo wireless ph device placement under direct endoscopic visualization ( direct ) with that of the conventional ( indirect ) technique of capsule placement . after approval by the institutional review board , all patients who had the bravo capsule placed in the esophagus by either direct visualization or the indirect conventional method were identified . from this patient population , 29 consecutive patients had the bravo device placed by the direct method over a period of six months , when the endoscopists switched from their practice of placing a device from the indirect to the direct technique . in the control group , 29 patients who had the bravo device placed by the indirect method were randomly selected . the physician endoscopy procedure notes , nurse s notes , postprocedure notes , recovery notes , and patient questionnaire were all reviewed . data on ph results , complications during the procedure , symptoms , and complications during the data recording period , patient tolerability , and degree of satisfaction with the test in both groups were obtained . we hypothesized that procedures performed in the evening might take longer than procedures performed in the morning , which could be related to the endoscopist s fatigue towards the evenings . therefore , in order to minimize the bias , we compared the procedure time of morning procedures and evening procedures . in addition , data were also obtained on patient experience of the procedure , willingness to repeat the procedure if needed , and number of workdays off following the procedure . patient experience with the procedure of capsule placement was graded as good , average , and bad , as recorded from the questionnaire given to patients . patient satisfaction with the test was recorded using a likert 10-point visual analog scale , with zero signifying very unsatisfactory and 10 very satisfactory . values of 14 were graded as unsatisfactory , values from 58 as average , and values of 9 and 10 as very satisfactory . endoscopists were questioned about their views on the complexity and overall experience with the procedure . the primary outcome of the study was to compare the safety of the two methods . the secondary outcomes were to evaluate any difference in the time of the procedure , patient tolerability , and operator experience with the two methods . in the direct method of bravo capsule placement , upper endoscopy was performed to examine the esophagus , stomach , and duodenum , and to identify the squamocolumnar junction . next , while keeping the endoscope in the esophagus and with the gastroesophageal ( ge ) junction in view , the bravo delivery system was inserted orally and passed through the throat alongside the endoscope until it became visualized in the endoscopic field . the scope was then withdrawn to 8 cm above the ge junction and then , under direct view of the delivery system , the bravo capsule was deployed 6 cm above the ge junction in the same way as it is done in the conventional technique . in the conventional ( indirect ) method , upper endoscopy was performed similarly to examine the duodenum , stomach , and esophagus , and then the distance between the squamocolumnar junction and the incisors was measured . the endoscope was then removed and the bravo ph monitoring device was deployed blindly using the bravo delivery system guided by the measurements obtained from endoscopy . after placement of the bravo capsule , the endoscope was reinserted to confirm its attachment and location . the t - test was used for analysis of the length of procedure time . for analysis of time taken in procedures performed before noon and procedures performed in the afternoon the spss 16 ( spss , chicago , il ) was utilized for all statistical analysis . the t - test was used for analysis of the length of procedure time . for analysis of time taken in procedures performed before noon and procedures performed in the afternoon the spss 16 ( spss , chicago , il ) was utilized for all statistical analysis . fifty - eight patients who had bravo capsule placement by either the direct or indirect method were included in the study . the two groups were similar in terms of age , gender , and underlying diseases . one patient in the direct group and four patients in the indirect group had previously undergone nissen s fundoplication . there were no early detachments of the device and no prolonged retention of the device in any patient in either group . one of the patients in the indirect group had an esophageal stricture and needed dilatation before placement of the bravo capsule . post - procedural complications in the two groups are summarized in table 2 . among the patients who developed chest pain after the procedure , chest pain was severe enough in two patients in the direct group to require patient observation for three and five hours , respectively , before discharge . the device failed to transmit signals soon after deployment in two patients in the indirect group and in one patient in the direct group . one patient each in both the direct group and indirect group had ph recording for only 12 hours and 19 hours , respectively . two patients in the indirect group and one patient in the direct group were scheduled for 24-hour monitoring only . the average recording time in the two groups was similar ( mean 22 hours 51 minutes versus 22 hours 39 minutes for the direct and indirect methods , respectively , on day 1 , and 20 hours 31 seconds and 18 hours and 10 seconds on day 2 ) . the mean demeester score on the first day of recording in the direct and indirect groups was 29.84 ( standard deviation , 35.51 ) and 29.9 ( 34.5 ) , respectively . the demeester score on the second day of recording was 16.23 ( 13.6 ) and 23.1 ( 33.15 ) for the direct and indirect groups , respectively . in terms of patient experience and satisfaction with the test , the willingness to repeat the test ( if needed ) in the two groups was also statistically insignificant . an equal number of patients in the two groups required days off work after the procedure . there was no difference between the time taken for the procedure between the two groups ( table 4 ) . in the view of the endoscopists , there was no difference in the procedure , except for the ease of placement with the direct method . the wireless esophageal ph monitoring system is a highly tolerable method of investigation available for patients with gerd . since the introduction of this technology in the 2001,7 several methods of placement of the capsule in the esophagus have been described . these methods include calculating the site of placement of the device by endoscopy , followed by either transoral4 or transnasal8 insertion of the capsule delivery system , then placing the device at the site determined by prior calculation . deployment of the device under direct endoscopic view has also been described.5 in addition , nonendoscopic methods of placing the device have been described.9 in the nonendoscopic technique of device placement , the position of the lower esophageal sphincter is determined by esophageal manometry , which is then followed by blind deployment of the capsule guided by measurements obtained from manometry . this is because it allows evaluation of the upper gastrointestinal tract for the presence of other concomitant pathologies that would otherwise preclude the use of these devices.10 furthermore , it allows evaluation of the esophagus in patients with gerd . some authors have suggested using the manometry method in patients who had recent endoscopy without any alarm signs.10 this technique could be potentially useful in patients with long - segment barrett s esophagus where the squamocolumnar junction is no longer the landmark of the lower esophageal sphincter.11 however , this technique involves placing the capsule by the transnasal route , which is not well tolerated by patients and poses a risk of significant epistaxis . using the transoral route for placing the device requires usage of a conversion factor proposed by lacy et al.6 however , this conversion factor has its own limitations ; it can not be used in patients with a hiatal hernia or in patients who are very tall or very short . in view of all these limitations , the endoscopic method of placing the device is currently the most commonly used method . there have been no studies to date comparing the direct and indirect methods of bravo capsule placement in the esophagus . currently , the indirect method is most commonly used for deploying the device in the lower esophagus . sore throat was the most common adverse effect reported by our patients ( 32.7% ) . postprocedure dysphagia was the second most common adverse event encountered in our patients ( 29.3% of cases ) . this was comparable with the incidence of dysphagia reported in other studies.6 chest pain was seen in 22.4% of cases . inadequate data reception in five patients ( three in the indirect group and two in the direct group ) could have potentially occurred due to technical malfunctions with the device , as reported in earlier studies.4,6 in theory , the direct method of placing the device would be expected to take less time than the conventional method because the latter technique usually requires repeat endoscopic intubation . however , in our study , we found that the average time taken for the procedure was similar between the two groups . this can be explained by the fact that endoscopists have more experience with the indirect method because it has been used since the introduction of this technology , whereas the direct method of placement was recently started in our hospital . furthermore , there was no difference in time taken in the procedures performed in the morning compared with procedures performed in the afternoon ( table 4 ) . in our study , we found that placing the bravo capsule system under direct visualization is a safe procedure . the safety of this method is comparable with the indirect method given the similar frequency of procedure - related complications seen in the two groups . in addition , the added advantage with the direct method is the avoidance of second - look endoscopy to confirm the site of attachment of the device . this is vital because the device could be wrongly deployed at an undesirable location , including the stomach wall9 or oropharynx,12 by the indirect method . therefore , there would be a remote chance of deploying the capsule at an undesirable location with the direct method . further , the direct method of placing the capsule allows the esophagus to be cleared of air under direct vision , which ensures the successful placement of the device by enhancing the contact between the esophageal wall and the well of the capsule . this is important because early detachment is a well known complication with the bravo system , and its incidence could be as high as 2%12%.4,13 in our study , we found that patient experience with the procedure was similar ( 75.9% versus 66.06% , respectively ) in the direct group and indirect group . patient satisfaction with the test was similar ( 34.4% versus 27.5% ) between the direct and indirect groups . patient willingness to repeat the test , if necessary , was also similar between the two groups ( 89.7% versus 75.5% ) . the explanation for the small observed difference , although not statistically significant , could be the fact that in the indirect group patients had to undergo endoscopy twice in the same sitting . for the endoscopist , the direct method may be preferable because it avoids performing endoscopy twice in the same patient . secondly , the small sample size of the study groups can not rule out the possibility of type ii error with regard to safety and patient experience with the procedure . nonetheless , the results of this study suggest an advantage of the direct method over the conventional ( indirect ) method of placement of bravo capsule system . patient tolerance , acceptance , and the length of procedure time were similar to that of the indirect method . there is an additional advantage of avoiding a second endoscopy in the direct group , although there is no difference in the length of procedure time between these two techniques . however , a larger prospective study is needed to provide more information regarding complications and adverse events with these two methods of capsule placement .	background : conventional placement of a wireless esophageal ph monitoring device in the esophagus requires initial endoscopy to determine the distance to the gastroesophageal junction . blind placement of the capsule by the bravo delivery system is followed by repeat endoscopy to confirm placement . alternatively , the capsule can be placed under direct vision during endoscopy . currently there are no published data comparing the efficiency of one method over the other . the objective of this study was to compare the method of bravo wireless ph device placement under direct visualization with the conventional method.methods:a retrospective study involving 58 patients ( 29 patients with indirect and 29 patients with direct visualization ) who had bravo capsule placement . the physician endoscopy procedure notes , nurse s notes , postprocedure notes , recovery notes , and ph monitoring results were reviewed . the safety of the procedures , length of the procedures , and patient tolerability were evaluated.results:none of the 58 patients had early detachment of the device and had no immediate procedure - related complications . the overall incidence of complications in both the groups was similar . no failures due to the technique were noted in either group . average amount of time taken for the procedure was similar in both groups.conclusion:the technique of placing a bravo ph device under direct visualization is as safe and effective as the conventional method . in addition , there is an added advantage of avoiding a second endoscopic intubation in the direct visualization technique .
when considering a patient with dysphagia an attempt should be made to determine whether the patient has difficulty only with solid boluses ( suggestive of mechanical dysphagia ) or with liquids and solids ( suggestive of a motility dysphagia ) . anatomical lesions , such as an oesophageal tumor and external pressure effect from a lung tumor or aberrant vessel , can lead to mechanical dysphagia . gastroscopy and / or a barium swallow help identify the culprit anatomical lesion . in this study a patient with progressive mechanical dysphagia is presented that finally diagnosed by as lung squamous cell carcinoma . diagnosis was made by a computerized tomography scan of the thorax , bronchoscopy and bronchial biopsy . a 63 years old iranian woman admitted in our hospital due to progressive solid dysphagia and 10 kilogram weight loss in the past three months.she had a history of heart valve replacement surgery at 3 years ago . physical examination revealed mild temporal muscle atrophy and abnormal heart sound secondary to her known valvular heart disease . vital signs , lungs , abdomen , pelvic , central nervous , and the musculoskeletal examination were all normal . the patient 's laboratory findings including blood cell count , erythrocyte sedimentation rate , and kidney and liver function tests were also normal . as the patient history was suggestive for an esophageal malignancy , an upper gasteroenterointestinal endoscopy was carried out . endoscopy revealed a short ( two centimeters ) circumferential symmetrical smooth narrowing in the mid part of the esophagus ( from 25 to 27 cm of incisors ) ; the gross appearance of this stricture was normal suggesting external compression . barium swallow confirmed the endoscopic findings but did n't reveal more diagnostic information ( figure 1 ) . barium swallow and endoscopy showing short symmetrical smooth stricture in middle part of the esophagus . contrast computerized tomography ( ct ) scan of the chest was performed for further clarifying the nature of the lesion . ct scan revealed an abnormal soft tissue density with irregular borders in the posterior mediastinum that was encircling the carina , left main bronchus , esophagus and the mid thoracic aorta ( figure 2 ) . ct scan shows an abnormal soft tissue mass with irregular borders around the esophagus , aorta and left main bronchus . due to the external pressure the lumen of the involved segment of esophagus did not appear in ct scan . the upper segment of the esophagus proximal to the lesion was dilated and had air - fluid ( oral contrast ) level . other parts of thorax including the lungs , pleura , ribs , sternum , and thoracic spines were normal . the patient had no respiratory symptoms but since mediastinal lesion seen on the ct scan was taking over the left bronchus and was in close contact to it , bronchoscopy was performed ; there was fine mucosal irregularity with about 50% narrowing without apparent mass lesion in the left main bronchus . biopsy from this trivial bronchoscopic finding revealed bronchial squamous cell carcinoma ( figure 3 ) . bronchoscopy showing 50% narrowing and mucosal irregularity in the left main bronchus ( left image ) and normal right main bronchus ( right image ) the clinical history is very important for diagnosing the underlying disease ; progressive dysphagia to the solid material can be a sign of esophageal malignancy . dysphagia to the both solids and liquids ( motor dysphagia ) usually occurs in systemic or esophageal neuromuscular disorders . space - occupying lesions such as foreign body within the lumen of the esophagus or tumor originated from wall of this organ and external pressure effect of a lung tumor can lead to mechanical dysphagia . diagnosis depends upon procedures such as esophagus endoscopy , barium swallow radiology or ct scan may be needed in approach to mechanical dysphagia . both some esophageal motor diseases such as achalasia and systemic neuromuscular diseases such as scleroderma can cause dysphagia to liquids and solids without obvious anatomical culprit . esophagus manometry , barium esophagogram , and swallow video - fluoroscopy may be required for identifying the cause of motor dysphagia . as mentioned above endoscopy revealed a short circumferential and symmetrical smooth narrowing with normal mucosa in the mid part of the esophagus that was due to an external pressure effect . barium swallow confirmed the endoscopic findings but did not reveal more diagnostic information ( figure 1 ) . one of the metallic sutures was seemed to be around the narrowed segment of esophagus at radiograph and so seemed to be cause of this narrowing . but this was mistaken , because the oesophagus is located in the posterior mediastinum and observed radiopaque sutures are on the sternum , the most anterior part of the chest . some extra - esophageal diseases can produce external pressure effect on the esophagus in the neck , mediastinum , or abdomen , causing narrowing of the esophagus and mechanical dysphagia ; these diseases include : abscesses or tumors of the pharynx , osteophytes or osteomyelitis of the cervico - thoracic spine , thyromegaly , zenker 's diverticula , solid or cystic mediastinal masses ( benign or malignant ) , aberrant right subclavian artery ( 1 ) , left atrial enlargement due to mitral stenosis , large arterial aneurysms , cystic esophageal duplication ( 2 ) , large para - esophageal hiatal hernia , fundoplication surgery , mediastinal lymphadenopathy due to sarcoidosis , pulmonary tuberculosis and or fungal infection . in cases that the mechanical dysphagia was due to an external pressure effect outside of the esophagus , an imaging method that can show the structure of the tissues around the esophagus is necessary ; endoscopic ultrasonography and or ct scan are useful for this purpose . space - occupying lesions such as foreign body within the lumen of the esophagus or tumor originated from wall of this organ and external pressure effect of a lung tumor can lead to mechanical dysphagia . diagnosis depends upon procedures such as esophagus endoscopy , barium swallow radiology or ct scan may be needed in approach to mechanical dysphagia . both some esophageal motor diseases such as achalasia and systemic neuromuscular diseases such as scleroderma can cause dysphagia to liquids and solids without obvious anatomical culprit . esophagus manometry , barium esophagogram , and swallow video - fluoroscopy may be required for identifying the cause of motor dysphagia . as mentioned above endoscopy revealed a short circumferential and symmetrical smooth narrowing with normal mucosa in the mid part of the esophagus that was due to an external pressure effect . barium swallow confirmed the endoscopic findings but did not reveal more diagnostic information ( figure 1 ) . one of the metallic sutures was seemed to be around the narrowed segment of esophagus at radiograph and so seemed to be cause of this narrowing . but this was mistaken , because the oesophagus is located in the posterior mediastinum and observed radiopaque sutures are on the sternum , the most anterior part of the chest . some extra - esophageal diseases can produce external pressure effect on the esophagus in the neck , mediastinum , or abdomen , causing narrowing of the esophagus and mechanical dysphagia ; these diseases include : abscesses or tumors of the pharynx , osteophytes or osteomyelitis of the cervico - thoracic spine , thyromegaly , zenker 's diverticula , solid or cystic mediastinal masses ( benign or malignant ) , aberrant right subclavian artery ( 1 ) , left atrial enlargement due to mitral stenosis , large arterial aneurysms , cystic esophageal duplication ( 2 ) , large para - esophageal hiatal hernia , fundoplication surgery , mediastinal lymphadenopathy due to sarcoidosis , pulmonary tuberculosis and or fungal infection . in cases that the mechanical dysphagia was due to an external pressure effect outside of the esophagus , an imaging method that can show the structure of the tissues around the esophagus is necessary ; endoscopic ultrasonography and or ct scan are useful for this purpose . if there is no intraluminal or mucosal lesion in the esophagus endoscopy of the patients with mechanical dysphagia , attention to the other organs that are adjacent the esophagus is useful ; imaging techniques such as thorax ct scan or endosonography of the mediastinum may be needed . because of the close proximity between esophagus with trachea and main bronchi , the tumoral lesions in these respiratory organs may present as dysphagia ; in such cases bronchoscopy is necessary for identifying the cause of dysphagia .	when considering a patient with dysphagia , an attempt should be made to determine whether the patient has difficulty only with solid boluses ( suggestive of mechanical dysphagia ) or with liquids and solids ( suggestive of a motility dysphagia ) . lesions such as an oesophageal tumor and external pressure effect from a lung tumor or aberrant vessel can lead to mechanical dysphagia . endoscopy and / or a barium swallow are helpful in identifying the anatomical disarrangement . in this study a patient with progressive mechanical dysphagia is presented that finally diagnosed by as lung squamous cell carcinoma . there were no respiratory symptoms . diagnosis was made by a computerized tomography scan of the thorax , bronchoscopy and bronchial biopsy .
the internet is a network of autonomous systems ( as ) which are collections of ip networks and routers under the control of one entity , typically an internet service provider . the border gateway protocol ( bgp ) is a critical component of the internet s infrastructure as it serves to connect these ases together @xcite . performance of the bgp depends strongly on properties of the topological connectivity between these ases . surprisingly , it was only in 1999 that researchers reported that the internet as graph is a ` scale - free ' network @xcite . this discovery effectively invalidated all previous internet models based on random graphs . since then researchers have reported many other topological properties of the internet @xcite . in this paper we review three of them , namely the power - law degree distribution @xcite , the disassortative mixing @xcite and the rich - club phenomenon @xcite . we explain that it is these structural properties that make the global internet so ` small ' in the sense that it is extremely efficient to route data packets across the global internet . so far much of the research on internet topology occurs in the communities of physics , mathematics and complexity science . interdisciplinary communication with other communities is much needed @xcite . this paper is an effort towards this direction . the network under study is the internet , but the statistical methods and the topological properties introduced here can be applied to any other network in nature and society . the internet is a capital example of complex networks . it is unlike any previous human invention in both scale and effect , and is now a global resource important to all of the people in the world . the internet provides a low - level communication infrastructure upon which other communication mechanisms can be built , e.g. the ubiquitous email and web protocols . internet service providers ( isp ) offer billions of users access to the internet via telephone line , cable and wireless connections . data packets generated by users are forwarded across the internet toward their destinations by routers through a process known as routing . the internet contains millions of routers , which are grouped into thousands of subnetworks , called autonomous systems ( as ) ( see fig . [ fig : internet ] ) . the global internet structure is characterised at the as - level because the delivery of data traffic through the internet depends on the complex interactions between ases that exchange routing information using the border gateway protocol ( bgp ) . on the internet as - level topology , a node is an as , which is usually controlled by an isp ; and a link represents a bgp peering relation between two ases , which a commercial agreement between two isps on forwarding data traffic . measurement data of the internet as - level topology became available in late 1990 s . since then there have been a number of projects to collect the topology data of the internet @xcite . these measurements have greatly improved our understanding of the structure and evolution of the internet @xcite . the internet macroscopic structure has become relatively stable in recent years . this suggests that the internet has entered a fairly mature stage in terms of network evolution . today the internet as graph is very large . it contains about twenty thousand as nodes and fifty thousands of links . it is important to realise that the internet is actually very much sparsely connected . the actual number of links present in the internet is only about 0.04% of all possible links that the network can have . this is relevant because the fewer links the internet has the cheaper and easier to invest , manage and maintain the network . a remarkable property of the internet is that it is extremely efficient in routing data packets across the global network . on the as graph the average of shortest path between any two nodes is around 3 hops . the length of routing path observed on real bgp data is around 4 hops . this is in spite of the fact that the internet contains tens of thousands of nodes and the network is very sparsely connected . why is the internet so ` small ' ? the key lies in the topological structure of the internet . in graph theory , degree @xmath0 is defined as the number of links or immediate neighbours a node has . the average node degree is @xmath1 , where @xmath2 is the degree of node @xmath3 , @xmath4 is the number of nodes and @xmath5 is the number of links . the average node degree in the internet is around 6 . the principal statistical property to describe and discriminate between different networks is to measure the degree distribution @xmath6 , i.e. the fraction of nodes in the network with degree @xmath0 . it had been assumed that the internet topology resembles a random graph where nodes are connected with each other randomly ( with a uniform probability ) . a random network features a poisson degree distribution where most node degrees are close to the average degree and only a few nodes have very large or very small degrees . it is known from graph theory that a random graph is small in the sense that one node is never too far away from other nodes . is this the reason that the internet is so small ? the answer is no , because in 1999 it was discovered that the internet topology at the as level ( and at the router level ) exhibits a power law degree distribution @xmath7 @xcite , where @xmath8 is a constant and the exponent @xmath9 ( see fig.[fig : evaluation : pk ] ) . this means a few nodes have very large numbers of connections , whereas the vast majority of nodes have only a few links . the power law property is an evidence that the internet as - level topology has evolved into a very heterogeneous structure , which is completely different from the random graph model . a power - law network is called a ` scale - free ' network @xcite because it is not the average degree , but the exponent of power - law distribution that fundamentally characterises the network s connectivity and the value of the exponent is not related to the size ( scale ) of the network . recently the small - world theory @xcite has attracted a lot of attention . a small - world network resembles a typical social network which is highly clustered where one s friends are likely to be friends to each other . at the same time a small - world contains random connections which serve as shortcuts and make the network small . most scale - free networks can be regarded as small - world networks in the sense that the average shortest paths of scale - free networks are always small . but some scale - free networks are smaller than others . for example the average shortest path of many social networks is around 6 ( which is comparable to that of random graphs ) ; whereas the internet s average shortest path is 3 which is actually substantially smaller than predicted by the random graph and small - world theories . in the last few years many studies have shown @xcite that the degree distribution alone does not uniquely characterise a network topology . networks having exactly identical degree distribution can exhibit vastly different other topological properties . the fact that a network is scale - free only tells us limited information . in order to obtain a full picture of a network s structure , we need to look beyond the question of ` how many links does a node have ? ' and ask ` to whom the node is connected to ? ' recently a number of studies have shown that the degree correlation plays a significant role in defining a network s structure @xcite . the degree correlation defines the mixing pattern in a network . social networks are assortative mixing where nodes tend to attach to alike nodes , i.e. high - degree nodes to high - degree nodes and low - degree nodes to low - degree nodes . on contrast technological and biological networks , including the internet , are disassortative mixing where high - degree nodes tend to connect with low - degree nodes , and visa versa . we can not use a network s degree distribution to predict its mixing pattern . networks with the same degree distribution can have completely opposite mixing patterns @xcite . a network s mixing pattern can be inferred by the correlation between a node s degree @xmath0 and its nearest - neighbours average degree @xmath10 @xcite . [ fig : evaluation : knn ] shows the internet exhibits a negative correlation between the two quantities suggesting the network is disassortative mixing . for example for a node with degree 1000 , the average degree of its 1000 neighbours is around 20 ; whereas for a node with degree 2 , the average degree of its two neighbours is around 500 . the mixing pattern can also be inferred by computing the so - called assortative coefficient @xcite , @xmath11 , which is defined as @xmath12 ^ 2 \over l^{-1}\sum_m{1\over2}(j_m^2+k_m^2)-[l^{-1}\sum_m{1\over2}(j_m+k_m)]^2},\ ] ] where @xmath5 is the number of links a network has , and @xmath13 , @xmath14 are the degrees of the nodes at the ends of the @xmath15th link , with @xmath16 . if @xmath17 , a network is assortative mixing ; and if @xmath18 , a network is disassortative mixing , e.g. @xmath19 for the internet . the disassortative mixing property of the internet is relevant because it means the peripheral , low - degree nodes are almost always connect directly with some high - degree nodes . on the other hand the chance of finding a chain of low - degree nodes is low . then , how about the high - degree nodes themselves ? are they interconnected with each other ? does the disassortative mixing property mean that the high - degree nodes only connect with low - degree nodes ? we call nodes with large numbers of links the ` rich ' nodes . fig.[fig : richclub ] shows that in the internet the richest nodes are tightly interconnected with each other forming the core of the network . this is called the rich - club phenomenon @xcite . this phenomenon does not conflict with the internet s disassortative mixing property . each rich node shown in the figure has a large number of links . the majority the links are connect to poorly connected nodes ( disassortative mixing ) whereas only a few of them are enough to provide the interconnectivity with other rich nodes , whose number is anyway small . the rich - club phenomenon can be quantitatively assessed by measuring the rich - club coefficient , @xmath20 where @xmath21 is the number of nodes with degrees greater or equal to @xmath0 and @xmath22 is the number of links among the @xmath21 nodes themselves . the rich - club coefficient measures the ratio of the actual number of links to the maximum possible number of links among nodes with degrees no less than @xmath0 . [ fig : evaluation : rich - degree ] shows the rich - club efficient as a function of node degree @xmath0 . it shows that the rich nodes are becoming more tightly interconnected when the degree increases , in other words , when the club becomes more ` exclusive ' . a small number of nodes with degrees larger than 300 have @xmath23 which means they are fully interconnected . the internet is ultra small because it exhibits both disassortative mixing and rich - club phenomenon . these two structural properties together contribute to the routing efficiency of the network . the rich club consists of a small number of highly connected nodes . the club members are tightly interconnected between each other . if two club members do not have a direct connection , they are very likely to share a neighbouring club member . thus the hop distance between the members is very small(either 1 or 2 hops ) . the rich - club functions as a ` super ' traffic hub of the internet by providing a large selection of shortcuts for routing . the disassortative mixing property ensures that the majority of network nodes , which are peripheral low - degree nodes , are always near the rich - club . thus a typical shortest path between two peripheral nodes consists of three hops , the first hop is from the source node to a member of the rich club , the second hop is between two rich - club members , and the final hop is to the destination node . as we know a fully connected graph is the most efficient topology because the shortest path is 1 between any two nodes . whereas for sparsely connected networks , the star - like topology is very efficient because the average shortest path is less than 2 . if we abstract the rich - club as a single node then the internet topology will look like a star topology , where all nodes connects with the centre of the star . a star topology has a big problem that the centre of the star is very easy to be congested and becomes the single - point - of - failure . the internet ` solves ' these problems by replacing the centre with a club of rich nodes . the rich - club contains plenty of redundant links . the network s performance and integrity will not be affected if some of the links between the club members are removed . in addition , incoming traffic to the ` centre ' is handled in a distributed manner by a handful of rich - club members such that the chance of getting congested is reduced . in case a few club member are congested ( or removed ) , the peripheral nodes served by these rich nodes may suffer , but the rest of the network can still work as normal . of course if the rich - club core is broken by removing too many rich nodes or inter - rich links , the network will fall apart . in a way the internet has an ideal structure . it is very large in size and very sparse in connectivity . yet the internet has a sophisticated structure which makes the network very ` small ' in terms of routing . at the same time the internet is quite robust because the function of the network s core is shared by a group of rich nodes which are tightly interconnected with each other and therefore have plenty of redundant links . it is remarkable that such a structure is the consequence of the internet evolution process which is driven by distributed , local decisions without any central plan . in fact until ten years ago there was not even any map of the global internet . in the last decade there is a increasing recognition that effective engineering of the internet is predicated on a detailed understanding of issues such as the large - scale structure of its underlying physical topology , the manner in which it evolves over time , and the way in which its constituent components contribute to its overall function @xcite . in recent years there have been a lot of research activities on characterising and modelling the internet topology . various metrics and models are proposed @xcite . researchers are interested in understanding not only the internet s structure but also the dynamics and the evolution @xcite . one important goal is to provide better models for more realistic simulations which differentiates the different natures of links between as nodes and incorporates suitable traffic model as well as other relevant factors such as capacity and demo - geographic distributions of network elements . mahadevan , p. , krioukov , d. , fomenkov , m. , huffaker , b. , dimitropoulos , x. , claffy , k. , vahdat , a. : the internet as - level topology : three data sources and one definitive metric . computer comm . rev . * 36 * ( 2006 ) 1726	during the last three decades the internet has experienced fascinating evolution , both exponential growth in traffic and rapid expansion in topology . the size of the internet becomes enormous , yet the network is very ` small ' in the sense that it is extremely efficient to route data packets across the global internet . this paper provides a brief review on three fundamental properties of the internet topology at the autonomous systems ( as ) level . firstly the internet has a power - law degree distribution , which means the majority of nodes on the internet as graph have small numbers of links , whereas a few nodes have very large numbers of links . secondly the internet exhibits a property called disassortative mixing , which means poorly - connected nodes tend to link with well - connected nodes , and vice versa . thirdly the best - connected nodes , or the rich nodes , are tightly interconnected with each other forming a rich - club . we explain that it is these structural properties that make the global internet so ` small ' .
derives from the greek word gelos ( laughter ) and was introduced in 1957 by daly and mulder . it is used to name seizures characterized by sudden laughter attacks , out of social context , without any particular emotion like joy or happiness . in 1971 , gascon and lombroso suggested as diagnostic criteria the presence of stereotyped laughter episodes in the absence of external triggers that can be associated with other epileptic manifestations , ictal or interictal discharges on the electroencephalogram ( eeg ) , and absence of other conditions that could explain the pathologic laughter . the vast majority of gelastic epilepsy series reported include only children , and they have found an association with hypothalamic hamartomas , a lesion that therefore must be always ruled out in these patients . however , other lesions and localizations have also been reported , mainly in other adult patients , , . here , we describe three patients with gelastic seizures ( gs ) with no evidence of hypothalamic hamartomas . a 35-year - old man with a history of neurocysticercosis was treated with antiparasitic drugs as a teenager . since the age of 29 years , he had almost daily spells characterized by sudden unmotivated laughter attacks which were described by his relatives since the patient was not aware . in addition , he had occasional seizures which started with forced head version towards the right , followed by right upper and lower limb jerks , and finally secondary generalization . magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) showed upper right and inferior left mesial frontal lobe nodular lesions , consistent with calcified neurocysticercosis ( fig . five gs were recorded on scalp video - eeg monitoring , all of them showing ictal patterns arising from the left anterior temporal lobe ( fig . positron emission tomography ( pet ) was performed , showing left mesial frontal and anterior temporal hypometabolism ( fig . invasive recordings were performed with left frontal deep electrodes and foramen ovale electrodes , and ictal and interictal activities arising from the left mesial frontal region was demonstrated ( fig . resection of the left frontal pole , which included the lesion , was performed ( fig . the patient has been seizure - free since the surgery ( 5 years of follow - up ) and under no medication for 3 years ( ilae class i ) . a 45-year - old man with epilepsy since the age of 14 years had seizures characterized by sudden laughter attacks , associated with feelings of joy and happiness , which lasted about 30 s , occasionally associated with disconnection followed by one to two minutes of postictal confusion . he had up to 5 episodes per day in spite of multiple antiepileptic treatments ( carbamazepine , phenobarbital , levetiracetam , and topiramate ) . 2a ) ; surface eeg recordings showed left frontotemporal interictal epileptiform discharges ( fig . 2b ) ; two gelastic seizures with left frontotemporal ictal onset were recorded . neuropsychological evaluation showed bilateral mesial and anterior temporal alterations with predominance of the left hemisphere . the patient remained seizure - free for a year , and seizures relapsed afterwards , with a 50% reduction compared to presurgical average ( ilae class iv ) . old , he experienced brief laughter attacks , apparently unmotivated , that was perceived as strange behavior by his family . gelastic epilepsy was diagnosed , and the patient was placed on carbamazepine ; the treatment was stopped after a seizure - free period of 6 years . five years after the medication withdrawal , he began again with episodes of unmotivated laughter , with no emotional correlate , associated with disconnection . carbamazepine was restarted with complete control of the spells except during a few poor adherence periods . a 35-year - old man with a history of neurocysticercosis was treated with antiparasitic drugs as a teenager . since the age of 29 years , he had almost daily spells characterized by sudden unmotivated laughter attacks which were described by his relatives since the patient was not aware . in addition , he had occasional seizures which started with forced head version towards the right , followed by right upper and lower limb jerks , and finally secondary generalization . magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) showed upper right and inferior left mesial frontal lobe nodular lesions , consistent with calcified neurocysticercosis ( fig . five gs were recorded on scalp video - eeg monitoring , all of them showing ictal patterns arising from the left anterior temporal lobe ( fig . positron emission tomography ( pet ) was performed , showing left mesial frontal and anterior temporal hypometabolism ( fig . invasive recordings were performed with left frontal deep electrodes and foramen ovale electrodes , and ictal and interictal activities arising from the left mesial frontal region was demonstrated ( fig . resection of the left frontal pole , which included the lesion , was performed ( fig . the patient has been seizure - free since the surgery ( 5 years of follow - up ) and under no medication for 3 years ( ilae class i ) . a 45-year - old man with epilepsy since the age of 14 years had seizures characterized by sudden laughter attacks , associated with feelings of joy and happiness , which lasted about 30 s , occasionally associated with disconnection followed by one to two minutes of postictal confusion . he had up to 5 episodes per day in spite of multiple antiepileptic treatments ( carbamazepine , phenobarbital , levetiracetam , and topiramate ) . 2a ) ; surface eeg recordings showed left frontotemporal interictal epileptiform discharges ( fig . 2b ) ; two gelastic seizures with left frontotemporal ictal onset were recorded . neuropsychological evaluation showed bilateral mesial and anterior temporal alterations with predominance of the left hemisphere . the patient remained seizure - free for a year , and seizures relapsed afterwards , with a 50% reduction compared to presurgical average ( ilae class iv ) . a 42-year - old man had no relevant medical history . at 15 years old , he experienced brief laughter attacks , apparently unmotivated , that was perceived as strange behavior by his family . gelastic epilepsy was diagnosed , and the patient was placed on carbamazepine ; the treatment was stopped after a seizure - free period of 6 years . five years after the medication withdrawal , he began again with episodes of unmotivated laughter , with no emotional correlate , associated with disconnection . carbamazepine was restarted with complete control of the spells except during a few poor adherence periods . gelastic seizures are seen in less than 1% of all epilepsies , and they are mainly associated with hypothalamic hamartomas in children . usually , these seizures begin during infancy , even in the neonatal period , with a progressive course which may include other focal or generalized seizures . invasive eeg recordings and electrical stimulation have shown that gelastic seizures originated from the hypothalamic hamartomas , although they can arise from other lesions , like tumors , malformations of cortical development , tuberous sclerosis , and postinfectious foci . to the best of our knowledge , this is the first report of neurocysticercosis related to gs . in patients who have gelastic seizures without an impairment of consciousness , laughter is described as unmotivated or emotion - free , which could be interpreted as a dissociation between the motor and emotional components of laughter , although the physiological basis of joy and laughter are not fully understood . one of them had a lesion in the left superior mesial frontal region and experienced gs not accompanied by joy . ictal subdural recordings showed that the seizures began in the left anterior cingulate gyrus . the other two patients had complex partial seizures originating from the temporal lobe ; in these cases , electrical stimulation of the fusiform and parahippocampal gyri produced bursts of laughter accompanied by a feeling of mirth . the authors concluded that the anterior cingulate region is involved in the motor aspects of laughter , while the basal temporal cortex is involved in the processing of joy . these findings are also consistent with a case described by coria et al . in a patient who had a right lateral basal temporal lesion and experienced joy associated with gelastic seizures intracranial recordings and cortical electrical stimulation have shown involvement of the mesial and lateral superior frontal , cingulate and orbitofrontal gyri . interestingly , in a case studied by chassagnon et al . with stereo - eeg , a nonlesional patient became seizure - free after radiofrequency stimulation , resulting in two distinct lesions in the left superior frontal and cingulate gyri . in our first patient , gs were associated with motor signs but not with emotion , therefore suggesting a frontal lobe origin . although the surface eeg showed left anterior temporal ictal onset , both the mri and pet showed left mesial frontal and anterior temporal changes . invasive eeg recordings localized the left mesial frontal lobe as the ictal onset area , which was assumed to be the probable epileptogenic area , which was confirmed by the good surgical outcome . in the second case , the structural and functional neuroimaging and the surface eeg were consistent with a temporal origin of the seizures . this patient had , during the seizure , a sense of joy , similar to the cases reported by iwasa et al . which originated from the right or left mesial our patient initially reached seizure - freedom for a year , although a long - term reduction of 50% compared to presurgical status was finally reached . this was probably due to an incomplete resection of a cortical dysplasia associated with the hippocampal sclerosis . unlike the previous cases , our last patient had unremarkable imaging or eeg findings and responded well to antiepileptic drugs . although there were no ictal recordings that could confirm the topographical origin of the seizures , a hypothalamic onset is unlikely . since the patient has had complete seizure control with antiepileptic drugs , further studies were not indicated although gelastic epilepsy has been associated with hypothalamic hamartomas in children , other localizations , including frontal and temporal lobe foci , are more frequent among adult patients , . gelastic epilepsy is usually refractory , and surgery may be a useful tool , as reported in two of our cases .	gelastic epilepsy or laughing seizures have been historically related to children with hypothalamic hamartomas . we report three adult patients who had gelastic epilepsy , defined as the presence of seizures with a prominent laugh component , including brain imaging , surface / invasive electroencephalography , positron emission tomography , and medical / surgical outcomes . none of the patients had hamartoma or other hypothalamic lesion . two patients were classified as having refractory epilepsy ( one had biopsy - proven neurocysticercosis and the other one hippocampal sclerosis and temporal cortical dysplasia ) . the third patient had no lesion on mri and had complete control with carbamazepine . both lesional patients underwent resective surgery , one with complete seizure control and the other one with poor outcome . although hypothalamic hamartomas should always be ruled out in patients with gelastic epilepsy , laughing seizures can also arise from frontal and temporal lobe foci , which can be surgically removed . in addition , we present the first case of gelastic epilepsy due to neurocysticercosis .
the authors acknowledge support from the spanish ministerio de ciencia e innovacin ( micinn ) through the consolider nanolight csd2007 - 00046 and fis2009 - 13430-c02 - 01 research grants . j. m. aunn thanks a scholarship from micinn . 31ifxundefined [ 1 ] ifx#1 ifnum [ 1 ] # 1firstoftwo secondoftwo ifx [ 1 ] # 1firstoftwo secondoftwo `` `` # 1''''@noop [ 0]secondoftwosanitize@url [ 0 ] + 12$12 & 12#1212_12%12@startlink[1]@endlink[0]@bib@innerbibempty @noop * * , ( ) link:\doibase 10.1103/physrevlett.96.127402 [ * * , ( ) ] link:\doibase 10.1021/nn301398a [ * * , ( ) ] @noop * * , ( ) link:\doibase 10.1364/oe.20.020376 [ * * , ( ) ] link:\doibase 10.1103/physrevlett.99.107401 [ * * , ( ) ] link:\doibase 10.1364/josa.73.000765 [ * * , ( ) ] @noop * * ( ) link:\doibase 10.1021/nl301594s [ * * , ( ) ] , @noop * * , ( ) link:\doibase 10.1364/oe.18.024868 [ * * , ( ) ] @noop _ _ ( , , ) http://stacks.iop.org/1464-4258/4/i=5/a=356 [ * * , ( ) ] link:\doibase 10.1103/physrevlett.95.113202 [ * * , ( ) ] link:\doibase 10.1364/ol.33.001029 [ * * , ( ) ] @noop * * , ( ) @noop * * , ( ) link:\doibase 10.1103/physrev.73.360 [ * * , ( ) ] @noop * * , ( ) link:\doibase 10.1103/physreva.30.1185 [ * * , ( ) ] @noop _ _ ( , ) link:\doibase 10.1364/josab.4.000481 [ * * , ( ) ] link:\doibase 10.1016/j.surfrep.2004.12.002 [ * * , ( ) ] @noop _ _ ( , , ) @noop * * , ( ) link:\doibase 10.1038/ncomms2167 [ * * , ( ) ] link:\doibase 10.1103/physreva.85.053828 [ * * , ( ) ] @noop * * , ( ) @noop * * , ( ) @noop * * , ( ) link:\doibase 10.1103/physreve.72.046611 [ * * , ( ) ]	we address the forces exerted by the electromagnetic field emitted by a planar fluctuating source on dielectric particles that have arose much interest because of their recently shown magnetodielectric behavior . in this context , we analyze as a particular case the modification of the casimir and van der waals forces . we study the effect of the source coherence length as well as the interplay between the force from the radiated field and that from the electric and magnetic dipoles induced on the particle . this allows a control of these interactions as well as of the weight and interference effects between the fields from both kinds of induced dipoles , in particular when large changes in their differential scattering cross section occur due to kerker minimum forward or zero backward conditions ; thus opening new paths to nanoparticle ensembling and manipulation . the influence of surface waves of the source is also studied . magnetodielectric particles have recently attracted much attention due to their exotic properties as scatterers and nanoantennas @xcite . it has been shown @xcite that some dielectric particles behave in this way exhibiting coupled electric and magnetic dipoles induced by the illuminating light field . it is then of great interest to study their response to stochastic radiation forces , specifically those due the field of a planar fluctuating source @xcite . many previous studies have dealt with this subject for atoms or non - magnetic nanoparticles with its application to delta - correlated thermal sources and blackbodies in connection with the van der waals ( vdw ) and casimir - polder ( c - p ) interactions @xcite . in this work we deal with a more general kind of statistical sources , namely those that are spatially partially coherent and of the wide variety of those statistically homogeneous and isotropic @xcite . their emission excites electric and magnetic dipoles of the particle in its near field that may be considered as a secondary source whose radiation interacts with the primary fluctuating source ; this giving rise to a new total force resulting from both the action of the field radiated by the primary source and that from the field emitted by these dipoles . at thermal wavelengths , the interaction from this secondary source constituted by the particle induced dipoles is interpreted as a liftshitz force @xcite , which at zero temperature becomes either those derived by vdw and c - p @xcite , depending on the distance and use , or not , of quasistatic formulations . however , in our study , first the optical wavelengths are such that @xmath0 and hence planck energy becomes similar to that of the vacuum fluctuations : @xmath1\approx \frac{1}{2}\hbar\omega$ ] ; and second , due to the magnetic response of the nanoparticle , more forces come into play in addition to those that keep an analogy with these above quoted , thus allowing a larger number of degrees of freedom of relevance for particle ensembling and manipulation . we do not restrict here to thermal wavelengthts , but rather consider a range of infrared and optical frequencies whose choice depends on the particle size . then a particular case of our study is that analogous to those dipole forces induced by spontaneous electromagnetic field fluctuations . while the vacuum forces can become relatively negligible by conveniently manipulating the power intensity of the source , we shall show that in other possible configurations and experimental designs they may predominate . the geometry considered in this letter consists of two half - spaces . the lower one ( @xmath2 ) is occupied by the source with its polarization currents and it will be denoted as @xmath3 ; whereas the upper one ( @xmath4 ) , denoted as @xmath5 , is free space and contains the particle . the cartesian components of the force on a magnetodielectric dipolar particle is the sum of an electric , magnetic and electric - magnetic dipole interference parts which are expressed in terms of the first electric and magnetic mie coefficients @xmath6 and @xmath7 as @xcite @xmath8 where @xmath9 , @xmath10 and @xmath11 @xmath12 are the permittivity and susceptibility of the medium embedding the particle , respectively , in our case being vacuum ; and @xmath13 . @xmath14 and @xmath15 standing for the electric and magnetic polarizability of the particle , respectively . @xmath16 , @xmath17 ; @xmath18 is the total electric vector at frequency @xmath19 at any point of the half - space @xmath4 , hence at the position of the particle , i.e. at @xmath20 , it will be @xmath21 in the second line of this equation we have omitted the explicit dependency on space and frequency for brevity . the associated magnetic field can be obtained directly from maxwell s equations . in eq . ( [ totfield ] ) the last two terms are the electric fields emitted by the particle induced dipoles ( @xmath22 and @xmath23 ) after multiple reflections at the plane @xmath24 @xcite and hence connect the constitutive properties of the source and particle through the reflection fresnel coefficients @xmath25 at @xmath24 and the polarizabilities , being described by @xmath26 . on the other hand , the first term @xmath27 represents the electric field _ incident _ on the particle after being emitted from the primary source placed at @xmath2 , and is defined through the green s function @xmath28 which includes the transmission fresnel coefficients @xmath29 from @xmath2 into @xmath4 . @xmath28 may be written as a superposition of plane waves with wavevector @xmath30 with @xmath31 , @xmath32,(@xmath33 ) , and @xmath34 . thus , in terms of the polarization currents one has @xmath35 in vacuum ( @xmath36 ) , @xmath37 decays exponentially with the distance in the evanescent wave region ( @xmath38 ) and is oscillatory in the radiative one ( @xmath39)@xcite . for a single dipole , this electric field is calculated from eq . ( 3 ) using @xmath40 and @xmath41 instead of @xmath28 and @xmath42 . in a similar way , the electric field @xmath43 generated by the magnetic dipole can be calculated from the green function associated to the magnetic field of the electric dipole @xmath44 and making the interchange @xmath45 in the reflection fresnel coefficients . some details about these green s functions can be found in e.g. @xcite . note that for p - polarization , both @xmath46 and @xmath47 support surface plasmon polaritons ( spps ) when @xmath48 . now we define the cross - spectral density tensor of the source polarization as @xmath49 . we shall address the wide variety of non - local statistically homogeneous and isotropic sources @xcite ) for which @xmath50 @xmath51 denotes the power spectrum of the source and @xmath52 is the spectral degree of coherence @xcite . a special particular case of these sources are those thermal and blackbodies widely studied . on inserting eq . ( 2 ) into ( 1 ) and taking the statistical homogeneity of the source into account , one obtains the total force on the particle . for these sources only the force along the @xmath53-axis is different from zero . we consider mutual incoherence between the particle electric and magnetic induced dipoles , i.e. , @xmath54 @xcite . @xmath55 and @xmath56 will denote the total forces due to the above mentioned contributions of the primary fluctuating source in @xmath2 and to the secondary source field from the particle induced dipoles , respectively . we study the effect of the magnetodielectric properties of the particle in the near infrared . this is a semiconductor sphere ; its anomalous scattering properties have recently received a great deal of attention , both theoretically and experimentally @xcite . in particular , for each incident plane wave component its scattered intensity in the backscattering direction is zero , [ first _ kerker condition _ ( @xmath57 ) ] when @xmath58 is fulfilled . also for each of such plane wave components impinging the particle , the forwardly scattered intensity becomes close to a non - zero minimum [ second _ kerker condition _ ( k2 ) ] when @xmath59 . in both cases : @xmath60 @xcite . thus , we address a si sphere of radius @xmath61 , the spectrum of the incident light being in the range of @xmath62 . at these frequencies the total cross section of the particle is fully determined by the mie coefficients @xmath63 and @xmath64 @xcite , this justifies the use of eq . ( 1 ) . we assume a gaussian degree of coherence of the source , therefore the correlation function reads @xmath65 @xmath66 , @xmath67 being the coherence length of the source and @xmath68 representing the normalized spectrum . notice that for @xmath69 , @xmath70 , then the source becomes _ @xmath71-correlated _ , like in e.g. a thermal one following the fluctuation - dissipation theorem @xcite . the source considered here will have an au interface at @xmath24 , hence supporting surface plasmons polaritons ( spps ) in the spectral range under consideration , and thus enhancing the near field forces @xcite . after performing all the integrations of the form of eq . ( 3 ) for the primary source and for the induced dipoles , ( a long but straightforward work , some of whose details are shown in the supplementary information ) , one sees that @xmath72 . this will be relevant when we discuss the particle kerker conditions . ) , magnetic ( @xmath73 ) and interference force ( @xmath74 ) from a @xmath71-correlated source . the first horizontal row shows the part of the force due to the field from the fluctuating primary source at @xmath24 , [ first term in eq . ( 2 ) ] . the insets exhibit the behavior of the electric , magnetic and electric - magnetic interaction force components , respectively , normalized to @xmath75 . the second horizontal row represents the force from the secondary source constituted by the particle induced dipoles , [ second and third terms in eq . ( 2 ) ] ] fig . 1 shows the logarithm of the force . this representation aims to clarifying its drastic changes of sign . all the results of this paper will be normalized to the spectrum of the source in order to see the relative weight of each force component . the first horizontal row shows the force @xmath55 due to the field impinging from the primary statistical source at @xmath24 . the second horizontal row represents the force @xmath56 from the secondary source constituted by the electric and magnetic dipoles induced on the particle . the fluctuating source coherence length @xmath67 is first assumed to be zero . the inset shows the behavior of the polarizability for the range of wavelengths considered . this helps to understand the color plots . in figs . 1(a ) and 1(b ) we see a line separating the gradient and scattering forces . for a statistically homogeneous source , the gradient force ( proportional to @xmath76 ) is governed uniquely by the evanescent modes and is negative for a particle with @xmath77 @xcite , hence , it exponentially decays with the distance z to the source . on the other hand , the scattering force ( proportional to @xmath78 ) is positive , i.e. pushing , and constant for any @xmath79 . as the wavelength grows , @xmath80 , [ see the inset in fig . 1(a ) ] , the gradient force dominates even at distances larger than @xmath81 , where the evanescent modes do not contribute . this is a remarkable new feature of this kind of particles . fig . 1 ( c ) represents the force component @xmath82 due to interference between the particle induced electric and magnetic dipoles . in the near field this is almost repulsive for any wavelength , however , at distances larger than the wavelength , where the poynting vector @xmath83 is independent of the distance , we have a zone where this force is negative ( the arrow indicates that zone ) . this kind of action is known as a _ pulling _ force @xcite , and its interest has increased in the last years . this last plot shows the relevant role of the magnetodielectric behavior of these particles in this respect , although in this latter specific case when the two other components : electric and magnetic , are added this pulling effect becomes very small , ( the electric - magnetic dipole interference force at @xmath84 and @xmath85 is one order of magnitude less than either @xmath86 or @xmath87 ) , however by manipulating the fluctuating source , a suitable power of the emitted electromagnetic field is obtained @xcite so that a tractor light field appears , even in the far zone . concerning the force @xmath88 fom the particle induced dipoles , we observe in the second row of fig . 1 that this force exponentially decays with the distance z to the primary source plane @xmath24 , and its sign depends on that of the particle polarizability ; nevertheless , the oscillating behavior of the green function due to propagating plane wave components manifests in this force . we also observe that it is six orders of magnitude larger than its counterpart @xmath55 from the primary fluctuating source , at least at subwavelength distances @xmath53 . we shall later discuss this . to get a deeper understanding , fig . 2 represents @xmath56 for some selected wavelengths and for two different source coherence lengths : @xmath89 and @xmath90 . for an statistically homogeneous source , the relationship between the electric and magnetic cross - spectral density tensors is @xcite @xmath91 hence , in the near field , when the first or the second kerker condition holds , one has @xmath92 and @xmath93 , however , in the far zone @xmath92 for any value of @xmath79 . for the si particle addressed , the kerker conditions are fullfilled at @xmath94 and @xmath95 , ( see figs . 2(a ) and 2(b ) and @xcite ) . we can also see in the inset of fig . 1(b ) , that in the range of @xmath96 there is a peak in the imaginary part of @xmath15 which predominates over all other @xmath97 parts . the black - dashed - dot line in fig . 2 represents the force in this peak . in that case , the magnetic force @xmath98 is one order of magnitude larger than @xmath99 and @xmath100 , hence the total force on the particle is governed by this magnetic force . this effect , due to the dielectric particle magnetic response to the light field , constitutes one of the main results of this paper . , @xmath87 and @xmath101 versus the distance from the plane of the source ( in wavelength units ) for some values of the wavelength ( in @xmath102 ) . the two kerker conditions occur at @xmath103 , ( k1 ) , and @xmath104 , ( k2 ) , respectively . ] we now address the influence of the coherence length of the source . this will establish the differences between the mechanical action of partially correlated sources and that from e.g. thermal sources and blackbodies . the spectral degree of coherence in @xmath105space is @xmath106 $ ] , hence , it acts a low - pass filter being maximum for @xmath89 ( i.e. when the source is @xmath71-correlated ) . because of this fact , the evanescent modes present two such filters : the first is due to the own nature of these evanescent modes while the second stems from the spatial coherence of the source . the shape of figs . 2(d)-(f ) is similar to that of figs . 2(a)-(c ) , shifted by a distance @xmath107 , therefore for @xmath108 the force is solely due to the non - conservative ( scattering ) force and to the interference force @xmath101 , which becomes constant and positive or negative depending on the wavelength . it is worth pointing out that the price paid on increasing the coherence length is expensive , because at the same time there is a reduction of the force strength by various orders of magnitude [ cf . e.g. the forces shown in figs . 2 ( a ) and 2 ( d ) ] . , @xmath109 and @xmath110 versus distance @xmath53 ( in units of wavelength ) from the exit plane @xmath24 of the source for different values of the wavelength ( in @xmath102 ) . the two kerker conditions are fulfilled at @xmath103 , ( k1 ) , and @xmath104 , ( k2 ) , respectively . ] once we understood the role of the coherence length , we turn our study to its influence on the force @xmath88 induced by the secondary source , namely by the particle induced dipoles . fig . 3 represents @xmath56 for the same wavelengths as in fig . 2 . the magnitude of the force in the near - field @xmath111 is much larger than in fig . 2 , thus , the effect of the mechanical action @xmath88 of the field emitted by the particle induced dipoles substantially dominates over that @xmath112 of the field that is due solely to the stochastic source . nevertheless , as the distance @xmath53 grows , all the fastly oscillating components , electric , magnetic and that of interference , of this force @xmath88 rapidly tend to zero , and hence is the force @xmath112 from the primary source the one that dominates . as follows from the calculation of @xmath113 and @xmath114 , the cross spectral density tensor of the electric and magnetic dipoles now are not equal ; therefore , and although at first sight it could seem that similar relationships between the electric and magnetic forces , in kerker conditions , are fulfilled like for @xmath112 from the primary source , in fact they are not . the role of the coherence length in this case is exactly the same as in fig . 1 ; the magnitude of the force decreases as @xmath67 grows . future work should find a minimum value of @xmath67 for which the casimir - polder force predominates over the contributions discussed here . in summary , we have shown , that the mechanical action on a magnetodielectric small particle from a partially coherent fluctuating source exhibits important new effects at distances shorter than the wavelength . in particular , the magnetic induced dipole and its interference with the electric dipole create a landscape of forces completely different to that previously studied in connection with van der waals , casimir , liftshitz and rest of radiation forces both in and out of thermodynamic equilibrium . in this respect , kerker conditions , as a result of the exotic scattering properties of these particles , introduce new relationships in the balance of these new forces over the traditional purely electric forces . further experiments should be stimulated by these new effects , including consequences of fano resonances .
hypertrophic olivary degeneration ( hod ) is a rare phenomenon in the dento - rubro - olivary pathway that was first described by oppenheim in 1887 ( 1 , 2 ) . hod is a unique form of transneuronal degeneration in which the inferior olivary nucleus undergoes hypertrophy followed by atrophy , as a consequence of lesions to the dento - rubro - olivary pathway ; this was first defined by guillain and mollaret in 1931 and is thus also called guillain - mollaret - triangle ( 2 , 3 ) . commonly , hod occurs unilaterally and secondary to focal lesions of the guillain - mollaret - triangle ( 1 , 4 ) . we report the magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) findings in a patient suffering from wilson disease ( wd ) with bilateral hod . a 23-year - old man suffering from wd was admitted to our hospital because of a deteriorating hypokinetic - rigid syndrome , increased liver enzymes , and a generalized tonic - clonic seizure that required increasing levels of chelation therapy . mri of the patient 's brain at that time , revealed abnormal high signal on t2-weighted images ( t2wis ) within both superior cerebellar peduncles , red nuclei , and midbrain ( fig . data were acquired with a 3-t magnetic resonance scanner ( trio tim , siemens healthcare , erlangen , germany ) using a 12-channel head coil and the following sequence parameters for t2-weighted turbo spin - echo ( and susceptibility weighted gradient echo ) sequences : in - plane resolution matrix = 306 384 ( 350 448 ) , repetition and echo time ( tr / te ) : 6000/96 ( 28/20 ) ms , slice thickness = 3 ( 9.6 mip ) mm , field of view = 202 253 ( 178 228 ) mm , flip angle ( fa ) = 120 ( 15 ) , number of excitations = 1 ( 1 ) . bilateral signal loss on both t2wi and susceptibility weighted images ( swis ) was revealed in the formatio reticularis , globus pallidus , putamen , and caudate nucleus . repeated clinical examination 6 months prior to admission had shown a cachectic patient with rigor , spastic tetraparesis accentuated in the lower extremities , severe hypomimic , and akinetic mutism without spontaneous verbal and motoric reaction . follow up mri disclosed slight progression of the initial findings , but no signs of hod . in the early course of hospitalization , further impairment was noticed under continued chelation therapy with increasing dosage resulting from excessive mobilization of copper . magnetic resonance imaging after recent admission revealed progressive atrophy of the brainstem , cerebellum , cerebellar peduncles , and shrinkage of the basal ganglia . swi showed ongoing signal loss in the putamen , head of the caudate nuclei , red nuclei , and substantia nigra on both sides . the new finding of bilaterally increased signal intensity of the inferior olivary nuclei on t2wi , accompanied by increased volumes of both nuclei , indicated a bilateral hypertrophic degeneration ( fig . hypertrophic olivary degeneration represents a unique form of transneuronal ( transsynaptic ) degeneration in which the inferior olivary nucleus undergoes an initial hypertrophic alteration rather than atrophy , which often occurs several years later ( 1 , 2 , 5 - 7 ) . the major histologic changes of hod are vacuolar degeneration of the enlarged neurons , hypertrophy of astrocytes , gliosis , and demyelination ( 2 , 4 , 6 ) . on the basis of pathologic studies , macroscopic olivary enlargement has been reported as early as 3 weeks after ictus with a peak at about 8.5 months , and may resolve several years later ( 2 , 5 - 7 ) . ( 8) described 3 stages of olivary degeneration in regard to the appearance on mri : no olivary changes in the acute phase , increased signal on t2wi and proton density images corresponding to olivary hypertrophy , and persistence of high signal on t2wi with resolution of hypertrophy ( 3 ) . on t2wi , a hyperintense signal of the olivary nucleus appears up to 3 weeks after disease onset , and persists for years , probably reflecting gliosis , and increased water content . on mri , olivary enlargement is present 5 to 18 months , and may resolve approximately 3 to 4 years after the eliciting event ( 2 , 4 , 5 , 8) . ( 9 ) described a decrease in radial diffusivity compatible with demyelination and an increase in axial diffusivity representing neuronal hypertrophy in all components of the guillain - mollaret - triangle in patients with hod . palatal and ocular myoclonus , dentatorubral ( or holmes ' ) tremor , cyclic jerk of the soft palate , and other involuntary movements are the hallmark symptoms and have been described as early as 1886 ( 2 , 7 , 10 ) . the corners of the guillain - mollaret - triangle consist of the olivary nucleus , ipsilateral red nucleus , and contralateral dentate nucleus . the edges are formed by projections of the central tegmental tract between olivary nucleus and red nucleus , the superior cerebellar peduncle between red nucleus and dentate nucleus , and the inferior cerebellar peduncle connecting the dentate nucleus with the olivary nucleus ( 1 , 4 ) . lesions within the neuronal network of the guillain - mollaret - triangle causing hod are commonly unilateral and may result from hemorrhage due to vascular malformation , trauma , surgical intervention or hypertension , tumor , ischaemia , or inflammation ( 1 , 3 - 5 , 11 ) . unilateral hod is observed if the lesion affects the ispilateral central tegmental tract , the contralateral dentate nucleus , or superior cerebellar peduncle , respectively ( 1 , 4 ) . reports of bilateral hod are extremely rare and limit our knowledge exclusively to focal lesions ( 3 , 7 , 10 , 11 ) . gerace et al . ( 10 ) showed a bilateral hod from a solitary ischaemic lesion located in the midbrain and corresponding to the decussed region of the superior cerebellar peduncle . ( 11 ) described 3 cases of bilateral hod resulting from hemorrhage and tumor surgery . causative lesions were identified in both dentate nuclei , in both central tegmental tracts , and in the ipsilateral dentate nucleus and central tegmental tract , respectively . in addition , bilateral olivary degeneration may occur if both the superior cerebellar peduncle and the central tegmental tract are involved ( 4 , 12 ) . asal et al . ( 3 ) outlined that lesions such as ischemia , tumors , demyelinating and inflammatory diseases could cause hyperintensity of the olivary nucleus on t2wi and have to be considered in the differential diagnosis . an involvement of the contralateral cerebellum or ipsilateral brainstem is a significant diagnostic criterion for olivary hypertrophy ( 3 ) . wallerian degeneration , amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , and adrenoleukodystrophy demonstrate prior hyperintensity on t2wi of the corticospinal tract and the rostral segment of the medulla rather than on the olivary nucleus ( 7 ) . the absence of contrast enhancement helps to differentiate between a tumoral lesion or an infection ( 3 ) . to the best of our knowledge , there has been no previous report of bilateral hod resulting from a genetic disorder . wd is considered to be an extrapyramidal disorder with abnormalities of the grey matter nuclei and atrophy ( 13 ) . beside the latter - mentioned , its neuroimaging spectrum involves the extrapyramidal white matter , dentatorubrothalamic , and pontocerebellar tract , which form the cortico - ponto - cerebello - dentato - rubro - thalamo - cortico circuit . the dentatorubrothalamic tract originates in the dentate nucleus and decussates as superior cerebellar peduncle to the red nucleus before terminating in the ventrolateral nucleus of the thalamus . this extrapyramidal tract can secondary be damaged next to the more severely affected extrapyramidal grey nuclei ( 13 ) . we found bilateral hod resulting from widespread , non - focal neuronal damage involving all constituents of the guillain - mollaret - triangle beside the abnormal supra - and infra - tentorial mri findings within the scope of the underlying disease . neuroimaging findings in wd represent the neuropathologic spectrum of spongy to cystic degeneration of grey matter nuclei , capillary endothelial swelling , pontine myelinolysis , gliosis , and demyelination , as well as accumulation of iron and copper ( 13 - 15 ) . the most frequent affected sites on mri in wd are the basal ganglia with an abnormal low signal intensity on swi , but increased signal intensity on t2wi , which reflects the formerly mentioned neuropathologic findings . in particular , the putamina show an increased signal intensity in the outer rim on t2wi . second , the most involved are pons , midbrain , cortical white matter , and cerebellum with hyperintense signal changes on t2wi . furthermore supra- and infra - tentorial atrophy can be present ( 16 ) . the severe course and progression of the disease in the presented case may have contributed to the propagation of structural tissue damage even within infra - tentorial compartments , including the constituents of the guillain - mollaret - triangle , beside the extrapyramidal grey nuclei and ( extra-)pyramidal white matter tracts ( 13 ) , and underline the potentially non - selective affection of the central nervous system by wd .	hypertrophic olivary degeneration resulting from lesions of the dento - rubro - olivary pathway , also called guillain - mollaret - triangle , has been described previously in a number of cases . reports about bilateral hypertrophic olivary degeneration of the inferior olivary nuclei are very limited , and the magnetic resonance imaging findings of hypertrophic olivary degeneration in wilson disease have not yet been described to the best of our knowledge . herein , we present the first report of bilateral hypertrophic olivary degeneration diagnosed by magnetic resonance imaging in a patient suffering from wilson disease .
as a remarkable aspect of high-@xmath0 superconductivity , its unique characteristics may result from the competition between more than one type of order parameter . @xcite historically , the typical antagonistic relationship between superconductivity and magnetism has led researchers to avoid using magnetic elements , such as iron , as potential building blocks of superconducting ( sc ) material . however , it is now well accepted that the unconventional superconductivity emerging upon doping is closely related to the antiferromagnetism ( afm ) in parent compounds @xcite . recent research theme in high-@xmath0 cuprate community centers on how to establish the connection between antiferromagnetic ( af ) and @xmath1-wave sc ( dsc ) orderings @xcite , i.e. , whether they compete with each other or coexist microscopically . this issue is a subject of current discussions . depending on material details , some compounds show the coexistence of dsc and afm @xcite while others exhibit microscopic separation of these two phases @xcite . engineered heterogeneous systems and multilayered high-@xmath0 cuprates offer a unique setting to study the interplay between dsc and afm . in these systems , the disorder effect can be minimized significantly with atomically smooth interfaces . experimentally , no mixing of dsc and afm was reported in the heterostructure artificially grown by stacking integer number of @xmath2 and @xmath3 layers @xcite . meanwhile microscopic evidence for the uniform mixed phase of afm and dsc in outer @xmath4 planes was reported @xcite on a hg - based five - layered cuprate . theoretically , demler _ et al . _ @xcite have studied the proximity effect and josephson coupling in the so(5 ) theory of high-@xmath5 superconductors . depending on the thickness , the middle antiferromagnetic region could behave like a superconductor , metal or insulator . on the other hand , it was shown in the perturbation theory @xcite that the spin exchange coupling in the insulating af layer can allow the tunneling of cooper pairs . in this article , we study microscopically a multi - layered system with two superconductors separated by af layers . through self - consistent mean - field theory and numerical diagonalization , we are able to solve the hamiltonian , which allows us to study the interplay between dsc and afm in detail . varying some external parameters , such as the sc phase difference across the system @xmath6 and coulomb interaction @xmath7 in the af layers leads to interesting results about the interplay . -wave pairing symmetry . the phases of the sc order parameter ( or the pairing potential ) in the first ( far left ) and the last ( far right ) layer are fixed at @xmath8 and @xmath9 , respectively.,width=302 ] the model system under consideration is schematically presented in fig . [ fig : josephson ] , for which the hamiltonian can be written as : @xmath10 where @xmath11 denotes the hopping integral between the nearest neighbor sites . for in - plane ( x - y plane ) hopping , @xmath12 , and for inter - layer ( z direction ) hopping , @xmath13 . @xmath14 ( @xmath15 ) is the annihilation ( creation ) operator of electrons on the @xmath16th lattice site with spin @xmath17 ( @xmath18 ) . the quantity @xmath19 is the number operator on the @xmath16th lattice site . both @xmath20 and @xmath21 are positive . @xmath20 indicates the on - site repulsive coulomb interaction , which is nonzero _ only _ in the middle layers , and @xmath21 describes the in - plane nearest neighbor attractive interaction , which is nonzero _ only _ in the sc layers . we are going to fix the phase of the sc order parameter in the first ( far left ) and the last ( far right ) layer at @xmath8 and @xmath22 , respectively , which can be introduced by a gauge flux . when there is no inter - layer coupling , @xmath23 , the system is decomposed into individual two - dimensional ( 2d ) systems . it is known that in a 2d sc layer , the in - plane nearest neighbor attractive interaction @xmath21 leads to a nonzero energy gap @xmath24 with @xmath1-wave symmetry , and in a 2d af layer the on - site repulsive interaction @xmath20 leads to a nonzero @xmath25 spin density wave ( sdw ) order . in a genuine cuprate compound , there exists the inter - layer coupling , which is usually weaker than the in - plane hopping . because of the inter - layer coupling , there arises interesting interplay between sc layers and af layers ( see fig . [ fig : josephson ] ) . the strategy of solving the hamiltonian is briefly summarized as follows : due to the translational symmetry in the 2d x - y plane , the 3d problem can be decomposed into a 2d ( x - y ) plus 1d ( z ) problem . in the x - y plane , @xmath26 is a good quantum number , where @xmath27 , @xmath28 , and @xmath29 , @xmath30 , @xmath31 , @xmath32 , @xmath33 , @xmath34 , @xmath31 , @xmath35 . in order to simplify the hamiltonian , we adopt the mean - field approximation , which leads to the following bogoliubov - de gennes equation @xcite : @xmath36\left [ \begin{array}{c } u_{\vec{k},m,\uparrow}^{\alpha } \\ u_{\vec{k}+\vec{q},m,\uparrow}^{\alpha}\\ v_{\vec{k},m,\downarrow}^{\alpha } \\ v_{\vec{k}+\vec{q},m,\downarrow}^{\alpha } \end{array } \right ] = e_{\alpha } \left [ \begin{array}{c } u_{\vec{k},n,\uparrow}^{\alpha } \\ u_{\vec{k}+\vec{q},n,\uparrow}^{\alpha}\\ v_{\vec{k},n,\downarrow}^{\alpha } \\ v_{\vec{k}+\vec{q},n,\downarrow}^{\alpha } \end{array } \right]\ ; , % \nonumber\ ] ] where @xmath37 and @xmath38 label the layer number ; @xmath39 and @xmath40 with @xmath41 denote the wave vectors in the first brillouin zone of the x - y plane , @xmath42 describes the nearest neighbor inter - plane hopping , @xmath43 is the normal metal dispersion relation , @xmath44 is the chemical potential , the variables @xmath45 is equal to @xmath7 in the af layers and zero otherwise while @xmath46 is equal to @xmath47 in the sc layers and zero otherwise . the superconducting pairing potential @xmath48 , where @xmath49 is the superconducting pairing wavefunction . obviously , the superconducting pairing potential , which is the sc order parameter has the same phase as that of the superconducting pairing wavefunction . @xmath50 describes the sdw in the @xmath38-th layer . the average electron number @xmath51 , @xmath52 and the sc pairing wavefunction @xmath49 can be determined self - consistently through iteration over the following relation : @xmath53 where @xmath54 is the sites number in a 2d plane . @xmath39 samples half of the first brillouin zone . @xmath55 , and @xmath56 is the fermi distribution . through this simplification , the multi - layered system is then solved numerically . we are especially interested in the interplay between the dsc and the afm , which is characterized by the sdw @xmath57 and the sc pairing wavefunction @xmath49 . we will focus on zero temperature @xmath58 . the size of x - y plane is @xmath59 . the total layer number is @xmath60 . the two middle layers are af layers ( @xmath61 , @xmath62 , for @xmath63 , @xmath64 ) , and the rest are sc layers ( @xmath65 , @xmath66 , for @xmath67 , @xmath68 , @xmath31 , @xmath69 , and @xmath70 , @xmath31 , @xmath71 ) . for simplicity , we choose @xmath72 , @xmath73 , @xmath74 , and @xmath75 . we will vary the control parameters , such as @xmath7 and @xmath76 , to study the competition between dsc and afm . when the phase difference @xmath6 is introduced , there is a current flowing across the system and its expression is given by : @xmath77 f_{+ } \nonumber \\ & & + \left [ v_{\vec{k},n,\downarrow}^{\alpha } v_{\vec{k},n+1,\downarrow}^{\alpha , \ast } + v_{\vec{k}+\vec{q},n,\downarrow}^{\alpha } v_{\vec{k}+\vec{q},n+1,\downarrow}^{\alpha , \ast}\right ] f_{- } \biggr{\}}\;,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath78 . in the model introduced above , the change of the coulomb interaction @xmath7 in the middle layers can drive a metal - mott insulator phase transition at a certain value @xmath79 . correspondingly , the multi - layered system changes from a superconductor / normal metal / superconductor ( sns ) weak link @xcite to a superconductor / insulator / superconductor ( sis ) josephson junction @xcite . the studies of sns and sis junctions with static potential barrier have been well documented @xcite . here we start from a microscopic model and drive the middle layers to change from one electronic state into another by tuning the on - site coulomb interaction @xmath7 . we are interested in how the sc pairing wavefunction and the current across the junction change with the coulomb interaction @xmath7 . we plot the current as a function of the phase difference @xmath6 in fig . it can be seen that below a threshold value of @xmath80 , the current is a piecewise periodic function . in each periodic region , it varies linearly with @xmath6 . this agrees with the result obtained in ref . for a junction with a normal metal . we also find that when the coulomb interaction is larger than @xmath79 , the current as a function of @xmath81 changes gradually with the increase of @xmath7 . when @xmath7 is in the range @xmath82 , the current shows a shape intermediate between a piecewise linear function and a sinusoidal function . similar results have been observed in refs . @xcite when one varies the temperature or the thickness of the middle layers instead of the the coulomb interaction @xmath7 . when @xmath83 , the current is well approximated by a sinusoidal function of @xmath6 ( see fig . 2 ) , which is a typical feature of the dc josephson junction ( jj ) current @xcite . the magnitude of current decreases rapidly with the increase of @xmath7 . of two superconductors for different @xmath7 . here @xmath74 , @xmath73 , @xmath59 , @xmath60 . up panel : @xmath84 , @xmath85 , @xmath86 , @xmath31 , @xmath87 , and @xmath88 . down panel : @xmath89 and @xmath90.,title="fig:",width=264 ] of two superconductors for different @xmath7 . here @xmath74 , @xmath73 , @xmath59 , @xmath60 . up panel : @xmath84 , @xmath85 , @xmath86 , @xmath31 , @xmath87 , and @xmath88 . down panel : @xmath89 and @xmath90.,title="fig:",width=264 ] in order to have a better understanding of the influence of afm on dsc , we plot the absolute value and the phase of the sc pairing wavefunction in fig . [ fig : orderparameter ] . it can be seen that when @xmath7 is small , there is a nonzero paring potential in the middle layers due to the proximity effect , and the two superconductors are weakly linked by the normal metallic layers . in this weak link regime , the phase of the sc pairing wavefunction is almost linear in layer number @xmath38 . this means that when the middle layers are in the normal metallic state , it has little influence on the sc layers on two sides . however , when @xmath7 is larger than @xmath80 , sdw develops , and the middle layers become mott insulator . quantum mechanically , cooper pairs can still tunnel through the sdw region when @xmath7 is not very large . we call this intermediate @xmath7 regime as the tunneling regime . from the weak link regime to tunneling regime , the phase of the sc paring wavefunction changes gradually from a ( nearly ) linear function to a step function of the layer number ( see fig . [ fig : orderparameter ] ) . this corresponds to the observation that the current shape changes from being piecewise linear to sinusoidal . therefore , when @xmath7 is very large , the current - phase relation becomes identical to the famous josephson relation @xcite . here for the first time , we establish the connection between the profile of the sc phase distribution ( fig . [ fig : orderparameter ] ) and the current - phase dependence ( fig . [ fig : current ] ) , which we believe is rather intriguing . when one continues to increase @xmath7 , the middle layers becomes more opaque and the superconducting pairing wavefunction is completely suppressed in this region . as a result , the tunneling of cooer pairs will be completely quenched , and the two comprising superconductors become decoupled . we also would like to mention that when the middle layers are in the normal metallic state , the current across the junction is a mesoscopic effect @xcite . the current is proportional to the phase gradient of the sc pairing wavefunction . that is , when one increases the number of sc layers , the current will decrease and finally vanish . however , when the middle layer is in the af state , the whole system becomes a jj . the current of a jj is no longer a mesoscopic effect . it is completely determined by the phase difference of the sc pairing wavefunction on both ends of the system . therefore , it will not decrease with the increase of the number of the sc layers . in this sense we say that afm insulator layers enhance supercurrent . in the above discussion , we find the profound influence of the coulomb interaction @xmath7 ( and hence afm ) of the middle layers on the dsc . we now study the back - action of dsc on afm . we will fix the phase difference @xmath6 at different values , and see if the sdw in the middle layers changes with @xmath6 . we plot in fig . [ fig : sdw ] the sdw as a function of @xmath7 for various values of @xmath81 . clearly , the sdw in the middle layers is influenced by @xmath81 in certain range of @xmath7 . when @xmath91 , the critical value @xmath79 , after which the sdw develops , is much smaller than in the case of @xmath92 , though the current is zero in both cases . this is very similar to the result in ref . that the middle af layers will be influenced by the current fed into the junction . when the coulomb interaction is very weak , the sdw does not develop for @xmath93 , and the middle layers are in the normal metallic state . in contrast , when the coulomb interaction is very strong , e.g. @xmath94 , the afm is robust against the phase difference across the junction and strongly suppresses the pairing wavefunction in the middle region ( see fig . [ fig : orderparameter ] ) . only when @xmath7 is small , is the emergence of the sdw sensitive to the phase difference . ) as a function of the coulomb interaction for different fixed @xmath95 . here @xmath96 , @xmath74 , @xmath73 , @xmath59 , @xmath60 , @xmath97 ( solid ) , @xmath98 ( dashed ) , and @xmath99 ( dot dashed).,width=264 ] when switching off the interlayer coupling ( @xmath23 ) , the system is decoupled into 2d systems . the dsc on two sides will not influence the afm in the middle layer . the middle layer is described by a 2d hubbard model , in which the sdw will develop for an infinitesimal @xmath7 . in the present model ( @xmath100 ) , when @xmath97 , the sdw in the middle layers is suppressed due to the inter - layer coupling , which weakens the perfect nesting at @xmath41 . the sdw will not develop until @xmath7 is larger than a threshold value @xmath79 ( see fig . [ fig : sdw ] ) . hence both @xmath101 and @xmath6 will influence the afm . the results in fig . [ fig : sdw ] indicate that the afm shows a crossover behavior for @xmath91 rather than a criticality as obtained for @xmath97 . for @xmath102 , the sdw critical point @xmath79 is less than that for @xmath97 . this result is in agreement with that in ref . . in order to have a better understanding of the influence of the dsc on the afm in the middle layers , we plot in fig . [ fig : ldos ] the local density of state ( ldos ) , as given by @xmath103,\\ \rho_{n,\downarrow}(e)&=&\frac{1}{n } \sum_{\vec{k},\alpha } \left\| v_{\vec{k},n,\downarrow}^{\alpha } + v_{\vec{k}+\vec{q},n,\downarrow}^{\alpha } \right\|^{2 } \left [ -\frac{\partial f(\omega')}{\partial \omega'}\right ] , \label{5}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath104 and @xmath105 . from fig . [ fig : ldos ] , we can see a sharp intensity decay of ldos at @xmath106 when @xmath107 . when @xmath91 , the ldos exhibits a peak structure at @xmath106 . since the development of the sdw is also determined by the normal - state dos at low energies , it explains the different sdw critical behavior between the cases with @xmath91 and @xmath108 . ) @xmath109 . here @xmath84 , @xmath74 , @xmath73 , @xmath59 , @xmath60 , @xmath97 , and @xmath99.,width=264 ] we have studied the interplay between the dsc and afm in a multi - layered system . it is revealed that the af layers have profound influence on the dsc . a metal - mott insulator phase transition makes the multi - layer system change from a sns to a sis junction . we have also established the connection between the profile of the sc phase distribution and the current - phase dependence . we find that when the barrier of the middle layers is not high enough ( metal or semiconductor regime ) , the middle layers can not maintain a step - function - like phase of two superconductors on two sides . accordingly , the current across the junction will deviate from a sinusoidal function of the phase difference . when the barrier of the middle layer is high ( deep insulator regime ) , as predicted by josephson @xcite the phase across the junction is a step function , and the current is a sinusoidal function of the phase difference . meanwhile , the phase difference across the system will dramatically influence the development of sdw in the middle layers . the results from our simulations may shed new light on material engineering . the dsc and afm can coexist in a single layer , but they also compete with each other . another important insight from the present study is the microscopic model of jj . jj has been widely used in a lot of quantum devices , such as in squid for ultra - sensitive magnetic field measurement and superconducting qubit @xcite for quantum computing . our study provides a microscopic theory for jj , hence has possible applications in building adaptive jj based devices by engineering the middle layers of the jj . finally , with the development of experimental techniques , it is now possible to synthesize heterogeneous systems with layer by layer at atomic scale @xcite . we expect that our results can be experimentally verified , as some experiments on engineered material have been reported @xcite . * acknowledgments : * we thank a. v. balatsky , quanxi jia , a. j. taylor , and s. trugman for useful discussions . this work was carried out under the auspices of the national nuclear security administration of the u.s . doe at lanl under contract no . de - ac52 - 06na25396 , the lanl ldrd - dr project x96y , and the u.s . doe office of science . s. h. pan , j. p. oneal , r. l. badzey , c. chamon , h. ding , j. r. engelbrecht , z. wang , h. eisaki , s. uchida , a. k. gupta , k .- w . ng , e. w. hudson , k. m. lang and j. c. davis , nature ( london ) * 413 * , 282 ( 2001 ) .	based on a microscopic model , we study the interplay between superconductivity and antiferromagnetism in a multi - layered system , where two superconductors are separated by an antiferromagnetic region . within a self - consistent mean - field theory , this system is solved numerically . we find that the antiferromagnetism in the middle layers profoundly affects the supercurrent flowing across the junction , while the phase difference across the junction influences the development of antiferromagnetism in the middle layers . this study may not only shed new light on material design and material engineering , but also bring important insights to building josephson - junction - based quantum devices , such as squid and superconducting qubit .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``America's Partnership for Nursing Education Act of 2007''. SEC. 2. FINDINGS; PURPOSE. (a) Findings.--The Congress finds as follows: (1) The nursing shortage has a detrimental impact on the quality of care patients receive in health care settings and plays a role in driving up health care costs. (2) States that have developed strategies involving partnerships with educational institutions and have allocated funds toward implementing their strategies are well suited to make effective use of matching Federal funds to better address and reduce this nursing shortage (b) Purpose.--The purpose of this Act is to support State and private efforts to address lack of capacity in college and university nursing programs, the critical driving force behind the serious nursing shortage in many States with fast growing populations. SEC. 3. GRANTS TO INCREASE THE NUMBER OF QUALIFIED NURSING FACULTY. Part D of title VIII of the Public Health Service Act (42 U.S.C. 296p) is amended by adding at the end the following: ``SEC. 832. GRANTS TO INCREASE THE NUMBER OF QUALIFIED NURSING FACULTY. ``(a) Grants.--The Secretary of Health and Human Services shall make grants to qualified States (or agencies or other governmental units thereof) to increase the number of qualified nursing faculty in college and university nursing programs in the State. ``(b) Use of Funds.-- ``(1) In general.--As a condition on the receipt of a grant under this section, a qualifying State shall agree to implement or continue implementing a program for the purpose of increasing the number of qualified nursing faculty in college and university nursing programs in the State. Such program-- ``(A) shall be implemented in cooperation with one or more colleges or universities in the State; and ``(B) shall include payment of nursing faculty salaries, benefits, training costs, operational costs, and any other costs related to such purpose. ``(2) Restrictions.--As a condition on the receipt of a grant under this section, a qualifying State shall agree-- ``(A) to use the grant only to pay costs described in paragraph (1)(B) that are associated with the number of qualified nursing faculty in college and university nursing programs in the State that is in addition to such number in academic year 2006-2007; and ``(B) to refrain from using any funds made available through the grant for capital expenses. ``(c) Amount of Grant.-- ``(1) Federal funds.--Subject to the availability of appropriations, the minimum amount of a grant to a qualifying State under this section for a fiscal year shall be $2,000,000. ``(2) State funds.--As a condition on the receipt of a grant under this section, a qualifying State shall agree-- ``(A) to use the grant to supplement and not supplant the amount of funds made available by the State for academic year 2006-2007 for maintaining the number of qualified nursing faculty in college and university nursing programs in the State; and ``(B) in addition to such funds, to make available not less than $2,000,000 for each of fiscal years 2008 through 2012 for the purpose of increasing the number of qualified nursing faculty in college and university nursing programs in the State. ``(d) Colleges and Universities.--The Secretary shall allow a qualifying State receiving a grant under this section to determine which college and university nursing programs in the State are eligible for funding through such grant. ``(e) Reports to Congress.--Not later than the end of each of fiscal years 2008 through 2012, the Secretary shall submit to the Congress a report on the grants awarded under this section. Each such report shall identify the overall number of grants awarded under this section, which States (or agencies or other governmental units thereof) received the grants, the number of new nursing faculty who were added, and the number of new nurses who are projected to graduate as a result of the grant in each State involved. ``(f) Definitions.--In this section: ``(1) The term `qualifying State' means a State that-- ``(A) is experiencing explosive population growth, with total population projected to increase by more than 50 percent between 1990 and 2025 based on data of the Bureau of the Census; ``(B) has a substantial projected shortage of nurses, such that the State is expected to have fewer than 555 nurses per 100,000 population in 2020, based on data of the Bureau of Health Professions of the Health Resources and Services Administration; and ``(C) is implementing or continuing to implement a program for the purpose of increasing the number of qualified nursing faculty in college and university nursing programs in the State. ``(2) The term `Secretary' means the Secretary of Health and Human Services. ``(g) Authorization of Appropriations.--To carry out this section, there is authorized to be appropriated $20,000,000 for each of fiscal years 2008 through 2012.''.	America's Partnership for Nursing Education Act of 2007 - Amends the Public Health Service Act to require the Secretary of Health and Human Services to make grants to states that are experiencing explosive population growth and have a substantial projected shortage of nurses to increase the number of qualified nursing faculty in college and university nursing programs in the state.
1,2-dioleoyl - sn - glycero-3-phosphatidylethanolamine ( dope ) , 1,2-dioleoyl - sn - glycero-3-phospho - glycerol ( dopg ) , 1,2-dioleoyl - sn - glycero-3-phosphocholine ( dopc ) , and 1,2-dioleoyl - sn - glycero-3-phosphatidic acid ( dopa ) were purchased from avanti polar lipids . for clarity , the names of these lipids are abbreviated to pe , pg , pc , and pa , respectively . n - kcsa ( lacking first 18 residues ) proteins were expressed with an n - terminal his - tag from pt7-kcsa in escherichia coli strain bl21 and purified according to the method described previously ( raja et al . polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis ( sds - page ) , and the protein concentration was determined by using standards of bovine serum albumin . 1985 ) and proteins were reconstituted in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) or pc : pa ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid mixtures with a 1:1000 protein : lipid molar ratio , and the resultant proteoliposomes were obtained as described previously ( raja et al . 2007 ) . to control the equal amounts of proteins in all experiments the amount of protein reconstituted into the proteoliposomes was determined by coomasie blue staining using standards of bovine serum albumin . small aliquots of proteoliposomes were incubated with variable concentrations of tfe for 1 h at room temperature . hcl [ ph 6.8 ] , 50% glycerol , 0.01% bromophenol blue and 10% sds ) and run on 15% acrylamide gel in the presence of 0.1% sds . silver nitrate - stained gels were scanned by a densitometer ( bio - rad ) and quantified with the program quantity one ( bio - rad ) . for stability assay , the amount of tetramer ( % ) was calculated according to the procedure described previously ( raja et al . significance ( p < 0.05 ) was calculated using student s t - test unless otherwise mentioned . fluorescence experiments were performed using a quantamaster qm-1/2005 spectrofluorometer ( photon technology , princeton , nj ) , fitted with a xenon flash lamp at room temperature and trp fluorescence spectra were collected according to the procedure described previously ( raja et al . acrylamide quenching experiments were performed to determine the accessibility of trp residues in lipid bilayers either in the presence or absence of tfe . the quenching data was analyzed by a stern volmer equation as described previously ( raja et al . wt- and n - kcsa ( lacking first 18 residues ) proteins were expressed with an n - terminal his - tag from pt7-kcsa in escherichia coli strain bl21 and purified according to the method described previously ( raja et al . polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis ( sds - page ) , and the protein concentration was determined by using standards of bovine serum albumin . 1985 ) and proteins were reconstituted in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) or pc : pa ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid mixtures with a 1:1000 protein : lipid molar ratio , and the resultant proteoliposomes were obtained as described previously ( raja et al . to control the equal amounts of proteins in all experiments the amount of protein reconstituted into the proteoliposomes was determined by coomasie blue staining using standards of bovine serum albumin . small aliquots of proteoliposomes were incubated with variable concentrations of tfe for 1 h at room temperature . samples were mixed with an electrophoresis sample buffer ( 50 mm tris hcl [ ph 6.8 ] , 50% glycerol , 0.01% bromophenol blue and 10% sds ) and run on 15% acrylamide gel in the presence of 0.1% sds . silver nitrate - stained gels were scanned by a densitometer ( bio - rad ) and quantified with the program quantity one ( bio - rad ) . for stability assay , the amount of tetramer ( % ) was calculated according to the procedure described previously ( raja et al . significance ( p < 0.05 ) was calculated using student s t - test unless otherwise mentioned . fluorescence experiments were performed using a quantamaster qm-1/2005 spectrofluorometer ( photon technology , princeton , nj ) , fitted with a xenon flash lamp at room temperature and trp fluorescence spectra were collected according to the procedure described previously ( raja et al . acrylamide quenching experiments were performed to determine the accessibility of trp residues in lipid bilayers either in the presence or absence of tfe . the quenching data was analyzed by a stern volmer equation as described previously ( raja et al . first , the intrinsic stability of kcsa tetramer reconstituted in a pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid bilayer was determined by conventional gel electrophoresis . figure 2a represents sds gels illustrating tetramer dissociation pattern in wt and n - kcsa as a function of tfe ( vol% ) . either in the absence or presence of tfe , the amount of wt - kcsa monomer is relatively higher than n - kcsa monomer indicating low solubility of the monomeric n - kcsa as discussed in the previous studies ( raja 2010a , b , c ) . for wt - kcsa tetramer , which typically runs at ~68 kda , ~35 vol% tfe was required to dissociate the tetramer into its monomeric subunits ( ~18 kda ) . however , n - kcsa was completely destabilized at ~30 vol% tfe indicating once again that the n - terminus contributes to the stabilizing effect of full - length kcsa as shown in the previous studies ( raja 2010a , b , c ) . the disappearance of monomeric n - kcsa is an indicative of protein aggregation at either low or high tfe concentrations that can not be seen on the sds gel ( raja et al . 2007 ) . figure 2b demonstrates the quantification of representative sds gels shown in fig . 2a in which the amount of tetrameric fraction ( % ) at various tfe concentrations was calculated relative to the total amount of tetramer present in the absence of tfe ( 0 vol% ) . these results indicate that the n - terminus significantly stabilizes the tetramer in a pe : pg lipid bilayer similar to pc : pg bilayers ( raja 2010b).fig . 2tfe - induced tetramer dissociation of wt and n - kcsa in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol.% ) lipid bilayers . tetrameric ( t ) and monomeric ( m ) kcsa are indicated ; and a protein marker ( in kda ) is shown on the right . the intensities of tetramer bands were assigned as a relative value of 100% observed for a tfe - untreated ( 0 vol% tfe ) sample . data points correspond to the average sd of three experiments tfe - induced tetramer dissociation of wt and n - kcsa in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol.% ) lipid bilayers . tetrameric ( t ) and monomeric ( m ) kcsa are indicated ; and a protein marker ( in kda ) is shown on the right . the intensities of tetramer bands were assigned as a relative value of 100% observed for a tfe - untreated ( 0 vol% tfe ) sample . data points correspond to the average sd of three experiments to investigate the folding properties of wt and n - kcsa in a pe : pg lipid bilayer tryptophan ( trp ) fluorescence experiments were performed . the strong sensitivity of trp fluorescence has been proven to be a powerful tool in investigating kcsa folding properties in different lipid bilayer systems ( raja 2010b ; raja et al . 2007 ) . for wt - kcsa , trp fluorescence emission spectra in the absence and presence of various concentrations of tfe ( vol% ) it is interesting to observe that 510 vol% tfe increases trp fluorescence intensity , thus demonstrating the shielding effect on trp residues from the local environment . further increasing tfe concentration ( 2030 vol% ) resulted in decrease in fluorescence or fluorescence quenching ( 2533% ) followed by redshifts in emission maxima indicating an increase in hydrophilicity or increased accessibility of trp residues to their local environment possibly due to protein unfolding ( raja 2010b ; raja et al . using higher tfe concentrations ( ~40 vol% ) did not change trp fluorescence parameters significantly ( not shown ) . these results indicate that kcsa tetramer is quite stable in a pe : pg bilayer and that the folding properties of kcsa are remarkably different in this lipid system compared to other artificial membrane systems studied previously ( raja et al . 2007).fig . 3effect of tfe on trp fluorescence of wt - kcsa ( a ) and n - kcsa ( b ) in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) bilayers . samples were investigated in the absence or presence of varying concentrations of tfe ( vol% ) as indicatedtable 1effects of tfe on folding properties of wt and n - kcsa in a pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid bilayersampleswavelength ( nm)ksv ( m)tfe ( vol%)0510203005102030wt3223223223233254.0 0.34.2 0.24.4 0.65 0.45.5 0.3n3193223243253257 0.47.6 0.38 0.38.6 0.48.8 0.6parameters were derived from trp fluorescence data shown in fig . volmer quenching constants were derived from the slopes of the linear regression lines from plots of f0/f = 1 + ksv [ q ] shown in fig . all values are the means sd of three experiments effect of tfe on trp fluorescence of wt - kcsa ( a ) and n - kcsa ( b ) in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) bilayers . samples were investigated in the absence or presence of varying concentrations of tfe ( vol% ) as indicated effects of tfe on folding properties of wt and n - kcsa in a pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid bilayer parameters were derived from trp fluorescence data shown in fig . 3a the stern volmer quenching constants were derived from the slopes of the linear regression lines from plots of f0/f = 1 + ksv [ q ] shown in fig . all values are the means sd of three experiments qualitatively , similar results were obtained for n - kcsa ( fig . 3b , table 1 ) in a pe : pg ( 7:3 ) bilayer . again , 510 vol% tfe induced an increase in trp fluorescence , and addition of 2030 vol% tfe resulted in fluorescence quenching ( 3039% ) . however , redshifts in emission maxima were found to be more pronounced in n - kcsa as a function of tfe concentration . taken into account changes in trp fluorescence parameters in wt and n - kcsa in both types of lipid bilayers the n - terminus seems to play a role in protecting kcsa tetramer from unfolding especially at lower tfe concentrations . the increase and decrease in fluorescence as well as redshifts in emission maxima suggested that kcsa tetramer undergoes various conformational changes at low and high tfe concentrations . thus , a more direct approach of investigating protein conformational changes by acrylamide quenching experiments was used . the main benefit of using acrylamide is that it is a hydrophilic quencher of trp fluorescence and it has a quite low permeability to lipid membranes . in addition , no charge interaction takes place between the negatively charged lipid head groups ( breukink et al . the stern volmer quenching plots of wt and n - kcsa in a pe : pg lipid bilayer either in the absence and presence of tfe were found to be linear and are shown in fig . 4a and b , respectively . the stern volmer constants ( ksv ) are compiled in table 1 . in the absence of tfe , a significant increase in quenching constant for n - kcsa compared to wt - kcsa was observed indicating that both tetramers are slightly different with regard to their membrane organization . for wt - kcsa ( fig . 4a ) , no significant change in acrylamide quenching was observed for 510 vol% tfe ; however , a slight increase in quenching was observed at 2030 vol% tfe indicating protein unfolding as also deduced by redshift in trp fluorescence spectra ( fig . interestingly , acrylamide quenching was found to be more pronounced in n - kcsa ( fig . 4b ) indicating that in the absence of n - terminus the kcsa is slightly more sensitive to tfe - induced tetramer unfolding.fig . volmer plots of trp fluorescence quenching by acrylamide in wt - kcsa ( a ) and n - kcsa ( b ) in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) bilayers . samples were investigated with or without certain concentrations of tfe ( vol% ) as indicated . the slopes of the best fit linear regression lines for each data set ( ksv values ) are shown in table 1 representative stern volmer plots of trp fluorescence quenching by acrylamide in wt - kcsa ( a ) and n - kcsa ( b ) in pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) bilayers . samples were investigated with or without certain concentrations of tfe ( vol% ) as indicated . the slopes of the best fit linear regression lines for each data set ( ksv values ) are shown in table 1 for comparison , the values derived from the effect of tfe on trp fluorescence and acrylamide quenching experiments of wt - kcsa in a pc : pa ( 7:3 ) lipid bilayer from the previous studies ( raja et al . 2007 ) are compiled in table 2 . in the absence of tfe , trp fluorescence emission wavelengths and stern volmer quenching constants were found to be quite similar for wt - kcsa suggesting that the tetramer adopts a similar folding pattern both in pe : pg and pc : pa lipid bilayers ( compare table 1 and table 2 ) . however , after the addition of tfe , trp fluorescence and quenching constants were found to be significantly different among both lipid bilayers indicating that in addition to h - bonding the strong ionic interaction between the negatively charged pa and positively charged residues on wt - kcsa protects tetramer from unfolding.table 2effects of tfe on folding properties of wt and n - kcsa in a pc : pa ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid bilayersamplewavelength ( nm)ksv ( m)tfe ( vol%)0510203005102030wt320320320321.5321.53 0.62.6 0.82.5 1.22.7 0.88.0 1.8n3203203203203202.2 0.72.8 14.5 0.86.5 2.37 1.6parameters were derived from trp fluorescence data shown in fig . volmer quenching constants were derived from the slopes of the linear regression lines from plots of f0/f = 1 + ksv [ q ] . all values are the means sd of three experimentsthe values for wt in pc : pa ( 7:3 ) were derived from the previously published work ( raja et al . 2007)the values were derived from trp fluorescence emission spectra and acrylamide quenching plots ( data not shown ) effects of tfe on folding properties of wt and n - kcsa in a pc : pa ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid bilayer parameters were derived from trp fluorescence data shown in fig . volmer quenching constants were derived from the slopes of the linear regression lines from plots of f0/f = 1 + ksv [ q ] . all values are the means sd of three experiments the values for wt in pc : pa ( 7:3 ) were derived from the previously published work ( raja et al . 2007 ) the values were derived from trp fluorescence emission spectra and acrylamide quenching plots ( data not shown ) for n - kcsa in pc : pa ( table 2 , data not shown ) , no change in trp emission wavelength was observed either in the absence or presence of tfe . however , significantly reduced accessibility to acrylamide or decrease in stern volmer quenching constant compared to n - kcsa in pe : pg was calculated ( compare table 1 and table 2 ) . these results indicate that the n - terminus significantly contributes to protect kcsa tetramer from unfolding as a result of its deep insertion into pe lipid headgroup . however , in pc : pa , the n - terminus seems to have a marginal role in protecting kcsa against tfe - induced unfolding because the positively charged region ( arg117 , arg121 or arg122 ) close to the intracellular membrane surface at the c - terminus has a preferential interact with pa as also shown in the previous studies ( raja et al . first , the n - terminus significantly increased the tetrameric stability in a pe : pg ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid bilayer which mimics the natural membrane environment for kcsa assembly in bacterial membranes . the stabilizing effect of the n - terminus was similar to what has been shown in the previous studies ( raja 2010b , c ) indicating that n - terminus indeed contributes to stabilize the tetrameric structure via electrostatic interaction regardless of the size of zwitterionic pe or pc headgroups . an increase in trp fluorescence at low concentrations of tfe was unique for pe : pg lipid bilayer system , because fluorescence quenching was observed for other membrane systems ( raja et al . furthermore , tfe - induced trp fluorescence quenching for pe : pg system was not as drastic as determined for pure pc or pc : pg lipid bilayers ( raja et al . in fact , trp fluorescence and acrylamide quenching parameters were found to be quite close to pc : pa lipid bilayer system ( raja et al . these observations suggest that the tetramer has a maximum stability in a pe : pg system . in other words it is important to mention here that pg , as a bilayer lipid , is required for the membrane stability of a pe : pg lipid bilayer because pe is a nonbilayer lipid and can not form bilayer structures alone . it is known that in the pe : pg bilayer pe interacts more strongly with pg than with pe , thus controlling the bacterial membrane permeability and stability ( murzyn et al . 2005 ) . such information can also be supported by the fact that in additional experiments the pe : pa ( 7:3 mol% ) lipid combination resulted in a complete loss of kcsa protein incorporation efficiency indicating that no bilayer structures were formed for a pe : pa system that could support kcsa reconstitution ( not shown ) . these observations also suggest that pe does not interact with pa because it may behave as a nonbilayer lipid as a result of its small headgroup size as pe . one possibility is that the small headgroup of pe may increase the space available for partitioning of tfe at the lipid / water interface as shown by carboxyfluorescein ( cf ) leakage experiment in the earlier studies ( van den brink - van der laan et al . another reasonable explanation is that pe : pg bilayer system is more compact and resistant to tfe - induced membrane destabilization as a result of the preferential interaction of pe with pg , as discussed above . in case of a pc : pa lipid bilayer , no significant difference has been observed in the cf leakage pattern compared to pc or pc : pg lipid bilayers ( raja et al . pe favors the deep incorporation of proteins because of its smaller headgroup size ( dowhan and bogdanov 2009 ; heller et al . pe molecules are known to restrict the dissipation of clustered phospholipids especially anionic phospholipids ( bazzi and nelsestuen 1992 ) . a similar phenomenon can be assumed by which pe may induce lateral clustering of anionic pg in a pe : pg lipid bilayer that allows pg cluster to surround kcsa via electrostatic interactions involving arg64 and arg89 at the extracellular surface , arg11 , lys14 , or arg19 at the n - terminus , and arg117 , arg121 , or arg122 close to the intracellular membrane surface . the functional and structural importance of these residues can be explained by the fact that deletion of these arg residues as hot spots , particularly at the c - terminus , impairs kcsa assembly in a heterologous e. coli expression system which contains pe and pg lipids in the inner membrane ( molina et al . thus , the extreme stability and tight packing of kcsa will be followed by binding of kcsa positively charged residues ( arg and/or lys ) to negatively charged pg and then the deep insertion of membrane - binding domains would take place by extensive hydrophobic interaction and h - bonding between pe and kcsa , which is not possible for pc . the hypothetical models were derived to compare kcsa folding in pc , pe , or pa containing lipid bilayers ( fig . , kcsa tetramer adopts a wobbly or loosely packed structure , whereas in bilayers containing either pe or pa the tetramer has a more compact structure as a result of the deep insertion of the lipid binding domains of kcsa.fig . 5a hypothetical scheme of kcsa tetramer folding in pc ( a ) or pe ( b ) containing lipid bilayers . in pc ( large headgroup ) however , in the presence of pe ( small headgroup ) , the tetramer is squeezed and adopts a more compact structure similar to pa - kcsa complex ( pe pa ) . the dotted lines represent a hypothetical scale to elaborate tetramer stretching or squeezing pattern in pc or pe pa lipid bilayers , respectively . the n- and c - termini are not shown a hypothetical scheme of kcsa tetramer folding in pc ( a ) or pe ( b ) containing lipid bilayers . in pc ( large headgroup ) , the tetramer is loosely packed . however , in the presence of pe ( small headgroup ) , the tetramer is squeezed and adopts a more compact structure similar to pa - kcsa complex ( pe pa ) . the dotted lines represent a hypothetical scale to elaborate tetramer stretching or squeezing pattern in pc or pe pa lipid bilayers , respectively . the n- and c - termini are not shown in this context , the lipid headgroup properties of pe can be taken into further consideration . pe behaves as a cone - shaped lipid similar to the molecular shape of anionic pa ( kooijman et al . 2007 ) . pe is known to facilitate membrane association and insertion of monomeric kcsa because of its small headgroup size ( ridder et al . similarly , the small size of the pa headgroup as well as the negative charge allow stronger interaction and tight docking of the kcsa subunit into the membrane , thus increasing channel stability via h - bonding / electrostatic interactions ( raja et al . it is fascinating that both zwitterionic pe and anionic pa are completely different in their net charge . however , the folding and stabilizing effects of pe and pa on kcsa structure seem related , which might be due to the similar small headgroup size of both lipids . a more in depth study varying the fatty acid composition of pe however , the fatty acid compositions of pe and pc have been shown to have differing effects on other membrane proteins ( bogdanov et al . 1999 , 2010 ) , which are not yet completely understood .	phospholipid headgroups act as major determinants in proper folding of oligomeric membrane proteins . the k+-channel kcsa is the most popular model protein among these complexes . the presence of zwitterionic nonbilayer lipid phosphatidylethanolamine ( pe ) is crucial for efficient tetramerization and stabilization of kcsa in a lipid bilayer . in this study , the influence of pe on kcsa folding properties was analyzed by tryptophan fluorescence and acrylamide quenching experiments and compared with the effect of anionic phosphatidic acid ( pa ) . the preliminary studies suggest that the small size and hydrogen bonding capability of the pe headgroup influences kcsa folding via a mechanism quite similar to that observed for anionic pa .
null	this case describes a scenario of lime - induced phytophotodermatitis . phytophotodermatitis is a dermatitis caused after the skin is exposed to photosensitizing compounds in plants and then exposed to sunlight . many common plants including citrus fruits , celery , and wild parsnip contain these photosensitizing compounds which cause phytophotodermatitis . it is important for a physician to be aware of phytophotodermatitis because it may often be misdiagnosed as other skin conditions including fungal infection , cellulitis , allergic contact dermatitis , and even child abuse .
A vice principal at Eastside Catholic High School was dismissed after school administrators confronted him about his gay marriage, and more than 400 students had a sit-in Thursday morning. Hours after hundreds of Catholic school students protested their vice principal’s dismissal because of his gay marriage, alumni said they would stop financial support if the school didn’t make amends. “I read the story today about the firing of the Vice Principal because he is gay,” Eastside Catholic alumni Jason Hilton wrote to the school development director Thursday afternoon. “I hope this story is not true.” Hilton, who was the senior class president in 1999, said his feelings were echoed by many classmates – and he was surprised to learn the dismissal was at the direction of the Archdiocese. “Unless the people responsible are removed from ECHS and an apology to the students, alumni and the person himself is issued, please never reach out to me for money again and remove me from all communication,” he wrote. ““I am ashamed to be an alumnus of ECHS today.” Parents told KIRO 7 their children aren't sure they want to attend Eastside anymore. “She’s ashamed to be a student here,” parent Florence Colburn said of her daughter. Principal Polly Skinner wrote in a response to Hilton that “the dismissal of the Vice Principal was based on the Archdiocese of Seattle’s authority over a Catholic school. We are saddened and as a Catholic school, bound by Catholic Teaching regarding Same Sex marriage.” Skinner also said “this is a very challenging matter to all of us.” Zmuda – called Mr. Z by students – married his partner in July. He didn’t return calls from KIRO 7, and Thursday night he had his last practice as coach of the Eastside Catholic swim team. Students plan to rally in support of him again at the Friday afternoon swim meet. The Thursday student protest started in the Eastside Catholic lunch atrium and briefly moved outside before students went back in the school about 11:30 a.m. Eastside Catholic, at 232 228th Ave S.E. in Sammamish, has about 950 students. "The fact that you guys are all here for me means the world," Zmuda told students in a video obtained by KIRO 7. "I just wanted you to know that I love each and every one of you. I appreciate the love and concern." Pope Francis made the most progressive Church statement on homosexuality this summer when he asked a reporter, “Who am I to judge?” when asked about gay priests. The move helped make him Time magazine’s Person of the Year. After gay marriage was approved by the State Legislature in 2012, Archbishop Sartain supported getting signatures to back Referendum 74, which put gay marriage to a statewide vote. A week before the election, pro-gay marriage Catholics demonstrated outside St. James Cathedral, near the Archdiocese headquarters. Zmuda is a graduate of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Virginia. He has a masters of education in educational leadership and policy studies from the University of Texas with principal certification, according to his Eastside Catholic biography. Zmuda had taught math and held several administrative roles. Before coming to Eastside Catholic Zmuda was at Cardinal Gibbons School in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Students at Bishop Blanchet High School in North Seattle and Seattle Prep on Capitol Hill - both part of the Seattle Archdiocese - held gatherings Thursday to support the Eastside Catholic community. On Facebook and other social media, Eastside alumni were vocal that dismissing Zmuda was the wrong decision. “I’d like to see the school issue an apology,” Hilton said, “bring him back to work and rebuild the trust with the students and the faculty and the community.” KIRO 7 obtained a recording of Zmuda addressing students gathered at the school Thursday. This is what he said: The fact that you guys are all here for me means the world. I just wanted you to know that I love each and every one of you. I appreciate the love and concern. I just want to make one brief statement and that is to tell you that yes, I am gay. Yes, I did get married this past summer and I know it is against the Catholic teaching. I think a lot of you guys are raised in a generation that is more open and acceptable to things that are legal now in the State of Washington. But, I just want you to know that my personal life is a small part of who I am. I am first a teacher and administrator. And, I try my best to be an educator to each and every one of you. And, I hope that no matter what happens to me and to the school, that all of you guys will seek a career and work very hard, find the love of your life, hopefully one day get married as well. At the same time, no matter what happens, strive to do your best. \|\|\|\|\| Starting in 1996, Alexa Internet has been donating their crawl data to the Internet Archive. Flowing in every day, these data are added to the Wayback Machine after an embargo period. \|\|\|\|\| Originally published December 19, 2013 at 9:35 PM \| Page modified December 20, 2013 at 5:48 PM Eastside Catholic High School says Mark Zmuda’s marriage to his same-sex partner violates Catholic teachings and a contract he signed when he was hired by the school. Students called the rule “totally unfair” and walked out of class in protest on Thursday. When Eastside Catholic High School ended the employment of its vice principal for marrying his same-sex partner, it joined a growing list of Catholic institutions that have fired gay employees for marrying, announcing wedding plans or advocating too enthusiastically for gay marriage. The terminations — more than 15 across the country in the last two years or so — continue, despite what appears to be a softening by Pope Francis on a number of contentious church issues, including homosexuality and gay unions. Friday will be the last day at Eastside Catholic for vice principal and swim coach Mark Zmuda, 38, who joined the staff about a year and a half ago. On Thursday afternoon the Sammamish school announced that Friday classes would be canceled and the school would close early for Christmas break due to forecast snow “and in light of the difficult day” the school had had after hundreds of students staged a sit-in and rally against the dismissal that drew widespread media attention. Their protest spread via texts and Twitter to students at other area Catholic schools. Seattle Preparatory School students showed solidarity with a similar protest. Mike Patterson, an attorney for the Archdiocese of Seattle and for Eastside Catholic, said the process that led to Zmuda’s departure began about two weeks ago. “We became aware of his same-sex marriage through some other employees at the school who indicated that he had related that to them,” said Patterson. Officials gave conflicting messages about the nature of Zmuda’s departure, insisting that he had resigned even as the school, in a letter to parents, stated that his employment had been terminated because he violated his contract. “He resigned,” Patterson said Thursday afternoon. “I just spoke with him within the last two hours. He agrees he resigned.” Zmuda did not return calls from The Times. Church teachings Whether Zmuda left voluntarily or was forced out, once he married another man his fate at the school was sealed. While parochial schools and other Catholic institutions do hire gay people, many employees, particularly those in schools overseen by dioceses, sign a contract promising to uphold the teachings of the church as a condition of their employment. Same-sex unions violate church teachings. “Mark’s same-sex marriage over the summer violated his employment contract with the school,” stated the letter to Eastside Catholic parents. In recognition of their constitutional rights, faith-based employers generally are afforded greater latitude than secular employers in complying with anti-discrimination laws. Eastside Catholic president Sister Mary Tracy said she discussed Zmuda’s case in person with Seattle Archbishop J. Peter Sartain within the last two weeks and they had what she described as a collaborative conversation. Sartain didn’t give her an explicit order to fire Zmuda, Tracy said. Rather, “We were directed to comply with the teachings of the church.” “The Archdiocese works through me as the head of the school,” Tracy said. “It was clear that this is the teaching of the church. I know what we need to do.” Patterson said he and Tracy met with Zmuda in a cordial meeting on Tuesday and everyone understood that Zmuda could no longer work at Eastside Catholic. “It was just one of those situations where he knew ... that he needed to comport with the [teachings] of the church, and his same-sex marriage was not comporting with that,” Patterson said. Patterson said Zmuda’s same-sex marriage, not the fact that he is gay, is the reason he cannot work for the school. “He’s a great administrator,” Patterson said. “We fully support him. We’re going to give him glowing reference letters, all that sort of thing. But Eastside Catholic doesn’t have the power to change that law,” Patterson said, referring to church teachings. Students “pretty upset” Tracy said she informed the school staff of Zmuda’s termination at a regularly scheduled faculty meeting Thursday morning and word spread quickly among students. Senior Christian Leider, 18, said he found out on Twitter. “The students were pretty upset about that so we all came together and rebelled against it,” he said. “Once one person found out it went on Twitter and then everyone found out.” He and others started rounding up students for a sit-in at the school commons area around 9 a.m. He said the students then hiked outside to the turnoff for the street that winds up a hill to the campus to show their support for Zmuda to the media gathered there. “We did not know he was gay before today,” Leider said. “He’s always looking out for the best in everyone and he always wants everyone to do their best.” Sophia Cerino, a freshman at Eastside Catholic, said most students support the rights of gays to marry. “Just because I’m Catholic doesn’t mean I need to believe every rule the church has,” Cerino said. “We think the rule over gay marriage is totally unfair. Everyone seems to think the same thing — that we should all be treated equal.” When the students were gathered on the street, she said, Zmuda came to talk to them about what had happened. “He told us he had gotten fired because he is gay and married. He told us to grow up, get a job and find true love. He was crying and told us what we were doing meant a lot to him.” According to the school’s website, Zmuda previously worked at Cardinal Gibbons High School in Fort Lauderdale, Fla., and has held a variety of teaching and administrative positions for the last 13 years. He received a bachelor’s degree in mathematics education from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Va., and a Master of Education degree in educational leadership and policy studies with principal certification from the University of Texas. “Don’t ask, don’t tell” A national gay-rights group condemned his termination. “At a moment when Pope Francis is urging the Catholic hierarchy to put aside judgment ... it’s shameful that this school and others are ignoring that hopeful message in favor of explicit and baseless discrimination,” said Charles Joughin, spokesman for the Human Rights Campaign. Thomas Reese, a Jesuit priest, author and former editor of America, a weekly Catholic magazine, said Catholic institutions tend to ignore an employee’s sexual orientation and activities as long as those activities are not widely known. But entering into a same-sex marriage, he said, crosses the line. “Catholic institutions have been following ‘Don’t ask, don’t tell’ long before the U.S. miliary was,” he said. In the 1950s and 1960s, he said, it wasn’t unheard-of for people employed by the church to be fired if they divorced and then remarried. “We are seeing greater acceptance (of gay marriage) in American society — among young people and among a majority of Catholics,” Reese said. “The church isn’t going to be celebrating gay marriage, but eventually people aren’t going to be fired for this kind of thing.” Lornet Turnbull: 206-464-2420 or [email protected]. On Twitter @turnbullL. \|\|\|\|\| December 19, 2013 at 11:36 AM Update: to read full story, go here. Students and faculty at Eastside Catholic High School in Sammamish protested this morning after learning their popular vice principal resigned after school officials learned he had married his male partner. The protest spread via Twitter and text messaging to other students at area Catholic high schools. At at least one — Seattle Preparatory School — students showed solidarity with a similar sit-in protest. Officials at Seattle Prep notified parents that staff members had discussed the situation at Eastside Catholic with students. “Diversity Director, Heidi Kim, moderated a discussion with our students,” according to the statement to Seattle Prep parents. “Following that, Principal Maureen Reid asked students to return to class, where they were able to take up the discussion with their classmates and instructors.” According to an online blog, Eastside Catholic vice principal Mark Zmuda married Dana Jergens at a ceremony at the Golf Club at Newcastle last July — seven months after same-sex marriage became legal in this state. One student at Eastside Catholic said the entire student body was protesting; students either walked out of class or never went. Many were crying along with their teachers. Students said they were told the decision to fire Zmuda was made by the Archdiocese of Seattle. They said they and students from other Catholic schools within the diocese planned to collect and submit signatures hoping to win Zmuda his job back. Mike Patterson, spokesman for Eastside Catholic, said that by entering into a same-sex marriage, Zmuda violated teachings of the church, which he had agreed to follow. Teachers at Catholic schools, Patterson said, sign contracts that they will abide by the doctrine of the Catholic Church, which opposes and forbids same-sex marriage. “We just learned about it,” Patterson said of Zmuda’s marriage. “He understood he could no longer be employed there because of his current circumstances.” At a rally at Eastside Catholic, one student questioned the decision, given Pope Francis’ recent statements regarding homosexuality. “Just because I’m Catholic doesn’t mean I need to believe every rule the Church has,” freshman Sophia Cerino said. “We think the rule over gay marriage is totally unfair. Everyone seems to think the same thing – that we should all be treated equal.” Zmuda holds a bachelor’s degree from Virginia Polytechnic Institute. He has been a mathematics teacher, department chair and handled a variety of administrative roles at the middle- and high-school levels over the past 13 years, according to an online biography. Before joining Eastside Catholic, he taught at Cardinal Gibbons School in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. Cerino said Zmuda, who was also the high-school swim coach, was a kind person who cared about the students. While students were protesting on the street, she said, Zmuda came to talk to them about what had happened. “He told us he had gotten fired because he is gay and married. He told us to grow up, get a job and find true love. He was crying and told us what we were doing meant a lot to him.”	– A Seattle-area Catholic high school canceled classes today, partially because there was snow in the forecast, but also "in light of the difficult day" it had just been through. The difficulty? Hundreds of students staged a rally yesterday at Eastside Catholic High School to protest the termination of vice principal and swim coach Mark Zmuda, who was forced out after other administrators learned he had married his male partner over the summer, the Seattle Times reports. The protest even went viral and spread to nearby Catholic schools, with more protests taking place today. At one point, Zmuda went outside to tell the story from his perspective. "He was crying and told us what we were doing meant a lot to him," one student says. As the news went national, some alumni began contacting the school and threatening to stop donating, KIRO 7 reports, and a Change.org petition to reinstate Zmuda has already garnered more than 14,000 signatures. But officials are holding fast. In a letter to parents, the school said Zmuda's marriage violated his employment contract. "It was clear that this is the teaching of the church. I know what we need to do," said sister Mary Tracy, the school president. A lawyer for the school said Zmuda was a "great administrator" and would get a "glowing reference."
the alternaria sp . isolate was prepared for scale - up chemical analysis by culturing it for 4 weeks on a solid - state medium composed of cheerios breakfast cereal supplemented with a 0.3% sucrose solution . the fungal biomass was extracted with etoac , yielding a crude extract that was subsequently processed over several types of sorbents ( including silica gel , sephadex lh20 , and c18 ) to provide purified metabolites 117 . compound 1 was obtained as a pale yellow , amorphous powder , and its molecular formula was established as c34h30o14s based on hresims data ( [ m + na ] ion at m / z 717.1253 , calcd 717.1248 ) indicating 20 degrees of unsaturation . the h and c nmr spectra of 1 provided evidence for approximately half of the expected proton and carbon resonances , which were assigned as belonging to 11 nonprotonated carbons , three methines , three methyls , and three exchangeable protons . the initial analysis of the data set led us to suspect that 1 might be a dimeric compound . further examination of the h and c nmr data ( table 1 ) indicated that the resonances observed for 1 were similar to those for the known metabolite sulochrin ( 4 ) , which we also purified from the same fungal extract . the major differences between 1 and 4 as revealed by nmr were the loss of signals for a methine unit ( h 6.91 ; c 107.6 ) and the gain of a new nonprotonated sp carbon resonance ( c 109.1 ) . the necessity of including a sulfur atom in 1 as required by the molecular formula led us to propose that the sulfur served as a thioether bridge linking the c-2 and c-2 carbons . thus , the structure of the new sulochrin dimer was proposed as illustrated ( 1 ) , and the metabolite was given the trivial name polluxochrin . metabolite 1 shares structural similarities to other sulochrin dimers including , disulochrin , as well as guignasulfide , which is a demethoxy analogue of 1 . hresims provided a pseudomolecular ion at m / z 685.0981 [ m + na ] ( calcd 685.0986 ) that supported the molecular formula c33h26o13s . inspection of the h and c nmr data for 2 revealed that the spectra superficially appeared as the superimposition of two sets of signals ( table 2 ) with one set virtually identical to those generated for compound 1 and the other set bearing substantial similarity to methyl-(1,6-dihydroxy-3-methylxanthone)-8-carboxylate ( 5 ) , which was also purified from the fungal extract . the additional unit of unsaturation afforded via the incorporation of 5 in this metabolite readily accounted for the overall difference of one unsaturation unit between metabolites 1 and 2 . the change from a single c-9 diaryl ketone signal in 1 ( c 197.8 ) ( table 1 ) to pyrone ( c 179.2 ) and diaryl ( c 197.7 ) ketone signals in 2 ( table 2 ) further supported the asymmetric dimeric nature of the new metabolite . this assertion was subsequently confirmed by hsqc and hmbc experiments ( figures s9 and s10 ) , as well as data generated from a single - crystal x - ray diffraction experiment ( figure 1 ) . ortep structure generated from the x - ray diffraction data for a single crystal of 2 . compounds 1 and 2 were determined to be susceptible to transformation under aqueous conditions . upon incubation for 48 h in various aqueous solvent mixtures , compound 1 was observed by lc - pda - esims to transform into 2 , which subsequently converted to another compound ( 3 ) ( figure s1 ) . the transformation process was determined to be temperature dependent , and even mild heating for brief periods led to the rapid loss of 1 and generation of 2 and 3 . to obtain material for structure characterization , 5.0 mg of 1 in aqueous meoh was held at 40 c for 6 h , generating 3.5 mg of 3 . the purified product was examined by hresims , which yielded a pseudomolecular ion at m / z 629.0757 [ m h ] ( calcd 629.0754 ) corresponding to the molecular formula c32h22o12s . an analysis of the h and c nmr data for the product ( table s1 ) indicated that 3 was structurally similar to compounds 1 and 2 . immediately apparent was that the c nmr diaryl ketone signal in 1 ( c-9/9 , c 197.8 ) had been replaced by a pyrone ketone signal in 3 ( c-9/9 , c 179.1 ) ( tables 1 and s1 ) . subsequent 2d nmr experiments ( figures s14 and s15 ) confirmed that these changes resulted in the formation of a new compound that consisted of a thioether - linked dimer of 5 connected to the sulfur atom through c-2 and c-2. in contrast to metabolite 1 , compound 3 exhibited two nearly superimposable sets of nmr signals . the doubling of the signals is proposed to result from the hindered rotation of the s a similar cyclization phenomenon has been observed for the transformation of metabolite 4 to 5 , but in this case , the reaction rate was much slower , taking upward of a week to occur . these results imply that the sulfur atom might serve to accelerate the intramolecular cyclization of 1 into 2 and 3 . the molecular formula for compound 7 was determined by hresims to be c13h16o5 . an analysis of the 1d and 2d nmr ( in acetone - d6 and dmso - d6 ) for 7 indicated that this metabolite had the same planar structure as pyrenochaetic acid d , but the published account of this metabolite did not address the compound s absolute configuration . to address this problem , we prepared crystals of 7 for x - ray diffraction analysis ( figure 3 ) . the metabolite s absolute configuration was determined to be 8s by the hooft method . this was further supported by comparing the ecd experimental data for 7 with a computationally derived theoretical spectrum ( figure 4a , refer to the supporting information for a discussion of how the theoretical ecd data for 7 were prepared ) . ortep structure generated from the x - ray diffraction data for a single crystal of 7 . calculated and experimental ecd data for compounds 7 ( a ) and 10 ( b ) . compound 8 was determined by hresims to have the same molecular formula as 7 . analysis of the h and c nmr data for 8 ( tables 3 and 4 ) revealed that it possessed the same carbon skeleton as the co - occurring metabolite pyrenochaetic acid c ( 6 ) . however , the carbon and proton signals attributable to an oxidized methylene ( ch2 - 10 , h 3.42 ; c 60.4 ) were replaced by signals for an aliphatic methyl . taking into account the hresims data , it was proposed that compound 8 contained a new c-10 hydroxyl group relative to 6 . combining the proton and carbon chemical shift patterns for 8 with the h h cosy correlations among h-8 and h-9 and h-10 , as well as the hmbc correlations between h-8 and h-9 with c-7 ( figure 2 ) , the position of the new hydroxyl group was unambiguously assigned . pyrenochaetic acid f ( 9 ) was purified as a colorless , amorphous solid , and its molecular formula was established to be c15h18o6 based on hresims data ( [ m h ] ion at m / z 293.1034 , calcd 293.1031 ) . the compound exhibited nmr resonances similar to 8 with the addition of proton and carbon signals corresponding to an acetoxy group ( tables 3 and 4 ) . the inclusion of the acetoxy group in the structure was confirmed on the basis of an hmbc correlation from h-10 ( h 4.03 ) to c-14 ( c 170.8 ) ( figure 2 ) . pyrenochaetic acid g ( 10 ) was obtained as a colorless , amorphous solid . an [ m h ] molecular ion at m / z 251.0932 ( calcd 251.0925 ) in the hresims spectrum was in agreement with the molecular formula c13h16o5 . the hmbc correlation data ( h-7 to c-3 , c-4 , c-5 , and c-8 , as well as h-9 and h-10 to c-8 ) indicated that the oxidation pattern of c-7 and c-8 in 7 was reversed in 10 ( i.e. , c-7 bore the hydroxyl group and c-8 was a ketone ) ( tables 3 and 4 , figure 2 ) . the metabolite s absolute configuration was determined to be 7r by comparing experimental ecd data with a theoretical spectrum of the compound ( figure 4b , refer to the supporting information for a discussion of how the theoretical ecd data for 10 were prepared ) . thus , the structure of the new metabolite was confirmed as illustrated for 10 and was named pyrenochaetic acid g. the molecular formula of 11 was determined to be c13h14o5 based on hresims , which provided an [ m h ] ion at m / z 249.0776 ( calcd 249.0768 ) . a comparison of the 1d nmr data for 11 with 10 ( tables 3 and 4 ) revealed that the carbon and proton signals attributable to the c-7 methine were missing and had been replaced by a downfield ketone resonance ( c 196.3 ) . compound 11 was named pyrenochaetic acid h. dimethylamide asterrate ( 13 ) possessed the molecular formula c19h21no7 as determined by hresims , indicating that the metabolite possessed 10 degrees of unsaturation . the compound exhibited h and c nmr resonances ( table 5 ) that were similar to the known , co - occurring metabolite asterric acid ( 12 ) , with the major exceptions being the addition of two new methyl groups ( c-9 : c 34.3 , h 2.91 ; c-10 : c 37.5 , h 2.85 ) . considering the chemical shift and hmbc correlation data for 13 ( h 2.91 and 2.85 to c 166.2 ) , the new methyl groups were rationalized to be part of a tertiary amide that had replaced the carboxylic acid in 12 . compound 14 was obtained as a pale yellow , amorphous solid . on the basis of the hresims data ( [ m + h ] ion at m / z 639.1708 , calcd 639.1714 ) analysis of h nmr , c nmr , and hsqc data ( table 6 ) revealed that this metabolite possessed 17 nonprotonated carbons , eight methines , three methylenes , and four methyl groups . further analysis of the 2d nmr data ( figure 5 ) revealed that 14 shared the same planar structure as blennolide g. when the nmr solvent was changed from dmso - d6 to cdcl3 ( as reported in the literature ) , compound 14 provided h and c nmr spectra that were identical to blennolide g ; however , their specific rotation values were in essence the opposite of one another { 14 : [ ]d 68.8 ( c 0.125 , chcl3 ) ; blennolide g : [ ]d + 81.1 ( c 0.29 , chcl3)}. further analysis of the ecd data for 14 ( figure s80 ) revealed a cotton effect pattern that was the inverse of that generated for blennolide g. thus , metabolite 14 was determined to be the antipode of blennolide g. selected h metabolites 15 , 16 , and 17 shared the same molecular formula ( c32h30o14 ) , as well as many other similarities among their h and c nmr spectral data ( table 6 ) . in spite of this , compound 15 stood out as displaying half of the expected proton and carbon resonances , which indicated that it was a symmetrical dimer . hmbc correlation data ( figure 5 ) were essential for establishing the c-6c-6 linkage and overall planar structure of 15 . it was subsequently determined that metabolite 16 shared the same planar structure as 15 ( figure 5 ) . however , the presence of two distinct sets of resonances representing the two monomeric portions of 16 denoted that this metabolite was an asymmetric diastereomer of 15 . in contrast to 15 and 16 , hmbc correlations from h-7 to c-8 and h-7 to c-6 ( figure 5 ) indicated that metabolite 17 was covalently bonded via a c-8c-6 linkage . since compounds 1517 were not active in our panel of assays and were prone to consistent degradation during both freezer storage and room - temperature handling , our investigation of their relative configurations was discontinued . all the purified compounds were screened for cancer cell cytotoxicity , antibacterial and antifungal activities , and inhibition of fungal biofilm formation . only compounds 13 exhibited anti - mrsa activity , with mic values of 4.1 , 4.9 , and 3.2 m ( 2.9 , 3.2 , and 2.0 g / ml ) , respectively , whereas the mic for chloramphenicol was 5 m ( 1.6 g / ml ) . metabolites 13 also showed weak mammalian cell cytotoxicity effects against pancreatic cancer cells ( mia paca-2 ) with ic50 values of 50.8 , 30.3 , and 29.3 m , respectively . optical rotation data were determined on a rudolph research autopol iii automatic polarimeter . accurate mass data were collected on an agilent 6538 hresi qtof ms coupled to an agilent 1290 hplc . lc - ms data were obtained on a shimadzu lc - ms 2020 system ( esi quadrupole ) coupled to a photodiode array detector , with a phenomenex kinetex column ( 2.6 m c18 column , 100 , 75 3.0 mm ) . the hplc system utilized scl-10a vp pumps and a system controller with luna 5 m c18 columns ( 110 , 250 21.2 mm , 10 ml / min and 110 , 250 10 mm , 4 ml / min ) . x - ray data were collected using a diffractometer with a bruker apex ccd area detector and graphite - monochromated mo k radiation ( = 0.710 73 ) . the fungal isolate ( internal strain designation wailua pda-3 ) was obtained from a soil sample collected in the vicinity of wailua falls , hawaii . the isolate was identified as similar to alternaria longissima based on its sequence analysis ( 99% sequence homology ) . km088044 ) was compared by blast analysis to sequences publicly available through the ncbi database . the fungal isolate was cultured under solid - state conditions on a medium composed of cheerios breakfast cereal supplemented with a 0.3% sucrose solution with 0.005% chloramphenicol . the fungus was grown for 4 weeks at room temperature ( 25 c ) . the scale - up solid - phase cultures were pooled and extracted twice overnight with etoac , and the organic solvent was partitioned against water . the resultant organic layers were concentrated under vacuum . the resulting extract ( 71 g ) ch2cl2 ) was subjected to c18 vlc ( h2o meoh ) to give four subfractions . subfraction 1 ( eluted with 4:6 h2o meoh ) was further purified by semipreparative hplc ( mobile phase 1:1 h2o meoh with 0.1% formic acid in water ) to afford compounds 6 ( 2.0 mg ) , 7 ( 15.0 mg ) , 8 ( 2.5 mg ) , 9 ( 2.8 mg ) , 10 ( 3.0 mg ) , 11 ( 2.3 mg ) , and 12 ( 6.0 mg ) . subfraction 3 ( eluted with 8:2 h2o meoh ) was applied to a sephadex lh20 column and eluted with 1:1 ch2cl2meoh . h2o with 0.1% formic acid in water ) yielded 1 ( 8.0 mg ) , 2 ( 7.5 mg ) , 4 ( 25 mg ) , 5 ( 14 mg ) , 13 ( 6.5 mg ) , 14 ( 4.0 mg ) , 15 ( 5.1 mg ) , 16 ( 4.7 mg ) , and 17 ( 5.0 mg ) . pale yellow , amorphous solid ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 210 ( 4.27 ) , 286 ( 3.81 ) , 346 ( 3.54 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 3600 , 2953 , 1712 , 1641 , 1514 , 1454 , 1344 , 1211 , 1091 , 1022 , 831 cm ; h and c nmr see table 1 ; hresims [ m + na]m / z 717.1253 ( calcd for c34h30o14sna , 717.1248 ) . pale yellow , block - like crystals ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 208 ( 4.37 ) , 238 ( 4.34 ) , 364 ( 4.05 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 3600 , 2930 , 1712 , 1645 , 1585 , 1514 , 1365 , 1209 , 1089 , 1020 , 831 cm ; h and c nmr see table 2 ; hresims [ m + na]m / z 685.0981 ( calcd for c33h26o13sna , 685.0986 ) . pale yellow powder ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 210 ( 4.39 ) , 246 ( 4.12 ) , 298 ( 3.56 ) , 364 ( 3.90 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 3610 , 2935 , 1739 , 1699 , 1651 , 1514 , 1365 , 1269 , 1211 , 1008 , 827 cm ; h and c nmr see table s1 ; hresims [ m h]m / z 629.0757 ( calcd for c32h21o12s , 629.0754 ) . colorless cubic crystals ; [ ]d 5.0 ( c 0.18 , etoh ) ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 212 ( 4.14 ) , 252 ( 3.68 ) , 302 ( 3.32 ) nm ; cd ( meoh ) max ( ) 254 ( 6.82 ) 317 ( 2.50 ) ; ir ( film ) max 2972 , 1699 , 1541 , 1456 , 1413 , 1315 , 1226 , 1097 , 974 cm ; h and c nmr see tables 3 and 4 ; hresims [ m h]m / z 251.0931 ( calcd for c13h15o5 , 251.0925 ) . colorless , amorphous solid ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 212 ( 4.12 ) , 246 ( 3.61 ) , 298 ( 3.23 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 2941 , 1697 , 1541 , 1456 , 1413 , 1315 , 1234 , 1095 cm ; h and c nmr see tables 3 and 4 ; hresims [ m h]m / z 251.0931 ( calcd for c13h15o5 , 251.0925 ) . colorless , amorphous solid ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 210 ( 4.19 ) , 298 ( 3.34 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 2966 , 1737 , 1687 , 1546 , 1454 , 1413 , 1238 , 1097 , 1039 cm ; h and c nmr see tables 3 and 4 ; hresims [ m colorless , amorphous solid ; [ ]d 11.4 ( c 0.18 , meoh ) ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 216 ( 4.20 ) , 248 ( 3.79 ) , 296 ( 3.37 ) nm ; cd ( meoh ) max ( ) 244 ( 6.48 ) , 275 ( 1.85 ) ; ir ( film ) max 2965 , 1699 , 1577 , 1456 , 1413 , 1313 , 1226 , 1091 cm ; h and c nmr see tables 3 and 4 ; hresims [ m h]m / z 251.0932 ( calcd for c13h15o5 , 251.0925 ) . colorless , amorphous solid ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 212 ( 4.19 ) , 270 ( 3.88 ) , 326 ( 3.46 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 2981 , 1685 , 1548 , 1460 , 1311 , 1255 , 1096 cm ; h and c nmr see tables 3 and 4 ; hresims [ m pale yellow , amorphous solid ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 212 ( 4.33 ) , 284 ( 3.32 ) , 310 ( 3.34 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 3439 , 1625 , 1469 , 1357 , 1249 , 1205 , 1149 , 1060 cm ; h and c nmr see table 5 ; hresims [ m + h]m / z 376.1392 ( calcd for c19h22no7 , 376.1391 ) . pale yellow , amorphous solid ; [ ]d 68.8 ( c 0.125 , chcl3 ) ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) : 206 ( 4.26 ) , 260 ( 3.97 ) , 340 ( 3.85 ) nm ; cd ( meoh ) max ( ) 211 ( 8.37 ) , 223 ( 14.2 ) , 328 ( 3.35 ) ; ir ( film ) max 2967 , 1788 , 1739 , 1612 , 1435 , 1361 , 1213 , 1047 cm ; h and c nmr see table 6 ; hresims [ m + h]m / z 639.1708 ( calcd for c32h31o14 , 639.1714 ) . pale yellow , amorphous solid ; [ ]d 75.3 ( c 0.473 , chcl3 ) ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 208 ( 4.36 ) , 258 ( 4.30 ) , 364 ( 3.84 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 3439 , 2965 , 1788 , 1645 , 1433 , 1359 , 1273 , 1207 , 1056 cm ; h and c nmr see table 6 ; hresims [ m + na]m / z 661.1530 ( calcd for c32h30o14na , 661.1528 ) . pale yellow , amorphous solid ; [ ]d 35.0 ( c 0.035 , chcl3 ) ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 206 ( 4.32 ) , 256 ( 4.25 ) , 360 ( 3.79 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 3458 , 2962 , 1791 , 1647 , 1433 , 1359 , 1286 , 1207 , 1012 cm ; h and c nmr see table 6 ; hresims [ m + na]m / z 661.1531 ( calcd for c32h30o14na , 661.1528 ) . pale yellow , amorphous solid ; [ ]d 28.8 ( c 0.125 , chcl3 ) ; uv ( meoh ) max ( log ) 210 ( 4.50 ) , 256 ( 4.43 ) , 360 ( 3.93 ) nm ; ir ( film ) max 3441 , 1788 , 1745 , 1647 , 1469 , 1354 , 1280 , 1172 , 1055 cm ; h and c nmr see table 6 ; hresims [ m + na]m / z 661.1527 ( calcd for c32h30o14na , 661.1528 ) . a yellow plate - shaped crystal of dimensions 0.46 0.26 0.08 mm of 2 and a colorless prism - shaped crystal of dimensions 0.44 0.32 0.18 mm of 7 were selected for structural analysis . intensity data for these two compounds were collected using a diffractometer with a bruker apex ccd area detector and graphite - monochromated mo k radiation ( 0.710 73 ) . details of the x - ray crystal structure analysis for 2 and 7 are available in the supporting information . the x - ray crystallographic data for 2 and 7 have been deposited with the cambridge crystallographic data center under accession numbers ccdc 993668 and 993669 , respectively . these data can be accessed free of charge at http://www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk/. conformational analyses were carried out using spartan10 . geometry , frequency , and ecd calculations were applied at the dft level with gaussian 09 . specdis 1.60 was used to average single ecd or uv vis spectra after boltzmann statistical weighting . mammalian cell cytotoxicity assays were performed on pancreatic cancer ( mia paca-2 ) cells by adding 5000 cells per well into 96-well plates . the cells were allowed to adhere overnight at 37 c in a humidified incubator ( 5% co2 atmosphere ) . test compounds were diluted in dmso and added to the wells so that the final concentration of dmso per well did not exceed 1% by volume . the plates containing treated and control cells were incubated for 48 h , and cell viability was determined by mtt assay . compounds were tested against methicillin - resistant staphylococcus aureus ( mrsa ) strain atcc 700787 , which also exhibits reduced susceptibility to vancomycin . a stock culture was diluted in brain heart infusion broth and delivered into presterilized 96-well plates . stocks prepared in dmso were added to each well of the 96-well plate ( 1% final dmso concentration ) . optical density measurements ( od600 ) of the cultures were determined on a tecan infinite m200 plate reader . the plates were incubated for 17 h in a humidified incubator at 37 c . plates were removed and orbitally shaken , and a final od600 value was recorded . the final od600 reading was subtracted from the initial od600 reading to obtain the change in od600 ( antimicrobial activity was determined based on the change in optical density ) .	polluxochrin ( 1 ) and dioschrin ( 2 ) , two new dimers of sulochrin linked by thioether bonds , were purified from an alternaria sp . isolate obtained from a hawaiian soil sample . the structures of the two metabolites were established by nmr , mass spectrometry data , and x - ray analysis . metabolite 1 was determined to be susceptible to intramolecular cyclization under aqueous conditions , resulting in the generation of 2 as well as another dimeric compound , castochrin ( 3 ) . an additional nine new metabolites were also obtained , including four new pyrenochaetic acid derivatives ( 811 ) , one new asterric acid analogue ( 13 ) , and four new secalonic acid analogues ( 1417 ) . bioassay analysis of these compounds revealed 13 displayed antimicrobial and weak cytotoxic activities .
we studied 3 patients suspected of having bu who were admitted to the dr lelo medical center in kinshasa ( patient 1 ) and the mother teresa buruli ulcer treatment center in kinshasa ( patients 2 and 3 ) . the study was reviewed and approved by the ethics committee of the institute of tropical medicine , antwerp , and the public health school of the kinshasa university , kinshasa , ministre de lenseignement . patients 1 and 2 were men 30 and 28 years of age , respectively , and patient 3 was a girl 13 years of age . laboratory tests were performed on surgically excised tissues and exudates according to world health organization ( who ) recommendations ( 6 ) . patients were treated with rifampin and streptomycin for 12 weeks according to who recommendations ( 7 ) . four weeks after the beginning of treatment , surgical debridement was performed , followed by split - skin grafting . the patients were followed up at the 2 treatment centers and were considered cured when the lesions had completely healed . all patients were residents of kinshasa ( drc ) and had no contacts with areas endemic for bu before traveling to areas along the kwango / cuango river where the bu skin lesions first appeared . however , all patients had frequent contact through alluvial diamond mining ( patients 1 and 2 ) or domestic activities ( patient 3 ) along the kwango / cuango river in drc ( kasongo - lunda ) or in angola ( kafufu / luremo ) ( figure ) . patients reported that their lesions had started 22.5 years earlier as nodules that later ulcerated . these patients were first treated locally near the kwango / cuango river by traditional healers and with 2% dakin fluid ( sodium hypochlorite solution ) to cleanse the wounds . these measures were unsuccessful , and the patients returned to kinshasa for treatment at the 2 medical centers , where they were admitted in september 2004 ( patient 1 ) , june 2005 ( patient 2 ) , and july 2005 ( patient 3 ) . on admission , all 3 patients had large ulcers ( 150896 cm ) . patient 1 had an ulcer on the right thigh , patient 2 on the right arm , and patient 3 on the left leg ( table ) . bu was confirmed by ziehl - neelsen staining for acid - fast bacilli and a positive is2404 pcr result ( table ) . a specimen showed a predominantly neutrophilic inflammatory infiltrate near extensive areas of necrosis associated with calcification and clumps of extracellular acid - fast bacilli . * drc , democratic republic of congo ; + , positive ; , negative ; is , insertion sequence ; nd , not done ; afb , acid - fast bacilli . time between appearance of first signs or symptoms and care being sought at a medical center . the 3 patients were considered cured after 3 , 6 , and 7 months , respectively , of hospitalization . no relapses were observed after follow - up periods of 42 , 30 , and 28 months , respectively . bu patients in our study had advanced disease with ulcers > 10 cm in diameter . they were cured by treatment with antimicrobial drugs and surgery in accordance with who recommendations for treatment of bu ( 6,7 ) . the patients were most likely infected during alluvial mining and use of water from the kwango / cuango river for domestic activities . artisanal diamond mining in alluvial deposits along river banks consists of informal digging with basic equipment ( often with unprotected hands and feet ) . miners often work for long periods extracting diamonds from alluvial deposits along river banks . in angola , water sources used for domestic purposes along this slow - flowing river are unprotected , and proper hygienic procedures are lacking . epidemiologic studies have established a close association of bu and wetlands , especially those with slow - flowing or stagnant water ( ponds , backwaters , and swamps ) ( 810 ) . in uganda and in benin , use of unprotected sources of water for domestic purposes increased the risk for contracting bu ( 1012 ) . environmental factors , including poor hygienic conditions , along the kwango / cuango river make this region an area of high risk for contracting bu ( 10,13 ) . studies have linked increased incidence of bu to human - made modifications such as expanded agricultural activities , deforestation , or construction of dams ( 14 ) . activities of both large mining enterprises and individual miners are responsible for environmental changes that may play a role in increased incidence of bu . diamond - mining pits may become pools of stagnant waters that are a dangerous source of waterborne diseases . in the 1950s in the belgian congo ( now drc ) , several cases of bu were reported in alluvial gold miners working in the mining camp of kakerifu between the nzoro and kibali rivers ( 1 ) . currently , in the gold - mining area of amansie west district in ghana , many bu infections occur among workers in contiguous alluvial mining operations ( 15 ) . diamond mines along the cuango river in angola may have influenced the emergence of bu cases along this river basin . however , whether the cuango river floodplain is a region endemic for bu or if this region became endemic after diamond - mining activities is not known . the frequency of bu in angola is not documented partly because of political changes after the country s independence in 1975 . our findings emphasize the need for further investigation of diamond , gold , and any other gemstone mining as a risk factor for contracting bu , particularly in west and central africa , where mining is common . all areas along the kwango / cuango river in drc and angola should be investigated for foci of bu . the association of artisanal alluvial mining with bu draws attention to a disease that further diminishes the quality of life of persons who are already living under the precarious circumstances experienced by those who mine diamonds .	we report 3 patients with laboratory - confirmed buruli ulcer in kafufu / luremo , angola , and kasongo - lunda , democratic republic of congo . these villages are near the kwango / cuango river , which flows through both countries . further investigation of artisanal alluvial mining as a risk factor for buruli ulcer is recommended .
semi - relativistic current - density functional theory ( cdft ) @xcite has become one on the standard tools for the calculation of electronic ground state ( gs ) properties in magnetic fields . apart from the practical issue of finding an accurate and manageable energy functional , the basic fact of _ non - interacting @xmath0-representability _ ( nivr ) of the exact electron density @xmath11 and the paramagnetic current density @xmath12 is a prerequisite for the existence of a kohn - sham scheme . in a first step , we are investigating if both _ exact _ densities derived from the correlated two - particle state can be represented by the same set of one - particle orbitals @xmath13 in the form ( atomic units @xmath14 are used throughout ) @xmath15 = \sum_k^{occ } r_k^2({\bf r } ) \ ; \mbox{\boldmath $ \nabla$ } \zeta_k({\bf r } ) \label{current}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where the modulus @xmath16 and the phase @xmath17 of the kohn - sham wave - functions ( ks - wf ) are real functions . _ if _ the ks - wfs are well defined , then the effective potentials @xmath18 could be obtained from the ks equations as exercised in ref.@xcite . in this paper we are only discussing if and when ks - wfs exist . unlike in density functional theory ( dft ) , nivr in cdft as defined above is neither guaranteed for nor restricted to gss . for vanishing magnetic field , dft applies , which rests on some unique mappings . if @xmath19 describes a many - body gs - wf and @xmath11 and @xmath20 the corresponding density and external potential ( modulo a constant ) , then of course @xmath21 is unique , but also @xmath22 , if infinitely high potential walls are excluded . hohenberg and kohn @xcite proved that the mapping between @xmath19 and @xmath11 is even one - to - one , and hence @xmath23 is also unique @xmath24 \rightleftharpoons\\[-2 mm ] { \scriptstyle { \cal d}^{-1 } } \end{array } \;\;n({\bf r } ) \label{map}\ ] ] the situation of ( [ map ] ) holds for both the interacting and the non - interacting cases . for a nivr density @xmath11 , the mapping @xmath25 for the non - interacting case yields the ( effective ) ks potential of the interacting system . it has been shown ( e.g. in @xcite ) that not every mathematically well behaved density @xmath11 is gs density to some potential @xmath20 . therefore , dft has been based on functionals which are also defined for non-@xmath26-representable densities . nevertheless , a ks potential ( derivative of the density functional ) can only exist for nivr densities . in the presence of a magnetic field and for ( semi - relativistic ) current density functional theory ( cdft ) , the generalization of @xmath27 for the ground state still exists , but , vignale and rasolt @xcite just _ presupposed _ the existence of the generalization of @xmath28 @xcite implying that nivr and the existence of a ks scheme has not been proven . capelle and vignale @xcite , on the other hand , have shown that there can be several external potentials @xmath29 which provide the same wave functions and densities @xmath30 where @xmath31 and @xmath32 represent both external potentials ( @xmath20 and @xmath33 ) and both densities ( @xmath11 and @xmath34 ) , respectively . hence , @xmath28 can not exist anymore as a unique mapping . for spin density functional theory ( sdft ) the same problem was first pointed out by von barth and hedin @xcite , and later analyzed in detail in @xcite . for our model system the l.h.s . of ( [ cdft - maps ] ) is obvious from the fact that the exact densities @xmath32 are determined by the effective frequency @xmath35 alone and not by the external confinement frequency @xmath36 and the cyclotron frequency @xmath37 independently ( see sect.ii ) . in other words , all combinations of @xmath36 and @xmath38 , which provide the same @xmath39 , provide the same densities . this fact rules the existence of the mapping @xmath28 out , but does neither prove nor rule out nivr or the existence of a ks system . wensauer and rssler @xcite used the scaling property of our quantum dot model system @xmath40 where @xmath41 is the total orbital angular momentum , in order to apply the consequences from the hohenberg - kohn theorem to non - zero fields . indeed , ( [ scaling ] ) means that the hamiltonian for a non - zero magnetic field @xmath42 has the same eigen - functions as the hamiltonian for zero magnetic field and the effective confinement frequency @xmath43 . only the eigenvalues are shifted by @xmath44 , where @xmath3 is the total orbital angular momentum . the point is , however , that this does _ not _ mean that the gs densities @xmath32 for all @xmath38 ( for fixed @xmath36 ) are nivr . instead , this conclusion applies only to those cases , where the corresponding reference state at zero @xmath38 is a ground state . this are the states with @xmath5 , which are special insofar , as the paramagnetic current vanishes even for non - zero magnetic field . their argument does not say anything about nivr of the other cases . in the present paper we investigate , under which conditions the exact gs densities @xmath32 of our model system can be represented by ks orbitals . for making the conclusions gauge independent , we also matched the gauge independent _ vorticity _ @xmath45 instead of the paramagnetic current density @xmath34 . we will show that for a typical quantum dot model ( two electrons in a parabolic confinement and a magnetic field ) the exact gs densities are _ not _ generally nivr . this is not a sophistry or subtleness , but the violation of nivr is massive . this suffices to disprove the assumption of _ general _ nivr and the _ general _ existence of a ks system for the gss . on this background , all semi - relativistic cdft calculations and functionals have to be considered with caution . on the other hand , this does not mean that all results are utterly wrong . however , this fact undermines the credibility of semi - relativistic cdft as a tool for making forecasts . we consider a two - dimensional two - electron system ( with coulomb interaction between the electrons ) in a harmonic scalar potential @xmath46 and a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane @xmath47 represented by the vector potential ( in symmetric gauge ) @xmath48 . we introduced cylinder coordinates @xmath49 with the cylinder axis perpendicular to the plane . the hamiltonian reads @xmath50 this is a widely used effective hamiltonian model for a two - electron quantum dot . the interaction of the spins with the magnetic field @xmath51 is omitted ( by chosing @xmath52 ) for two reasons . first , in semi - relativistic effective hamiltonian theory @xmath53 is a material dependent parameter well below the vacuum value @xmath54 . therefore , the limiting case of vanishing @xmath53 ought to be covered by an exact theory . second , the zeeman term would make the hamiltonian spin dependent and would necessitate a description of the system by the _ spin _ density @xmath55 ( instead of the total density @xmath56 ) ) and the paramagnetic current density @xmath34 @xcite . the introduction of the spin density in sdft produces its own problems @xcite even for vanishing magnetic field , which we do not want to let interfere with the problems produced by the magnetic field . the schrdinger equation with the hamiltonian ( [ h ] ) can be solved not only by reduction to the numerical solution of an ( ordinary ) radial schrdinger equation @xcite , but even analytically for a discrete , but infinite set of effective frequencies @xmath57 @xcite . if we introduce relative and center of mass coordinate @xmath58 the hamiltonian ( [ h ] ) decouples exactly . @xmath59 the hamiltonian for the c.m . motion agrees with the hamiltonian of a non - interacting quasi particle @xmath60 ^ 2+{1\over 2}\omega_r^2\ ; r^2 \label{h_r}\ ] ] and only the relative hamiltonian contains the electron - electron interaction @xmath61 ^ 2+{1\over 2}\omega_r^2\;r^2+\frac{1}{2r}\;\ ; , \label{h_r}\ ] ] where we introduced rescaled parameters @xmath62 , @xmath63 , @xmath64 , @xmath65 ( the index @xmath66 and @xmath67 refers to the relative and c.m . coordinate systems , respectively ) . the decoupling of @xmath68 allows the ansatz @xmath69 where @xmath70 are the singlet or triplet spin eigen - functions . the eigen - functions of the c.m . hamiltonian ( [ h_r ] ) have the form @xmath71 where the polar coordinates of the c.m . vector are denoted by @xmath72 and the radial functions @xmath73 and @xmath74 can be found in standard textbooks . with the following ansatz for the relative motion @xmath75 the schrdinger equation @xmath76 gives rise to a radial schrdinger equation for @xmath77 @xmath78 where the polar coordinates for the relative vector are denoted by @xmath79 , @xmath80 , @xmath81 , and @xmath82 . the solutions are subject to the normalization condition @xmath83 . the pauli principle demands that ( because of the particle exchange symmetry of the spin eigen - functions ) in the singlet and triplet state , the relative angular momentum @xmath84 has to be even or odd , respectively . there is no constraint for the c.m . angular momentum @xmath85 following from pauli principle . because of the orthogonality of the coordinate transformation , the above described solutions are eigen - functions of the total orbital angular momentum with the eigenvalue @xmath86 . fig.[fig - s - t ] shows that the modulus of the orbital angular momentum of the ground state grows stepwise with increasing magnetic field . this implies that the spin state oscillates between singlet and triplet @xcite . ( quenching of the singlet state for higher magnetic fields due to a zeeman term is not included in our model . ) states with c.m . excitations are not included in the figure , because they are never ground states . versus cyclotron frequency @xmath38 ( i.e. magnetic field ) . system is always in the ground state with @xmath87 . the relative angular momentum @xmath84 is varied . the vertical lines show where the total orbital angular momentum @xmath86 of the ground state changes . s and t indicates whether the ground state is singlet or triplet . thick lines indicate states which can be nivr . ] and the orbital angular momenta given in the titles of the figures . the sign of @xmath88 agrees with the sign of @xmath3.,title="fig : " ] and the orbital angular momenta given in the titles of the figures . the sign of @xmath88 agrees with the sign of @xmath3.,title="fig : " ] and the orbital angular momenta given in the titles of the figures . the sign of @xmath88 agrees with the sign of @xmath3.,title="fig : " ] and the orbital angular momenta given in the titles of the figures . the sign of @xmath88 agrees with the sign of @xmath3.,title="fig : " ] with ( [ xi_r ] ) and ( [ phi_r ] ) , we obtain for the total density @xmath89 the general expression @xmath90 ^ 2 \ ; \big[u_m(r ' ) \big]^2\ ] ] because we are interested in the ground state only , we can safely use the c.m . state for @xmath87 : @xmath91 which allows to do one integration analytically leaving us with @xmath92 ^ 2 \label{n}\ ] ] where @xmath93 are the modified bessel functions . the general expression for the paramagnetic current density @xmath94\ ] ] is somewhat complicated . therefore we give here only the formula for @xmath87 @xmath95 ^ 2 = { \bf e}_{\alpha}\ ; j^p(r ) \label{j_p}\ ] ] as to be expected , the paramagnetic current density points in azimuthal direction @xmath96 , and the scalar @xmath88 depends only on the distance @xmath66 from the center and not from the azimuthal angle . although both formulas ( [ n ] ) and ( [ j_p ] ) rely on the functions @xmath97 , which are solutions of ( [ rad - sgl ] ) , the analytical behavior for @xmath98 can be expressed in terms of two positive definite integrals @xmath99 ^ 2 \\ a_2&=&\int_0^\infty dr \ ; r^2\ ; e^{-(\widetilde{\omega}/2 ) r^2 } \ ; \big[u_m(r ) \big]^2 \end{aligned}\ ] ] after power series expansion of @xmath93 , we obtain @xmath100 \label{n0}\\ j^p(r ) & \rightarrow & m \frac{4 \,\widetilde{\omega}^2}{\pi } e^{-2 \,\widetilde{\omega } \ , r^2 } \ ; r \big [ a_0+\frac{1}{2 } a_2 \;\widetilde{\omega}^2\ ; r^2 + \cdots \big ] \label{jp0}\end{aligned}\ ] ] for the origin this means that @xmath101 is always finite and @xmath102 always vanishes . on the other hand , the derivative of the density at the origin @xmath103 vanishes , but of the paramagnetic current density @xmath104 is finite , unless @xmath105 . besides , there is a relation which does not rely on the radial functions at all @xmath106 the exact vorticity , which has the form @xmath107 , reads in this limit @xmath108 as will be seen below , the limit @xmath109 is decisive for our proof . the overall behavior of the densities is shown in fig.[fig - n - j ] . our consideration is in a sense complementary to the approach in @xcite , where the triplet gs with @xmath110 was considered . we are going to point out that this is the only triplet gs for which can be nivr . in the ks system we assume that both electrons occupy the same orbital state of the form @xmath111 with different spins . we do not presuppose that this is an eigenstate of the orbital angular momentum , because there is no theorem which proves that orbital angular momentum is conserved in the ks system , if it is conserved in the real system . now we demand that both densities ( @xmath112 ) in the ks and in the real system agree . @xmath113 ^ 2 \stackrel{!}{= } n_{exact}(r ) \label{det - n}\ ] ] @xmath114 ^ 2 \ ; \mbox{\boldmath $ \nabla$ } \zeta({\bf r } ) \stackrel{!}{= } j^p_{exact}(r ) \ ; { \bf e}_{\alpha } \label{det - j}\ ] ] equation ( [ det - n ] ) shows that the real part depends only on @xmath66 and reads @xmath115 inserting the gradient in polar coordinates @xmath116 into ( [ det - j ] ) and using ( [ det - n ] ) provides two equations for @xmath117 : @xmath118 @xmath119 if a function of @xmath120 has to agree with a function of @xmath66 ( left equation of ( [ zeta - ks - alpha ] ) ) , then both sides have to be a constant . consequently , _ for nivr the function @xmath121 has to be constant_. before investigating this issue further , we introduce the vorticity ( [ def - vorticity ] ) of the exact system . by using the special form of the @xmath122 of a vector field @xmath123 , which points in @xmath124 direction and the modulus of which depends only on @xmath66 , @xmath125 we see that the vorticity of the exact solutions has the general form @xmath126 where @xmath127 is the unit vector perpendicular to the 2d system , and from ( [ zeta - ks - alpha ] ) it follows @xmath128 this means that _ for nivr the exact vorticity @xmath129 has to vanish_. the pure fact of violation of nirv ( without showing the quantitative extent in @xmath66-space ) can already be seen _ analytically _ in the limit for small @xmath66 given in ( [ gamma0 ] ) , which provides @xmath130 . this value can be considered as a simple qualitative measure for the degree of violation . the numerical curves in figs . [ fig - z ] and [ fig - vort ] show that the violation of nivr in an extented small-@xmath66-region is massive . there is only one singlet state , where nivr is trivially guaranteed for all @xmath66 . this is @xmath5 , where the paramagnetic current and consequently @xmath121 and @xmath131 vanish exactly . ( as a side product we observe that @xmath121 converges for large @xmath66 to a constant , which agrees with the ( total ) orbital angular momentum @xmath3 of the exact state . ) next we are investigating the vorticity of the ks system . from ( [ def - vorticity ] ) and ( [ det - n],[det - j ] ) it follows that the vorticity of _ one _ general ks state vanishes automatically @xmath132 irrespective of its special form . if two electrons occupy the same orbital state then the density and paramagnetic current density have to be multiplied by the factor of 2 and _ the vorticity of the whole ks system vanishes automatically_. one could object that the above described procedure is not gauge invariant , because @xmath34 is gauge dependent . if we replace ( [ det - j ] ) by equating the gauge invariant vorticities of both systems and consider that the vorticity of the ( singlet state in the ) ks system vanishes @xmath133 it is obvious that the exact vorticity has to vanish , what agrees with the result of the former approach . however , in order to be absolutely correct we have to consider the following subtlety . observe that the canonical orbital angular momentum @xmath134 is gauge dependent and it is only conserved in the symmetric gauge ( see sect.iia ) , which we used in out exact solutions . therefore , we should characterize the only singlet state , which can be nivr , in the following way : it is that state , which has @xmath5 in the symmetric gauge . this statement covers all gauges . ( in a.u . ) for @xmath135 and typical cyclotron frequencies @xmath38 , where the state with negative @xmath3 is the ground state ( see fig.[fig - s - t ] ) . the sign of @xmath121 agrees with the sign of @xmath3 . ] . the sign of @xmath131 agrees with the sign of @xmath3 . ] in a first step of sophistication we assume that the ks system is circular and the ks states are eigen - functions of the orbital angular momentum @xmath136 . ( do not mix up the relative angular momentum @xmath84 in in sect.2 and the one - particle angular momentum @xmath137 in this section , which are both denoted by @xmath84. ) therefore , we investigate , whether the exact system ( which is circular and conserves total orbital angular momentum ) can be replaced by a circular ks system with the same total angular momentum . this assumption is common practice in numerical self - consistent cdft calculations and allows us to obtain the results in ref.@xcite as a special case . equating both densities @xmath138 provides the following set of equations @xmath139 ^ 2+[r_2(r)]^2 \stackrel{!}{= } n_{exact}(r ) \label{det - n - trip}\ ] ] @xmath140 ^ 2}{r}+m_2\frac{[r_2(r)]^2}{r } \stackrel{!}{= } j^p _ { exact}(r ) \label{det - jp - trip}\ ] ] now we investigate the limit for small @xmath66 . in the appendix it is shown that for the special case of a circular ks system @xmath141 . equations ( [ n0 ] ) and ( [ jp0 ] ) can be written as @xmath142 and @xmath143 . then ( [ det - n - trip ] ) and ( [ det - jp - trip ] ) read in the limit @xmath7 for the essential lowest terms @xmath144 @xmath145 ( [ n - r0 ] ) can be fulfilled only if one of the angular momenta vanishes and the modulus of the other one is unity , say @xmath9 and @xmath10 . this choice satisfies also ( [ jp - r0 ] ) . consequently , _ only the exact states with @xmath146 can be nivr by a circular ks system , _ whereby only the state with @xmath110 can be the ground state ( see fig.[fig - s - t ] ) . in this case we obtain from ( [ det - n - trip ] ) and ( [ det - jp - trip ] ) explicit formulae for the radial parts @xmath147 ^ 2= -r\ ; j^p_{exact}(r)\ ] ] @xmath148 ^ 2= n_{exact}(r)-[r_2(r)]^2\ ] ] agreeing with ref.@xcite . in a second step , we abandon the constraint for circular symmetry of the ks system , because it can not be taken for granted . additionally , we equate the gauge invariant vorticities instead of the gauge - dependent paramagnetic current densities of the exact and the ks system . the analytical properties of the ks functions for @xmath98 in this general case are discussed in appendix a. the gauge constants @xmath149 can be neglected here because they cancel in gauge invariant quantities like @xmath11 and @xmath150 anyway . if we substitute @xmath151 in both ks densities ( [ det - n - trip ] ) and ( [ det - jp - trip ] ) , and insert both densities into the the vorticity of the ks system @xmath152 we obtain @xmath153 ^ 2}\ ] ] the lowest - power term of the exact vorticity ( [ gamma0 ] ) can be written as @xmath154 consequently , the two constraints from equating @xmath155 and @xmath156 read @xmath157 @xmath158 whereby in the denominator of the second constraint the first constraint has been used . although ( [ gamma - general ] ) and ( [ jp - r0 ] ) differ , the conclusion from ( [ n - r0],[jp - r0 ] ) and ( [ n - general],[gamma - general ] ) are very similar . ( [ n - general],[gamma - general ] ) _ can be fulfilled only if the small - r - exponents of the ks states are @xmath159 and @xmath160 . _ the same conclusion can be drawn from equating the density and the paramagnetic current density for ks systems of arbitrary symmetry . we used the exact solutions of the schrdinger equation of a two - dimensional model system for the investigation of nivr . qualitative conclusions can be drawn already on the basis of analytical results for the power expansion for @xmath7 of the densities @xmath32 . for _ singlet _ states ( @xmath161 ) there is a simple and straightforward proof without any assumptions that only the state with vanishing total orbital angular momentum @xmath5 can be nivr . this state is the ground state for small magnetic fields ( see fig.[fig - s - t ] ) and it does not produce a paramagnetic current . for _ triplet _ states ( @xmath162 ) a fully satisfactory statement can be made only under the assumption , that the ks system has the same circular symmetry as the real system and consequently conserves orbital angular momentum . then only the exact states with @xmath163 are nivr by ks states with angular momenta @xmath9 and @xmath10 . + if we allow ks systems with arbitrary symmetry , we can show that nivr allows only ks states with small - r - exponents ( see appendix ) of @xmath159 and @xmath160 . however , we can not say which _ exact _ states can or can not be represented by symmetry - broken ks systems . in other words , we know that the exact states with @xmath163 can be represented by circular ks systems , and that all other states can not be represented by circular ks systems . this statement is valuable despite its limitations , because the assumption of circular symmetry in self - consistent calculations is common practice . at the end we want to discuss the connection between nivr and the property of being a ground state . the singlet states belonging to the full black line ( @xmath5 ) in fig.[fig - s - t ] can be nivr , no matter whether they are ground states for the given @xmath36 and @xmath38 or not . all other states with even @xmath3 can not , even if they are ground states . the full blue line ( @xmath110 ) , which is the ground state in the second @xmath38-region in fig.[fig - s - t ] , can be nivr everywhere . even the states belonging to the broken blue line ( @xmath164 ) are nivr , although they are never the ground state . all other states with odd @xmath3 are not nivr by a circular ks system . consequently , _ all those states at non - zero @xmath1 can be nivr , which are continuously connected to states at @xmath2 , which are the ground states for a given spin state at @xmath2 , no matter if they are the ground states at non - zero @xmath1 or not . _ the last statement sounds similar to the scaling property in ref.@xcite , but it is not identical ( see introduction ) . we are going to show that ( apart from a gauge - invariant normalization factor ) any ks wave function in the limit @xmath7 has the form @xmath166 where the _ small - r - exponent _ @xmath167 is a gauge - invariant integer , but the integer @xmath149 depends on the gauge . if the canonical angular momentum @xmath168 is conserved , then @xmath169 is the canonical angular momentum @xmath84 of the ks state . otherwise it is just a state and gauge - dependent integer . the limiting behavior of the density @xmath170 is gauge - invariant , as expected , but the paramagnetic current density @xmath171 depends on the gauge . even if the canonical angular momentum is conserved , the exponent determining the radial wf ( and the density ) for small @xmath66 and the canonical angular momentum should not be mixed up . the ks hamiltonian has the general form @xmath172 ^ 2 + v({\bf r } ) \label{h - ks}\ ] ] the concrete form of the effective potentials in this equation and their connection to the xc - energy functional can be found in @xcite . now we apply a gauge transformation with @xmath173 which changes the vector potential as follows @xmath174 this gauge transformation is equivalent to introducing a flux line with @xmath149 flux quanta at the center . after rearranging terms and writing the laplace operator in polar coordinates we obtain @xmath175 \nonumber\\ & + & \frac{1}{c } m_{\cal g } \ , \frac{\bf a}{r } \cdot { \bf e}_\alpha + \frac{1}{2\,c}\frac{1}{i } ( \mbox{\boldmath $ \nabla$}\cdot { \bf a } ) + \frac{1}{c\,i}{\bf a}\cdot \mbox{\boldmath $ \nabla$ } + \frac{1}{2\,c^2 } { \bf a}^2 + v \label{h - ks - polar}\end{aligned}\ ] ] because in our model all external potentials are continuous , it is natural to assume that so is @xmath176 and @xmath177 . ( actually we have only to assume that @xmath176 diverges weaker than @xmath178 and @xmath177 weaker than @xmath179 . ) then the eigenfunction in the limit @xmath98 is defined by the first line in ( [ h - ks - polar ] ) , which is independent of the specific form of @xmath176 and @xmath177 . with the ansatz @xmath180 and after multiplication with @xmath181\ , r^{1/2}$ ] the variables in the schrdinger equation @xmath182 can be separated providing @xmath183 u(r ) = \frac{1}{2 } \frac{1}{w(\alpha ) } \biggl[-\bigg ( \frac{1}{i}\frac{\partial}{\partial\alpha}- m_{\cal g } \bigg)^2 + \frac{1}{4}\biggr ] w(\alpha ) \label{sgl - sep}\ ] ] this equation can only be fulfilled if both sides are constant . using the technique of separation of variables , we can easily show that ( [ phi - ks - r0 ] ) is the solution , whereby the term with @xmath184 on the l.h.s . can be neglected because we are interested in the limit @xmath7 . this work was supported by the german research foundation ( dfg ) in the priority program spp 1145 . we are indebted to k.capelle and for valuable discussions and critically reading and improving the manuscript . m. taut , j. phys . a27 , 1045 ( 1994 ) and j.phys.a27 , 4723 ( 1994 ) ( erratum ) + additionally , in formula ( 8) the factor @xmath185 has to be replaced by @xmath186 , in formula ( 10 ) in the term containing @xmath187 a factor @xmath188 is missing , and on the r.h.s . of ( 19a ) and ( 20a ) @xmath189 must be replaced by @xmath190 . + for the technique for obtaining exact solutions see also : m.taut , phys.rev.a48 , 3561 ( 1993 ) m. taut ; j. phys . : condens . matter * 12 * , 3689 ( 2000 ) + misprints : in formula ( 21 ) the counter of the second term reads @xmath191 , + in formula ( 73 ) , @xmath192 has to be read as @xmath193 , + and 4 lines before , in the definition of @xmath194 , @xmath195 has to be replaced by @xmath196 . + see also : m. taut ; proceedings of the ep2ds meeting , ottawa 1999 ; + physica e * 6 * , 479 ( 2000 )	we have shown by using the exact solutions for the two - electron system in a parabolic confinement and a homogeneous magnetic field @xcite that both exact densities ( charge- and the paramagnetic current density ) can be non - interacting @xmath0-representable ( nivr ) only in a few special cases , or equivalently , that an exact kohn - sham ( ks ) system does not always exist . all those states at non - zero @xmath1 can be nivr , which are continuously connected to the singlet or triplet ground states at @xmath2 . in more detail , for _ singlets _ ( total orbital angular momentum @xmath3 is even ) both densities can be nivr if the vorticity @xmath4 of the exact solution vanishes . for @xmath5 this is trivially guaranteed because the paramagnetic current density vanishes . the vorticity based on the exact solutions for the higher @xmath6 does not vanish , in particular for small r. in the limit @xmath7 this can even be shown analytically . for _ triplets _ ( @xmath3 is odd ) and if we assume circular symmetry for the ks system ( the same symmetry as the real system ) then only the exact states with @xmath8 can be nivr with ks states having angular momenta @xmath9 and @xmath10 . without specification of the symmetry of the ks system the condition for nivr is that the small - r - exponents of the ks states are 0 and 1 .
ever since the pioneering work of totsuji & kihara ( 1969 ) and peebles ( 1974 ) , the two - point correlation function of galaxies has been one of the most fundamental tools in analyzing the large - scale structure of the universe . recently , prominent advances in galaxy redshift surveys have been taking place ( for review , see strauss 1999 ) , and upcoming large - scale galaxy and qso surveys , notably the two - degree field survey ( 2df ; colless 1998 ; folkes 1999 ) , and the sloan digital sky survey ( sdss ; gunn & weinberg 1995 ; margon 1998 ) , will provide three - dimensional , large - scale redshift maps of galaxies and qso s . the two - point correlation function will play one of the central role in the analysis of such large - scale redshift maps . in redshift surveys , the distances to objects are measured by recession velocities , and thus the distribution of objects in redshift space is not identical to that in real space . the clustering pattern is distorted by peculiar velocity fields ( kaiser 1987 ) , and , for high redshift objects , also by cosmological warp of real space on a light - cone ( alcock & paczyski 1979 ) . such effects are called as _ redshift distortions_. these effects on the linear power spectrum and on the linear two - point correlation function have been investigated by many authors ( for review , see hamilton 1998 ) most of the work is for redshift distortions in a nearby universe and assumes @xmath6 . kaiser ( 1987 ) , in his seminal paper , derived the linear redshift distortions of the power spectrum for a nearby universe , employing the distant - observer approximation , which assumes the scales of fluctuations of interest are much smaller than the distances to the objects . generally , the redshift distortions by peculiar velocities are along the line of sight . this radial nature of distortion introduces a statistical inhomogeneity into the redshift space . in the distant - observer approximation , such inhomogeneity is neglected and the statistical homogeneity is recovered , while the anisotropy is introduced , instead . the fourier spectrum has maximal advantage when the statistical homogeneity does exist , thus , for this reason , kaiser s formula has a very simple form . hamilton ( 1992 ) transformed kaiser s formula of the power spectrum to the formula of the two - point correlation function , using the legendre expansion ( see also lilje & efstathiou 1989 ; mcgill 1990 ) . despite the simple form of the formula , the distant - observer approximation is not desirable in the sense that we can not utilize the whole information of the survey within this approximation the wide - angle effect , which is the contribution of an angle @xmath0 between lines of sight of two objects to the correlation function , affects the analysis of the redshift maps when we intend to use the whole data of the survey . therefore , the analysis of wide - angle effect on the correlation function in linear theory ( hamilton & culhane 1996 ; zaroubi & hoffmann 1996 ; szalay , matsubara & landy 1998 ; bharadwaj 1999 ) , as well as the spherical harmonic analysis ( fisher , scharf & lahav 1994 ; heavens & taylor 1995 ) , are of great importance . all the above studies are for a nearby universe , and assume @xmath6 . this condition is not appropriate for modern galaxy redshift surveys ( @xmath7 ) or qso redshift surveys ( @xmath8 ) . the evolution of clustering and the nonlinearity in the redshift - distance relation introduce _ the cosmological redshift distortion _ on the correlation function . ballinger , peacock & heavens ( 1996 ) and matsubara & suto ( 1996 ) explored this effect in power spectrum and correlation function , respectively , both employing the distant - observer approximation ( see also nakamura , matsubara & suto 1997 ; de laix & starkman 1997 ; popowski et al . 1998 ; nishioka & yamamoto 1999 ; nair 1999 ) . the more the depth of the redshift surveys is increasing , the more the cosmological redshift distortion becomes important . so far the previous formulas for two - point correlation function in redshift space are restricted either to nearby universe , or to distant - observer approximation . the purpose of the present paper is to derive the unified formula for the linear redshift distortions of the correlation function , fully taking into account the wide - angle effects and cosmological distortions , simultaneously . in this way , we do not have to think about which formula we should use depending on the value of @xmath9 and @xmath0 . in addition , the effects of the spatial curvature are also included in our formulation and our formula applies to friedman - lematre universe with arbitrary cosmological parameters @xmath3 and @xmath4 . our formula turns out to correctly reproduce the known results if we take appropriate limits of the formula . in [ sec2 ] , the redshift - space distortions of density fluctuations toward radial directions are derived on a light - cone , which include the evolutionary effects . in [ sec3 ] , the formula for correlation function in redshift space is derived separately for open , flat , and closed models . demonstrations of redshift distortions in several cases and the validity region of the conventional distant observer approximation are given in the conclusions are summarized in [ sec5 ] . throughout the present paper , we assume the friedman - lematre - robertson - walker ( flrw ) metric as the background space - time of the universe . according to the sign of the spatial curvature @xmath10 , the metric is given by @xmath11 , & ( k<0 ) \\ \displaystyle a^2(t ) \left [ d\chi^2 + \chi^2 ( d\theta^2 + \sin^2\theta d\phi^2 ) \right ] , & ( k=0 ) \\ \displaystyle \frac{a^2(t)}{k } \left [ d\chi^2 + \sin^2\chi(d\theta^2 + \sin^2\theta d\phi^2 ) \right ] , & ( k>0 ) \end{array}\right . \label{eq1}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath0 and @xmath12 are usual angular coordinates , and @xmath13 is a radial comoving coordinate . in the following , we choose a unit system , @xmath14 , and @xmath15 , where @xmath16 is the hubble s constant , so that comoving distances are measured in units of @xmath17 . in this unit system , the spatial curvature @xmath10 is then given by @xmath18 where the scale factor at present is normalized as @xmath19 . from the flrw metric , we define the three dimensional metric @xmath20 as @xmath21 that is , the tensor @xmath20 is the metric for a three - space of uniform spatial curvature @xmath10 . in the following , vectors with latin indices represent the three - vector in the three - space specified by the metric @xmath20 . the comoving distance @xmath22 at redshift @xmath9 is given by @xmath23 where @xmath24 is the hubble parameter at ( comoving ) redshift @xmath9 : @xmath25 the radial comoving coordinate @xmath13 and the comoving distance @xmath22 are related by @xmath26 provided that a cosmological model is fixed , the comoving distance @xmath13 , and the redshift @xmath9 are related through equation ( [ eq5 ] ) on the observable past light - cone , and we interchangeably use these variables in the following . therefore , we use the redshift @xmath9 as an alternative spatial coordinate . on a light cone surface , it is also considered as an alternative of the time variable , @xmath27 . in this paper , the light ray is assumed to be transmitted on an unperturbed metric for simplicity . this point is discussed later . then , in redshift space , the angular coordinates ( @xmath28 ) are common to those in real space . only the radial distances are distorted in redshift space . let us consider an object located at comoving coordinates @xmath29 which has the 4-velocity @xmath30 , normalized as @xmath31 as usual . in terms of the three - dimensional peculiar velocity @xmath32 , this 4-velocity is given by @xmath33 the wave 4-vector , @xmath34 , satisfying the null geodesic equations , @xmath35 and @xmath36 , is given by @xmath37 where @xmath38 is a three dimensional normal vector , which represents the line of sight , and @xmath39 . the frequencies of the light at the source and at the observer are given by @xmath40 , and @xmath41 , respectively . assuming the peculiar velocities are non - relativistic , the redshift @xmath42 the observer actually observes is given by @xmath43 where @xmath44 and @xmath45 are the line - of - sight components of peculiar velocities of the source and of the observer . the peculiar velocity @xmath46 is evaluated on a light cone , and @xmath47 can be estimated from the value of the dipole anisotropy of cosmic microwave background radiation . for convenience , we define the redshift - space physical comoving distance as @xmath48 where @xmath49 is given by the equation ( [ eq7 ] ) , and the function @xmath50 is formally the same as equation ( [ eq3 ] ) by definition . explicitly , @xmath51 is defined by @xmath52 in other words , the redshift - space physical comoving distance @xmath53 defined by equation ( [ eq7.1 ] ) is the apparent physical comoving distance of an object in redshift space , which is originally at redshift @xmath9 in real space , and is shifted by its own peculiar velocity . in a limit @xmath54 , equation ( [ eq7.1 ] ) reduces to the usual relation for nearby universe ( kaiser 1987 ) , @xmath55 . from the redshift - space physical comoving distance @xmath53 , we also define the redshift - space analog of comoving coordinate , @xmath56 as @xmath57 , or equivalently , @xmath58 the difference between the number density of observed objects in real space , @xmath59 and that in redshift space , @xmath60 , are related by the number conservation : @xmath61 where @xmath62 , and @xmath63 is evaluated on a light cone . therefore , @xmath64 the number density in real space is given by the underlying number density of objects @xmath65 multiplied by the selection function @xmath66 : @xmath67 where we allow the direction dependence of the selection function . we assume the linear theory of density fluctuation throughout this paper and we only consider the first order in perturbation with respect to the variables , @xmath46 , @xmath47 , and @xmath68 . then the relation between @xmath56 and @xmath13 for a fixed @xmath9 , equation ( [ eq7.1 ] ) becomes @xmath69 where @xmath70 , @xmath71 , for non - flat universe and @xmath72 , @xmath73 , for flat universe . with this expansion , the density contrast @xmath74 up to the first order is given by @xmath75 where @xmath76 and @xmath77 , @xmath78 and @xmath79 are the normalized time - dependent deceleration parameter , the time - dependent density parameter and the dimensionless cosmological term , respectively . the parameter @xmath80 is equal to the usual time - dependent deceleration parameter @xmath81 for flat universe , and @xmath82 times the usual deceleration parameter for non - flat universe . the light - cone effect of density contrast in redshift space is represented by this equation ( [ eq10.2 ] ) . it is obvious that this equation is a generalization of corresponding formula derived by kaiser ( 1987 ) for @xmath83 . in the above equations , the light ray is assumed to be transmitted on an unperturbed metric . in reality , the frequency of the light is altered by the sachs - wolfe effect ( sachs & wolfe 1967 ) , and the path is bent by the gravitational lensing effect . the sachs - wolfe effect is the contribution of the potential fluctuations to the estimate of the redshift . the potential fluctuations are negligible except on scales comparable to the hubble distance , and in reality , observational determination of the fluctuations on hubble scales is not easy . therefore , the sachs - wolfe effect on the correlation function of density field is not supposed to be important in practice . the gravitational lensing changes the position on the sky of the observable objects . the weak lensing ( kaiser 1992 , 1998 ; bernardeau , waerbeke , & mellier 1997 ) is relevant in our linear analysis . the estimate of the number density is turn out to be affected by the local convergence of the gravitational lensing . the local convergence is given by the integration of the density fluctuations along the line of sight ( bernardeau et al . 1997 ) , and it is efficient for @xmath84 . therefore , it is possible that the gravitational lensing affects the correlation function for @xmath84 . in which case , we should add a correction term to the equation ( [ eq10.2 ] ) . the quantitative estimate of this effect is beyond the scope of this paper , and will be investigated in a future paper . the equations of motion relate the density contrast @xmath85 and the velocity field @xmath86 . since we intend to include the curvature effect , the newtonian equations of motion are not appropriate . instead , we employ the perturbed einstein equation , @xmath87 on a background flrw metric . in order to avoid the inclusion of spurious gauge modes in the solution , bardeen ( 1980 ) introduced the gauge - invariant formalism for the above perturbed equation ( see also kodama & sasaki 1984 ; abbott & schaefer 1986 ; hwang & vishniac 1990 ) . in appendix a , we review the gauge - invariant formalism for the pressureless fluid , and derive complete equations to determine the evolution of the density contrast and the velocity field . they are given by equations ( [ eqgi11a])([eqgi11c ] ) : @xmath88 where a dot denotes the differentiation with respect to the proper time , @xmath89 , and @xmath90 is the laplacian on the 3-metric , @xmath20 of the flrw metric , which is explicitly given in appendix b , equation ( [ eqa1 ] ) . as shown in appendix a , the transverse part of the velocity field decays with time as @xmath91 and can be neglected , thus the velocity is characterized by the velocity potential @xmath92 so that the velocity is given by @xmath93 . the variables @xmath85 , @xmath92 , and @xmath66 in the above equations are actually gauge - invariant linear combinations defined in appendix a , and are guaranteed not to have spurious gauge mode in the solution . these variables correspond to density contrast , velocity potential , and gravitational potential inside the particle horizon . in general , @xmath85 and @xmath94 correspond to the density contrast and velocity in velocity - orthogonal isotropic gauge , @xmath95 , @xmath96 , in the notation of appendix a. it is obvious that equations ( [ eq11a])([eq11c ] ) correspond to the continuity , euler , and poisson equations in newtonian linear theory . the only difference is the appearance of the curvature term in the laplacian . the curvature term would not be important in practice because the correlation function on curvature scales is too small to be practically detectable . however , we retain the curvature term for theoretical consistency in the following . eliminating the variables @xmath92 and @xmath66 from the equations , we obtain the evolution equation for the bardeen s gauge - invariant density contrast @xmath85 , given by @xmath97 this equation is equivalent to that in newtonian theory for the density contrast , and the solution of this equation is well - known ( peebles 1980 ) . the time dependence of the growing solution is given by @xmath98 in the following , we normalize this growing factor as @xmath99 , where @xmath100 is the present time . thus , the growing solution of the equation ( [ eq11.1 ] ) is given by @xmath101 where @xmath102 is the mass density contrast at the present time . equation ( [ eq11a ] ) gives the solution of the velocity potential as @xmath103 where @xmath104 and @xmath105 is the hubble parameter at time @xmath27 . the inverse operator @xmath106 is evaluated by spectral decomposition in the next section . it turns out that the function @xmath107 depends only on @xmath108 and @xmath109 , and is approximately given by ( lahav et al . 1991 ) @xmath110 from equation ( [ eq11.4 ] ) , @xmath111 since @xmath112 for non - flat universe and @xmath113 for flat universe , the above equation is equivalent to @xmath114 where @xmath115 . equations ( [ eq10.2 ] ) and ( [ eq12.5 ] ) indicate the linear operator which transforms the density contrast at present in real space to that in redshift space on a light - cone . that is , we can define the redshift distortion operator : @xmath116 where @xmath117 the time - dependent redshift distortion parameter is defined by @xmath118 , where @xmath119 is the time - dependent bias parameter . in the following , we present the result in the case that there is neither stochasticity nor scale - dependence in the biasing . it is straightforward to include the scale - dependence and stochasticity , although the expression becomes more tedious . in linear regime , however , the stochasticity is shown to asymptotically vanish on large scales and biasing is scale - independent beyond the scale of galaxy formation , except some special cases ( matsubara 1999 ) . for the surveys of nearby universe , @xmath6 , the functions @xmath120 and @xmath107 do not vary as rapidly as the selection function , @xmath66 , and the factor @xmath121 in the above equations can be omitted , as is done in the literatures . however , if the selection function varies as slowly as the factor @xmath121 , the latter factor can not be neglected . with the redshift distortion operator , we can re - express the density contrast in redshift space as @xmath122 this expression depends on a peculiar motion of observer , @xmath123 , which somewhat complicate the analysis . since we know the value @xmath123 by measuring the dipole anisotropy of the cmb radiation ( kogut et al . 1993 ; lineweaver et al . 1996 ) , we can subtract the term which depends on @xmath123 from the above expression . in the following we derive the correlation function in redshift space from the observer in the cmb frame and drop the @xmath123 term . in proper comparison of our result below and the observation , one should be sure that the correlation function is corrected by such kind of transformation to the cmb frame ( hamilton 1998 ) . the correlation function in redshift space of two points , @xmath124 , @xmath125 is thus given by @xmath126 where @xmath127 , @xmath128 , @xmath129 , @xmath130 , and @xmath1 , @xmath2 are redshifts of the two points , and @xmath131 is the mass correlation function in real space at present time . the redshift distortion operators @xmath132 and @xmath133 operate the density contrast at points @xmath124 and @xmath125 , respectively , and @xmath13 is a comoving separation of the two points . if we do not omit the local velocity term , @xmath123 , the square of the second term in equation ( [ eq15 ] ) is added to the equation ( [ eq16 ] ) . in the following , we obtain an explicit expression for equation ( [ eq16 ] ) . in this section , we derive the explicit expression for the correlation function in redshift space . we separately consider an open universe , a flat universe and a closed universe in the following subsections . in an open universe ( @xmath134 ) , the correlation function in real space is given by equation ( [ eqa18ab ] ) : @xmath135 where @xmath136 and @xmath137 is the power spectrum of the gauge - invariant density contrast ( see appendix b for detail ) is defined by bardeen s gauge - invariant density contrast , i.e. , the density contrast in a gauge with velocity - orthogonal slicing , @xmath95 . ] . in this subsection , we omit the superscript @xmath138 of @xmath139 , which distinguish the difference of functional forms according to the sign of curvature in appendix b. equation ( [ eq16 ] ) implies that we only need to calculate @xmath140 to obtain the formula for correlation function in redshift space . since the laplacian is the invariant operator under transformation of the coordinate system , the inverse operation @xmath141 , @xmath142 to @xmath143 is simply given by @xmath144 , where @xmath145 is defined by equation ( [ eqa3a ] ) , because @xmath143 is the fundamental eigenfunction of the laplacian [ appendix b , equation ( [ eqa2 ] ) ] . the calculationally nontrivial part of the redshift - space distortion operator is the spatial derivatives along the lines of sight , @xmath146 , which is not invariant operation , unlike the laplacian . we illustrate in the rest of this subsection how the calculation can be accomplished . the comoving separation @xmath13 between @xmath124 and @xmath125 is related to the comoving distances @xmath147 and @xmath148 of these two points from the observer and the angle , @xmath0 between the lines of sight of these points with respect to the observer ( figure [ fig1 ] ) , through the standard relation : @xmath149 the derivatives of this equation yield @xmath150 where @xmath151 is an angle between the geodesics of @xmath147 and @xmath13 , and @xmath152 is an angle between the geodesics of @xmath148 and @xmath13 ( figure [ fig1 ] ) . the following equations are useful for our purpose : @xmath153 where @xmath154 one can prove @xmath155 with this definition and @xmath156 for the scale much less than the curvature scale , @xmath157 . we also use the derivatives of the radial part of the harmonic function @xmath158 , given by equation ( [ eqa5a ] ) , and the recursion relation , given by equation ( [ eqa6a ] ) . the explicit form of the radial part of the harmonic function @xmath139 is presented in appendix b , equations ( [ eqa7a])([eqa11a ] ) . after straightforward but somewhat tedious algebra , using equations ( [ eq19])([eq20.4 ] ) , ( [ eqa5a ] ) and ( [ eqa6a ] ) , one obtains the spatial derivatives along the lines of sight as @xmath159 x_2 \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\quad + \ , \frac{1}{21 } \left [ 2 + 4\cos^2{\widetilde{\theta}}- 3\left(\cos^2\gamma_1 + \cos^2\gamma_2\right ) + 12\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ] ( \nu^2 + 4 ) x_2 \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\quad + \ , \frac{1}{35 } \left [ 1 + 2\cos^2{\widetilde{\theta}}- 5\left(\cos^2\gamma_1 + \cos^2\gamma_2\right ) + 20\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad + \ , \left . 35\cos^2\gamma_1\cos^2\gamma_2 \right ] x_4 . \label{eq25}\end{aligned}\ ] ] thus , @xmath140 is expanded as follows : @xmath160 where @xmath161 , @xmath162 , @xmath163 , @xmath164 , @xmath165 , @xmath166 , @xmath167 , @xmath168 , @xmath169 , and coefficients @xmath170 are given by @xmath171 \sinh^2\chi - \frac13 \beta_1 \beta_2 \widetilde{\alpha}_1\widetilde{\alpha}_2 \cos{\widetilde{\theta } } , \label{eq29}\\ & & c^{(1)}_1 = \beta_1\widetilde{\alpha}_1\cos\gamma_1 + \beta_2\widetilde{\alpha}_2\cos\gamma_2 \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\quad + \ , \frac15 \beta_1 \beta_2 \left [ \widetilde{\alpha}_1 \left(\cos\gamma_1 - 2\cos\gamma_2\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ) + \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \left(\cos\gamma_2 - 2\cos\gamma_1\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ) \right ] , \label{eq30}\\ & & c^{(1)}_2 = \beta_1 \left(\cos^2\gamma_1 - \frac13 \right ) + \beta_2 \left(\cos^2\gamma_2 - \frac13 \right ) \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\quad - \ , \frac17 \beta_1 \beta_2 \left [ \frac23 + \frac43\cos^2{\widetilde{\theta}}- \left(\cos^2\gamma_1 + \cos^2\gamma_2\right ) + 4\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ] , \label{eq31}\\ & & c^{(2)}_0 = \beta_1 \beta_2 \left ( \sinh^2\chi - \widetilde{\alpha}_1 \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \right ) \sinh^2\chi , \label{eq31.5}\\ & & c^{(2)}_1 = \beta_1 \beta_2 \left ( \widetilde{\alpha}_1 \cos\gamma_1 + \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \cos\gamma_2 \right ) \sinh^2\chi , \label{eq32}\\ & & c^{(2)}_2 = \frac27 \beta_1\beta_2 \left [ \cos^2{\widetilde{\theta}}- \frac23 + \frac92 \left(\cos^2\gamma_1 + \cos^2\gamma_2\right ) + 10 \cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ] \sinh^2\chi \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\quad + \ , \beta_1\beta_2\widetilde{\alpha}_1\widetilde{\alpha}_2 \left(\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2 + \frac13 \cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ) , \label{eq33}\\ & & c^{(2)}_3 = \frac15 \beta_1 \beta_2 \left [ \widetilde{\alpha}_1 \left ( 5\cos\gamma_1\cos^2\gamma_2 - \cos\gamma_1 + 2\cos\gamma_2\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ) \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad \left . + \ , \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \left ( 5\cos\gamma_2\cos^2\gamma_1 - \cos\gamma_2 + 2\cos\gamma_1\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right ) \right ] , \label{eq34}\\ & & c^{(2)}_4 = \frac17 \beta_1\beta_2 \left [ \frac15 + \frac25\cos^2{\widetilde{\theta}}- \left(\cos^2\gamma_1 + \cos^2\gamma_2\right ) + 4\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2\cos{\widetilde{\theta}}\right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad + \ , \left . 7\cos^2\gamma_1\cos^2\gamma_2 \right ] , \label{eq35}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath172 and @xmath173 , @xmath174 , @xmath175 , @xmath176 , @xmath177 , @xmath178 . since these coefficients do not depend on @xmath179 , the correlation function in redshift space of equation ( [ eq16 ] ) finally reduces to @xmath180 where @xmath181 in the left panel of figure [ fig2 ] , some examples of the function @xmath182 for an open model are plotted . the cdm - type transfer function ( bardeen et al . 1986 ) is adopted and the primordial power spectrum on large scales is assumed to be `` scale invariant '' , which corresponds to constant fluctuations in the gravitational potential per logarithmic interval in wavenumber ( lyth & stewart 1990 ; ratra & peebles 1994 ; white & bunn 1995 ) : @xmath183 where @xmath184^{-1/4 } , \label{eq38.02}\end{aligned}\ ] ] and the shape parameter is set @xmath185 , which corresponds to @xmath186 in our unit system . on scales smaller than horizon scale , @xmath187 , the power spectrum ( [ eq38.01 ] ) reduces to usual cdm - type power spectrum with harrison - zeldovich primordial spectrum . the set of equations ( [ eq28])([eq37 ] ) is our final formula for the correlation function in redshift space which takes into account the light - cone , and spatial - curvature effect _ without _ distant - observer approximation . in a flat universe ( @xmath188 ) , the correlation function is real space is given by equation ( [ eqa18ab ] ) : @xmath189 where @xmath190 we can repeat the similar calculation of the previous subsection for a flat universe ( @xmath188 ) . the corresponding formula can also be used if we only consider a nearby universe where the separation @xmath13 and the distances @xmath147 , @xmath148 are much smaller than the curvature scale , @xmath82 , which roughly corresponds to the horizon scale . the calculation for a flat universe is performed similarly as in the previous subsection , or alternatively , we can also obtain the formula in a flat limit from the formula for an open universe , taking the limit @xmath191 , @xmath192 , with @xmath193 fixed . anyway , the equation ( [ eq19 ] ) reduces to the one in euclidean geometry : @xmath194 the meaning of @xmath151 and @xmath152 is the same , and they are explicitly given by @xmath195 the variable @xmath196 in flat universe , defined by equation ( [ eq20.4 ] ) for the case of an open universe , reduces to @xmath0 , the angle between lines of sight of @xmath124 and @xmath125 with respect to the observer . thus , the correlation function in redshift space is given by equation ( [ eq36 ] ) where the coefficients @xmath197 in a flat universe are @xmath198 , \label{eq41}\\ & & c^{(1)}_2 = \beta_1 \left(\cos^2\gamma_1 - \frac13 \right ) + \beta_2 \left(\cos^2\gamma_2 - \frac13 \right ) \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\quad - \ , \frac17 \beta_1 \beta_2 \left [ \frac23 + \frac43\cos^2\theta - \left(\cos^2\gamma_1 + \cos^2\gamma_2\right ) + 4\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2\cos\theta \right ] , \label{eq42}\\ & & c^{(2)}_0 = 0 , \label{eq42.5}\\ & & c^{(2)}_1 = 0 , \label{eq43}\\ & & c^{(2)}_2 = \beta_1\beta_2\widetilde{\alpha}_1\widetilde{\alpha}_2 \left(\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2 + \frac13 \cos\theta\right ) , \label{eq44}\\ & & c^{(2)}_3 = \frac15 \beta_1 \beta_2 \left [ \widetilde{\alpha}_1 \left ( 5\cos\gamma_1\cos^2\gamma_2 - \cos\gamma_1 + 2\cos\gamma_2\cos\theta \right ) \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad \left . + \ , \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \left ( 5\cos\gamma_2\cos^2\gamma_1 - \cos\gamma_2 + 2\cos\gamma_1\cos\theta \right ) \right ] , \label{eq45}\\ & & c^{(2)}_4 = \frac17 \beta_1\beta_2 \left [ \frac15 + \frac25\cos^2\theta - \left(\cos^2\gamma_1 + \cos^2\gamma_2\right ) + 4\cos\gamma_1\cos\gamma_2\cos\theta \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad + \ , \left . 7\cos^2\gamma_1\cos^2\gamma_2 \right ] , \label{eq46}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath199 the corresponding equation of ( [ eq37 ] ) is @xmath200 in the middle panel of figure [ fig2 ] , some examples of the function @xmath182 for a flat model are plotted for scale invariant primordial power spectrum with cdm - type transfer function : @xmath201 where we again set the shape parameter @xmath202 . alternatively , the coefficients @xmath197 can also be represented by using variables @xmath203 and @xmath204 . these variables are introduced in szalay , matsubara & landy ( 1998 ) in a calculation of wide - angle effects of nearby universe ( @xmath6 ) , except that their original definition of @xmath205 is @xmath206 , instead . the meaning of @xmath205 is the angle between @xmath207 and a symmetry axis that halves the angle @xmath0 . with these new variables , equations ( [ eq39])([eq46 ] ) are transformed as @xmath208 \sin{\theta_{\rm h}}\sin\gamma \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\quad -\ , \left [ \left ( \beta_1 \widetilde{\alpha}_1 - \beta_2 \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \right ) + \frac15 \beta_1\beta_2 \left ( \widetilde{\alpha}_1 - \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \right ) \left ( 3 - 4\sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}}\right ) \right ] \cos{\theta_{\rm h}}\cos\gamma , \label{eq50}\\ & & c^{(1)}_2 = \left [ \frac23 ( \beta_1 + \beta_2 ) + \frac47\beta_1\beta_2 \right ] \cos2{\theta_{\rm h}}p_2(\cos\gamma ) \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\quad + \ , \frac13 \left [ ( \beta_1 + \beta_2 ) - \frac27\beta_1\beta_2 + \frac87\beta_1\beta_2\sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}}\right ] \sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}}\nonumber\\ & & \qquad\quad - \ , 2(\beta_1 - \beta_2)\cos{\theta_{\rm h}}\sin{\theta_{\rm h}}\cos\gamma\sin\gamma , \label{eq51}\\ & & c^{(2)}_0 = 0 , \label{eq51.5}\\ & & c^{(2)}_1 = 0 , \label{eq52}\\ & & c^{(2)}_2 = \frac13\beta_1\beta_2 \widetilde{\alpha}_1\widetilde{\alpha}_2 \left(\sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}}- 2p_2(\cos\gamma)\right ) , \label{eq53}\\ & & c^{(2)}_3 = - \frac15 \beta_1\beta_2 \left\ { \left ( \widetilde{\alpha}_1 + \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \right ) \sin{\theta_{\rm h}}\left [ \cos^2{\theta_{\rm h}}p_1(\sin\gamma ) - 2p_3(\sin\gamma ) \right ] \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad\quad - \ , \left . \left ( \widetilde{\alpha}_1 - \widetilde{\alpha}_2 \right ) \cos{\theta_{\rm h}}\left [ \sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}}p_1(\cos\gamma ) - 2p_3(\cos\gamma ) \right ] \right\ } , \label{eq54}\\ & & c^{(2)}_4 = \frac17\beta_1\beta_2 \left [ \frac85 p_4(\cos\gamma ) - \frac43 \sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}}p_2(\cos\gamma ) - \frac{1}{15}(4 - 9\sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}})\sin^2{\theta_{\rm h}}\right ] , \label{eq55}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath209 is the legendre function . in a closed universe ( @xmath210 ) , the correlation function in real space is given by the equation ( [ eqa18c ] ) : @xmath211 where @xmath212 repeating the similar calculation as in an open universe , or formally putting @xmath213 , @xmath214 , @xmath215 and @xmath216 in the calculation for an open universe , we obtain the formula for a closed universe . in this subsection , we just summarize the difference of the formula from the case of an open universe . the corresponding equation ( [ eq19 ] ) in a closed universe is @xmath217 the meaning of @xmath151 and @xmath152 is unchanged and they are given by @xmath218 the variable @xmath196 in a closed universe is defined by @xmath219 then the form of the coefficients @xmath197 of equation ( [ eq28])([eq35 ] ) is almost the same , and we do not repeat the formula here . the only difference is that @xmath220 should be replaced by @xmath221 , and the definition of @xmath222 is changed as @xmath223 the formula for a closed universe is also given by the equation ( [ eq36 ] ) where the definition of @xmath224 is replaced by @xmath225 in the right panel of figure [ fig2 ] , some examples of the function @xmath182 are plotted for a closed model . as in the open case , the primordial power spectrum on large scales is assumed to be `` scale invariant '' , which corresponds to constant fluctuations in the gravitational potential per logarithmic interval in wavenumber ( white & scott 1996 ) : @xmath226 where we again set the shape parameter as @xmath202 it is an easy exercise to derive the previously known formulas of the redshift distortions of the correlation function from our general formula . we illustrate how our formula reduces to the known formulas by taking appropriate limits . here we consider two approximations , @xmath227 and/or @xmath6 . the first approximation corresponds to the distant observer approximation . in this approximation , the distance between two points is much smaller than the distances of these points from the observer . the second approximation corresponds to only considering the nearby universe . the redshift distortion formulas known so far are restricted in these cases . first of all , consider a limit @xmath227 , with @xmath151 , @xmath152 fixed . we also set @xmath228 , and the distance between the two points @xmath13 is much smaller than the curvature scale . then irrespective to the spatial curvature , @xmath229 , and @xmath230 . both the coefficients ( [ eq28])([eq35 ] ) , and ( [ eq39])([eq46 ] ) reduce to @xmath231 and all the other coefficients are zero . these coefficients are equivalent to the result that hamilton ( 1992 ) derived in @xmath232 limit with distant observer approximation , which is a direct fourier transform of kaiser s original form in fourier space ( kaiser 1987 ) . for finite @xmath9 , the equivalent result is obtained by matsubara & suto ( 1996 ) for correlation function and ballinger , peacock & heavens ( 1996 ) for power spectrum [ see also nakamura , matsubara & suto ( 1998 ) de laix & starkman ( 1998 ) , nair ( 1999 ) ] . all these previous studies are based on the distant observer approximation , and our general formula correctly has the limit of these cases . the wide - angle effects on the redshift distortion of the correlation function without distant observer approximation is already derived for nearby universe , @xmath233 by szalay , matsubara & landy ( 1998 ) , and bharadwaj ( 1999 ) also derived the equivalent result with another parameterization . it is easy to see that our general results have the correct limit of szalay et al . ( 1998 ) . in the limit @xmath234 the geometry reduces to be flat case , and , in fact , equations ( [ eq48])([eq55 ] ) with @xmath235 in that limit is completely equivalent to the result of szalay et al . ( 1998 ) after correcting their typographical errors in the last term of their equation ( 15 ) should be replaced by @xmath236 and the left hand side of their equation ( 20 ) should be replaced by @xmath237 . ] , noting the minor difference of the definition that @xmath205 and @xmath224 here correspond to @xmath238 and @xmath239 in szalay et al . ( 1998 ) , respectively . it is well known that the redshift distortions of the correlation function for nearby universe are good probes of the density parameter modulo bias factor at present time , @xmath240 . the parameter @xmath241 is called as the redshift distortion parameter of nearby universe . redshift distortions of nearby universe do not depend on spatial curvature almost at all , because the redshift distortions of nearby universe are purely caused by the peculiar velocity field , which is almost independent on the spatial curvature . however , the redshift distortions at high redshifts , say @xmath84 in a quasar catalog , definitely depend on the spatial curvature of the universe and is called as cosmological redshift distortion . matsubara & suto ( 1996 ) explicitly show the dependence of the cosmological distortion of the correlation function on cosmological parameters , employing the distant observer approximation . to probe more properly the spatial curvature with cosmological distortions , it is not desirable to rely on the distant observer approximation . in this section , we numerically calculate the formula obtained in the previous section for several models , concentrating on geometrical effects . we plot the correlation function in directly observable velocity space . in the following , the shape parameter for the cdm - type transfer function is fixed to @xmath242 in our unit system , which corresponds to @xmath202 , in spite of the fact that cdm model predict @xmath243 . we fix the spectrum simply because we are interested in the pure distortion effects on the difference among the models , while the difference of the shape of the underlying power spectrum is less interested in here . the primordial spectrum is assumed to be `` scale invariant '' , which corresponds to constant fluctuations in the gravitational potential per logarithmic interval in wavenumber , equations ( [ eq38.01 ] ) , ( [ eq47.01 ] ) and ( [ eq60.01 ] ) . for simplicity , we assume no bias , @xmath244 and also assume @xmath245 . the latter assumption corresponds to the case @xmath246 , @xmath247 , and @xmath248 , for open , flat , and closed models , respectively . although this form of selection function is not physically motivated , it is not so unrealistic for merely illustrative purpose . in actual application , the selection function is individually determined for each redshift survey . figures [ fig3][fig6 ] show the contour plots of the correlation function . each figure consists of 12 panels . in each figure , from top to bottom , the cosmological models are @xmath249 , respectively , which we call std , flat , and open models . from left to right , the redshifts of the first points are @xmath250 , respectively . in figures [ fig3 ] and [ fig4 ] , the correlation function with the purely geometrical distortions is plotted for an illustrative purpose , assuming there are no peculiar velocities at all , by setting @xmath251 in our formula . the first point , @xmath124 of equation ( [ eq36 ] ) , is at the center on the y - axis in each figures . the contour plot show the value of correlation function depending on the position of the second point @xmath125 . in figure [ fig3 ] , the observer is located at the origin @xmath252 and the global distortions are shown . in figure [ fig4 ] , the scale of @xmath9 around the first object is fixed , and the observer is located at @xmath253 , outside the plots . for lower redshifts , @xmath254 , the geometrical distortion is not significant . for higher redshifts , @xmath255 , due to the nonlinear relations of redshift and comoving distance , the contours are elongated to the direction of line of sight in all three models . the extent of the elongation for std and open models are similar , but the elongation for flat model is smaller than other models . this is because the acceleration nature due to the cosmological constant squashes the z - space along the line of sight ( alcock & paczyski 1979 ) . in figures [ fig5 ] and [ fig6 ] , the correlation function in redshift space is plotted , taking into account the velocity distortions . as in figures [ fig3 ] and [ fig4 ] , the observer is located @xmath252 and @xmath256 , respectively . for lower redshifts , the redshift distortions are mainly from peculiar velocity fields , which depends only on the density parameter @xmath3 . thus , std model can be discriminated from other models by correlation function of lower redshifts , but flat and open models are similar . for higher redshifts , flat and open models become different because of the squashing by the cosmological constant . to illustrate the difference among profiles of correlation function in redshift space for different models and different redshifts , we define the parallel correlation function @xmath257 and perpendicular correlation function @xmath258 at given @xmath9 . in terms of the correlation function in redshift space @xmath259 they are defined by @xmath260 \right ) . \label{eq65}\end{aligned}\ ] ] the geometrical meaning of the definition of the parallel redshift interval @xmath261 and the perpendicular redshift interval @xmath262 are illustrated in figure [ fig7 ] . as seen from the figure [ fig5 ] or [ fig6 ] , these sections of correlation function are supposed to be maximally distorted in opposite direction , and that is the reason why we introduce them for illustrations . these functions are the generalization of the similar functions introduced by matsubara & suto ( 1996 ) in the case of distant observer approximation . in figure [ fig8 ] , those parallel and perpendicular correlation functions are plotted for std , flat , and open models . the correlation function in real space is normalized as @xmath263 . one can notice that while the perpendicular correlation functions are not significantly different among three models , the parallel correlation functions are quite different . for lower redshifts , profiles of the parallel correlation function for the flat and open models are similar as usual . for higher redshifts , the relative amplitude of @xmath264 compared to @xmath265 in the open model is higher than that in the flat model . in addition to that , the zero - crossing point of @xmath264 in the open model is larger than that in the flat model . those tendencies are both explained by the cosmological - constant squashing , because the squashing shifts the profile toward small scales , or left . even if the determination of the zero - crossing point of @xmath264 is observationally difficult , the former effect on the relative amplitude is a promising one to discriminate the spatial curvature by the observation of redshift distortions . the distant observer approximation has been widely used in the analyses of galaxy redshift surveys . with our general formula , we can figure out when this approximation is valid and when it is not . the distant observer approximation of the two - point correlation function is derived by hamilton ( 1992 ) for a nearby universe , @xmath6 . matsubara & suto ( 1996 ) generalize his formula to arbitrary redshifts , in which the distant observer approximation is still adopted . in figure [ fig9 ] , we plot the ratio of the value of those two previous formulas and that of our formula . we choose the geometry of the two points as follows : we fix the separation @xmath266 of the two points in velocity space . the angle @xmath267 between the symmetric line which halves the lines of sight and the line between the two points is also fixed . the meaning of the angle @xmath268 is the inclination of @xmath269 relative to the line of sight in velocity space . explicitly , @xmath268 is given by @xmath270 . the angle @xmath0 between the lines of sight is varied in the figure . we plot the cases , @xmath271 , @xmath272 , @xmath273 , @xmath274 , and @xmath275 , @xmath276 , @xmath277 . there is some irregular behavior that corresponds to the zero crossings of the correlation function . the hamilton s formula ( thin lines ) is valid when the separation @xmath269 is not so large . the reason why the hamilton s formula deviate even in small angles is that when the angle is small enough , the redshift becomes large , and the evolutionary and geometrical effects are not negligible . in fact , the formula of matsubara & suto ( thick lines ) is perfectly identical to our general formula when the angle is small . the validity region of the distant observer approximation depends on the inclination angle @xmath268 . however , one can conservatively estimate the validity region as @xmath278 . one can use @xmath279 for some cases , while the blind application of the approximation for @xmath280 can cause over 100% error . in this paper we have derived for the first time the unified formula of the correlation function in redshift space in linear theory , which simultaneously includes wide - angle effects and the cosmological redshift distortions . the effects of the spatial curvature both on geometry and on fluctuation spectrum are properly taken into account , and our formula applies to an arbitrary friedman - lematre universe . the distant observer approximation by matsubara & suto ( 1996 ) , which is a generalization of the work by hamilton ( 1992 ) , can be used when the angle @xmath0 between the lines of sight is less than @xmath281 . beyond that range , our formula provides a unique one for the correlation function in redshift space with geometrical distortions . the correlation function in redshift space is uniquely determined if the cosmological parameters @xmath3 , @xmath4 , the power spectrum @xmath282 and bias evolution @xmath119 is specified . the hubble constant does not affect the correlation function , provided that we do not adopt a specific model to the power spectrum and/or to the bias evolution which may depend on hubble constant . our formula predicts the correlation function for a fixed model of these variables and one can test any model by directly comparing the correlation function of the data and of the theoretical prediction in redshift space . now we comment on some caveats for our formula . first , when we try to apply our formula to the scale @xmath283 , what apparently lacks in our formula is the finger - of - god effect , or the nonlinear smearing of the correlation along the line of sight . while it is still difficult to analytically include this effect into our formula , one can phenomenologically evaluate the effect by numerically smearing the formula along the line of sight . second , our formula does not include the sachs - wolfe and gravitational lensing effects . the sachs - wolfe effect could affect our formula only on scales comparable to hubble distance where the correlation function is too small to be practically detectable , as discussed in section [ sec2.1 ] . however , it is possible that the gravitational lensing effect affects the observable correlation function for @xmath84 . in which case , one should add correction terms to our formula . even so , our formula for @xmath284 would not be affected by those terms and still corresponds to the observable quantity . those correction terms by gravitational lensing will be given in a future paper . third , our formula assumes the selection function uncorrelated to the density fluctuations . in addition , the precise form of the selection function is practically difficult to determine . if the luminocities and/or the surface brightnesses are correlated to density fluctuations , it can mimick the large - scale structure . it could be the case that one can blindly seek the models of cosmological quantities , @xmath3 , @xmath4 , @xmath282 , and @xmath119 . each quantity has different effects on the correlation function in redshift space . roughly speaking , the cosmological parameters @xmath3 and @xmath4 mostly affect the distortions of the contour of the correlation function , the power spectrum @xmath282 mostly affects the profile of the correlation function , and the bias evolution mostly affects the z - dependence of the amplitude . since all the pairs of the objects in the redshift survey can be used , we can expect that those quantities are determined with small errors by performing proper likelihood analysis , such as the karhunen - love mode decomposition ( vogeley & szalay 1996 ; matsubara , szalay & landy 1999 ) . the application of the formula to the actual data is a straightforward task . we believe the formula presented in this paper is one of the most fundamental theoretical tools in understanding the data of the deep redshift surveys . i wish to thank alex szalay , naoshi sugiyama and yasushi suto for stimulating discussions . this work was supported by jsps postdoctoral fellowships for research abroad . in this appendix , we review the derivation of the equations of motion for the density contrast and the velocity field in the general relativistic context . we assume the matter is pressureless , perfect fluid , and the background metric is given by homogeneous , isotropic flrw metric . for the perturbed einstein equation , @xmath285 bardeen ( 1980 ) introduced the gauge - invariant formalism . here , we briefly review the formalism in the case of pressureless fluid , and derive relevant equations for our purpose , i.e. , equations to relate the density contrast and the velocity field . in this appendix , we use the conformal time @xmath286 defined by @xmath287 , so that the metric is given by @xmath288 in the coordinates @xmath289 . a prime denotes differentiation with respect to the conformal time . the perturbations are classified into scalar , vector , and tensor types . the scalar perturbations are expanded by the complete set of scalar harmonics @xmath290 satisfying the helmholtz equation @xmath291 where @xmath90 is the laplacian and @xmath292 is the three - dimensional covariant derivative with respect to the metric @xmath20 . the explicit form of each mode of this solution is given in appendix b. in the following , the indices to distinguish different modes are omitted and each mode function is represented by @xmath293 . for each mode , the scalar perturbations in the metric ( [ eqgi2.5 ] ) are defined by @xmath294 , \label{eqgi3c}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath295 the three - velocity @xmath296 associated with four - velocity @xmath30 is represented by @xmath297 and to first order the normalization @xmath298 gives @xmath299 the pressureless energy - momentum tensor is given by @xmath300 , thus , the scalar perturbations in the pressureless energy - momentum tensor are @xmath301 q_j , \label{eqgi6b}\\ & & \delta t^i_{\ \,j } = 0 . \label{eqgi6c}\end{aligned}\ ] ] in terms of the gauge - dependent variables @xmath302 , @xmath303 , @xmath304 , @xmath305 , @xmath306 , and @xmath307 , bardeen ( 1980 ) defined gauge invariant combinations : @xmath308 the perturbation equation ( [ eqgi1 ] ) for these scalar gauge - invariant variables are given by bardeen ( 1980 ) : @xmath309 we define new variables @xmath310 and @xmath311 . after superposing the modes of the above equations , we obtain @xmath312 where a dot denotes the differentiation with respect to the proper time , @xmath89 , and @xmath313 is the laplacian on flrw metric , equation ( [ eqa1 ] ) , this is the complete set of equations to treat the scalar perturbations . the velocity @xmath296 corresponds to @xmath314 , and the equation ( [ eqgi4 ] ) suggests @xmath315 , so that @xmath316 , i.e. , @xmath92 is the velocity potential and represents the longitudinal part of the velocity @xmath32 . the transverse part of @xmath32 belongs to the vector perturbations . the vector perturbations are expanded by the divergenceless vector harmonics @xmath317 satisfying @xmath318 for each mode , the vector perturbations are given by @xmath319 where @xmath320 . \label{eqgi14}\end{aligned}\ ] ] the vector perturbations in the three - velocity are @xmath321 and in the energy momentum tensor are @xmath322 q_j , \label{eqgi16b}\\ & & \delta t^i_{\ \,j } = 0 . \label{eqgi16c}\end{aligned}\ ] ] for vector perturbations , bardeen ( 1980 ) defined the gauge - invariant combinations : @xmath323 the perturbation equation ( [ eqgi1 ] ) for these vector gauge - invariant variables are given by bardeen ( 1980 ) : @xmath324 we define a new variable @xmath325 , which is the transverse part of the velocity @xmath32 . after superposing the modes of the equation ( [ eqgi18b ] ) , we obtain @xmath326 since the density contrast and the velocity field are irrelevant to the tensor perturbations , we do not repeat here equations of motion for tensor perturbations . complete equations to determine the density contrast and the velocity field is given by equations ( [ eqgi11a])([eqgi11c ] ) and ( [ eqgi19a ] ) , where velocity field is decomposed into the longitudinal part and the transverse part , as @xmath327 . the equation ( [ eqgi19a ] ) is immediately integrated to give @xmath328 i.e. , the transverse part decays with time . this result is the consequence of the fact that the matter is pressureless . in summary , neglecting the decaying transverse mode , the complete equations to determine the density contrast and the velocity field is given by equations ( [ eqgi11a])([eq11c ] ) , where the velocity consists of purely longitudinal part . in this appendix , we construct the orthonormal set of the laplacian in a space with or without spatial curvature and derive the expression of the correlation function in real space in terms of the power spectrum , when the spatial curvature is not negligible . the laplacian of a function @xmath293 in the metric @xmath20 of the equations ( [ eq5.1 ] ) and ( [ eq1 ] ) is given by @xmath329 , & ( k < 0 ) \\ \displaystyle \frac{1}{\chi^2 } \left [ \frac{\partial}{\partial\chi } \left ( \chi^2\frac{\partial q}{\partial\chi } \right ) + \frac{1}{\sin\theta}\frac{\partial}{\partial\theta } \left ( \sin\theta\frac{\partial q}{\partial\theta } \right ) + \frac{1}{\sin^2\theta}\frac{\partial^2 q}{\partial\phi^2 } \right ] , & ( k = 0 ) \\ \displaystyle \frac{k}{\sin^2\chi } \left [ \frac{\partial}{\partial\chi } \left ( \sin^2\chi\frac{\partial q}{\partial\chi } \right ) + \frac{1}{\sin\theta}\frac{\partial}{\partial\theta } \left ( \sin\theta\frac{\partial q}{\partial\theta } \right ) + \frac{1}{\sin^2\theta}\frac{\partial^2 q}{\partial\phi^2 } \right ] , & ( k > 0 ) \end{array } \right . \label{eqa1}\end{aligned}\ ] ] to evaluate the inverse laplacian , it is useful to obtain a complete set of scalar harmonic functions satisfying the helmholtz equation ( harrison 1967 ; wilson 1983 ) @xmath330 if we separate variables , the angular part of the solution is just a spherical harmonic @xmath331 . the radial part @xmath332 , associated with @xmath333 satisfies the following radial equation , @xmath334 x_l = 0 , \qquad ( k<0 ) \label{eqa2.5a}\\ & & \frac{1}{\chi^2 } \frac{\partial}{\partial\chi } \left ( \chi^2\frac{\partial x_l}{\partial\chi } \right ) + \left [ \nu^2 - \frac{l(l+1)}{\chi^2 } \right ] x_l = 0 , \qquad\qquad\qquad\quad\;\ ; ( k=0 ) \label{eqa2.5b}\\ & & \frac{1}{\sin^2\chi } \frac{\partial}{\partial\chi } \left ( \sin^2\chi\frac{\partial x_l}{\partial\chi } \right ) + \left [ \nu^2 - 1 - \frac{l(l+1)}{\sin^2\chi } \right ] x_l = 0 , \qquad\quad\ ; ( k>0 ) \label{eqa2.5c}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where we introduce a new variable @xmath179 as follows @xmath335 the solutions of radial equations ( [ eqa2.5a])([eqa2.5c ] ) which are regular at the origin are given by conical functions , bessel functions , and toroidal functions for negative , zero , and positive curvature , respectively ( e.g. , harrison 1967 ; abbott & schaefer 1986 ) : @xmath336 where @xmath337 is the associated legendre function , and @xmath338 is the associated legendre function on the cut ( magnus , oberhettinger & soni 1966 ) . the spectrum for the space of positive curvature is discrete because of the condition that the function is periodic , or single - valued . we introduce notations , @xmath339 , and @xmath340 . we can see that @xmath341 by analytic continuation with a natural choice of branches . for @xmath342 , all these functions behave like @xmath343 with appropriate constants , and thus @xmath344 ( e.g. , harrison 1967 ) . for the variable @xmath179 is positive integers in closed universe , @xmath345 can also be represented by gegenbauer ( or ultraspherical ) polynomials @xmath346 as @xmath347 we choose normalizations so that @xmath348 limit of either equation ( [ eqa4a ] ) or ( [ eqa4c ] ) reduces to equation ( [ eqa4b ] ) . in these normalizations , the derivatives and recursion relations for @xmath139 are particularly simple . in fact , the derivatives of the radial functions are simply given by @xmath349 and the recursion relations , which are derived by the fact that @xmath139 are the solution of the radial equations ( [ eqa2.5a])([eqa2.5c ] ) , are @xmath350 in this paper , we need only @xmath351 for the evaluation of redshift distortion . they are given by @xmath352 \sin\nu\chi - 3\nu\sinh\chi\cosh\chi\cos\nu\chi \right\ } , \label{eqa9a}\\ & & x^{\rm ( -)}_3 = \frac{1}{\nu\sinh^4\chi } \left\ { \cosh\chi \left [ - 15 + 6 ( \nu^2 - 1 ) \sinh^2\chi \right ] \sin\nu\chi \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad + \ , \left . \nu\sinh\chi \left [ 15 - ( \nu^2 - 11 ) \sinh^2\chi \right ] \cos\nu\chi \right\ } , \label{eqa10a}\\ & & x^{\rm ( -)}_4 = \frac{1}{\nu\sinh^5\chi } \left\ { \left [ 105 - 15(3\nu^2 - 8) \sinh^2\chi + ( \nu^4 - 35\nu^2 + 24 ) \sinh^4\chi \right ] \sin\nu\chi \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad -\ , \left . \nu\sinh\chi \left [ 105 - 10(\nu^2 - 5 ) \sinh^2\chi \right ] \cos\nu\chi \right\ } , \label{eqa11a}\end{aligned}\ ] ] for @xmath134 , and @xmath353 , \label{eqa9b}\\ & & x^{\rm ( 0)}_3 = \frac{1}{\nu\chi^4 } \left [ \left ( - 15 + 6 \nu^2 \chi^2 \right ) \sin\nu\chi + \nu\chi \left ( 15 - \nu^2 \chi^2 \right ) \cos\nu\chi \right ] , \label{eqa10b}\\ & & x^{\rm ( 0)}_4 = \frac{1}{\nu\chi^5 } \left [ \left ( 105 - 45\nu^2 \chi^2 + \nu^4 \chi^4 \right ) \sin\nu\chi - \nu\chi \left ( 105 - 10\nu^2 \chi^2 \right ) \cos\nu\chi \right ] , \label{eqa11b}\end{aligned}\ ] ] for @xmath188 , and @xmath354 \sin\nu\chi - 3\nu\sin\chi\cos\chi\cos\nu\chi \right\ } , \label{eqa9c}\\ & & x^{\rm ( + ) } _ 3 = \frac{1}{\nu\sin^4\chi } \left\ { \cosh\chi \left [ - 15 + 6 ( \nu^2 + 1 ) \sin^2\chi \right ] \sin\nu\chi \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad + \ , \left . \nu\sin\chi \left [ 15 - ( \nu^2 + 11 ) \sin^2\chi \right ] \cos\nu\chi \right\ } , \label{eqa10c}\\ & & x^{\rm ( + ) } _ 4 = \frac{1}{\nu\sin^5\chi } \left\ { \left [ 105 - 15(3\nu^2 + 8) \sin^2\chi + ( \nu^4 + 35\nu^2 + 24 ) \sin^4\chi \right ] \sin\nu\chi \right . \nonumber\\ & & \qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad -\ , \left . \nu\sin\chi \left [ 105 - 10(\nu^2 + 5 ) \sin^2\chi \right ] \cos\nu\chi \right\ } , \label{eqa11c}\end{aligned}\ ] ] for @xmath210 . although our normalizations in equations ( [ eqa4a])([eqa4c ] ) have simple relations for derivatives and recursion relations , it is also convenient to introduce further normalizations as @xmath355 from the orthogonality and completeness of conical functions , bessel functions , and gegenbauer polynomials ( magnus et al . 1966 ) , we can find @xmath356 and @xmath357 the density contrast @xmath358 is expanded in terms of the eigenfunctions as follows : @xmath359 for a positive curvature model , the term of @xmath360 is omitted because @xmath360 corresponds to a mode which is a pure gauge term ( lifshitz & khalatnikov 1963 ; bardeen 1980 ) as indicated by equation ( [ eqgi9a ] ) . the inverse of these expansion is @xmath361 since the correlation function @xmath131 depends only on the separation of two points , and does not depend on the particular choice of the coordinate system , we can write it down as @xmath362 statistical homogeneity and isotropy of the universe suggest that correlation of modes has the form @xmath363 where @xmath137 is a power spectrum of the number density field at present . from this equation and @xmath364 , equations ( [ eqa16ab ] ) and ( [ eqa16c ] ) reduce to @xmath365 the equation ( [ eqa18ab ] ) is an equivalent formula that wilson ( 1983 ) has previously derived . these formulas can be even transformed to the forms more like the usual formula : @xmath366 where the discrete wave number , @xmath367 , is for the space of positive curvature . the relations between usual power spectrum @xmath282 and the power spectrum @xmath137 are given by @xmath368 when the scale of interest is much smaller than the curvature scale , @xmath369 , both expressions ( [ eqa19a ] ) for negative curvature and ( [ eqa19c ] ) for positive curvature reduce to the familiar expression ( [ eqa19b ] ) . finally , we comment that comparing the expression @xmath370 and the expression ( [ eqa18ab ] ) or ( [ eqa18c ] ) proves the addition theorem for @xmath371 : @xmath372 for the flat case @xmath188 , the above equation is nothing but the well - 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The rusty patched bumblebee, a prized but vanishing pollinator once familiar to much of North America, was listed on Tuesday as an endangered species, becoming the first wild bee in the continental United States to gain such federal protection. One of several species facing sharp declines, the bumblebee known to scientists as Bombus affinis has plunged nearly 90% in abundance and distribution since the late 1990s, according to the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Bee's knees: a new $4m effort aims to stop the death spiral of honeybees Read more The agency listed the insect after determining it to be in danger of extinction across all or portions of its range, attributing its decline to a mix of factors, including disease, pesticides, climate change and habitat loss. Named for the conspicuous reddish blotch on its abdomen, the rusty patched bumblebee once flourished across 28 states, primarily in the upper Midwest and Northeast – from South Dakota to Connecticut – and in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Today, only a few small, scattered populations remain in 13 states and Ontario, the Fish and Wildlife Service said. The agency in September listed seven varieties of yellow-faced, or masked, bees in Hawaii as endangered. But Bombus affinis is the first bumblebee species to given that status, and the first wild bee of any kind to be listed in the Lower 48 states. Bumblebees, as distinguished from domesticated honeybees, are essential pollinators of wildflowers and about a third of all US crops, from blueberries to tomatoes, according to the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, which petitioned the government for protection of the insect. Pollination services furnished by various insects in the United States, mostly by bees, have been valued at an estimated $3bn each year. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature ranks the rusty patched as one of 47 species of native US and Canadian bumblebees, more than a quarter of which face a risk of extinction. Government scientists point to a certain class of pesticides called neonicotinoids – widely used on crops, lawns, gardens and forests – as posing a particular threat to bees because they are absorbed into a plant’s entire system, including leaf tissue, nectar and pollen. Bumblebee populations may be especially vulnerable to pesticides applied early in the year because for one month an entire colony depends on the success of a solitary queen that emerges from winter dormancy, the wildlife service said. Listing under the Endangered Species Act generally restricts activities known to harm the creature in question and requires the government to prepare a recovery plan. It also raises awareness and helps focus conservation planning for the imperiled species. \|\|\|\|\| Around the world, the populations of bees, butterflies and other insects that promote plant growth are crashing, a threat not only to biodiversity but also to the global food supply. A study last year from a group associated with the United Nations warned that an increasing number of species that aid the growth of hundreds of billions of dollars’ worth of food each year face extinction. “Obviously, it’s sad that anything has to get on the endangered list, but this really provides a great opportunity,” said Dennis vanEngelsdorp of the University of Maryland, a bee expert who applauded the government’s decision. “When you’re talking about saving the bumblebees, what you’re really talking about is saving the community.” The kinds of measures that could protect the rusty-patched bumblebee could help many other pollinators, as well, by restoring habitats and food sources and restricting the use of pesticides — especially nicotine-based insecticides that have been linked to the decline in bee species. Such measures are especially important with native bumblebees, Dr. vanEngelsdorp noted, as opposed to honeybees, which are maintained in large colonies and trucked around the country for commercial pollination. The service is reviewing three other species of bees to determine whether they ought to be listed as endangered as well: Franklin’s bumblebee, the western bumblebee and the yellow-banded bumblebee. When a species is listed as endangered, the Fish and Wildlife Service is required to design a recovery plan, which is often carried out by other agencies, nongovernmental organizations, universities and tribes. Other federal agencies have to check that their actions will not hurt an endangered species or its habitat, particularly when it comes to land use planning. Bumblebees are particularly effective pollinators because, though they seem to prefer native flowers, they will pollinate pretty much anything and can fly in lower temperatures and lower light conditions than many other insects. They also use the technique of “buzz pollination,” in which they grab the pollen-producing part of the flower in their jaws and vibrate their wings, shaking the pollen loose, a process that seems to benefit plants like tomatoes, peppers and cranberries, according to the Fish and Wildlife Service. \|\|\|\|\| Story highlights Other bees from Hawaii are on endangered list Bees pollinate more than one-third of the world's food (CNN) For the first time, a bee species in the continental United States has been declared endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. The rusty patched bumblebee is in worrisome decline and it is a race to keep it from becoming extinct, the agency said. "Listing the bee as endangered will help us mobilize partners and focus resources on finding ways right now to stop the decline," Wildlife Service Midwest Regional Director Tom Melius said. The population of the rusty patched bumblebee has shrunk by 87% since the late 1990s, the wildlife service said. Bees help pollinate 35% of the world's food, and bumblebees pollinate everything from tomatoes to cranberries, blueberries and melons. Read More \|\|\|\|\| This 2012 photo provided by The Xerces Society shows a rusty patched bumblebee in Minnesota. Federal officials said Tuesday, Jan. 10, 2017, that the rusty patched bumblebee has become the first bee species... (Associated Press) TRAVERSE CITY, Mich. (AP) — The rusty patched bumblebee has become the first bee species in the continental U.S. to be declared endangered after suffering a dramatic population decline over the past 20 years, federal officials said Tuesday. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service first told The Associated Press it was adding the bee to the endangered list before a news release was issued. That means there will be a recovery plan to encourage people to provide more habitat and reduce pesticide usage — many steps that could help other struggling bees and monarch butterflies, which pollinate a wide variety of plants, officials said. "Pollinators are small but mighty parts of the natural mechanism that sustains us and our world," said Tom Melius, the service's Midwest regional director. "Without them, our forests, parks, meadows and shrublands, and the abundant, vibrant life they support, cannot survive, and our crops require laborious, costly pollination by hand." The decision drew praise from environmentalists but criticism from the nonprofit American Farm Bureau Federation, which acknowledged the role bees play in pollinating crops but contended the listing could lead to costly regulation of land or chemical use. "I think we can do better in the private sector, where landowners working collaboratively can come up with protection for these species without intervention and bureaucratic red tape of the federal government," said Ryan Yates, the group's director of congressional relations. The Endangered Species Act prohibits significant modification or degradation of habitat that leads directly to death or injury of listed species. The Fish and Wildlife Service said it hadn't yet developed a strategy for dealing with private landowners regarding the rusty patched bumblebee, which it said already has disappeared from large-scale farming areas and is found mostly in yards and gardens. Officials said they would seek cooperation from landowners and local organizations on "bee-friendly practices," including use of native flowering plants for landscaping, planting flowers and trees and avoiding use of pesticides that harm bees. Notable for the rust-colored marking on its back section, the rusty patched bumblebee buzzed across the East Coast and much of the Midwest in high numbers as recently as the 1990s. Today, only scattered populations remain in 13 states — Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia and Wisconsin — and the Canadian province of Ontario. The bee's historic range and the number of observed colonies have plummeted by about 87 percent since the late 1990s. The crash happened so quickly that few researchers took notice until the damage was largely done. They're investigating a number of potential causes, including disease, pesticide exposure, habitat loss, climate change and the domino effect of falling populations making it harder for bees to find suitable mates. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, which petitioned the government to list the bee as endangered, previously said the population decline probably was caused by the spread of bacteria or viruses from bumblebees raised commercially to those in the wild. The group, based in Portland, Oregon, also blamed widespread use of long-lasting insecticides. "Addressing the threats that the rusty patched bumble bee faces will help not only this species, but countless other native pollinators that are so critical to the functioning of natural ecosystems and agriculture," Rich Hatfield, the society's senior conservation biologist, said Tuesday. Fish and Wildlife Service biologists agreed there probably were overlapping factors behind recent declines of bumblebees, honeybees and monarchs — raising concern for all 48 bumblebee species in North America. The agency in September placed seven species of yellow-faced bees in Hawaii, that state's only native bees, on the endangered list. A study continues on whether to list the monarch butterfly, agency spokeswoman Georgia Parham said. Bees and other insects provide billions of dollars' worth of pollination each year, benefiting crops such as tomatoes, cranberries and peppers. Even plants that can pollinate on their own generate bigger fruit when bumblebees do the job instead. The bees also support growth of flowers and wild plants that produce fruits, seeds and nuts essential for natural food chains. Listing the bee is "the best — and probably last — hope" for its survival, said Rebecca Riley, senior attorney with the Natural Resources Defense Council. ___ Online: http://www.fws.gov/Midwest/endangered	– If Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov had been prescient, he may have named his famous orchestral piece "Plight of the Bumblebee." The rusty patched bumblebee, or Bombus affinis, is now the first US bumblebee placed on the endangered species list, the Guardian reports. Seven other bees from Hawaii previously made the list, but they weren't bumblebees, reports the New York Times. Per the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the population of the rusty patched bumblebee—which once buzzed happily around 28 different states, DC, and Ontario and Quebec—has plummeted 90% since the late '90s, with pesticides, climate change, and habitat issues among the culprits. Today, "scattered populations" remain in just 13 states and Ontario, reports the AP. Designating the bee, named for the red blotch on its abdomen, as endangered is likely "the best—and probably last—hope" for it to survive, says an NRDC senior attorney. Even though wildlife officials say getting onto the endangered list can take years, President Obama has made the rusty patched bumblebee a priority, all part of the administration's "flurry of last-minute efforts to protect the environment and preserve (his) legacy on climate change," per the Times. It's not a lightly made decision. "Without [pollinators], our forests, parks, meadows, and shrub lands, and the abundant, vibrant life they support, cannot survive, and our crops [would] require laborious, costly pollination by hand," says Tom Melius, a regional FWS director. The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation notes bumblebees pollinate about one-third of all US crops. Meanwhile, a recovery plan must now be set up for B. affinis. "Listing the bee as endangered will help us mobilize partners and focus resources on finding ways right now to stop the decline," Melius says, per CNN. (These bees were taught a special trick.)
A massive chamber holding enough magma to fill the Grand Canyon more than 11 times over is hiding beneath the steaming volcanic system of Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming. We knew of a smaller magma chamber closer to surface, holding some 10,000 cubic kilometres of magma and feeding heat upwards. The newly discovered reservoir sits under it and has a volume of 46,000 cubic kilometres. Together, the two form the largest known magma reservoir in the world. "We can't say definitively that this is the biggest magma reservoir in the world, but we currently don't know of any other that has been imaged that is as large as the two we see beneath Yellowstone," says Fan-Chi Lin of the University of Utah in Salt Lake City. The discovery of the much larger reservoir at a depth of 20 to 50 kilometres helps to solve a long-running puzzle relating to the carbon dioxide spewing out from the huge steaming caldera volcano at Yellowstone, creating ripples of tiny earthquakes it does so. The problem is that the upper magma chamber is much too small to account for the 45 kilotonnes of carbon dioxide discharged daily. "If you combine the upper and lower crustal magma reservoirs, it better accounts for the amount of carbon dioxide coming out of the ground at Yellowstone," says Lin. Mantle plume It also solves another mystery: how molten material from much deeper down makes it to the surface. The main source of magma feeding Yellowstone is a mantle plume found around 60 kilometres deep, fanning out like a huge pancake. "This transports heat and magma-containing fluids to the crust above," says Lin. Geologists had been puzzling over how this molten material could travel all the way between the plume and the upper magma reservoir, which is just 5 to 16 kilometres down. The newly discovered reservoir is the missing connection between the two, interlinking with them via narrow vertical and horizontal channels respectively called dykes and sills. "Now we have a much better understanding of how the entire magmatic system beneath Yellowstone works, from the mantle to the surface," says Lin. The other good news is that despite the massive magma find, the risk of an supervolcano eruption remains unchanged. The last huge eruption there happened 640,000 years ago, forming the current Yellowstone caldera, 60 kilometres long and 40 kilometres wide. The findings can be applied to other volcanic systems around the world to help identify imminent volcanic activity and the risk of eruptions, says Lin. Under the radar So how did we not notice this chamber before? To visualise underground structures, geologists look at the way seismic waves from earthquakes pass through the areas of interest. Some types of rock – particularly molten material – slow down the waves, so when the wave speeds are measured by detectors at the surface, geologists can work out rock profiles below ground. "It's analogous to a medical CT scan," says Lin. Features at the depths where the new chamber was found have been difficult to study because the speed of waves from below are dictated by rock closer to the surface. Lin's team got round this by combining readings from local, shallower, and distant, deeper tremors, allowing the distorting effects of the rocks nearer the surface to be filtered out. "This allows us to simultaneously image both shallow and deeper crustal structures," says Lin. Altogether, they analysed data from 4520 local and 329 distant quakes. Other volcanologists say the results finally prove what was long suspected, that there was another source of heat and magma beneath Yellowstone. "This newly-discovered magmatic body supplies the heat and volatile gases essential to account for how the Yellowstone system functions," says Luca Caricchi of the University of Geneva in Switzerland. "These results advance significantly our ability to identify the global distribution of volcanic systems with the potential to produce extremely large volcanic eruptions, which may have very large impacts on society," says Caricchi. Good places to look for similar systems to Yellowstone include Toba in Indonesia, the Taupo volcanic zone in New Zealand, and the southern Rocky mountains in the US, he says. Journal reference: Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa5648 If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. \|\|\|\|\| The gorgeous colors of Yellowstone’s Grand Prismatic hot spring are among the national park’s myriad hydrothermal features created by the Yellowstone supervolcano. A new University of Utah study reports discovery of a huge magma reservoir beneath Yellowstone’s previously known magma chamber. (“Windows into the Earth,” Robert B. Smith and Lee J. Siegel) Yellowstone National Park is the home of one of the world's largest volcanoes, one that is quiescent for the moment but is capable of erupting with catastrophic violence at a scale never before witnessed by human beings. In a big eruption, Yellowstone would eject 1,000 times as much material as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. This would be a disaster felt on a global scale, which is why scientists are looking at this thing closely. On Thursday, a team from the University of Utah published a study, in the journal Science that for the first time offers a complete diagram of the plumbing of the Yellowstone volcanic system. The new report fills in a missing link of the system. It describes a large reservoir of hot rock, mostly solid but with some melted rock in the mix, that lies beneath a shallow, already-documented magma chamber. The newly discovered reservoir is 4.5 times larger than the chamber above it. There's enough magma there to fill the Grand Canyon. The reservoir is on top of a long plume of magma that emerges from deep within the Earth's mantle. [Geysers erupt because they’re all bendy inside] This system has been in place for roughly 17 million years, with the main change being the movement of the North American tectonic plate, creeping at the rate of roughly an inch a year toward the southwest. A trail of remnant calderas can be detected across Idaho, Oregon and Nevada, looking like a string of beads, marking the migration of the tectonic plate. A similar phenomenon is seen in the Hawaiian islands as the Pacific plate moves over a hot spot, stringing out volcanoes, old to new, dormant to active. University of Utah seismologists funded by the National Science Foundation found a pool of magma beneath Yellowstone's supervolcano that they say is big enough to fill the Grand Canyon more than 11 times. (National Science Foundation/University of Utah) “This is like a giant conduit. It starts down at 1,000 kilometers. It's a pipe that starts down in the Earth," said Robert Smith, emeritus professor of geophysics at the University of Utah and a co-author of the new paper. The lead author is his colleague Hsin-Hua Huang. This new picture doesn't change, fundamentally, the risk assessment of Yellowstone, but it will help scientists understand the mechanics of the volcano. “Really getting an idea of how it works and understanding how these large caldera-forming eruptions may occur, and how they might happen, would be a good thing to understand," said paper co-author Jamie Farrell, another geophysicist at the university. "No one's ever witnessed one of these really large volcanic eruptions. We kind of scale smaller eruptions up to this size and say, 'This is probably how it happens,' but we really don’t know that for sure.” [What Yellowstone’s Thermal Springs looked like before humans contaminated them] The next major, calderic eruption could be within the boundaries of the park, northeast of the old caldera. “If you have this crustal magma system that is beneath the pre-Cambrian rocks, eventually if you get enough fluid in that system, enough magma, you can create another caldera, another set of giant explosions," Smith said. "There’s no reason to think it couldn’t continue that same process and repeat that process to the northeast.” The report is based on the equivalent of an MRI of the crust beneath Yellowstone. Nature itself supplies the key diagnostic tool: Earthquakes. The Yellowstone region is seismically active, and in any given year there can be hundreds of small earthquakes. These tremors send seismic waves racing through the planet's crust. Seismographs stationed around Yellowstone and across the United States record the arrival of these waves and carefully measure how long it took for them to reach the instruments. The speed of the waves carries information: When the seismic waves hit hot rock, they go slower; when they pass through cold rock, they're faster. By combining the data from many sensors, scientists can get a picture of the hot and cold rock beneath Yellowstone. This is known as "seismic tomography." This is a volcano that can erupt either in a big way or a truly colossal and catastrophic way. The big eruptions can send lava flowing over a big portion of the park; the really huge ones can form a giant crater, or caldera. The last time Yellowstone had a calderic eruption was 640,000 years ago, and the misshapen hole it created was about 25 miles by 37 miles across. This caldera has since been filled in by lava flows and natural erosion, and Yellowstone Lake covers a portion of the area. The main visual evidence of the old caldera is the striking absence of mountains at the heart of the park: They were literally blown away in the last eruption. Risk assessment is tricky for low-probability, high-consequence events like volcanic eruptions. The big Yellowstone eruptions occur on time scales of many hundreds of thousands of years. Smith said the repeat time for a caldera explosion at Yellowstone is roughly 700,000 years. But the smaller eruptions, with lava flowing over the surface, are more frequent. There have been at least 50 such smaller eruptions since the caldera exploded 640,000 years ago. The most recent was about 70,000 years ago. Geological processes don't follow clocks. These are chaotic systems, with strain building unpredictably as distant faults break and the geological stresses shift here and there. Bottom line: Yellowstone is unpredictable. There's no sign at all that this old volcano is going to erupt anytime soon, either in a big way or a huge, show-stopper way. But neither is there any evidence that it's running out of steam. A new study provides the first complete view of the plumbing system that supplies hot and partly molten rock from the Yellowstone hotspot to the Yellowstone supervolcano. The study revealed a gigantic magma reservoir beneath the previously known magma chamber. This cross-section illustration cutting southwest-northeast under Yellowstone depicts the view revealed by seismic imaging. Seismologists estimate the annual chance of a Yellowstone supervolcano eruption is 1 in 700,000. (Hsin-Hua Huang/University of Utah) Read more: Scientists trick subjects into feeling invisible Still sharp, Hubble Space Telescope turns 25 with a cloudy future Dynamite timelapse views of Chile’s erupting Calbuco volcano \|\|\|\|\| Scientists have detected a gigantic reservoir of hot, partly molten rock deep beneath Yellowstone National Park. The newly discovered magma reservoir is big enough to fill up the Grand Canyon 11 times and is several times larger than the shallower, long-known magma chamber beneath Yellowstone. Researchers on Thursday said they used a technique called seismic tomography to a produce for the first time a complete picture of the volcanic "plumbing system" at Yellowstone, from the Earth's mantle up to the surface. Yellowstone, which straddles the borders of Wyoming, Idaho and Montana, boasts a remarkable array of geothermal features including geysers, mudpots, steam vents and hot springs. It sits atop a supervolcano that has had three calamitous past eruptions. Scientists already knew of a large magma chamber under Yellowstone that fed the eruptions 2 million, 1.2 million and 640,000 years ago. The new study, published in the journal Science, revealed a second, deeper reservoir 4.4 times larger. "The existence of the second magma chamber does not make it any more or less likely that a large volcanic eruption at Yellowstone will occur. These findings do not change the current volcanic hazard at Yellowstone," University of Utah seismologist Jamie Farrell said. "However, these new findings do provide us, and other researchers, the information needed to gain a better understanding of how magma moves from the mantle to the surface," Farrell added. A University of Utah study provides the first complete view of the plumbing system that supplies hot and partly molten rock from the Yellowstone hotspot to the Yellowstone supervolcano. Hsin-Hua Huang, University of Utah University of Utah geology and geophysics professor Fan-Chi Lin said the blob-shaped lower magma reservoir in Earth's lower crust is located 12 to 28 miles (20-45 km) under Yellowstone, with a volume of 11,500 cubic miles (46,000 cubic km), or 11.2 times the volume of Arizona's Grand Canyon. This magma chamber is filled with hot, mostly solid and sponge-like rock with portions of molten rock within it. The researchers said about 2 percent of it is completely molten. The upper and lower magma chambers sit above a "plume," or upwelling, originating in Earth's mantle about 40 miles underground and transferring hot materials toward the surface. Scientists had previously suspected a lower magma chamber existed, but until now had been unable to confirm it. Play Facebook Twitter Google Plus Embed Officials Struggle to Clean Up After Yellowstone River Oil Spill 2:02 autoplay autoplay Copy this code to your website or blog IN-DEPTH SOCIAL Scientists find missing link in Yellowstone plumbing: This giant volcano is very much alive http://t.co/742z0PFruI We knew it was alive... — NonProphetess (@nonprophetess) April 23, 2015 No, not a pool. A mushy mess of crystals and magma. RT @ScienceNews: Massive magma pool found deep below Yellowstone: http://t.co/vKxVH8J7bt — Erik Klemetti (@eruptionsblog) April 23, 2015 — Reuters and NBC News \|\|\|\|\| Yellowstone National Park's Grand Prismatic hot spring is pictured in this undated handout photo obtained by Reuters April 23, 2015. WASHINGTON Deep beneath Yellowstone National Park, one of the world's most dynamic volcanic systems, lies an enormous, previously unknown reservoir of hot, partly molten rock big enough to fill up the Grand Canyon 11 times, scientists say. Researchers on Thursday said they used a technique called seismic tomography to a produce for the first time a complete picture of the volcanic "plumbing system" at Yellowstone, from the Earth's mantle up to the surface. Yellowstone, which straddles the borders of Wyoming, Idaho and Montana, and boasts a remarkable array of geothermal features including geysers, mudpots, steam vents and hot springs, sits atop a supervolcano that has had three calamitous past eruptions. Scientists already knew of a large magma chamber under Yellowstone that fed the eruptions 2 million, 1.2 million and 640,000 years ago. The new study, published in the journal Science, revealed a second, deeper reservoir 4.5 times larger. "The existence of the second magma chamber does not make it any more or less likely that a large volcanic eruption at Yellowstone will occur. These findings do not change the current volcanic hazard at Yellowstone," University of Utah seismologist Jamie Farrell said. "However, these new findings do provide us, and other researchers, the information needed to gain a better understanding of how magma moves from the mantle to the surface," Farrell added. University of Utah geology and geophysics professor Fan-Chi Lin said the blob-shaped lower magma reservoir in Earth's lower crust is located 12 to 28 miles (20-45 km) under Yellowstone, with a volume of 11,500 cubic miles (46,000 cubic km), or 11.2 times the volume of Arizona's Grand Canyon. This magma chamber is filled with hot, mostly solid and sponge-like rock with portions of molten rock within it. The researchers said about 2 percent of it is completely molten. The upper and lower magma chambers sit above a "plume," or upwelling, originating in Earth's mantle about 40 miles underground and transferring hot materials toward the surface. Scientists had previously suspected a lower magma chamber existed, but until now had been unable to confirm it. The researchers said the technique they used, seismic tomography, is analogous to a CT scan of the body, using seismic waves as they travel through the Earth to image the subsurface, distinguishing between rock of various densities. They also combined both local and distant earthquake measurements to image Yellowstone's complete magma system. (Reporting by Will Dunham, editing by G Crosse) \|\|\|\|\| Abstract The Yellowstone supervolcano is one of the largest active continental silicic volcanic fields in the world. An understanding of its properties is key to enhancing our knowledge of volcanic mechanisms and corresponding risk. Using a joint local and teleseismic earthquake P-wave seismic inversion, we unveil a basaltic lower-crustal magma body that provides a magmatic link between the Yellowstone mantle plume and the previously imaged upper-crustal magma reservoir. This lower-crustal magma body has a volume of 46,000 km3, ~4.5 times larger than the upper-crustal magma reservoir, and contains a melt fraction of ~2%. These estimates are critical to understanding the evolution of bimodal basaltic-rhyolitic volcanism, explaining the magnitude of CO 2 discharge, and constraining dynamic models of the magmatic system for volcanic hazard assessment.	– There's enough magma under Yellowstone National Park to fill up the Great Lakes—and then some, according to scientists who say they've taken the best look yet at the "plumbing" system under the volcanic hot spot. The University of Utah researchers used a technique called seismic tomography, which they liken to a CT scan, to detect a vast reservoir of partially molten rock under a smaller one that was already known to exist, reports Reuters. Together, the two chambers make up the world's biggest known magma reservoir, the New Scientist reports. The newly-discovered reservoir has a volume of 11,500 cubic miles, which is more than 11 times the volume of the Grand Canyon, NBC News reports. The study is published in the journal Science. Scientists say the existence of the vast reservoir, which sits on top of a plume of magma from deep inside the planet, doesn't make a catastrophic eruption any likelier, the Washington Post reports. "The existence of the second magma chamber does not make it any more or less likely that a large volcanic eruption at Yellowstone will occur. These findings do not change the current volcanic hazard at Yellowstone," University of Utah seismologist Jamie Farrell tells Reuters, though he says the findings will help researchers learn more about "how magma moves from the mantle to the surface." The Yellowstone supervolcano last had a calderic eruption around 640,000 years ago, and another one would be "a disaster felt on a global scale," the Post notes. (A live volcano was recently found under Arctic ice.)
construction of the ligo @xcite and geo 600 @xcite instruments began in the mid-1990s . when the construction phase of the project was completed , the ligo instruments were officially inaugurated on november 1999 . since then the commissioning of the instruments has alternated with a sequence of short engineering and science runs at increasing sensitivity . the four science runs to date are : s1 : august 23 september 9 , 2002 , s2 : february 14 april 14 , 2003 , s3 : october 31 , 2003 january 9 , 2004 and s4 : february 22 march 23 , 2005 . both ligo and geo 600 are to begin a full science run ( s5 ) in november , with the aim of gathering data continuously for 18 months . during the previous science runs although these instruments were still to reach their design sensitivity , their performances were sufficiently good to justify a serious test of our search algorithms on real interferometer data , in particular , to search for continuous gravitational waves from very dense , rapidly - spinning stars , such as neutron or quark stars . rapidly rotating neutron stars are the most likely sources of periodic , persistent gravitational waves in the frequency band between 100 and 1000 hz . these objects may generate gravitational waves through a variety of mechanisms , including non - axisymmetric distortions of the star , velocity perturbations in the star s fluid , and free precession . regardless of the specific mechanism , the emitted signal is a quasi - periodic continuous wave whose frequency changes slowly during the observation time due to the intrinsic frequency drift induced by the energy loss through gravitational wave emission ( and possibly other mechanisms ) and the motion of the detector with respect to the source . as the intrinsic amplitude of gravitational waves from this class of sources is several orders of magnitudes smaller than the typical root - mean - square value of the noise , detection can only be achieved by means of long integration times , of the order of weeks - to - months . code to search for this kind of sources has been under development within the ligo scientific collaboration ( lsc ) since the mid- to late 1990s . for s1s4 the lsc continuous - wave search group has developed several methods to search and set upper limits on signals from radio pulsars as well as to perform an all - sky search for unknown neutron stars @xcite . so far none of the searches conducted provided a detection but upper limits were set on the gravitational wave emission and these results are summarized in this paper . in the s1 analysis @xcite , two techniques were used to set upper limits on gravitational wave emission from pulsar j1939 + 2134 ( the fastest rotating known millisecond pulsar ) : a bayesian time - domain method @xcite and a classical frequency - domain method . the main result from this s1 analysis was an upper limit on signals from pulsar j1939 + 2134 of @xmath0 with @xmath1 confidence . for the ligo s2 run , the time - domain search ( which is more suitable for targeted sources ) was expanded to include all well - known isolated pulsars with putative gravitational wave frequencies above 40 hz @xcite . using the s2 data , multi - detector upper limits were set on gravitational wave emission from 28 pulsars including j1939 + 2134 and the crab pulsar . the tightest limit on gravitational wave strain came from pulsar j1910@xmath25959d with a @xmath1 upper limit that @xmath3 . at that time this was the lowest upper limit , for an astrophysical source , ever set by an interferometric gravitational wave detector . the same method is currently applied to analyze s3s4 ligo and geo data @xcite . the main change in this search since s2 has been the addition of pulsars in binary systems . currently 93 pulsars are being searched of which 60 are binaries and 33 are isolated . the improved sensitivity of the detectors in s3s4 promise to give interesting results for several sources . for the crab pulsar , we should be within a factor of a few of the spin - down based upper limit . moreover , for s5 , expectations for the crab would be that within a year we would beat the spin - down limit . the frequency - domain statistical technique used in the s1 analysis is currently being used for broad all - sky searches for unknown sources and for a rotating neutron star in a binary system . in fact , this search has been the test - bench for the core science analysis that the _ einstein@home _ @xcite project is carrying out . _ einstein@home _ is a public distributed computing project that the lsc has been operating since february 2005 , built using the berkeley open infrastructure for network computing ( boinc ) . members of the general public can easily install the software on their personal computer . when otherwise idle , their computer downloads data from _ einstein@home _ , searches it for pulsar signals , then uploads information about any candidates . another example of the coherent frequency - domain technique is @xcite which uses s2 data in coincidence from two of the ligo detectors to perform two different searches : ( i ) for signals from isolated sources over the whole sky and the frequency band 160728.8 hz using 10 h of data , and ( ii ) for a signal from the low - mass x - ray binary scorpius x-1 over orbital parameters in the frequency bands 464484 hz and 604624 hz using 6 h of data . future continuous wave searches will involve searching longer data stretches ( on the order of months to years ) for unknown sources over a large parameter space . it is well known that the computational cost of coherent techniques for searches of this type is absolutely prohibitive , thus hierarchical methods have been proposed @xcite , where coherent and incoherent search stages are alternated in order to identify efficiently statistically significant candidates . an essential step towards the actual implementation of a `` hierarchical pipeline '' for production analysis is the thorough investigation and characterization of its building blocks the coherent and incoherent stages over a large parameter space and on actual data sets ; in fact the optimal sensitivity can be ultimately achieved through careful tuning of a variety of search parameters that are difficult to determine on pure theoretical grounds , including the choice of thresholds at each stage , the different tilings of the parameter space , the quality cuts in the data and the choice of coincidence windows . in @xcite we report results obtained by applying for the first time an incoherent analysis to the data collected during the s2 run . the search method is based on the hough transform , which is a computationally efficient and robust pattern recognition technique . we apply this technique to perform an all - sky search for isolated spinning neutron stars using the two months of data . the main results of this paper are all - sky upper limits on the strength of gravitational waves emitted by unknown isolated neutron stars on a set of narrow frequency bands in the range 200400 hz . our best @xmath1 frequentist upper limit that we obtain in this frequency range is @xmath4 . based on the statistics of neutron star population with optimistic assumptions , this upper limit is about 1 order of magnitude larger than the amplitude of the strongest expected signal , but with 1 yr of data at design sensitivity for initial ligo , we should gain about 1 order of magnitude in sensitivity , thus enabling us to detect signals smaller that what is predicted by the statistical argument mentioned above . other incoherent techniques , such as `` stack - slide '' @xcite or `` power - flux '' as well as the hough transform @xcite , are used by the lsc continuous - wave search group to analyze s4 data . all of them use , in some way , the power from the fourier transforms of short stretches of data , which are added in a way that compensates for the earth s motion and the pulsar s spin - down during the observation period . these analyzes will provide us with the first thorough understanding and characterization of such approaches and allow us to place upper - limits on regions of the parameter space that have never been explored before . future searches , using sophisticated hierarchical analysis techniques , together with the computing power of _ einstein@home _ will allow the deepest pulsar searches , and thus initial ligo at full sensitivity will have some chance of observing a continuous gravitational wave signal . the authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the united states national science foundation for the construction and operation of the ligo laboratory and the particle physics and astronomy research council of the united kingdom , the max - planck - society and the state of niedersachsen / germany for support of the construction and operation of the geo600 detector . the authors also gratefully acknowledge the support of the research by these agencies and by the australian research council , the natural sciences and engineering research council of canada , the council of scientific and industrial research of india , the department of science and technology of india , the spanish ministerio de educacin y ciencia , the john simon guggenheim foundation , the david and lucile packard foundation , the research corporation , and the alfred p. sloan foundation . 99 krishnan b for the ligo scientific collaboration 2005 _ class . * 22 * s1265 abbott b _ et al . _ ( the ligo scientific collaboration ) 2005 ` gr - qc/0508065 ` [ _ phys . _ d ( to be published ) ] abbott b _ ( the ligo scientific collaboration ) 2005 report no . ` ligo - p050008 - 00-z `	an overview of the searches for continuous gravitational wave signals in ligo and geo 600 performed on different recent science runs and results are presented . this includes both searching for gravitational waves from known pulsars as well as blind searches over a wide parameter space .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Fair Trade Opportunities Act''. SEC. 2. STATEMENT OF PURPOSE. It is the purpose of this Act to enable the President to-- (1) remedy the actions or policies of countries that do not accord adequate trade benefits to the United States, including substantially equal competitive opportunities for the commerce of the United States; (2) negotiate more equitable tariff and other trade benefits for the people of the United States; (3) sanction non market economy countries that deny or unduly restrict the right or opportunity of their citizens to emigrate; and (4) adjust and simplify the trade laws of the United States to better respond to the realities of a post-Cold War world. SEC. 3. REPEAL OF JACKSON-VANIK. (a) Title IV of Trade Act of 1974.--Title IV of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. 2431 and following), and the items relating to title IV in the table or contents of that Act, are repealed. (b) Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States.-- General Note 3 of the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States is amended-- (1) in the matter that precedes subdivision (a)-- (A) by striking ``columns'' and inserting ``column''; and (B) by striking ``and 2''; and (2) by striking subdivision (b). (c) Effective Date.--The provisions of subsection (a) and the amendments made by subsection (b) apply to articles entered, or withdrawn from warehouse for consumption, on or after the 15th day after the date of the enactment of this Act. SEC. 4. OUTSTANDING TRADE AGREEMENTS. (a) In General.--Any trade agreement that-- (1) was entered into by the United States under title IV of the Trade Act of 1974 (as such title is in effect on the day before the date of the enactment of this Act), and (2) is in effect on the day before such date of enactment, shall remain in effect until such agreement expires or is terminated or otherwise suspended. (b) Other Agreements.--Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to alter, amend, or otherwise affect the terms of any trade agreement entered into by the United States pursuant to provisions other than such title IV of the Trade Act of 1974. SEC. 5. OTHER AUTHORITIES NOT AFFECTED. Nothing in this Act shall affect-- (1) the authority of the United States Trade Representative or the President to take action under section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974; or (2) the authorities of the President under other provisions of law to increase duties on articles from other countries, or to prohibit or impose other restrictions on imports of articles from other countries, including section 111(c) of the Uruguay Round Agreements Act (19 U.S.C. 3521(c)), section 5(b) of the Trading with the Enemy Act (50 U.S.C. App. 5(b)), section 203 of the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (50 U.S.C. 1702), and sections 504(a) and 505(a) (22 U.S.C. 2349aa-9) of the International Security and Development Cooperation Act of 1985. SEC. 6. SNAP-BACK MECHANISM FOR NON-WTO MEMBERS. (a) Determination With Respect To Non-WTO Members.--Within 180 days after the date of the enactment of this Act, the President shall consult with the appropriate congressional committees and determine whether each foreign country that is not a WTO member is not according adequate trade benefits to the United States, including substantially equal competitive opportunities for the commerce of the United States. (b) Tariff Increase.-- (1) Imposition of increase.--If the President determines under subsection (a) that a foreign country is not according adequate trade benefits to the United States, then the President shall proclaim, within 180 days after the date of that determination, an increase in the rate of duty with respect to one or more products of that country to not more than the column 1 rate of duty under the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States that applied to the article or articles on December 31, 1994. (2) Termination of increase.--The President shall terminate any increase in the rate of duty imposed under paragraph (1) with respect to a country on the earlier of-- (A) the date the country becomes a WTO member; or (B) the date on which the President proclaims that the country is according adequate trade benefits to the United States, including substantially equal competitive opportunities for the commerce of the United States. (c) Rate of Duty in Absence of Commercial Agreement.--In the case of a country that is not a WTO member and is not a party to a commercial agreement with the United States that substantially meets the requirements of section 405 of the Trade Act of 1974 (as in effect on the day before the date of the enactment of this Act), other than the requirement that the agreement be limited to a period of not more than 3 years, the column 2 rate of duty under the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States shall apply to the products of that country. (d) Definitions.--For purposes of this section-- (1) the term ``WTO member'' means a state, or separate customs territory (within the meaning of Article XII of the WTO Agreement), with respect to which the United States applies the WTO Agreement; and (2) the term ``WTO Agreement'' means the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization entered into on April 15, 1994. SEC. 7. OTHER AUTHORITY TO INCREASE TARIFFS. (a) Authority.--Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the President is authorized to increase the rate of duty on any product of a non market economy country that is not a WTO member to not more than the column 1 rate of duty under the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States that applied to that product on December 31, 1994, if that country-- (1) denies its citizens the right or opportunity to emigrate; (2) imposes more than a nominal tax on emigration or on visas or other documents required for emigration, for any purpose or cause whatsoever; or (3) imposes more than a nominal tax, levy, fine, fee, or other charge on any citizen as a consequence of the desire of such citizen to emigrate to the country of his or her choice. SEC. 8. CONFORMING AMENDMENTS. (a) Trade Act of 1974.-- (1) Section 151 of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. 2191) is amended-- (A) in subsection (a)(1)-- (i) by striking ``approval resolutions described in subsection (b)(3), and resolutions described in subsections 152(a) and 153(a)'' and inserting ``and resolutions described in section 152(a)''; (B) in subsection (b), by striking paragraph (3); (C) in subsection (c)-- (i) by striking ``(c) Introduction and Referral.--''; (ii) by moving the remaining text of paragraph (1) 2 ems to the left; (iii) by striking ``(1) On the day'' and inserting-- ``(c) Introduction and Referral.--On the day''; and (iv) by striking paragraph (2); (D) in subsection (d), by striking ``or approval resolution''; and (E) in subsections (e), (f), and (g)-- (i) by striking ``or approval resolution'' each place it appears; and (ii) by striking ``or resolution'' each place it appears. (2) Section 152 of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. 2192) is amended-- (A) by amending subsection (a) to read as follows: ``(a) Contents of Resolution.--For purposes of this section, the term `resolution' means only a joint resolution of the two Houses of the Congress, the matter after the resolving clause of which is as follows: `That the Congress does not approve the action taken by, or the determination of, the President under section 203 of the Trade Act of 1974 transmitted to the Congress on ________.', with the blank space being filled with the appropriate date.''; and (B) in subsection (f)-- (i) in paragraph (2), by striking ``or 153(a), whichever is applicable,''; and (ii) in paragraph (3), by striking ``or section 153(a)''. (3) Section 153 of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. 2193), and the item relating to that section in the table of contents for that Act, are repealed. (4) Section 154 of the Trade Act of 1974 (19 U.S.C. 2194) is amended-- (A) in subsection (a), by striking ``203(b), 402(d), or 407(a) or (b)'' and inserting ``or 203(b)''; and (B) by striking ``sections 203(c), 407(c)(2), and 407(c)(3)'' and inserting ``section 203(c)''. (b) Other Provisions of Law.-- (1) Section 330(d) of the Tariff Act of 1930 (19 U.S.C. 1330(d)) is amended-- (A) in paragraph (1), by striking ``to determine-- ``(A) under'' and all that follows through ``and the commissioners'' and inserting ``to determine, under section 202 of the Trade Act of 1974, whether increased imports of an article are a substantial cause of serious injury, or the threat thereof, as described in subsection (b)(1) of that section (hereafter in this subsection referred to as `serious injury'), and the commissioners''; (B) in paragraph (2)-- (i) by striking ``or 406''; (ii) by striking ``or market disruption exists, respectively''; and (iii) by striking ``or the finding under section 406(a)(3) of such Act, as the case may be''. (2) Section 1102(b)(1) of the Trade Agreements Act of 1979 (19 U.S.C. 2581(b)(1)) is amended by striking ``301, or 406'' and ``2411, or 2436'' and inserting ``or 301'' and ``or 2411'', respectively. (3) Section 2(c)(11) of the Support for East European Democracy (SEED) Act of 1989 (22 U.S.C. 5401(c)(11)) is amended to read as follows: ``(11) Most-favored-nation trade status.--The granting of nondiscriminatory treatment (most-favored-nation treatment) to the products of an East European country.''.	Fair Trade Opportunities Act - Amends the Trade Act of 1975 to repeal Title IV (Trade Relations with Countries not Currently Receiving Nondiscriminatory Treatment) (Jackson Vanick Act). Directs the President to consult with the appropriate congressional committees and determine whether each foreign country that is not a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) is not according adequate trade benefits or substantially equal competitive opportunities to U.S. commerce. Mandates an increase in the rate of duty with respect to the products of such a country. Authorizes the President to increase such rate on any product of a non-market economy country that is not a WTO member if it: (1) denies its citizens the right or opportunity to emigrate; (2) imposes more than a nominal tax on emigration documents, for any purpose; or (3) imposes more than a nominal tax, fine, fee or other charge on any citizen as a consequence of such citizen's desire to emigrate to a country of his or her choice.
the superposition principle plays an essential role in understanding the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics . stated in physical terms , it assures that we can not speak of an objective state of a system prior to a measurement . in fact , one should admit that the system may be described as a superposition of macroscopically ( or mesoscopically ) distinct states , often known as schrdinger cat states @xcite . therefore , the methods for the generation of such superposition states are of fundamental interest . among other systems , vibrating molecules @xcite or crystals @xcite , trapped ions @xcite , and bose condensates @xcite have been proposed as candidates for doing the task . in fact , mesoscopic schrdinger cat states for the vibrational motion of ion traps have been experimental realized @xcite . the issue of generating optical schrdinger cats ( namely , superpositions of distinguishable states of the electromagnetic field ) has attracted as well a great deal of attention @xcite . for example , brune _ et al _ @xcite have shown that the conditional measurement on atoms exiting a high-@xmath0 cavity may force the radiation inside the cavity to be in a catlike state . the same basic concept of conditional measurement has also been suggested for entangled states @xcite , nonlinear birefringence @xcite , or self - kerr phase modulation @xcite . the state collapse due to photodetection has also been suggested as a source of cat states @xcite . the kerr effect provides a nonlinearity of particular interest for generating field cat states @xcite . apart from their intrinsic simplicity , kerr - based schemes have the specific advantage of not relying on conditional measurements . however , the realistic values of kerr coefficients are quite small , thus requiring a large interaction length . then , losses become significant and may destroy the very delicate quantum superpositions . in short , although very appealing from the physical viewpoint , kerr schemes are not generally considered to be realistic . in spite of this belief , there has been a very recent proposal of generating a kerr _ kitten _ that serves as a quantum seed for suitable amplification @xcite , that could become fully feasible . on the other hand , it should be noted that perhaps the simplest nonlinear optical process is second - harmonic generation , which in addition exhibits a rich spectrum of nonclassical features . considerable attention has been paid to issues such as photon antibunching , squeezing , or collapses and revivals @xcite . however , the generation of schrdinger cat states has gone almost unnoticed . perhaps , a relevant exception is the work of nikitin and masalov @xcite , showing that , at resonance , the quantum state of the fundamental mode evolves into a superposition of two macroscopically distinguishable states . this point may be considered as well rather unrealistic , because the stringent experimental constraints of having perfect phase matching and low decoherence could be rather difficult to attain . in this paper we pursue the dispersive limit of second - harmonic generation , which seems to be almost ignored in the literature . at this respect , our main result is to show that , for detunings large enough , the dynamics can be described in terms of an effective hamiltonian essentially identical to that governing the propagation of the fundamental mode in a kerr medium . apart from its intrinsic interest , such an identification could be more than an academic curiosity : second - harmonic generation is , for a variety of reasons @xcite , more robust than the kerr effect as for noise - limiting factors . in consequence , this scheme could be an experimentally feasible proposal to generate the yearned optical cat states . second - harmonic generation is usually described ( without assuming perfect resonance ) by the following model hamiltonian ( in units @xmath1 ) @xmath2 where @xmath3 ( @xmath4 ) and @xmath5 ( @xmath6 ) are the annihilation ( creation ) operators of the fundamental mode of frequency @xmath7 and of the second - harmonic mode of frequency @xmath8 , respectively . when perfect matching conditions occurs , they satisfy @xmath9 . the constant @xmath10 , describing phenomenologically the coupling between both modes , can be always chosen as real . classically the above problem admits an exact solution , leading to the possibility of the energy being transferred completely into the second - harmonic mode @xcite . unfortunately , the corresponding quantum dynamics is a touchy business , though different algebraic , semiclassical , and numerical approaches have been developed ( for pertinent literature on these approximations see ref . @xcite ) . by noting that the hamiltonian ( [ hshg ] ) admits the constant of motion @xmath11 it can be recast in the following simple form @xmath12 where @xmath13 is the detuning . it is straightforward to check that @xmath14 = 0 , \ ] ] so both @xmath15 and @xmath16 are constants of motion . since @xmath15 determines the total energy stored in both modes , which is conserved , we can factor out @xmath17 from the evolution operator and drop it altogether . in order to examine the quantum evolution we shall use a standard numerical approach developed by tana and coworkers @xcite starting from the original one of walls and barakat @xcite . first , we consider the case of perfect resonance and we take the typical experimental conditions ; namely , the fundamental mode in a coherent state with an average number of photons @xmath18 and the harmonic mode in the vacuum . for definiteness , we shall analyze the quantum state by computing the @xmath0 function . in figure 1 we have plotted a gray - scale contour map of this distribution @xmath19 for the fundamental mode with @xmath20 , and for different values of the dimensionless time @xmath21 . results are in complete agreement with the previous work by nikitin and masalov @xcite : at the beginning of the interaction @xmath22 the uncertainty contour turns to an ellipse , whose long axis is perpendicular to the field vector ( so the state is squeezed in amplitude ) . further interaction @xmath23 results in a bifurcation of the @xmath0 distribution and the formation of a superposition of two macroscopically distinguishable states . subsequent development @xmath24 destroys this state as well . next , we consider the case when some mismatch is present . the previous numerical procedure is still valid , but one must take care of the diagonal extra terms introduced by the detuning . to check how the detuning affects the cats , in figure 2 we have plotted the contours of the @xmath0 function at @xmath25 , when the cat should appear , for different values of the dimensionless detuning @xmath26 . one easily notices that the cat becomes more and more blurred as the detuning increases , until @xmath26 is so large and the process is so inefficient that the fundamental mode does not feel any appreciable interaction and the cat is lost . moreover , we have found no numerical evidence of any further cat for other times around @xmath25 . this is a reasonable result from the physical viewpoint , since one could expect some kind of continuity . however , it differs from the numerical computations of nikitin and masalov @xcite , who find that the cat disappears as soon as some detuning is present , irrespectively the smaller this detuning is . the reason is the way they deal with the off - resonant situation : following a classical argument , they assume that the presence of detuning translates into the fact that the coupling constant has the time dependence @xmath27 $ ] , where @xmath28 and @xmath29 are the refractive indices of the medium at the frequencies @xmath7 and @xmath8 . in such a way , the interaction hamiltonian @xmath16 becomes time dependent and the numerical method becomes rather complicated , at difference of what happens with our very simple model . from now on , we shall be interested in the dispersive limit of the model governed by the hamiltonian ( [ hshg ] ) . in other words , we shall consider the situation when latexmath:[\[\label{displim } @xmath18 and @xmath31 denote the average photon numbers in the modes @xmath3 and @xmath5 , respectively . it is worth emphasizing that this is a limit physically realizable in practice @xcite . now , the essential point is that @xmath32 can be considered as a small parameter and , according to the method developed in ref . @xcite , we can apply a unitary transformation to the interaction hamiltonian ( [ hint ] ) @xmath33 where @xmath34 . \label{u}\ ] ] to gain a deeper insight into the physical ideas underlying the method we can introduce the operators @xmath35 that satisfy the commutation relations @xmath36 & = & \pm x_\pm , \nonumber \\ & & \\ \left [ x_+ , x_- \right ] & = & p(x_3 ) , \nonumber\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath37 refers to a quadratic polynomial function of the diagonal operator @xmath38 . then , while the first relation is the same as the corresponding one for the standard su(2 ) algebra , the second one defines what is called a nonlinear or polynomial deformation of su(2 ) @xcite . from this viewpoint , the transformation ( [ u ] ) can be recast as @xmath39 .\ ] ] for su(2 ) operators this would be simply a rotation . here , it represents a small nonlinear rotation with the parameters chosen in such a way so as to cancel [ up to order @xmath40 $ ] the nondiagonal terms appearing in the transformed hamiltonian . moreover , its unitary character ensures that @xmath41 has the same spectrum as @xmath16 ( so they are physically equivalent ) . in consequence , by expanding eq . ( [ h1 ] ) in a power series and keeping terms up to the order @xmath42 , we finally get @xmath43 , \label{heff}\ ] ] with @xmath44 the effective hamiltonian ( [ heff ] ) describes the dispersive evolution of the fields , but the essential point is that it is diagonal , which implies that there is no population transfer between the modes ( as it is expected in the far - off resonant limit ) . the first term in eq . ( [ heff ] ) does not affect the dynamics and just leads to a rapid oscillation of the wavefunction . it is worth noting that the small rotation generated by the transformation ( [ u ] ) just adds small corrections of order @xmath32 to the physical observables and , thus , the state vector need not to be transformed . now , it is easy to find evolution of the density matrix of the fundamental mode . when the harmonic mode is initially in the vacuum , the two terms containing @xmath45 in eq . ( [ heff ] ) do not contribute . in addition , the linear term in @xmath46 lead just to a @xmath47-number phase shift and can be also omitted . then , the effective hamiltonian reduces to @xmath48 which is nothing but the interaction hamiltonian that governs the state evolution of the single - mode field @xmath3 in a kerr medium . then , the evolution is factorized all the times ( in the frame of this approximation ) and , in consequence , starting from a coherent state in mode @xmath3 , one will recover @xmath49 copies of this initial state at times @xmath50 @xcite . in particular , for @xmath51 the density matrix of the fundamental mode becomes @xmath52 where @xmath53 is a superposition of two coherent states with opposite phases ; i.e. , @xmath54 .\ ] ] to check these predictions we have numerically calculated the @xmath0 function from the exact hamiltonian ( [ hint ] ) at the time @xmath55 . the initial coherent state in mode @xmath3 has @xmath56 and we have assumed a detuning @xmath57 , which is enough to guarantee the validity of our approximation ( [ displim ] ) . in figure 3 we have plotted the results of the computation , showing an apparent excellent agreement with the expected cat . however , the @xmath0 function by itself is not very suitable to distinguish between coherent and incoherent superpositions . to further confirm the coherent behavior we have considered the fidelity @xmath58 between the ideal two - component cat density matrix and the state coming from realistic evolution . in figure 4 we have plotted the resulting fidelity as a function of the rescaled time @xmath59 for @xmath60 we can see the presence of small peaks corresponding to the presence of @xmath61component catlike states , as well as the strong peak at the time @xmath62 predicted by our theory when @xmath63 . when the initial state of the harmonic mode is in a superposition of number states instead of the vacuum , the dynamics of the fundamental mode is drastically affected . for simplicity , we shall take an initial coherent state in both modes , namely , @xmath64 then , we obtain for the density matrix of the fundamental mode the following expression @xmath65 \nonumber \\ & \times & \frac{\alpha^n { \alpha^*}^m}{\sqrt{n!m ! } } modes @xmath3 and @xmath5 is evident , as well as the fact that only when @xmath51 they become disentangled and two copies of the initial coherent state in the fundamental mode will be created . indeed , the density matrix of the total system at such time is @xmath66 and only a two - component cat can be produced in this case , although with lesser fidelity than for the vacuum . on the contrary , when @xmath67 , the initial coherent state is reconstructed . finally , some comments concerning the physical feasibility of the proposed scheme seem in order . of course , a simple comparison of the parameters in figures 1 and 3 clearly shows that the times required for the appearance of the cat in the dispersive limit are an order of magnitude larger than in the usual case of no detuning . the advantage of this dispersive limit is twofold : one does not need to take care about phase - matching considerations and , more important , if the process takes place in a cavity , one could expect from previous results , e.g. in cavity quantum electrodynamics @xcite , that the quantum features of the state may be undestroyed for large interaction times . in addition , the width of the peak appearing in the fidelity is of the order of 5 in units of @xmath68 , while the cat appearing in figure 1 disappears in much shorter times . thus , the required time resolution in this dispersive limit is lesser than the one needed for the perfect frequency - matching case . in spite of these advantages , the required times are still so long that other decoherence factors could affect the final results . the effective hamiltonian ( [ heff ] ) has the virtue of simplifying calculations that otherwise would be rather involved . to cite only an example , the squeezing properties of the fundamental mode are also affected by the initial state of the harmonic mode . for initial coherent states in both modes @xmath69 ( for simplicity , we take @xmath70 and @xmath71 as real numbers ) we easily get for the variance @xmath72 of the quadrature @xmath73 @xmath74 where @xmath75 , @xmath76 , and @xmath77 . then , for sufficiently large values of @xmath78 squeezing in the fundamental mode disappears , according to previous numerical studies @xcite . one could be tempted to extend the method to other nonlinear optical process in order to get effective hamiltonians that are diagonal in the desired basis . in fact , the program can be carried out . for example , for third - harmonic generation one obtains , after repeating the same steps as before , @xmath79 - ( a^\dagger a)^3 - 6 ( a^\dagger a)^2 \right \ } , \ ] ] but now the final result contains a cubic nonlinearity and the problem is not facilitated at all . what we expect to have accomplished in this paper is to present a simple model for the description of the dispersive limit of second - harmonic generation in terms of an effective hamiltonian that is diagonal and contains kerrlike nonlinearities . of course , in the practice other off - resonant processes could also contribute to the third - order nonlinearity . however , our effective - hamiltonian approach can explain ( al least qualitatively ) some unexpected and fascinating behaviors of the so - far unnoticed dispersive limit . of course , it is well known that when some interaction energy is off - resonant then , in a higher order of perturbation theory an effective interaction energy can be constructed that gives rise to resonant processes . at this respect , in ref . @xcite it has been shown how the method of small rotations can be used to tailor resonant interactions from nonresonant processes , just as demonstrated in this paper for the relevant case of the second - harmonic generation . finally , it is worth noting as well that the hamiltonian ( [ heff ] ) is similar to that obtained in ref . @xcite for the dicke model in the large detuning limit ( when the effective hamiltonian was proportional to @xmath80 ) .	we find an effective hamiltonian describing the process of second - harmonic generation in the far - off resonant limit . we show that the dynamics of the fundamental mode is governed by a kerrlike hamiltonian . some dynamical consequences are examined . _ pacs number(s ) : 03.65.bz , 42.50.ct , 42.50.vk , 42.65.ky_ _ section : quantum optics _
Economy McDonalds Tells Workers To Budget By Getting A Second Job And Turning Off Their Heat CREDIT: McDonalds has partnered with Visa to launch a website to help its low-wage workers making an average $8.25 an hour to budget. But while the site is clearly meant to illustrate that McDonalds workers should be able to live on their meager wages, it actually underscores exactly how hard it is for a low-paid fast food worker to get by. The site includes a sample “budget journal” for McDonalds’ employees that offers a laughably inaccurate view of what it’s like to budget on a minimum wage job. Not only does the budget leave a spot open for “second job,” it also gives wholly unreasonable estimates for employees’ costs: $20 a month for health care, $0 for heating, and $600 a month for rent. It does not include any budgeted money for food or clothing. Basically every facet of this budget is unachievable. For an uninsured person to independently buy health care, he or she must shell out on average $215 a month — just for an individual plan. While some full-time McDonald’s workers do qualify for the company’s $14 a week health plan, that offer caps coverage at $10,000 a year and is often insufficient. If that person wants to eat, “moderate” spending will run them $32 a week for themselves, and $867 a month to feed a family of four. And if a fast food worker is living in a city? Well, New York City rents just reached an average of $3,000 a month. The sample budget is also available in Spanish. On another section of the site, it concludes, “You can have almost anything you want as long as you plan ahead and save for it.” Neither McDonalds nor Visa returned requests for comment by the time of publication. Last year, Bloomberg News found that it would take the average McDonalds employee one million hours of work to earn as much money as the company’s CEO. This immense wage disparity in the fast food industry has sparked a series of protests and walk-outs by low-wage workers working at fast food chains around the country — in New York, Chicago, Washington, and Seattle, to name a few cities, workers from chains including KFC, McDonalds, Burger King, and Taco Bell have spoken publicly about the need for serious wage increases across the industry. (HT: Low Pay Is Not Okay) \|\|\|\|\| Starting in 1996, Alexa Internet has been donating their crawl data to the Internet Archive. Flowing in every day, these data are added to the Wayback Machine after an embargo period. \|\|\|\|\| Someone meant really well. We think. A few years ago, Visa and McDonald’s partnered to launch a personal finance site for McDonald’s employees to help them better manage their money. Unfortunately, whoever wrote these materials had no grasp of what it’s actually like to live on $8 or so per hour. “Helping you succeed financially is one of the many ways McDonald’s is creating a satisfying and rewarding work environment,” the site’s About page explains. The path to financial freedom, according to Visa and McDonald’s, involves turning off your heat, not buying groceries, not having children, never getting sick, and getting a second job. All of which are sound money-saving strategies, it’s true, but it’s not all that realistic to expect people to combine them. You can download their handy budget workbook yourself. First, in the “income” column, you, the Hypothetical McDonald’s Employee, have two jobs. One job pays $1,105 per month, and the other pays $955 per month. This amount is what someone would earn working roughly 60 hours a week at $8.50 an hour. If you earn less per hour than that or this is after taxes, then you’re either working more hours or have a higher hourly wage. The budget doesn’t specify whether this is gross income or after taxes: even for someone in a low enough tax bracket that they pay no federal or state income taxes, Social Security and Medicare still takes 6.2% out of every check. Anyway, Visa and McDonald’s produced a handy workbook for employees to learn how to budget their money, spend sensibly, and save for the future and for emergencies. UPDATE: McDonald’s and Visa have apparently listened to [some of] the Internet’s criticisms, and changed the budget to include heat. They sneakily replaced the PDF workbook on the server with the new version, but we downloaded the original and have had it on the server for you all this time. The version on their site now allows $50, so that’s nice of them. Here’s the revised budget: Savings: $100 No quibble with this. Everyone should be putting some money in a savings account (or shoebox, whatever, but a savings account is a better idea.) Mortgage/Rent: $600 This is a realistic figure in most of the country if you share a home with family or roommates, but not so much if you live by yourself or don’t yet have good enough credit to get a fixed-rate mortgage on a modest condo. Car Payment: $150 Not a bad figure, but that’s probably an older car, so hope you have money put away for repairs. Car/Home Insurance: $100 That sounds pretty reasonable, though again, a person working to rebuild their credit might not get a great rate on carinsurance. Hey, wait a second, there isn’t any more mention of a car on this budget. How are you supposed to repair and maintain this vehicle? Even changing your own oil and having a friend do major repairs in their front lawn costs money for parts. That might not be a problem, though, because there’s also no budget line for gasoline. Guess you’ll be making a car payment while you walk to work. Health Insurance: $20 I don’t know what planet has health insurance plans that cost $20/month, but can I move there? Even a lot of civil service and union workers pay more than that now. Plus, insurance is nice and all, but there are these things called “co-payments” that also cost money. The cheaper your health insurance is, the higher those payments will be. Also, I miss those heady days when I was so young and healthy that I never had to buy cold medicine, bandages, painkillers, or cough syrup. Which was never. Heating: $0 This is the case for a large portion of the year, and people in some parts of the country never turn on their heat. The rest of the time, maybe you’ll have to bring leftover hamburger buns home and burn them for warmth. Cable/Phone: $100 No, heat, no groceries, but a phone and basic cable. Or a smartphone with a large data plan. Or cable, home Internet access, and no mobile phone. Hmm. Electric: $90 Maybe in the spring and fall, but good luck with that when you start running air conditioners and baseboard heat. Other: $100 Is this where the gas goes? Spending Money: $800 Okay! Straight into savings with you, then! Except, wait…this is a terrible budget. Besides leaving out gas, heat, car maintenance, and remotely realistic medical expenses, it leaves out clothes, entertainment, furniture, various kinds of personal hygiene, furniture, charitable and religious giving, cleaning supplies, and groceries. GROCERIES. It also completely ignores that you might have children, which is convenient, because it’s hard to fit child care for those 60 hours a week that you’re working into this budget. Assuming that you can even get that many hours from your job: maybe it’s time to start looking for a third one. Like we said, whoever produced this workbook probably meant well. It has helpful and slightly condescending money-saving tips, like: When possible, use public transportation or carpool Consider walking or riding a bike when running errands Plan meals in advance Borrow books and movies from the library Shop with a list Pay down debt as quickly as possible Try not to use an ATM outside of your bank’s system to avoid extra service charges We would probably just roll our eyes and move on, if it weren’t for this tiny thing on the McDonald’s Practical Money Skills page. The first page on the navigation bar of this site produced by McDonald’s and Visa extolls the benefits of prepaid debit cards. Where have I heard about those recently? Why should you consider getting your paycheck on a PaychekPLUS! Elite® Visa® Payroll Card? There are ways to access your money that don’t even involve any fees, you can use it to pay bills, and there’s no waiting. You don’t have to cash or deposit a check, and you don’t need to have a bank account. You can just use the card right away to pay for things. Just don’t gas up your car or go to the grocery store. Practical Money Skills For Life [Official Site] Practical Money Skills Budget Journal [PDF] Bonus content: FightFor15/LowPayIsNotOK, organizers of fast food strikes across the country, are the ones who uncovered this gem on the Practical Money Skills site. They made this handy video:	– McDonald's has a new budgeting tool for its employees, but the advice on "Practical Money Skills for Life" is pretty laughable, critics are pointing out. The site, a partnership with Visa, is supposed to help these low-wage workers learn how to manage their money, ThinkProgress reports, but instead it illustrates just how hard—if not impossible—it is to get by on an average of $8.25 an hour. For example, the sample "budget journal" suggests workers have a second job, and even then budgets only $20 per month for health insurance (the average cost for an independent individual plan is $215 per month, and the company's own plan for full-time workers is $14 a week)—and exactly zero dollars for heating. No specific budgeted amounts are given for food or clothing, though after paying the bills (including a $150 car payment and a $600 mortgage), $800 worth of monthly "spending money" is left over, so apparently the groceries (and car maintenance, and gasoline, and co-pays, and actual medical expenses, and any number of other things not allowed for on the budget) come out of that. The website claims that "you can have almost anything you want as long as you plan ahead and save for it." But the truth is, "basically every facet of this budget is unachievable," writes Annie-Rose Strasser. The Consumerist's take: "The path to financial freedom, according to Visa and McDonald’s, involves turning off your heat, not buying groceries, not having children, never getting sick, and getting a second job."
The state of Washington is suing Motel 6, alleging the low-cost hotel chain repeatedly provided detailed information about guests to federal immigration authorities for at least two years in violation of a state consumer protection law. Washington Attorney General Bob Ferguson said Wednesday that at least six corporate-owned hotels provided U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement officials daily lists of guests, including their names, driver’s license numbers, dates of birth and room numbers. ... \|\|\|\|\| 0 Washington state sues Motel 6 for sharing guest lists with ICE Washington State Attorney General Bob Ferguson has sued Motel 6, charging the company with sharing its guest lists with the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement agency. He says the company violated privacy rights and discriminated against thousands of Washingtonians. The motel company voluntarily gave the guest lists to ICE on a routine basis for at least two years, according to Ferguson. Each time Motel 6 released a guest list, it included the name and private information of every guest at the hotel, the lawsuit says. Personal information released included customers’ driver’s license numbers, room numbers, names, guest identification numbers, dates of birth and license plate numbers, according to the lawsuit. “After news reports in Arizona revealed Motel 6 staff was handing over guests’ private information, Motel 6 implied this was a local problem,” Ferguson said. “We have found that is not true. Washingtonians have a right to privacy, and protection from discrimination. I will hold Motel 6 accountable and uncover the whole story of their disturbing conduct.” The Attorney General’s Office began investigating the motel chain’s Washington locations in September and alleges that the incidents in Arizona were not isolated. Image: AG's office According to Ferguson, Motel 6 officials admit that at least six of the company's Washington state locations -- in Bellingham, North Everett, South Everett, South Seattle, SeaTac and South Tacoma -- shared personal information of its guests with ICE; this led to the detention of at least six people. Four of those locations released the personal information of at least 9,151 guests to ICE, even though its privacy policy assured consumers it would protect this information, according to the attorney general. Scroll down to continue reading Trending headlines DOWNLOAD OUR FREE NEWS APP Ferguson asserts that Motel 6 knew that ICE used the guest lists to target customers based on national origin, including customers with Latino-sounding names. His office says the company trained new employees on the process to give the guest registry and all the names of their guests to ICE. "At the South Everett location, for example, ICE agents visited the motels early in the morning or late at night, requested the day’s guest list, circled any Latino-sounding names and returned to their vehicles," a news release on Ferguson's investigation said. "On at least one occasion, ICE later returned to the motel and detained at least one individual. The Attorney General’s investigators discovered that from Feb. 1 to Sept. 14, 2017, the South Everett location gave guests’ private, personal information to ICE on approximately 228 occasions in a 225-day period." The lawsuit filed on Wednesday claims that Motel 6 committed thousands of violations of the Consumer Protection Act and hundreds of violations of the Washington Law Against Discrimination. A Washington state Supreme Court case established that guest registry information is private and that random searches of this information violates rights to privacy found in the Washington Constitution. In that case, State v. Jorden, the court said, “Information contained in a motel registry constitutes a private affair under article 1, section 7 of the Washington State Constitution because it reveals sensitive, discrete, and private information about the motel’s guest.” Trending headlines DOWNLOAD OUR FREE NEWS APP © 2018 Cox Media Group. \|\|\|\|\| Motel 6 provided guests’ personal information to law enforcement without warrant SEATTLE — Attorney General Bob Ferguson today announced a lawsuit against national hotel chain Motel 6 for voluntarily providing guest lists to agents of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) on a routine basis for at least two years. Each time Motel 6 released a guest list, it included the name and private information of every guest at the hotel. The Attorney General’s Office began to investigate Motel 6 locations in Washington after two Motel 6 locations in Arizona made national news for voluntarily providing guests’ personal information to ICE. Motel 6 admits that at least six of its Washington state locations shared personal information of its guests with ICE. This lead to significant consequences including the detention of at least six individuals. Specifically, four of those locations released the personal information of at least 9,151 guests to ICE, even though its privacy policy assured consumers it would protect this information. Motel 6 admits that two additional locations shared this private information with ICE, but has not provided details regarding the number of individuals affected. The personal information released included customers’ driver’s license numbers, room number, name, guest identification number, date of birth and license plate number. The voluntary release of this information constitutes an unfair and deceptive business practice, and violates the Consumer Protection Act. Additionally, Ferguson asserts that Motel 6 knew that ICE used its guest lists to target customers based on national origin, including customers with Latino-sounding names. Motel 6’s actions constituted discrimination against these individuals based on their national origin, a violation of the Washington Law Against Discrimination. The lawsuit, filed today in King County Superior Court, asserts that Motel 6 committed thousands of violations of the Consumer Protection Act and hundreds of violations of the Washington Law Against Discrimination. Motel 6 admits ICE detained at least six people as a result of this practice on or near Motel 6 property. “After news reports in Arizona revealed Motel 6 staff was handing over guests’ private information, Motel 6 implied this was a local problem,” Ferguson said. “We have found that is not true. Washingtonians have a right to privacy, and protection from discrimination. I will hold Motel 6 accountable and uncover the whole story of their disturbing conduct.” Motel 6 has more than 1,200 locations across North America with more than 105,000 rooms. The company owns and operates 26 locations in Washington, including both company-owned and franchise-owned motels. All six locations mentioned in the lawsuit are corporate-owned motels. In September 2017, a reporter in Arizona published reports that Motel 6 voluntarily provided guest lists to ICE without a warrant at two corporate-owned locations in the Phoenix area, leading to the detention of at least 20 individuals in Arizona. After the story made national news, Motel 6 released a short statement that the practice of providing guest information to ICE was “implemented at the local level without the knowledge of senior management.” The Attorney General’s Office began investigating the motel chain’s Washington locations in September and discovered that the incidents in Arizona were not isolated. The office interviewed several people who have worked at these Motel 6 locations in Washington. During the Attorney General’s investigation, Motel 6 admitted that at least six Washington Motel 6 locations provided guest registry information to ICE agents since at least 2015: Bellingham, North Everett, South Everett, South Seattle, SeaTac and South Tacoma. The Attorney General’s investigators discovered that over a two-year period, four of the six locations released the information of more than 9,000 guests. The company provided no details regarding two of those six locations, and only partial information for the other four locations. Consequently, the number of guests affected by Motel 6’s practice will undoubtedly increase significantly when it is required to provide more information during the course of the lawsuit. Ferguson’s lawsuit asserts Motel 6 violated the law every time it voluntary released an individual’s private information to ICE. The consequences for some guests were significant. This unlawful practice led to ICE detaining at least six guests at the motels. In addition to continuing to investigate the extent of violations of the six Motel 6 locations mentioned in the lawsuit, the Attorney General’s Office will investigate whether the remaining 20 Motel 6 locations in Washington illegally provided information. The guest lists released by Motel 6 included customers’ room number, name, guest identification number, date of birth and license plate number ¾ information that is protected under Washington state law. A Washington state Supreme Court case established that guest registry information is private and that random searches of this information violates rights to privacy found in the Washington Constitution. In that case, State v. Jorden, the court said, “Information contained in a motel registry constitutes a private affair under article 1, section 7 of the Washington State Constitution because it reveals sensitive, discrete, and private information about the motel’s guest.” The court noted there are a variety of lawful reasons an individual may want their hotel stay to remain private: “The desire for privacy may extend to business people engaged in confidential negotiations … One could also imagine a scenario … where a domestic violence victim flees to a hotel in hopes of remaining hidden from an abuser.” The Motel 6 privacy policy states that it is “committed to safeguarding the privacy of the personal information that we gather.” Motel 6 locations provided a form for ICE visits, referred to as a “law enforcement acknowledgement form,” which agents signed upon receiving the day’s guest list. At least three of these locations changed the form in the same way at about the same time in May 2017. Motel 6 trained new employees on the process to give the guest registry and all the names of their guests to ICE. The training and practice did not require the agents to produce a warrant. At the South Everett location, for example, ICE agents visited the motels early in the morning or late at night, requested the day’s guest list, circled any Latino-sounding names and returned to their vehicles. On at least one occasion, ICE later returned to the motel and detained at least one individual. The Attorney General’s investigators discovered that from Feb. 1 to Sept. 14, 2017, the South Everett location gave guests’ private, personal information to ICE on approximately 228 occasions in a 225-day period. Motel 6 knew that ICE used the guest lists to target guests based on their national origin. The Washington Law Against Discrimination specifically prohibits direct and indirect discrimination on the basis of national origin, Ferguson’s lawsuit alleges that Motel 6 did both. Specific alleged violations Ferguson’s lawsuit alleges the following violations of the Consumer Protection Act and the Washington Law Against Discrimination: Motel 6 committed unfair acts in violation of the Consumer Protection Act (CPA) by violating its guests’ right to privacy. Motel 6 committed deceptive acts in violation of the CPA by violating its own privacy policy and misrepresenting its privacy policy to guests and prospective guests. Motel 6 committed an automatic violation of the CPA by violating the Washington Law Against Discrimination (WLAD) in the course of trade or commerce. Motel 6 violated the WLAD by denying the full enjoyment of places of public accommodation to its guests on the basis of the guests’ national origin. Motel 6 violated the WLAD when its motels, as places of public accommodation, directly or indirectly discriminated against its guests on the basis of the guests’ national origin. Ferguson argues that each time Motel 6 disclosed each guest’s name and information qualifies as a separate violation of the Consumer Protection Act. The office asks for civil penalties of up to $2,000 per violation. The state also asks for recovery of its costs and fees. The Attorney General’s Office will continue with its investigation to discover the entire scope of the unlawful disclosures made by Motel 6 and seek appropriate relief from the court. If you believe you were affected by Motel 6's practices, please contact the Wing Luke Civil Rights Unit at (844) 323-3864. Assistant Attorney General Mitchell Riese of the AGO’s Civil Rights Unit is lead attorney in the case. Ferguson created the Wing Luke Civil Rights Unit in 2015 to protect the rights of all Washington residents by enforcing state and federal anti-discrimination laws. Ferguson named the unit for Wing Luke, who served as an Assistant Attorney General for the state of Washington in the late 1950s and early 1960s. He went on to become the first person of color elected to the Seattle City Council and the first Asian-American elected to public office in the Pacific Northwest. -30- The Office of the Attorney General is the chief legal office for the state of Washington with attorneys and staff in 27 divisions across the state providing legal services to roughly 200 state agencies, boards and commissions. Visit www.atg.wa.gov to learn more. Contacts: Brionna Aho, Communications Director, (360) 753-2727; [email protected] \|\|\|\|\| Contact: Email Consumer Resource Center Available Monday - Friday, 10 a.m. - 3 p.m. 1-800-551-4636 (Washington Only) 206-464-6684 File a consumer complaint File an online complaint here Mail paper complaint forms to: Attorney General’s Office Consumer Resource Center 800 Fifth Avenue, Suite 2000 Seattle, WA 98104 Overview The Consumer Protection Division is composed of attorneys and professional staff. The division enforces the Consumer Protection Act ( RCW 19.86 ) and other statutes to help keep the Washington marketplace free of unfair and deceptive practices. The division investigates and files legal actions to stop unfair and deceptive practices, recovers refunds for consumers, seeks penalties against offending entities, and recovers costs and fees to ensure that wrongdoers pay for their actions. Division staff participate in the many legislative initiatives that affect consumer protection each year. The division’s Consumer Resource Center provides an informal complaint resolution service. The informal complaint resolution process includes notifying businesses of written complaints and facilitating communication between the consumer and the business to assist in resolving the complaint. The Consumer Protection Division provides information and education to businesses and the public on consumer issues and issues alerts and press releases to warn consumers and businesses about fraudulent or predatory activities. The Consumer Protection Division is also responsible for the administration of Washington’s Lemon Law for new motor vehicle warranty enforcement. The Lemon Law program provides important information to consumers regarding their rights and remedies under the Lemon Law and the Lemon Law arbitration process. The Lemon Law program also provides consumer and industry education and enforcement regarding manufacturer and dealer obligations under the law. The division also administers the Manufactured/Mobile Home Dispute Resolution Program (MHDRP). The MHDRP facilitates dispute resolution between manufactured/mobile home landlords and tenants in situations where the tenant owns the home but rents a space from the landlord. The MHDRP is authorized to investigate, issue findings and impose fines if there has been a violation of the law. The MHDRP produces and distributes educational materials regarding the Manufactured/Mobile Home Landlord-Tenant Act (MHLTA). Back to top Legal Services Provided (to the state) The division represents the state and the public as a whole, as opposed to individuals, when it brings actions under the Consumer Protection Act. Attorneys in the Consumer Protection Division cannot represent individual consumers. Check our news releases for news on Consumer Protection Division lawsuits and enforcement actions. Back to top Consumer Resources Consumer Resource Center: The Consumer Resource Center processes thousands of consumer complaints and thousands of consumer telephone calls every year. As a result of the informal complaint resolution of the 25,000 written consumer complaints, the CRCs help return more than $4 million to the consumers of the state each year. Lemon Law Program: The Lemon Law Program separately handles thousands of additional telephone inquiries and handles more than 100 arbitration requests each year. The Lemon Law program has helped return millions of dollars to consumers. Manufactured/Mobile Home Dispute Resolution Program: The Manufactured/Mobile Home Dispute Resolution Program (MHDRP) enforces the Manufactured/Mobile Home Landlord Tenant Act. The MHDRP engages landlords and tenants in facilitated negotiation to resolve disputes. In situations when the parties cannot reach a lawful resolution to the issue, the MHDRP is authorized to investigate, issue findings and impose fines on landlords or tenants who violate the law. Outreach and Education: The division remains active in the area of outreach and education. We believe that the best way to prevent fraud is to arm consumers with the tools to avoid it before they are victimized. The division also works with other government agencies, non-profits and business organizations to help them help their constituents avoid becoming victims and help businesses avoid enforcement actions.	– Washington state is suing Motel 6 for selling out its guests, accusing the budget motel chain of voluntarily giving ICE officials daily lists with guests' driver's license numbers, DOBs, and room numbers, reports KIRO 7. "The scale of what Motel 6 was doing is deeply disturbing to me," says state AG Bob Ferguson, per the Wall Street Journal. Ferguson says Motel 6 flouted the state's Consumer Protection Act more than 9,000 times at at least six hotels over more than two years, and ICE agents would scour the lists for "Latino-sounding names," among others, per a release. Ferguson notes Motel 6, which says at least six people were detained, even trained new hires on giving data to ICE. The complaint, which seeks $2,000 per violation, is just one step the state has taken against President Trump's immigration crackdown, with other suits already filed on DACA and deportations. A spokeswoman from ICE, which wasn't listed as a defendant in the suit, noted to the Journal that "viable enforcement tips" were received "from a host of sources" on "highly dangerous illegal enterprises" she says take place at hotels and motels; she didn't name Motel 6 itself. The company, however, has conceded it gave away guest information, issuing a statement last year saying it happened "at the local level without the knowledge of senior management." Ferguson rebuts that, noting the chain has done the same in Arizona. The company says it's now revamping its guidelines and will instruct all of its 1,400-plus locations not to hand over guest info without legal papers. "A guest's activities in their property, particularly their hotel room, is expected to be kept private," a hospitality law attorney tells the Journal. "That's one of the basic understandings."
median sternotomy for open cardiac procedure is a bone splitting procedure that can be complicated by poor healing , resulting in sternal dehiscence at an incidence of 0.5 - 5% with or without infection [ 1 , 2 ] . higher risk group are those with obesity , osteoporosis , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease , diabetes mellitus and patients on long - term immunosuppressive drugs . surgical technique also contributes in particular to off midline sternotomy and poor closure technique . sternal dehiscence may further complicate the post - operative period with superficial wound infections , mediastinitis , pain , and cardiac and pulmonary function compromise . repair of sternal dehiscence is guided by radiological and intra - operative findings . in the present case , recent publications have supported the safe use of this novel sternal closure technique , and our patient had successful repair with no reported no long - term complications . a male and female sternal talon component is placed intercostally on either side of split vertical sternal segments following width and depth measurements . both components are reduced and locked in place to achieve accurate and secure reduction . long - term removal can be achieved by unlocking the screw after exposure and dissection . in conclusion , we have reported a case of non - infected sternal dehiscence managed successfully with the sternal talon without long - term complications .	sternal dehiscence is a recognised complication after median sternotomy , occurring in 0.5 - 5% of cases with or without infection.a 72-year - old man presenting with collapse and ventricular tachycardia was investigated for a possible acute cardiac event 2 years after coronary artery bypass grafting for ischemic heart disease . work - up chest x - ray showed displacement of all sternal wires , and computed tomography ( ct ) performed to investigate further showed sternal dehiscence with right ventricle wall herniation through the defect and sternal wire breakdown . a decision was made after discussion with the patient to repair the defect using 3 sternal talon devices and 2 sternal wires . the patient made an uncomplicated recovery , and the outpatient clinic review after discharge home showed satisfactory and stable sternal union . we report a case of non - infected sternal dehiscence managed successfully with the sternal talon without long - term complications .
spinal extradural arachnoid cysts ( seacs ) are the herniation of the arachnoid mater through a dural defect9 ) . they are relatively an uncommon cause of compressive myelopathy , accounting for about 1 - 3% of all primary spinal space occupying lesions911 ) . there are fluctuations in symptoms - exacerbation during exercise , erection , and valsalva maneuver ; the cerebrospinal fluid ( csf ) pressure is temporarily raised and the cyst increases in size2 ) . they are thought to be associated with trauma , arachnoiditis , and neural tube defects . several theories have been proposed regarding the pathogenic mechanism2 ) : ( 1 ) check - valve ( ballvalve ) mechanism , ( 2 ) hyperosmolar collection of fluid within the cyst causes free water entrance , ( 3 ) secretion of fluid by cells lining the cyst wall . the check - valve mechanism is the most widely accepted theory which explains the expansion of cysts and spinal cord compression211 ) . in this report , we present two case of large ( we defined large seac which involved more than 3 vertebral segments ) extradural arachnoid cyst with dural defect - the communicating tract . the diagnosis was made by magnetic resonance imaging ( mri ) and thoracolumbar epidural cystography , and the patients were treated by an operation - cyst fenestration with primary closure of the dural defect which was a communicating tract . a 20-year - old female patient presented with a chief complaint of progressive back pain and intermittent lower extremity weakness for 7 months . there was no history of any significant trauma or injections before the onset of symptoms , during the clinical course of her illness . preoperative neurologic examination revealed bilateral proximal weakness in the lower extremities - especially in hip flexors and knee extensors 4/5 ( medical research council grade , mrc ) , but the patient did not have any sensory changes and other neurologic symptoms such as voiding difficulty and anal sphincter tone change . mri of the whole spine showed a large csf - filled cystic mass with some septations causing spinal cord compression , located at t7-t10 without contrast enhancement - indicating an extradural arachnoid cyst ( fig . thoracolumbar epidural cystography and computed tomography ( ct ) myelography revealed a contrast - filled cyst in the dorsal epidural space at t7-t10 and contrast leakage into the subarachnoid space at the lower level through the communicating tract at the t9 level , slightly to the right side . there was no communication between the small cystic lesion at t7 and the large cyst at t7-t10 ( fig . the patient underwent hemi - laminectomy at t7-t10 and cyst fenestration with primary closure of the dural defect which was a communicating tract . after removal of the ligamentum flavum , a cystic mass was visualized in the epidural space . the cyst wall was thin , transparent , and multilayered with severe adhesions to the dura mater . under a microscope , the cyst wall was opened and egress of csf was noted . during dissection of the multilayered membrane , we found a communicating tract and a herniated nerve root at the t9 level . along the tract and the herniated nerve rootlets , csf leakage was identified - compatible to the finding on epidural cystography and ct myelography . because the herniated nerve root had severely adhered to the cyst membrane , the nerve root was sacrificed and primary closure of the dural defect - communicating tract was performed . the biopsy of the cyst wall membrane showed fibrocollagenous tissue consistent with an arachnoid cyst . for two months after the operation , the follow - up mri showed complete regression of the large cyst at t7-t10 and decrease in the size of the small cyst at t7 ( fig . the second case was 37 year - old male patient who was suffered from progressive right side lower extremities weakness ( mrc grade 4/5 ) and numbness ( 70% sensitivity compared to contra - lateral side ) , pain and tingling sense of right leg , and voiding problem(hesitancy and residual urine sense ) for two years . but the frequencies and severities of symptoms got worse as time goes by . at the time of admission , these symptoms were continuous . this patient also had no postural variation and exacerbating factors . also , there was no history of any significant trauma before symptom onset . mri showed cord compressing large cystic lesion at t11-l3 which was divided in two compartment by septation . and we founded signal voiding by csf flow at l1 level in t2 weighted image ( fig . thoracolumbar epidural cystography revealed contrast leakage to arachnoid space of lower level through communicating tract at l1 level ( fig . this patient underwent l1 hemilaminectomy and cyst fenestration with communication tract closure . under microscope , cyst wall was visualized at epidural space after ligamentum flavum removal . after cyst wall incision , the dural defect - communication tract was visualized at l1 level , as we assumed according to preoperative evaluation . and a nerve root was swaying at the communication site - seemed to be a check valve . in this case , the nerve root was not adhered to cyst wall . postoperatively , the patients had improvements in voiding problem and lower extremities weakness . and the anal tone of patient was recovered . after 2 months from operation , the patient 's symptom had improved , especially in voiding problem and weakness . a 20-year - old female patient presented with a chief complaint of progressive back pain and intermittent lower extremity weakness for 7 months . there was no history of any significant trauma or injections before the onset of symptoms , during the clinical course of her illness . preoperative neurologic examination revealed bilateral proximal weakness in the lower extremities - especially in hip flexors and knee extensors 4/5 ( medical research council grade , mrc ) , but the patient did not have any sensory changes and other neurologic symptoms such as voiding difficulty and anal sphincter tone change . mri of the whole spine showed a large csf - filled cystic mass with some septations causing spinal cord compression , located at t7-t10 without contrast enhancement - indicating an extradural arachnoid cyst ( fig . thoracolumbar epidural cystography and computed tomography ( ct ) myelography revealed a contrast - filled cyst in the dorsal epidural space at t7-t10 and contrast leakage into the subarachnoid space at the lower level through the communicating tract at the t9 level , slightly to the right side . there was no communication between the small cystic lesion at t7 and the large cyst at t7-t10 ( fig . the patient underwent hemi - laminectomy at t7-t10 and cyst fenestration with primary closure of the dural defect which was a communicating tract . after removal of the ligamentum flavum , a cystic mass was visualized in the epidural space . the cyst wall was thin , transparent , and multilayered with severe adhesions to the dura mater . under a microscope , the cyst wall was opened and egress of csf was noted . during dissection of the multilayered membrane , we found a communicating tract and a herniated nerve root at the t9 level . along the tract and the herniated nerve rootlets , csf leakage was identified - compatible to the finding on epidural cystography and ct myelography . because the herniated nerve root had severely adhered to the cyst membrane , the nerve root was sacrificed and primary closure of the dural defect - communicating tract was performed . the biopsy of the cyst wall membrane showed fibrocollagenous tissue consistent with an arachnoid cyst . for two months after the operation , the follow - up mri showed complete regression of the large cyst at t7-t10 and decrease in the size of the small cyst at t7 ( fig . the second case was 37 year - old male patient who was suffered from progressive right side lower extremities weakness ( mrc grade 4/5 ) and numbness ( 70% sensitivity compared to contra - lateral side ) , pain and tingling sense of right leg , and voiding problem(hesitancy and residual urine sense ) for two years . but the frequencies and severities of symptoms got worse as time goes by . at the time of admission , these symptoms were continuous . this patient also had no postural variation and exacerbating factors . also , there was no history of any significant trauma before symptom onset . mri showed cord compressing large cystic lesion at t11-l3 which was divided in two compartment by septation . and we founded signal voiding by csf flow at l1 level in t2 weighted image ( fig . thoracolumbar epidural cystography revealed contrast leakage to arachnoid space of lower level through communicating tract at l1 level ( fig . this patient underwent l1 hemilaminectomy and cyst fenestration with communication tract closure . under microscope , cyst wall was visualized at epidural space after ligamentum flavum removal . after cyst wall incision , the dural defect - communication tract was visualized at l1 level , as we assumed according to preoperative evaluation . and a nerve root was swaying at the communication site - seemed to be a check valve . in this case , the nerve root was not adhered to cyst wall . postoperatively , the patients had improvements in voiding problem and lower extremities weakness . and the anal tone of patient was recovered . after 2 months from operation , nabors et al.13 ) categorized seacs in three major groups of meningeal cysts , non - meningeal epidural cysts , and neurenteric cysts . meningeal cysts are further classified in 3 subgroups17 ) : 1 ) type 1 : extradural meningeal cyst that does not contains neural tissue 2 ) type 2 : extradural meningeal cyst that contains neural tissue 3 ) type 3 : intradural meningeal cyst - called a tarlov cyst or a spinal nerve root diverticulum type 1 meningeal cysts consist of extradural arachnoid cysts ( type 1a ) and sacral meningoceles ( type 1b ) . types ia and iii cysts are mainly thoracic and posterior in location ; type 1b and ii cysts are mainly sacral18 ) . some modification has been proposed to this classification . kumar et al.8 ) have proposed a modification to include the mechanism of spinal cord herniation in type 2b . they have proposed a modification to divide type 1 into ; type 1a - cysts with communication with the thecal sac ; type 1b - cysts with no communication16 ) . clinical presentations of seacs depend on the site , size of cysts , and related compression of the spinal cord or spinal nerve roots2 ) . they could present with pain , myelopathy , radiculopathy alone , or a combination of these symptoms16 ) . in some literatures most authors proposed that this fluctuation is due to intermittent cyst expansion - due to postural change and valsalva maneuver during daily activity which can change the csf pressure and flow271016 ) . in our case 1 , the patient had intermittent lower extremity weakness and the patient recovered the muscle strength in a couple of hours from the onset . although there was no recognizable definite exacerbating factor , the symptomatic manifestations fit this explanation . however , a dural defect is assumed to be the initial event in the mechanism for development of seacs . some cases have a history of trauma , or infection like arachnoiditis , or iatrogenic cause which are thought to be related with seacs3 ) . other cases which do not have a history of these events are mostly considered to be congenital1215 ) . even though there was no history of major trauma and congenital defect , multiple micro traumas can cause a dural tear near the nerve root sleeves because of tension across the movable dural sac and relatively fixed nerve roots3519 ) . in the cases presented in this article , the patients had no history of trauma , infection , or injection . intraoperative finding showed that the dural defect was located near the t9 ( case 1 ) and l1 ( case 2 ) nerve root sleeve . considering these findings sangala et al.16 ) reported a seac at the l1 level with l1 nerve root prolapse into the cyst . they reported about a herniated nerve root which was trapped by the csf flow and that nerve root adhesion to the cyst wall can be a factor that prevents nerve root reduction . these factors can result in a checkvalve mechanism which causes enlargement of seacs . in our case 1 , the t9 nerve root was adhered to the cyst wall and could not be dissected away from the cyst wall without causing nerve root injury . also , the herniated nerve root was swaying due to the csf flow- acting as a check valve . in case 2 , but the nerve root was swaying through the dural defect acting like a check valve . these studies show a space occupying lesion in the extradural space which was filled with csf with or without an enlarged spinal canal , widened foramina , increased interpedicular distance , slender pedicles and lamina , and posterior scalloping of the vertebral bodies . recently , various imaging studies have been proposed for diagnosis and identification of the communication of seacs . delayed ( 6-hr ) ct myelography and assessment of the density of the cyst are helpful in identifying the presence of the communicating tract16 ) . neo et al.14 ) reported that the preoperative cine - mri scan detected the dural defect in a patient with a spinal extradural arachnoid cyst . epidural cystography showed contrast filling of the seac and leakage from the thecal sac through the communicating tract . also , this study was important in surgical planning , especially in case 2 . and the standard treatment for seacs is surgical management that includes complete resection of the cyst wall and closure of any communication between the cyst and the subarachnoid space after laminectomy of the affected vertebrae11 ) . when the communication site is not detected preoperatively or when the dural defect is located on the lateral side , extensive exposure is needed for treating the cysts . to reduce the complications of laminectomy such as invasion of the hematoma and scar tissue into the spinal canal , postoperative instability , and subluxation or kyphotic deformity of the spine16 ) , et al.11 ) recommended t - saw laminoplasty to obtain sufficient exposure and space and to reduce the complications of laminectomy . sangala et al.16 ) proposed surgical planning depending on the presence or absence of a communication with the thecal sac to reduce the risk of wide exposure and to obtain good results . in cysts without a communicating tract , excision of the cyst wall should be the surgical goal . in cysts with a communicating tract , obliteration of the communication tract should be the aim . in this respect , preoperative identification of the communication is very important . in the cases presented in this article , we identified the communicating tract and performed cyst fenestration with primary closure of the dural defect . especially in case 2 , we only performed one level lamine ctomy according to preoperative evaluation and we acquired acceptable outcome . two months from the operation , the patient had no recurrent symptoms and surgical complications . these techniques are aimed at treating seacs with a smaller exposure - decreasing the risk of injury to the adjacent structures . we experienced two case of seac recently and performed cyst fenestration with primary closure of the communicating tract . imaging studies , thoracolumbar epidural cystography and ct myelography directly visualized the communicating tract , were important in surgical planning . during the operation , we found that the nerve root was swaying through the communication tract and this operative finding suggested another important aspect in the pathogenesis of seacs - the herniated nerve root acted as a check valve . although total cyst excision is the widely accepted standard treatment , preoperative identification of the communicating tract and primary closure of the dural defect which was a communicating tract with cyst fenestration can be an acceptable surgical strategy .	spinal extradural arachnoid cysts ( seacs ) are relatively rare cause of compressive myelopathy . seacs can be either congenital or acquired , but the etiology and the mechanism for their development are still unclear . a number of cases have been reported in the literature , and the one - way valve mechanism is the most widely accepted theory which explains the expansion of cysts and spinal cord compression . we report two cases of seac in this article . patients had intermittent , progressive cord compressing symptoms . mri image showed large seac which caused compression of the spinal cord . pre - operative cystography and ct myelography were performed to identify the communicating tract . pre - operative epidural cystography showed a fistulous tract . the patients underwent primary closure of the dural defect which was a communicating tract . the operative finding ( nerve root herniation through the tract ) suggested that the seac developed through a checkvalve mechanism . postoperatively , the patients had no surgical complications and symptoms were relieved . based on our experience , preoperative identification of the communicating tract is important in surgical planning . although surgical excision is the standard surgical treatment , primary closure of the dural defect which was a communicating tract can be an acceptable surgical strategy .
U.S. video streaming site Netflix is to release its first movie — a sequel to the classic "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon" — after striking a distribution deal with The Weinstein Company. "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: The Green Legend" will be released simultaneously on Netflix and selected IMAX theatres on August 28, 2015. The movie is expected to the first of several films to premiere on both the site and theaters. Netflix's foray into cinema could further boost its fan base and change the nature of the movie business, said Cyrus Daruwala, managing director at IDC Financial Insights. Read MoreNetflix snags deal for 'Gotham' television series "The moviegoing experience is evolving quickly and profoundly, and Netflix is unquestionably at the forefront of that movement," said Harvey Weinstein, co-chairman of The Weinstein Company (TWC), the production house behind the film. Netflix already has a deal with The Weinstein Company that from 2016 gives it exclusive distribution rights for the studio's TWC's first-run movies. "Fans will have unprecedented choice in how they enjoy an amazing and memorable film that combines intense action and incredible beauty," added Netflix chief content officer Ted Sarandos in a press release. Read MoreNetflix faces chilly reception in France The film will be directed by Yuen Wo-Ping, known for his work on "The Matrix Trilogy" and "Kill Bill," and will see stars Michelle Yeoh and Donnie Yen reprise their respective roles as Yu Shu-Lien and Silent Wolf. IMAX is the only theater chain involved in the deal, and will help extend the company's summer blockbuster season. Greg Foster, IMAX chief executive, said he was particularly hopeful the the film would do well in China, a country that Netflix does not operate in. Read MoreNetflix spoils its users with addicting website "In territories where we simultaneously release with Netflix, we are excited to offer consumers the option of deciding how, when and where they want to view the film, and exhibitors the opportunity to participate in this alternative form of content in a new and innovative way," he said. China remains a highly competitive market for online streaming websites. In August, Youku Tudou, known as China's version of Youtube, joined Netflix in launching its own production company. On Monday, Netflix shares closed up 0.2 percent. \|\|\|\|\| BREAKING: While Hollywood studios and exhibitors endlessly spar over shortening the window between theatrical and home viewing on feature films, you just knew that someone was going to take a bona fide movie, bypass theaters and go right to home viewing. Not surprisingly, it’s Netflix, already a disruptive force with series including House Of Cards and Orange Is The New Black. The pay service has just contracted with The Weinstein Company’s Harvey Weinstein to release its first major feature film, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: The Green Legend. Sort of a sequel to the Ang Lee-directed 2000 martial arts epic that won the Best Foreign Language Film Oscar, the film will premiere exclusively on Netflix, and it will simultaneously have a berth in IMAX theaters. The release is August 28, 2015. Yuen Wo-Ping is directing a script by John Fusco, and Michelle Yeoh and Donnie Yen star. Lee is not involved in this, and the connective tissue is the source material based on the Crane-Iron Pentalogy by Wang Du Lu. Crouching Tiger was the fourth book in the series, and this film is based on the fifth installment, Silver Vase, Iron Knight. Both are from Wu Sia, the centuries-old genre of Chinese fiction that this series is part of. There is plenty of high-wire sword fighting along with the themes of lost love, young love and redemption. Yeoh reprises her role as Yu Shu-Lien, and Donnie Yen plays Silent Wolf. The film is shooting in New Zealand. Yuen is a legendary filmmaker and fight choreographer, and the production team is composed of all seasoned feature players. Peter Berg and Sarah Aubrey are producing with Weinstein and The Imitation Game helmer Morten Tyldum is exec producing with Ralph Winter, Anthony Wong and Bey Logan. This isn’t the only feature film that Netflix is working on, but it likely will be the first one released. Fusco, Harvey Weinstein and Netflix also are in business on the mammoth event series Marco Polo, and the TWC catalog of films, including those directed by Quentin Tarantino, are available on demand to Netflix subscribers. TWC already has branched into other distribution models with its multi-platform releasing arm RADiUS, but this more closely mirrors the Golden Age of cable television that is partly fueled by the ability for viewers to watch what they want, when they want it. That has not been possible with feature films until now. TWC and Sony had battled several years ago over the rights to the Crouching Tiger books left behind by the author, who died in 1977. SPC released the 4-Oscar-winning original. Reports quoted his son, Hong Wang, saying his family made very little money from the original film, and that is why they made another deal. TWC then made the movie, going in with a budget north of $20 million. Netflix Chief Content Officer Ted Sarandos, who has thumbed his nose at exhibitors in the past, understandably considers this a coup to get a branded title with global appeal. “Fans will have unprecedented choice in how they enjoy an amazing and memorable film that combines intense action and incredible beauty,” he said in a statement. “We are honored to be working with Harvey Weinstein and a world-class team of creators to bring this epic story to people all over the world and to partner with IMAX, a brand that represents the highest quality of immersive entertainment, in the distribution of this film.” Weinstein was a bit more reserved in his statement: “The moviegoing experience is evolving quickly and profoundly, and Netflix is unquestionably at the forefront of that movement. We are tremendously excited to be continuing our great relationship with Netflix and bringing to fans all over the world the latest chapter in this amazing and intriguing story.” Being along for the ride helps IMAX broaden its horizons, per senior executive Greg Foster. “IMAX has a terrific opportunity, via this partnership with Netflix, to release Crouching Tiger – a high-quality action-packed film that is right in our wheelhouse, at the end of the summer blockbuster season,” he said. “We are particularly hopeful it will play in our highly successful China market. In territories where we simultaneously release with Netflix, we are excited to offer consumers the option of deciding how, when and where they want to view the film, and exhibitors the opportunity to participate in this alternative form of content in a new and innovative way.” Will the status quo theater chains see it that way?	– The sequel to Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon is set to deliver a high-flying kick to the movie business as we know it with a first-of-its kind distribution deal. The deal with the Weinstein Co. will see the martial arts movie released simultaneously on Netflix and in some Imax theaters next August, reports CNBC. Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: The Green Legend is expected to be the first of several major movies to make their debut on Netflix. "The moviegoing experience is evolving quickly and profoundly, and Netflix is unquestionably at the forefront of that movement," Harvey Weinstein said in a statement released to the Hollywood Reporter, which notes that major chains may not allow Crouching Tiger 2 in the locations they control. "We are tremendously excited to be continuing our great relationship with Netflix and bringing to fans all over the world the latest chapter in this amazing and intriguing story," Weinstein said. Michelle Yeoh will reprise her role from the 2000 movie; action star Donnie Yen joins the cast, and Yuen Woo-Ping will take Ang Lee's place in the director's chair, reports Deadline.
in the past 25 years , loop quantum gravity(lqg ) , a background independent approach to quantize general relativity ( gr ) , has been widely investigated @xcite . recently , this non - perturbatively loop quantization procedure has been generalized to the metric @xmath2 theories@xcite . in fact , modified gravity theories have recently received increased attention in issues related to `` dark universe '' and non - trivial tests on gravity beyond gr . besides @xmath2 theories , a well - known competing relativistic theory of gravity was proposed by brans and dicke in 1961 @xcite , which is apparently compatible with mach s principle . to represent a varying `` gravitational constant '' , a scalar field is non - minimally coupled to the metric in brans - dicke theories(bdt ) . on the other hand , since 1998 , a series of independent observations implied that our universe is currently undergoing a period of accelerated expansion@xcite . these results have caused the `` dark energy '' problem in the framework of gr . it is reasonable to consider the possibility that gr is not a valid theory of gravity on a galactic or cosmological scale . the scalar field in bdt of gravity is then expected to account for `` dark energy '' . furthermore , a large part of the non - trivial tests on gravity theory is related to einstein s equivalence principle ( eep ) @xcite . there exist many local experiments in solar - system supporting eep , which implies the metric theories of gravity . actually , bdt are a class of representative metric theories , which have been received most attention . thus it is interesting to see whether this class of metric theories of gravity could be quantized nonperturbatively . note that the metric @xmath2 theories are equivalent to the special kind of bdt with the coupling parameter @xmath3 and some non - vanishing potential of the scalar field@xcite . in this work , for simplicity consideration , we only consider bdt with coupling parameter @xmath0 . the connection formalism of bdt is derived from its geometrical dynamics . based on the resulted connection dynamical formalism , we then quantize the bdt by extending the nonperturbative quantization procedure of lqg in the way similar to loop quantum @xmath2 gravity . throughout the paper , we use greek alphabet for spacetime indices , latin alphabet a , b , c , ... , for spatial indices , and i , j , k , ... , for internal indices . the original action of brans - dicke theories reads s(g)=12_d^4x[-(_)^][action ] where we set @xmath4 , @xmath5 denotes the scalar curvature of spacetime metric @xmath6 , the hamiltonian analysis of bdt can be found in refs.@xcite . by doing 3 + 1 decomposition of the spacetime , the four - dimensional scalar curvature can be expressed as = k_abk^ab - k^2+r+_(n^k)-_a ( h^ab_bn),where @xmath7 is the extrinsic curvature of a spatial hypersurface @xmath8 , @xmath9 , @xmath10 denotes the scalar curvature of the 3-metric @xmath11 induced on @xmath8 , @xmath12 is the unit normal of @xmath8 and @xmath13 is the lapse function . by legendre transformation , the momenta conjugate to the dynamical variables @xmath11 and @xmath14 are defined respectively as p^ab&=&=[(k^ab - kh^ab)-(-n^c_c ) ] , [ 04 ] + & = & = -(k-(-n^c_c)),[pi ] where @xmath15 is the shift vector . the resulted hamiltonian of bdt can be derived as a liner combination of constraints as @xmath16 where the smeared diffeomorphism and hamiltonian constraints read respectively v()&=&_d^3xn^av_a = _ d^3xn^a(-2d^b(p_ab)+_a),[dc ] + h(n ) & = & _ d^3xn.[hc ] + here the condition @xmath17 was assumed . lengthy but straightforward calculations show that the constraints comprise a first - class system similar to gr . since the geometric canonical variables @xmath18 of bdt are as same as those of @xmath2 theories @xcite , we can use the same canonical transformations of @xmath2 theories to obtain the connection dynamical formalism of bdt . let ^ab = k^ab+(-n^c_c).the new geometric variables are @xmath19 and @xmath20 where @xmath21 is the triad such that @xmath22 , @xmath23 , @xmath24 is the spin connection determined by @xmath25 , and @xmath26 is a nonzero real number . it is clear that our new variable @xmath27 coincides with the ashtekar - barbero connection @xcite when @xmath28 . the only non - zero poisson brackets among the new variables reads @xmath29 now , the phase space of bdt consists of conjugate pairs @xmath30 and @xmath31 , with the additional gaussian constraint @xmath32 which justifies @xmath27 as an @xmath1-connection . the original vector and hamiltonian constraints can be respectively written up to gaussian constraint as v_a & = & 1f^i_abe^b_i+_a , + h&= & + & + & 13 + 2(+ 2 + ) + ( d_a ) d^a+d_ad^a,[hamilton ] where @xmath33}+\epsilon^i_{kl}a_a^ka_b^l$ ] is the curvature of @xmath34 . all the constraints are of first class . the total hamiltonian can be expressed as a linear combination @xmath35 based on the connection dynamical formalism , the nonperturbative loop quantization procedure can be straightforwardly extended to the bdt . the kinematical structure of bdt is as same as that of @xmath2 theories @xcite . the kinematical hilbert space of the system is a direct product of the hilbert space of geometry and that of scalar field , @xmath36 , with the orthonormal spin - scalar - network basis @xmath37 over some graph @xmath38 . here @xmath39 and @xmath40 consist of finite number of curves and points respectively in @xmath8 . the basic operators are the quantum analogue of holonomies @xmath41 of connections , densitized triads smeared over 2-surfaces @xmath42 , point holonomis @xmath43@xcite , and scalar momenta smeared on 3-dimensional regions @xmath44 . note that the whole construction is background independent , and the spatial geometric operators of lqg , such as the area @xcite , the volume @xcite and the length operators @xcite are still valid here . as in lqg , it is straightforward to promote the gaussian constraint @xmath45 to a well - defined operator@xcite . it s kernel is the internal gauge invariant hilbert space @xmath46 with gauge invariant spin - scalar - network basis . since the diffeomorphisms of @xmath8 act covariantly on the cylindrical functions in @xmath47 , the so - called group averaging technique can be employed to solve the diffeomorphism constraint@xcite . thus we can also obtain the desired diffeomorphism and gauge invariant hilbert space @xmath48 for the bdt . now , we come to implement the hamiltonian constraint ( [ hamilton ] ) at quantum level . in order to compare the hamiltonian constraint of bdt with that of @xmath2 theories in connection formalism , we write eq . ( [ hamilton ] ) as @xmath49 . it is easy to see that the terms @xmath50 just keep the same form as those in @xmath2 theories , the @xmath51 terms are also similar to the corresponding terms in @xmath2 theories . here differences are only reflected by the coefficients . now we come to the completely new term , @xmath52 . we can introduce well - defined operators @xmath53 as in ref . @xcite . by the same regularization techniques as in refs.@xcite , we triangulate @xmath8 in adaptation to some graph @xmath39 underling a cylindrical function in @xmath54 and reexpress connections by holonomies . the corresponding regulated operator @xmath55 can acts on a basis vector @xmath56 over some graph @xmath57 . it is easy to see that the action of @xmath55 on @xmath58 is graph changing . it adds a finite number of vertices at @xmath59 for edges @xmath60 starting from each high - valent vertex of @xmath39 . as a result , the family of operators @xmath61 fails to be weakly convergent when @xmath62 . however , due to the diffeomorphism covariant properties of the triangulation , the limit operator can be well defined via the so - called uniform rovelli - smolin topology induced by diffeomorphism - invariant states @xmath63 . it is obviously that the limit is independent of @xmath64 . hence the regulators can be removed . we then have _ 6t_,x & = & _ vv()^-1(v ) + & & _ v()=v()=v(s_l s_m s_n)^lmn^-1__0((s_s_l ( ) ) ) [ _ _ 0((t_s_l()))-__0((s_s_l ( ) ) ) ] + & & ( _ i_s_m()[^-1_s_m(),(_v)^3/4 ] _ s_n()[^-1_s_n(),(_v)^3/4 ] ) + & & ( s_i s_j s_k)^ijk^-1__0((s_s_i( ) ) ) [ _ _ 0((t_s_i()))-__0((s_s_i( ) ) ) ] + & & ( _ i_s_j())[^-1_s_j(),(_v)^3/4 ] _ s_k()[^-1_s_k(),(_v)^3/4])t_,x . thus the total hamiltonian constraint operator @xmath65 is well defined in @xmath66 . furthermore , master constraint programme can be introduced for bdt to avoid possible quantum anomaly and find the physical hilbert space@xcite . with the key observation that lqg is based on its @xmath1-connection dynamical formalism which can be derived via canonical transformations from the geometric dynamics , the @xmath1-connection dynamics of bdt is obtained . thus lqg has been successfully extended to the bdt by coupling to a polymer - like scalar field . the quantum kinematical structure of bdt is as same as that of loop quantum @xmath2 theories . hence the important physical result that both the area and the volume are discrete remains valid for quantum bdt . while the dynamics of bdt is more general than that of @xmath2 theories , the hamiltonian constraint can still be promoted to a well - defined operator in @xmath66 . hence the classical bdt can be non - perturbatively quantized . therefore , besides gr and @xmath2 theories , lqg method is also valid for the bdt of gravity . we thank the organizers of loops 11 conference for the financial support to our attendance . this work is supported by nsfc ( grant no.10975017 ) and the fundamental research funds for the central universities . 9 c. rovelli , quantum gravity , ( cambridge university press , 2004 ) .	the loop quantization of brans - dicke theory ( with coupling parameter @xmath0 ) is studied . in the geometry - dynamical formalism , the canonical structure and constraint algebra of this theory are similar to those of general relativity coupled with a scalar field . the connection dynamical formalism of the brans - dicke theory with real @xmath1-connections as configuration variables is obtained by canonical transformations . the quantum kinematical hilbert space of brans - dicke theory is constituted as of that loop quantum gravity coupled with a polymer - like scalar field . the hamiltonian constraint is promoted as a well defined operator to represent quantum dynamics . this formalism enable us to extend the scheme of non - perturbative loop quantum gravity to the brans - dicke theory .
in this paper we present an analytical solution to the problem of multiphoton detachment from a negative ion by a linearly polarized laser field . it gives very reliable quantitative results for a wide range of intensities and frequencies of the laser field , from the weak - field regime , where the process is described by the perturbation theory , to the strong fields where it proceeds as tunneling . the theory is valid when the number of photons @xmath0 is large , but usually gives good results as soon as @xmath1 . we use it to calculate and examine various characteristics of the problem : the total multiphoton detachment rate , the @xmath0-photon detachment cross sections , the spectrum of excess - photon detachment ( epd ) photoelectrons ( the analogue of above - threshold ionization in atoms ) , and the peculiar photoelectron angular distributions . there are two important physical properties of the multiphoton detachment process : + ( i ) the frequency of the laser field is much lower than the electron binding energy , @xmath2 where @xmath3 is the energy of the bound state ( atomic units are used throughout ) . this means that multiphoton detachment is an _ adiabatic problem_. the external field varies slowly in comparison with the period of electron motion in the system . therefore , the general adiabatic theory @xcite is applicable . as long as the laser field is weaker than the atomic field , the detachment probability is exponentially small with respect to the adiabaticity parameter @xmath4 . + ( ii ) the process of multiphoton detachment takes place when the electron is far away from the atomic particle ( see section [ th ] ) , at _ large distances _ @xmath5 where @xmath6 is the keldysh parameter and @xmath7 is the field strength . in the weak field regime , @xmath8 , ( [ rlarge ] ) gives @xmath9 , where @xmath10 for a typical negative ion binding @xmath11 ev . in the strong field regime , @xmath12 , estimate ( [ rlarge ] ) yields @xmath13 , where @xmath14 is the typical atomic electric field , @xmath15 . the two features ( i ) and ( ii ) greatly simplify the multiphoton detachment problem . owing to ( ii ) , the final state of the electron can be described by the volkov wave function @xcite which takes into account the external field and neglects the atomic field . moreover , the volkov wave function describes explicitly the variation of the electron energy in the laser field . this makes it very convenient for application of the general adiabatic theory , as suggested by ( i ) . calculations based on the volkov final - state wave function were first done by keldysh @xcite . subsequently , the idea was developed by perelomov _ @xcite and later reconsidered by faisal @xcite and reiss @xcite . this approach is usually supposed to give a correct qualitative picture of multiphoton processes . in this paper we demonstrate that , in fact , it produces very accurate quantitative results for the multiphoton detachment from negative ions . we re - examine and extend the keldysh theory , paying particular attention to the following points . first , we show that the epd can be accurately described by the theory . originally , the theory was developed for low - energy photoelectrons @xcite with kinetic energies much smaller than the binding energy . the present approach is valid at any photoelectron energy . secondly , the angular distribution of photoelectrons is examined in detail . we show that a nontrivial oscillatory pattern of the angular distribution is caused by the simple and interesting physics . the photoelectron s escape from the atomic particle is most probable when the field reaches its maximum . there are two such instants in every period of the laser field @xmath16 , say , @xmath17 and @xmath18 . as a result , there are two classical trajectories which lead to the same final state of the photoelectron . interference of the corresponding amplitudes gives rise to an oscillatory angular dependence of the detachment rate . there is a similar effect in the single - photon detachment in the presence of a static electric field , where the interference takes place between the two trajectories of the electron emitted up or down field @xcite . estimate ( [ rlarge ] ) leads to a further simplification of the problem , since the initial bound - state wave function of the atomic system should also be considered at large distances , where it can be replaced by its simple asymptotic form . the complicated behaviour of the wave function inside the atom , and the corresponding many - electron dynamics have little influence on the multiphoton detachment . in contrast , use of the wave function with incorrect asymptotic behaviour , e.g. that corresponding to the hartree - fock binding energy , introduces an error , which is exponentially large with respect to @xmath19 . such sensitivity has been noticed in the perturbation theory calculations of the two- and three - photon detachment from h@xmath20 @xcite . there has been a large number of papers where multiphoton detachment from the hydrogen and halogen negative ions is investigated . perturbation theory calculations include those based on the hartree - fock approximation @xcite , adiabatic hyperspherical approach @xcite , model potential @xcite , a configuration - interaction procedure @xcite , and the lippmann - schwinger equation @xcite . there are also numerous non - perturbative methods , such as the floquet close - coupling method @xcite , complex - scaling generalized pseudospectral method @xcite , non - hermitian floquet hamiltonian method @xcite , and the @xmath21-matrix floquet theory @xcite . all the above methods rely on much more involved numerical calculations than those needed in our analytical approach . however , we believe that the present theory provides accurate answers for most of the multiphoton detachment problems . for illustration purposes , we reproduce a variety of results obtained earlier , including the @xmath0-photon cross sections , total detachment probability , epd spectrum and photoelectron angular distributions for a large range of frequencies and intensities of the field ( sec . we believe that in some cases our results are more accurate than those obtained previously , due to the correct asymptotic behaviour of the bound - state wave function we use . the good accuracy we have achieved within the keldysh - type theory is quite useful for the multiphoton detachment problem . on the other hand , its validity is very important for the development of an adiabatic theory of more complicated phenomena , such as double ionization @xcite . the formulae obtained in this paper can be used to estimate probabilities of multiphoton ionization of neutral atoms . however , the influence of the coulomb field of the positive ion on the wave function of the photoelectron can not be neglected @xcite , and our results for the multiphoton ionization would be less reliable . consider the removal of a valence electron from an atom or a negative ion by the laser field @xmath22 . the differential detachment rate can be written as the sum over @xmath0-photon processes [ see appendix [ prob ] , eq . ( [ fincont ] ) ] , @xmath23 where @xmath24 is the amplitude of the @xmath0-photon process , @xmath25 @xmath26 is the wave function of the initial electron state in the atomic potential @xmath27 , @xmath28 \phi _ 0({\bf _ 0({\bf r})~,\ ] ] @xmath29 is the interaction with the laser field , @xmath30 in the length gauge , @xmath31 for the electron , and @xmath32 is the continuous spectrum solution of the time - dependent shrdinger equation with the quasienergy @xmath33 . it describes the outgoing photoelectron in the laser field with the translational momentum @xmath34 , and @xmath35 is the electron quiver energy due to the field . the subscript @xmath0 in @xmath24 reminds one that the amplitude must be calculated at @xmath36 provided by the energy conservation in eq . ( [ difprob ] ) . as we show below , the detachment probability is determined by the asymptotic behaviour of the bound - state wave function at large distances . this means that the role of electron correlations in the multiphoton detachment of a single electron is small , provided @xmath37 represents correctly the asymptotic behaviour of the true many - electron wave function of the system , @xmath38 where @xmath39 is the ground - state wave function of the @xmath40-electron system , and @xmath41 is the wave function of the @xmath42-electron atomic residue . if we neglect the influence of the atomic potential @xmath27 on the photoelectron , the final - state is given by the volkov wave function , @xmath43 ~,\ ] ] where @xmath44 is the classical electron momentum due to the field . by omitting the lower integration limit we mean that we set its contribution to zero , as if the integration is performed from @xmath45 and the integrand is switched on adiabatically . for the volkov function ( [ volkov ] ) this gives the same phase as in @xcite , @xmath46 , and provides @xmath32 with a convenient symmetry property with respect to inversion : @xmath47 the wave function ( [ volkov ] ) satisfies the shrdinger equation @xmath48 \psi _ { \bf p}~.\ ] ] the neglect of the short - range potential @xmath27 for the photoelectron is justified in multiphoton processes , e.g. , in the multiphoton detachment from negative ions , see end of sec . [ adap ] . using the complex conjugates of eqs . ( [ volkov ] ) and ( [ tds ] ) , and @xmath49 , we transform amplitude ( [ apn ] ) into @xmath50 \tilde \phi _ 0({\bf p}+{\bf k}_t ) \exp \left[\frac{i}{2}\int ^t({\bf p}+{\bf k}_{t'})^2dt'-ie_0 t \right ] dt~,\ ] ] where @xmath51 is the fourier transform of @xmath37 , @xmath52 note that in the velocity gauge , @xmath53 the volkov wave function looks simpler , @xmath54 ~.\ ] ] this gauge , which apparently ` leads to an analytical simplicity ' @xcite , @xmath55 dt~,\ ] ] is though less physical than the length gauge in this problem . the amplitude ( [ apn ] ) is not gauge invariant when @xmath27 is neglected for the final state ( compare ( [ apn1 ] ) with ( [ apn2 ] ) ) , except for the zero - range @xmath56-wave initial state , @xmath57 . the length gauge interaction ( [ vf ] ) emphasizes large distances , where the bound - state wave function @xmath37 has a well - defined asymptotic behaviour . we will see in the next section that this gives it a major advantage over the velocity gauge . in the limit @xmath58 the length - gauge calculation reproduces the static - field result @xcite . for multiphoton processes the integral over time in the amplitude ( [ apn1 ] ) , contains a rapidly oscillating exponent @xmath59 $ ] , where @xmath60 is the coordinate - independent part of the classical action @xmath61 this makes the amplitude @xmath24 exponentially small , and the integral @xmath62 should be calculated using the saddle - point method . the positions of the saddle points are given by @xmath63 , which yields @xmath64 the saddle - point method in this problem has a simple and important physical contents . the two terms in the right - hand side of eq . ( [ action ] ) describe the energy of the electron in the initial and final states , @xmath65 and @xmath66 , respectively . according to the general adiabatic theory @xcite , the transition from the initial into the final state happens at the moment of time when their energies are equal . this is exactly the meaning of eq . ( [ speq ] ) . note that condition ( [ speq ] ) coincides with the positions of singularities of the fourier transform @xmath67 in the amplitude ( [ apn1 ] ) . indeed , the general asymptotic form of @xmath37 is @xmath68 where @xmath69 , @xmath70 is the charge of the atomic residue ( @xmath71 for the negative ion ) , and @xmath72 is the unit vector . it is easy to see that due to ( [ asymp ] ) the fourier transform ( [ fou ] ) is singular at @xmath73 . using @xcite we derive the following asymptotic form of @xmath51 for @xmath74 , @xmath75 where @xmath76 corresponds to @xmath74 . therefore , when the length - form amplitude is calculated by the saddle - point method , we do not need to know the behaviour of the bound - state wave function in the whole space . in contrast , when using the velocity - form amplitude ( [ apn2 ] ) , the value of the fourier transform for the true final - state momentum @xmath34 is needed . to calculate it one must know the exact wave function at all distances including @xmath77 . what makes the problem even harder , many - electron correlations become essential there . equation ( [ speq ] ) for the saddle - points presented explicitly as @xmath78 defines complex values @xmath79 where the transition from the bound state into the volkov state takes place . equation ( [ speq1 ] ) has two pairs of complex conjugate roots in the interval @xmath80 . according to the general theory of adiabatic transitions @xcite , in the case when the final - state energy @xmath81 is greater then the initial energy @xmath65 , we should take into account the two saddle - points in the upper half - plane of complex @xmath82 . changing the integration variable to @xmath83 and substituting the asymptotic expression for the fourier transform near the singularity ( [ asymf ] ) , we can write amplitude ( [ apn1 ] ) as the sum over the two saddle points , @xmath84\frac{4\pi a(\pm ) ^l y_{lm}(\hat { \bf p}_\mu ) ( 2\kappa ) ^\nu \gamma ( \nu + 1 ) } { 2[({\bf p}+{\bf k}_t)^2+\kappa ^2]^{\nu + 1}}\exp [ is(\omega t ) ] \,d(\omega t)~,\ ] ] where the integral is taken over the vicinity of the @xmath85th saddle point , @xmath86 is the unit vector in the direction of @xmath87 , and the two signs in @xmath88 correspond to @xmath89 . note that for the initial electron state bound by short - range forces , as in a negative ion , the integrand in ( [ asad1 ] ) has no singularity ( @xmath90 ) , and the application of standard saddle - point formulae is straightforward . having the general case in mind , we will calculate the amplitude for arbitrary @xmath91 , taking into account the singularity at the saddle point . this is also useful if one wants to calculate the amplitude in the original form ( [ apn ] ) , without using the transformation which leads to eq . ( [ apn1 ] ) . using @xmath92/2\omega$ ] , we can re - write eq . ( [ asad1 ] ) as @xmath93}{[s'(\phi ) ] ^\nu } d\phi ~,\ ] ] where @xmath94 . in the vicinity of the saddle point @xmath95 , @xmath96 , we have @xmath97 . the contribution of this saddle point is then given by the following integral @xmath98}{[s'(\phi ) ] ^\nu } d(\phi ) = \frac { 1}{[s''(\phi _ \mu ) ] ^\nu } \int \frac { \exp [ is(\phi ) ] } { ( \phi -\phi _ \mu ) ^\nu } d\phi ~,\ ] ] which is calculated in appendix [ apsad ] . the explicit form of the action ( [ action ] ) is @xmath99 where @xmath100 is the mean quiver energy of the electron in the laser field in units of @xmath101 , @xmath102 depends on the angle @xmath103 between the photoelectron momentum @xmath34 and the field @xmath104 , and we put @xmath105 due to the energy conservation in ( [ difprob ] ) . thus , we obtain the final expression for the amplitude by the saddle - point method , @xmath106 } { \sqrt{2\pi ( -is''_\mu ) ^{\nu + 1}}}~,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath107 and the signs @xmath108 correspond to the two saddle points @xmath109 . the usual definition of the spherical harmonics @xcite @xmath110 ^{1/2}p_l^{\|m\| } ( \cos \vartheta ) ~,\ ] ] is generalized naturally to calculate @xmath111 for complex vectors by setting @xmath112 where the last equality is valid at the saddle points , @xmath113 is the component of @xmath34 perpendicular to @xmath104 , @xmath114 . the real physical angle @xmath103 should not be confused with the complex angle @xmath115 from equations ( [ ylm ] ) and ( [ cos ] ) . the azimuthal angle @xmath116 is the same in both cases . using ( [ symvolk ] ) and the symmetry of the spherical harmonics @xmath117 one can show that the amplitude ( [ apn ] ) has the following symmetry properties : @xmath118 upon inversion @xmath119 ( @xmath120 , @xmath121 ) , and @xmath122 , upon reflection in the plane perpendicular to the direction of the field ( @xmath120 ) . consequently , the amplitude is zero for @xmath34 perpendicular to the field , if @xmath123 is odd . it is easier to look at the physics behind eqs . ( [ asad3])-([smu ] ) in the case when the photoelectron momentum is small , @xmath124 . the following simpler formulae for the saddle points can be obtained from ( [ smu])([smu ] ) by setting @xmath125 , @xmath126 where @xmath127 is the keldysh parameter . thus , for small photoelectron momenta the saddle points are @xmath128 and @xmath129 , and the detachment takes place at the two instances when the external field is maximal , @xmath17 and @xmath130 on the real axis . accordingly , the total amplitude ( [ asad3 ] ) is the sum of the two contributions from these points . this results in oscillations in the photoelectron angular distribution , which we discuss in greater detail below . the original approach used in @xcite was to expand eqs . ( [ smu ] ) , ( [ cmu ] ) and the action ( [ acexp ] ) in powers of @xmath131 to the second order ( see sec . [ lowen ] ) , thus obtaining corrections to ( [ gamma ] ) . in this regime @xmath132 remains the main parameter which determines the probability of multiphoton detachment @xcite . however , the applicability of the saddle - point result ( [ asad3 ] ) is essentially narrowed by such expansion ( sec . [ ex ] ) . the adiabatic nature of the problem allows us to estimate the radial distances which are important in the multiphoton detachment process . we have already seen that the saddle points in the integral in ( [ apn1 ] ) coincide with the poles of the fourier transform @xmath51 . the form of @xmath51 at @xmath74 is given by the behaviour of @xmath37 at @xmath133 . to estimate the essential distances look at eq . ( [ asad2 ] ) . the range of @xmath134 where the integral is saturated is determined by @xmath135 , which gives @xmath136 . the corresponding range of momenta @xmath137 is given by @xmath138 where we use eqs . ( [ gamma ] ) . the essential distances are obtained from @xmath139 , which yields estimate ( [ rlarge ] ) . it is important that @xmath140 in both weak- and strong - field regimes . this makes the keldysh approach valid for short - range potentials . there is another physical reason which helps to understand why the atomic potential can be neglected for the photoelectron . when a large number of photons is absorbed by the photoelectron , higher angular momentum partial waves are populated . the influence of the short - range potential upon them is small . for a given electron momentum @xmath141 the important @xmath142 values can be estimated as @xmath143 . in the perturbation theory regime this estimate yields @xmath144 , which suggests that the spread of the probability to find the photoelectron with given @xmath142 is described by a random walk of @xmath0 steps . estimate ( [ rlarge ] ) also explains the extreme sensitivity of the multiphoton detachment rates to the asymptotic behaviour of the bound - state wave function . suppose a bound state wave function characterised by @xmath145 instead of the true @xmath146 is used . the error in the amplitude ( [ apn ] ) introduced by replacing @xmath146 by @xmath145 comes in as a factor @xmath147 $ ] , where @xmath148 . the value of @xmath21 is large , thus , even a small @xmath149 can produce an exponential error in the amplitude . using the perturbation - theory regime estimate of @xmath21 we obtain the error factor of @xmath150 $ ] for the detachment rate . the differential @xmath0-photon detachment rate for the electron in the initial state @xmath151 is obtained from eqs . ( [ difprob ] ) and ( [ asad3 ] ) after integration over @xmath116 and @xmath141 , @xmath152 \right\| ^2 ~,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath153 is the photoelectron momentum determined by the energy conservation , and @xmath90 for negative ions . according to the symmetry properties of @xmath24 , the differential @xmath0-photon detachment rate is exactly zero at @xmath154 for odd @xmath123 . the total @xmath0-photon detachment rate of the @xmath151 state is obtained by integrating ( [ res ] ) , @xmath155 and if we are interested in the total detachment rate for a closed shell , the sum over @xmath156 and the electron spin projections must be completed , @xmath157 the dominant contribution to this sum is given by the @xmath158 state , since it is extended along the direction of the field , see sec . [ lowen ] . it is very easy to take the effect of fine - structure splitting into account . the two fine - structure components @xmath159 of a closed shell are characterized by different binding energies @xmath160 and values of @xmath146 . the @xmath0-photon detachment rate for the @xmath161 sublevel is then given by @xmath162 which is exactly what one would expect from naive statistical considerations . of course , one can easily obtain the total detachment rate by summing the @xmath0-photon rates over @xmath0 . the smallest @xmath0 is given by the integer part of @xmath163 + 1 $ ] . there are two limits which can be usefully explored with the help of eq . ( [ res ] ) . the first is the perturbation theory limit , where the detachment rate is proportional to the @xmath0th power of the photon flux @xmath164 , and the process is described by the generalized @xmath0-photon cross section @xmath165 the other is the low photoelectron energy limit studied earlier in @xcite . it enables one to recover the static - field results @xcite . to obtain the perturbation - theory limit , it is convenient to re - write the saddle - point equation ( [ smu ] ) for @xmath166 in the following form : @xmath167 where @xmath168 is the momentum component parallel to the field . the weak - field regime @xmath8 infers @xmath169 , hence we obtain for @xmath170 @xmath171 using ( [ sinper ] ) and ( [ cosper ] ) to calculate the amplitude ( [ asad3 ] ) for @xmath172 , and retaining only the leading term in @xmath173 everywhere , except in @xmath174 , where the second term is necessary , we arrive at the following @xmath0-photon detachment cross section @xmath175 ~,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath176 , @xmath177 is the speed of light , @xmath178 , and @xmath179 is the momentum - dependent contribution to the relative phase of the two saddle - point terms in the amplitude , @xmath180 this phase varies with the ejection angle of the photoelectron from @xmath181 to @xmath182 , and can be quite large , even for the lowest @xmath0 process , @xmath183 , @xmath184 , thus producing oscillations in the photoelectron angular distribution . note that in accordance with the general symmetry properties , the cross section is zero at @xmath154 , when @xmath123 is odd . another simplification of the general formula ( [ res ] ) is achieved when the energy of the photoelectron is low compared to the binding energy , @xmath185 . then , following @xcite one can expand the action @xmath186 and other quantities calculated at the saddle points in powers of @xmath141 up to the 2nd order . for @xmath90 which corresponds to the multiphoton detachment from a negative ion , we obtain @xmath187 \right\ } \exp \left[-\left ( \sinh ^{-1}\gamma -\frac{\gamma } { \sqrt{1+\gamma ^2}}\right)\frac{p^2}{\omega } \right]\nonumber \\ & \times & \exp \left ( -\frac{\gamma p^2\sin ^2\theta } { \omega \sqrt{1+\gamma ^2}}\right ) \left ( \frac{p\sin \theta } { \kappa } \right ) ^{2\|m\| } \left [ 1+(-1)^{n+l+m}\cos \left ( \frac{2\kappa p \cos \theta \sqrt{1+\gamma ^2 } } { \omega \gamma } \right ) \right]~.\end{aligned}\ ] ] this formula coincides eq . ( 53 ) of ref . the @xmath188 in the last square brackets of eq . ( [ wperel ] ) appears due to the interference between the contributions of the two saddle points in amplitude ( [ asad3 ] ) , and is the analogue of @xmath189 in eq . ( [ sign ] ) . it determines the oscillatory behaviour of the angular dependence of the @xmath0-photon detachment rate , which would otherwise simply peak along the direction of the field , @xmath190 , or @xmath191 , for @xmath158 . formula ( [ wperel ] ) also shows clearly that the detachment rate for the states with @xmath192 is much smaller than that of @xmath158 , due to the factor @xmath193 . it comes from the leading term in the expansion of the associated legendre polynomial @xmath194 in eq . ( [ res ] ) at @xmath195 . as shown by perelomov _ @xcite , in the limit @xmath58 , eq . ( [ wperel ] ) allows one to recover the well - known formula for the ionization rate in the static electric field @xmath7 @xcite , @xmath196 for negative ion case @xmath90 . it has been shown recently @xcite that the account of the polarization potential @xmath197 acting between the outer electron and the atomic residue in the negative ion , changes the numerical pre - exponential factor in eq . ( [ static ] ) . however , this correction is not very large , e.g. , it increases the detachment rate for ca@xmath20 by a factor of 2 , in spite of the large polarizability @xmath198 a.u . it is worth noting that the perturbation theory formula ( [ sign ] ) and the low electron energy limit ( [ wperel ] ) have a common range of applicability . if we use @xmath199 in the first , and take the perturbation theory limit @xmath8 in the second , the two formulae yield identical results . in this section we use the formulae we obtained within the adiabatic theory to calculate the photodetachment rates , epd spectra and photoelectron angular distributions for h@xmath20 and halogen negative ions . these are so far the most studied species , which enables us to make comparisons with results of other calculations . our aim is to show that our theory achieves good accuracy in describing multiphoton detachment in both perturbative and strong - field regimes . to apply the theory , all we need is the asymptotic parameters @xmath200 and @xmath146 of the corresponding bound - state wave functions . the values of @xmath200 are tabulated in various sources , and we use those from @xcite . the values of @xmath146 are calculated using the corresponding binding energies , @xmath201 . they are taken from the electron affinity tables @xcite , or obtained by combining those with the fine - structure intervals of the atomic ground states , when we consider the detachment of @xmath202 electrons from the halogens . in fig . [ sig567 ] we present the generalized @xmath0-photon detachment cross sections for h@xmath20 obtained by integrating the differential cross sections from eq . ( [ sign ] ) with @xmath203 and @xmath204 over @xmath103 . the cross section has been multiplied by 2 to account for the two spin states [ cf . ( [ wj ] ) with @xmath205 , @xmath206 . the results of the perturbation theory calculations @xcite are shown for comparison . in the latter the interaction of the electron with the atomic core was described by a model potential which accounted for the polarizational attraction between the electron and the atomic core , and was chosen to reproduce the binding energy of h@xmath20 , as well as the electron - hydrogen scattering phaseshifts . figure [ sig567 ] shows that there is good agreement between our results and those of @xcite . we checked that even for @xmath207 the difference does not exceed 20% at the cross section maximum . laughlin and chu note @xcite that their model - potential results are close to those obtained in @xcite using the hyperspherical method which accounts for correlations between the two electrons in h@xmath20 . they are also in agreement with the two - electron perturbation theory calculations of @xcite and the recent @xmath21-matrix floquet theory calculations @xcite , which also take into account electron correlations . the main idea behind those approaches was to reproduce the negative ion wave function as correctly as possible at all distances , particularly near the atomic core . this idea is favoured by the experience gained in a number of problems , such as the single - photon detachment , electron - atom scattering , etc . , where electron correlations are indeed very important . however , as shown above , the multiphoton problem under consideration proves to be different . absorption of several quanta is dominated by large distances satisfying inequality ( [ rlarge ] ) . the complicated behaviour of the wave function inside the atomic core turns out to be inessential . this is the main reason for the good agreement we observe in fig . [ sig567 ] . to check our theory in the non - perturbative regime , where one must use eq . ( [ res ] ) , the epd spectra of h@xmath20 for the three large field intensities @xmath208 , @xmath209 , and @xmath210 w/@xmath211 , of the 10.6-@xmath85 m radiation , @xmath212 a.u . , are presented in table [ hmin ] . for these parameters the electron quiver energy , or the ponderomotive energy shift , in units of @xmath101 , @xmath213 , 4.472 , and 8.945 , and the keldysh parameter @xmath214 , 0.847 , and 0.599 , respectively . for given @xmath101 absorption of a minimum of 7 photons is required . the ponderomotive threshold shift changes this number to @xmath215 , 11 , and 16 . the calculation of the detachment rates from eqs . ( [ res])([wj ] ) has been done using _ mathematica _ @xcite . for the smallest intensity the lowest epd peak @xmath216 dominates the total detachment rate , whereas for the higher intensities many peaks in the epd spectrum can be observed . the detachment rates in table [ hmin ] are compared with those obtained in the non - perturbative calculations of telnov and chu @xcite . they describe their method as a complex - scaling generalized pseudospectral technique applied to the solution of the time - independent non - hermitian floquet hamiltonian for the complex quasienergies , and use the accurate model potential from @xcite to describe the interaction of the electron with the atomic residue . there is a good overall agreement between the two calculations . the discrepancy usually does not exceed a few per cent , and is slightly larger for higher epd peaks and smaller field intensities . the latter is somewhat puzzling , since there is a good agreement in the perturbation - theory limit for the 7-photon cross section at @xmath212 a.u . : @xmath217 in fig . [ hdif ] we show the angular dependence of the photoelectron peaks for @xmath218 , 17 , 18 , and 19 , at @xmath219 w/@xmath211 . we have checked that their shapes , as well as those for other @xmath0 and intensities , are practically identical to the angular distributions presented in figs . 57 of @xcite . also shown in fig . [ hdif ] are the differential detachment rates obtained from eq . ( [ wperel ] ) . it works quite well for two lowest @xmath0 , but the agreement becomes poor with the increase of the photoelectron energy , e.g. , for @xmath220 , where @xmath221 . it is worth stressing again that the remarkable oscillatory behaviour is caused by the interference of the two saddle - point contributions in eq . ( [ res ] ) , or in other words , the interference between the electron waves emitted at the two instants separated by @xmath130 , when the field reaches its maximum . the geometrical phase difference which determines the oscillations of @xmath188 in eq . ( [ wperel ] ) can be calculated classically . suppose that the electron is considered free at the moment when it escapes the atomic particle . its classical coordinate is then given by @xmath222 . at the two instants @xmath79 when the adiabatic transition takes place we have @xmath223 where eq . ( [ gamma ] ) is used for small momenta @xmath199 . note that though @xmath79 are complex , the corresponding electron coordinates are real . these points located at the opposite sides of the atomic particle , are sources of the two electron waves emitted at the angle @xmath103 with respect to @xmath104 . the geometrical phase is obtained by multiplying the base @xmath224 by the projection of the electron momentum on the the direction of the field @xmath225 . our results for halogen negative ions are presented in fig . [ halfig ] and table [ hal ] . they have been obtained from eqs . ( [ sign ] ) , ( [ wj ] ) for comparison with the perturbation theory calculations @xcite at the nd : yag laser frequency @xmath226 a.u . in that work the non - relativistic hartree - fock wave functions of the valence @xmath227 electrons were used , together with experimental threshold energies . the photoelectron was described in the plane wave approximation . this approximation is equivalent to our use of the volkov wave function in the perturbation - theory limit . as shown in the earlier works by crance @xcite , the multiphoton detachment results obtained in the plane wave approximation are close to those obtained using the frozen core hartree - fock wave functions of the photoelectron . the shapes of angular distributions presented in fig . [ halfig ] are quite close to those in fig . 2 of ref . @xcite , although quantitative comparison is not feasible due to the use of an arbitrary vertical scale in @xcite . the absolute values of the @xmath0-photon detachment cross sections in from our calculations and @xcite compare reasonably on a logarithmic scale for all cases shown in table [ hal ] . however , there is a systematic discrepancy . to find its origin let us recall that the multiphoton detachment rate is very sensitive to the asymptotic behaviour of the bound - state wave function ( see end of sec . [ adap ] ) . in @xcite the hartree - fock wave functions have been used . their asymptotic behaviour @xmath228 is different from the correct @xmath229 , based on the experimental value of @xmath146 . thus , to account for the discrepancy in table [ hal ] , the hartree - fock based results should be multiplied by the factor @xmath230~,\ ] ] where , according to ( [ rlarge ] ) , @xmath231 . formula ( [ corr ] ) shows that when @xmath232 , the hartree - fock based calculations underestimate the detachment rate , while for @xmath233 they overestimate it . the hartree - fock values of @xmath234 are 0.602 , 0.545 , 0.528 , and 0.508 , for the outer @xmath227 subshell of f@xmath20 , cl@xmath20 , br@xmath20 , and i@xmath20 , respectively . examination of the lowest @xmath0 cross sections throughout table [ hal ] shows that the qualitative explanation of the discrepancy based on ( [ corr ] ) is correct . for example , for f@xmath20 where @xmath235 and @xmath236 , formula ( [ corr ] ) gives 2.6 , whereas the ratio of the 3-photon detachment cross sections for f@xmath20 , @xmath237 , in table [ hal ] is 4.3 . also , the best agreement in table [ hal ] is achieved for br@xmath20 , @xmath238 , where @xmath234 is very close to the correct value . therefore , we conclude that the incorrect asymptotic behaviour of the hartree - fock wave functions can produce significant errors in the multiphoton detachment rates . this must be kept in mind when comparisons are made between different @xmath0-photon detachment calculations @xcite . the main result of our work is that the adiabatic theory approach to the multiphoton problems originally suggested by keldysh , is more powerful and accurate than is generally believed . it yields accurate multiphoton detachment rates for negative ions , and reveals a number of interesting details about the physics of the problem : the role of large distances and asymptotic behaviour of the bound - state wave function , and the origin of oscillations in the angular distribution of photoelectrons . the formulae obtained in the paper allow one to make simple and reliable estimates of the @xmath0-photon detachment rates for @xmath1 in both perturbative and non - perturbative regimes . we would like to thank v. v. flambaum , w. r. johnson and o. p. sushkov for useful discussions , and v. n. ostrovsky for providing us with a reference . this work has been supported by the australian research council . suppose the system is in the initial state @xmath239 of the time - independent hamiltonian @xmath240 , and a periodic field @xmath241 is turned on adiabatically . we assume that this field can be strong , so that the lowest - order perturbation theory is inapplicable . the time - dependent wave function of the system @xmath242\psi\ ] ] can be presented as the sum @xmath243 over the set of eigenstates @xmath244 of the total hamiltonian , @xmath245\psi _ \lambda\ ] ] which represent the possible final states of the system , @xmath246 being the amplitude of finding the system in one of these states . in eq . ( [ sumlam ] ) we assume that @xmath247 at @xmath248 , and the rate of the transition @xmath249 is given by @xmath250 . according to the floquet theorem each state @xmath251 is characterized by its quasienergy @xmath252 and the corresponding periodic quasienergy wave function @xmath253 , found from @xmath254 \phi _ \lambda ~.\ ] ] at any given @xmath82 the quasienergy wave functions form a complete orthonormal set , @xmath255 . after inserting @xmath256 ( [ sumlam ] ) into eq . ( [ timeds ] ) and projecting it onto the state @xmath257 , we arrive at @xmath258 the last matrix element is a periodic function of time , @xmath259 where @xmath260 , and @xmath261 using ( [ perfun ] ) we re - write ( [ dadt ] ) as @xmath262 and find @xmath263 where the energies @xmath252 have been given an infinitesimal shift @xmath264 to make @xmath265 converge at @xmath45 . the probability is given by @xmath266 and the rate is @xmath267 where we dropped the oscillating terms since they do not contribute to the transition rate after we average it over a period . finally , we take the limit @xmath268 using the following representation of the @xmath269-function , @xmath270 and obtain @xmath271 where the amplitude @xmath272 given by eq . ( [ afour ] ) can be written as @xmath273 due to the energy conservation @xmath274 implied by the @xmath269-function . this amplitude describes the @xmath0-quantum process , and the total transition rate ( [ finform ] ) is the sum over all such processes . if the spectrum of @xmath275 is continuous , the differential transition rate @xmath276 is proportional to the corresponding density of states , @xmath277 consider the integral @xmath278dx\ ] ] for @xmath279 . in this case it is well known @xcite that the integration contour @xmath280 should be deformed to go through the saddle point @xmath281 where @xmath282 . the vicinity of this point gives the main contribution to the integral . if the function @xmath283 is not singular at @xmath284 , the integral ( [ j ] ) is evaluated as @xmath285~.\ ] ] if @xmath283 has a singularity at @xmath284 , e.g. @xmath286 , the saddle - point answer has to be modified . consider the following integral , @xmath287}{(x - x_0)^\nu}dx~.\ ] ] by using the transformation @xcite @xmath288~,\ ] ] we turn ( [ int3 ] ) into the double integral , @xmath289dx~.\ ] ] calculating @xmath290 by means of ( [ int2 ] ) and then integrating over @xmath291 we obtain for @xmath292 , @xmath293^{\nu /2}\exp [ -\lambda f(x_0)]~.\ ] ] for @xmath294 we , of course , recover ( [ int2 ] ) . e - mail : [email protected] e - mail : [email protected] a. m. dykhne , zh . . fiz . * 38 * , 570 ( 1960 ) [ sov . jetp * 11 * , 411 ( 1960 ) ] . landau and e. m. lifshitz , _ quantum mechanics . nonrelativistic theory _ , ( pergamon , oxford , 1965 ) . l. v. keldysh , zh . fiz . * 47 * , 1945 ( 1964 ) [ sov . jetp * 20 * , 1307 ( 1965 ) ] . d. m. volkov , z. phys . * 94 * , 250 ( 1935 ) . a. m. perelomov , v. s. popov , and m. v. terentev , zh . . fiz . * 50 * , 1393 ( 1966 ) [ sov . jetp * 23 * , 924 ( 1966 ) ] . note that eq . ( 53 ) of this paper contains a misprint in the phase factor before @xmath188 . the correct factor is @xmath295 , see eq . ( [ wperel ] ) of the present work . f. h. m. faisal , j. phys . b * 6 * , l89 ( 1973 ) . h. r. reiss , phys . rev . a * 22 * , 1786 ( 1980 ) . i. i. fabrikant , zh . . fiz . * 79 * 2070 ( 1980 ) [ sov . jetp * 52 * , 1045 ( 1980 ) ] . n. demkov , v. d. kondratovich , and v. n. ostrovsky , pisma zh . . fiz . * 34 * , 425 ( 1981 ) [ jetp lett . * 34 * , 403 ( 1981 ) ] . c. r. liu , b. gao , and a. starace , phys . a * 46 * , 5985 ( 1992 ) . m. crance , j. phys . b * 21 * , 3559 ( 1988 ) . c. laughlin and s. i. chu , phys . a * 48 * , 4654 ( 1993 ) . h. w. van der hart , phys . a * 50 * , 2508 ( 1994 ) . d. proulx , m. pont , and r. shakeshaft , phys . a * 49 * , 1208 ( 1994 ) . l. dimou and f. h. m. faisal , j. phys . b * 27 * , l333 ( 1994 ) . j. wang , s. i. chu , and c. laughlin , phys . a * 50 * , 3208 ( 1994 ) . d. a. telnov and s. i. chu , phys . a * 50 * , 4099 ( 1994 ) . m. drr , j. purvis , m. terao - dunseath , p. g. burke , c. j. joachain , and c. j. noble , j. phys . b * 28 * , 4481 ( 1995 ) . h. w. van der hart , j. phys . b * 29 * , 3059 ( 1996 ) . kuchiev , pisma zh . * 45 * , 319 ( 1987 ) [ jetp lett . * 45 * , 404 ( 1987 ) ] . m. yu . kuchiev , j. phys . b * 28 * , 5093 ( 1995 ) . kuchiev , phys . a * 212 * , 77 ( 1996 ) . a. m. perelomov and v. s. popov , zh . 52 * , 514 ( 1967 ) [ sov . jetp * 25 * , 336 ( 1967 ) ] . s. v. fomichev and d. f. zaretsky , phys . lett . a , * 144 * , 91 ( 1990 ) . n. demkov and g. f. drukarev , zh . . fiz . * 47 * , 918 ( 1964 ) [ sov . jetp * 20 * , 614 ( 1965 ) ] . b. m. smirnov and m. i. chibisov , zh . . fiz . * 49 * , 841 ( 1965 ) [ sov . jetp * 22 * , 585 ( 1966 ) ] . the incorrect numerical coefficient in eq . ( 11 ) of this paper was corrected in @xcite . i. s. gradshtein and i. m. ryzhik , _ tables of integrals , series , and products _ ( boston , academic press , 1994 ) . d. a. varshalovich , a. n. moskalev , v. k. khersonskii , _ quantum theory of angular momentum : irreducible tensors , spherical harmonics , vector coupling coefficients , 3nj symbols _ ( singapore , world scientific pub . , 1988 ) . note that the final answer for the probability presented in @xcite [ eq . ( 16 ) ] is two times smaller than one would get from ( [ asad3 ] ) , neglecting the interference between the two terms . this possibly means that the contribution of only one saddle point has been taken into account in @xcite . i. i. fabrikant , j. phys . b * 26 * , 2533 ( 1993 ) . s. wolfram , _ mathematica : a system for doing mathematics by computer _ ( addison - wesely publishing co. , california , 1991 ) . e. e. nikitin and b. m. smirnov , _ atomic and molecular processes _ ( moscow , nauka , 1988 ) . h. hotop and w. c. lineberger , j. phys . data * 14 * , 731 ( 1985 ) . a. a. radtsig and b. m. smirnov , _ parameters of atoms and atomic ions : handbook _ ( moscow , energoatomizdat , 1986 ) . m. crance , j. phys . b * 20 * , l411 ( 1987 ) ; _ ibid . _ * 20 * , 6553 ( 1987 ) . e. t. copson , _ asymptotic expansions _ ( cambridge , university press , 1965 ) . .the epd spectra of h@xmath20 in the strong laser field of @xmath212 a.u . the detachment rates calculated by our saddle - point method ( sp ) , eq . ( [ res ] ) , @xmath203 and @xmath296 , are compared with the non - perturbative results by telnov and chu @xcite.[hmin ] [ cols="^,^,^,^,^,^,^ " , ]	a simple analytical solution for the problem of multiphoton detachment from negative ions by a linearly polarized laser field is found . it is valid in the wide range of intensities and frequencies of the field , from the perturbation theory to the tunneling regime , and is applicable to the excess - photon as well as near - threshold detachment . practically , the formulae are valid when the number of photons is greater than two . they produce the total detachment rates , relative intensities of the excess - photon peaks , and photoelectron angular distributions for the hydrogen and halogen negative ions , in agreement with those obtained in other , more numerically involved calculations in both perturbative and non - perturbative regimes . our approach explains the extreme sensitivity of the multiphoton detachment probability to the asymptotic behaviour of the bound - state wave function . rapid oscillations in the angular dependence of the @xmath0-photon detachment probability are shown to arise due to interference of the two classical trajectories which lead to the same final state after the electron emerges at the opposite sides of the atom when the field is close to maximal .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Get Real Incentives to Drive Plug-in Act''. SEC. 2. DEFINITION. For purposes of this Act, the term ``plug-in hybrid electric vehicle'' means an on-road or nonroad vehicle that is propelled by an internal combustion engine or heat engine using-- (1) any combustible fuel; (2) an on-board, rechargeable storage device; and (3) a means of using an off-board source of electricity. SEC. 3. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT GRANTS. (a) In General.--The Secretary of Transportation shall establish a program to make grants to owners of domestic motor vehicle manufacturing or production facilities for research and development on plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. (b) Authorization of Appropriations.--There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of Transportation for carrying out this section $500,000,000 for the period encompassing fiscal years 2008 through 2012. SEC. 4. PILOT PROJECT. The Secretary of Transportation shall establish a pilot project to determine how best to integrate plug-in hybrid electric vehicles into the electric power grid and into the overall transportation infrastructure. SEC. 5. TEST SITE. The Secretary of Transportation shall establish a test site for the advancement of battery technologies for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, to be modeled after the Department of Transportation's NHTSA Vehicle Research and Test Center in Ohio. SEC. 6. PLAN. Not later than 2 years after the date of enactment of this Act, the Secretary of Transportation, in collaboration with the Secretary of Energy, shall transmit to Congress a plan for the introduction and implementation of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle support infrastructure. SEC. 7. PLUG-IN HYBRID MOTOR VEHICLE TAX CREDIT. (a) In General.--Section 30B of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 is amended by redesignating subsections (i) and (j) as subsections (j) and (k), respectively, and by inserting after subsection (h) the following new subsection: ``(i) New Plug-in Hybrid Motor Vehicle Credit.-- ``(1) In general.--For purposes of subsection (a), the new plug-in hybrid motor vehicle credit determined under this subsection with respect to a new qualified plug-in hybrid motor vehicle placed in service by the taxpayer during the taxable year is $3,000, if such vehicle is a new qualified plug-in hybrid motor vehicle with a gross vehicle weight rating of not more than 8,500 pounds. ``(2) New qualified plug-in hybrid motor vehicle.--For purposes of this subsection, the term `new qualified plug-in hybrid motor vehicle' means a motor vehicle-- ``(A) which is propelled by an internal combustion engine or heat engine using-- ``(i) any combustible fuel, ``(ii) an on-board, rechargeable storage device, and ``(iii) a means of using an off-board source of electricity, ``(B) which, in the case of a passenger automobile or light truck, has received on or after the date of the enactment of this section a certificate that such vehicle meets or exceeds the Bin 5 Tier II emission level established in regulations prescribed by the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency under section 202(i) of the Clean Air Act for that make and model year vehicle, ``(C) the original use of which commences with the taxpayer, ``(D) which is acquired for use or lease by the taxpayer and not for resale, and ``(E) which is made by a manufacturer.''. (b) Conforming Amendments.-- (1) Section 30B(a) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 is amended by striking ``and'' at the end of paragraph (3), by striking the period at the end of paragraph (4) and inserting ``, and'', and by adding at the end the following new paragraph: ``(5) the new plug-in hybrid motor vehicle credit determined under subsection (i).''. (2) Section 30B(k)(2) of such Code, as redesignated by subsection (a), is amended by striking ``or'' and inserting a comma and by inserting ``, or a new qualified plug-in hybrid motor vehicle (as described in subsection (i)(2))'' after ``subsection (d)(2)(A))''. (c) Effective Date.--The amendments made by this section shall apply to property placed in service after the date of the enactment of this Act, in taxable years ending after such date. SEC. 8. REQUIREMENT REGARDING PURCHASE OF MOTOR VEHICLES BY EXECUTIVE AGENCIES. (a) In General.--At least 10 percent of the motor vehicles purchased by an Executive agency in any fiscal year shall be comprised of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. (b) Definitions.--In this section: (1) The term ``Executive agency'' has the meaning given that term in section 105 of title 5, United States Code, but also includes Amtrak, the Smithsonian Institution, and the United States Postal Service. (2) The term ``motor vehicle'' has the meaning given that term in section 102(7) of title 40, United States Code. (c) Pro-Rated Applicability in Year of Enactment.--In the fiscal year in which this Act is enacted, the requirement in subsection (a) shall only apply with respect to motor vehicles purchased after the date of the enactment of this Act in such fiscal year.	Get Real Incentives to Drive Plug-in Act - Directs the Secretary of Transportation to establish: (1) a program to make grants to motor vehicle manufacturers for research and development on plug-in hybrid electric vehicles; (2) a pilot project on how best to integrate plug-in hybrid electric vehicles into the electric power grid and into the overall transportation infrastructure; and (3) a test site for the advancement of battery technologies for such vehicles. Amends the Internal Revenue Code to establish a tax credit for taxpayers who own or lease a new plug-in hybrid motor vehicle. Requires at least 10% of the motor vehicles purchased by a federal agency in any fiscal year to be plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.
the arsenal of treatments for psoriasis continues to grow . originally limited to topical steroids , phototherapy , and systemic therapies , as the patents associated with the biologics are set to expire in the near future , a new type of therapy appears on the horizon , and it is quite similar to the biologics . herein , we discuss the biomedical and market issues surrounding biosimilars ; this article is based on previously conducted studies and does not involve any new studies of human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors . created under the biologicals price competition and innovation act of 2009 , biosimilars are less costly imitations that show high similarity to an already fda - approved biological product , known as the reference product . in order to be approved by the fda , a biosimilar product must show no clinically meaningful difference from the reference product . the biosimilar must have the same mechanism of action , route of administration , dosage form , and strength as the reference production . in addition , a biosimilar can only be approved for the same indications and conditions that have been previously approved for the reference product . to be considered an interchangeable biological product , the biosimilar must produce the same clinical result as the reference product in any given patient . once a biosimilar has been fda approved , health care providers and patients will rely upon the safety and effectiveness of the biosimilar just as they would for the reference product . biosimilars have the potential to reduce treatment costs compared with those of reference products . while biologic agents may be more effective compared to most traditional systemic therapeutic options , their use is associated with a much higher cost . with annual costs ranging between $ 13,000 and $ 30,000 per patient , cost effectiveness is an important consideration for both the patient and the physician when choosing to use a biologic agent . biosimilars may hold the promise of being a cheaper substitution for biologics in the future , but their short - term cost rivals that of developing biologics . to enter the market , biosimilars need to overcome barriers that are much more difficult than typically seen with small - molecule generic drugs . safety , pricing , manufacturing , physician acceptance , and marketing differentiate the biosimilar market from the generics market . compared to an average of 3 years and $ 14 million between development and approval of a drug in the generic market , it takes 78 years to develop a biosimilar at a cost of between $ 100 million and $ 250 million [ 4 , 5 ] . also , companies may be reluctant to develop biosimilars because it may be just as hard to get the biosimilar approved by the fda as it was for its reference biologic . to offset the cost and share the intrinsic risk of biosimilar development , pharmaceutical alliances between large , well - established companies are expected to dominate the market . companies experienced in manufacturing , especially manufacturing biologics , will have a considerable advantage over new companies with no such manufacturing experience . for example , well - established companies such as amgen and hospira will likely lead because they already have the research , development , and marketing expertise required to produce biologics , while newer companies face a steep learning curve , a complicated manufacturing process , and a risky market . additionally , biosimilars consist of relatively large , complex proteins that are often more difficult to replicate , unlike generic medicines , which are chemical , small - molecule drugs that are equivalent in structure and therapy to the reference agent . contrary to chemical synthesis , the living systems in which biosimilars are produced are inherently variable . biologics are manufactured through complex engineering that involves genetically modified unique cell lines designed to produce the desired antibody and purification processes that monitor for possible variations . biosimilars are produced using different cell lines and extraction / purification processes than the reference product . this results in heterogenicity due to variations in posttranslational modifications , such as glycosylation , or physical and chemical degradation , including deamidation , cleavage , and aggregation . therefore , biosimilars are not identical to the reference product and consist of a mixture of variants of the same protein . for this reason , evaluation includes pharmaco - toxicological , pharmokinetic , pharmodynamic , efficacy , and clinical safety studies with emphasis on the immunogenicity of the biosimilar . currently in europe , two infliximab biosimilars have reached the market : remsima and inflectra . they are the same molecule ( ct - p13 ) , which is commercialized under two different names by the manufacturers celltrion and hospira , respectively . both are biosimilars to infliximab , the 1gg1 chimeric human - murine monoclonal antibody that targets tnf-. the european medicines agency ( ema ) approved these biosimilars after reviewing their efficacy and safety in a phase 1 pharmokinetic study of patients with ankylosing spondylitis and in a phase 3 study evaluating efficacy in patients with rheumatoid arthritis [ 8 , 9 ] . the ema extrapolated from these studies to approve remsima and inflectra for treatment of psoriasis . more recently , four patients with severe psoriasis resistant to systemic therapies underwent treatment with remsima . patients were treated with remsima in a similar manner as with infliximab : 5 mg / kg iv at weeks 0 , 2 , and 6 , and then every 8 weeks . after treatment , three of four ( 3/4 ) patients achieved almost complete remission , while the last achieved a reduction in skin symptoms . the study concluded that remsima was comparable to infliximab in efficacy and safety , although the power to detect meaningful differences was limited . inflectra has been approved for the treatment of crohn s disease , ulcerative colitis , rheumatoid arthritis , ankylosing spondylitis , psoriatic arthritis , and plaque psoriasis . while inflectra has been approved as a biologic , it is yet to be determined if it will be approved to be a biologic approved as interchangeable may be substituted for the reference product without the prescriber s knowledge , and in the us , this can result in automatic substitution . the biosimilar is expected to produce the same clinical result as the reference product in any given patient , and , if the biosimilar is administered more than once to an individual , the risk of adverse events or diminished efficacy of alternating or switching between the use of the biosimilar and the reference product is not greater than the risk of using the reference product alone [ 1 , 2 ] . however , the fda has not yet established criteria that must be met to obtain the status of interchangeable , and it is unlikely that any biosimilar will receive that designation anytime soon . even if a medication were to be considered legislation for automatic substitution is up to each state , regardless of the fda s designation . the potential for automatic substitutions , the inherent variability that exists with biosimilars , and the possibility for immunogenicity and antibody formation are concerns that many dermatologists will have as biosimilars hit the market . while many hope that the introduction of biosimilars will improve access to treatment and lessen the economic burden on healthcare , it remains important that biosimilars undergo head - to - head comparison with the reference product at every step during development to ensure high similarity , safety , and efficacy . a biosimilar version of etanercept and adalimumab could be available in the us within the next 3 years . already , clinical trials are underway to compare the efficacy and safety of etanercept and adalimumab to their biosimilar counterparts [ 13 , 14 ] . given the potential for differences in immunogenicity between the reference product and biosimilar , the postmarketing surveillance applied to biologics should also be applied to biosimilars . postmarketing programs will determine efficacy and safety of biosimilars , while ensuring their similarity to the reference product .	as the patents associated with the biologics are set to expire in the near future , a new type of therapy appears on the horizon , and it is quite similar to the biologics . this commentary examines the biomedical and market issues surrounding the advent of biosimilars .
Tweet with a location You can add location information to your Tweets, such as your city or precise location, from the web and via third-party applications. You always have the option to delete your Tweet location history. Learn more \|\|\|\|\| President-elect Donald Trump and his wife, Melania, visit the Lincoln Memorial before the “Make America Great Again” concert. Jan. 19, 2017 President-elect Donald Trump and his wife, Melania, visit the Lincoln Memorial before the “Make America Great Again” concert. Jabin Botsford/The Washington Post He has been holding interviews and meetings as he prepares to enter the White House. Trump has been holding interviews and meetings as he prepares to transition into the White House. Trump has been holding interviews and meetings as he prepares to transition into the White House. Here’s what President-elect Donald Trump has been doing after the election Here’s what President-elect Donald Trump has been doing after the election President-elect Donald Trump tweeted Thanksgiving morning that he was trying to make good on a campaign promise that a Carrier air-conditioning factory in Indiana, and its 1,400 jobs, would not move to Mexico in 2019 as planned. “I am working hard, even on Thanksgiving, trying to get Carrier A.C. Company to stay in the U.S. (Indiana). MAKING PROGRESS — Will know soon!” Trump tweeted. Carrier, a division of United Technologies of Farmington, Conn., responded with a tweet about an hour later: “Carrier has had discussions with the incoming administration and we look forward to working together. Nothing to announce at this time.” During the campaign, Trump called the planned closure of the Indianapolis plant “disgusting” and “un-American” and made it a campaign rallying cry. At an Indianapolis event in April, he went further, offering the crowd a “100 percent” guarantee the plant would not leave if he were elected. “Here’s what’s going to happen,” Trump said, according to Bloomberg News. “They’re going to call me, and they are going to say, ‘Mr. President, Carrier has decided to stay in Indiana.’ ” 1 of 35 Full Screen Autoplay Close Skip Ad × Here’s a look at Trump’s administration so far View Photos The men and women the president-elect has selected for his Cabinet and White House team. Caption The men and women the president-elect has selected for his Cabinet and White House team. Scott Gottlieb, nominee for commissioner of FDA President Trump is set to nominate Scott Gottlieb, a conservative physician and businessman with deep ties to the pharmaceutical industry, to be commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration, a White House official said. Courtesy of American Enterprise Institute/via Reuters Buy Photo Wait 1 second to continue. “One hundred percent — that’s what is going to happen,” Trump added. “It’s not like we have an 80 percent chance of keeping them or a 95 percent. One hundred percent.” The Carrier back-and-forth was reminiscent of a similar exchange over manufacturing facilities that Trump began a week earlier, when he said on Twitter that he had received a call from Bill Ford, executive chairman of Ford Motor Co., saying that “he will be keeping the Lincoln plant in Kentucky — no Mexico.” Trump’s claim was exaggerated, as Ford’s union contract prevented it from shutting down its Louisville assembly plant. Ford clarified that it had merely decided not to relocate production of a single vehicle model, the Lincoln MKC, from Kentucky. Carrier announced its plans to shut down the Indiana plant in February, with the closure slated for 2019. Chris Nelson, a Carrier president overseeing the unit, issued a statement at the time saying the move to Mexico would allow the company “to operate more cost effectively” because of the industry’s ongoing migration to that area as well as “cost and pricing pressures driven, in part, by new regulatory requirements.” The closure could lead to the loss of more than $100 million to the Indiana economy and more than 1,000 other jobs that indirectly relied on the plant, according to some estimates. Trump’s promise to save the plant was met with skepticism in some corners of Indiana, the home state of Vice President-elect Mike Pence, but Trump carried the state easily over Democratic rival Hillary Clinton. \|\|\|\|\| Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump (right) talks with Gov. Mike Pence, R-Ind., during a campaign event to announce Pence as the vice presidential running mate on, Saturday, July 16, 2016, in New York. Trump was elected president on Nov. 8. (Photo: Evan Vucci/AP) President-elect Donald Trump spent at least part of his Thanksgiving trying to convince Carrier Corp. to keep its Indianapolis plant open. Trump on Thursday hinted that he's "making progress" toward a campaign pledge of reversing Carrier Corp.'s plan to shutter its Indianapolis operations and relocate jobs to Mexico by 2019. "I am working hard, even on Thanksgiving, trying to get Carrier A.C. Company to stay in the U.S. (Indiana)," Trump said in a Twitter post. "MAKING PROGRESS - Will know soon!" The Connecticut-based air conditioning maker issued its own statement on Twitter, acknowledging that it has been in discussions with Trump's administration. Carrier did not describe the nature of those talks. "Carrier has had discussions with the incoming administration and we look forward to working together," Carrier said on Twitter. "Nothing to announce at this time." Carrier earlier this year announced that it would close its Westside plant by 2019, laying off 1,400 workers. They layoffs are scheduled to begin next year. Carrier has said it will move those jobs to Monterrey, Mexico. Trump campaigned, in part, on keeping manufacturing jobs in America and punishing companies that move work outside the U.S. Trump made a particular example of Carrier, saying he would "tax the hell" out of the company if it followed through on its plan. Trump in the spring said he could persuade Carrier to stay in Indianapolis. "You’re going to bring it across the border, and we’re going to charge you a 35 percent tax," Trump said in April. "Now within 24 hours, they’re going to call back: 'Mr. President, we’ve decided to stay. We’re coming back to Indianapolis.' " Carrier already has taken several steps toward moving its Indianapolis operations to Mexico. The company has reached a severance agreement with workers, agreed to repay the city $1.2 million for past tax breaks and refunded $380,000 to the state for grants. Carrier is owned by United Technologies Corp., which is a government contractor. Gov. Mike Pence, who is Trump's vice president-elect, already took a shot at changing Carrier's plans. Pence met with Carrier in March. Although he was unsuccessful at convincing Carrier to remain in Indianapolis, Pence urged the company to repay state and city incentives it had received. Call IndyStar reporter James Briggs at (317) 444-6307. Follow him on Twitter: @JamesEBriggs. Read or Share this story: http://indy.st/2fWrfeF	– Donald Trump has softened on a few campaign promises lately but he says he spent Thanksgiving trying to fulfill one: Persuading Carrier Corp. to keep an air-con factory in Indiana instead of moving it to Mexico. He tweeted Thursday that he was "working hard" on saving the factory and was "MAKING PROGRESS." The Washington Post reports that after Trump's tweet, the company tweeted that it had "nothing to announce at this time," but it has "had discussions with the incoming administration and we look forward to working together." On the campaign trail, Trump slammed the planned closure as "disgusting" and gave a crowd in Indianapolis a "100% guarantee" that the plant and its 1,400 jobs would stay in the US. "Here's what's going to happen," Trump said. " They’re going to call me and they are going to say 'Mr. President, Carrier has decided to stay in Indiana.'" In another campaign stop, he promised to "tax the hell" out of the company and slap a 35% tariff on its product if it did move the factory over the border, the Indianapolis Star reports. Before he became Trump's running mate, Indiana Gov. Mike Pence tried to keep the plant in Indiana after it announced its plan to begin layoffs next year and move production to Monterrey by 2019. Pence was unsuccessful, but he managed to persuade the company to repay Indianapolis $1.2 million for past tax breaks and return $380,000 in state grants. (Last week, Trump claimed to have kept a Ford plant in Kentucky.)
China Southern Airlines might want to invest in a more engaging safety precaution video. The latest in a series of emergency exit door mishaps on the airline saw a 50-year-old Chinese woman open the emergency hatch because she mistook it for the toilet door, local reports say. In her haste to use the bathroom, she even managed to deploy the emergency slide, as the plane was getting ready to take off from Chongqing Airport, reported The Beijing News. SEE ALSO: People are abusing delicate cherry blossom trees for the perfect spring selfie The flight last Friday was bound for Shenzhen, China, and experienced a two hour delay, as a result. According to several passengers on flight CZ3456, who took to their Weibo accounts to recount the incident, a loud hissing sound was heard and people started to panic. Image: weibo The crew proceeded to evacuate the plane, so airport staff could investigate the matter and fix the problem. Whoops. Image: weibo The unnamed passenger later told staff that it was her first time onboard an airplane and she had thought that there was another bathroom behind the emergency exit door. She was trying to avoid the snaking queue for the real bathroom when the incident took place. Although no one was injured, airport authorities are investigating the disturbance. Chinese civil aviation law dictates that passengers found to endanger flight safety can be held criminally liable. Just earlier this month, a man caused flight delays on a China Southern Airlines flight when he opened the plane's emergency exit door to get some fresh air. Have something to add to this story? Share it in the comments. \|\|\|\|\| The cabin crew and passengers on China Southern Airlines flight CZ3693 got a rude shock Wednesday morning when a passenger onboard the flight opened the emergency exit door before takeoff from Chengdu Airport. According to the offending passenger, he was just trying to "get some fresh air" and had mistaken the door handle as a lever to open the plane's windows, reported Chengdu Commercial News. The plane was carrying a total of 130 passengers and was bound for Urumqi, China. Due to the incident, the flight was delayed for over an hour. While the crew investigated the matter, airport ground staff proceeded to shut the door from the outside and carried out last-minute safety checks. Chengdu airport ground staff closing the door from the outside. Image: Weibo The offence of the unauthorised opening of a plane's emergency exit door is a fine and possible criminal detention. From seat 41A. Image: weibo It is not known if the passenger seated in seat 41A will face charges or be blacklisted from air-travel. This incident is the latest in a spate of plane passenger drama. In January last year, two Chinese passengers decided to open a plane's emergency exit doors in protest of flight delays. The act landed the both of them in prison. A man onboard a KLM flight was also arrested last September when he mistook the plane's exit door for a toilet door. Have something to add to this story? Share it in the comments.	– You'd think bright red lettering would be enough for a passenger to distinguish a plane's emergency exit from a bathroom door—not to mention the window offering a clear view outside. Yet a first-time air traveler in China says she mistook a cabin door for the entrance to a toilet on a China Southern Airlines flight on Friday, causing an emergency slide to deploy, reports Mashable. Thankfully the flight to Shenzhen was still grounded at Chongqing Airport, where it had to remain for two hours. Passengers who were removed from the flight say a loud hissing noise could be heard when the 50-year-old touched the emergency door's handle. The woman later told officials that she had wanted to avoid the line for the bathroom and thought the door led to another toilet. An investigation is ongoing, but the woman didn't return to the plane, reports Shanghaiist. A man opened an emergency exit on a China Southern Airlines flight at the same airport earlier this month, per Mashable. His excuse: he wanted fresh air.
the origin of the non thermal , diffuse emission ( radio , x - ray and uv ) in galaxy clusters still remains poorly understood . the general consensus is that the radio and x - ray non thermal emission are likely to be produced by a population of relativistic electrons via synchrotron emission and inverse compton scattering ( hereafter ics ) off the microwave background photons , respectively . however , the origin , acceleration and propagation of these relativistic electrons are still subject to debate . if electrons are accelerated in discrete sources in the central regions of clusters , the severe energy losses and the diffusive motion force the electrons to cover at most distances of order of a few kpc from the source , while diffuse radio emission is clearly observed on mpc scales @xcite . to solve this problem , reacceleration models have been invoked ( see @xcite for a discussion ) , though the nature of the _ in situ _ acceleration is not yet completely clear . a natural solution to the problem mentioned above was first proposed in @xcite and @xcite , where the electrons responsible for the non - thermal emission were produced _ in situ _ as secondary products of cosmic ray nucleons interacting with the protons in the intracluster medium ( hereafter icm ) . cosmic rays ( hereafter cr ) in clusters of galaxies are , in fact , practically free from energy losses and can reach large distances from the source . an interesting consequence of this model is that not only electrons but also gamma rays ( through the decay of neutral pions ) and neutrinos are also produced in the same interactions @xcite . we show here that this point can strongly constrain the validity of the secondary electron model ( hereafter sem ) as the explanation of the diffuse , non - thermal emission from galaxy clusters . the sem in his original version @xcite was recently questioned @xcite as the explanation of the diffuse radio halo of coma , because of the too steep cr spectrum [ @xmath2 required to fit the data . the aim of this paper is to calculate the flux and the spectra of the non - thermal radio , uv and hard x - ray emission from coma in the framework of the sem , addressing the following points , not considered in previous works : _ i _ ) the calculations in @xcite are all carried out in the assumption that cr are permanently confined in the cluster volume . indeed , as shown in @xcite and @xcite this is true only for cr with energy below a _ confinement energy _ @xmath3 ( see section 2 below ) , which depends quite strongly on the diffusion coefficient in the icm ; _ ii _ ) in previous calculations @xcite , a spatially homogeneous equilibrium distribution of cr was always assumed . however , if cr are mainly contributed by a small number of discrete powerful sources in the cluster core ( as it seems to be the case in coma ) , the distribution of cr due to diffusion is strongly inhomogeneous ( for instance in the case of a single source the cr distribution goes as @xmath4 if @xmath5 is the distance to the source ) . similar conclusions hold in case of shocks produced by ( sub)cluster merging or during the cluster collapse , as sources of cr in the clusters . we consider here both the cases of a single source and of a spatially homogeneous injection of cr in the icm ; _ iii _ ) the observable fluxes of non - thermal radiation are calculated as a convolution of the distribution of cr and of the targets for cr interactions , which are provided by the ic gas protons . therefore the spatial distribution of the ic gas , never considered in previous calculations , can have a relevant role and needs to be considered ; _ iv _ ) in the previous works @xcite a quite steep spectrum , @xmath6 , for the coma radio halo was considered for the comparison with the model predictions . this was the main reason to call for a correspondingly steep cr spectrum and eventually claim to rule out the sem @xcite . however recent observations ( see , e.g. , @xcite ) show that the radio spectrum from coma is well fitted by a power law with power index @xmath7 up to a frequency @xmath8 ghz , while there is a still controversial evidence for a steepening at higher frequencies ( see @xcite @xcite ; see also @xcite for a review ) . _ v _ ) we use here a detailed treatment for the @xmath9 collisions , which is particularly important in the calculation of the fluxes of gamma and uv radiation from clusters of galaxies . in addition to the points listed above , there are some recent data that introduce new limits on the sem . in particular , the combination of the egret limit on the gamma ray emission from coma @xcite and the recent detection of an hard x - ray non - thermal tail above @xmath10 kev from coma , obtained by the sax @xcite and the rxte @xcite experiments , allows us to strongly constrain the validity of the sem as a combined explanation of both the radio halo emission and the hard x - ray excess . furthermore , we also consider the still debated evidence of a diffuse uv emission from coma @xcite as a possible indication of ics emission from very low energy electrons . the structure of the paper is the following : in section 2 we discuss the cr propagation in clusters of galaxies ; in section 3 we derive the secondary electron spectrum from cr collisions in the icm . we present our calculations for the non - thermal , diffuse radio and x - ray emission in section 4.1 and 4.2 , respectively . in section [ gamma ] we also derive the expected gamma - ray flux produced by the same cr interactions responsible for the secondary electrons . in section [ coma ] the calculations are applied and discussed in the case of coma . our conclusions are presented in the final section [ discussion ] . throughout the paper we use an dimensionless hubble parameter @xmath11 and @xmath12 , unless otherwise specified . following @xcite , we first assume that the accelerated crs in clusters are mainly supplied by radio galaxies or more generally by active galaxies and/or by the possible shocks occurring predominantly in the central regions of galaxy clusters . as estimated in @xcite we can expect nearly one of these active galaxies per rich cluster , on average , and also we can expect that there is at least one major shock after its formation @xcite in the central regions of the clusters . actually , this seems to be the situation in the coma cluster ( see @xcite ) . for simplicity , we consider here a cr source in the central region of the cluster irrespective of its peculiar nature . we will also discuss the more general case of an extended distribution of cluster cr sources in a forthcoming paper @xcite . in the end of this section we consider the case of a spatially homogeneous injection of cr as an extreme case opposite to that of a single source . in the typical magnetic fields present in clusters of galaxies ( see @xcite and @xcite for reviews ) , the propagation of cr is diffusive and can be described by the transport equation : @xmath13 = q(e_p)\delta ( \vec { r } ) , \label{eq : transport}\ ] ] where @xmath14 is the density of crs with energy @xmath15 at distance @xmath5 from the source , @xmath16 [ with @xmath17 being the proton momentum ] is the assumed spectrum of the cr source and @xmath18 is the rate of energy losses . the normalization constant , @xmath19 , is related to the cr luminosity , @xmath20 , by @xmath21 where @xmath22 is the kinetic energy of the proton . the diffusion coefficient , @xmath23 , has been explicitely assumed to be independent of @xmath5 because we consider an average magnetic field uniformly distributed in the icm . as for the diffusion coefficient , we adopted the same approach as in @xcite . specifically , we assume that the spectrum of the fluctuations in the ic magnetic field is described by a kolmogorov spectrum , @xmath24 , and we use the following expression to relate the diffusion coefficient @xmath23 to @xmath25 : @xmath26 @xmath27 here @xmath28 is the larmor radius of the particles with energy @xmath15 and @xmath29 is the rms magnetic field strength ( @xmath30 is its value expressed in @xmath31 ) . the normalization constant @xmath32 is obtained requiring that the total energy density in the field equals @xmath33 . here @xmath34 is the size of the largest eddy in the magnetic field . in clusters of galaxies ( [ eq : transport ] ) simplifies appreciably because the term of energy losses can be neglected . in fact , for a typical rich cluster with ic gas mass , @xmath35 , and total mass , @xmath36 , over a distance comparable with the abell radius @xmath37 mpc , the average ic gas density turns out to be @xmath38 , which corresponds to a column density of @xmath39 ( here @xmath40 is the cross section for @xmath9 collisions and @xmath41 is the proton mass ) . this estimate is found assuming cr confined in the cluster for times comparable with the cluster age . for non confined cr , the ic gas column density is even lower . in this framework , the solution of eq.([eq : transport ] ) found at the present time , @xmath42 , after the source started to produce cr is given by : @xmath43 where the source term has been assumed active for all the age , @xmath44 of the cluster ( which is comparable , for our purposes , to the age , @xmath42 , of the universe ) . we introduce the quantity @xmath45 which represents the average maximum distance that a particle with energy @xmath15 can diffuse away from the source in the time @xmath42 . if @xmath46 , then the lower limit in the integral in eq.([eq : sol ] ) above is small and eq.([eq : sol ] ) gives the well known stationary solution : @xmath47 at distances larger than @xmath48 the density of particles with energy @xmath49 is suppressed . if @xmath50 is the confinement size of a cluster ( here we consider @xmath51 the radio halo size ) , then the solution of the equation @xmath52 gives an estimate of the maximum energy , @xmath53 , for which crs are confined inside the cluster . thus , particles with energy lower than @xmath3 need times larger than @xmath42 to leave the cluster , and particles with energy larger than @xmath3 diffuse away from the cluster in the time @xmath54 . in other words , clusters of galaxies can be considered as _ closed boxes _ only for crs having energy @xmath55 @xcite . finally , we discuss here also the extreme case of a homogeneous injection of cr in the icm . in this case the equilibrium cr distribution is simply given by @xmath56 where again the constant @xmath57 is obtained requiring that @xmath58 and @xmath59 is the total energy injected in the cluster volume @xmath60 in the form of cr . this neglects the leaking of cr from the boundary of the cluster , which is equivalent to assume that the relevant cr are confined in the cluster . this assumption is justified , because even if cr with high energy do escape , they do not appreciably affect the energy balance in the cluster for injection spectra steeper than @xmath61 at high energy . note that eq . ( [ eq : sol_homo ] ) is no longer valid close to the cluster boundary . crs interact with the ic gas protons and produce electrons ( @xmath62 ) , neutrinos and gamma rays through the decays of charged and neutral pions , respectively ( see , e.g. , @xcite ) . in this section we concentrate on the electron component which is relevant for the calculations of the radio , uv and hard x - ray emission . the spectrum of secondary electrons with energy @xmath63 at distance @xmath5 from the cr source is readily calculated by convolution of the proton , pion and muon spectra and is given by : @xmath64 @xmath65 where @xmath66 is the maximum proton energy ( note that our calculations are insensitive to the exact value of @xmath66 ) , @xmath67 is the threshold energy for the production of pions with energy @xmath68 and we put @xmath69 where @xmath70 and @xmath71 is the velocity of muons in units of the light speed . the quantity @xmath72 is the equilibrium cr spectrum at distance @xmath5 from the source , as given by eq . ( [ eq : sol ] ) for a single cr source or from eq . ( [ eq : sol_homo ] ) in the case of a homogeneous cr injection . the quantity @xmath73 is the density profile of the ic gas as a function of the radial distance from the cluster center and is well fitted by a king profile , @xmath74^{-3\beta_{ic}/2},$ ] where @xmath75 is the central ic gas density , @xmath76 is the core radius and @xmath77 is a phenomenological parameter in the range @xmath78 ( see @xcite for a review ) . \frac{4\lambda^2\beta}{(1-\beta)^2}\left[3-\frac{2}{3}\lambda \left(\frac{3+\beta^2}{1-\beta}\right)\right]-\\ \frac{4p_\mu}{1-\beta}\left\{\lambda^2(1+\beta)-\left [ \frac{1}{2}+\lambda ( 1+\beta)\right ] \frac{2\lambda^2}{1-\beta}+ \frac{2\lambda^3 ( \beta^2 + 3)}{3(1-\beta)^2}\right\ } & \mbox{if $ 0\leq\lambda\leq \frac{1-\beta}{1+\beta}$ } , \end{array } \right\}\ ] ] where we put @xmath84,\ ] ] and @xmath85 . the above expression for @xmath86 takes into account that the muons produced from the decay of pions are fully polarized ( this is the reason why the pion energy @xmath68 appears in the expression for the electron spectrum from the muon decay ) . determining the pion distribution is not trivial in particular in the low energy region ( pion energies close to the mass of the pions ) where not many data are available . a satisfactory approach to the low energy pion production was proposed in @xcite and recently reviewed in @xcite in the context of the _ isobaric model_. the detailed and lengthy expressions for @xmath87 that we used are reported and discussed in details in @xcite ( see their appendix ) . thus , following @xcite , we use here their model for collisions at @xmath88 gev . for @xmath89 gev we use the scaling approximation which can be formalized writing the differential cross section for pion production as @xmath90 where @xmath91 , @xmath92 . the scaling function @xmath93 is given by @xmath94 in this case the function @xmath87 coincides with the definition of differential cross section given in eq . ( [ eq : scal ] ) . the electron spectrum rapidly reaches its equilibrium configuration mainly due to synchrotron and ics energy losses at energies larger than @xmath95 mev and mainly due to coulomb energy losses at smaller energies . the equilibrium spectrum can be calculated solving the transport equation @xmath96 = q_e(e_e , r)\ ] ] where @xmath97 is the equilibrium electron distribution and @xmath98 is the rate of energy losses per unit time at energy @xmath63 . here , we put @xmath99 and @xmath100 ( if @xmath101 is given in units of gev / s ) . in the expression for @xmath102 , the ic gas density @xmath73 is given in units of @xmath103 . in this section we derive the non - thermal radio , hard x - ray and gamma ray spectra of galaxy clusters as obtained in the context of the sem for the case of a single cr source . the calculation of the radio emissivity per unit volume is performed here in the simplified assumption that electrons with energy @xmath63 radiate at a fixed frequency given by @xcite : @xmath104 this approximation introduces negligible errors in the final result and has the advantage of making it of immediate physical interpretation . the radio emissivity at frequency @xmath105 and at distance @xmath5 from the cluster center can be calculated as @xmath106 the observed flux of radio emission from the cluster is obtained by integration of @xmath107 over the cluster volume . though the numerical calculations have been carried out using the exact solution of eq.([eq : sol ] ) for the cr equilibrium spectrum , some useful information can be extracted from the following simplified picture . let us assume that at fixed proton energy , @xmath15 , particles with energy larger than @xmath15 are the only ones able to diffuse out to distances @xmath108 [ at first approximation this assumption is correct just by the definition of @xmath48 ] . let us also assume for simplicity a constant ic gas density , @xmath110 . most of the electrons responsible for the radio emission are produced in cr interaction at energies in the scaling regime [ eqs . ( [ eq : scal]-[eq : fpi ] ) ] . within these assumptions it is straightforward to show that @xmath111 and that the integrated diffuse radio flux reads : @xmath112 the electron energy and the radio frequency are related through eq . ( [ eq : freq ] ) and in this simplified approach we can assume that protons with energy @xmath113 produce electrons with energy @xmath63 . this means that the distance @xmath114 in eq . ( [ eq : rough ] ) is proportional to @xmath115 for collisions involving cr confined in the cluster , while it is simply equal to the confinement radius @xmath116 for non confined cr . in the first case , the observed spectrum is @xmath117 , independent on the details of the diffusion ( this is the same result highlighted in @xcite and @xcite for gamma rays ) while , in the other case , the spectrum is steepened as @xmath118 above a frequency @xmath119 which is dependent on the diffusion coefficient and on the spatial scale of the confinement region . the situation is indeed more complicated in any realistic case , but the main features and in particular the high frequency steepening are still present . in particular , the introduction of a realistic king profile for the ic gas density distribution in the cluster translates into a decrease of the effective frequency @xmath119 with respect to the case of a uniform ic gas distribution . the relativistic electrons responsible for the radio halo emission also emit x - rays and uv photons through ics off the microwave background photons . as in the case of the synchrotron emission , also for ics we adopt the approximation that electrons radiate at a single energy , given by @xmath120 electrons with energy in excess of a few gev radiate in the hard x - ray range , while electrons with energy smaller than @xmath121 mev produce soft x - rays and uv photons . the non - thermal x - ray / uv emissivity at distance @xmath5 from the cr source is @xmath122 in complete analogy with the case of the radio emission , the integrated non - thermal x - ray flux , @xmath123 is @xmath124 considerations similar to those presented in the previous section hold for the steepening of the hard x - ray spectrum from ics . gamma ray emission from clusters of galaxies is mainly produced by the decay of neutral pions ( see , e.g. , @xcite ) and by bremsstrahlung emission of secondary electrons ( note that also primary electrons contribute to the bremsstrahlung flux , so that the contribution calculated here is a lower limit ) . the emissivity in gamma rays at distance @xmath5 and energy @xmath125 is given by @xmath126 where @xmath127 . we refer to @xcite for the expression of @xmath128 in the low energy collisions ( @xmath129 gev ) , while we use the scaling approach given in eqs . ( [ eq : scal ] ) and ( [ eq : fpi ] ) for @xmath130 gev , with @xmath131 . the flux of gamma rays due to bremsstrahlung of secondary electrons is given by @xmath132 where the differential cross section can be written as @xmath133 and the quantity @xmath134 is : @xmath135 with @xmath136 . the total amount of gamma ray emission at energy @xmath125 from a single cluster is obtained , as usual , by volume integration : @xmath137 where @xmath138 . as described in the previous sections the sem implies that : _ i ) _ a flux of radio emission is produced due to the synchrotron emission of electrons produced in cr interactions ; _ ii ) _ secondary electrons with @xmath139 gev radiate in the x - ray energy range due to ics on the photons of the microwave backgound radiation ; _ iii ) _ secondary electrons with @xmath140 mev produce uv photons in the energy range @xmath141 kev . _ iv ) _ gamma rays are copiously produced in the decays of the neutral pions . the last point _ iv ) _ represents , at the same time , a unique signature of the sem and a way to impose strong constraints on this model . in this section we analyze the predictions of the sem for the coma cluster and we compare them with the available data in the radio @xcite , hard x - ray @xcite @xcite , uv @xcite bands and with the egret upper limit on the gamma ray emission at @xmath142 mev @xcite . let us begin with the case of a single source of cr . as we stressed in section 2 , the cr diffusion coefficient , @xmath23 , is uncertain and there are not yet reliable constraints on its functional dependence on the cr energy . we adopt here a kolmogorov spectrum of the fluctuations in the ic magnetic field and derive an explicit form for the diffusion coefficient , as given in eq . ( [ eq : diff ] ) . this expression has the advantage to relate the diffusion coefficient @xmath23 directly to observable quantities like the coherence length and the strength of the magnetic field , while typically these quantities are all considered as independent parameters . following @xcite , we fix here @xmath143 kpc , to have a conservative result . the conclusions discussed below will be strengthened for a larger value of @xmath144 . as for the parameters of the ic gas density profile of coma , we used @xmath145 , @xmath146 kpc and @xmath147 . the diffuse radio flux for coma has been evaluated according to eq . ( [ eq : j2 ] ) . we use the cr luminosity , @xmath20 , as a normalization parameter and we fitted it to the observations . once the normalization is fixed , the flux of non - thermal x - rays and gamma rays is easily calculated from eqs . ( [ eq : phi2 ] ) and ( [ eq : gamma1]-[eq : gamma2 ] ) . this procedure has been repeated for @xmath148 and @xmath149 , which can be considered as a lower and an upper limit to the power index of the injection cr spectrum , and for three values of the magnetic field , @xmath150 , @xmath151 and @xmath152 @xmath31 . the results of our calculations for the spectrum of the radio halo of coma are shown in fig . 1a ( @xmath153 ) , fig . 1b ( @xmath154 ) and fig . 1c ( @xmath155 ) . the solid lines refer to @xmath148 and the dashed lines to @xmath149 . the data points are taken from @xcite . the cr luminosities needed to fit the radio halo data are reported in table 1 . it is evident that for large values of the ic magnetic field ( @xmath156 ) the cr luminosities required to fit the data , @xmath157 erg / s ( see table 1 ) , are of the order of the typical cr powers predicted in clusters of galaxies ( see @xcite ) . for low values of @xmath158 , considerably larger cr luminosities , @xmath159 erg / s , are required by the observations . the allowed range of parameters is drastically reduced when the analysis is not limited to the radio halo data alone but include also the recent detection of hard x - ray tails and the existing egret upper limit on the gamma ray emission from coma . our predictions for the non - thermal x - ray emission from coma are plotted in fig . 2a ( @xmath153 ) , fig . 2b ( @xmath154 ) and fig . 2c ( @xmath155 ) , where the solid and dashed lines are again for @xmath148 and @xmath149 , respectively . the shaded area shows the thermal bremsstrahlung continuum that fits the heao1-a4 and ginga data ( open triangles ) with a temperature of @xmath160 kev . the osse upper limits are indicated with open circles and the sax data points are represented by the filled squares . the plotted errorbars refer to @xmath161 confidence level . from fig . 2 it is clear that only models with small values of @xmath162 ( @xmath163 ) can reproduce the observed x - ray flux in the energy region between @xmath10 kev and @xmath1 kev , while the contribution of the secondary electrons to the x - ray flux for larger values of @xmath162 is negligible . the interpretation of this result is straightforward : in fact , contrary to the diffuse radio flux , the x - ray flux is very weakly dependent on the value of the magnetic field [ see eq.(13 ) ] . specifically , it depends on @xmath30 mainly through the normalization of the cr spectrum that is required to fit the radio halo data . therefore , low values of @xmath30 imply large cr luminosities @xmath20 ( because of the low radio emissivity ) and , in turn , large x - ray fluxes . on the other hand , for large values of @xmath30 electrons radiate more efficiently and low values of @xmath20 are needed , which in turn imply low x - ray fluxes . recently , also uv emission was detected from coma @xcite , and interpreted as ics of electrons with energy between @xmath164 mev and @xmath165 mev @xcite . in the sem the flux of uv emission due to ics crucially depends on the cr injection spectrum below @xmath166 gev , which is poorly known and may reflect specific conditions in the acceleration region . the spectrum of secondary electrons in the energy range of interest suffers a substantial flattening due to the peculiar shape of the pion spectrum at low energy and due to coulomb energy losses . in the assumption , used in this paper , of a cr spectrum which is a power law in momentum , our prediction of the uv flux for @xmath167 falls short of the observed flux @xcite by a factor @xmath168 . values @xmath169 in the coma icm are consistent with the findings of @xcite . however , in the sem this result has further implications : in cases where the x - ray emission becomes appreciable ( _ i.e. _ for low values of @xmath30 ) with a large @xmath20 needed , the gamma ray emission predicted for coma on the basis of eqs.(16 - 19 ) grows linearly with @xmath20 and the gamma ray flux very easily exceeds the egret limit as shown in table 1 , where the fourth column represents the ratio of the flux predicted in the sem to the egret upper limit from coma , @xmath170 . the contribution of secondary electron bremsstrahlung to the gamma ray emission of coma is always negligible with respect to the contribution of gamma rays produced by neutral pion decay ( we report the ratio of the two contributions in the last column of table 1 ) . our predictions for the differential gamma ray spectra from coma are plotted in fig . 3a ( @xmath153 ) , 3b ( @xmath154 ) and 3c ( @xmath155 ) . the thick lines are the contributions of @xmath171 decay while the thin lines represent the bremsstrahlung gamma rays from the secondary electrons . the solid and dashed lines are , as usual , for @xmath148 and @xmath149 respectevely . how much does this conclusion depend upon the assumption of a single source of cr ? in order to answer this question we evaluate the fluxes of radio and hard x - rays for a homogeneous injection of cr over the cluster volume . if the observed radio halo spectrum at @xmath172 ghz is taken as a power law with power index @xmath173 @xcite , then the best fit to the data is obtained for @xmath174 . we use eq . ( [ eq : sol_homo ] ) for the equilibrium proton distribution in the icm and the results of section [ second ] to determine the relative spectra of secondary electrons . radio , x - ray and gamma ray fluxes are calculated as usual . the comparison with the radio @xcite and hard x - ray @xcite data yields @xmath175 erg and @xmath176 . the value of @xmath59 corresponds , if averaged over the age of the cluster , to a huge cr luminosity of @xmath177 erg / s . the gamma ray flux which corresponds to this value of @xmath59 is @xmath178 , which exceeds the egret limit on coma by a factor @xmath179 . thus , our conclusion can be stated as follows : if the radio and x - ray non - thermal fluxes are due to synchrotron and ics of the same population of secondary electrons , then the sem can not fit the two sets of observations withouth exceeding the egret limit . in this case and within the assumptions used in this paper , the sem can be ruled out already on the basis of the present data . is there any way to mitigate the strength of this result ? we can envision two possible avenues : from the point of view of data analysis , it was already pointed out in @xcite that the rebinning of the hard x - ray data according with the osse energy binning yields an hard x - ray flux which is a factor @xmath180 below the osse upper limit at @xmath181 kev . this allows the magnetic field to increase to values @xmath182 and the corresponding gamma ray fluxes to decrease slightly below the egret limit for @xmath183 , or slightly above it for @xmath149 . from the theoretical point of view , the ics origin of the hard x - ray excess observed in coma can not be taken for granted as pointed out in @xcite . the previous authors propose , in fact , that the turbulence in the icm may be able to accelerate stochastically a fraction of thermal electrons producing a non - thermal tail of the electron distribution without appreciably change the energy budget of the electrons in the ic gas . such non - thermal tail can easily reproduce the sax data through bremmstrahlung emission . the main consequence of this is that the hard x - ray flux becomes completely decoupled from the radio halo flux and no constraint on the strength of the ic magnetic field can be derived . therefore , the large @xmath162 field solutions illustrated in figs . 1b and 1c may well fit the radio spectrum and contribute only very marginally to the hard x - ray spectrum . in this case the gamma ray flux for coma predicted by the sem is well below the egret limit . as for the uv flux , the small discrepancy we found might be due to the specific choice of the cr spectrum at low energy . in any case , the origin of the uv excess is still under debate , and a thermal contribution can not be excluded ( see discussion in @xcite ) . we did not discuss here the additional issue concerning the nature of the claimed steepening in the radio halo spectrum at frequencies @xmath184 ghz . whether this is a real feature or an instrumental artifact is not yet clear ( see discussion in @xcite ) . however , if future measurements will confirm this result , the sem will again have problems since the electron ageing , often invoked to describe the steepening of the spectrum , is not effective in the sem because secondary electrons are continuously produced through cr interactions and replenish the radio halo spectrum , even if the cr source is no longer active . on the other hand , the sem predicts a steepening of the radio spectrum at high frequency , where cr begin to be not confined by the ic magnetic field ( see section [ radio ] for details ) , but at present such a steepening does not seem sufficient to reproduce the data at @xmath185 ghz , assuming that these results are not due to any instrumental bias . in this paper , we calculated the spectra of the non - thermal radio , x - ray , uv and gamma ray emission expected from clusters of galaxies in the context of the secondary electron model , and we compared our predictions to the available data for the coma cluster . the calculations have been carried out in the case of a single source of cr and in the case of a homogeneous injection of cr in the icm . for the case of a single cr source and adopting a kolmogorov spectrum of the magnetic fluctuations in the icm , the radio data between @xmath186 mhz and @xmath8 ghz can be fitted in the context of the sem for a wide range of values of the parameters ( specifically the value of the magnetic field and the spectrum of the injected cr ) . in particular , for magnetic fields of the order of @xmath187 the cr luminosities needed to fit the radio data are completely consistent with the presence of ordinary sources of cr in clusters , as considered in @xcite ( @xmath188 erg / s ) . moreover the model has the noticeable property that electrons are produced _ in situ _ at any time , so that there is no need for a reacceleration mechanism which is necessary in the primary electron model in order to make it possible for electrons to reach distances of @xmath166 mpc ( the scale of the coma radio halo ) withouth appreciable energy losses . together with the diffuse radio emission , non - thermal x - rays ( due to ics of secondary electrons ) and gamma rays ( mainly due to neutral pion decay and to bremsstrahlung of secondary electrons ) are produced . the comparison of our predictions with the available x - ray and gamma ray data allows us to put strong constraints on the sem as a plausible explanation for the origin of the radio halos in coma - like clusters . in fact , if the x - ray emission is due to ics of the same electron population which is responsable for the diffuse radio emission , then low values of the magnetic field ( @xmath167 ) and correspondingly large cr luminosities ( @xmath159 erg / s ) are required , which in turn imply a flux of gamma rays at @xmath189 mev exceeding the egret limit by a factor @xmath180 for a power index of the injection spectrum of cr @xmath148 , and by a factor @xmath190 for @xmath149 . this result requires some more comments : assuming a cluster temperature of @xmath191 kev , and a typical ic gas density in the inner @xmath166 mpc of the cluster of @xmath192 , the total thermal energy in the cluster can be estimated to be @xmath193 erg . now , if we follow @xcite in requiring equipartition between thermal and non- thermal energy in the icm , this translates into a cr luminosity , averaged over the age of the cluster , of @xmath194 erg / s , which is of the same order of the cr luminosities required in the sem to reproduce the radio and hard x - ray emission from coma . however , as we have shown in section 5 , in this case the corresponding gamma ray luminosities contributed by pion decay can very easily exceed the egret limit or fall short of this limit by a very small amount this conclusion is not changed if a homogeneous injection of cr in the icm is assumed , as discussed in section [ coma ] . though this is not enough to rule out the possibility of cr in equipartition in clusters like coma , it certainly represents a strong constraint on this possibility . the next generation gamma ray satellites ( integral , glast ) will answer this question definitely . in fact , future gamma ray observations will tell us not only the flux of gamma rays but also the nature of the process responsible for that : specifically , if the bulk of gamma rays comes from pion decay in the icm , there is a unique signature , represented by a bump in the gamma ray spectrum at @xmath195 mev ( see fig . 3 ) . is there an alternative way of interpreting the combined radio and hard x - ray data that does not require equipartition cr energy densities ? it was recently proposed in @xcite that the hard x - ray flux from coma can as well be interpreted as bremmstrahlung emission from a supra - thermal electron tail developed in the thermal electron distribution due to stochastic acceleration in the turbulent icm . clearly , these last electrons are not relevant for the radio halo emission , so that a non - thermal population of electrons in the @xmath196 energy range is required . if this will turn out to be the explanation of the hard x - ray excess of coma , then the observed radio and non - thermal x - ray fluxes are no longer strictly related . as a consequence , the radio halo emission can be produced by a population of secondary electrons radiating in a @xmath197 average magnetic field , without overproducing gamma rays ( see table 1 ) and giving a marginal contribution to the non - thermal x - ray flux by ics . in any case , it is important to realize that the gamma ray limit , widely discussed in this paper , appears to be relevant whatever the process of production of the radiating electrons is . therefore , the egret upper limit must be considered as binding in the sem , as well as in other models for the non - thermal processes in clusters of galaxies , whenever large cr energy densities are invoked . this aspect was also recognized in @xcite but the importance of the gamma rays from pion decay was largely underestimated . finally , we want to discuss briefly the problem of the rarity of the radio halos in clusters of galaxies . this problem needs a definitive explanation in every model for the origin of radio halos . at present , only half a dozen clusters have been shown to have prominent radio halos ( see @xcite for a review ) and it is natural to look for the reason for such a rarity . most of the radio halo clusters have high temperatures ( @xmath198 kev ) and x - ray luminosities @xmath199 erg / s and show evidences of recent merging ( coma @xcite , a2319 @xcite , a2163 @xcite , a2218 ) and/or of non thermal pressure support of their ic medium ( a85 @xcite ) there are a number of factors that can play a relevant role : first of all , the cr injection in the icm depends on the morphology of the cluster ( e.g. on the number of active galaxies in a cluster ) and on the hystory of the cluster ( e.g. on the occurrence of recent mergings ) . thus , it is conceivable that only a few clusters have powerful cr sources operating for long enough in the icm to provide high powers in accelerated particles . secondly , the different physical conditions present in the icm determine quite a variety of values for the magnetic field and for the diffusion coefficient . in fact , we have shown in this paper that , at fixed @xmath20 , changing the average ic magnetic field from @xmath200 to @xmath201 decreases the radio halo flux by a factor @xmath202 , so that very weak radio halos can fall below the sensitivity threshold of the current experiments . the origin of radio halos is , in our opinion , strictly related to the mechanism of production of the high energy electrons and to the physical mechanisms which create the environment in which they radiate , and can hardly be envisioned at the present stage of observations . the combination of the next generation , high - sensitivity radio , soft and hard gamma ray experiments will provide a zoo of non thermal phenomena in galaxy clusters and will hopefully shed a new light on this problem . we are grateful to an anonymous referee for his comments and suggestions which allowed us to improve considerably the presentation of the paper . the research of pb is funded by a infn fellowship at the university of chicago . s.c . also acknowledges useful discussions with l. feretti , g. giovannini and r. fusco - femiano . l. feretti and g. giovannini 1997 , contribution to the rencontres astrophysiques international meeting `` a new vision of an old cluster : untangling coma berenices '' , eds . f. durret et al . , held in marseille , france 17 - 20 june 1997 ( astro - ph/9709294 ) . * figure 1 * spectrum of the diffuse radio emission from the coma cluster for different values of the average intracluster magnetic field : @xmath203 ( left panel ) , @xmath204 ( central panel ) and @xmath205 ( right panel ) . a king density profile has been used with @xmath206 and @xmath207 mpc ( we use here @xmath208 ) . for each panel the cases @xmath148 ( continuous curves ) and @xmath149 ( dashed curves ) are shown . the parameters that best fit the data in each figure are listed in table [ table1 ] and are obtained fitting the radio halo data at @xmath209 mhz . data points are taken from @xcite . * figure 2 * spectrum of the diffuse x - ray emission from coma . the three panels refer to the same values of the ic magnetic field as in fig . 1 . the shaded area shows the best fit to the heao1-a4 and ginga thermal emission data ( open triangles ) at @xmath210 kev @xcite . the osse upper limits @xcite are indicated by the open circles . the sax data @xcite are indicated by filled squares . arrows and labels show , for each panel , the energy ranges in which the three different data sets are located . predictions of the sem for @xmath148 ( continuous curves ) and @xmath149 ( dashed curves ) are shown in each panel . * figure 3 * the predicted differential gamma ray spectra from coma , in the sem . the three panels refer to the values of the magnetic field indicated . the thick lines represent the contribution of neutral pion decay , while the thin lines represent the bremsstrahlung contribution of secondary electrons . solid and dashed curves are for @xmath148 and @xmath149 respectively .	we calculate the flux of radio , hard x - ray and uv radiation from clusters of galaxies as produced by synchrotron emission and inverse compton scattering of electrons generated as secondaries in cosmic ray interactions in the intracluster medium . both the spatial distribution of cosmic rays due to their diffusion and the spatial distribution of the intracluster gas are taken into account . our calculations are specifically applied to the case of the coma cluster . the fluxes and spectra of the radio halo emission and of the hard x - ray excess from coma can be explained in this model if an average magnetic field @xmath0 is assumed . however , such a low value for the intracluster magnetic field implies a large cosmic ray energy density which in turn is responsible , through neutral pion decay , for a gamma ray flux above @xmath1 mev which exceeds the egret upper limit . this gamma ray bound can be relaxed if the hard x - ray excess and the radio halo emission from coma are not due to the same population of electrons . we finally stress the unique role that the new generation gamma ray satellites will play to discriminate among different models for the non thermal emission in clusters of galaxies . 2 erg cm^-2 2 erg s^-1 cm^-2 2s cm^2 s^-1 = # 1to 0pt#1 -zs - z and
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Money Services Business Compliance Facilitation Act of 2009''. SEC. 2. OFFICE OF MONEY SERVICES BUSINESS COMPLIANCE ESTABLISHED. (a) In General.--Subchapter I of chapter 3 of title 31, United States Code, is amended by inserting after section 313 the following new section: ``Sec. 314. Office of Money Services Business Compliance ``(a) Establishment.--There is hereby established the Office of Money Services Business Compliance (hereafter in this section referred to as the `Compliance Office') as an office within the Department of the Treasury. ``(b) Management.-- ``(1) In general.--The management of the Compliance Office shall be vested in a Director of Money Services Business Compliance (hereafter in this section referred to as the `Director'). ``(2) Appointment.--The Director shall be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, without regard to political affiliation and solely on the basis of integrity and demonstrated ability, and after consultation with the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Comptroller of the Currency (or successor to any such individual with regard to bank supervisory authority), from among individuals who are specially qualified to serve in that position by reason of their education, training, and experience. ``(3) Term of office.-- ``(A) The Director shall be appointed for a term of 5 years. ``(B) Vacancy.--A vacancy in the position of Director shall be filled in the manner the original appointment was made and any individual appointed to fill any such vacancy shall be appointed only for the remainder of the term in which the vacancy occurs. ``(4) Removal.-- ``(A) In general.--Notwithstanding paragraph (3), the Director may be removed by the President at any time for good cause. ``(B) Notice to the congress.--Upon the removal of a Director under subparagraph (A), the President shall promptly transmit a notice to the Congress of the removal together with a detailed explanation of the basis for the removal. ``(C) Additional information.--After providing notice under subparagraph (B), the President shall promptly respond to any request by any committee of the Senate or the House of Representatives for additional information or supporting documents. ``(c) Duties.-- ``(1) In general.--The duties of the Director shall be to assure compliance by money services businesses with all applicable requirements of subchapter II of chapter 53, regulations prescribed under such subchapter and any other duty delegated by the Secretary under paragraph (3). ``(2) Registration of money services businesses.-- ``(A) In general.--No person may operate a money services business without registering annually, to the satisfaction of the Director under this paragraph. ``(B) Criteria.--The Director, in consultation with the Secretary, the appropriate Federal banking agencies, and appropriate representative State officials, shall establish such procedures and criteria for registration, commensurate with the purposes of this section, as the Director determines to be appropriate. ``(C) Registration as compliance.--Any money services business registered to the satisfaction of the Director under this section shall be deemed to be registered with the Secretary for purposes of section 5330. ``(D) Compliance.--Any money services business, and any agent of a money services business, which fails to register and keep current a registration to the satisfaction of the Secretary under this paragraph shall, after the expiration of a 30-day period beginning on a notice of violation issued by the Director or an agent recognized by the Director, be subject to the same penalties as described in subsection (f)(3)(D) for a violation of an order issued under subsection (f)(3). ``(3) Delegated functions.--The Director shall carry out any other duty delegated by the Secretary of the Treasury to the Director. ``(d) Rule of Construction.--No provision of this section shall be construed as limiting or pre-empting any State law or regulation or order concerning the regulation and oversight of the money service business industry, or agents of money services businesses, for purposes of consumer protection, safety and soundness, or the prevention of money laundering or the financing of terrorism. ``(e) Recognition of Self-regulatory Organizations Relating to Money Services Businesses.-- ``(1) Registration.--The Director may, after notice and opportunity for comment and upon application by an organization representing money services business that meets such criteria as the Director may establish under this section, approve the registration of such organization as a self regulatory organization to carry out the duties of the Director under paragraph (1) with respect to the money services businesses represented by such self regulatory organization. ``(2) Procedures and requirements for sro.--The Director shall establish such procedures and requirements to become a self regulatory organization as the Secretary determines to be appropriate, including periodic reviews of such organization and reporting requirements by such organization to the Director to ensure the success of such organizations in ensuring compliance by the money services businesses, taking into account in particular the requirements of subsections (g), (h), (l), (m), and (n) of section 5318 and section 5318A. ``(3) Withdrawal of registration.-- ``(A) In general.--After notice and opportunity for hearing, the Director may withdraw the registration of any self regulatory organization previously approved under this subsection. ``(B) Notice to the congress.--Upon the withdrawal of the registration of any self regulatory organization under subparagraph (A), the Director shall promptly submit a notice to the Congress of the withdrawal together with a detailed explanation of the basis for the withdrawal. ``(C) Additional information.--After providing notice under subparagraph (B), the Director shall promptly respond to any request by any committee of the Senate or the House of Representatives for additional information or supporting documents. ``(4) Requirements for rules enforced by self regulatory organization.--The Director may establish minimum requirements for-- ``(A) rules established by any self regulatory organization for members regulated by the organization; ``(B) enforcement procedures and enforcement activities by self regulatory organization, with respect to the enforcement of the rules referred to in subparagraph (A); and ``(C) requirements established by a self regulatory organization for withdrawal of membership of any noncomplying member, monetary penalties, and the removal of officers and employees of a noncomplying member business. ``(5) Notice requirements.--The Director shall establish procedures under which any self regulatory organization shall report to the Congress on a regular basis on-- ``(A) violations by members of the organization of any law, any regulation prescribed by the Director, or any rule established by the organization since the date of the last report; and ``(B) any enforcement actions taken by the organization since such date. ``(f) Powers.-- ``(1) In general.--For purposes of carrying out this section, the Director shall have all the powers of the Secretary under subsections (b), (c), (d), and (e) of section 5318. ``(2) Rule of construction.--No provision of this section shall be construed as limiting or superseding the enforcement authority of the Secretary under subchapter II of chapter 53 with respect to any violation of such subchapter. ``(3) Cease and desist.-- ``(A) Determination of violation.--If the Director determines that any money services business, or any officer, director, agent, or employee of any such business, may be violating or may have violated this section, subchapter II of chapter 53, or any other provision of law or any regulation subject to the jurisdiction of the Secretary, or may be about to violate such section, subchapter, or provision of law or regulation, the Director may issue a temporary order or permanent order directing such money services business, and any officer, director, agent, or employee of such money services business-- ``(i) to cease and desist from the violation or threatened violation; ``(ii) to take such action as is necessary to prevent the violation or threatened violation; or ``(iii) to take such action as is necessary to prevent, as the Director determines to be appropriate-- ``(I) significant harm to consumers or the public interest; or ``(II) frustration of the ability of the Director to conduct the proceedings or to redress the violation at the conclusion of the proceedings. ``(B) Timing of entry.--An order issued under this paragraph shall be entered only after notice and opportunity for a hearing, unless the Director determines that notice and hearing prior to entry would be impracticable or contrary to the public interest. ``(C) Effective date of temporary order.--A temporary order issued under this paragraph shall-- ``(i) become effective upon service upon the respondent; and ``(ii) unless set aside, limited, or suspended by the Director or a court of competent jurisdiction, remain effective and enforceable pending the completion of the proceedings. ``(D) Enforcement.--Any money services business, and any officer, director, agent, or employee of such money services business, which violates any temporary or permanent order issued under this paragraph shall forfeit and pay a civil penalty of not more than $5,000 for each day during which such violation continues. ``(E) Assessment.--The Secretary shall assess any penalty in the same manner and subject to the same limitations as assessments under section 5321(b). ``(g) Money Services Business Defined.--For purposes of this section, the term `money services business' has the meaning given to the term in section 103.11(uu) of title 31, Code of Federal Regulations, as in effect on the date of the enactment of the Money Services Business Compliance Facilitation Act of 2009. ``(h) Authorization of Appropriations.--There is authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary for each of fiscal years 2010, 2011, and 2012 such sums as may be necessary to carry out this section, to be made available to the Director. ``(i) Long-Term Funding Planning.--Before the end of the 18-month period beginning on the date of the enactment of the Money Services Business Compliance Facilitation Act of 2009, the Director shall submit a report to the Congress containing recommendations for an appropriate long-term funding model for the Compliance Office to ensure the independence of the Compliance Office.''. (b) Technical and Conforming Amendment.--Section 111 of the Act approved on October 28, 1974 (12 U.S.C. 250), is amended by inserting ``the Director of Money Services Business Compliance,'' after ``Director of the Office of Thrift Supervision,''. (c) Clerical Amendment.--The table of section for chapter 3 of title 31, United States Code, is amended by inserting after the item relating to section 313 the following new item: ``314. Office of Money Services Business Compliance.''.	Money Services Business Compliance Facilitation Act of 2009 - Establishes within the Department of the Treasury the Office of Money Services Business Compliance (Office), whose Director shall assure compliance by money services businesses with federal recordkeeping requirements governing monetary instruments transactions. Requires a money services business to register annually with the Office. States that this Act shall not be construed as limiting or pre-empting any state law or regulation or order concerning the regulation and oversight of the money service business industry, or agents of money services businesses, for purposes of consumer protection, safety and soundness, or the prevention of money laundering or the financing of terrorism. Authorizes the Director to approve the registration of an organization as a self-regulatory organization (SRO) to carry out the Director's duties with respect to the money services businesses the SRO represents. Authorizes the Director to establish minimum requirements for: (1) rules established by an SRO for its members; (2) enforcement by an SRO; and (3) requirements established by a SRO for withdrawal of membership of any noncomplying member, monetary penalties, and the removal of officers and employees of a noncomplying member business. Empowers the Director to issue cease and desist orders for violations of this Act and its attendant regulations. Requires the Director to report recommendations to Congress regarding an appropriate long-term funding model to ensure the independence of the Office.
Online grocery shopping will soon be a reality for a lot more families. Amazon, FreshDirect and other online grocers will now accept food stamps in a pilot program done in partnership with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The two-year program for families participating in SNAP, or the Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program, will start this summer. Families in parts of Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania and Washington will be eligible for different vendors. "Online purchasing is a potential lifeline for SNAP participants living in urban neighborhoods and rural communities where access to healthy food choices can be limited," USDA Secretary Tom Vilsack said in a statement. "We're looking forward to being able to bring the benefits of the online market to low-income Americans participating in SNAP." Outside of government partnerships, Amazon has recently been experimenting with grocery shopping in a major way. The tech giant's plan for grocery stores that would not employ cashiers and that would require a smartphone for entry brought up concerns about excluding low-income customers and contributing to inequality. “Amazon is excited to participate in the USDA SNAP Online Purchasing Pilot. We are committed to making food accessible through online grocery shopping, offering all customers the lowest prices possible. Amazon’s selection and competitive pricing can improve the grocery shopping experience for SNAP participants while helping them extend their benefits further,” an Amazon spokesperson said. Online grocery services from the grocers Safeway, ShopRite, Hy-Vee, Hart's Local Grocers and Dash's Market will also be included in the USDA's program. The USDA is trying to determine whether local grocers or national services like Amazon will work best for families using SNAP, the agency said in a press release. Customers will only be able to use food stamps to pay for eligible items and they don't extend to service or delivery fees for online ordering. The pilot program is also intended to figure out whether to allow online payment, or just online ordering with in-person payment. The government plans to add additional retailers and eventually offer online ordering for SNAP participants nationwide. “FreshDirect is honored to have been selected by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) to participate in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) Online Purchasing Pilot (Pilot)," FreshDirect said in an e-mailed statement. "At FreshDirect, we believe that fresh, high quality and healthy food options should be accessible to all. With the SNAP Pilot, we look forward to bringing the online purchasing option to SNAP clients and positively impacting all the communities that we serve.” \|\|\|\|\| News Release Release No. 0003.17 Contact: USDA Office of Communications [email protected] (202) 720-4623 Printable version Email this page USDA Announces Retailer Volunteers for SNAP Online Purchasing Pilot WASHINGTON, Jan. 5, 2017 - The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) today announced the seven retail firms selected to take part in a pilot designed to enable Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) participants to purchase their groceries online. The two-year pilot is slated to begin this summer. "Online purchasing is a potential lifeline for SNAP participants living in urban neighborhoods and rural communities where access to healthy food choices can be limited," USDA Secretary Tom Vilsack said. "We're looking forward to being able to bring the benefits of the online market to low-income Americans participating in SNAP." Firms selected include: Retailers - Pilot States* Amazon - Maryland, New Jersey, New York FreshDirect - New York Safeway - Maryland, Oregon, Washington, ShopRite - Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania Hy-Vee, Inc. - Iowa Hart's Local Grocers - New York (based in Rochester) Dash's Market - New York (based in Buffalo) The firms selected represent a variety of store types, including national online retailers as well as large grocery chains and smaller, regional networks to appropriately test online SNAP purchasing in different settings. Pilots will take place in seven states in both rural and urban areas, marking the next critical step in bringing the online purchasing option to SNAP clients. While USDA has authorized SNAP online grocery ordering in a few locations, this pilot will test both online ordering and payment. Online payment presents technical and security challenges that will need to be examined and fully addressed before it is offered nationwide. As with the core program, SNAP participants will only be able to use their benefits to purchase eligible items online – not to pay for service or delivery charges. USDA is committed to maintaining the security of SNAP benefits for both the protection of SNAP participant accounts and to prevent and detect trafficking, so SNAP online purchases must have a higher level of security than most other online purchases. As the pilot proceeds and USDA confirms the system is operating as required, we anticipate being able to add additional retailers. Eventually, our goal is for this to be a national option for SNAP participants, once the pilot phase is complete and USDA can incorporate lessons learned into program rules. USDA has taken many steps in the last several years to strengthen SNAP and increase access to healthy foods. Recently, USDA announced a purchase and delivery pilot, which is designed for non-profits and government entities to improve access to groceries solely for homebound elderly and disabled SNAP participants. USDA also provided funding to incentivize participants in SNAP to purchase more healthy fruits and vegetables through the Food Insecurity Nutrition Incentive Program, increased farmers market participation in SNAP to improve access to fresh and nutritious food, and announced final changes to increase access to healthy food choices for SNAP participants by requiring authorized retail establishments to offer a larger inventory and variety of healthy food options. As the nation's first line of defense against hunger, SNAP helps put food on the table for millions of low income families and individuals every month and has never been more critical to the fight against hunger. SNAP is a vital supplement to the monthly food budget of more than 43 million low-income individuals. Nearly half of SNAP participants are children, 10 percent are over 60 and more than 40 percent of recipients live in households with earnings. * Retailers with multiple States listed may opt to phase in Pilot operations state-by-state over time. # USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer and lender.	– Families who rely on food stamps may not be left out of the future of grocery shopping after all. A US Department of Agriculture pilot program will allow Americans in certain areas to use their food stamps at Amazon, FreshDirect, and other online grocery stores, Mashable reports. The program is open to SNAP participants in parts of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Oregon, and Washington. "Online purchasing is a potential lifeline for SNAP participants living in urban neighborhoods and rural communities where access to healthy food choices can be limited," USDA secretary Tom Vilsack says in a press release. Under the program, which starts this summer, food stamps can be used for online orders—but not delivery fees—at Amazon, FreshDirect, ShopRite, Safeway, Hy-Vee, Hart's, Dash's Market, and Local Grocers.
in recent years a number of papers have been published reporting very deep spectroscopic observations of the relatively faint optical recombination lines ( orls ) emitted by heavy element ions in planetary nebulae ( pne ) , e.g. liu et al . ( 1995 , 2000 , 2001 , 2004a , b ) , garnett & dinerstein ( 2001 ) , ruiz et al . ( 2003 ) , tsamis et al . ( 2003b , 2004 ) , peimbert et al . ( 2004 ) , sharpee , baldwin & williams ( 2004 ) , wesson , liu & barlow ( 2005 ) . a common feature of the analyses of these orls was that they yielded systematically higher ionic abundances than obtained for the same ions from classical nebular forbidden lines ( also known as collisionally excited lines , or cels ) . for most pne , the orl / cel abundance discrepancy factors ( adf s ) typically lie in the range 1.63.0 , but with a significant tail extending to much higher adf values . liu et al . ( 1995 ) and luo , liu & barlow ( 2001 ) found a mean ( with respect to all the heavy elements measured ) adf of @xmath3 for ngc 7009 , while liu et al . ( 2000 ) derived a mean adf of @xmath4 for ngc 6153 and liu et al . ( 2001 ) obtained mean adf s of @xmath5 and 20 for the bulge pne m 2 - 36 and m 1 - 42 , respectively . kaler ( 1988 ) reported an extremely strong c ii @xmath14267 recombination line from the southern pn hf 2 - 2 , with an observed intensity of 910 on a scale where h@xmath6 = 100 , which represents an enhancement of more than a factor of ten compared to most pne . as part of a search for further high - adf nebulae , we therefore observed hf 2 - 2 and report our results here , which confirm that this nebula has the strongest orls and highest adf s known for any planetary nebula . hf2 - 2 was observed on three photometric nights in june 2001 with the boller & chivens long - slit spectrograph mounted on the eso 1.52-m telescope . two wavelength regions were observed . the seeing was between 23arcsec , throughout most of the night of june 18 , followed by three nights of sub - arcsec seeing . the slit was positioned at pa@xmath7 , centred on the central star . the ccd was a 2672@xmath8512 loral uv - flooded chip with a pixel size of 15 @xmath9 m and a read - out - noise of 7.2e@xmath10pix@xmath11 rms . two wavelength regions were observed , see table 1 for a journal of observations . the blue region was observed with a 2400linesmm@xmath11 holographic grating , which yielded a dispersion of 32mm@xmath11 , or @xmath12pix@xmath11 . some vignetting was observed , in particular on the blue side of this large format ccd , which limited the useful wavelength range to 35404800 . a slitwidth of 2arcsec was used for maximum spectral resolution . in addition , in order to obtain magnitudes for the central star , two spectra with slitwidths of 4 and 8arcsec were also obtained . because of the uv flooding procedure to maximise sensitivity , the instrumental line width was significantly broader than predicted by the instrumental optics alone a 2arcsec slit projects to only 1.32pix on the ccd , yet the actual measured line width was about 3pix , or 1.5 fwhm . the spectral resolution degraded even more towards the edges of the spectral coverage , approaching 2 fwhm . the red wavelength region , from 47507230 , was observed with a 1200linesmm@xmath11 ruled grating at a dispersion of 65.6mm@xmath11 . for a 2arcsec wide slit , this yielded a spectral resolution of 2.8 fwhm including the effects caused by the uv - flooding . all spectra were wavelength - calibrated using exposures of a he - ar - ne - fe lamp and flux - calibrated using 8arcsec wide slit observations of the _ hst _ standard stars feige 110 and the central star of the pn ngc7293 . example spectra obtained with a 2arcsec slitwidth are shown in fig.1 . .journal of observations [ cols="^,^,^,^,^ " , ] @xmath13 average abundances of galactic disk and bulge pne ( kingsburgh & barlow 1994 ; exter , barlow & walton 2004 ) , all based on cel analyses except for helium for which orls were used ; @xmath14 solar values from lodders ( 2003 ) elemental abundances derived from cels and from orls are compared in table 6 . also listed in the table are average abundances for galactic disk and bulge pne taken from kingsburgh & barlow ( 1994 ) and exter , barlow & walton ( 2004 ) , and the latest solar photospheric values compiled by lodders ( 2003 ) . the oxygen abundance derived from the cels ( 8.11 on a logarithmic scale where h = 12.00 ) is 0.55 dex smaller than the mean value of 8.66 found for galactic disk and bulge pne ( kingsburgh & barlow 1994 ; exter et al . 2004 ) . since it seems unlikely that hf 2 - 2 has an abnormally low oxygen abundance , given the great strength of its orls , we have explored what physical conditions would be needed to return a more ` normal ' oxygen abundance from its cels . we find that the adoption of @xmath15 = 6560 k for both the oxygen cels and the recombining h@xmath16 in the nebula would yield @xmath17 , while the adoption of @xmath15 = 4030 k would bring the oxygen cel and orl abundances into agreement , at @xmath18 . if we were to adopt the @xmath15([o iii ] ) of 8820 k for the oxygen cels but used @xmath15(bj ) = 900 k , the h i balmer jump temperature , for h@xmath6 , then we would find @xmath19 . however , if h@xmath6 and the oxygen cels originate from such physically distinct regions , then an abundance ratio based on their relative intensities is meaningless . there are two ionic species , doubly ionized oxygen and neon , for which abundances have been determined using both cels and orls . in both cases , the orl abundance is about a factor of 70 larger than the cel value . the abundance discrepancy factors ( adf s ) observed in hf2 - 2 are thus the largest for any known pn ( except , possibly , the h - deficient knots in abell30 where the adf s reach nearly three orders of magnitude c.f . wesson et al . 2003 ) . equally remarkable is that hf2 - 2 exhibits the lowest balmer jump temperature , @xmath20 k ever measured for a pn . this is in good agreement with the relation observed in other pne , i.e. the adf is positively correlated with the difference between the [ o iii ] forbidden line temperature and the balmer jump temperature ( liu et al . 2001 ) . the very low balmer jump temperature of hf2 - 2 and its unusually strong heavy element orls mimic closely what was found for the ejected shell around nova dq her 1934 , for which williams et al . ( 1978 ) detected a strong broad emission feature at 3644 which they identified as the balmer jump formed at a very low temperature not exceeding about 500 k. ever since the detection of a balmer jump temperature as low as 3560 k for the galactic bulge pn m1 - 42 , 5660 k lower than the [ o iii ] forbidden line temperature measured for the same nebula ( liu et al . 2001 ) , it has become increasingly clear that pne , at least those exhibiting large adf s , must contain another component of previously unknown ionized gas . this component of gas is a strong orl emitter yet is essentially invisible in traditional strong cels , as the electron temperature prevailing there is too low to excite any uv or optical cels . this is probably caused by the much enhanced cooling by ionic infrared fine - structure lines that is a consequence of a very high metallicity . this inference is supported by detailed photoionization modelling ( pquignot et al 2003 ; tylenda 2003 ) and by direct measurements of the _ average _ electron temperatures under which various types of line are emitted ( c.f . liu 2003 , 2005 for recent reviews ) . the current observation and analysis add further credibility to this conjecture . in particular we have provided new observational evidence that the electron density of the region emitting the orls differs significantly from the cel emitting region , reinforcing the conclusion that at least two distinct components are involved in a more complete understanding of the orl / cel spectra . pne are found to show a wide range of adf s , from nearly unity , i.e. agreement between the cel and the orl abundances , up to nearly a factor of 100 , as in the most extreme case reported here . two - abundance photoionization modelling of ngc6153 ( pquignot et al . 2002 , 2003 ) , which exhibits an average adf of approximately 10 ( liu et al . 2000 ) , shows that only a few jupiter masses of gas with a metal overabundance of a factor of 100 , are needed to account for the observed intensities of orls . in a recent detailed analysis of the he i recombination spectrum of a large sample of galactic pne , zhang et al . ( 2005a ) concluded that a typical value of @xmath21 for the filling factor of hydrogen - deficient material is sufficient to explain the systematic difference between the electron temperatures determined from h i recombination spectra and those deduced from the he i orl ratios . the latter are found to be systematically lower than the former , consistent with the expectations of the two - abundance model but at odds with the traditional paradigms of temperature fluctuations and/or density inhomogeneities . the volume emissivity of a recombination line is proportional to the product of the densities of the emitting ions and of electrons and increases with decreasing temperature [ @xmath22 , where @xmath23 is the density of recombining ions and @xmath24 . the total mass of h - deficient ( metal - rich ) material required to produce the observed strengths of orls can be determined if one knows the distance to the nebula as well as the electron temperature and density of the emitting gas . the distance to hf2 - 2 is poorly known . cahn & kaler ( 1971 ) and maciel ( 1984 ) gave estimates of 4.0 and 4.5kpc , respectively , based on the shklovsky method ( shklovsky 1956 ) . given the peculiar nature of hf2 - 2 , the method is unlikely to be valid . here we have simply adopted a nominal value of 4.25kpc . if we assume @xmath25 k , @xmath26@xmath27 ( c.f . 6.2 , table 4 and fig.5 ) , then from the observed intensity of the o ii @xmath14649 line , we find a total number of o@xmath28 ions emitting the @xmath14649 orl of @xmath29 , where @xmath30 is the distance to the nebula in kpc . after correcting for the ionic concentration in o@xmath16 , the total mass of oxygen equals @xmath31@xmath32 . for hydrogen , if we assume @xmath33 k , @xmath34@xmath27 , as deduced from simultaneously fitting the observed h i balmer discontinuity and decrement ( zhang et al . 2004 ) , we find @xmath35 , or a total mass of ionized hydrogen @xmath36@xmath32 . the latter is far less than the nominal total mass of ionized gas of 0.3@xmath32 for an optically thin pn , even after taking into account the contribution from helium . similarly , from the [ o iii ] @xmath15007 forbidden line , assuming @xmath37 k , @xmath38@xmath27 ( c.f . 6.1 , table 3 ) , we find @xmath39 , or a total mass of oxygen of @xmath40@xmath32 . thus the amounts of metal in the cold h - deficient component and in the hot `` normal '' component are comparable . if we assume that the [ o iii ] @xmath15007 forbidden line arises entirely from the hot gas , whereas the o ii @xmath14649 recombination line originates exclusively from the cold component , then the total number of oxygen atoms in the nebula is simply the sum of those in the two components . this leads to an average o / h abundance for the _ whole _ nebula of @xmath41 , or , on a logarithmic scale where h = 12.00 , o = 8.73 , which is almost identical to the solar photospheric value of 8.69 . the o / h abundances of the hot and of the cold gas can not be determined individually unless one knows how to separate the contributions from the two components to the observed total flux of h@xmath6 . two scenarios have been proposed for the possible origins of the postulated h - deficient material ( liu 2003 ; 2005 ) : 1 ) nucleo - processed material ejected in a late helium flash as proposed for `` born - again '' pne such as abell30 and 78 ( iben , kaler & truran 1983 ) ; 2 ) icy material left over from the debris of planetary system of the progenitor star of the pn . it is also possible that pne exhibiting particularly large adf s , including those `` born - again '' pne , are related to the phenomenon of novae ( wesson et al . the last possibility is particularly attractive in view that hf2 - 2 is a known close binary system with an orbital period of only 0.398571days ( lutz et al . 1998 ) and that the nebula has been suggested to result from a common envelope ejection event ( soker 1997 ; bond 2000 ) . further observations , in particular high spectral and spatial resolution spectroscopic observations using an integral field facility mounted on a large telescope , may prove critical to discriminate between these scenarios . we thank dr . r. corradi for providing access to the original [ o iii ] and h@xmath42 images of hf2 - 2 published by schwarz et al . we would also like to thank dr . r. rubin for a critical reading of the manuscript prior to its publication . the work is partly supported by a joint research grant co - sponsored by the natural science foundation of china and the uk s royal society . bastin r.j . , storey p.j . , 2005 , in r. szczerba , g. stasinska and s. k. gorny , eds . , planetary nebulae as astronomical tools , aip conference proceedings , vol 804 , p.63 bond h. , 2000 , in j. h. kastner , n. soker and s. rappaport , eds . , asymmetrical planetary nebulae ii : from origins to microstructures , asp conference series , vol . 199 , p.115 cahn j. h. , kaler j. b. , 1971 , apjs , 22 , 319 condon j. j. , kaplan d. l. , 1998 , apjs , 117 , 361 exter k. m. , barlow m. j. , walton n. a. , 2004 , mnras , 349 , 1291 garnett d. r. , dinerstein h. l. , 2001 , apj , 558 , 145 howarth i. d. , 1983 , mnras , 203 , 301 iben i. , kaler j. b. , truran j. w. , 1983 , apj , 264 , 605 kaler j. b. , 1988 , pasp , 100 , 620 kingsburgh r. l. , barlow m. j. , 1994 , mnras , 271 , 257 liu x .- w . , 2003 , in s. kwok , m. dopita and r. sutherland , eds . # 209 , planetary nebulae : their evolution and role in the universe . asp , san francisco , p.339 liu x .- w . , 2005 , in j. walsh , l. stanghellini and n. douglas , eds . eso workshop on planetary nebulae beyond the milky way . springer - verlag , berlin , in press liu x .- w . , storey p. j. , barlow m. j. , clegg r. e. s. , 1995 , mnras , 1995 , 272 , 369 liu x .- w . , storey p. j. , barlow m. j. , danziger i. j. , cohen m. , bryce m. , 2000 , mnras , 312 , 585 liu x .- w . , luo s .- g . , barlow m. j. , danziger i. j. , storey p. j. , 2001 , mnras , 327 , 141 liu y. , liu x .- w . , luo s .- g . , barlow m. j. , 2004a , mnras , 353 , 1231 liu y. , liu x .- w . , barlow m. j. , luo s .- g . , 2004b , mnras , 353 , 1251 lodders k. , 2003 , apj , 591 , 1220 luo s .- g . , liu x .- w . , 2003 , in s. kwok , m. dopita and r. sutherland , eds . # 209 , planetary nebulae : their evolution and role in the universe . asp , san francisco , p.393 luo s .- g . , liu x .- w . , barlow m. j. , 2001 , mnras , 326 , 1049 lutz j. , alves d. , becker a. , et al . , 1998 , baas , 30 , 894 maciel w. j. , 1984 , a&as , 55 , 253 peimbert a. , peimbert m. , 2005 , revmexaa ( serie de conf . ) , 23 , 9 . peimbert m. , peimbert a. , ruiz m. t. , esteban c. , 2004 , apjs , 150 , 431 pquignot d. , amara m. , liu x .- w . , barlow m. j. , storey p. j. , morisset c. , torres - peimbert s. , peimbert m. , 2002 , rmxaa ( conf . ser . ) , 12 , 142 pquignot d. , liu x .- w . , barlow m. j. , storey p. j. , morisset c. , 2003 , in s. kwok , m. dopita and r. sutherland , eds . # 209 , planetary nebulae : their evolution and role in the universe . asp , san francisco , p.347 ruiz m. t. peimbert a. , peimbert m. , esteban c. , 2003 , apj , 595 , 247 schwarz h. e. , corradi r. l. m. , melnick j. , 1992 , a&as , 96 , 23 schlegel d. j. , finkbeiner d. p. , davis m. , 1998 , apj , 500 , 525 sharpee b. , baldwin j. a. , williams r. e. , 2004 , apj , 65 , 323 shklovsky i. , 1956 , astr.zh . , 33 , 222 soker n. , 1997 , apjs , 112 , 487 storey p.j . , hummer d.g . , 1995 , mnras , 272 , 41 tsamis y. g. , barlow m. j. , liu x .- w . , danziger i. j. , danziger i. j. , 2003a , mnras , 338 , 687 tsamis y. g. , barlow m. j. , liu x .- w . , danziger i. j. , storey p. j. , 2003b , mnras , 345 , 186 tsamis y. g. , barlow m. j. , liu x .- w . , storey p. j. , danziger i. j. , 2004 , mnras , 353 , 953 tylenda r. , 2003 , in s. kwok , m. dopita and r. sutherland , eds . # 209 , planetary nebulae : their evolution and role in the universe . asp , san francisco , p.389 wesson r. , liu x .- w . , barlow m. j. , 2003 , mnras , 340 , 253 wesson r. , liu x .- w . , barlow m. j. , 2005 , mnras , 362 , 424 williams r. e. , woolf n. j. , hege e. k. , moore r. l. , kopriva d. a. , 1978 , apj , 224 , 171 zhang y. , liu x .- w . , wesson r. , storey p. j. , liu y. , danziger i. j. , 2004 , mnras , 351 , 935 zhang y. , liu x .- w . , liu y. , rubin r. h. , 2005a , mnras , 358 , 457 zhang y. , rubin r. h. , liu x .- w . , 2005b , revmexaa ( serie de conf . ) , 23 , 15	we present high quality optical spectroscopic observations of the planetary nebula ( pn ) hf2 - 2 . the spectrum exhibits many prominent optical recombination lines ( orls ) from heavy element ions . analysis of the h i and he i recombination spectrum yields an electron temperature of @xmath0 k , a factor of ten lower than given by the collisionally excited [ o iii ] forbidden lines . the ionic abundances of heavy elements relative to hydrogen derived from orls are about a factor of 70 higher than those deduced from collisionally excited lines ( cels ) from the same ions , the largest abundance discrepancy factor ( adf ) ever measured for a pn . by comparing the observed o ii @xmath14089/@xmath14649 orl ratio to theoretical value as a function of electron temperature , we show that the o ii orls arise from ionized regions with an electron temperature of only @xmath2 k. the current observations thus provide the strongest evidence that the nebula contains another previously unknown component of cold , high metallicity gas , which is too cool to excite any significant optical or uv cels and is thus invisible via such lines . the existence of such a plasma component in pne provides a natural solution to the long - standing dichotomy between nebular plasma diagnostics and abundance determinations using cels on the one hand and orls on the other . ism : abundances planetary nebulae : individual : hf2 - 2
"I'm a manila envelope taped to a beige wall, no one can see me." Late-night hosts took aim at President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence's meeting with Democratic leaders Nancy Pelosi and Chuck Schumer on Tuesday and, in particular, the vice president's behavior. A sketch portraying Pence's interior monologue during the meeting kicked off the Late Show. "I wonder if I sit real still if people will even notice I'm here," a voiceover said as footage of a stoic Pence from the meeting was shown. "I'm a manila envelope taped to a beige wall, no one can see me. I don't think all gay people are bad, I just think all bad people are gay." Colbert later said that it takes a lot to shock him when it comes to Trump and his behavior. "Today I'm happy to say that I am shocked anew," he said. Colbert joked that the meeting between Trump, Pelosi, Schumer and Pence looked like two cats fighting in a boxing ring. "I'll say this. That was one step up from what actually happened," he said before playing a clip from the real meeting, in which Trump argued with both Pelosi and Schumer about the possibility of a government shutdown and the president's desire for a Mexican border wall. "Stop fighting Grandma and Grandpa and weird Grandpa!" Colbert jokingly pleaded. Another clip showed Trump perk up when Pelosi said his name in conversation. "He's like Alexa. He only wakes up when he hears his name," said Colbert. Colbert shared another clip that showed Trump admitting that he will shut down the government if he doesn’t get what he wants. "To be clear, he's offering to take all the blame for the thing you always blame the other side for," said the host. He then used his Trump impression and said, "'Okay, I will take all the blame for the shutdown, but first, let me just spray paint my initials on the bow of the S.S. Republican party before I drive this baby over that waterfall.'" The next clip from the meeting showed Trump stating that he could get all the votes necessary to build the Mexican border wall. "Now I know what it's like to play poker with Donald Trump. 'Look, I have a full house and I can play it at any time. I could beat all of you in one second if I felt like it. Anyway, I'm bluffing. Here's my money,'" joked Colbert. Later in the meeting, Trump disagreed with Pelosi and Schumer's suggestion that they should wait to have a debate until the press isn't around. "Any child of divorce has seen this conversation before," responded Colbert. "Pelosi explained why it was so important to have the conversation in private," said Colbert before he played a clip where she stated that she didn't want to contradict the president in public. "No! Exactly wrong. Contradict him in public. This is fun. Ask him to name seven state capitals. No, ask him to name seven states." Colbert shared a quote from Pelosi after the meeting, in which she said that Trump used the border wall as a "manhood" thing, "as if manhood could be associated with him." The quote received shocked gasps and applause from the audience. "The wall's a metaphor for his manhood. No wonder he's having trouble erecting it," said Colbert. "Here's the thing about Trump threatening to shut down the government over his wall. This morning he tweeted a long tweet in which he said we already do have a wall," said Colbert. "Trump's problem is that he has to say, 'We built the wall' to satisfy the people who voted for him in 2016, but he also has to say, 'We need to build the wall' to get people to vote for him in 2020. He needs a wall that both does and does not exist. I just hope he has good mime skills." Over on The Daily Show, host Trevor Noah observed how Pence didn't say a word the entire time. "He just sat there motionless, like a guy whose edibles just kicked in," said Noah. "I mean, like, you've got to wonder what he was thinking about when everyone was arguing. He was probably just daydreaming about, I don't know, whatever it is that Mike Pence daydreams about." Noah also shared a segment about how Trump is on Santa's "naughty" list. "It's Christmas time and President Trump already knows what he wants from Santa: a big shiny border wall. But Santa is not going to give it to him, because if there's one person who's on the naughty list, it's Trump," Noah said. He went on to joke that Trump has "put children in cages," which was followed by an impersonation of the president. Noah went on to discuss Trump's desire for a border wall and suggest that he negotiate with Democrats this Christmas. On Jimmy Kimmel Live!, the host also noted Pence's behavior. "The best part of the meeting was Mike Pence — just sitting there quietly — patiently waiting to be president, not saying a word," Kimmel quipped. Kimmel also joked that the meeting was a great template for a new reality television show. He shared clips from the meeting that were interrupted by Real Housewives cast members looking surprised. The clip concluded with Pelosi flipping over a table. Over on Late Night, host Seth Meyers shared a brief clip from the meeting. "Oh boy, the oldies are fighting," he said. "At least that's gonna save you a trip home for Christmas." "Also, what is Mike Pence doing?" he asked as a photo showed a relaxed Pence with his eyes closed. "I guess when Schumer said, 'Shut down,' Pence took him literally." "That's right. Trump got into an argument with Chuck Schumer and Nancy Pelosi on camera today, then as usual he tried offering them $130,000 to be quiet," concluded Meyers. James Corden opened The Late Late Show by sharing Trump's plan to have the military build the border wall if Congress won't fund it. "It looks like Trump's border wall is right on track to still never be built," he said. "If that doesn't work, he'll have no choice but to ask Santa Claus." Corden then focused on Trump's "tantrum" in the meeting. "Think of this as a little preview of what your family dinners are gonna look like this holiday season," said the host. "This looks like a group at a senior center arguing over whether to watch The Price is Right or a rerun of I Love Lucy." The host then pointed out Pence's lack of interest during the meeting. "He looks like he's just thinking, 'Just hold still, Mike. No sudden movements. Maybe they won't realize you're here,'" he said. Corden also showed the bust of Martin King, Jr. next to Pence. "He's thinking, 'This was not my dream,'" he said. Another object that appeared to be uncomfortable in the room was a painting of Alexander Hamilton. Corden said, "Hamilton's thinking, 'I don't want to be in the room where this happened.' Also he's thinking, 'Can anyone get me tickets for Hamilton?'" Over on The Tonight Show, Jimmy Fallon said that the meeting "was like a Real Housewives reunion." \|\|\|\|\| Published on Dec 12, 2018 Seth Meyers' monologue from Tuesday, December 11. » Subscribe to Late Night: http://bit.ly/LateNightSeth » Get more Late Night with Seth Meyers: http://www.nbc.com/late-night-with-se... » Watch Late Night with Seth Meyers Weeknights 12:35/11:35c on NBC. LATE NIGHT ON SOCIAL Follow Late Night on Twitter: https://twitter.com/LateNightSeth Like Late Night on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/LateNightSeth Find Late Night on Tumblr: http://latenightseth.tumblr.com/ Connect with Late Night on Google+: https://plus.google.com/+LateNightSet... Late Night with Seth Meyers on YouTube features A-list celebrity guests, memorable comedy, and topical monologue jokes. NBC ON SOCIAL Like NBC: http://Facebook.com/NBC Follow NBC: http://Twitter.com/NBC NBC Tumblr: http://NBCtv.tumblr.com/ NBC Pinterest: http://Pinterest.com/NBCtv/ NBC Google+: https://plus.google.com/+NBC YouTube: http://www.youtube.com/nbc NBC Instagram: http://instagram.com/nbctv Trump Argues with Pelosi and Schumer, Raw Cookie Dough - Monologue- Late Night with Seth Meyers https://youtu.be/zFlAZZ2M9Jg Late Night with Seth Meyers http://www.youtube.com/user/latenight...	– Things got heated Tuesday during an Oval Office meeting on border security between President Trump and Democratic leaders Nancy Pelosi and Chuck Schumer. But while their interaction was intense enough to earn a spot in the late-night rounds, VP Mike Pence didn't escape notice—despite doing his best job to not be noticed. One comment likened his role to "a 'Weekend at Bernies' type scenario" in which he was propped up in the chair like the famous movie corpse. As the Washington Post and Hollywood Reporter note, the late-night hosts didn't let Pence, who at times looked like he was drifting off in his own mind, get away with trying to blend into the wallpaper: Jimmy Kimmel Live!: The host pointed out the "best part" of the Oval Office showdown: "Mike Pence—just sitting there quietly—patiently waiting to be president, not saying a word." Late Night With Seth Meyers: During the meeting, Schumer railed against Trump for incessantly talking about shuttering the government if he didn't get border funding. Which led to Meyers' quip: "I guess when Schumer said 'shutdown,' Pence took him literally." The Daily Show: Trevor Noah's take on a "pretty weird Mike Pence," whom he called his "favorite part of this awkward threesome," was that he was either daydreaming—about a Handmaid's Tale-like world, naturally, per the thought bubble the Daily Show attached to Pence's head—or stoned: "He just sat there motionless, like a guy whose edibles just kicked in." The Late Show: Stephen Colbert provided a voice-over for what he imagined was going on inside the VP's head, which, per Colbert, included thinking about what he'd like for dinner ("boiled potatoes") and his own future turn in the White House, which would lead to the "Michael Pence Presidential Library and Casino." "I wonder if I sit real still if people will even notice I'm here," "Pence" pondered. "I'm a manila envelope taped to a beige wall. No one can see me." (Pence made waves over a "do not touch" sign.)
foot and mouth disease ( fmd ) is one of the highly contagious diseases of domestic animals , caused by foot - and - mouth disease virus ( fmdv ) , a member of the family picornaviridae , which has a colossal global impact , due to the huge number of animals affected . the fmd endemic countries collectively contain three - quarters of the world 's population ( robinson et al . , 2011 ) , indicating the global economic significance of the disease . at the national level in india , annual total economic loss due to fmd ranges from rs 12,000 crore to rs 14,000 crore ( singh et al . , 2013 ) . in spite of all the control measures taken , fmd continues to be an economically important disease in india due to poor surveillance and inadequate control programs . understanding of the mechanism of foot - and - mouth disease virus ( fmdv ) infection and replication of this virus is important to the control of this worldwide menace ( alexandersen et al . , 2003 , longjam et al . , 2011 ) . a vital question that has yet to be addressed concerns the role of viral receptors in the pathogenesis of fmd . integrins are the biologically important set of proteins used by the cells to bind and respond to the extracellular matrix which belong to a large family of integral membrane receptors that is required for cell adhesion . functionally active integrins consist of two noncovalently bound transmembrane glycoprotein subunits viz , alpha ( ) and beta ( ) ( springer , 2002 ) . evidence suggested that virus binding and infection of the integrin 6 ( itgb6 ) transfected cells are mediated through an rgd - dependent interaction ( baxt and becker , 1990 , jackson et al . , 2000 , mason et al . , 1994 ) . considering the role of host itgb6 receptor gene , the aim of the present study was to screen genetic variation within a snp ( rs136500299 ) at exon 14 region among different indigenous cattle . the polymorphism t / c is located at position 2145 of the reference itgb6 mrna and produces a missense change phe / ser in the position 667 of the polypeptide . previously , this polymorphism has been reported at least ten times : ss250661448 , ss263658018 , ss415630763 , ss420604742 , ss422472086 , ss679762826 , ss752601716 , ss828200981 , ss907724252 , and ss942564461 . in this study , we describe an accurate method on the basis of competitive polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) so called tetraplex arms pcr , for identification of the snp among different animals . for analyzing the scenario of targeted snp among different zebu cattle , a total of 148 animals of different indigenous breeds of cattle { sahiwal ( 51 ) , kankrej ( 48 ) , ongole ( 38 ) and gir ( 11 ) } from different agricultural zones were used in the study . blood samples were collected from all the animals by jugular vein puncture using sodium heparin ( 10 iu / ml ) as an anticoagulant . immediately after collection , blood samples were stored in a portable refrigerator at 4 c , transported to the laboratory , and stored at 80 c until dna extraction . chloroform extraction method ( sambrook and russell , 2001 ) and the purity of genomic dna was assessed spectrophotometrically . the tetra - primer pcr procedure ( ye et al . , 2001 ) was used for genotyping the snp ( rs136500299 ) at exon 14 region of itgb6 receptor gene . the method employs four primers to amplify a fragment from dna containing the snp and amplicons representing each of the two allelic forms . primers can be designed to amplify fragments of differing sizes for each allele band in order for them to be easily resolved using agarose gel electrophoresis . details of the primer used for the present study and the amplicon size for different genotypes were shown in table 1 . pcr was performed in a total volume of 25 l containing approximately 50 ng dna , 2.5 l of 10x buffer , 2.0 mm mgcl2 , 0.2 mm dntps , 5 pmol of each outer primers , 10 pmol of each inner primers and 1 u of taq polymerase ( sigma aldrich , usa ) . the polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) protocol was 94 c for 5 min , followed by 35 cycles of 94 c for 30 s , annealing at 55 c for 30 s and 72 c for 30 s , and a final extension at 72 c for 10 min . the pcr products were separated on 1.0% agarose gel ( sigma aldrich , usa ) including 0.5 g / ml of ethidium bromide and photographed under gel documentation system ( alpha imager ep ) . validation of the three different genotypes was analyzed by cloning and sequencing the 433 bp pcr products for each genotype . gene ( allele ) and genotype frequencies of itgb6 receptor gene were calculated by direct counting method . the four populations were tested for hardy weinberg equilibrium using proc allele ( sas inst . cary , nc ) . the chi - square ( ) test was used to find the difference in genotype frequencies in different breeds . the present study was aimed to develop a single tube tetraplex pcr based genotyping assay for snp ( rs13650029 ) at exonic region of bovine itgb6 receptor gene . snp genotyping techniques depend on amplification of the target dna using pcr technique , but differ in the means of discerning between the different alleles , which involves significant post - amplification manipulations . for instance , the restriction fragment length polymorphism typing method based on digestion of amplified pcr products with suitable restriction endonuclease . another extensively used snp typing technique allele specific oligonucleotide ( aso ) melting involves lengthy blotting and hybridization techniques . tetra - primer arms pcr method described in the present context circumvents the limitations of the earlier mentioned techniques . the technique used in the present study involves a single step pcr protocol with two sets of primers to detect the different banding pattern , without the downstream processing like re digestion or hybridization . the primers were designed in such a way to amplify fragments of differing sizes for each allele , in order to resolve differentially in agarose gel electrophoresis . the method described in the present study is a simple , swift and cost - effective method for snp genotyping in large number of individuals ( ye et al . , 2001 ) . correspondence between arms pcr and sequencing confirmed three genotype pattern of the targeted snp at exon 14 region of bovine itgb6 gene among different zebu cattle breeds ( fig . 1 ) . genotyping revealed that , the genotype tt is widely distributed among the targeted zebu cattle breeds . the study revealed that the frequency of t allele was higher in indigenous populations compared to the c allele . this trend was mostly seen in all the breeds except sahiwal where the heterozygotic frequency was comparatively higher , even though the difference is not statistically significant ( table 2 ) . the test for hw equilibrium among different populations showed that all the breeds were under equilibrium with respect to the itgb6 receptor gene indicating the absence of aggressive selection i.e. selection primarily based on this gene ( p > 0.05 ) . the frequency of animals having cc genotype was lowest in all the four breeds . in order to study the variation in the genotype frequencies among different indigenous breeds of cattle , the result showed in table 3 indicates that the genotype frequencies were not statistically different ( = 7.900 , p = 0.2455 ) among the breeds indicating that all the populations are having similar genetic constitution with regard to the itgb6 receptor gene . the snp ( rs136500299 ) t / c located at position 2145 of the reference itgb6 mrna produces a missense change phe / ser . serine is a polar amino acid with its smaller size , whereas phenylalanine is an aromatic amino acid with complex structure . thus it may be presumed that changes of amino acid may alter the conformational changes of the itgb6 receptor coding polypeptide , which however , needs to be confirmed through further studies . the results of the present study suggest that t allele is widely distributed among the indigenous breeds of cattle which can be associated with the resistance to fmd virus , as the susceptibility to fmd virus is lower than the tauras breeds . however , studies with larger sample sets and wide range of cattle breeds are still needed to confirm the exact genetic distribution pattern of the snp .	the present study was aimed to screen genetic variation within a snp ( rs136500299 ) located at exon 14 region of bovine itgb6 gene among different zebu cattle breeds . the genotyping method describe in the present study is a tetraplex arms pcr , which offers extremely fast , economical , and simple detection tool . the distribution of the itgb6 genotypes among the different breeds studied suggested that the populations were under hardy weinberg equilibrium . our findings revealed that tt genotypes are widely distributed among different zebu cattle breeds , which can be associated with the resistance to fmd virus , as the bos indicus are more resistant to fmd virus in comparison to bos taurus .
a large volume of data now exists on the hadro - production of @xmath0 at fixed target energies both for the total cross section and the @xmath3 distribution . in particular , several new experiments have taken high statistics data with pion or proton beams . since a promising new model for heavy - quarkonium production is now available , it is useful to perform an analysis in the context of this model . this is the purpose of this paper . the physics of heavy quarks can be expected to be dominated by its ( large ) mass , @xmath6 , and hence computable in perturbative qcd . however , for quarkonium systems the scales @xmath7 ( relative momentum ) and @xmath8 ( energy ) are also important , since the quarks are expected to be non - relativistic in the rest frame of the quarkonium . an organised way to include the effects of the dimensionless parameter @xmath9 ( relative velocity ) is provided by an effective low - energy field theory called non - relativistic qcd ( nrqcd ) @xcite . a cutoff of the order of @xmath6 is introduced @xcite into the qcd action to remove all states of momenta larger than @xmath6 . their effects are taken into account through new couplings , which are local since the excluded states are relativistic . beyond the leading order in @xmath10 the effective theory is non - renormalisable . this cut - off theory is block - diagonalised to decouple the heavy - quark degrees of freedom , leaving a non - relativistic schr " odinger field theory . consequently , states of a quark anti - quark pair can be specified by the spin , orbital and total angular momentum ( @xmath11 in spectroscopic notation ) , a radial quantum number and the colour representation . gluons emitted by quarks can be specified in a multipole expansion . the formalism of nrqcd has been successfully applied to first principles lattice computations of quarkonium spectra @xcite . in this framework , a @xmath12 pair is created by a short - distance process , and it binds into a quarkonium state over scales that are longer by powers of @xmath13 . assuming factorisation , the cross - section for the production of a meson @xmath14 can be written as @xmath15 where @xmath16 s are short distance matrix elements and @xmath17 are local 4-fermion operators , of naive dimension @xmath18 , describing the long - distance physics ( the angular brackets denote a vacuum expectation value ) . the cutoff - dependence of @xmath16 is compensated by that of the long - distance matrix elements . the colour index @xmath19 can run over singlet as well as octet representations . the short - distance coefficients @xmath16 have the usual perturbation expansion in powers of @xmath20 . the scaling of the matrix element @xmath21 with @xmath9 is determined by the ( rotational ) tensor representation of the gluonic transition connecting the state of the produced pair to the target hadron . consequently , the sum in eq . ( [ e1 ] ) is a double power series expansion in @xmath9 and @xmath20 . for bottomonium states , @xmath22 is small compared to @xmath23 and hence colour octet contributions are not very significant except when the singlet terms vanish . as a result , the expansion is close to the normal perturbative expansion . for charmonium states , a numerical coincidence , @xmath24 , makes the double expansion more complicated . the importance of colour octet pieces were first seen @xcite in the phenomenology of @xmath25-state charmonium production at large @xmath26 in tevatron data @xcite . these processes do not have a consistent description in terms of colour singlet operators only @xcite . however , even for the direct production of @xmath27-states such as the @xmath0 or @xmath28 , where the colour singlet components give the leading contribution in @xmath9 , the inclusion of sub - leading octet states was seen to be necessary for phenomenological reasons @xcite . this can be understood in terms of the numerical coincidence of @xmath9 and @xmath20 mentioned earlier . since the long - distance matrix elements are not calculable , and the octet matrix elements are not easily written in terms of decays , the tevatron data must be used to fix these unknown parameters @xcite . as a consequence , quantitative test of this formalism can come only from other experiments . fixed - target experiments provide such tests , because colour - singlet contributions are expected to be negligible for photo - production and hadro - production of @xmath0 in appropriate kinematic regions . a new linear combination of octet matrix elements appears here . in ref . @xcite this combination has been fixed through an analysis of elastic photo - production data . in an earlier paper @xcite , we had considered data on hadro - production of @xmath0 in proton - nucleon and pion - nucleon collisions at centre of mass energies , @xmath29 , upto about 60 gev . we found that the data on forward ( @xmath30 ) integrated cross sections are well described by the inclusion of octet components . these are parameter - free predictions , because the values of all the required non - perturbative matrix elements are derived from other experiments . in this paper , we carry out a more detailed investigation of the @xmath3 and @xmath31 distributions of @xmath0 production for the same fixed - target energies . these are given in sections 2 and 3 . the octet model predictions for @xmath0 production in fixed - target experiments have also been considered in ref . @xcite . in ref . @xcite it is claimed that the ratio of directly produced @xmath0 to @xmath32 states is not in agreement with data . this is disputed in ref . we address this question in section 4 . our results are in agreement with those of ref . the @xmath3 distribution for inclusive production of @xmath0 can be written as a sum over all possible channels in the form @xmath33 a channel is specified by the rotational and colour quantum numbers of the @xmath12 state , and the colour singlet meson it goes into . for both colour singlet and octet channels , the strong interaction effects required to bind a pair into a physical meson are specified by the matrix element @xmath34 . subsequently , this meson decays into the @xmath0 with a branching ratio specified by @xmath35 . the formul for the channel cross sections @xcite , matrix elements and branching ratios are collected in table [ tb.inputs ] for all the relevant channels . .the cross sections , non - perturbative matrix elements and branching ratios into the @xmath0 for each channel ( specified by the colour representation @xmath19 , rotational quantum numbers and the primary meson @xmath14 ) relevant to the inclusive @xmath0 cross section of eq . ( [ sigma ] ) . the gluon and quark luminosities are defined in eq . ( [ lumin ] ) . the value of the matrix element quoted in the first line is for the linear combination of eq . ( [ psi ] ) . [ cols="^,^,^,^,^,^",options="header " , ] the magnitudes of the various theoretical uncertainties are summarised in table [ tb.err ] . the errors on the individual non - perturbative matrix elements are quoted in table [ tb.inputs ] . the dominant channel in eq . ( [ sigma ] ) is the gluon fusion part of the octet @xmath0 ( the other channels are suppressed either by a branching ratio or by @xmath36 ) . as a result , the corresponding matrix element dominates this source of uncertainty . the error quoted in the table above is a 1-@xmath37 limit . even if it is replaced by a 3-@xmath37 limit , the uncertainty due to the matrix elements remains the smallest source of error . scale uncertainties in the cross section are a factor of two . as discussed in the previous paragraph , these may be taken as a rough estimate of the importance of higher order perturbative qcd effects . apart from the model discussed in this paper , another , called the semi - local duality model ( sld ) @xcite , is also used to describe charmonium cross sections . this model fixes cross sections for individual charmonium states by comparison with data on the total cross section at some value of @xmath29 . once this is done , the results @xcite for @xmath29 dependence and @xmath3 are similiar to those reported here . a distinction can perhaps be made with accurate data at large @xmath3 , since sld predicts a somewhat harder @xmath3 distribution . other distinctions are possible @xcite , and will be discussed elsewhere . next we turn to the ratio @xmath5 . all the hard cross sections in table [ tb.inputs ] are taken to order @xmath20 . the non - perturbative matrix elements in the @xmath38 channels are all of leading order in the velocity @xmath22 , and there are no contributions at order @xmath39 . the octet terms for @xmath38 are suppressed relative to the singlet terms by @xmath40 . the contribution to direct @xmath0 production starts at order @xmath39 . although sub - leading in @xmath9 , it happens to be the channel with the largest contribution ( see figure [ fg.channel ] ) since it is gluon initiated and hence comes with a factor of @xmath41 . the @xmath42 state , which has the largest branching fraction into @xmath0 has no singlet contribution and hence is also by @xmath40 . from this discussion it is clear that the relative magnitudes of the parton luminosities , @xmath41 and @xmath43 , are important in determining the dominant production channels , and may offset the power counting in @xmath9 to some extent . at order @xmath44 there are no new contributions to direct @xmath0 production , but @xmath42 is produced through gluon initial states . therefore , we have to consider all production channels upto order @xmath44 to get the @xmath32 to direct @xmath0 ratio . beyond the order @xmath44 terms , power counting in @xmath9 can be used to truncate the nrqcd series at any desired level of accuracy , since all the dominant @xmath41 type terms are accounted for at order @xmath44 . enumerating all possible processes at this order , we find that a certain linear combination , @xmath45 , of @xmath46 , @xmath47 and @xmath48 is required for the hadro - production cross section @xcite . these arise equally from quark and gluon initiated processes and hence the same linear combination @xmath45 is associated with both @xmath41 and @xmath43 . analysis of the diagrams shows that precisely the same linear combination appears also in the photo - production cross section . 1 . there are three families of matrix elements involved in @xmath45 . each scales as @xmath49 ( with order @xmath22 corrections ) @xcite where @xmath50 is the spin of the @xmath32 state . this gives @xmath51 within nrqcd , the predicted ratio does not depend on whether the mesons are photo- or hadro - produced . nor does it depend on @xmath29 . the measurement quoted above comes from a global analysis of hadro - production experiments @xcite . there are no studies of this ratio in photo - production . we would like to urge experimentalists to perform such a measurement . 2 . in photo - production the ratio of @xmath32 and direct @xmath0 production is determined by the the ratio of the terms in @xmath45 and @xmath52 ( eq . [ psi ] ) . as a result this ratio is independent of @xmath29 . in hadro - production this ratio is altered a little by the contribution of the colour - singlet production of @xmath53 and @xmath54 . the ratio increases by about @xmath55 ( see figure [ fg.channel ] ) . a small @xmath29 dependence is also to be expected in hadro - production due to the @xmath29 dependence of @xmath40 . this may cause the ratio to be slightly larger at small values of @xmath29 . a detailed numerical treatement will be presented elsewhere @xcite . data on this ratio from hadro - production yields the value @xmath56 @xcite , almost independent of @xmath29 . in photo - production there is only the limit @xmath57 ( 90% cl ) @xcite . data on this ratio from photo - production experiments would constitute an important test of the nrqcd based colour - octet model . the introduction of these order @xmath44 terms does not change the inclusive @xmath0 cross section because the value of @xmath52 extracted from photo - production has to decrease due to the inclusion of @xmath45 . the shape of the @xmath3 distribution comes from the gluon luminosity . this is clear from figure [ fg.channel ] , since the ratio of the direct to total @xmath0 differential cross section is constant . since the order @xmath44 contribution also comes from a gluon initiated process , and carries a factor @xmath41 , the shape of the @xmath3 distribution remains unchanged . the net result of adding all contributions to the cross section upto order @xmath44 is to change only the @xmath32 to direct @xmath0 ratio . a detailed study will be published later @xcite . in summary , the colour - octet model based on nrqcd and an assumption about factorisation , written to order @xmath58 gives a good phenomenological description of the total forward @xmath0 cross section and the @xmath3 and @xmath31 distributions in hadroproduction at fixed target energies . a small discrepancy is found in extrapolating the fixed target results to isr energies , but these are of a kind that have been earlier seen in single inclusive charm production and removed there by going to higher orders in @xmath20 . there is a discrepancy in the ratio of @xmath32 to direct @xmath0 production at order @xmath39 . we have argued that this problem can be solved without changing the results on the cross section by extending the calculations to order @xmath59 . inclusion of these order @xmath44 terms leads to two predictions that for the @xmath60 ratio is borne out by data , and the other , the rough equality of the @xmath61 ratio in photo- and hadro - production can easily be tested in experiments . we believe that nrqcd provides a phenomenologically viable model for quarkonium production . control of the next orders in the expansions in @xmath9 and @xmath20 are , however , necessary . this work is now in progress @xcite . caswell and g.p . lepage , _ phys . _ , b 167 ( 1986 ) 437 . g. t. bodwin , e. braaten and g. p. lepage , _ phys . rev . _ , d 51 ( 1995 ) 1125 . p. lepage _ et al . _ , _ phys . rev . _ , d 46 ( 1992 ) 4052 ; 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cases that involve bleeding from the midgut present a much more significant challenge in terms of detection and treatment . methods of evaluation include small bowel endoscopy , arteriography , and gastrointestinal contrast studies . the differential diagnosis includes arteriovenous malformations , angiodysplasia , ulcers , and small bowel tumors . we will demonstrate that both the evaluation and treatment of these lesions may be accomplished using minimally invasive techniques . a case of occult gastrointestinal bleeding from a polypoid hemangioma located in the distal jejunum is presented . laparoscopic small bowel resection after angiographic localization was successful in removing the jejunal polypoid hemangioma . a laparoscopic approach is an appropriate and beneficial treatment modality in a bleeding midgut lesion provided the lesion can be localized preoperatively and an oncologic resection is maintained . gastrointestinal bleeding that originates in the small intestine is often difficult to diagnose and treat . angiography is frequently used to identify the source of bleeding and may also be used to locate the source of bleeding by injecting the surrounding tissue with methylene blue . when successful , this should allow a laparoscopic approach to small bowel resection and eliminate the need to manipulate the entire length of the small intestine in hopes of palpating the lesion . a 62-year - old female was found to have anemia during a routine screening exam by her primary care physician . her past medical history is significant for severe valvular heart disease secondary to rheumatic fever . she has prosthetic mitral and aortic valves , a history of a tricuspid annuloplasty , and takes coumadin . an esophagogastroduodenoscopy revealed only mild gastritis that did not account for her degree of blood loss . colonoscopic findings were unremarkable . a ugi / sbft demonstrated poor gastric motility but otherwise no abnormalities . over the 6-week course of her evaluation , she received a total of 10 units of packed red blood cells . angiographic evaluation of the superior mesenteric artery demonstrated a lesion with rapid venous filling in the distal jejunum ( figure 1 ) . laparoscopy was successful in identifying the location of the dye , and a mass was appreciated within the lumen of the small bowel . . these neoplasms may represent either a benign or malignant process with a wide range of symptoms that are often nonspecific . surgical series report an equal frequency of benign and malignant tumors , whereas autopsy series heavily favor benign tumors as the most common . this is usually occult and generally requires an extensive gastrointestinal evaluation before a diagnosis is obtained . modalities used include plain films , ugi / sbft , enteroclysis , computed tomography , routine and extended upper endoscopy , tagged rbc scanning , and angiography . this requires the lesion to be easily identified and amenable to passage of an intravascular catheter to within close proximity . methylene blue must then be injected into the surrounding tissue allowing the location of the lesion to be identified from an extramural vantage point . minimally invasive surgery using laparoscopy laparoscopic small bowel resection is an established technique and is performed by exteriorization of the diseased segment of bowel . this provides a resection identical to historical control while decreasing the invasive nature of the procedure . compromise of the surgeon 's ability to perform an adequate oncologic resection , however , mandates conversion to an open procedure . the incidence of malignancy is too high in this group of tumors to allow complacency . this offers a minimally invasive treatment with established techniques that is well tolerated by the patient and reduces recovery time . conservatism , however , necessitates the surgeon to consider that up to 50% of bleeding lesions of the small bowel may represent a malignant process , and an adequate oncologic technique should be preserved .	objectives : occult gastrointestinal bleeding can originate from the foregut , midgut , or hindgut . the evaluation of the foregut and hindgut are well established . cases that involve bleeding from the midgut present a much more significant challenge in terms of detection and treatment . methods of evaluation include small bowel endoscopy , arteriography , and gastrointestinal contrast studies . the differential diagnosis includes arteriovenous malformations , angiodysplasia , ulcers , and small bowel tumors . we will demonstrate that both the evaluation and treatment of these lesions may be accomplished using minimally invasive techniques.methods:a case of occult gastrointestinal bleeding from a polypoid hemangioma located in the distal jejunum is presented . diagnosis and treatment was accomplished using angiographic localization with laparoscopic resection.results:laparoscopic small bowel resection after angiographic localization was successful in removing the jejunal polypoid hemangioma . the patient experienced no further gastrointestinal bleeding.conclusions:we will discuss the technique of localization and treatment used in this unusual case . a laparoscopic approach is an appropriate and beneficial treatment modality in a bleeding midgut lesion provided the lesion can be localized preoperatively and an oncologic resection is maintained .
The legacy and reach of anthropogenic influence is most clearly evidenced by its impact on the most remote and inaccessible habitats on Earth. Here we identify extraordinary levels of persistent organic pollutants in the endemic amphipod fauna from two of the deepest ocean trenches (>10,000 metres). Contaminant levels were considerably higher than documented for nearby regions of heavy industrialization, indicating bioaccumulation of anthropogenic contamination and inferring that these pollutants are pervasive across the world’s oceans and to full ocean depth. \|\|\|\|\| CLOSE Uh-oh this doesn't sound good. USA TODAY NETWORK Hirondellea gigas 2: The ultra-deepwater amphipod Hirondellea gigas from the deepest depths of the Mariana Trench in the Northwest Pacific Ocean. This species is known to inhabit depths of 6000 to nearly 11,000m. Credit: Dr. Alan Jamieson, Newcastle University (Photo: Dr. Alan Jamieson, Newcastle University) Researchers exploring the ocean’s deepest reaches are accustomed to seeing oddities, from fish as fragile as tissue paper to translucent sea cucumbers. But even veteran deep-water scientists are shocked by the latest discovery at the very bottom of the sea: toxic pollution – lots of it. Tiny shrimp-like crustaceans living in the Mariana Trench, one of the world’s most remote habitats, are laced with staggering levels of industrial chemicals, according to a new study. Scientists found that some of the Mariana crustaceans are more contaminated with the harmful pollutants called PCBs than crabs living in waters fed by one of China’s most polluted rivers. The scientists found high levels of flame retardants in the bodies of similar crustaceans living in the Kermadec Trench, the world’s fifth-deepest and more than 4,000 miles from the Mariana. Humans have left a “footprint in the deepest places in the world,” said study co-author Alan Jamieson of Britain’s Newcastle University. “Not only are (the pollutants) in every single sample, regardless of species, depth, trench, whatever, the concentrations are extraordinarily high. That was a big surprise.” Anything that lives in in the Mariana Trench – the world’s deepest, at more than 6 miles – and other underwater gashes in the Earth’s surface is a tough customer. It must thrive in utter darkness and under crushing pressures of seven tons per square inch, enough to pulverize costly scientific gear. During one of Jamieson’s research voyages, an automated submersible scanning the Mariana trench imploded underwater, and only bits of debris floated to the surface. In these unforgiving conditions, the shrimp-like scavengers called amphipods thrive by snatching any bit of food that floats by. But that voracity can backfire. The contaminants in the amphipods’ bodies probably came from the food they ate, the scientists write in this week’s Nature Ecology & Evolution. It’s not yet clear whether the poisons do amphipods any harm, but ill effects would not be a surprise. Cancer and other health problems in animals have been linked to PCBs, and their manufacture was phased out decades ago. The flame retardants found at high levels in the Kermadec amphipods belong to a class of chemicals called PBDEs. Lab tests have tied PBDEs to thyroid problems, and many countries are phasing out their use. The researchers did not trace the contaminants to their origins, but landfills are one possibility. Poorly maintained landfills could leach chemicals into rivers, which would funnel them to the ocean. The Mariana Trench is in the western Pacific, off shore from highly industrialized countries such as Japan, so perhaps industrial accidents help account for the PCBs there. Once the chemicals descend into the trenches, there’s nowhere else for them to go. Humans may think that anything dumped in the ocean “magically disappears,” Jamieson said. “It doesn’t magically disappear. It ends up somewhere. … There’s no such thing as out of sight, out of mind.” Other scientists said the new findings have sobering implications. The study confirms “human activities can penetrate to remote habitats,” agreed Henry Ruhl of Britain’s University of Southampton, who was not associated with the research. The discovery of these poisons in a supposedly isolated setting “is surprising and quite alarming,” said Katherine Dafforn of Australia’s University of New South Wales, who wrote a commentary accompanying the new study. “Chemicals that were produced, subsequently regulated and then largely eliminated before I was even born have continued to persist, and now we find evidence of them even in our deepest oceans.” Read or Share this story: http://usat.ly/2kCIHnN \|\|\|\|\| Even animals from the deepest places on Earth have accumulated pollutants made by humans. That’s the unfortunate finding of a new study by myself with colleagues from the University of Aberdeen and the James Hutton Institute, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution. Up until now I have tended to stick to the nice side of deep sea biology: discovery and exploration. My colleagues and I are quite at ease in ocean trenches as scientists there can usually work without having to wrestle with anthropogenic impacts like litter or noise and chemical pollution. It is Earth at its most pristine. But in this instance, while investigating the ecology of Pacific trenches, and with such a unique opportunity to collect deep sea specimens, we couldn’t resist having a quick look for man’s mighty footprint. We tested various different species of tiny scavenging crustaceans known as amphipods that we gathered between 7,000 and 10,500 metres in depth in the Mariana and the Kermadec trenches in the western Pacific. We found that regardless of depth, regardless of species, regardless of trench, these animals were loaded with the two types of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) we were looking for. In creatures that live in shallower waters, exposure to POPs can reduce reproductive success and thus population growth. It’s hard to study deeper animals alive under controlled conditions but can assume the pollutants have a similar effect. There were striking variations between trenches and between the sorts of pollutant, but the salient finding is that humanity’s footprint is thoroughly imprinted on some of the most extreme and remote environments on Earth. Alan Jamieson, Newcastle University , Author provided In the deep sea these pollutants are particularly concerning as they are inherently hydrophobic, which means they will bind to anything that isn’t water. This includes tiny specs of “marine snow” or larger carcasses that fall through the ocean, which is how the deep sea receives most of its energy. Therefore the primary mechanism of food supply to great depths is also a very efficient way to deliver pollution. But where did it all come from? Take one of the two types of pollutants for example, a category known as polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs. About 1.3m tonnes were produced between the 1930s and 1970s to use in paints, plastics, electronic equipment and more. Of this, 65% is now contained in landfills or still within electrical equipment. But more worryingly, the other 35% was accidentally released into the environment. These pollutants are invulnerable to natural degradation and so persist in the environment for decades, therefore once they find their way into rivers, coast lines and the open ocean there’s plenty of time to sink many kilometres below the waves. And once a pollutant finds itself in the greatest ocean depth, where else is there to go? The bottom of the Mariana Trench, for example, the deepest point on Earth, was found to host highly-contaminated amphipods. Once these POPs are in the food web there are no mechanisms for dispersal or reversal from such great depths, and hence the bio-accumulation will only continue. The only positive from this story is that, once people realised these chemicals were an awful contribution to the world, POPs were banned by the 2001 Stockholm Convention. At this point one would hope some major lessons were learned. But no, we don’t look have to look far to realise this taught us nothing. Just take a look at the plague of plastic microbeads (and other microplastics) turning up in the ocean following a brief excursion from, say, a cosmetics bottle, across someone’s face or armpit and then sent on the long journey down the plug hole. It seems that once again, we have a shocking example of our own stupidity, as people gradually realise that plastic microbeads are, funnily enough, made of plastic, and that stuff that goes down the sink doesn’t magically disappear into another dimension. The deep sea is closer than you think We have all likely heard that “Mount Everest would fit into the Mariana Trench with over a mile to spare” or some other pointless analogy regarding the number of elephants standing on a car illustrating the high pressures in the oceans. These all serve to needlessly distance ourselves from these remote marine frontiers. Of course, the pressure and depth are immense, which do require incredible physiological adaptations for survival, and equally clever engineering solutions for exploration, but the 11km that so easily swallows Mount Everest is still only 11km. Think of it like this: 11km is only half the length of Manhattan Island, I could legally drive it in less than six minutes, and Mo Farah could run it in less than 30 minutes. The reality is that the deep sea just isn’t that remote, and the great depth and pressures are only an imaginary defence against the effects of what we do “up here”. The bottom line is that the deep sea – most of planet Earth – is anything but exempt from the consequences of what happens above it, and it’s about time we appreciated that. \|\|\|\|\| Presence of manmade chemicals in most remote place on planet shows nowhere is safe from human impact, say scientists Scientists have discovered “extraordinary” levels of toxic pollution in the most remote and inaccessible place on the planet – the 10km deep Mariana trench in the Pacific Ocean. Small crustaceans that live in the pitch-black waters of the trench, captured by a robotic submarine, were contaminated with 50 times more toxic chemicals than crabs that survive in heavily polluted rivers in China. “We still think of the deep ocean as being this remote and pristine realm, safe from human impact, but our research shows that, sadly, this could not be further from the truth,” said Alan Jamieson of Newcastle University in the UK, who led the research. “The fact that we found such extraordinary levels of these pollutants really brings home the long-term, devastating impact that mankind is having on the planet,” he said. Jamieson’s team identified two key types of severely toxic industrial chemicals that were banned in the late 1970s, but do not break down in the environment, known as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These chemicals have previously been found at high levels in Inuit people in the Canadian Arctic and in killer whales and dolphins in western Europe. The research, published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, suggests that the POPs infiltrate the deepest parts of the oceans as dead animals and particles of plastic fall downwards. POPs accumulate in fat and are therefore concentrated in creatures up the food chain. They are also water-repellent and so stick to plastic waste. Mariana trench live feed: engrossing viewing from deepest place on Earth Read more “The very bottom of the deep trenches like the Mariana are inhabited by incredibly efficient scavenging animals, like the 2cm-long amphipods we sampled, so any little bit of organic material that falls down, these guys turn up in huge numbers and devour it,” said Jamieson. He said it was not unexpected that some POPs would be found in the deepest parts of the oceans: “When it gets down into the trenches, there is nowhere else for it to go. The surprise was just how high the levels were – the contamination in the animals was sky high.” The level of one type of POP, called polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), was only equalled anywhere in the northwest Pacific in Suruga Bay in Japan, an infamous pollution blackspot. The researchers also found severe contamination in amphipods collected in the Kermadec trench, which is 7,000km from the Mariana trench. The pollution was ubiquitous, found “in all samples across all species at all depths in both trenches”, the scientists said. PCBs were manufactured from the 1930s to the 1970s, when their appalling impact on people and wildlife was realised. About a third of the 1.3m tonnes produced has already leaked into coastal sediments and the open oceans, with a steady stream still thought to be coming from poorly protected landfill sites. An expedition conducted by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration last year also found various manmade items on the slopes leading to the Sirena Deep, part of the Mariana trench, and the nearby Enigma Seamount. They included a tin of Spam, a can of Budweiser beer and several plastic bags. Facebook Twitter Pinterest ‘Contamination was sky high’: two commensal amphipods on a sponge stalk in the Mariana trench. A commensal ophiuroid is seen at the top of the image. Photograph: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration The results are both significant and disturbing, said the marine ecologist Katherine Dafforn at the University of New South Wales in Australia and not part of the research team: “The trenches are many miles away from any industrial source and suggests that the delivery of these pollutants occurs over long distances despite regulation since the 1970s. “We still know more about the surface of the moon than that of the ocean floor,” Dafforn said. She said the new research showed that the deep ocean trenches are not as isolated as people imagine. “Jamieson’s team has provided clear evidence that the deep ocean, rather than being remote, is highly connected to surface waters. Their findings are crucial for future monitoring and management of these unique environments.” POPs cause a wide range of damage to life, particularly harming reproductive success. Jamieson is now assessing the impact on the hardy trench creatures, which survive water pressures equivalent to balancing a tonne weight on a fingertip and temperatures of just 1C. He is also examining the deep sea animals for evidence of plastic pollution, feared to be widespread in the oceans, which has been the focus of much recent attention, leading to bans on plastic microbeads in cosmetics in the UK and US. “I reckon it will be there,” he said. Jamieson said it had been positive that the dangers of POPs had been identified and their use ended but that plastic pollution presented a new concern for contamination of the oceans. “We’ve just done it again,” he said.	– At the deepest spot in the ocean, scientists have found beer cans, plastic bags, a tin of Spam, and now tiny crustaceans contaminated with toxic chemicals banned nearly 50 years ago. The "extraordinary levels" of pollution in the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean and the Kermadec Trench some 4,000 miles away, initially described last summer, are now laid out in a study published in Nature. Researchers say toxic industrial chemicals called persistent organic pollutants, or POPs, known to affect reproduction, were found "in all samples across all species at all depths in both trenches," they tell the Guardian. Adds lead researcher Alan Jamieson, "the surprise was just how high the levels were—the contamination in the animals was sky high." POPs—including polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs, which were banned in the 1970s—have leaked into oceans and accumulated in animals, which sink to the deep ocean when they die. They're then eaten by scavenging amphipods like those in Mariana Trench, which are more contaminated with PCBs than crabs living in some of China's most polluted waters, USA Today reports. At the Conversation, Jamieson compares the use of plastic microbeads to that of POPs, noting "we have a shocking example of our own stupidity, as people gradually realize … that stuff that goes down the sink doesn't magically disappear into another dimension." He adds researchers are now surveying amphipods in the trenches for plastic pollution he is sure will be there. (Mariana Trench is home to a 3.5-second symphony.)
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE; AMENDMENT OF 1986 CODE. (a) Short Title.--This Act may be cited as the ``Tobacco Smuggling Eradication Act of 2002''. TITLE I--AMENDMENTS TO INTERNAL REVENUE CODE OF 1986 SEC. 101. AMENDMENT OF 1986 CODE. Except as otherwise expressly provided, whenever in this title an amendment or repeal is expressed in terms of an amendment to, or repeal of, a section or other provision, the reference shall be considered to be made to a section or other provision of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986. SEC. 102. IMPROVED MARKING AND LABELING. (a) In General.--Subsection (b) of section 5723 (relating to marks, labels, and notices) is amended-- (1) by striking ``, if any,'' and (2) by adding at the end the following: ``Such marks, labels, and notices shall include marks and notices relating to the following: ``(1) Identification.--The Secretary shall promulgate regulations that require each manufacturer or importer of tobacco products to legibly print a unique serial number on all packages of tobacco products manufactured or imported for sale or distribution. Such serial number shall be designed to enable the Secretary to identify the manufacturer or importer of the product, and the location and date of manufacture or importation. The Secretary shall determine the size and location of the serial number. ``(2) Marking requirements for exports.--Each package of a tobacco product that is exported shall be marked for export from the United States. The Secretary shall promulgate regulations to determine the size and location of the mark and under what circumstances a waiver of this paragraph shall be granted.''. (b) Sales on Indian Reservations.--Section 5723 is amended by adding at the end the following new subsections: ``(f) Sales on Indian Reservations.--The Secretary, in consultation with the Secretary of the Interior, shall promulgate regulations that require that each package of a tobacco product that is sold on an Indian reservation (as defined in section 403(9) of the Indian Child Protection and Family Violence Prevention Act (25 U.S.C. 3202(9)) be labeled as such. Such regulations shall include requirements for the size and location of the label. ``(g) Definition of Package.--For purposes of this section, the term `package' means the innermost sealed container irrespective of the material from which such container is made, in which a tobacco product is placed by the manufacturer and in which such tobacco product is offered for sale to a member of the general public.''. SEC. 103. WHOLESALERS REQUIRED TO HAVE PERMIT. Section 5712 (relating to application for permit) is amended by inserting ``, wholesaler,'' after ``manufacturer''. SEC. 104. CONDITIONS OF PERMIT. Subsection (a) of section 5713 (relating to issuance of permit) is amended to read as follows: ``(a) Issuance.-- ``(1) In general.--A person shall not engage in business as a manufacturer, wholesaler, or importer of tobacco products or as an export warehouse proprietor without a permit to engage in such business. Such permit shall be issued in such form and in such manner as the Secretary shall by regulation prescribe, to every person properly qualified under sections 5711 and 5712. A new permit may be required at such other time as the Secretary shall by regulation prescribe. ``(2) Conditions.--The issuance of a permit under this section shall be conditioned upon the compliance with the requirements of this chapter and the Contraband Cigarette Trafficking Act (18 U.S.C. chapter 114), and any regulations issued pursuant to such statutes.''. SEC. 105. RECORDS TO BE MAINTAINED. Section 5741 (relating to records to be maintained) is amended-- (1) by inserting ``(a) In General.--'' before ``Every manufacturer'', (2) by inserting ``every wholesaler,'' after ``every importer,'', (3) by striking ``such records'' and inserting ``records concerning the chain of custody of the tobacco products and such other records'', and (4) by adding at the end the following new subsection: ``(b) Retailers.--Retailers shall maintain records of receipt of tobacco products, and such records shall be available to the Secretary for inspection and audit. An ordinary commercial record or invoice shall satisfy the requirements of this subsection if such record shows the date of receipt, from whom tobacco products were received, and the quantity of tobacco products received.''. SEC. 106. REPORTS. Section 5722 (relating to reports) is amended-- (1) by inserting ``(a) In General.--'' before ``Every manufacturer'', and (2) by adding at the end the following new subsection: ``(b) Reports By Export Warehouse Proprietors.-- ``(1) In general.--Prior to exportation of tobacco products from the United States, the export warehouse proprietor shall submit a report (in such manner and form as the Secretary may by regulation prescribe) to enable the Secretary to identify the shipment and assure that it reaches its intended destination. ``(2) Agreements with foreign governments.--Notwithstanding section 6103 of this title, the Secretary is authorized to enter into agreements with foreign governments to exchange or share information contained in reports received from export warehouse proprietors of tobacco products if-- ``(A) the Secretary believes that such agreement will assist in-- ``(i) ensuring compliance with the provisions of this chapter or regulations promulgated thereunder, or ``(ii) preventing or detecting violations of the provisions of this chapter or regulations promulgated thereunder, and ``(B) the Secretary obtains assurances from such government that the information will be held in confidence and used only for the purposes specified in clauses (i) and (ii) of subparagraph (A). No information may be exchanged or shared with any government that has violated such assurances.''. SEC. 107. FRAUDULENT OFFENSES. (a) In General.--Subsection (a) of section 5762 (relating to fraudulent offenses) is amended by striking paragraph (1) and redesignating paragraphs (2) through (6) as paragraphs (1) through (5), respectively. (b) Offenses Relating to Distribution of Tobacco Products.--Section 5762 is amended-- (1) by redesignating subsection (b) as subsection (c), (2) in subsection (c) (as so redesignated), by inserting ``or (b)'' after ``(a)'', and (3) by inserting after subsection (a) the following new subsection: ``(b) Offenses Relating to Distribution of Tobacco Products.--It shall be unlawful-- ``(1) for any person to engage in the business as a manufacturer or importer of tobacco products or cigarette papers and tubes, or to engage in the business as a wholesaler or an export warehouse proprietor, without filing the bond and obtaining the permit where required by this chapter or regulations thereunder; ``(2) for a manufacturer, importer, or wholesaler permitted under this chapter intentionally to ship, transport, deliver, or receive any tobacco products from or to any person other than a person permitted under this chapter or a retailer, except a permitted importer may receive foreign tobacco products from a foreign manufacturer or a foreign distributor that have not previously entered the United States; ``(3) for any person (other than the original manufacturer of such tobacco products or an export warehouse proprietor authorized to receive any tobacco products that have previously been exported and returned to the United States) to receive any tobacco products that have previously been exported and returned to the United States; ``(4) for any export warehouse proprietor intentionally to ship, transport, sell, or deliver for sale any tobacco products to any person other than the original manufacturer of such tobacco products, another export warehouse proprietor, or a foreign purchaser; ``(5) for any person (other than a manufacturer or an export warehouse proprietor permitted under this chapter) intentionally to ship, transport, receive, or possess, for purposes of resale, any tobacco product in packages marked pursuant to regulations issued under section 5723, other than for direct return to a manufacturer for repacking or for re- exportation or to an export warehouse proprietor for re- exportation; ``(6) for any manufacturer, importer, export warehouse proprietor, or wholesaler permitted under this chapter to make intentionally any false entry in, to fail willfully to make appropriate entry in, or to fail willfully to maintain properly any record or report that such person is required to keep as required by this chapter or the regulations promulgated thereunder; and ``(7) for any person to alter, mutilate, destroy, obliterate, or remove any mark or label required under this chapter upon a tobacco product held for sale, except pursuant to regulations of the Secretary authorizing relabeling for purposes of compliance with the requirements of this section or of State law. Any person violating any of the provisions of this subsection shall, upon conviction, be fined as provided in section 3571 of title 18, United States Code, imprisoned for not more than 5 years, or both.''. (c) Intentionally Defined.--Section 5762 is amended by adding at the end the following: ``(d) Definition of Intentionally.--For purposes of this section and section 5761, the term `intentionally' means doing an act, or omitting to do an act, deliberately, and not due to accident, inadvertence, or mistake, regardless of whether the person knew that the act or omission constituted an offense.''. SEC. 108. CIVIL PENALTIES. Subsection (a) of section 5761 (relating to civil penalties) is amended-- (1) by striking ``willfully'' and inserting ``intentionally'', and (2) by striking ``$1,000'' and inserting ``$10,000''. SEC. 109. DEFINITIONS. (a) Export Warehouse Proprietor.--Subsection (i) of section 5702 (relating to definition of export warehouse proprietor) is amended by inserting before the period the following: ``or any person engaged in the business of exporting tobacco products from the United States for purposes of sale or distribution. Any duty free store that sells, offers for sale, or otherwise distributes to any person in any single transaction more than 30 packages of cigarettes, or its equivalent for other tobacco products as the Secretary shall by regulation prescribe, shall be deemed an export warehouse proprietor under this chapter''. (b) Retailer; Wholesaler.--Section 5702 is amended by adding at the end the following: ``(p) Retailer.--The term `retailer' means any dealer who sells, or offers for sale, any tobacco product at retail. The term `retailer' includes any duty-free store that sells, offers for sale, or otherwise distributes at retail in any single transaction 30 or less packages, or its equivalent for other tobacco products. ``(q) Wholesaler.--The term `wholesaler' means any person engaged in the business of purchasing tobacco products for resale at wholesale, or any person acting as an agent or broker for any person engaged in the business of purchasing tobacco products for resale at wholesale.''. SEC. 110. EFFECTIVE DATE. The amendments made by this title shall take effect on January 1, 2003. TITLE II--AMENDMENTS TO THE CONTRABAND CIGARETTE TRAFFICKING ACT SEC. 201. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONTRABAND CIGARETTE TRAFFICKING ACT. (a) Definitions.--Section 2341 of title 18, United States Code, is amended-- (1) in paragraph (2)-- (A) by striking ``60,000'' and inserting ``30,000'', and (B) by inserting ``or importer'' after ``as a manufacturer''; (2) in paragraph (4), by striking ``and'' at the end; (3) in paragraph (5), by striking the period and inserting a semicolon; and (4) by adding at the end the following: ``(6) the term `tobacco product' means cigars, cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, and pipe tobacco (as such terms are defined in section 5701 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986); and ``(7) the term `contraband tobacco product' means a quantity of tobacco product that is equivalent to or more than 30,000 cigarettes as determined by regulation, which bear no evidence of the payment of applicable State tobacco taxes in the State where such tobacco products are found, if such State requires a stamp, impression, or other indication to be placed on packages or other containers of product to evidence payment of tobacco taxes.'' (b) Unlawful Acts.--Section 2342 of title 18, United States Code, is amended-- (1) in subsection (a), by inserting ``or contraband tobacco products'' before the period; (2) by amending subsection (b) to read as follows: ``(b)(1) It shall be unlawful for any person-- ``(A) knowingly to make any false statement or representation with respect to the information required by this chapter to be kept in the records or reports of any person who ships, sells, or distributes-- ``(i) any quantity of cigarettes in excess of 30,000 in a single transaction or in a series of related transactions, or ``(ii) tobacco products in such equivalent quantities as shall be determined by regulation, or ``(B) knowingly to fail to maintain records or reports, alter or obliterate required markings, or interfere with any inspection, required under this chapter, with respect to such quantity of cigarettes or other tobacco products.''; and (3) by adding at the end the following: ``(c) It shall be unlawful for any person knowingly to transport tobacco products under a false bill of lading or without any bill of lading.''. (c) Recordkeeping.--Section 2343 of title 18, United States Code, is amended-- (1) in subsection (a), by striking ``60,000 in a single transaction'' and inserting ``30,000 in a single transaction or in a series of related transactions, or, in the case of other tobacco products an equivalent quantity as determined by regulation,''; (2) by amending the last sentence of subsection (a) to read as follows: ``Except as provided in subsection (c) of this section, nothing contained herein shall authorize the Secretary to require reporting under this section.''; (3) in subsection (b), by striking ``60,000 in a single transaction'' and inserting ``30,000 in a single transaction or in a series of related transactions, or, in the case of other tobacco products an equivalent quantity as determined by regulation,''; and (4) by adding at the end the following: ``(c)(1) Any person who ships, sells, or distributes tobacco products for resale in interstate commerce, whereby such tobacco products are shipped into a State taxing the sale or use of such tobacco products or who advertises or offers tobacco products for such sale or transfer and shipment shall-- ``(A) first file with the tobacco tax administrator of the State into which such shipment is made or in which such advertisement or offer is disseminated, a statement setting for the person's name, and trade name (if any), and the address of the person's principal place of business and of any other place of business; and ``(B) not later than the 10th of each calendar month, file with the tobacco tax administrator of the State into which such shipment is made a memorandum or a copy of the invoice covering each and every shipment of tobacco products made during the previous calendar month into such State; the memorandum or invoice in each case to include the name and address of the person to whom the shipment was made, the brand, and the quantity thereof. ``(2) The fact that any person ships or delivers for shipment any tobacco products shall, if such shipment is into a State in which such person has filed a statement with the tobacco tax administrator under paragraph (1)(A) of this subsection, be presumptive evidence that such tobacco products were sold, shipped, or distributed for resale by such person. ``(3) For purposes of this subsection-- ``(A) the term `use' in addition to its ordinary meaning, means consumption, storage, handling, or disposal of tobacco products; and ``(B) the term `tobacco tax administrator' means the State official authorized to administer tobacco tax laws of the State.''. (d) Penalties.--Section 2344 of title 18, United States Code, is amended-- (1) in subsection (b), by inserting ``or (c)'' after ``section 2342(b)'' and by inserting ``or (c)'' after section 2343(a)''; and (2) by striking subsection (c) and inserting the following new subsection: ``(c) Any contraband cigarettes or contraband tobacco products involved in any violation of the provisions of this chapter shall be subject to seizure and forfeiture, and all provisions of section 9703(o) of title 31, United States Code, shall, so far as applicable, extend to seizures and forfeitures under the provisions of this chapter.'' (e) Repeal.--The Act of October 19, 1949, entitled ``An Act to assist States in collecting sales and use taxes on cigarettes'', 63 Stat. 884 (chapter 10A of title 15, U.S.C.), is hereby repealed.	Tobacco Smuggling Eradication Act of 2002 - Amends chapter 52 (Tobacco Products and Cigarette Papers and Tubes) of the Internal Revenue Code to require all packages of tobacco products to carry a unique legibly printed serial number by which the Secretary of the Treasury can identify the manufacturer or importer and the location and date of manufacture or importation. Requires tobacco products sold on Indian reservations to be labeled as such.Requires a tobacco wholesaler to have a permit and to maintain certain records.Requires export warehouse proprietors to file certain reports with the Secretary. Authorizes the Secretary to enter into certain tobacco related information agreements with foreign countries.Establishes new offenses relating to the distribution of tobacco.Raises the $1,000 civil penalty under chapter 52 to $10,000.Amends the Contraband Cigarette Trafficking Act to: (1) expand the applicability of such Act from cigarettes only to "tobacco product" (cigars, cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, and pipe tobacco); (2) define "contraband tobacco product" as a quantity of tobacco product that is equivalent to or more than 30,000 cigarettes (currently, 60,000) which bear no evidence of the payment of applicable State tobacco taxes; (3) establish new unlawful acts; and (4) require additional recordkeeping.Repeals Federal law provisions concerning reports required to State tobacco tax administrators by individuals engaged in interstate cigarette commerce.
in this section , we will explain the general rules we use to define the @xmath1 kitaev model and obtain the conserved quantities . these rules can then be generalized to define these models on generic trivalent lattices . we start with the @xmath1 algebra @xmath120 with @xmath121 . this algebra can be summarized by drawing a triangle on each site of the honeycomb lattice , as is shown in fig . [ fig : supp1 ] ( a ) . the three vertices of the triangle represent the three operators @xmath34 , with the arrow an indicator of their commutation relation . for any two of the three operators @xmath122 , @xmath123 if @xmath124 is along the arrow direction , while the phase factor is @xmath125 if @xmath124 is the reverse of the arrow direction . this arrow rule will be helpful when we check the commutation relation between terms in the hamiltonian and define the conserved quantities . consider the hamiltonian given by eq . ( 1 ) of the manuscript . we denote the term on each bond as @xmath126 , with @xmath127 depending on the bonds . consider the plaquette formed by sites 1,2, ... ,6 shown in fig . [ fig : supp1 ] ( b ) . using the arrow rule , and remembering that the spins on different sites commute with each other , we can easily check that @xmath128 this is simply because the arrow goes out of bond @xmath129 at site @xmath130 , while it goes into the bond at site @xmath131 . in the plaquette operator @xmath132 @xmath133 and @xmath134 are the only two terms which do not commute with @xmath135 . therefore we see that the factor given by the two terms cancel , and we obtain @xmath136=0 \end{aligned}\ ] ] this proves that the hamiltonian commutes with @xmath26 , and also proves that the plaquette operators @xmath26 commute with each other , since they are products of @xmath39 . ( a ) the arrow between three operators on one site , indicating their commutation relations ( see text ) ; ( b ) the arrows drawn on each site of a honeycomb lattice , which is used to determine the commutation relation between operators in the hamiltonian . , width=384 ] compared with the @xmath137 kitaev model , in the @xmath1 model with @xmath38 a new requirement needs to be satisfied in order for the plaquette conserved quantities to be defined : the arrows at each site must have the same chirality . in the choice we make , the arrows go around the triangle in a counter - clockwise order . if the arrow is reversed on some site ( which can be done by replacing @xmath138 only on that site ) , the two arrows connected to a given bond will be both out or both in , which makes the bond operator @xmath39 non - commuting with @xmath26 . ( a ) the naive construction of large loop operator @xmath139 which does not commute with bond terms @xmath39 . ( b ) the correct large loop operator @xmath7 which commutes with every @xmath39 . ( c ) another large loop operator along a different direction . ( d ) a generic loop operator , which is a product of @xmath140 at all right - turn corners , and @xmath141 at all left - turn corners . , title="fig:",width=528 ] + ( a ) the naive construction of large loop operator @xmath139 which does not commute with bond terms @xmath39 . ( b ) the correct large loop operator @xmath7 which commutes with every @xmath39 . ( c ) another large loop operator along a different direction . ( d ) a generic loop operator , which is a product of @xmath140 at all right - turn corners , and @xmath141 at all left - turn corners . , title="fig:",width=528 ] now we define the large loop operators in a system defined on the torus . in the @xmath137 kitaev model , the large loop operator can be obtained by multiplying bond terms @xmath39 . in the @xmath1 case , if we follow this definition and define , for example , @xmath142 as the product of @xmath39 along the zigzag line @xmath5 shown in fig . [ fig : supp2 ] ( a ) ( where @xmath5 contains @xmath143 sites ) , it does not commute with @xmath133 , since @xmath144 to define the correct large loop operator , we can change the arrow direction every other site by replacing @xmath145 by @xmath146 on all even sites . this results in the loop operator shown in fig . [ fig : supp2 ] ( b ) , defined as @xmath147 which can be verified as commuting with the hamiltonian . following this rule , another large loop operator can be defined on the other large loop @xmath6 of the torus , as is shown in fig . [ fig : supp2 ] ( c ) , and written in eq . ( 3 ) of the main text . interestingly , the two large loops do not commute with each other , as has been discussed in the main text . more generally , a loop operator can be defined for any given loop @xmath148 drawn on the honeycomb lattice , as is illustrated in fig . [ fig : supp2 ] ( d ) . the general rule is the following . i ) for each site @xmath149 , pick @xmath150 ( @xmath151 ) to be the bond type of the bond that is not included in @xmath148 . ii ) we define an orientation of the loop . following this orientation , define a number @xmath152 for each vertex @xmath47 , such that @xmath153 or @xmath154 if the loop turns right or left at the vertex , respectively . then the loop operator is defined as @xmath155^{s_i}\end{aligned}\ ] ] ( it should be remembered that @xmath156^{-1}=t_{i}^{\alpha\dagger}$ ] . ) using the arrow rules discussed above , the @xmath1 kitaev model can be generalized to all _ planar _ trivalent lattices . at each vertex , the operators @xmath34 can be assigned to the three bonds connecting this site , with the order of @xmath157 bonds following the same chirality at each site . denote the spin operator assigned to a bond @xmath12 at site @xmath47 as @xmath158 , we can write the hamiltonian as @xmath159\end{aligned}\ ] ] in general , @xmath160 . an example of a different trivalent lattice and the corresponding operator assignment is shown in fig . [ fig : supp3 ] . the plaquette conserved quantities and the generic loop operators can all be defined in the same way as on honeycomb lattice . definition of the @xmath1 kitaev model on the square - octahedron lattice . the terms in the hamiltonian are @xmath161 on the red bonds , and @xmath162 on the blue bonds . , width=480 ] ( a ) the slave genon representation for a single chain of the honeycomb model . the loops corresponding to the quasiparticle loop operators @xmath71 are shown . ( b ) the hamiltonian ( [ 1dh ] ) , which describes a 1d potts model , can be reformulated in a slightly different genon representation . each pair of genons , which gives rise to @xmath9 states , is effectively a single site of the potts model . the wilson loop operators @xmath163 and @xmath164 are shown , and acquire non - trivial commutation relations due to the single crossing . a set of reference defects , labelled @xmath165 and @xmath166 and in green color , are used as well , although they are not directly associated with any site of the potts chain . they are useful for regulating the strings of the parafermion operators used later . their necessity can be understood by recalling that if we start with @xmath98 pairs of genons on a sphere , the resulting topological degeneracy is @xmath167 @xcite . therefore , if the potts chain has @xmath98 sites , we need @xmath168 pairs of genons . @xmath165 and @xmath166 can be thought of as this extra pair . , width=480 ] let us begin with the model , eq . ( 1 ) of the main text , defined along a one - dimensional chain . as explained in the main text , after applying the slave genon transformation and considering the case where the @xmath1 gauge fields are uniformly equal to one , we obtain : @xmath169 with @xmath170 it will be useful to introduce a second representation of ( [ 1dh ] ) in terms of genons , as shown in fig . [ 1dchaina]b . to understand this , suppose that ( [ 1dh ] ) contains @xmath143 sites of the honeycomb lattice . in the second representation , we introduce @xmath168 genons , as shown in fig . [ 1dchaina ] , with the loops @xmath171 as shown . @xmath89 is equivalent to the transverse field @xmath1 potts model . to see this , we group the genons @xmath172 into a single site with @xmath9 states , and define @xmath173 such that @xmath174 , and @xmath175 , where @xmath176 is the kronecker delta function . in these variables , @xmath177 which is the familiar form for the @xmath1 potts model . ( a ) the parafermion operators @xmath178 correspond to quasiparticle loop operators around the loops shown . ( b ) the parafermion operators @xmath179 correspond to quasiparticle loop operators around the loops shown . , width=480 ] we can define `` parafermion '' operators : @xmath180 where @xmath181 . the parafermion operators satisfy the algebra : @xmath182 with @xmath183 . note that @xmath184 and @xmath185 are not independent degrees of freedom . in terms of these lattice parafermion operators , @xmath186 therefore , in terms of the lattice parafermions , the hamiltonian is @xmath187 in fig . [ fig:1dparaf ] , we show how the parafermion operators can be understood in terms of the genon representation as wilson loop operators of abelian quasiparticles . now let us turn to the 2d version of the model , eq . ( 4 ) in the main text . again , for simplicity we will consider the ground state sector where @xmath72 are uniform in space . the 2d model can be understand as an array of 1d chains , together with an appropriate interchain coupling : @xmath188 + h_{inter},\end{aligned}\ ] ] where now @xmath189 & = -\sum_i ( j_x \omega \alpha_{r,2j , m}^\dagger \alpha_{r,2j-1,m } + j_y \omega^2 \alpha_{r,2j , m}^\dagger \alpha_{r,2j+1,m } + h.c.),\end{aligned}\ ] ] and @xmath103 is the chain index , and @xmath190 where @xmath191 is a vertical @xmath64-link of the honeycomb lattice . depiction of interchain couplings , between chains @xmath103 and @xmath104 . ( a ) the loops corresponding to the operators @xmath192 and @xmath193 are shown . these loops also contain a loop that encloses the reference genons from the two chains , which we have labelled @xmath194 . @xmath194 acts completely trivially in the hilbert space of the potts chain . ( b ) the loops associated with the interchain parafermion interactions in ( [ hinterparaf ] ) . ( c ) the equivalent loops of ( b ) , but shown in the original slave genon representation of the honeycomb model . we label the associated loop operators as @xmath195 , @xmath196 , @xmath197 , and @xmath198 . , width=480 ] from fig . [ fig : interchain]a , it is straightforward to see that the wilson loop operators which couple different parafermion chains can be written as @xmath199 where @xmath194 is the loop operator shown in fig . [ fig : interchain]a , which encloses the reference defects . since this loop encloses the reference defects and commutes with all terms in the hamiltonian of the potts chain , it can be treated as a c - number . the parafermion operators @xmath200 can also be written in terms of the original spins of the generalized kitaev model . to understand this , let us first observe that for a single chain of the generalized kitaev model ( see fig . 4a ) , we have the relation : @xmath201 in the alternate representation of fig . 4b , we can therefore associate @xmath202 in order to reproduce ( [ t1yw12 ] ) . furthermore , from ( [ parafdef ] ) , we see that in the potts model @xmath203 , and so @xmath204 by including the @xmath0 gauge fields @xmath72 along the chain , these operators can be made to be gauge - invariant and therefore expressible in terms of the local spin operators of the generalized kitaev chain : @xmath205 where @xmath206 . let us now return to the 1d hamiltonian , and specialize to the case @xmath207 . when @xmath81 , the model is self - dual and lies at a critical point between the ordered and disordered phase of the @xmath0 potts model . this critical point is described by a @xmath0 parafermion conformal field theory . as was pointed out recently @xcite , at the critical point the lattice parafermion operators can be expanded in terms of the continuum fields of the @xmath0 parafermion cft as : @xmath208 where @xmath209 are the right / left moving @xmath0 parafermion fields , @xmath210 are the @xmath0 order parameter fields , and @xmath211 are the energy operators for the right / left moving sectors of the theory . @xmath212 and @xmath213 are constants . the @xmath214 include less relevant terms with higher scaling dimensions . using the above expansion , let us consider the following interchain coupling between the uncoupled 1d chains : @xmath215 where recall @xmath216 is a c - number here , which we can set to 1 . when @xmath217 , the above perturbation gaps out counterpropagating @xmath0 parafermion modes from different chains @xcite . this leaves a gapped two - dimensional bulk , with a chiral @xmath0 parafermion mode propagating along the boundary . @xmath218 above is written in terms of the lattice parafermion operators . now we would like to find the appropriate interchain coupling in terms of the original spin hamiltonian , which reduces to @xmath218 after the slave genon transformation for the uniform choice of @xmath0 gauge fields . in order to do this , we use the graphical loop representation developed in this paper . @xmath218 can be written as @xmath219 where the loop operators @xmath195 , @xmath198 , @xmath220 , and @xmath196 are shown in fig . [ fig : interchain]c . it is then straightfoward to show ( for example , see fig . [ nnnfig ] ) that the following interactions in the spin model : @xmath222 can be rewritten as @xmath223 therefore , ( [ hinterspin ] ) reduces to ( [ hinterparaf ] ) , in the sector with spatially uniform @xmath0 gauge fields @xmath72 . it follows that the modified hamiltonian , @xmath224 with @xmath225 is expected to realize a non - abelian topologically ordered phase when @xmath226 , and @xmath227 . this non - abelian phase has a chiral @xmath0 parafermion cft propagating along its boundary . therefore , it contains a non - abelian `` fibonacci '' anyon .	we present a wide class of partially integrable lattice models with two - spin interactions , which generalize the kitaev honeycomb model . these models have an infinite number of conserved quantities associated with each plaquette of the lattice , conserved large loop operators on the torus , and protected topological degeneracy . we introduce a ` slave - genon ' approach , which generalizes the majorana fermion approach in the kitaev honeycomb model . the hilbert space of our spin model can be embedded into an enlarged hilbert space of non - abelian twist defects , referred to as genons . in the enlarged hilbert space , the spin model is exactly reformulated as a model of non - abelian genons coupled to a discrete gauge field . we discuss in detail a particular @xmath0 generalization , and show that in a certain limit the model is analytically tractable and may produce a non - abelian topological phase with chiral parafermion edge states . _ introduction the kitaev honeycomb model @xcite is an exactly solvable spin model on the two - dimensional hexagonal lattice , which can realize different exotic topologically ordered phases of matter , along with non - abelian quasiparticle excitations . over the past decade , this model has generated remarkable excitement@xcite : its solvability has provided a theoretical framework to study the emergence of topological order and non - abelian anyons from microscopic models , while its simplicity supports the hope for experimental realization , either in mott insulators with strong spin orbit coupling , such as various iridate compounds @xcite , or directly engineered with designer hamiltonians @xcite . in particular , the non - abelian state in the kitaev model would open the possibility of topological quantum computation @xcite . _ in this paper , we generalize the kitaev honeycomb model to a much larger class of partially integrable spin models with only nearest - neighbor interactions . we show that there is an exact transformation whereby these models can be reformulated in terms of an array of interacting non - abelian defects coupled to a static discrete gauge field . in order to implement the exact transformation , we introduce a `` slave genon '' approach , where the local hilbert space on each site is rewritten in terms of the topological degeneracy of a set of extrinsic non - abelian twist defects , referred to as genons @xcite , together with a constraint on their overall fusion channel . this generalizes the majorana fermion representation of the original kitaev honeycomb model @xcite . while the transformed problem is itself a non - trivial interacting problem , certain results in 1 + 1 dimensional critical phenomena can then be utilized to solve the model in certain limits . we will focus on a particular @xmath1 rotor generalization of the kitaev model for most of the paper , and discuss more general models in the end of the draft . we introduce a graphical method to perform the slave genon technique , making use of genons in bilayer fqh states @xcite , with a @xmath2 laughlin state in each layer . in the case @xmath3 , the genons localize majorana fermion zero modes , thus reproducing kitaev s construction . more generally they localize parafermion zero modes @xcite . for the case @xmath4 , we present some preliminary numerical results , and discuss the possible realization of a non - abelian @xmath0 parafermion phase , which contains the non - abelian fibonacci anyon @xcite in its excitation spectrum . the links of a honeycomb lattice are labelled x , y , or z , depending on their orientation . sites on a plaquette are labelled 1, .. ,6 , as shown . red and blue circles illustrate the path @xmath5 , purple and orange squares illustrate the path @xmath6 , which are used to define the string operators @xmath7 and @xmath8 in a system with periodic boundary conditions . , width=168 ] _ @xmath1 kitaev model we consider the following hamiltonian on the honeycomb lattice with @xmath9 states per site : @xmath10 where @xmath11 depends on the direction of the link @xmath12 ( fig . [ fig1 ] ) . @xmath13 and @xmath14 are @xmath15 matrices satisfying the relations : @xmath16 , @xmath17 , where @xmath18.we further define : @xmath19 , which implies @xmath20 , @xmath21 . @xmath22 from different sites commute with each other . the case @xmath3 corresponds to the original kitaev model . _ the key fact about this model is that there is a conserved operator associated with each plaquette . define : @xmath23 where the site labels are shown in fig . [ fig1 ] . following kitaev , we define @xmath24 . it can be verified directly that @xmath25 = 0 $ ] , so that the spectrum can be decomposed into eigenstates of @xmath26 . note that @xmath27 . in addition to the above conserved plaquette operators , the model ( for @xmath28 ) with periodic boundary conditions also admits conserved , non - commuting , loop operators : @xmath29 where @xmath30 = [ \phi_2,h]= 0 $ ] , and @xmath31 . the loops @xmath5 and @xmath6 are shown in fig . [ fig1 ] , and describe non - contractible paths around the hexagonal lattice in the two directions . since these operators are conserved , eigenstates must form a representation of their algebra . this rigorously implies a ground state degeneracy on the torus that is a multiple of @xmath9 for @xmath9 odd , and @xmath32 for @xmath9 even . just as in the original kitaev model , the generalized model can be defined on any _ planar _ trivalent graph . a key difference between the @xmath33 and the @xmath3 cases is that for @xmath28 , the three operators @xmath34 on each site must be ordered with the same chirality . in other words , the direction @xmath35 must be either all counter - clockwise or all clockwise on all sites . this requirement also means that the model can only be defined on planar graphs . physically , this is because the large loops @xmath36 defined above can be considered as wilson loops of a particle with statistical angle @xmath37 . for @xmath38 this particle is an abelian anyon , which can only be defined in two - dimensions , while for @xmath3 it is a fermion . multi - site terms can be added to the hamiltonian without affecting the conservation laws , as long as they are products of bond terms @xmath39 and/or @xmath40 . in the supplementary materials@xcite , we present more details of the computation of commutation relations and conserved quantities by setting up convenient diagrammatic rules . _ anisotropic limit and the abelian phase similar to the original model@xcite , the anisotropic limit @xmath41 can be easily solved . in this limit , we first diagonalize the @xmath42 terms in the hamiltonian . to do this , let us pick a basis of @xmath9 states on each site , @xmath43 , which diagonalize @xmath44 : @xmath45 , for @xmath46 . pairs of sites @xmath47 , @xmath48 coupled by @xmath42 have their @xmath49 states split into @xmath9 degenerate lowest energy states , @xmath50 , for @xmath51 . these states are separated by a gap of order @xmath42 relative to the remaining @xmath52 states . for large @xmath42 , we can treat pairs of sites separated by vertical links effectively as a single site , thus obtaining at low energies a square lattice with @xmath9 states per site . within the degenerate @xmath9-dimensional space on each site , we can define a new set of @xmath1 rotor operators @xmath53 , @xmath54 , such that @xmath55 , and @xmath56 . _ within this low - energy subspace , the remaining @xmath57 and @xmath58 terms can be treated within perturbation theory . the lowest order term that does not change the @xmath42 bond energy is @xmath59 ( with the label of sites defined in fig . [ fig1 ] ) . it is straightforward to show that this gives @xmath60 , which is the @xmath1 toric code hamiltonian @xcite . ( a ) a genon ( twist defect ) in a bilayer fqh system , is marked by the x. the branch cut emanating from the genon connects the two layers . ( b ) the wilson lines of the abelian quasiparticles can locally be cut and rejoined . ( c ) a spin is represented in terms of @xmath61 genons , labelled @xmath62 , @xmath63 , @xmath64 , @xmath65 . the constraint that the wilson loop around all 4 genons be trivial reduces the number of states to @xmath9 . the double loop around each genon can always be set to one . ( d ) @xmath66 , @xmath67 , @xmath68 correspond to wilson loop operators around pairs of genons . , width=288 ] _ slave genons in order to further analyze the model beyond this strongly anistropic limit , we introduce a ` slave genon ' approach , which maps the spin model to a model of coupled non - abelian twist defects @xcite , referred to as genons @xcite , in a topologically ordered state . this generalizes the majorana fermion representation introduced in the original kitaev honeycomb model @xcite , along with well - known slave fermion / boson techniques @xcite . a key difference in the @xmath33 @xmath1 models is that the slave particles must be non - local topological defects instead of fermions or bosons . _ consider a laughlin @xmath2 fractional quantum hall ( fqh ) state on the surface shown in fig . [ slavegenon ] ( a ) . the surface is obtained by introducing a branch cut line in a bilayer system , such that the two layers are exchanged across the branch cut line . a genon is defined as the endpoint of the branch cut line@xcite . now consider @xmath61 genons with the constraint that they fuse to vacuum . as is shown in fig . [ slavegenon ] ( c ) , this constraint means a laughlin quasparticle going around the @xmath61 genon cluster obtains no berry s phase . with this constraint , the disk region with @xmath61 genons is topologically equivalent to a torus with a single layer of @xmath2 state@xcite , which thus has @xmath9 topological ground states . the slave genon approach is defined by mapping the @xmath9-state rotor on each site of the honeycomb lattice to such a cluster of @xmath61 genons . the spin operators @xmath34 are mapped to wilson loop operators , defined as the unitary rotation of topological ground states induced by adiabatic propagation of charge @xmath2 laughlin quasiparticles along a non - contractible loop . @xmath34 corresponds to the three non - contractible loops shown in fig . [ slavegenon ] ( d ) . during topological deformations of the wilson loops , we also require that a double loop around a genon is contractible , as is illustrated in [ slavegenon ] ( c ) . physically this removes the ambiguity that a genon may trap a laughlin quasiparticle . we emphasize that the genons and associated fqh state are _ entirely auxiliary degrees of freedom the spin model is not required to have a fqh state physically . _ in this representation , the spin model is mapped to a two - dimensional array of genons , with couplings given by wilson loop operators . the two - site terms @xmath39 in the hamiltonian simply correspond to wilson loops surrounding @xmath61 genons , as is shown in fig . [ gauge ] . importantly , the hamiltonian commutes with the local constraint at each site , since the wilson loop corresponding to the local constraint commutes with that of @xmath39 , as is illustrated in fig . [ gauge ] ( a ) . on each site , the constraint can be expressed in the spin operators @xmath34 as @xmath69 , which projects the @xmath49 states of @xmath61 genons@xcite to @xmath9 states of the physical spin . ( a ) the interaction terms in the hamiltonian correspond to the three types of loops . the blue loop around each site represents the local constraint which commute with the hamiltonian terms . ( b ) a loop corresponding to the interaction @xmath70 can be decomposed into two non - overlapping loops , @xmath71 and @xmath72 . , width=288 ] from the pictorial representation , we readily infer that the hamiltonian can be rewritten as : @xmath73 where @xmath71 and @xmath72 are the loop operators corresponding to the operation of moving charge @xmath2 laughlin quasiparticles around the loops shown in fig . [ gauge]b . note that @xmath72 only appears in the hamiltonian in the term @xmath74 . from fig . [ gauge ] , we deduce that @xmath75 = 0 $ ] , @xmath76=0 $ ] and therefore @xmath77 = 0 $ ] . we can hence replace the @xmath72 by @xmath78-numbers , associated with different superselection sectors . @xmath71 can be considered as a two - dimensional parafermion hoping " term , while the eigenvalues of @xmath79 can be considered as a @xmath0 gauge field coupled to the parafermions @xcite . the precise meaning of the parafermion coupling will be discussed in next paragraph . by deforming the loops @xmath72 and using the constraints shown in fig . [ slavegenon]c , it is straightfoward to show that the conserved plaquette operators , @xmath26 , correspond to the @xmath1 `` gauge flux '' through a plaquette : @xmath80 . ) describes a hexagonal array of coulpled genons , or @xmath1 parafermion zero modes . for @xmath81 , and in the absence of interchain interactions , each chain is at criticality , which in the @xmath4 case is described by a @xmath0 parafermion cft . interchain coupling terms can be added to gap out counterpropagating parafermion modes from each chain , leading to a gapped topologically ordered state with a chiral @xmath0 parafermion edge mode . red bonds correspond to the next neighbor interactions ( see ( [ modifiedh ] ) ) . [ coupledchain],width=220 ] to understand more explicitly the meaning of coupled parafermion zero modes , we first consider the hamiltonian for a single chain , with @xmath72 uniformly set to 1 : @xmath82 , with @xmath83 . this hamiltonian is equivalent to the transverse field @xmath1 potts model . following the results in the potts model @xcite , a pair of parafermion operators @xmath84 can be introduced , which satisfies the algebra @xmath85 . in terms of spin operators of the kitaev model , we have @xmath86 , @xmath87 , with @xmath88 . @xmath89 can be rewritten in terms of a `` parafermion chain '' by setting @xmath90 . the 2d hamiltonian @xmath91 can then be reinterpreted as an array of coupled 1d parafermion chains @xcite . the single chain system with @xmath4 is particularly interesting . when @xmath81 , the model is at a self - dual critical point of the 1d @xmath0 potts model , which is known to be described by a @xmath0 parafermion conformal field theory ( cft ) with central charge @xmath92@xcite . at small but finite @xmath42 , the system can be viewed as coupled parafermion chains , as is illustrated in fig . [ coupledchain ] . it is known that a chiral " coupling between 1d gapless chains can realize a chiral 2d topologically ordered state@xcite , if the right - moving ( left - moving ) states of a chain are only coupled to the left - moving ( right - moving ) states of the chain below ( above ) by a relevant coupling . in our @xmath4 system , such a coupling , if realized , will result in a non - abelian topological state with chiral @xmath0 parafermion edge states . this is similar to the proposal of @xcite although the latter is not a local spin model and therefore realizes a different topological order . in @xmath38 models , the @xmath42 coupling breaks time - reversal symmetry , so that it is possible for the system with some proper @xmath42 to be in the same non - abelian phase as the ideal system with only chiral coupling . _ numerical results to gain further understanding of the @xmath4 system , we have performed preliminary numerical analyses . for the single chain with @xmath93 , our dmrg results @xcite for the entanglement entropy shows that the chain is indeed described by a conformal field theory with central charge @xmath94 , as shown in fig . [ numerics ] ( a ) . in the opposite limit @xmath41 , we have verified through exact diagonalization that the system is gapped , with a @xmath95-fold ground state degeneracy . as @xmath42 is lowered relative to @xmath96 , we expect a phase transition from the abelian phase to the isotropic phase . fig . [ numerics](b ) shows dmrg results for the second derivative of the ground state energy density , @xmath97 , which indeed shows evidence of a sharp phase transition . these numerical results confirm non - trivial features of the @xmath0 kitaev model , while they do not fully establish the nature of the isotropic phase . more complete numerical study of the non - abelian phase will be left for future works . _ ( a ) entanglement entropy of an open @xmath98 site chain . the fit to @xmath99 extrapolates to a central charge @xmath94 , where @xmath100 and @xmath101 is subsystem length . ( b ) second derivative of the ground state energy density as a function of the distortion @xmath42 , computed from dmrg with 3 chains . a phase transition is resolved when @xmath42 is tuned between the isotropic and anisotropic limits.,width=259 ] _ multi - site terms and the controlled limit in the original kitaev model@xcite , a three site term drives the model into the non - abelian ising phase . similarly , for @xmath4 it is possible to consider a modification of the hamiltonian ( [ znmodel ] ) that makes the non - abelian state more tractable . as is pointed out in ref . @xcite , there is a known correspondence between the lattice parafermion operators and continuous fields in the @xmath0 potts model cft . using this correspondence , one can see that the parafermion coupling of the form @xmath102 between two neighboring chains labelled by @xmath103 and @xmath104 induces the chiral coupling between the right movers of the @xmath103-th chain and the left movers of the @xmath104-th chain . since this is a direct application of ref . @xcite s result , we will leave more detailed derivation of this term for the supplementary materials@xcite . _ using the wilson loop representation , the chiral coupling between parafermions reviewed above can be achieved in a local spin hamiltonian : @xmath105 with @xmath106 , and @xmath107 given by eq . ( [ znmodel ] ) . therefore , the above hamiltonian , with @xmath108 , could realize a gapped , 2d topologically ordered state , with a robust chiral @xmath0 parafermion cft propagating along its boundary . the topological order can then be read off from the primary field content of the @xmath0 parafermion cft @xcite . we emphasize that the possibility of realizing a coupled array of parafermion chains , with couplings that involve only single parafermion operators from different chains , is highly non - trivial . this is not possible with the usual transverse field potts model , but is possible with the approach described here . the slave genon transformation thus provides a way to design general interactions in 2d lattices of parafermions , in terms of _ local interactions of a 2d spin model . we expect a similar method can be employed for much more general models , which may enable a spin model realization of the anyon lattice models studied in the literature @xcite . _ _ further generalizations the model described here admits much more generalization . for example , one can consider genons in a generic abelian fqh state . quasiparticles in each layer are labeled by integer vectors @xmath109 , with the fractional mutual statistics @xmath110 and self statistics @xmath111 determined by an integer valued @xmath112 matrix@xcite . @xmath61 genons with the local constraint in fig . [ slavegenon ] now correspond to a spin with @xmath113 states@xcite . the spin operators @xmath34 generalize to wilson loop operators @xmath114 of a quasiparticle @xmath109 around the same loops as those in fig . [ slavegenon ] ( d ) . these operators satisfy the algebra @xmath115 , @xmath116 , and @xmath117 for all @xmath118 . therefore , we can consider the more general kitaev - type hamiltonian : @xmath119 this model can be analyzed similarly to the @xmath1 generalization presented earlier . in particular , there are conserved quantities associated with each plaquette and conserved large loop operators on torus geometry , and one can consider an exact transformation to a lattice model of interacting genons or , alternatively , generalized parafermion zero modes@xcite . _ * acknowledgement . * the @xmath1 generalization of the kitaev model has also been studied independently in unpublished works of p. fendley and c. l. kane ( _ c.f . _ discussions in @xcite ) . this work was presented in june of 2013 on a workshop@xcite . as this manuscript was being completed , we were made aware that a related but different generalization of kitaev model has been studied by a. vaezi@xcite . we thank a. ludwig and a. kitaev for discussions . hcj was supported by the templeton fund . rt has been supported by the european research council through erc - stg - topolectrics-336012 . xlq is supported by david & lucile packard foundation . we also acknowledge computing support from the center for scientific computing at the cnsi and mrl : nsf mrsec ( dmr-1121053 ) and nsf cns-0960316 . 49 natexlab#1#1bibnamefont # 1#1bibfnamefont # 1#1citenamefont # 1#1url # 1`#1`urlprefix[2]#2 [ 2][]#2 , * * , ( ) . 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SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Ambassador's Fund for Strategic Exchanges Act of 2009''. SEC. 2. FINDINGS. Congress makes the following findings: (1) The United States has a strategic national interest in improving its image around the world, given the historically low levels of public opinion toward the United States in many countries. (2) International exchange programs have been proven to be one of the most beneficial and cost-effective means by which to promote mutual understanding between citizens of the United States and citizens of other countries and to advance United States national interests through closer working partnerships with leaders around the world. (3) Prominent world leaders during recent decades, such as Tony Blair and Anwar Sadat, have deepened their friendship and openness to the United States through international exchanges, and many persons who previously had highly anti-American opinions have changed their views after participating in exchange programs organized by the United States Government. (4) United States exchange programs, such as the International Visitors Program, make a tremendous impact in the lives of those individuals who participate and consistently are ranked by public diplomacy experts as some of the most effective public diplomacy programs. (5) The International Visitors Program of the United States Department of State organizes exchange programs for anticipated future leaders in their countries who travel to the United States for programs generally of three weeks, and it produces very positive results among its target audience. (6) Another key target audience for United States exchanges is not addressed by the International Visitors Program; this group includes current political, economic, and civil society leaders, often from less privileged backgrounds, who have not traveled to the United States previously. (7) Such persons currently in leadership positions in their countries are often unable to leave their jobs for a period of three weeks, given the press of their responsibilities, and United States embassies administering exchange programs not infrequently find that identified candidates for International Visitor Program exchanges decline participation because of this fact. (8) A number of United States embassies, including the embassy in Baghdad, Iraq, have piloted country-specific, embassy-initiated exchange programs targeted to such groups of current leaders who have never traveled to the United States. These programs generally last from 5-7 program days and bring together 8-10 participants from a country who work on similar issues but have not worked with each other before. Some of these programs have been coordinated with the Voluntary Visitors Division of the International Visitors Office in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the Department of State. (9) Such programs have proven highly effective in having an immediate impact on current leaders working in key sectors and in helping advance United States interests such as greater democratization, observance of human rights, economic reform and poverty alleviation, empowerment of women and girls, and improved cooperation with the United States in confronting threats from organized crime, narco-trafficking, and terrorist groups. These programs also promote greater cooperation across sectors, agencies, and regions within a country, given the shared experience the exchange visitors have together during their trip to the United States. (10) A key element of the success of these pilot exchanges is that they are conceived and developed in individual embassies overseas, keyed to specific interests of the United States in each country. (11) However, these pilot exchanges currently have not been replicated widely within the Department of State, being confined to only a few United States embassies around the world, because there are no Department-wide programmatic guidelines or central funding for these exchange programs. SEC. 3. AMBASSADOR'S FUND FOR STRATEGIC EXCHANGES. (a) In General.--The Secretary of State shall establish in the Voluntary Visitors Division of the Office of International Visitors in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs a program to conduct public diplomacy exchanges, to be known as the ``Ambassador's Fund for Strategic Exchanges'', to bring political, economic, civil society, and other leaders to the United States for short-term exchange visits in order to advance key United States strategic goals. (b) Coordination.--Under the program established pursuant to subsection (a), each United States embassy and the Office of International Visitors shall coordinate to develop the short-term exchange visits described in such subsection. (c) Number and Duration.--The short-term exchange visits shall be for groups of up to between eight and ten participants, and shall be for visits of five to eight days. (d) Areas of Focus.--The key United States strategic goals referred to in subsection (a) may include the following, as determined by the individual United States embassy and the Office of International Visitors: (1) Strengthening democracy and human rights. (2) Advancing the rule of law. (3) Strengthening cooperation in the fight against terrorism, organized crime, and drug trafficking. (4) Reducing poverty and promoting economic reform. (5) Empowering women and girls. (6) Broadening political and economic participation to include traditionally excluded groups. (7) Other embassy and Office of International Visitors- identified priority purposes. (e) Selection.--The Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs shall solicit proposals from United States embassies for short-term exchange visits and select among them on a competitive basis. (f) Cost-sharing and Funding.-- (1) In general.--In accordance with paragraphs (2) and (3), as appropriate, the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs and the United States embassies shall engage in cost-sharing in carrying out the short-term exchange visits. (2) Bureau of educational and cultural affairs.--From amounts authorized to be appropriated to carry out this Act pursuant to section 4 and from amounts made available for the regular program budget of the Voluntary Visitors Division, such sums as may be necessary are authorized to be appropriated to the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs to carry out the short-term exchange visits. Such visits shall be treated in the same manner as Voluntary Visitor trips are treated. (3) United states embassies.-- (A) In general.--From amounts authorized to be appropriated to carry out this Act and from amounts made available for the public diplomacy budgets of United States embassies, such sums as may be necessary are authorized to be appropriated to such embassies to carry out the short-term exchange visits. Allowable expenses associated with such visits include airfares, pre-departure expenses, and such other expenses as are needed to allow individuals to travel to the United States to participate in such visits. (B) Rule of construction.--Nothing in this section may be construed as imposing any restrictions, such as restrictions included in the Foreign Affairs Manual of the Department of State, on the ability of United States embassies to pay for airfares of individuals participating in the short-term exchange visits. SEC. 4. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. (a) In General.--There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of State such sums as may be necessary to carry out this Act. (b) Additional Amounts.--In addition to amounts authorized to be appropriated pursuant to subsection (a), there are authorized to be appropriated $1,500,000 to the International Visitors Program for Professional and Cultural Exchanges for short-term exchange visits conducted under the auspices of the Ambassador's Fund for Strategic Exchanges. Such amounts shall be administered by the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.	Ambassador's Fund for Strategic Exchanges Act of 2009 - Directs the Secretary of State to establish in the Voluntary Visitors Division of the Office of International Visitors in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs the Ambassador's Fund for Strategic Exchanges to bring political, economic, civil society, and other leaders to the United States for short-term exchange visits in order to advance U.S. strategic goals. Authorizes appropriations.
when a fluid is confined in a porous medium , its transport properties may drastically change . the diffusion coefficients are generally lower than in the bulk liquid , although unexpected dynamic effects and collective reorganizations are also observed . for example , water molecules move in a collective way inside carbon nanotubes . enhancements of the diffusion coefficients have been observed by simulation for confined ionic liquids . supercapacitors are electrochemical energy storage devices in which the charge is stored by reversible adsorption of the ions from an electrolyte on high - surface - area porous carbon electrodes . for the latter , nanoporous materials are now widely used to enhance the energy density of the devices . surprisingly , the presence of large concentrations of ions in a highly confined environment does not alter the power density much , with charging times remaining on the order of 10 seconds . although the dynamics of charging has been studied using in situ analytical techniques , the experimental information remains on the macroscopic scale , for example , whether an ion type has a larger mobility than the other . molecular dynamics is a simulation technique which provides the trajectories of the molecules versus time and , thus , is a unique tool for probing the transport mechanisms . the difficulty in the case of supercapacitors is to account for the constant potential electrodes with complex geometries , so that only a few computational studies of the dynamics of charging have been reported . the system we consider consists in organic ions ( 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium , bmim , and hexafluorophosphate , pf6 ) dissolved in acetonitrile ( acn ) , at a concentration of 1.5 mol l. the electrodes are made of nanoporous carbon with an average pore size of 0.9 nm . we perform both electrochemistry experiments and equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations to determine the capacitance of the system and the resistance of the electrolyte inside the pores . compared to our previous works , the use of an organic solvent - based electrolyte allows us to perform the simulations at room temperature , thus facilitating the comparison between the two methods . a good agreement is obtained , thereby justifying the use of the molecular - scale information provided by the simulations to understand the importance of confinement and electrosorption effects on the dynamics of the ions . in particular , we determine the characteristic times for the adsorption / desorption of the ions on the surface , for their desolvation inside the pores , and for their diffusion from one pore to another . these results open tracks for optimizing ion - transfer properties of porous carbon electrodes . bmim - pf6 ionic liquid ( solvionic , france ) and acn ( acros organic , france ) were used as purchased . they were mixed at room temperature , yielding an ionic concentration of 1.5 mol l. carbide - derived carbon ( cdc ) powder ( y - carbon , usa ) was prepared by chlorination of tic powder at 1100 c which corresponds to a pore size of 0.9 nm , as reported elsewhere . pore size distributions of cdc powder were obtained from ar - isotherms using a nldft model ( novae series software , quantachrome , usa ) . active films were made by mixing 95 wt % cdc with 5 wt % polytetrafluoroethylene ( ptfe ) binder . the active film thickness was around 300 m , with a weight loading of 15 mg cm . active films were laminated onto treated aluminum current collectors , and two layers of 25 m - thick porous ptfe were used as a separator . a silver wire was used as a pseudoreference electrode , for monitoring the negative and positive electrode potentials , separately during the cell cycling . cell assembly was done in a glovebox under an argon atmosphere ( < 1 ppm of o2 and h2o content ) in 3 electrode swagelok cells . cyclic voltammetry tests were carried out between 0 and 2.7 v , at a scan rate of 5 mv s. electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements were made at various bias potentials ( defined from the cyclic voltammograms ) , using a sinusoidal signal of 5 mv amplitude . electrochemical tests were achieved using a multichannel vmp3 potentiostat / galvanostat ( bio - logic , france ) . carbon electrode impedance was modeled using a combination of series resistance ( bulk electrolyte ) and an impedance based on the transmission line model previously described by de levie , which is refined by replacing capacitances by constant phase elements . in this model , carbon pores are considered to be identical in shape ( cylindrical ) , with the same length and diameter . the impedance z of the transmission line shown in the figure s1 can be calculated as1where rbulk is the ionic resistance in the electrolyte ; rpore and cpore are , respectively , the resistance and the capacitance of one element of the transmission line ; = rporecpore is the associated time constant ; = 2f is the angular frequency where f varies from 200 khz to 10 mhz and = 1 . finally , is a dispersion factor ( = 1 or 0 for the limiting cases of ideal capacitive and resistive behaviors , respectively ) . the simulation cell consists of an electrolyte composed of bmim - pf6 , a typical ionic liquid , dissolved in acn ( 384 ion pairs for 3584 solvent molecules , i.e. a concentration of 1.5 mol l ) , and cdc - based electrodes containing 3649 carbon atoms each ( a snapshot is provided in figure s2 ) . the ions and molecules are represented by a coarse - grained model in which the cations and the acn molecules have three interactions sites , while anions require only one . all the force field parameters are similar as the ones used in our previous study with graphite electrodes . using quenched molecular dynamics ( the initial and final temperatures were respectively of 1.5 10 and 0.66 10 k , with a quenching rate of 2.5 10 k s ) . it was shown to match with an experimental structure of a cdc synthesized at 1,200 c , with an average pore size of 0.9 nm . it is modeled as a perfect conductor , i.e. , the potential difference is imposed between the two electrodes following the approach detailed in ref ( 29 ) . two - dimensional periodic boundary conditions are imposed , and only the electrolyte species are allowed to move in the simulations . repulsive walls are put on each side of the nonperiodic dimension of the simulation cell in order to prevent the molecules from exiting . after equilibrating the systems at 298 k ( the same temperature as in experiments in order to avoid temperature effects ) , we performed long equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations in order to gather trajectories of more than 13 ns in the microcanonical ensemble , for = 0 , 1 , or 2 v. the accessible volume inside the electrode was determined for each species using a grid . each subvolume in which at least the center of mass of one molecule was present during our simulation was considered as accessible . for the ions , the accessible volume equals 20% of the total volume of the electrode . figure 1a shows the cyclic voltammograms of the cell assembled with two symmetric porous carbon electrodes . the full cell , as well as both the negative and positive electrodes taken separately , shows a capacitive signature with a rectangular shape evidencing a charge storage mechanism by ion adsorption on the carbon surface . the measured gravimetric capacitances ( calculated from the cell capacitance and the weight of carbon per electrode ) are of 85 f g for each electrode . in the simulations , the integral capacitance of the full cell is simply calculated from the ratio of the accumulated charge at the positive electrode and the applied potential . with a setup consisting of two porous carbons it is not possible to extract single - electrode capacitances because the potential drop between each electrode and the bulk electrolyte is unknown , but if we assume that the two interfaces have similar capacitances we obtain values of 110 f g. the good agreement between experiments and simulations is remarkable given the complexity of the systems ( for example , the effect of field penetration , which would lower the capacitance , is not taken into account in our model ) ; it indicates that the latter accurately describes the electrolyte inside the electrodes . ( a ) cyclic voltammograms and ( b ) nyquist plot of the impedance of a supercapacitor cell assembled with two electrodes based on 0.9 nm average pore size carbide - derived carbon ( cdc ) , in an electrolyte composed of bmim - pf6 dissolved in acn . for the cyclic voltammograms the potential scan rate is 5 mv s , while for the impedance the potential is set to 0.4 v / ag , and frequencies are sampled from 200 khz to 10 mhz ( inset : zoom of the high - frequency region ) . the nyquist plot of the impedance , recorded at 0.4 v with respect to a ag reference electrode , is shown in figure 1b . it corresponds again to a typical capacitive behavior , with a linear trend for both the real and imaginary parts of the capacitance in the intermediate frequency range , followed by a sharp ( quasi - vertical ) increase in the imaginary part of the impedance at low frequency . by fitting the data using de levie s transmission line model ( figure s1 ) , it is possible to extract a resistivity for the electrolyte confined inside the porous carbons . a value of 60 cm is obtained at 0.4 v / ag which is in the same range as that of the bulk electrolyte ( around 27 cm at 298 k ) . the small value obtained seems to indicate a fast ionic transport inside the electrodes . impedance diagrams were recorded at other potentials under stationary conditions , yielding similar values for the in - pore electrolyte resisitivity ( figure 2 ) , apparently showing that the transport mechanism is not affected by the change of composition in the electrode within the potential range explored . variation of the calculated and experimental in - pore resistivities with the electrode potential . ( a ) msd versus time for the cations inside electrodes held at various potentials . the dashed line corresponds to a length scale characteristic of the average pore size . ( b ) variation of the in - pore effective diffusion coefficients with the electrode potential . in the bulk electrolyte the diffusion coefficients of the ions are dbulk 10 cm s at 298 k. ( c ) variation of the in - pore ionic concentrations ( per gram of carbon electrode ) with the electrode potential . although knowing the in - pore resistivity brings very useful information , it can not straightforwardly be translated into microscopic - based quantities such as residence times or diffusion coefficients . indeed , the resistivity is the inverse of the conductivity , which is a collective quantity . unlike the recent example of the diffusion of hydrocarbons in nanoporous kerogens , strong correlations are expected between the ions due to their strong coulombic interactions . the conductivity depends on the displacement of all the ions inside the pores and thus on their concentrations and the volume they occupy . in molecular dynamics simulations , it is possible to calculate the mean - square displacement ( msd ) of each ion i individually from the difference of its position ri between two times t1 and t2 along a trajectory,2here we will consider the displacements along the x and y coordinates only , and we note the corresponding quantities as ri and ri , because the electrode / electrolyte interface is perpendicular to the z coordinate . ensemble averages of the msd of the cations inside the electrode for the various potentials are shown in figure 3a ; similar plots are obtained for the anions . unlike bulk liquids , in which a linear rgime is quickly reached , they show nontrivial features . due to the disordered structure of the porous carbon , which can be seen as a sponge with strongly interconnected pores , the ions sample various environments as they diffuse and thus have different characteristic msds . for short times , this leads to a nonlinear variation of the msd with time that is typical of a subdiffusive behavior , unlike in the bulk liquid where the variation is almost immediately linear . inside the pores , displacements a typical length scale of the carbon structure is its average pore size , which is p 9 in the present case . the associated displacement , taking into account the dimensionality of the msd , is 54 , which is shown as a horizontal dashed line on figure 3a . therefore , the linear rgime likely corresponds to a diffusion process from pore to pore . it is possible to calculate an associated effective diffusion coefficient using3where d = 2 is the dimensionality of the msd and sci(t ) = 1 if the ion remains continuously inside the electrode between 0 and t , while sci(t ) = 0 otherwise . the brackets denote the ensemble average over all the ions of type . is the potential of the electrode ; it is not an absolute potential since we can only control the applied potential in the simulations . the in - pore effective diffusion coefficients are lower than the bulk diffusion coefficients by slightly more than 1 order of magnitude ( dbulk 10 cm s for the ions at 298 k ) . they show a nontrivial potential dependence , which is difficult to analyze given the strong composition changes occurring inside the electrodes with the applied potentials , which are shown in figure 3c . indeed , the screening of the coulombic interaction allows for the formation of a superionic state in which ions with similar charges can approach much closer than in the bulk electrolyte . for example , at 1 v there is a ratio of 6.6 between the concentrations of cations and anions . if we focus on the positive potentials side , the diffusion coefficients of the anions progressively decrease , as a result of the stronger attraction to the surface , which will be quantified in the next section . on the contrary , cations diffuse faster for low potentials because they are less confined . however , their diffusion coefficients reach a maximum before decreasing again . this is probably due to a steric effect : at 1 v , the surfaces of the pores are now filled with anions , resulting in a limitation of the accessible volume for cations . we do not observe a variation of the diffusion coefficients with potential by several orders of magnitude , as was recently reported by kondrat et al . in their case , the simulated system consisted in a pure ionic liquid electrolyte and an ideal slit pore electrode . they observed drastic changes in structure / composition of the adsorbed fluid with the applied potential : slowly diffusing ordered structures were formed by the ions at null and large potentials , while at intermediate voltages they adopted a disordered structure in which their diffusion coefficients were even larger than in the bulk electrolyte . in our case the ions are less concentrated in the electrode due to the presence of solvent molecules , and the complex topology of the carbon electrodes does not allow for the formation of long - range ordered structures . as a consequence , the structural changes , and hence the diffusion coefficients variations , are much more continuous for the electrode potentials we consider . at first sight , the decrease in the diffusion coefficients with respect to the bulk is large compared to the measured in - pore resistivity ( which is smaller than the bulk one by a factor of 2 only ) . indeed , the electrical conductivity is generally estimated from the diffusion coefficients using the nernst the liquid inside the pores has a high concentration of ions , and the accessible volume velec inside the electrodes , and not the total volume of the electrode , should be taken into account ( figure s3 ) . in addition , for nonzero potentials , the quantities of adsorbed cations / anions strongly differ . we therefore need to compute the electrical conductivity directly , using4where the two sums run respectively over the number of time intervals nt used to calculate the autocorrelation function and all the ions n in the simulation cell , qi is the charge of ion i , = 1/kbt with kb the boltzmann constant and t the temperature . sdi is a discontinuous presence function , which takes a value of 1 if an ion is present in the electrode at time tj and 0 otherwise . unlike the diffusion coefficients for which it is possible to average over the ions , the conductivity is a collective quantity . the statistics for the ensemble average in eq 4 are hence much smaller , even when performing long simulations . a well - defined linear rgime could therefore be observed for the lower applied potentials only ( figure s4 ) , from which we could determine in - pore resistivities = 1/. the corresponding values are compared to the experimental ones in figure 2 . the agreement is good , which shows that the dynamics of the ions is accurate in the simulations . in our previous work , we have shown that it is possible to characterize the degree of confinement of the ions inside the electrodes . we identified four different adsorption types , defined as edge , plane , hollow , and pocket sites upon increasing the coordination of the molecular species by carbon atoms from the electrode . in acn - based electrolytes , the ions are mostly adsorbed on plane sites , so that we will focus on the dynamics of adsorption in these sites . it equals one if a given ion i remains continuously adsorbed on a plane site from time 0 to t and zero otherwise . the kinetics of departure from plane - adsorption sites can then be quantified by the time correlation function:5here also the brackets denote the ensemble average over all ions of type . the functions obtained for the anions are shown in figure 4 . they provide the average fraction of ions remaining in plane adsorption sites for at least a time t , which is an interesting information for interpreting the diffusion coefficients . at 0 v , the typical adsorption time is of 150 ps . at negative potentials , the small fraction of ions which can adsorb on the surface leave it very quickly , on the picosecond time scale . on the contrary , at positive potentials , the adsorption lifetime grows very strongly , reaching 1 ns and beyond , thereby explaining the corresponding slow - down for the in - pore diffusion coefficient . correlation function of the plane - adsorption characteristic function for the anions , at various electrode potentials . a last process worth examining from the dynamical point of view is the desolvation of the ions inside the pores . indeed , as anticipated from the experimental point of view , simulations have shown that organic ions partially desolvate inside nanoporous carbons , the extent of desolvation being correlated with the degree of confinement . average coordination number of the anions during typical events inside an electrode held at 1 v ( black : entrance of an anion inside the electrode ; red : switch from an edge to a plane site ; green : switch from a plane to a hollow site ) . the clock is set to t * = 0 when the event occurs in the simulation . in order to study how fast the desolvation process occurs , we have isolated the following events during our simulations : ( i ) entrance of an ion inside the electrode ; ( ii ) switch of an ion from an edge to a plane site , and ( iii ) switch of an ion from a plane to a hollow site . for each of the observed event , we reset the clock at t * when it occurs . we monitor the solvation number for times before and after the event and average it over all the events . the desolvation is moderate upon entrance inside the pores , with a coordination number switching on average from 9.5 to 8.5 . the effect is larger when an ions changes of confinement site ( loss of two solvent molecules when passing from an edge to a plane or from a plane to a hollow site ) . note that the average solvation number measured 25 ps after the adsorption on a plane site ( 7.5 ) does not match exactly with the one calculated 25 ps before the switch from a plane to a hollow site ( 6.5 ) because the plane sites span a wide range of degrees of confinement . for each of the events , the change of solvation number occurs on a very short time scale , namely between 1 and 3 ps . this shows that for these organic ions the solvation by the acn is not very strong and that it is not a limiting step for the overall adsorption process . the simulated capacitances and in - pore resistivities agree almost quantitatively with the experimental ones . we can therefore rely on the microscopic description of both the structure and the transport of the electrolyte inside the pores . in particular , we can extract some characteristic times for the dynamic processes described in figures 3 , 4 , and 5 . the shortest time is associated with desolvation ( 1 ps ) , while the characteristic adsorption time is of 150 ps . the in - pore characteristic diffusion time was extracted from figure 3a as the time such that the msds of the ions equal the value associated with the characteristic length scale of the porous network . this means that during its diffusion from one pore to another , an ion will experience several surface adsorption / desorption events , i.e. , intermittent dynamics . each of these events will be accompanied by the loss / gain of several solvent molecules in its solvation shell . summary of the various characteristic times extracted from the simulations for electrodes held at 0 v ( a ) and 1 v ( b ) . the black regions represent the porous carbon ; red , green , and blue spheres / ellipses represent adsorbed cations , anions , and acetonitrile molecules , respectively . in electrified pores , counterion desorption events become much longer - lived , for example , the characteristic time shown on figure 6b for cations at = 1 v is of 500 ps . on the contrary , the few co - ions which approach the surface desorb very quickly . as a consequence , the diffusion of the counterions from pore to pore is noticeably slowed down , by a factor of approximatively 4 at 1 v. in conclusion , we have shown that the molecular dynamics of ions inside electrified nanoporous electrodes is characterized by a hierarchy of time scales . from the practical point of view , the diffusion is slowed down by 1 order of magnitude compared to the bulk electrolyte due to confinement effects and by an additional factor of 4 for counterions when a potential is applied due to the strong electrostatic attraction with the pore walls . however , these numbers remain sufficiently high for ensuring fast enough charging processes for efficient supercapacitors . combined with computational screening methods which can efficiently predict new electrolytes with enhanced properties , molecular dynamics simulations provide an accurate way for optimizing simultaneously the energy and power densities of supercapacitors .	supercapacitors are electrochemical devices which store energy by ion adsorption on the surface of a porous carbon . they are characterized by high power delivery . the use of nanoporous carbon to increase their energy density should not hinder their fast charging . however , the mechanisms for ion transport inside electrified nanopores remain largely unknown . here we show that the diffusion is characterized by a hierarchy of time scales arising from ion confinement , solvation , and electrosorption effects . by combining electrochemistry experiments with molecular dynamics simulations , we determine the in - pore conductivities and diffusion coefficients and their variations with the applied potential . we show that the diffusion of the ions is slower by 1 order of magnitude compared to the bulk electrolyte . the desolvation of the ions occurs on much faster time scales than electrosorption .
as indicated by both the theory and the observations a typical active galactic nucleus ( agn ) is not particularly active @xcite . the median eddington ratio in the palomar survey of nearby agns is @xmath3 @xcite . palomar survey still misses agns like sgr a * , which has an even lower ratio @xmath4 @xcite . extensive radio observations help to identify weaker agns . while sgr a * is an established radio emitter , the activity in the nuclei of , e.g. , m31 and ngc3115 is barely detected with the jansky very large array ( @xcite ; wrobel & nyland , 2012 , subm . ) . agns have a short duty cycle @xcite and are in a low - luminosity state most of the time . agns enter a short bright quasar phase , when galaxy mergers feed the associated bhs with gas @xcite . agns shut off quickly after the mergers due to the large - scale feedback @xcite . the material in an isolated galaxy can accrete in various ways onto the central bh , which may power seyfert galaxies ( e.g. , @xcite ) . when the gas supply from other sources is small , the bh can be fed mostly by stellar winds @xcite . typical mass loss rates from nuclear star clusters lead to very sub - eddington accretion rates . colliding stellar winds produce a hot tenuous medium , which might have a long cooling timescale . in the absence of cooling the accretion occurs as a radiatively inefficient accretion flow ( riaf ) @xcite . modeling bh feeding from stellar winds and the associated accretion flow in low - luminosity agns ( llagns ) is the purpose of the present work . we discuss the features of the accretion flow , which delivers only a small fraction of available matter to the bh event horizon . we construct a semi - analytic radial model and apply it to sgr a * and ngc3115 . the matter is supplied near the radius of bh gravitational influence , the bondi radius @xmath5 , by stellar winds . the mass loss rate @xmath6 in winds can be estimated based on properties of the nuclear stellar population . the predicted @xmath6 rate depends on the age of the stellar population @xcite , the initial mass function , metallicity , and the stellar evolution model @xcite . approximate correlations exist of mass loss rate with v - band or b - band luminosity @xcite for old stellar populations . such relations are relatively easy to apply , since surface brightness in these bands was determined in many galactic nuclei as a by - product of searching for supermassive bhs @xcite . in the case of sgr a * the mass loss rate was directly computed from line properties of individual wind - emitting stars @xcite . as simulations show ( e.g. , @xcite ) , the gas may exist in a quasi - steady state over long periods of time near the bondi radius . accretion onto the bh and outflow balance the injection of stellar winds . the gas energetics is determined by the velocity of colliding stellar winds , the gravitational potentials of the bh and the galaxy , and the energy flux from the inner accretion flow . the wind - producing stars move in the gravitational potential at a speed @xmath7 , while expelling winds at relative velocity @xmath8 . assuming no preferred direction of orbital angular momentum of stars , the specific energy of colliding winds is @xmath9 , where @xmath10 denotes the ensemble average . the gravitational potential of the galaxy is essential for setting the quasi - steady gas density . the galactic potential overtakes the bh potential at @xmath11 for sgr a * @xcite and at @xmath12 for ngc3115 ( shcherbakov et al . 2012 , in prep ) . gravity creates a potential barrier for the outflow to escape from the feeding region . this potential barrier can be substantially underestimated , if the galactic potential is neglected . the percentage of the outflowing material may greatly vary . the accretion rate onto sgr a * is @xmath13 @xcite , while the cluster wind mass loss rate @xmath14 @xcite is much higher . lastly , the energy balance can be modified by the deposition of energy diffused from the inner accretion flow . outward energy flux can flatten the density profile and shut off the accretion . also it can help drive an outflow from the feeding region . @xcite state that `` the binding energy of a gram of gas at a few @xmath15 drives off @xmath16 kg of gas from @xmath17 @xmath15 '' , where @xmath15 is a gravitational radius . the reason for such a dramatic influence can be understood from pressure balance . the balance of the gas pressure and the gravitational force reads @xmath18 where @xmath19 is particle density . the density profile is usually approximated as a power - law @xmath0 . as the temperature increases slightly due to the deposited energy , the density slope @xmath20 gets correspondingly shallower . a @xmath21 temperature increase causes @xmath20 to drop from @xmath22 to @xmath23 , which leads to @xmath24 times lower accretion rate @xmath25 for @xmath26 . the origin of the energy flux may vary depending on gas density . turbulent diffusion / convection is traditionally invoked to account for the energy flux @xcite . the flow is intrinsically turbulent and the large - scale eddies effectively transport the energy outwards . heat conduction takes over for turbulent diffusion at low gas density , when the mean free path of electrons becomes comparable to the flow size @xcite . conductive heat flux is significant in turbulent magnetized flows , where the random magnetic field does not effectively trap the electrons @xcite . as the problem is complex , and encompasses a huge range of radii @xmath27 preventing the direct numerical simulations , we developed a semi - analytic radial model to quantify the accretion in llagns . the description of our first model can be found in @xcite . we compute the radial profiles of gas density @xmath28 , electron temperature @xmath29 , and proton temperature @xmath30 . we compile the radial profiles of mass and energy injection in winds . in the latest version of the model we include the random velocity of stars to compute the effective wind velocity . the gravitational potential is similarly improved to include the galactic potential . the electron temperature @xmath29 deviates down from @xmath30 in the inner flow at about @xmath31 , where the electrons become relativistic . on the way to the bh different species are heated by @xmath32 work and by viscous energy dissipation . the flow had zero angular momentum in the first model , which may be a good assumption for the large values of effective viscosity @xmath33 @xcite or outside of the circularization radius . the transport of angular momentum and the associated heating are modeled self - consistently in the latest version . the energy is transported outwards by conduction . conductive heat flux is proportional to the gradient of @xmath29 , while conductivity at each radius @xmath34 is a small fraction of a product of that radius @xmath34 by the electron velocity @xmath35 . the hot accretion flow onto a bh has a specific radiation signature , which was observed in nearby llagns . the gas temperature in the feeding region is about @xmath36 kev @xcite , as produced by the colliding winds . the hot gas radiates in x - rays via a variety of physical processes such as heavy ion line emission . we use the emission model based on atomdb v2.0 @xcite to compute the spectrum in collisional equilibrium for an assumed metallicity @xmath37 . we employ custom - generated response matrices and photoelectric absorption to simulate the spectra as seen by _ chandra _ and to compare with the observed ones . the x - ray spectrum is dominated by heavy ion emission for gas temperatures in @xmath38 kev range , which makes the estimate of gas density heavily dependent on metallicity . inner density and temperature can be determined based on radiation from hot inner flow . the plasma emits mainly synchrotron radiation at the electron temperature @xmath39 k. assuming that the radio emission at the highest observed frequency of radio / sub - mm bump comes from near the event horizon , we can estimate the electron temperature and density based on that frequency and correspondent flux . the slope between the inner and the outer flows is @xmath40 for sgr a * @xcite and @xmath41 for ngc3115 ( shcherbakov et al . 2012 , in prep ) , while @xmath42 was found in the outer flow @xcite of ngc3115 . 31 natexlab#1#1 , r. d. , & begelman , m. c. 1999 , _ mnras _ , 303 , l1 , l. , dercole , a. , pellegrini , s. , & renzini , a. 1991 , _ apj _ , 376 , 380 , p. c. , dickel , j. r. , & cowan , j. j. 1992 , _ apj _ , 390 , l9 , j. , nayakshin , s. , & martins , f. 2008 , _ mnras _ , 383 , 458 , a. r. , ji , l. , smith , r. k. , & brickhouse , n. s. 2012 , _ apj _ , 756 , 128 , j. e. , & ho , l. c. 2007 , _ apj _ , 667 , 131 , l. c. 2008 , _ ann . _ , 46 , 475 . 2009 , _ apj _ , 699 , 626 , p. f. , & hernquist , l. 2006 , _ ap . j. supp . _ , 166 , 1 . 2009 , _ apj _ , 698 , 1550 , p. f. , hernquist , l. , cox , t. j. , di matteo , t. , robertson , b. , & springel , v. 2006 , _ ap . j. supp . _ , 163 , 1 , p. f. , hernquist , l. , cox , t. j. , & kere , d. 2008 , _ ap . j. supp . _ , 175 , 356 , b. , combes , f. , & palou , j. 2001 , _ astron . and astrophys . _ , 376 , 85 , j. , & richstone , d. 1995 , _ ann . _ , 33 , 581 , s. n. , & kravtsov , a. v. 2011 , _ apj _ , 734 , 48 , f. , genzel , r. , hillier , d. j. , eisenhauer , f. , paumard , t. , gillessen , s. , ott , t. , & trippe , s. 2007 , _ astron . and astrophys . _ , 468 , 233 , r. 2002 , in _ lighthouses of the universe : the most luminous celestial objects and their use for cosmology _ , ed . m. gilfanov , r. sunyeav , & e. churazov , 405 , r. , igumenshchev , i. v. , & abramowicz , m. a. 2000 , _ apj _ , 539 , 798 , r. , mahadevan , r. , & quataert , e. 1998 , in _ theory of black hole accretion disks _ , ed . m. a. abramowicz , g. bjornsson , & j. e. pringle , 148 , r. , & medvedev , m. v. 2001 , _ apj _ , 562 , l129 , p. , & matteucci , f. 1993 , _ apj _ , 416 , 26 , s. 2005 , _ apj _ , 624 , 155 , e. 2001 , in _ astronomical society of the pacific conference series _ 224 , _ probing the physics of active galactic nuclei _ , ed . b. peterson , r. pogge , & r. polidan , 71 , e. , & gruzinov , a. 2000 , _ apj _ , 539 , 809 , m. , & oh , s. p. 2011 , _ mnras _ , 414 , 1493 , r. , ott , t. , genzel , r. , eckart , a. , mouawad , n. , & alexander , t. 2003 , _ apj _ , 596 , 1015 shakura , n. i. , & sunyaev , r. a. 1973 , _ astron . and astrophys . _ , 24 , 337 , p. , quataert , e. , & stone , j. m. 2008 , _ mnras _ , 389 , 1815 , r. v. , & baganoff , f. k. 2010 , _ apj _ , 716 , 504 , r. v. , penna , r. f. , & mckinney , j. c. 2012 , _ apj _ , 755 , 133 wong , ka - wah , irwin , jimmy a. , yukita , mihoko , million , evan t. , mathews , william g. , & bregman , joel n. 2011 , _ apj _ , 736 , 23	the unmatched x - ray resolution of _ chandra _ allows probing the gas flow near quiescent supermassive black holes ( bhs ) . the radius of bh gravitational influence on gas , called the bondi radius , is resolved in sgr a * and ngc 3115 . shallow accretion flow density profiles @xmath0 with @xmath1 were found for sgr a * and ngc 3115 with the help of _ we construct self - consistent models with gas feeding and dynamics from near the bondi radius to the event horizon to explain the observations . gas is mainly supplied to the region by hot colliding stellar winds . small - scale feedback such as conduction effectively flattens the density profile from steep @xmath2 in a bondi flow . we further constrain density and temperature profiles using the observed radio / sub - mm radiation emitted near the event horizon . we discuss the present state of our numerical model and its qualitative features , such as the role of the galactic gravitational potential and the random motion of wind - emitting stars .
pusa caspica is one of the smallest members of the earless seal family ( phocidae ) and unique in that it is found exclusively in the brackish caspian sea and endemic to it . it is distributed throughout the caspian sea from avant - deltas of the volga and ural rivers to the iranian coasts . although there are reports of animals occurring sporadically in the volga river as far as volgograd and 200 km upstream along the ural river ( 1 , 2 ) . however , in recent years there has been a decrease in their population from more than 400000 in 1967 to 100000 in 2010 ( 3 ) due to different causes like hunting , pollution and infection diseases ( 4 ) . as this mammal is an endangered animal ( 5 ) , knowing about its parasites and pathology of each parasite , can eventually lead to improve conservation programs . there are several publications about the parasites of the caspian seal reporting different parasites in this host ( 6 , 7 ) but very little is known about histopathology of these parasites , and as this seal species is the only mammal in caspian sea , it can act as definitive host for several of important parasites occurring in the fishes of caspian sea . pseudamphistomum truncatum is a common liver fluke found in many carnivorous hosts ( 8 - 10 ) . pathology of this trematode has been studied in several other carnivores like eurasian otter ( 11 ) , and mink ( 10 , 12 ) . the objective of this paper is to describe the pathology at three levels caused by this trematode . the liver tissue of the caspian seal and the digenes inside were checked in gross and then observed with light ( lm ) , scanning and transmission electron microscopy ( sem and tem ) whereby the pathological process could be described . 1 ) on the southern shore of the caspian sea near ramsar city , mazandaran province , northern iran ( 3655n , 5040e ) on april 29 , 2009 was examined for parasites by the second author ( ah ) . cause of death was probably canine distemper virus ( cdv ) which has been observed previously ( 13 , 14 ) . after necropsy internal organs was carefully checked and representative samples were taken from each organ and placed in labeled vials containing 10% buffered formalin for further studies including histopathology and observations with the light and electron microscopes . parasites found in the organs were isolated and relaxed , and then placed in labeled vials containing 70% ethyl alcohol . numerous trematodes were found in the biliary tract of the liver that was also prepared for future research . identification of parasites was based on available key references ( 15 - 17 ) . for the infected liver tissue , several sections were removed and the infected tissue was fixed in 10% buffered formalin for 48 hours and then stored in 70% ethyl alcohol for shipment to the laboratory . the host tissue was processed and blocked in paraffin using a vacuum automated tissue processor . the paraffin blocked tissue was sectioned at 4 - 6 um ( microns ) , placed on glass slides and stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) , using an automatic staining station . the prepared slides were reviewed with an inverted compound light microscope lsm , axiovert 135 , ( carl zeiss , thornwood , new york ) with laser illumination . specimens previously fixed in 70% ethanol were placed in critical point drying baskets and dehydrated using an ethanol series of 95% and 100% for at least 10 minutes per soak followed by critical point drying ( 20 ) . samples were mounted on sem sample mounts , gold coated and observed with a scanning electron microscope ( xl30 esemfeg ; fei , hillsboro , oregon ) . digital images of the structures were obtained using digital imaging software attached to a computer . ten samples of the infected organs and the parasite ( p. truncatum ) previously fixed in 10% buffered formalin and 70% ethyl alcohol were dehydrated in an ascending series of ethanol solutions . samples were then rehydrated for post - fixation in 1% buffered osmium tetroxide and then dehydrated in an ascending series of ethanol , followed by two changes of 100% acetone . specimens were then embedded in spurr s resin and sectioned with a diamond knife , using an automated ultra microtome to a thickness of 80 to 100 nm . after post staining with reynolds lead citrate and 5% urinal acetate in 50% ethanol , sections were examined in an fel techani t-12 , high resolution tem ( fei company , hillsboro , oregon ) . images at varying magnifications were taken with a digital camera using digital imaging software attached to a computer . for the infected liver tissue , several sections were removed and the infected tissue was fixed in 10% buffered formalin for 48 hours and then stored in 70% ethyl alcohol for shipment to the laboratory . the host tissue was processed and blocked in paraffin using a vacuum automated tissue processor . the paraffin blocked tissue was sectioned at 4 - 6 um ( microns ) , placed on glass slides and stained with hematoxylin and eosin ( h & e ) , using an automatic staining station . the prepared slides were reviewed with an inverted compound light microscope lsm , axiovert 135 , ( carl zeiss , thornwood , new york ) with laser illumination . for sem studies , specimens previously fixed in 70% ethanol were placed in critical point drying baskets and dehydrated using an ethanol series of 95% and 100% for at least 10 minutes per soak followed by critical point drying ( 20 ) . samples were mounted on sem sample mounts , gold coated and observed with a scanning electron microscope ( xl30 esemfeg ; fei , hillsboro , oregon ) . digital images of the structures were obtained using digital imaging software attached to a computer . ten samples of the infected organs and the parasite ( p. truncatum ) previously fixed in 10% buffered formalin and 70% ethyl alcohol were dehydrated in an ascending series of ethanol solutions . samples were then rehydrated for post - fixation in 1% buffered osmium tetroxide and then dehydrated in an ascending series of ethanol , followed by two changes of 100% acetone . specimens were then embedded in spurr s resin and sectioned with a diamond knife , using an automated ultra microtome to a thickness of 80 to 100 nm . after post staining with reynolds lead citrate and 5% urinal acetate in 50% ethanol , sections were examined in an fel techani t-12 , high resolution tem ( fei company , hillsboro , oregon ) . images at varying magnifications were taken with a digital camera using digital imaging software attached to a computer . four parasites species were found in the examined seal including the liver trematode , pseudamphistomum truncatum , which we described in a previous article using sem ( 21 ) as well as an acanthocephalan , corynosoma strumosum ( 22 ) , anisakis sp and eustrongylides sp . ( not reported yet ) . figures 1 , 2 , 3 represent the dead caspian seal ( pusa caspica ) ( fig . 1 ) and the internal organs ( fig . 2 , 3 ) . figure 2 and 3 depict the internal viscera following dissection of the seal showing the various organs . the liver had several edematous foci , which are grayish in color depicting trauma and fluid accumulation in the outer connective tissue . sections of liver were labeled and placed in vials containing 10% formalin for future study . there were multifocal necrotic areas in the hepatic tissue due to parasite invasion and the viral infection . figures 4 , 5 , and 6 are the results of the sem scans for p. truncatum . figure 4 is the whole mount of the trematode showing the lancelot shape and the prominent suckers . figure 5 is the ventral sucker and figure 6 is the blunt posterior end of the fluke . we have published an article ( 21 ) pertaining to the sem ultrastructure of p. truncatum . figure 7 to 24 represent the results of the histopathological examination of p. truncatum and its invasive effect on the liver of p. caspica . figure 7 shows the route of the trematode through a hepatic lobule displacing the hepatocytes . figure 8 is a section through a normal hepatic lobule showing hepatic ducts and canals leading to the bile ducts . a hepatic blood vessel is visible on the slide , which is lined with an intact endothelium ( fig . p. truncatum has a highly specialized outer tegument with numerous spines and lower fibrous and muscle layers ( figs . . extensive cell necrosis , hepatocytes and granulocytes are visible next to the invading trematode ( fig . 12 , 13 ) . the path of the parasite within the host hepatic tissue is very prominent ( figs . 14 , 15 , 16 ) with resultant cell necrosis , hemorrhaging and scattered islands of necrotic hepatocytes . mononuclear host cells and granulocytes represent the remains of the hepatic lobule of the infected liver of pusa caspica . the endothelial lining of host ducts and vessels can be seen on the stained sections surrounded by connective tissue and islands of loose red bloods cells . one feature of the sections is the consistent presence of trematode eggs near the symbiont and throughout the surrounding tissue ( figs . many of the eggs are empty but others have embryonic contents of a larval trematode . near the eggs , there is a collection of necrotic hepatic tissue with granulocytes and mononuclear cells . bile ducts and blood vessels with the endothelial linings are prominent for the damaged areas ( figs . figure 22 displays a vaculated area where the parasite once resided in the hepatic tissue . these latter figures displaying parasite damage should be compared to normal caspian seal hepatic tissue ( figs . common around the parasite is marked infiltration and migration of inflammatory cells , macrophages , heterophils , plasma cells and then the subsequent connective tissue cells and fibers in an attempt to encapsulate the invaders ( figs . the results of the tem pathology of p. truncatum are displayed with figures 25 to 32 . in general , these micrographs show the necrosis of cells as emphasized by organelle destruction ( fig . 32 ) . figure 30 and 31 show the invasion of an additional pathogen either a virus or cocci bacterium . these spheres were common in the viewed grids and further studies should be initiated to determine their identity . figure 25 and 26 show membranous layers surrounding vessels ( endothelium ) with blood cells ( erythrocytes ) within the lumen ( fig . 26 ) . figure 27 and 28 display the organelle destruction of impacted hepatocytes as well as hepatic capillaries extending through the tissue . figure 29 is a scan through a bile canaliculus which terminates in the bile duct . the invasive trematode parasite ( p. truncatum ) is causing extensive cellular damage as displayed by the organelles . figures 4 , 5 , and 6 are the results of the sem scans for p. truncatum . figure 4 is the whole mount of the trematode showing the lancelot shape and the prominent suckers . figure 5 is the ventral sucker and figure 6 is the blunt posterior end of the fluke . we have published an article ( 21 ) pertaining to the sem ultrastructure of p. truncatum . figure 7 to 24 represent the results of the histopathological examination of p. truncatum and its invasive effect on the liver of p. caspica . figure 7 shows the route of the trematode through a hepatic lobule displacing the hepatocytes . figure 8 is a section through a normal hepatic lobule showing hepatic ducts and canals leading to the bile ducts . a hepatic blood vessel is visible on the slide , which is lined with an intact endothelium ( fig . p. truncatum has a highly specialized outer tegument with numerous spines and lower fibrous and muscle layers ( figs . 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ) . parts of the posterior sucker and internal septums are visible . extensive cell necrosis , hepatocytes and granulocytes are visible next to the invading trematode ( fig . 12 , 13 ) . the path of the parasite within the host hepatic tissue is very prominent ( figs . 14 , 15 , 16 ) with resultant cell necrosis , hemorrhaging and scattered islands of necrotic hepatocytes . mononuclear host cells and granulocytes represent the remains of the hepatic lobule of the infected liver of pusa caspica . the endothelial lining of host ducts and vessels can be seen on the stained sections surrounded by connective tissue and islands of loose red bloods cells . one feature of the sections is the consistent presence of trematode eggs near the symbiont and throughout the surrounding tissue ( figs . many of the eggs are empty but others have embryonic contents of a larval trematode . near the eggs , there is a collection of necrotic hepatic tissue with granulocytes and mononuclear cells . bile ducts and blood vessels with the endothelial linings are prominent for the damaged areas ( figs . figure 22 displays a vaculated area where the parasite once resided in the hepatic tissue . these latter figures displaying parasite damage should be compared to normal caspian seal hepatic tissue ( figs . common around the parasite is marked infiltration and migration of inflammatory cells , macrophages , heterophils , plasma cells and then the subsequent connective tissue cells and fibers in an attempt to encapsulate the invaders ( figs . the results of the tem pathology of p. truncatum are displayed with figures 25 to 32 . in general , these micrographs show the necrosis of cells as emphasized by organelle destruction ( fig . 32 ) . figure 30 and 31 show the invasion of an additional pathogen either a virus or cocci bacterium . these spheres were common in the viewed grids and further studies should be initiated to determine their identity . figure 25 and 26 show membranous layers surrounding vessels ( endothelium ) with blood cells ( erythrocytes ) within the lumen ( fig . 26 ) . figure 27 and 28 display the organelle destruction of impacted hepatocytes as well as hepatic capillaries extending through the tissue . figure 29 is a scan through a bile canaliculus which terminates in the bile duct . endoplasmic reticulum , secretory granules and mitochondria are visible for figure 32 . the latter figure shows the destruction of the cristae of the mitochondria . the invasive trematode parasite ( p. truncatum ) is causing extensive cellular damage as displayed by the organelles . it was shown that this trematode is quite invasive and pathogenic to caspian seal and as this host is the only mammal of caspian sea that is an endangered species , this needs more investigation toward control and possible treatment of this helminth that could help the conservation of this mammal .	backgroundmain objective of this study was to investigate the invasive activity of the liver fluke , pseudamphistomom truncatum against the caspian seal ( pusa caspica ) and was exemplified at the gross , light microscopy ( lm ) and electron microscopy ( em ) levels.methodsthe study was done on a freshly dead caspian seal in the southern coast of caspian sea . the checked caspian seal probably being died of canine distemper virus and was found host to numerous parasites of four helminth species.resultsp . truncatum caused edematous foci on the surface of the liver with prominent fluid accumulation . sections of the liver viewed with lm had multiple necrotic areas with extensive hemorrhaging and disorganized hepatic lobules . granulocytes and invasion of connective tissue were prominent . whole worms were visible with invasive pathways through the host tissue . damage to both hepatic ducts and blood vessels were prominent . at the em level , organelles within the impacted hepatocytes were disorganized as exemplified by the cristae of the mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum . parasite eggs were scattered throughout the tissue.conclusionit was shown that this trematode can be very pathogenic to caspian seal and as this only mammal of caspian sea is an endangered species ; this needs more investigation toward control or possible treatment of this helminth .
high demand for natural products such as essential oils ( eos ) and phenolic diterpenes has fuelled the increased interest in the cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants ( maps ) as alternatives to traditional crops . the cultivation of eos - containing species from different families has been initiated in a number of countries to respond to food and cosmetic industry needs . common sage ( salvia officinalis ) is among several lamiaceae species , which received much interest [ 1 - 3 ] . the main sage oil - producing countries in the mediterranean basin are spain , france , and tunisia . still , growing such species under arid and semi - arid conditions is a big duty . for instance , abiotic stresses such as heat , water shortage , and salinity , apart from restricting the growth and yield , provoke various metabolic changes in most plants . all the above abiotic factors result in a build - up of salt in the soil imposing a major limitation to the growth and yield of crops . although there is a substantial literature on the behavior of common species under stressful conditions , data on maps are less available . common sage is a mediterranean shrub of the lamiaceae family , which has been used for a long time as food spice and folk medicine . the biological properties of eo of sage are attributed mainly to - and -thujone , camphor , and 1.8-cineole . still the percentage of these eos depends on several factors including the geographic origin of the plant , environmental factors , plant organ , and genetic differences . apart from volatiles and flavonoids , sage contains the relatively large amount of polyphenolic compounds with antioxidant activity . carnosic acid ( ca ) , 12-o - methyl carnosic acid ( mca ) and carnosol ( car ) were shown to be the major diterpene constituents in leaves of both sage and rosemary . first , ca can protect plants from biotic and abiotic stresses by scavenging free radicals within the chloroplasts . second , ca metabolism may also play a role in the stability of cell membranes . in addition , ca and these compounds are responsible for up to 90% of the antioxidant activity of the plant extract , so there is an increasing interest in using sage as a source of natural antioxidants in food preservatives . besides , ca and car were found to possess antibacterial , anticancer , anti - inflammatory , antitumor , anti - obesity , and photoprotective activities . recent reports have showed that these compounds may be useful for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases . such biological and commercial potential of the sage diterpenes makes them an attractive target for developing strategies intended for their extensive production . besides , the extraction of these compounds from plants needs sufficient plant biomass together with high amounts of these metabolites . in this regard , several studies [ 18 - 20 ] have targeted enhancing the production of these high - value plant compounds by choosing the accurate plant species or accession , the richest plant part or the proper plant development stage . besides , the use of some agricultural techniques has been also reported . it was shown , for instance , that the essential cations ( k , ca , mg and fe ) can favor the foliar biosynthesis of several phenolic diterpenes in both sage and rosemary . as well , it was shown that the upper young leaves contained higher levels of diterpenes when compared to bottom senescent ones . furthermore , it has been shown that drought - induced oxidative stress reduces the ca and car contents of the sage leaves and enhances the formation of the highly oxidized diterpenes isorosmanol ( iso ) and dimethyl isorosmanol . still , the effects of moderate and severe nacl salinity stress on the biosynthesis of such high - value plant compounds are not well studied . in several countries , water shortages have forced growers to use more and more treated wastewater and saline water for plant irrigation . plants exposed to relatively high concentrations of salt undergo several changes in their metabolism in order to cope with their stressful environment . for instance , excessive soil salinity alters eos biosynthesis and composition in several species of industrial interest . the impact of salinity on the eo yield and composition was studied on sage s fruits in hydroponic culture or with relatively low level of nacl in the soil ( lower than 4.7 still the effect of moderate and higher nacl concentrations in the soil on the eos composition and phenolic diterpenes are not well studied on the common sage . it is , therefore , of interest to evaluate if irrigation with increasing saline water can be used as an agricultural technique to increase their foliar concentrations in sage . the protective role of ca against nacl stress was also argued with regard to some physiological features of the plant ( water and ionic relations as well as the photosynthetic exchanges ) . common sage used in the present study was propagated by cuttings at the floral budding stage . sixty - four plants ( 1-year - old ) were grown in 5 l plastic pots containing desert dune sand ( 1 mm in diameter , 0.1 g soluble salt 100/g dw of sand ) in a glasshouse covered with a shade net . plants were exposed , in average , to a ppfd of 1000 mmol / m / s . during 3 weeks after transplanting into the pots , all plants were irrigated with a complete nutrient solution having an initial total ion concentration of 4.5 mm and electrical conductivity ( ec ) of 3.0 ds / m . these plants were divided into two batches : for the first batch ( kinetic batch ) , forty - eight plants ( 48 ) have received increasing nacl concentrations ( 0 , 50 , 75 , and 100 mm ) in the irrigation solution . the resulted soil ecs were , respectively , 3.0 , 9.0 , 11.1 , and 14.9 ds / m . to avoid osmotic shock , nacl concentrations were increased gradually , by 25 mm / day , until the desired concentration was reached . four plants were randomly harvested from each treatment after 2 , 3 , and 4 weeks of adding nacl . the experimental design was a completely randomized block with 4 replicates ( each pot being a replicate ) . this batch of plants was used to determine the effect of salinity on total leaf dry weight , the water content ( wc ) , and the kinetic of accumulation of the phenolic abietanes diterpenes and their yields . the second batch of plants was used to determine the effect of increasing salinity on eos composition , ion contents , and plant gas exchange . sixteen plants were irrigated with the same nacl as mentioned above and were harvested only at the end of the treatment . plants ( 4 replicates for each treatment ) were randomly harvested after 0 , 2 , 3 , and 4 weeks of adding salt to determine plant growth and leaf wc . after recording their total leaf fresh biomass ( fw ) , they were oven - dried at 80c for 48 h and total leaf dry biomass ( dw ) was measured . the leaf wc was determined as follow : ion contents and gas exchange were performed on fully expanded leaves collected between 9 and 11 am after 4 weeks of nacl treatment . these evaluations were completed with an infrared , portable co2 gas analyzer ( adc , bioscientific ltd . , . the photosynthetic rate ( a ) , transpiration ( e ) , and stomatal conductance ( gs ) were all evaluated . eos analyses were performed on leaves collected between 9 and 11 am after 4 weeks of treatment . the eos were extracted from 10 g sub - samples of fresh leaves by steam distillation at atmospheric pressure , using a modified clevenger type apparatus . distillation lasted 3 h. the eos were separated from the aqueous phase by adding chloroform . the organic layer was dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated under atmospheric pressure to eliminate the chloroform . the residue was solubilized in 30 volumes of 100% ( v / v ) hexane and analyzed by gc / ms as described by tounekti et al . . for the abietanes diterpenes analyses , a sub - sample of fresh leaves was taken from each harvested plant . the leaves were collected , immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen , and stored at 80c until analysis . variance of data was analyzed with a two - way anova ( salt concentration and duration of treatment being the independent variables ) using a glm procedure of sas software 1996 for a randomized complete block design with 4 replicates . to correct for departure from normality , eos data ( percentages ) were log - transformed before analyses ; untransformed means were reported . where applicable , means were separated by duncan s multiple range test ( p 0.05 ) . common sage used in the present study was propagated by cuttings at the floral budding stage . sixty - four plants ( 1-year - old ) were grown in 5 l plastic pots containing desert dune sand ( 1 mm in diameter , 0.1 g soluble salt 100/g dw of sand ) in a glasshouse covered with a shade net . plants were exposed , in average , to a ppfd of 1000 mmol / m / s . during 3 weeks after transplanting into the pots , all plants were irrigated with a complete nutrient solution having an initial total ion concentration of 4.5 mm and electrical conductivity ( ec ) of 3.0 ds / m . these plants were divided into two batches : for the first batch ( kinetic batch ) , forty - eight plants ( 48 ) have received increasing nacl concentrations ( 0 , 50 , 75 , and 100 mm ) in the irrigation solution . the resulted soil ecs were , respectively , 3.0 , 9.0 , 11.1 , and 14.9 ds / m . to avoid osmotic shock , nacl concentrations were increased gradually , by 25 mm / day , until the desired concentration was reached . four plants were randomly harvested from each treatment after 2 , 3 , and 4 weeks of adding nacl . the experimental design was a completely randomized block with 4 replicates ( each pot being a replicate ) . this batch of plants was used to determine the effect of salinity on total leaf dry weight , the water content ( wc ) , and the kinetic of accumulation of the phenolic abietanes diterpenes and their yields . the second batch of plants was used to determine the effect of increasing salinity on eos composition , ion contents , and plant gas exchange . sixteen plants were irrigated with the same nacl as mentioned above and were harvested only at the end of the treatment . plants ( 4 replicates for each treatment ) were randomly harvested after 0 , 2 , 3 , and 4 weeks of adding salt to determine plant growth and leaf wc . after recording their total leaf fresh biomass ( fw ) , they were oven - dried at 80c for 48 h and total leaf dry biomass ( dw ) was measured . ion contents and gas exchange were performed on fully expanded leaves collected between 9 and 11 am after 4 weeks of nacl treatment . these evaluations were completed with an infrared , portable co2 gas analyzer ( adc , bioscientific ltd . , hoddesdon , uk ) . the photosynthetic rate ( a ) , transpiration ( e ) , and stomatal conductance ( gs ) were all evaluated . the instantaneous water use efficiency ( iwue ) eos analyses were performed on leaves collected between 9 and 11 am after 4 weeks of treatment . the eos were extracted from 10 g sub - samples of fresh leaves by steam distillation at atmospheric pressure , using a modified clevenger type apparatus . distillation lasted 3 h. the eos were separated from the aqueous phase by adding chloroform . the organic layer was dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated under atmospheric pressure to eliminate the chloroform . the residue was solubilized in 30 volumes of 100% ( v / v ) hexane and analyzed by gc / ms as described by tounekti et al . . for the abietanes diterpenes analyses , a sub - sample of fresh leaves was taken from each harvested plant . the leaves were collected , immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen , and stored at 80c until analysis . variance of data was analyzed with a two - way anova ( salt concentration and duration of treatment being the independent variables ) using a glm procedure of sas software 1996 for a randomized complete block design with 4 replicates . to correct for departure from normality , eos data ( percentages ) were log - transformed before analyses ; untransformed means were reported . where applicable , means were separated by duncan s multiple range test ( p 0.05 ) . the present results revealed that soil salinity had no significant effect on total leaf dry weight per plant [ figure 1 ] . furthermore , the lower nacl levels ( 50 and 75 mm ) have not affected noticeably the leaf wc either after 4 weeks of treatment . however , a significant decrease was seen for the 100 mm nacl treatment starting from the 3 week [ figure 1 ] . effect of increasing soil nacl concentrations ( mm ) on foliar water content ( ml ( h2o ) g dry weight ) and total leaves dry weight ( g per plant ) in salvia officinalis l plants . values marked by different small letters are significantly different at p < 5% after 4 weeks soil salinity has led to a significant decrease in the assimilation rate ( a ) , stomatal conductance ( gs ) , transpiration rate ( e ) and therefore the instantaneous water use efficiency ( iwue ) mainly for 75 and 100 mm treatments [ table 1 ] . the largest decreases were shown at 100 mm nacl , leading to a values of 10 mol / m / s after 4 weeks of stress which was 50% lower than control plants . besides , our results demonstrate that gs decreased significantly more than a in all salt treatments and mainly when the lowest nacl concentrations were provided , which suggests a stomatal limitation of the photosynthetic capacity mainly after 4 weeks of treatments . after the same period , salinity has strongly increased na and reduced the k content in the sage leaves , with the 100 mm dose causing the largest effect . for instance , the leaf na contents increased by 140% and the k contents decreased by 32% in the 100 mm - treated plants relative to controls [ table 1 ] . ions contents , net photosynthesis ( a ) , stomatal conductance ( gs ) , transpiration rate ( e ) , and instantaneous water use efficiencies ( iwue = a / e ) in leaves of sage plants grown in a medium without nacl ( control ) , or containing increasing nacl concentrations ( 0 , 50 , 75 and 100 mm ) the gc - ms analyses of sage eos obtained by steam distillation of leaves allowed the identification of 31 compounds representing about 96% of the total eos [ table 2 ] . the oil contained different chemical classes such as monoterpenes ( 24% ) , sesquiterpenes ( 29% ) , diterpenes ( 19% ) , saturated fatty acids ( 23.6% ) , and alkanes ( 1.3% ) . the most abundant were viridiflorol ( 28.1% ) , manool ( 17.5% ) , camphor ( 13.4% ) , borneol ( 8.9% ) , and -thujone ( 3.4% ) . the analyses also revealed a relatively large fraction made of saturated fatty acids [ table 2 ] . the increased concentration of nacl in the soil medium changed the composition of sage eos but did not induce the synthesis of new oils . 1.8-cineole , -thujone and camphor increased considerably in the plants fed with 100 mm nacl ; lower salt concentrations had no effect . in contrast , borneol and viridiflorol levels were reduced by the 100 mm nacl treatment . leaf eos composition ( % of total ) in salvia officinalis l. after 4 weeks of culture on increasing nacl concentrations in common sage , ca and car are the major phenolic diterpenes in the leaves [ figure 2 ] . our results demonstrated that the ca content varied between 1.2 and 1.7 mg / g dw and car between 1.2 and 1.6 m / g dw in the leaves of control plants . we found that nacl in the soil medium did not affect significantly the oxidized diterpenes rosmanol ( ros ) and dimethyl isorosmanol ( dim ) as well as their total contents regardless of the duration of the treatment [ table 3 ] . whereas , the effect of salinity on ca , car , mca , iso , and the total reduced diterpene contents changed with time ( treatment x duration significant ) . after 2 weeks of treatment , nacl had only a limited effect on sage abietane diterpene content . however , after 3 weeks , plants fed with 75 mm or 100 mm nacl had considerably more ca , mca and reduced forms in their leaves than those fed with 0 mm or 50 mm nacl [ figure 2 ] . after 4 weeks , plants which received 75 mm or 100 mm nacl contained more ca , mca , and car than those irrigated with 50 mm . the reduced diterpenes content tended to decrease when plants were fed with 50 mm nacl and to increase for higher concentrations ( after 3 or 4 weeks ) . still , the levels of the oxidized compounds did not change significantly in the 50 and 75 mm - treated plants of the present study . higher salt concentrations enhanced ca , mca , and car biosynthesis [ figure 2 ] . summary of two - way anova of effects of growth medium nacl concentration and treatment duration as fixed independent variables effect of increasing soil nacl concentrations ( mm ) on foliar reduced diterpene concentrations ( mg / g dry weight ) ( a ) and contents ( mg per plant ) ( b ) in salvia officinalis l plants . ca : carnosic acid , car : carnosol , mca : methoxycarnosic acid ; red : total reduced diterpenes ( red = ca + car + mca ) . each concentration is the mean of 4 replicates standard deviation . in values marked by different small letters the present results revealed that soil salinity had no significant effect on total leaf dry weight per plant [ figure 1 ] . furthermore , the lower nacl levels ( 50 and 75 mm ) have not affected noticeably the leaf wc either after 4 weeks of treatment . however , a significant decrease was seen for the 100 mm nacl treatment starting from the 3 week [ figure 1 ] . effect of increasing soil nacl concentrations ( mm ) on foliar water content ( ml ( h2o ) g dry weight ) and total leaves dry weight ( g per plant ) in salvia officinalis l plants . values marked by different small letters are significantly different at p < 5% after 4 weeks soil salinity has led to a significant decrease in the assimilation rate ( a ) , stomatal conductance ( gs ) , transpiration rate ( e ) and therefore the instantaneous water use efficiency ( iwue ) mainly for 75 and 100 mm treatments [ table 1 ] . the largest decreases were shown at 100 mm nacl , leading to a values of 10 mol / m / s after 4 weeks of stress which was 50% lower than control plants . besides , our results demonstrate that gs decreased significantly more than a in all salt treatments and mainly when the lowest nacl concentrations were provided , which suggests a stomatal limitation of the photosynthetic capacity mainly after 4 weeks of treatments . after the same period , salinity has strongly increased na and reduced the k content in the sage leaves , with the 100 mm dose causing the largest effect . for instance , the leaf na contents increased by 140% and the k contents decreased by 32% in the 100 mm - treated plants relative to controls [ table 1 ] . ions contents , net photosynthesis ( a ) , stomatal conductance ( gs ) , transpiration rate ( e ) , and instantaneous water use efficiencies ( iwue = a / e ) in leaves of sage plants grown in a medium without nacl ( control ) , or containing increasing nacl concentrations ( 0 , 50 , 75 and 100 mm ) the gc - ms analyses of sage eos obtained by steam distillation of leaves allowed the identification of 31 compounds representing about 96% of the total eos [ table 2 ] . the oil contained different chemical classes such as monoterpenes ( 24% ) , sesquiterpenes ( 29% ) , diterpenes ( 19% ) , saturated fatty acids ( 23.6% ) , and alkanes ( 1.3% ) . the most abundant were viridiflorol ( 28.1% ) , manool ( 17.5% ) , camphor ( 13.4% ) , borneol ( 8.9% ) , and -thujone ( 3.4% ) . the analyses also revealed a relatively large fraction made of saturated fatty acids [ table 2 ] . the increased concentration of nacl in the soil medium changed the composition of sage eos but did not induce the synthesis of new oils . 1.8-cineole , -thujone and camphor increased considerably in the plants fed with 100 mm nacl ; lower salt concentrations had no effect . in contrast , borneol and viridiflorol levels were reduced by the 100 mm nacl treatment . leaf eos composition ( % of total ) in salvia officinalis l. after 4 weeks of culture on increasing nacl concentrations in common sage , ca and car are the major phenolic diterpenes in the leaves [ figure 2 ] . our results demonstrated that the ca content varied between 1.2 and 1.7 mg / g dw and car between 1.2 and 1.6 m / g dw in the leaves of control plants . we found that nacl in the soil medium did not affect significantly the oxidized diterpenes rosmanol ( ros ) and dimethyl isorosmanol ( dim ) as well as their total contents regardless of the duration of the treatment [ table 3 ] . whereas , the effect of salinity on ca , car , mca , iso , and the total reduced diterpene contents changed with time ( treatment x duration significant ) . after 2 weeks of treatment , nacl had only a limited effect on sage abietane diterpene content . however , after 3 weeks , plants fed with 75 mm or 100 mm nacl had considerably more ca , mca and reduced forms in their leaves than those fed with 0 mm or 50 mm nacl [ figure 2 ] . after 4 weeks , plants which received 75 mm or 100 mm nacl contained more ca , mca , and car than those irrigated with 50 mm . the reduced diterpenes content tended to decrease when plants were fed with 50 mm nacl and to increase for higher concentrations ( after 3 or 4 weeks ) . still , the levels of the oxidized compounds did not change significantly in the 50 and 75 mm - treated plants of the present study . higher salt concentrations enhanced ca , mca , and car biosynthesis [ figure 2 ] . summary of two - way anova of effects of growth medium nacl concentration and treatment duration as fixed independent variables effect of increasing soil nacl concentrations ( mm ) on foliar reduced diterpene concentrations ( mg / g dry weight ) ( a ) and contents ( mg per plant ) ( b ) in salvia officinalis l plants . ca : carnosic acid , car : carnosol , mca : methoxycarnosic acid ; red : total reduced diterpenes ( red = ca + car + mca ) . each concentration is the mean of 4 replicates standard deviation . in values marked by different small letters in all plant species , salinity leads to a reduction in plant biomass when it exceeds a certain threshold . according to maas and hoffman , a crop is considered moderately salt sensitive when 50% of the reduction in biomass occurred at 90 mm nacl , which is not the case for sage plant as revealed by our results . in fact , despite its trend for decreasing , for all nacl applied levels , at the treatment end , total leaf dry weight per plant was not significantly affected by soil salinity [ figure 1 ] . hence , the present study confirms that sage is a moderately salt - resistant glycophyte . the detrimental effects of nacl on plants are typically due to osmotic effects and/or ionic imbalances resulting from nutritional deficiency or excess ions . the abscission of the oldest leaves , and therefore the slight decrease of the total leaf dry weight ( either not statistically significant ) , has been considered an adaptive mechanism that prevents the accumulation of toxic ions ( na and cl ) and reduces water loss in salt - stressed plants . according to our results , the application of the 50 mm nacl in the soil did not affect noticeably the leaf wc either after 4 weeks of treatment , while at higher levels plants were unable to suitably hydrate their tissues which cause water stress . as a consequence , salinity has led to an early decrease in the assimilation rate ( a ) , stomatal conductance ( gs ) , and the transpiration rate ( e ) [ table 1 ] , as it was seen in several other species . still the largest decreases were shown for the higher nacl levels . such simultaneous decrease in gs and e has kept away the salt - stressed plants from an acute loss of the leaf cell turgor . to maintain leaf cell turgor , plants generally accumulate solutes from the soil ( na and cl ) . according to our results , after 4 weeks of treatment , the na increased by 140% and the k decreased by 32% in the 100 mm nacl - treated plants relative to controls , while the effects were more moderate in the 75 and 50 mm - treated plants . still , this increased uptake of na ( inclusion mechanism ) , combined with a limited production of new leaves , led to a build - up of na to toxic levels , which likely caused the leaf senescence and abscission . the response of sage to changes in its environment involves among others the regulation of the levels of its secondary metabolites including eos and phenolic diterpenes . the effect of salinity on isoprenoids biosynthesis is expected as it affects the photosynthetic assimilation ( a ) and , therefore , the glycolysis pathway from where their precursor , d - glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and pyruvate , were provided . it was already found that adding 100 mm nacl to the plant growing medium almost increased concentrations and contents of several abietane diterpenes in rosemary leaves . herein we test for the first time to our knowledge the effect of increasing nacl concentrations on the leaf abietanes diterpenes yield and composition in the sage plant . the gc - ms analyses of sage eos obtained by steam distillation of leaves allowed the identification of 31 compounds representing about 96% of the total eos [ table 2 ] . the most abundant oils were viridiflorol ( 28.1% ) , manool ( 17.5% ) , camphor ( 13.4% ) , borneol ( 8.9% ) , and -thujone ( 3.4% ) ; this composition is somewhat similar to that of eastern lithuanian sage ( i.e. 9.3 - 35.6% -thujone ; 6.9 - 29.1% camphor ; 6 - 24% viridiflorol ; 3.1 - 13.6% -humulene ; 3 - 13.3% manool ; 8.6 - 12.7% 1.8-cineole , and 2 - 5.5 % borneol ) . the relatively high levels of oxygenated compounds mainly thujones , 1.8-cineole and camphor confer to the sage eo its antiseptic , astringent , carminative , and antispasmodic values . still lesser concentrations of 1.8-cineole , camphor , and borneol were recorded herein as compared to our earlier studies , which may be due to seasonal variations , cultivar diversity or plant age . for example , the low camphor levels found in this study seems to be due at least to the fact that the bulk of the leaves used were mature . many studies showed that camphor is used in the recovery and recycling mechanisms for the carbon and energy accumulated during leaf development . this fraction was found in the extracts of many lamiaceae species mainly in the genus salvia [ 31 - 33 ] . as many other abiotic stresses , soil salinity can increase the synthesis of some secondary metabolites and encourage the formation of new compounds . in agreement with this , our results showed that increasing nacl in the soil medium changed the composition of sage eos , but did not induce the synthesis of new oils . for instance , 1.8-cineole , -thujone and camphor increased considerably in the plants fed with 100 mm nacl ; lower salt concentrations had no effect . in contrast , borneol and viridiflorol levels were reduced by the 100 mm nacl treatment . similarly , hendawy et al . reported that sage plants fed with nacl ( 2500 ppm ) in combination with different zinc concentrations had higher -thujone , camphor and 1.8-cineole concentrations , less viridiflorol , and no manool . in the same way , aziz et al . have reported that increasing nacl up to 4.7 ds / mimproved the -thujone , cis - thujone and camphor contents . they also found that 1.8-cineole decreased and viridiflorol increased which is different to our results . the lower nacl level they used could explain these differences since the percentage of some eo compounds are dependent on the medium salinity among others . besides , the effects of nacl on the eo composition vary between species . for example the 50 mm nacl applied during 3 weeks , increased 1.8-cineole , borneol and camphor in coriander leaves ; while higher concentrations decreased these monoterpenes , which is not the case for sage as shown by the present results . the 1.8-cineole and camphor were also stimulated in two ocimum varieties subject to an excess of water ( 125% of field capacity ) or to a water deficit ( 75 and 50% of field capacity ) . nacl appears to affect the activity of key enzymes in the biosynthesis pathways of eos which concentrations are altered by salinity . , good quality sage oil should contain a high percentage ( > 50% ) of the epimeric - and -thujones and a low percentage ( < 20% ) of camphor . still more recent studies have stated that the biological properties of the sage s eo are attributed mainly to - and -thujone , camphor , and 1.8-cineole . it appeared , therefore , that the soil salinity has beneficial effects on the sage s eo quality . in common sage , ca and car are the major phenolic diterpenes in the leaves [ figure 2 ] . dried sage leaves can contain up to 3% ca , depending on the plant variety , the growth conditions , the sample treatment and the method of preparing the extract . according to our results , the ca content varied between 1.2 and 1.7 mg / g dw and car between 1.2 and 1.6 mg / g dw in the leaves of control plants . still our result agreed that environmental constraints produce substantial differences in flavonoid and phenolic acids and esters within plants particularly members of the lamiaceae family . we found that nacl in the soil medium did not affect significantly the oxidized diterpenes ros and dim as well as their total contents regardless of the duration of the treatment [ table 3 ] . whereas , the effect of salinity on ca , car , mca , iso , and the total reduced diterpene contents changed with time ( treatment duration significant ) [ table 3 ] . after 2 weeks of treatment , nacl had only a limited effect on sage diterpene content . however , after 3 weeks , plants fed with 75 or 100 mm nacl had considerably more ca , mca , and reduced forms in their leaves than those fed with 0 or 50 mm nacl [ figure 2 ] . after 4 weeks , plants which received 75 or 100 mm nacl contained more ca , mca , and car than those irrigated with 50 mm . the latter had similar ca , but lower mca and car content than control plants . therefore , the nacl - induced changes in leaf ca , mca , and the total reduced diterpene composition depended more on stress intensity ( concentration of salt in the irrigation solution ) ; but , variability in car content is better explained by treatment duration . still most isoprenoids and phenolic diterpenes are induced to protect plant cells from drought , salt , heat stress or mechanical wounding . the tendency of the reduced diterpenes content to decrease when plants were fed with 50 mm nacl and to increase for higher concentrations ( after 3 - 4 weeks ) , suggests that the plants reacted differently to these two ranges of salinity . it appears that the 50 mm nacl treatment induced only a mild osmotic stress , which caused the degradation ( oxidation ) of the normally occurring pools of reduced diterpenes . still , the levels of the oxidized compounds did not change significantly in the 50 and 75 mm - treated plants of the present study , thus further supporting the view that plants can withstand photooxidative stress at these salinity levels . whereas , higher salt concentrations , led to a more acute stress ( oxidative or na or cl toxicity ) to which plants responded with enhanced ca , mca and car biosynthesis [ figure 2 ] . in the latter situation , this appears especially true for the 100 mm nacl - treated plants whose leaves had high concentrations of oxidized diterpenes basically at the 14 week [ figure 3 ] . it is already known that ca may give rise to car after enzymatic dehydrogenation or to highly oxidized diterpenes such as ros or iso after enzymatic dehydrogenation and free radical attack . thus , ca may function as a cascading antioxidant , in which oxidation products are further oxidized , thus improving antioxidative protection by ca . another indication that the 100 mm - treated plants faced different type of stress compared to the lower - treated plants is the decrease of the leaf wc especially on the 14 week [ figure 1 ] meaning that their ability for osmotic adjustment decreased . furthermore , our results demonstrate that the gs decreased significantly more than a in all salt treatments and mainly at 50 mm nacl , which suggests a stomatal limitation of the photosynthetic capacity ( restriction of co2 availability for carboxylation ) . however , at higher concentrations mainly at 100 mm nacl and apart from a stomatal limitation of photosynthesis , the plants suffered from a reduction in the iwue and more acute stress , which could harm the photosynthetic apparatus . these findings are in agreement with previous results that found that the increase in salinity levels decreased iwue in tomato plants . under these conditions , the formation of reactive oxygen species can occur , which possibly leads to photoinhibition and/or photo - oxidative impairment . besides , the effect of 50 mm nacl on ca , mca , and car resembles that of drought- or high light - induced oxidative stress conditions , which reduced their concentrations in rosemary leaves . effect of increasing soil nacl concentrations ( mm ) on foliar oxidized diterpene concentrations ( mg / g dry weight ) ( a ) and contents ( mg per plant ) ( b ) in salvia officinalis l plants . ros : rosmanol , iso : isorosmanol , dim : dimethyl isorosmanol , ox : total oxidized diterpenes ( ox = ros + iso + dim ) . each concentration is the mean of 4 replicates standard deviation . in values marked by different small letters in conclusion , nacl in the soil medium affected eos composition of common sage leaves by stimulating biosynthesis pathways of several monoterpene families such as p - menthane ( 1.8-cineole ) and bornane ( camphor ) . the increased concentration of 1.8-cineole under nacl stress should enhance the commercial value of sage eos since 1.8-cineole and thujone are the main parameters of sage oil quality . in addition , nacl decreased borneol and the sesquiterpene viridiflorol . still , our study provides ways to manipulate the concentration of phenolic diterpenes in sage leaves . we have shown that sage plant subjected to increasing nacl concentrations ( > 50 mm ) in the medium had higher ca and mca content , but slightly lower total leaf dry mass compared to non - treated plants . therefore , it may be possible to obtain higher yields of antioxidants , such as ca , from plants grown with saline water . it may be feasible to increase the commercial value of sage leaf extracts by manipulating the concentration of phenolic diterpenes and eos . nevertheless , larger scale field studies are needed to ascertain the potentially beneficial effects of nacl on phenolic diterpene and eos concentration against the potential loss in plant biomass production and soil fertility in the long run .	aim : the purpose of this study was to evaluate how increasing nacl salinity in the medium can affects the essential oils ( eos ) composition and phenolic diterpene content and yield in leaves of salvia officinalis l. the protective role of such compounds against nacl stress was also argued with regard to some physiological characteristics of the plant ( water and ionic relations as well as the leaf gas exchanges).materials and methods : potted plants were exposed to increasing nacl concentrations ( 0 , 50 , 75 , and 100 mm ) for 4 weeks during july 2012 . replicates from each treatment were harvested after 0 , 2 , 3 , and 4 weeks of adding salt to perform physiological measurements and biochemical analysis.results:sage eos were rich in manool , viridiflorol , camphor , and borneol . irrigation with a solution containing 100 mm nacl for 4 weeks increased considerably 1.8-cineole , camphor and -thujone concentrations , whereas lower concentrations ( 50 and 75 mm ) had no effects . on the contrary , borneol and viridiflorol concentrations decreased significantly under the former treatment while manool and total fatty acid concentrations were not affected . leaf extracts also contained several diterpenes such as carnosic acid ( ca ) , carnosol , and 12-o - methoxy carnosic acid ( mca ) . the concentrations and total contents of ca and mca increased after 3 weeks of irrigation with 75 or 100 mm nacl . the 50 mm nacl had no effect on these diterpenes . our results suggest a protective role for ca against salinity stress.conclusion:this study may provide ways to manipulate the concentration and yield of some phenolic diterpenes and eos in sage . in fact , soil salinity may favor a directional production of particular components of interest .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Coastal Ocean Observation System Integration and Implementation Act of 2005''. SEC. 2. PURPOSES. The purposes of this Act are the following: (1) To gain a better understanding of the marine environment and marine processes important to coastal and fishery management, marine operations, environmental prediction, and other appropriate activities. (2) To authorize the establishment of an observation system to collect data on environmental variables in coastal ocean waters of the United States to meet regional and national information requirements and support an integrated national ocean observing system. (3) To more effectively predict and mitigate impacts of natural hazards such as tsunamis, hurricanes, coastal erosion, and fluctuating water levels in the Great Lakes, and conserve healthy and restore degraded coastal ecosystems. (4) To enable the sustainable use of ocean and coastal resources. (5) To ensure that a broad-based multisector constituency is included in the development of the System, including local, State, tribal, and Federal agencies, private companies, nongovernmental organizations, and academic institutions. SEC. 3. DEFINITIONS. In this Act: (1) Administration.--The term ``Administration'' means the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2) Coastal waters of the united states.--The term ``coastal waters of the United States'' means waters of coastal and estuarine areas of United States, waters of the Great Lakes and the exclusive economic zone of the United States, including bays, lagoons, fjords, tidal wetlands, and other semienclosed bodies of water that are connected to ocean waters. (3) Council.--The term ``Council'' means the National Ocean Research Leadership Council. (4) Panel.--The term ``Panel'' means the Ocean and Research Advisory Panel. (5) Secretary.--The term ``Secretary'' means the Secretary of Commerce, acting through the Administration. (6) System.--The term ``System'' means the Coastal Ocean Observation System established by the Secretary under section 4. SEC. 4. ESTABLISHMENT OF COASTAL OCEAN OBSERVATION SYSTEM. (a) Requirement.--The Secretary, in consultation with the Council, shall establish within the Administration a Coastal Ocean Observation System to support coastal and fishery management activities and an integrated national ocean observation system. (b) Components and Functions.--The System shall-- (1) consist of components of the Administration and other Federal agencies and non-Federal entities designated as units under section 5; (2) transmit such data to users including, as appropriate, in real time or near real time; (3) produce forecasts and other appropriate products representing ocean conditions and processes; and (4) manage the collected data in accordance with best practices for archiving and future use. SEC. 5. DESIGNATION OF UNITS AND STANDARDS. (a) In General.--The Secretary may, in consultation with the Council, designate as a unit of the System to carry out the purposes of this Act any Federal agency or non-Federal entity that operates marine sensors and other devices that collect remotely sensed and in situ observation data in the ocean and coastal waters of the United States in a routine manner, including continuous observations. (b) Criteria for Designation.--The Secretary may not designate an agency or other entity as a unit of the System unless the Secretary certifies, in consultation with the Council, that the entity has adequate technical expertise to operate and sustain the technology in the unit, and collect and distribute data in accordance with standards and protocols established under subsection (c). (c) Data Standards, Protocols, and Systems.--The Secretary shall-- (1) establish, in consultation with the Council and the Panel, standards, and protocols for the collection, availability, and distribution by units of the System of data regarding coastal waters of the United States; and (2) establish management, quality control, and assessment systems for such data collection, availability, and distribution. SEC. 6. COORDINATION AND ACTIVITIES OF THE SYSTEM. (a) In General.--The Secretary shall, in consultation with the Council, coordinate those observation activities of units of the System that are conducted with respect to the coastal waters of the United States, as necessary to collect data to carry out the purposes of this Act. (b) Included Activities.--The Secretary shall, in consultation with the Council, ensure that-- (1) data collection activities of the System include all of the relevant coastal ocean observations necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act; and (2) data collected through the System is useful for developing forecast models to support coastal and fishery management, safe and efficient marine navigation, weather and climate prediction, and other appropriate activities. (c) Prevention Competition With Private Sector and Duplication of Effort.--The Secretary shall ensure that data collection activities conducted through the System-- (1) do not compete with private sector activities; and (2) minimize duplication of effort. SEC. 7. CIVIL LIABILITY. For purposes of determining civil liability under section 2671 of title 28, United States Code, any unit of the System that is designated by the Secretary under section 5, and any employee thereof, shall be treated as an instrumentality of the United States with respect to any act or omission committed by any such unit or employee in fulfilling the purposes of this Act. SEC. 8. DATA AVAILABILITY AND PRODUCTS. The Secretary shall-- (1) work with the Panel and user groups to ensure the development of viable end-use products of the System to support coastal and fishery management activities and other appropriate activities; (2) in consultation with the Council, develop a data management and communication system by which all data collected by the System regarding coastal waters of the United States are integrated and available; and (3) in conjunction with Federal, State, and local agencies, and academic institutions, use data collected by the System to develop forecast models to support and improve coastal and fishery management, safe and efficient marine navigation, weather and climate prediction, and other appropriate activities. SEC. 9. PILOT PROJECTS. (a) Requirement.--The Secretary, in consultation with the Council, shall carry out pilot projects to determine the effectiveness of collecting and integrating coastal ocean observation data to support the Coastal Ocean Observation System established under this Act. (b) Included Projects.--The pilot projects shall-- (1) test the integration of data among multiple Federal agencies and non-Federal entities that operate marine sensors and other devices to collect or use coastal ocean observation data; (2) produce operational applications relevant to the purposes of this Act; (3) demonstrate potential economic and societal benefits of the System; and (4) advance research and development of useful technologies and applications. SEC. 10. PROCESS FOR TRANSITION FROM RESEARCH TO OPERATION. The Secretary, in consultation with the Council, shall formulate a process by which-- (1) funding is made available for research on new technologies for collecting data regarding coastal waters of the United States; (2) such technologies are tested in pilot projects, including-- (A) accelerated research into biological and chemical sensing techniques and satellite sensors for collecting such data; and (B) developing technologies to improve all aspects of the System, especially the timeliness and accuracy of its predictive models and the usefulness of its information products; and (3) technology that has been demonstrated to be useful for the System is incorporated into use by the System. SEC. 11. CONTRACTS AND GRANTS. The Secretary may enter into contracts or cooperative agreements with, or make grants to, units of the System to carry out observation activities with respect to coastal waters of the United States. SEC. 12. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN. Not later than 12 months after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall submit to the Congress and the Council a plan for implementation of this Act, including for-- (1) coordinating activities of the Secretary under this Act with other Federal agencies; and (2) distributing, to units of the System, funds available to carry out this Act. SEC. 13. REPORT TO CONGRESS. (a) Requirement.--Not later than two years after the date of the enactment of this Act and every two years thereafter, the Secretary shall transmit to the Congress a report on progress made in implementing this Act. (b) Contents.--The report shall include the following: (1) A description of activities carried out under this Act. (2) An evaluation of the effectiveness of the System. (3) Benefits of the System to users of data products resulting from the System (including the general public, industry, scientists, resource managers, emergency responders, policy makers, and educators). (4) Recommendations concerning-- (A) modifications to the System; and (B) funding levels for the System in subsequent fiscal years. SEC. 14. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. To carry out this Act there are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary-- (1) $25,000,000 for fiscal year 2005; (2) $30,000,000 for fiscal year 2006; (3) $35,000,000 for fiscal year 2007; and (4) $40,000,000 for fiscal year 2008.	Coastal Ocean Observation System Integration and Implementation Act of 2005 - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to establish within the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) a Coastal Ocean Observation System (System) to support coastal and fishery management activities and an integrated national ocean observation system. Authorizes the Secretary to: (1) designate as a unit of the System any Federal agency or non-Federal entity that operates marine sensors that collect observation data in U.S. ocean and coastal waters; and (2) coordinate such units' activities. Requires the Secretary to develop: (1) viable end-use products of the System to support coastal and fishery management activities; (2) a data management and communication system by which all System collected data regarding U.S. coastal waters are integrated and available; and (3) forecast models using collected data to support and improve coastal and fishery management, safe and efficient marine navigation, weather and climate prediction, and other appropriate activities. Requires the Secretary to carry out pilot projects to determine the effectiveness of collecting and integrating coastal ocean observation data to support the System.
General McMaster forgot to say that the results of the 2016 election were not impacted or changed by the Russians and that the only Collusion was between Russia and Crooked H, the DNC and the Dems. Remember the Dirty Dossier, Uranium, Speeches, Emails and the Podesta Company! \|\|\|\|\| Washington (CNN) With tensions flaring between President Donald Trump and national security adviser Lt. Gen. H.R. McMaster, the Pentagon is considering options that would allow the President to potentially move the three-star general out of his current role and back into the military, according to half a dozen defense and administration officials. A search is quietly being conducted by the Pentagon to see if there is a four-star military job suited for McMaster, these officials said. Several sources told CNN that the push for a replacement comes after months of personal tension between McMaster and Trump. The task of easing McMaster out of his role as national security adviser presents a unique challenge for the White House. While administration officials have privately said the preference is to move McMaster into a position within the Army or Defense Department that qualifies as a promotion, some within the Pentagon feel he has become politicized in the White House and have expressed reservations about him returning to the military in a prominent role. Some defense officials caution that the President could also go as far as not to offer him a fourth star and force him to retire. This is not the first time McMaster has faced speculation that his job may be in jeopardy and sources with knowledge of McMaster's standing in the White House have repeatedly said that he has been on thin ice for months. There was discussion in the West Wing about replacing him last fall, but he ultimately survived because officials, including the President himself, were skeptical about the optics of appointing a third national security adviser in less than a year, several sources told CNN. Trump's first national security adviser, Michael Flynn, resigned amid controversy over his contact with Russian officials within a month of taking the job. The decision was also driven by the White House's challenge attracting top talent for jobs in the administration due to Trump's "blacklist" of individuals who have criticized the President, his personality and the Russia investigation, according to a senior Republican source. However, those familiar with the President's thinking don't believe McMaster's job is any safer now. "He is safe until he's not," the senior Republican with knowledge of the White House added. On Thursday, the Pentagon referred all questions about McMaster's future to the White House. "General McMaster works for President Trump. Any decision with regards to staff, the White House will make those determinations," chief spokesperson Dana White said. The White House did not respond to CNN's request for comment. White House press secretary Sarah Sanders said Tuesday that Trump "still has confidence in General McMaster." Tension with Trump Tensions between Trump and McMaster have been playing out for months and were on full display this weekend after Trump publicly chided him over remarks he made regarding Russian interference in the election. "General McMaster forgot to say that the results of the 2016 election were not impacted or changed by the Russians and that the only Collusion was between Russia and Crooked H, the DNC and the Dems," Trump tweeted. "Remember the Dirty Dossier, Uranium, Speeches, Emails and the Podesta Company!" The criticism laid bare the strained relationship between the two men and left some wondering how much longer McMaster has left in the administration. For months, Trump has privately expressed irritation with McMaster stemming from differences in "personality and style," the senior Republican source said. The two have never gotten along, and Trump continues to chafe at McMaster's demeanor when he briefs him, feeling that he is gruff and condescending, according to a source who is familiar with his thinking. He prefers the briefing style of someone like CIA Director Mike Pompeo or Defense Secretary James Mattis, who patiently answer his questions, regardless of the premise. McMaster, meanwhile, is the person who delivers the news that Trump doesn't want to hear on a daily basis, according to the senior Republican source. The issue is not political but mostly stylistic, as McMaster and Mattis tend to discuss information before it is presented to the President, the same source added. CNN previously reported that McMaster has been at odds with the President and other cabinet officials over the last year. He has also been undercut by others in Trump's orbit like former chief strategist Steve Bannon, according to congressional and administration officials. A source familiar with the situation said Trump's perception of McMaster is still influenced by the legacy of Bannon who maintained a tense relationship with McMaster after McMaster removed him from the National Security Council. "He paid McMaster back by spreading rumors and whispering in Trump's ear," the senior Republican source said, adding that "Bannon poisoned the well." What's next for McMaster? Officials could not yet confirm what job McMaster might be nominated for if he were to leave the White House. The current commander of US forces in South Korea, General Vincent Brooks, is expected to leave his post on a scheduled rotation in the coming months but his successor has already been earmarked within the Army but not yet made public, several officials said. Another possible option would be to name McMaster as the replacement for Gen. John Nicholson who has served as commander of the coalition in Afghanistan since 2016. Some officials have told CNN that the Pentagon may be looking to identify a slot that is not too high profile, because McMaster would be transitioning back to the military from a White House position akin to a political appointee. If moved back into a military role that involves testifying before Congress, McMaster might be viewed as simply supporting the White House rather than providing lawmakers with his best military advice, one defense official said. Lawmakers on the Senate Armed Services Committee would likely have questions about McMaster's time in the White House should he be nominated for a military role but an aide to one senior Republican member told CNN that there do not appear to be any obvious red flags at the outset that would inherently prevent his confirmation. A second defense official said McMaster is well aware of those political sensitivities. However, one top Pentagon official said McMaster's role in the administration should not prevent him from earning his fourth star, comparing his transition to other military officers like Colin Powell who have gone back and forth between the Pentagon and the White House. McMaster would also have the option of retiring from active duty at any time if he chose to do so. But officials told CNN that the White House's wish is to find McMaster a four-star job that is seen as acknowledging his service. \|\|\|\|\| National security adviser H.R. McMaster could be the next member of the Trump administration to exit the White House after weeks of tensions with the president, CNN reported Thursday. A handful of defense and administration officials told the network that a search is being conducted at the Pentagon for an appropriate military position for McMaster, allowing the three-star general to return to the Defense Department. ADVERTISEMENT The officials told CNN that the White House and Defense Department are specifically looking for a position that would recognize McMaster's service and allow him to receive his fourth star. But some defense officials cautioned that McMaster's proximity to Trump has politicized his public image, which could force him into an early retirement rather than a Pentagon position. McMaster shot down rumors in January that he was considering leaving the White House, calling it "a tremendous honor to do this job every day.” “I have a job and it is my intention to go as long and hard as I can in service of the president and the nation," McMaster told reporters last month. The three-star general joined the White House last year, replacing Michael Flynn as national security adviser and making changes to the Trump national security team that alienated close Trump allies such as former chief strategist Stephen Bannon. According to reports, McMaster's tendency to subtly correct his boss during meetings has led to confrontations between Trump and his aide. The White House did not respond to CNN's request for comment for the story, but on Tuesday White House press secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders said Trump "still has confidence in Gen. McMaster."	– Could HR McMaster be the next figure to leave the White House? It's possible, according to CNN, reporting on "months of personal tension" between the national security adviser and President Trump. Six defense and administration officials tell the network the strained relationship is enough that the Pentagon is looking at moving the three-star general back into a military role, perhaps with a promotion to four-star general. Some say Trump might force McMaster to retire. One source says Trump feels he's "condescending," though White House press secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders said Tuesday that Trump "still has confidence" in the general. Days earlier, however, the president appeared to upbraid McMaster in a tweet referencing comments he made about Russian interference in the election. McMaster "forgot to say that the results of the 2016 election were not impacted or changed by the Russians and that the only Collusion was between Russia and Crooked H, the DNC, and the Dems," Trump said. McMaster told reporters last month he planned "to go as long and hard as I can in service of the president," per the Hill. Though far from certain, his exit from the White House would require the appointment of a third national security adviser in a little over a year. McMaster previously replaced Michael Flynn.
it is often useful to understand when a given set of resources is sufficient to perform universal computation . in particular , universal hamiltonians have many applications in quantum computation . suppose we can implement one specific 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath3 , where @xmath4 denotes the set of all @xmath5 hermitian matrices . assume we have @xmath1 qubits and we can apply @xmath0 to any ordered pair of them for any amount of time . we say that @xmath0 is n - universal if it is possible to approximate any unitary evolution @xmath6 to any desired accuracy by repeatedly applying @xmath0 to different pairs of qubits . it is known that almost any 2-qubit hamiltonian is universal @xcite , i.e. , non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians form a measure - zero subset of @xmath4 . thus generic interactions are suitable for universal computation . but this does not address the issue of deciding whether a particular hamiltonian is universal . given a specific @xmath3 , one can check numerically if @xmath0 is n - universal by determining whether @xmath0 , when applied on different pairs of qubits , generates the lie algebra of @xmath7 ( see section [ sec : provinguniversality ] ) . however , this characterization can be inconvenient for answering structural questions about universality . for example , suppose we can experimentally implement hamiltonians of a certain restricted form , say , @xmath8 for some @xmath9 . determining which of these hamiltonians are universal is not straightforward using the lie - algebraic characterization . indeed , until now there has been no simple characterization of the set of non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians . in this paper we characterize the set of all 2-non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians . in particular , our characterization easily answers questions such as those described above . we give a finite list of families of 2-non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians such that each family can be easily parametrized and together they cover all 2-non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians . the remainder of the paper is organized as follows . section [ sec : universality ] introduces the concept of universality . we give our definition of universality , contrast this definition with some alternatives , review previous related work , and present a lie - algebraic formulation . section [ sec:2universal ] then establishes our main result . we start from some simple families of hamiltonians that are obviously 2-non - universal , extend them with a class of operations that preserve this property , and then show that the extended families exactly characterize 2-universality . section [ sec:3universal ] briefly summarizes what we know about 3-universality . finally , we conclude in section [ sec : conclusion ] with a discussion of some open problems . we begin with some basic definitions needed to precisely specify the problem addressed by this paper . we say that @xmath0 is an _ n - qubit hamiltonian _ if @xmath10 , i.e. , @xmath11 ( @xmath12 denotes the set of @xmath13 complex matrices ) and @xmath0 is hermitian ( @xmath14 ) . in this paper we mainly deal with 2-qubit hamiltonians , i.e. , @xmath15 hermitian matrices . we often say `` a hamiltonian @xmath0 '' without explicitly mentioning that it is a 2-qubit hamiltonian . [ def : simulate ] we say that we can _ simulate _ a unitary transformation @xmath16 using hamiltonians @xmath17 if for all @xmath18 there exist @xmath19 , @xmath20 , and @xmath21 such that @xmath22 definition [ def : simulate ] only allows the use of @xmath23 for simulating a unitary @xmath24 by hamiltonians @xmath25 , since @xmath23 corresponds to the length of time the system evolves according to @xmath26 . however , this restriction can be relaxed to @xmath27 . this is because an evolution by negative time can be approximated by evolving our system according to @xmath0 for some positive time instead ( see claim [ cl : negativetime ] in appendix [ app : negativetime ] for a proof ) . we only require the ability to _ approximate _ any unitary to arbitrary precision . such a definition is motivated by related universality problems based on discrete universal gate sets to be discussed below . we are not concerned about the time it takes to complete the simulation as long as we can simulate any unitary . also , we do not assume the availability of ancillary systems . [ def : universal ] let @xmath28 . we say that an m - qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 is _ n - universal _ if we can simulate all unitary transformations in @xmath7 using hamiltonians from the set @xmath29 where @xmath30 is the group of matrices that permute @xmath1 qubits . that is , we can apply @xmath0 to any ordered subset of @xmath31 qubits ( out of @xmath1 qubits in total ) . the main goal of this paper is to characterize the set of 2-universal 2-qubit hamiltonians . one motivation for this is that any 2-universal 2-qubit hamiltonian is also n - universal for all integers @xmath32 ( see lemma [ lem : universal ] in section [ sec : provinguniversality ] ) . note that a 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 is 2-universal if we can simulate all unitary transformations in @xmath33 using @xmath0 and @xmath34 , where @xmath35 is the gate that swaps the two qubits , with the following representation in the computational ( i.e. , standard ) basis : @xmath36 to achieve our goal , we classify those 2-qubit hamiltonians that are _ not _ 2-universal . universal primitives for quantum computation , such as hamiltonians and unitary gates , have been extensively studied previously ; see for example refs . since the primitives are often physically motivated , there are different definitions of universality appropriate for different circumstances . first , one can study the universality of a set of quantum gates ( instead of hamiltonians ) . second , one can study universality assuming ancillary qubits can be prepared and used to facilitate the computation . in particular , one might consider the following definitions of universality with ancillae : [ def : reversibleuniversalancilla ] for all @xmath37 let @xmath38 be the set of all functions from @xmath1-bit strings to @xmath39-bit strings . we say that a set of logical gates @xmath40 is _ classically universal with ancillae _ if for all @xmath37 and all @xmath41 there exist @xmath42 and a logical circuit @xmath43 containing gates exclusively from @xmath40 that simulates @xmath44 using ancillae , i.e. , there exists @xmath45 such that for all @xmath46 we have @xmath47 . [ def : universalancilla ] we say that a set of unitary gates @xmath48 is _ ( quantumly ) universal with ancillae _ if for all @xmath49 , all @xmath18 , and all @xmath50 , there exist @xmath42 and a quantum circuit @xmath51 containing gates exclusively from @xmath48 that approximates @xmath24 with precision @xmath52 using ancillae , i.e. , there exists @xmath45 such that for all @xmath53 we have @xmath54 . note that in the above definitions we assume the ability to prepare standard basis states . we allow initializing the ancillary bits to arbitrary standard basis states ( as opposed to only @xmath55 ) since some of the gates considered below ( e.g. , the toffoli gate and deutsch s gate ) need ancillary bits prepared in basis states other than @xmath55 to achieve universality . however , other reasonable definitions of universality with ancillae are possible . ( for example , the ancillary state need not be preserved in definitions [ def : reversibleuniversalancilla ] and [ def : universalancilla ] . ) in the classical case we can implement any logical gate exactly using elements of a universal gate set . in contrast , in the quantum case we only require the ability to _ approximate _ any unitary to arbitrary precision . this definition is motivated by the need to use discrete universal gate sets to perform fault - tolerant quantum computing @xcite ; such sets can not implement a continuum of operations exactly . it is well known that the gate set @xmath56 is classically universal with ancillae . deutsch @xcite showed that any gate from a certain family of 3-qubit unitary gates is quantumly universal with ancillae . divincenzo @xcite suggested that it might be difficult to implement deutsch s unitary gates as it is hard to build a mechanical device that brings three spins together . to obviate this , he devised a set of four 2-qubit unitary gates that is quantumly universal with ancillae . barenco @xcite improved divincenzo s result by showing that a _ single _ 2-qubit unitary gate @xmath57 is universal with ancillae , where @xmath58 and @xmath59 , @xmath60 , and @xmath61 are irrational multiples of @xmath62 and of each other . sets of unitary gates have also been found that can approximate any unitary transformation _ without _ the use of ancillary qubits . it is well known @xcite that the controlled - not gate together with all 1-qubit gates form a universal gate set . furthermore , several different finite sets of universal 2-qubit quantum gates are known @xcite . in 1995 , deutsch , barenco , and ekert @xcite and lloyd @xcite independently showed that almost any 2-qubit gate can be used to approximate all 2-qubit unitary evolutions . in other words , the set of non - universal unitary gates forms a measure - zero subset of the group @xmath33 . notably , in order to achieve universality , ancillary qubits are not required . the approaches used in @xcite and @xcite are similar in many respects and build upon the lie - algebraic approach of divincenzo @xcite . neither approach is constructive and both analyses revolve around the lie algebra generated by @xmath0 and @xmath34 , where @xmath0 is a hamiltonian corresponding to a generic unitary and @xmath35 is the gate exchanging the two qubits ( recall equation ( [ eq : t1 ] ) ) . the proof in ref . @xcite omits some details ( some of which were later filled in by weaver @xcite ) , whereas ref . @xcite provides a more complete proof . our work builds upon some of the techniques described in ref . unfortunately , the arguments of that paper have some shortcomings : 1 . the goal of @xcite is to establish the universality of a generic unitary @xmath63 . the argument begins by replacing @xmath24 with a `` hamiltonian @xmath0 generating @xmath24 , '' defined as a solution to @xmath64 . however , there can be different solutions generating different lie algebras . as a simple example , both @xmath65 generate @xmath66 , while only @xmath67 can be used to approximate some non - identity evolutions . thus one should give either a prescription for the choice of the generating hamiltonian or a proof that different choices generically have the same power , but neither was provided in @xcite . 2 . the argument makes use of the fact that any gate @xmath68 given by ( [ eq : barenco ] ) is universal . however , such gates are only universal _ with ancillae _ ( because @xmath69 is a fixed - point of both @xmath68 and @xmath70 , so composing them can not approximate any @xmath63 that does not fix @xmath69 ) , yet the final result claims universality without the need for ancillae . 3 . the argument proceeds by considering a hamiltonian @xmath71 that generates the gate @xmath68 . the authors claim that @xmath71 is universal due to the linear independence of the following 16 nested commutators of @xmath71 and @xmath72 : @xmath73,\quad j\in{\left\{3,\dotsc,14\right\}},\\ h_{15 } & { \colonequals}i[h_2,h_3],\\ h_{16 } & { \colonequals}i[h_2,h_5 ] , \end{aligned } \label{eq : scheme}\ ] ] + however , as in item 1 , the claim may or may not hold depending on the choice of the hamiltonian @xmath71 generating @xmath68 . in fact , the most natural choice , @xmath74 does not generate @xmath4 since the entire lie algebra fixes @xmath69 . however , there are other choices of @xmath71 for which @xmath75 are linearly independent . for example , if one chooses @xmath71 to act diagonally in a random basis on the degenerate @xmath76-eigenspace of @xmath68 , with eigenvalues @xmath77 and @xmath78 , then @xmath75 are found to be linearly independent in a numerical experiment . + for any explicit hamiltonian @xmath0 , it is simple to generate the @xmath79 matrices according to ( [ eq : scheme ] ) and their linear dependence is easily checked . if these @xmath79 matrices are linearly independent , then we say that ( [ eq : scheme ] ) certifies the universality of @xmath0 . 4 . to show that almost any unitary gate is universal , non - universal gates are argued to lie in a submanifold of @xmath33 of at most 15 dimensions . the argument begins by considering a one - parameter family of hamiltonians @xmath80 where @xmath81 , @xmath0 is arbitrary , and @xmath82 is a fixed hamiltonian whose universality is certified by ( [ eq : scheme ] ) . then , unless @xmath39 is a root of a certain polynomial of finite degree , ( [ eq : scheme ] ) also certifies the universality of @xmath83 . this argument is claimed to extend to a 16-dimensional neighborhood of @xmath0 ( which could be parametrized as @xmath84 ) . however , the explicit analysis of the relevant multivariate polynomial is omitted . furthermore , the argument requires that ( [ eq : scheme ] ) certifies the universality of each of @xmath85 , but this is not demonstrated , and it is unclear to us whether it actually holds for some choice of @xmath71 . reference @xcite also conjectures that a 2-qubit unitary gate is non - universal if and only if it 1 . [ item : permute ] permutes states of some orthonormal basis or 2 . [ item : local ] is a tensor product of single - qubit unitary gates . we note that a unitary gate @xmath24 satisfying item [ item : permute ] need not be non - universal , because @xmath24 and @xmath86 may not permute the same basis . we presume that the authors of @xcite intended to require that _ both _ @xmath24 and @xmath86 permute states of the same orthonormal basis . in theorem [ thm:2nonuniversal ] of this paper , we disprove the above conjecture and give a complete characterization of the set of non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians , thereby resolving a variant of the above question . the first step in our quest for a simple closed - form characterization of universal hamiltonians is a characterization of universality in terms of lie algebras , just as in @xcite . [ def : liealgebra ] we write @xmath87 to denote the _ lie algebra generated by hamiltonians @xmath88_. it is defined inductively by the following three rules : 1 . @xmath89 , 2 . if @xmath90 then @xmath91 for all @xmath9 , and 3 . if @xmath90 then @xmath92 { \colonequals}i(ab - ba ) \in { \ensuremath{{\mathcal{l}}\left(h_1,\dotsc , h_k\right)}}$ ] . the set of evolutions that can be simulated using a set of hamiltonians is given by the following lemma : [ lem : lie ] assume that we can evolve according to hamiltonians @xmath93 for any desired amount of time . then we can simulate the unitary @xmath24 if and only if @xmath94 where `` @xmath95 '' denotes the closure of a set .. we can use @xmath0 to simulate any diagonal @xmath96 unitary but there are diagonal unitary matrices such as @xmath97 that are not of the form @xmath98 for @xmath99 . ] one can easily prove the above lemma using the lie product formula , the analogous formula for @xmath100}$ ] , and the campbell - baker - hausdorff formula @xcite . now we can obtain a simpler and more practical sufficient condition for @xmath1-universality than the original one from definition [ def : universal ] . [ cor : universallie ] let @xmath101 . then an m - qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 is n - universal if @xmath102 where @xmath30 is the group of matrices that permute @xmath1 qubits and @xmath103 is the set of all @xmath104 hermitian matrices . in particular , a 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 is 2-universal if @xmath105 , where @xmath4 is the set of all @xmath106 hermitian matrices . now we proceed to show that if a hamiltonian @xmath0 is n - universal then it is also n-universal for all @xmath107 . note that this is not completely trivial , since the added qubits are not ancillary , i.e. , we have to be able to simulate any unitary on _ all _ of the qubits . [ lem : universal ] if a hamiltonian @xmath0 is n - universal for some @xmath108 , then it is also n-universal for all @xmath109 . in particular , a 2-universal 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 is also n - universal for all integers @xmath32 . since @xmath0 is n - universal for some @xmath108 , it can be used to simulate all unitary transformations in @xmath110 that act non - trivially on no more than two qubits . but any unitary gate on @xmath111 qubits can be decomposed into gates that act only on one or two qubits without the need for ancillae @xcite , so @xmath0 is n-universal . in this section we classify the set of 2-qubit hamiltonians that are _ not _ 2-universal . since we only consider 2-universality , we simply say that a hamiltonian is universal ( instead of `` 2-universal '' ) or ( instead of `` not 2-universal '' ) for the remainder of this section . our analysis relies on an equivalence relation that partitions the set of all 2-qubit hamiltonians into equivalence classes , each containing only universal or non - universal hamiltonians ( but not both ) . first we identify three families of hamiltonians and extend each family to the union of the equivalence classes containing its family members . then we show that each subset contains a special element whose universality ( or non - universality ) can be succinctly characterized . this allows us to show universality of any hamiltonian not belonging to any of the three generalized non - universal families . the gate @xmath35 that swaps two qubits is of central importance since it is the only permutation of two qubits . recall that its matrix representation in the computational basis is @xmath112 it has two eigenspaces , namely @xmath113 where @xmath114 corresponds to the eigenvalue @xmath115 and @xmath116 to the eigenvalue @xmath117 the normalized vector @xmath118 that spans @xmath114 is called the _ singlet _ state . we prove the following basic facts about the @xmath35 gate in appendix [ app : tgate ] : factcommuteswithtfact the singlet @xmath119 is an eigenvector of a normal matrix @xmath120 if and only if @xmath121=0 $ ] . [ fact : commuteswitht ] factorthogonaleigenvectorfact a normal matrix @xmath120 has a common eigenvector with the @xmath35 gate if and only if it has an eigenvector orthogonal to @xmath119 . [ fact : orthogonaleigenvector ] factsingleteigenvecfact suppose @xmath122 and @xmath123=0 $ ] . then the singlet state @xmath119 is an eigenvector of both @xmath24 and @xmath124 . [ fact : singleteigenvec ] we will use both the computational basis and one in which @xmath35 is diagonal , with the singlet state as the first basis vector . for definiteness , we choose @xmath125 to implement the basis change . we call the resulting basis the _ t - basis_. the @xmath35 gate and the singlet state become @xmath126 and @xmath127 given by @xmath128 three families of hamiltonians are easily identified . [ fact : hyp1 ] a hamiltonian @xmath0 is if any of the following conditions holds : 1 . @xmath0 is a local hamiltonian , i.e. , @xmath129 , for some 1-qubit hamiltonians @xmath130 , 2 . @xmath0 shares an eigenvector with the @xmath35 gate , or 3 . @xmath131 . in section [ sec : extended ] we extend these families to larger sets of hamiltonians , so the above do not literally exhaust the set of hamiltonians . however , we prove in section [ sec : converse ] that the extended families contain all hamiltonians , so these three families do capture the essence of what makes a hamiltonian . the following equivalence relation between hamiltonians is central to our analysis : we say that matrices @xmath68 and @xmath132 are _ t - similar _ if there exists a unitary matrix @xmath133 such that @xmath134 and @xmath135=0 $ ] . conjugation by @xmath133 _ preserves universality _ , i.e. , it maps universal 2-qubit hamiltonians to universal hamiltonians and non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians to non - universal hamiltonians . in particular : [ thm : tsim ] let @xmath136 be t - similar 2-qubit hamiltonians . then @xmath68 is universal if and only if @xmath132 is . assume 2-qubit hamiltonians @xmath68 and @xmath132 are t - similar . then there is some @xmath137 such that @xmath134 and @xmath135=0 $ ] . suppose @xmath68 is universal . we want to show that @xmath132 is also universal . we have to show that using @xmath132 we can simulate any @xmath63 with any desired precision @xmath18 . since @xmath68 is universal , we can simulate @xmath138 with precision @xmath52 , i.e. , there exists @xmath49 and @xmath139 such that @xmath140 since @xmath141 , @xmath142 and @xmath143 for all unitary @xmath144 and all matrices @xmath145 , we have @xmath146 combining ( [ eq : simulationa ] ) with ( [ eq : simulationb ] ) and noting that the spectral norm is invariant under unitary conjugation gives @xmath147 hence @xmath148 is the desired simulation of @xmath24 with precision @xmath52 . we conclude that @xmath132 is universal . thus t - similarity partitions the set of all 2-qubit hamiltonians into equivalence classes , each containing only universal or non - universal hamiltonians . in view of theorem [ thm : tsim ] , each family of non - universal hamiltonians in fact [ fact : hyp1 ] can be extended to include hamiltonians that are t - similar to its elements . we now analyze each of these three extended families . 1 . t - similarity transformations do not preserve the set of local hamiltonians . for example , when @xmath149 @xmath0 is local and @xmath133 commutes with @xmath35 , but @xmath150 $ ] which is non - local . thus the extended family is strictly larger . t - similarity transformations preserve the property of sharing an eigenvector with the @xmath35 gate : + [ lem : condition2 ] the set of hamiltonians sharing an eigenvector with the @xmath35 gate is closed under conjugation by unitary transformations that commute with @xmath35 . + let @xmath24 satisfy @xmath123=0 $ ] and let @xmath151 be the eigenvector shared by @xmath0 and the @xmath35 gate , i.e. , @xmath152 and @xmath153 for some @xmath154 , @xmath155 . we claim that @xmath156 is an eigenvector shared by the @xmath35 gate and @xmath157 . first , note that @xmath158 . we also have @xmath159 . thus @xmath156 is an eigenvector shared by the @xmath35 gate and @xmath157 . + therefore , the extension does not add more non - universal hamiltonians to this family . the set of traceless hamiltonians is preserved by t - similarity transformations . using the above , we generalize fact [ fact : hyp1 ] to the following : [ lem : hyp2 ] a hamiltonian @xmath0 is if any of the following conditions holds : 1 . @xmath0 is t - similar to a local hamiltonian , 2 . @xmath0 shares an eigenvector with the @xmath35 gate , or 3 . @xmath131 . another easily recognized family of non - universal hamiltonians is the set of generators of orthogonal transformations . however , this set can be shown to be contained in the first family of the above lemma @xcite . similarly , hamiltonians with degenerate eigenvalues can be shown to be non - universal , since they always share an eigenvector with the @xmath35 gate ( see fact [ fact : degeigenvals ] in appendix [ app : tgate ] ) . it is straightforward to check whether a given hamiltonian belongs to the last two families of non - universal hamiltonians in lemma [ lem : hyp2 ] . the following lemma ( proved in appendix [ app : tsimilarlocal ] ) gives an efficient method to check whether a given hamiltonian with non - degenerate eigenvalues is t - similar to a local hamiltonian . lemmapatternlemma a 2-qubit hamiltonian is t - similar to a local hamiltonian if and only if it has an orthonormal basis of eigenvectors @xmath160 corresponding to the eigenvalues @xmath161 so that 1 . @xmath162 and @xmath163 , and 2 . @xmath164 , where @xmath119 is the singlet state defined in equation ( [ eq : singlet ] ) . [ lem : pattern ] in this section we show that the list of non - universal families of hamiltonians in lemma [ lem : hyp2 ] is in fact complete . this is done by analyzing a special member of each t - similarity equivalence class . we now introduce a normal form for 2-qubit hamiltonians . we say that a 2-qubit hamiltonian is in _ tridiagonal form _ if it is of the form @xmath165 where @xmath166 and @xmath167 . if either of @xmath168 is 0 , we additionally require that * if @xmath169 , then @xmath170 and @xmath171 , and * if @xmath172 , then @xmath173 and @xmath174 . note that a tridiagonal hamiltonian is of one of the following types : [ cols="^,^,^,^ " , ] where @xmath175 and `` @xmath176 '' stands for a positive entry and `` @xmath177 '' for any real entry . when given a 2-qubit hamiltonian in tridiagonal form , we will often use the letters @xmath178 to refer to its entries as indicated in equation ( [ eq : tridiagonal ] ) . [ def : tridiagonalform ] for any 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 , we say that _ @xmath179 is a tridiagonal form of @xmath0 _ if @xmath0 and @xmath179 are t - similar and @xmath179 is tridiagonal in the t - basis . ( we will use @xmath180 to denote @xmath179 in the t - basis . ) it follows from the definition that t - similar 2-qubit hamiltonians share the same tridiagonal forms ( if they exist ) . we now show that for every 2-qubit hamiltonian a tridiagonal form indeed exists and is in fact unique . thus , each equivalence class is uniquely characterized by the tridiagonal form of its hamiltonians . [ thm : tridiagonalization ] every 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 has a unique tridiagonal form @xmath179 . since t - similarity is basis - independent , we prove the lemma in the t - basis . in other words , we prove that @xmath181 is t - similar to a unique tridiagonal matrix . note that in the t - basis , @xmath35-similar matrices are related by conjugation by some unitary @xmath182 . let the first column of @xmath82 be @xmath183 , where @xmath184 . then we can find @xmath185 such that the first column of @xmath186 is @xmath187 . now let the second column of @xmath188 be @xmath189 , where @xmath190 , and choose @xmath191 such that the second column of @xmath192 is @xmath193 . note that the first column of @xmath194 remains the same as for @xmath188 . finally , we can find @xmath195 such that the last entry @xmath196 of the third column of @xmath197 is real and . since @xmath198 is hermitian , its diagonal entries are real and it has the form ( [ eq : tridiagonal ] ) . if neither @xmath199 nor @xmath200 is zero , we are done . if @xmath169 , we diagonalize the lower right @xmath201 block of @xmath198 by conjugating with unitary transformations of the form @xmath202 . similarly , if @xmath172 we diagonalize the lower right @xmath203 block . thus we obtain a tridiagonal form of @xmath0 . now we show that @xmath179 is unique . if @xmath204 and @xmath205 are both tridiagonal forms of @xmath0 , then in the t - basis @xmath206 and @xmath207 are related by conjugation by some @xmath182 . we first consider @xmath206 of type 1 . since the first column of @xmath207 has to be of the form @xmath208 for some @xmath209 , @xmath210 , @xmath144 has to be of the form @xmath211 for some @xmath212 . similarly , by considering the second and third columns of @xmath207 , we conclude that @xmath213 . thus , we have @xmath214 . if @xmath206 is of type 2 , 3 , or 4 , similar reasoning can be applied ; in each case , the form of @xmath144 is constrained so that @xmath215 . in this section we give a simple characterization of the three families of hamiltonians listed in lemma [ lem : hyp2 ] in terms of their tridiagonal forms . [ lem : tridiagonaleigenvector ] let @xmath0 be a 2-qubit hamiltonian and let @xmath179 be its tridiagonal form , with @xmath216 given by equation ( [ eq : tridiagonal ] ) . then @xmath0 has a common eigenvector with the @xmath35 gate if and only if @xmath217 . by fact [ fact : orthogonaleigenvector ] , @xmath0 has a common eigenvector with @xmath35 if and only if @xmath0 has an eigenvector orthogonal to the singlet @xmath119 . by definition of the tridiagonal form , there is a unitary conjugating @xmath0 to @xmath216 , @xmath35 to @xmath218 , and taking @xmath119 to @xmath219 . thus it suffices to show that @xmath216 has an eigenvector orthogonal to @xmath219 if and only if @xmath217 . if @xmath217 , then @xmath216 has an invariant subspace orthogonal to @xmath220 . this subspace has dimension @xmath221 , @xmath222 , or @xmath76 if @xmath169 , @xmath172 , or @xmath173 , respectively . in any case , it contains at least one eigenvector , so @xmath216 has an eigenvector orthogonal to @xmath219 . if @xmath216 has an eigenvector @xmath223 that is orthogonal to @xmath219 , then @xmath224 for some @xmath225 , not all zero . since @xmath216 is hermitian , we have @xmath226 for some @xmath227 , or equivalently , @xmath228 from the first entry , @xmath229 so that @xmath169 or @xmath230 . if @xmath231 , then @xmath230 and from the second entry , @xmath232 , so either @xmath172 or @xmath233 . if @xmath234 , then @xmath233 and from the third entry , @xmath235 and so , if @xmath236 , @xmath237 which contradicts @xmath238 . thus , @xmath217 . [ lem : tridiagonallocal ] let @xmath0 be a 2-qubit hamiltonian not sharing an eigenvector with @xmath35 and let @xmath179 be its tridiagonal form . then @xmath0 is t - similar to a local hamiltonian if and only if @xmath239 for @xmath216 as given in equation ( [ eq : tridiagonal ] ) . assume @xmath239 . @xmath0 is t - similar to a local hamiltonian if and only if @xmath179 is , so we can apply lemma [ lem : pattern ] to @xmath179 . a straightforward calculation gives eigenvectors @xmath240 of @xmath216 for @xmath241 , with eigenvalues @xmath242 the overlaps of these eigenvectors with the singlet state are @xmath243 for each @xmath244 , @xmath245 and @xmath246 , so both conditions in lemma [ lem : pattern ] are satisfied . hence @xmath0 is t - similar to a local hamiltonian . now assume that @xmath0 is t - similar to a local hamiltonian . we prove that @xmath216 has @xmath239 by explicitly computing it . we do this in two steps : first we show that @xmath0 is t - similar to some @xmath67 of the form @xmath247 for some @xmath248 ( where @xmath249 , @xmath250 , @xmath251 , @xmath252 are pauli matrices ) , and then we find the common tridiagonal form of @xmath0 and @xmath67 . [ [ step-1 . ] ] step 1 . + + + + + + + consider conjugating @xmath0 by @xmath253 where @xmath254 ( clearly , @xmath255=0 $ ] ) . it suffices to consider a local hamiltonian @xmath256 for some 1-qubit hamiltonians @xmath71 and @xmath257 . pick @xmath258 such that @xmath259 is diagonal . then pick a diagonal matrix @xmath260 such that @xmath261 is a real matrix . note that @xmath262 is still diagonal . therefore , @xmath263 is of the form ( [ eq : simplifiedhamiltonian ] ) , where @xmath264 . [ [ step-2 . ] ] step 2 . + + + + + + + recall that @xmath67 in the t - basis is given by @xmath265 . using equation ( [ eq : simplifiedhamiltonian ] ) , we get @xmath266 note that @xmath267 , or else , by lemma [ lem : tridiagonaleigenvector ] , we contradict the fact that @xmath0 does not share an eigenvector with @xmath35 . we apply one more t - similarity transformation to bring @xmath268 into tridiagonal form . let @xmath269 and @xmath270 which is in @xmath271 . then @xmath272 since @xmath0 does not share an eigenvector with @xmath35 , the @xmath273 , @xmath274 , @xmath275 entries of @xmath276 are all nonzero . their signs can be made positive by conjugation with a diagonal matrix with diagonal entries @xmath277 , preserving the diagonal elements ( note that this is a t - similarity transformation ) . this tridiagonal form of @xmath67 and @xmath0 has equal diagonal entries as claimed . using lemmas [ lem : tridiagonaleigenvector ] and [ lem : tridiagonallocal ] , we can restate lemma [ lem : hyp2 ] in terms of the tridiagonal form : [ cor : hyp2 ] let @xmath0 be a 2-qubit hamiltonian with tridiagonal form @xmath179 , with @xmath216 given by ( [ eq : tridiagonal ] ) . then @xmath0 is non - universal if 1 . @xmath216 has @xmath217 , 2 . @xmath216 has @xmath239 , or 3 . @xmath216 has @xmath278 . given a hamiltonian @xmath0 that does not satisfy any of the conditions of corollary [ cor : hyp2 ] , we provide a list of @xmath79 linearly independent linear combinations of nested commutators of @xmath216 and @xmath279 . this shows that @xmath280 . hence it follows from corollary [ cor : universallie ] that @xmath0 is universal . let @xmath281 and define a basis for @xmath282 ( i.e. , for traceless @xmath5 hermitian matrices ) as follows : @xmath283 these @xmath284 matrices together with any hermitian matrix with trace form a basis for @xmath4 . we now obtain these basis vectors as nested commutators of @xmath216 and @xmath285 . by violation of the first condition in corollary [ cor : hyp2 ] , thus we can generate @xmath287 $ ] and @xmath288 , x_{1,2 } ] - 4 a\bigr ) , \\ x_{2,3 } & = i[x_{1,2 } , y_{1,3}].\end{aligned}\ ] ] next , we can generate @xmath289 . to obtain @xmath290 we consider three cases : @xmath291 & \text { if } c \neq e , \\ \dfrac{1}{a - g } \dfrac{1}{f^2 } \ , i \left [ i[x_{2,3 } , b ] , i[b , i[y_{1,3 } , b ] ] \right ] & \text { otherwise ( $ a = c = e \neq g$)}. \end{cases}\ ] ] one of these cases has to hold since the second condition in corollary [ cor : hyp2 ] is violated . we next obtain @xmath292 , \\ x_{1,4 } & = \frac{1}{f } \bigl((c - e)x_{1,3 } + i[a , x_{2,3 } ] + i[y_{1,3 } , b]\bigr).\end{aligned}\ ] ] we obtain the remaining basis elements as follows : @xmath293 , & x_{3,4 } & = i[x_{1,4 } , y_{1,3 } ] , & y_{1,4 } & = i[x_{2,4 } , x_{1,2 } ] , \\ y_{2,3 } & = i[x_{1,3 } , x_{1,2 } ] , & y_{2,4 } & = i[x_{1,4 } , x_{1,2 } ] , & y_{3,4 } & = i[x_{1,4 } , x_{1,3 } ] , \\ z_1 & = \frac{1}{2 } \ , i[y_{1,2 } , x_{1,2 } ] , & z_2 & = \frac{1}{2 } \ , i[y_{2,3 } , x_{2,3 } ] , & z_3 & = \frac{1}{2 } \ , i[y_{3,4 } , x_{3,4}].\end{aligned}\ ] ] at this point we can generate su(4 ) . if the third condition in corollary [ cor : hyp2 ] does not hold , then @xmath294 , so adding @xmath216 gives all of 4 . combining the result of the previous section with corollary [ cor : hyp2 ] gives the following theorem . [ thm:2nonuniversal ] a hamiltonian @xmath0 is 2-universal if and only if it does not satisfy any of the following conditions : 1 . @xmath0 is t - similar to a local hamiltonian , 2 . @xmath0 shares an eigenvector with @xmath35 , the gate that swaps two qubits , or 3 . @xmath131 . these conditions are easy to check by computing @xmath216 and applying corollary [ cor : hyp2 ] . it turns out that there are 2-non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians that are nevertheless 3-universal . in fact , numerical evidence suggests that almost any traceless 2-non - universal hamiltonian is 3-universal . we do not know a complete characterization of 3-universal 2-qubit hamiltonians . however , the following are sufficient conditions for a 2-qubit hamiltonian to be 3-non - universal . [ lem:3nonuniversal ] a 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 is 3-non - universal if any of the following conditions holds : 1 . @xmath0 is a local hamiltonian , 2 . @xmath0 has an eigenvector of the form @xmath295 for some @xmath296 , 3 . @xmath131 , 4 . @xmath297 for some @xmath298 , @xmath299 , and some antisymmetric hamiltonian @xmath300 ( @xmath68 is antisymmetric if @xmath301 ) , 5 . @xmath302=0 $ ] for some @xmath299 with distinct eigenvalues . it is easy to see that these hamiltonians are indeed 3-non - universal . in fact , they are also n - non - universal for all @xmath2 . therefore , if one could show that this list is complete , then it would provide a complete characterization of n - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians . recall that a 3-non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonian is also 2-non - universal ( see lemma [ lem : universal ] ) . for each family @xmath303 of 3-non - universal hamiltonians in lemma [ lem:3nonuniversal ] there is a family @xmath304 of 2-non - universal hamiltonians from theorem [ thm:2nonuniversal ] sucht that @xmath305 ( see figure [ fig : diagram ] ) . we give the maximum achievable value of @xmath306 for @xmath307 . ] the main result of this paper is a complete characterization of 2-universal 2-qubit hamiltonians , as summarized in theorem [ thm:2nonuniversal ] . several variants of the problem that remain open : 1 . which 2-non - universal 2-qubit hamiltonians are n - universal , i.e. , become universal on @xmath2 qubits ? also , is there @xmath308 such that implies for all @xmath309 ? in particular , is @xmath310 ? which 2-qubit hamiltonians are universal with ancillae ? ( see section [ sec : ancillae ] and definition [ def : universalancilla ] for the definition of universality with ancillae for unitary gates . ) one might also consider a scenario in which the number of allowed ancillary qubits is restricted . 3 . which 2-qubit hamiltonians give us encoded universality , e.g. , generate 4 ? this question is relevant since the full power of quantum computation can be achieved even with a restricted repertoire of gates . for example , real gates are sufficient @xcite since 2 2^n contains u(2^n ) . we can say that @xmath0 is _ n - universal in an encoded sense _ if there exists @xmath311 ( possibly depending on @xmath1 ) such that the lie algebra generated by @xmath0 on @xmath312 qubits , @xmath313 , contains 2^n as a subalgebra . however , it is not even clear how to check this for a _ particular _ hamiltonian . we thank john watrous for helpful discussions . support for this research was provided by mitacs , nserc , quantumworks , and the us aro / dto . dl also acknowledges support from crc , cfi , orf , and cifar . [ cl : negativetime ] let @xmath314 be a hamiltonian and let @xmath315 . then for all @xmath18 there exists @xmath316 such that @xmath317 . let @xmath318 . consider the sequence @xmath319 . note that we can think of @xmath12 as a real vector space of dimension @xmath320 . since @xmath321 is bounded with respect to the spectral norm , by the bolzano - weierstrass theorem , @xmath321 has a convergent subsequence . it follows that for all @xmath18 and all @xmath322 there exist @xmath323 such that @xmath324 and @xmath325 . equivalently , for all @xmath18 and all @xmath322 there exists @xmath326 such that @xmath327 . therefore , given @xmath315 , for all @xmath18 there exists @xmath328 such that @xmath329 taking @xmath330 , the claim follows . in this appendix we restate and prove the basic properites of the @xmath35 gate introduced in section [ sec : t ] . suppose @xmath119 is an eigenvector of @xmath331 . then @xmath332 is an orthonormal eigenbasis of @xmath331 for some orthonormal vectors @xmath333 . since @xmath334 is orthonormal , @xmath335 . therefore , @xmath334 is also an eigenbasis of @xmath35 , and both @xmath331 and @xmath35 are simultaneously diagonal in this basis . thus @xmath121=0 $ ] . conversely , suppose @xmath121=0 $ ] . then @xmath331 and @xmath35 are simultaneously diagonal in some orthonormal basis @xmath334 . since @xmath119 spans the one - dimensional eigenspace @xmath114 of @xmath35 , we know that @xmath336 for some @xmath337 . thus , @xmath119 is an eigenvector of @xmath331 . the `` if '' direction is trivial . conversely , suppose @xmath331 shares an eigenvector @xmath151 with the @xmath35 gate . if @xmath338 we are done otherwise , @xmath339 , so @xmath340 . then @xmath341 is an invariant subspace of @xmath331 and it contains an eigenvector of @xmath331 . since @xmath123=0 $ ] , we know that @xmath24 and @xmath35 are simultaneously diagonal in some orthonormal basis . the singlet @xmath119 must belong to this basis , since it spans the eigenspace @xmath114 of the @xmath35 gate . therefore , @xmath119 has to be an eigenvector of @xmath24 as well . note that @xmath24 and @xmath124 have the same eigenvectors . thus , @xmath119 is also an eigenvector of @xmath124 . [ fact : degeigenvals ] if a 2 hamiltonian @xmath0 has a degenerate eigenvalue , then it shares an eigenvector with @xmath35 and hence is not universal . suppose @xmath0 has a degenerate eigenvalue , and let @xmath342 denote the corresponding eigenspace . recall that the @xmath35 gate has a @xmath116 . now note that the intersection @xmath343 is at least , since @xmath344 and @xmath345 , @xmath346 . any nonzero @xmath347 is a common eigenvector of @xmath0 and the @xmath35 gate . by fact [ fact : hyp1 ] we conclude that @xmath0 is . in this appendix we prove a result characterizing hamiltonians that are @xmath35-similar to some local hamiltonian , as stated in section [ sec : tsimtransformations ] . our proof makes use of the following general characterization of t - similarity : [ thm : tsimilarity ] hamiltonians @xmath0 and @xmath67 are t - similar if and only if there exist orthonormal eigenbases @xmath348 of @xmath0 and @xmath349 of @xmath67 such that @xmath350 and @xmath351 for all @xmath352 , where @xmath119 is the singlet state defined in equation ( [ eq : singlet ] ) . assume @xmath0 and @xmath67 are t - similar , i.e. , @xmath353 for some @xmath122 with @xmath123=0 $ ] . since @xmath123=0 $ ] , by fact [ fact : singleteigenvec ] we know that @xmath119 is an eigenvector of @xmath124 . let @xmath151 be an eigenvector of @xmath0 . then @xmath156 is the corresponding eigenvector of @xmath263 . now we have @xmath354 , i.e. , the corresponding eigenvectors of @xmath0 and @xmath263 have the same overlaps with the singlet state . since conjugation does not change the eigenvalues , the `` only if '' direction of the theorem follows . conversely , assume that @xmath0 and @xmath67 have orthonormal eigenbases @xmath355 and @xmath356 , respectively , with @xmath357 and @xmath358 . we can express the singlet state @xmath119 in the eigenbases of @xmath0 and @xmath67 as follows : @xmath359 where @xmath360 . now let @xmath361 part ( a ) tells us that @xmath0 and @xmath67 are similar via @xmath24 . from ( b ) it follows that @xmath119 is an eigenvector of @xmath24 , so by fact [ fact : commuteswitht ] , @xmath24 commutes with @xmath35 . hence @xmath0 and @xmath67 are t - similar . first we prove the `` only if '' direction . suppose @xmath0 is t - similar to some local hamiltonian @xmath367 . by theorem [ thm : tsimilarity ] , it suffices to show that the spectrum of @xmath67 has the form described in the lemma . we diagonalize @xmath71 and @xmath257 as follows : @xmath368 let the first eigenvectors of @xmath71 and @xmath257 be @xmath369 since we can ignore the global phase of each eigenvector , we may assume that @xmath370 then @xmath371 are eigenvectors of @xmath67 . calculating the overlaps with @xmath119 , we find @xmath372 the corresponding eigenvalues of @xmath67 are @xmath373 respectively ; they satisfy @xmath164 . this establishes the `` only if '' direction . now let us prove the `` if '' direction . for any @xmath0 with a spectrum satisfying the conditions of the lemma , we construct a local hamiltonian @xmath374 that is t - similar to @xmath0 . as before , let @xmath375 and @xmath376 denote corresponding eigenvalues and eigenvectors of @xmath71 , and let @xmath377 and @xmath378 denote eigenvalues and eigenvectors of @xmath257 . in terms of the eigenvalues @xmath379 of @xmath0 , we choose the eigenvalues of @xmath71 and @xmath257 as follows : @xmath380 , @xmath381 , @xmath382 , and @xmath383 . with this choice , the eigenvalues of @xmath67 are @xmath384 where the last equality holds since @xmath385 . it remains to choose eigenvectors of @xmath71 and @xmath257 to obtain the required overlaps with @xmath119 . notice that @xmath386 and @xmath387 completely determine the overlaps , since without loss of generality we can take @xmath388 and @xmath389 as in ( [ eq : v2w2 ] ) . in fact , it suffices to choose @xmath390 . if the angle between real unit vectors @xmath391 and @xmath392 is @xmath61 , then @xmath393 and @xmath394 . thus , the overlaps ( [ eq : pseudoscalarproduct ] ) and ( [ eq : scalarproduct ] ) are @xmath395 and @xmath396 , respectively . therefore , we can take any two real unit vectors having angle @xmath397 . since @xmath0 and @xmath67 satisfy the conditions of theorem [ thm : tsimilarity ] , they are . adriano barenco , charles h. bennett , richard cleve , david p. divincenzo , norman h. margolus , peter w. shor , tycho sleator , john a. smolin , and harald weinfurter . elementary gates for quantum computation . , 52(5):34573467 , 1995 . arxiv : quant - ph/9503016 . p. oscar boykin , tal mor , matthew pulver , vwani roychowdhury , and farrokh vatan . on universal and fault - tolerant quantum computing . in _ proceedings of the 40th annual ieee symposium on foundations of computer science _ , pages 486494 . ieee , 1999 . arxiv : quant - ph/9906054 . john preskill . fault - tolerant quantum computation . in hoi - kwong lo , sandu popescu , and tim spiller , editors , _ introduction to quantum computation and information _ , pages 213269 . world scientific , 1998 . arxiv : quant - ph/9712048 .	suppose we can apply a given 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 to any ( ordered ) pair of qubits . we say @xmath0 is n - universal if it can be used to approximate any unitary operation on @xmath1 qubits . while it is well known that almost any 2-qubit hamiltonian is 2-universal ( deutsch , barenco , ekert 1995 ; lloyd 1995 ) , an explicit characterization of the set of 2-qubit hamiltonians has been elusive . our main result is a complete characterization of 2-qubit hamiltonians . in particular , there are three ways that a 2-qubit hamiltonian @xmath0 can fail to be universal : ( 1 ) @xmath0 shares an eigenvector with the gate that swaps two qubits , ( 2 ) @xmath0 acts on the two qubits independently ( in any of a certain family of bases ) , or ( 3 ) @xmath0 has zero trace . a 2-qubit hamiltonian can still be n - universal for some @xmath2 . we give some partial results on 3-universality . = 1
the idea @xcite that our four - dimensional world is one of the boundaries of a slice of strongly curved five - dimensional ( 5d ) anti - de - sitter space provides an attractive approach to the gauge - gravity and flavour hierarchy problems of the standard model ( sm ) . in conformal coordinates the metric of the 5d bulk is @xmath7 where @xmath8gev is of order of the planck scale @xmath9 , while the metric on the four - dimensional boundaries located at @xmath10 and @xmath11 is flat . this set - up provides a solution to the gauge - gravity hierarchy problem , since , if the proper distance between the two branes , @xmath12 , is only a few times the planck length , then @xmath13 can still be of order of the tev scale . the original proposal @xcite considered only gravity propagating in the bulk , but it was soon realized that the sm fields may be 5d , too @xcite . an exception is the higgs field , which in the simplest set - up is required to be localized on the tev brane @xmath11 to solve the hierarchy problem . allowing the sm fermions to propagate into the fifth dimension opens up the possibility to explain the quark and lepton mass , and the quark mixing - angle hierarchies @xcite without postulating large hierarchies or small coupling constants in the 5d theory . the model predicts kaluza - klein ( kk ) excitations of the sm particles with typical kk mass @xmath14 for the first excitation . the collider physics and flavour phenomenology of these kk excitations has been extensively studied . direct searches at the large hadron collider lead to lower limits on @xmath15 similar to those for drell - yan like single production of heavy resonances , which are now in the 1 to 2 tev region . indirect constraints from electroweak precision observables and flavour require higher kk masses , but may be avoided by adding custodial protection or flavour structure . the overwhelming number of studies is based on investigating the implications of tree - level production or tree - level exchange of the kk excitations . comparatively little is known about the randall - sundrum ( rs ) model at the loop level due to the intricacies of quantum field theory in curved space - times . it appears that contrary to 5d theories with a flat compact extra dimension , the running of gauge couplings is only logarithmic @xcite . divergences associated with the fifth dimension show up in divergent kk sums . the interpretation of these divergences is not as straightforward as in minkowski space . a precise regularization scheme , required to be able to calculate finite renormalizations , has not yet been developed . at the same time , there are a number of processes of much interest for searching for deviations of the sm , which arise only at the loop level ; among them are the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon , and electromagnetic dipole transitions in the lepton ( @xmath16 ) and the quark sectors ( @xmath17 ) , which have been considered in the rs model in @xcite and @xcite , respectively . higgs production through gluon - gluon fusion has been discussed in @xcite . the systematics of renormalization and the calculation of loop processes is probably easier to approach from the 5d perspective @xcite instead of the kk decomposition of the dependence on the fifth coordinate . in this paper we set up the propagator and vertex feynman rules for the 5d quantum field theory in a slice of anti - de - sitter ( ads ) space ( in this part there is significant overlap with @xcite ) and then revisit the muon anomalous magnetic moment as our first application . there is only one previous calculation of @xmath18 in the rs model @xcite , which is based on summing over towers of kk excitations . since @xmath18 is not ultraviolet ( uv ) sensitive , it is well suited to demonstrate the workings of the 5d formalism without the complications of divergences from the planck scale . the main result of the present paper is a complete calculation of @xmath18 , since , as will be explained , our result differs considerably from @xcite . the outline of the paper is as follows . in sec . [ sec : thsetup ] we set up notations by defining the 5d theory and explain our strategy for calculating the anomalous magnetic moment . we match the 5d theory to an effective 4d theory , in which the scale @xmath13 is integrated out , keeping the relevant su(2)@xmath19u(1 ) invariant dimension-6 operators that must be added to the sm . after expressing the lagrangian in terms of the fields in the electroweak vacuum , we calculate the non - standard contribution to @xmath18 in the 4d effective theory . the matching coefficients of the dimension-6 operators are computed in sec . [ sec : matching ] . we work with 5d fields and avoid multiple sums over kk modes by integrating out directly the fifth dimension . we identify two relevant contributions , related to the electromagnetic dipole transition and a four - fermion operator . the actual integrations must be performed numerically . we focus on the contributions to the muon anomalous magnetic moment from gauge - boson exchange . at the end of sec . [ sec : matching ] we also consider genuine higgs - exchange diagrams , whose calculation requires taking an appropriate limit of a model with a slightly brane - delocalized higgs field . we argue that in models with anarchic yukawa matrices higgs - exchange is always small relative to gauge - boson exchange due to constraints from lepton - flavour - violating observables . the numerical result for the gauge - boson contributions to @xmath18 in the single - flavour approximation is shown in sec . [ sec : result ] . we also discuss the dependence of the result on the bulk mass and 5d yukawa coupling and the generalization to the case with three lepton flavours , and we compare our result to previous ones . we conclude in sec . [ sec : conclude ] . the feynman rules of the 5d theory are summarized in appendices [ ap:5drules ] and [ app : expansions ] , and in appendix [ ap : diags ] we provide the explicit expressions of all diagrams for reference . in this section we define the 5d theory , and then discuss the 4d effective lagrangian at scales below @xmath13 relevant to electroweak and flavour physics when @xmath20 . we then calculate the muon anomalous magnetic moment @xmath21 in the effective theory , that is , we express the non - standard contributions @xmath22 in terms of the matching coefficients of higher - dimension operators in the effective lagrangian . we adopt the simplest set - up for the sm in the rs geometry ( [ metric ] ) , in which all fields except the higgs doublet can propagate in the bulk , and no further structure is added . while not the most attractive model for phenomenology since the scale @xmath13 must be quite large due to the lack of custodial protection , it provides the appropriate starting point for the study of loop processes . quarks and the entire strong interaction sector are not relevant to leptonic processes at one - loop . in the following we specify only the su(2)@xmath19u(1 ) interactions and leave out the quark sector . the 5d theory is defined by the action @xmath23 - m_{\psi_i } \bar{\psi}_i \psi_i \right ) \bigg\ } + \,s_{\rm gf+ ghost } \nonumber \\ & & \hspace{0 cm } + \,\int d^4x \ , \bigg\{(d^{\mu } \phi)^\dagger d_\mu\phi - v(\phi ) - \left(\frac{t}{k}\right)^{\!3 } \left[y_{ij}^{\rm ( 5d ) } ( \bar l_i\phi ) e_j + \mbox{h.c.}\right]\bigg\ } , \label{5daction}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath24 is the determinant of the 5d metric and @xmath25 the inverse vielbein .. ] the potential is given by @xmath26 the covariant derivative is defined as usual by @xmath27 @xmath28 is the hypercharge of the field and @xmath29 the su(2 ) generator in the given field representation ( @xmath30 with @xmath31 the pauli matrices for the doublets @xmath32 , @xmath33 , and 0 for the singlets @xmath34 ) . the hypercharge and su(2 ) field strengths read @xmath35 the higgs doublet is localized at @xmath11 and described by a four - dimensional field . the powers of @xmath36 in the higgs action arise from making the kinetic term canonical when the @xmath37-integration in the original 5d action is eliminated using the @xmath38 factor . the 5d lepton fields in the lepton - higgs yukawa interaction are therefore evaluated at @xmath11 . latin indices from the middle of the alphabet refer to lepton flavour . the dimensionful parameters @xmath39 of the lagrangian are all of order @xmath9 . it is conventional to introduce the dimensionless quantities @xmath40 for the bulk fermion masses , whose precise values determine the hierarchical masses of the known leptons . the 5d action is given in the flavour basis that renders the bulk mass matrix diagonal , which can always be arranged by a field rotation . it is not possible in general to simultaneously diagonalize the 5d yukawa coupling matrix @xmath41 . unlike the sm , the 5d theory violates lepton flavour conservation and cp - symmetry in the lepton sector . the feynman rules for the higgs propagator and vertices involving the higgs field can be read off directly from ( [ 5daction ] ) in the standard way . the rules for the 5d fields in the bulk of ads are discussed and summarized in appendix [ ap:5drules ] . we assume that the scale @xmath13 is much larger than the masses of the sm electroweak gauge bosons and the higgs boson . in this case we may integrate out the fifth dimension , that is , the towers of kk states to obtain an effective four - dimensional theory . since the states with masses below @xmath13 are precisely represented by the sm fields , the four - dimensional theory is the sm plus su(3)@xmath19su(2)@xmath19u(1 ) invariant higher - dimension operators . an issue that arises here is that the 5d theory is non - renormalizable and must itself be defined as an effective theory below a scale @xmath42 that should be at least a few times the planck scale . it is generally believed that in the mixed representation the four - dimensional loop momenta should be cut - off at a value @xmath43 that depends on the position @xmath37 in the fifth dimension . if @xmath44 is a few times the planck scale , then the cut - off @xmath45 relevant to processes dominated by physics near the tev brane should be near the tev scale . this would render the naive application of the 5d formalism problematic , since it encodes the sum over all kk states rather than including only the few below the cut - off @xmath45 . however , for a finite quantity such as the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon , the kk sum must converge , and the effect of including the entire tower relative to the truncation is of order @xmath46 , which is the generic size of corrections expected from the uv completion of the rs model . the dominant non - standard effects in the expansion in @xmath47 are associated with dimension-6 operators . we write @xmath48 since the matching coefficients @xmath49 are dominated by distances @xmath50 , the higgs bilinear term in @xmath51 can be treated as a perturbation , and the @xmath49 can be computed in the theory with unbroken electroweak gauge symmetry . the effective lagrangian is a special case of the general su(3)@xmath19su(2)@xmath19u(1 ) invariant theory with sm field content including dim-6 operators @xcite . since the anomalous magnetic moment is generated only at the one - loop level , we distinguish two types of operators . 0.3 cm _ class-0 _ operators in @xmath52 that contribute to @xmath53 at tree - level , but whose short - distance coefficients are generated in the rs model only at the one - loop order . the only relevant terms are @xmath54 note that we use the same notation for the 5d and 4d fermion and gauge fields . it is understood that the fields in the 4d effective lagrangian correspond to the zero modes in the kk decomposition of the 5d fields . the general effective lagrangian also contains the chirality changing operators @xmath55 and @xmath56 , but they do not generate anomalous magnetic couplings of the photon at tree level . after replacing @xmath33 by its vacuum expectation value , the operators are @xmath57_{22}$ ] and @xmath58_{22}$ ] . since @xmath59_{22}$ ] contains only the @xmath60-boson , this contributes to the anomalous magnetic couplings of the @xmath60-boson but not the photon . the dimensionless coefficients @xmath61 are of order @xmath62 , where here @xmath63 denotes a generic 5d gauge coupling . since the anomalous magnetic moment is generated only at one loop , we may use the tree - level relation @xmath64 between the 5d coupling and the 4d coupling at a scale @xmath65 of order @xmath13 . corrections to this relation are of order @xmath66 , which counts a higher - order effect in the weak - coupling expansion . 0.3 cm _ class-1 _ operators in @xmath52 that contribute to @xmath53 only at the one - loop level , but which are generated in the rs model at tree - level . the relevant terms are @xmath67 & & + \,c_{2,i } \,(\bar l_i\gamma_\mu l_i ) ( \phi^\dagger id^\mu \phi ) + c_{3,i } \,(\bar l_i\gamma^\mu \tau^a l_i ) ( \phi^\dagger \overleftrightarrow{i \tau^a d_\mu } \phi)\ ; , \label{dim61}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath68 . they are generated at tree - level by the exchange of the 4d vector components of the kk gauge bosons . although the 5d gauge couplings to fermions are flavour - diagonal and universal , flavour - dependence of the coefficient functions arises through the different zero - mode profiles of the 4d fermions . the operators @xmath69 and @xmath70 discussed already above might contribute to the photon anomalous magnetic moment at the one - loop level , but inspection shows that it can not be generated at tree - level from integrating out the kk scale . another class-1 operator that could possibly contribute to @xmath3 is @xmath71 ( and its hermitian conjugate ) . it can only be generated at tree level by diagrams with three yukawa couplings . in scenarios with an ( approximately ) brane localized higgs field these diagrams are non - vanishing only when one includes the `` wrong - chirality '' higgs couplings of the fermions @xcite . for simple higgs profiles these terms can be calculated fully analytically in the limit that the width of the higgs profile around the tev brane is taken to zero . we will discuss these terms separately in sec . [ subsec : higgs ] and therefore do not include @xmath71 in ( [ dim61 ] ) . kk gauge boson exchange also generates further four - fermion operators with only left - handed and only right - handed fields , but these do not contribute to the anomalous magnetic moment . the mixed left - right lepton - quark operator @xmath72 , on the other hand , does contribute at one loop , but it is not generated in the rs model . other class-1 operators that one might write down contribute to @xmath53 only indirectly , through a modification of the relation of the sm parameters to those of the 5d theory . when expressing the sm contribution to @xmath53 in terms of sm parameters , this effect is already accounted for . thus ( [ dim61 ] ) represents the complete list of relevant operators . the coefficient functions @xmath73 are of order @xmath74 . in particular , we note the presence of chirality - preserving fermion - higgs interactions proportional to 5d gauge rather than yukawa couplings . 0.3 cm we now express the effective lagrangian in terms of the fields in the electroweak vacuum , in which the su(2)@xmath19u(1 ) gauge symmetry is spontaneously broken to electromagnetism . thus , we replace @xmath75 and @xmath76 where @xmath77 is the cosine ( sine ) of the weinberg angle , with @xmath78 . for the fermions it is convenient to transform to the mass basis , in which the effective yukawa interaction @xmath79 of the 4d fields is diagonal . tree - level matching results in the 4d yukawa coupling @xmath80 where @xmath81 and @xmath82 are the fermion zero - mode profiles , see appendix [ ap:5drules ] . the transition to the mass basis is given by the unitary rotations @xmath83 of the 4d fields in @xmath52 . to go to the broken theory , @xmath84 where @xmath85 is the dirac spinor field for the massive leptons ( @xmath86 corresponding to electron , muon , tau ) and @xmath87 is the corresponding neutrino spinor field . @xmath88 are the chiral projectors . inserting these substitutions into ( [ dim60 ] ) , ( [ dim61 ] ) , generates numerous different operators composed of sm fields . we neglect operators which can not contribute to the magnetic and electric dipole form factors or only start contributing at two loops . the effective lagrangian for the computation of the anomalous magnetic ( and electric ) moments , as well as charged lepton - flavour violating processes at one loop is then given by @xmath89 & & + \,\beta_{ijkl } \ , ( \bar\psi_i\gamma^\mu p_l \psi_j ) ( \bar \psi_k\gamma_\mu p_r\psi_l ) \nonumber\\[0.05 cm ] & & + \,\gamma_{1,ij } \,\frac{v}{2 } \ , ( \bar\psi_i p_l \gamma_\mu \psi_j ) ( i\partial^\mu h ) + [ \gamma_{2,ij}+\gamma_{3,ij } ] \,\frac{v}{2 } \ , ( \bar\psi_i p_r \gamma_\mu \psi_j ) ( i\partial^\mu h ) \nonumber \\[0.05 cm ] & & + \,\gamma_{3,ij}\,\frac{v}{\sqrt{2}}(\bar\psi_i p_r \gamma_\mu \nu_j ) ( -i\partial^\mu \phi^- ) + \gamma_{3,ij}\,\frac{v}{\sqrt{2}}(\bar\psi_i p_r \gamma_\mu \nu_j ) ( e a^\mu \phi^- ) \nonumber \\ & & + \ , \mbox { h.c . of previous line } \label{dim6broken}\end{aligned}\ ] ] with @xmath90 the photon field strength tensor . the couplings are @xmath91_{ij } , \nonumber\\[0.1 cm ] \beta_{ijkl } & = & \sum_{m , n } \ , [ u^\dagger]_{im } u_{mj } [ v^\dagger]_{kn } v_{nl } \,b_{mn } , \nonumber\\ \gamma_{1,ij } & = & \sum_m \,[v^\dagger]_{im } v_{mj } \,c_{1,m } , \nonumber\\ \gamma_{x , ij } & = & \sum_m \,[u^\dagger]_{im } u_{mj } \,c_{x , m } \quad ( x=2,3 ) \label{couplingdefs}\end{aligned}\ ] ] with @xmath92 . many further terms can in principle appear on the right - hand side of ( [ dim6broken ] ) upon replacing the fields in @xmath93 by those of the broken theory . inspection shows that these additional terms are not relevant , since they contribute only to the form factor @xmath94 , see ( [ formfactor ] ) below , or to @xmath95 and the magnetic moment only beyond one loop . the muon - photon vertex function is given by @xmath96 u(p , s ) \label{formfactor}\ ] ] where the ellipses denote parity - violating terms , and @xmath97 . the factor @xmath98 with @xmath99 corresponds to our definition of the gauge covariant derivative and the standard normalization of the charge form factor @xmath100 . the anomalous magnetic moment is defined by @xmath101 it is straightforward to compute the extra contribution @xmath22 from the effective lagrangian ( [ dim6broken ] ) . since @xmath102 is a one - loop quantity , while @xmath103 and @xmath104 are tree - level , we need to compute the diagrams shown in figure [ fig:4ddiags ] . 0.3 cm from ( [ dim6broken]).,title="fig:",width=529 ] the tree - level diagram ( a ) with an insertion of the class-0 electromagnetic dipole operator results in @xmath105 the imaginary part of the @xmath106 couplings generates an electric dipole moment . there are two possible contractions of the four - fermion operator ( diagram ( b ) ) , which differ by the exchange of @xmath107 and @xmath108 . the loop integral is ultraviolet ( uv ) divergent by power counting and must be regularized . the divergence is related to factorization of the contributions from the kk scale @xmath13 and the low - energy scales @xmath109 , which is the only scale present in diagram ( b ) from the external momenta and massive lepton propagators . we adopt dimensional regularization with @xmath110 . the final result is finite , and arises from the uv @xmath111 pole that multiplies a numerator of @xmath112 . it depends on the scheme and we use the `` naive dimensional regularization '' ( ndr ) scheme with anti - commuting @xmath113 . the scheme dependence of this ultraviolet - sensitive term is compensated by a corresponding dependence in the calculation of the matching coefficients as we discuss later . the situation is similar to the calculation of the @xmath17 transition with the weak effective lagrangian method . the contribution to the vertex function from the four - fermion operator in the effective lagrangian is @xmath114 & = & -i e q_\mu \,\frac{m_{\ell_k}}{16\pi^2 t^2}\ , \bar u(p^\prime , s^\prime ) i\sigma^{\mu\nu}q_\nu \left[\beta_{2kk2}+\beta_{k22k } + ( \beta_{2kk2}-\beta_{k22k})\gamma_5 \right]u(p , s ) \label{betares}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where a sum over internal lepton flavours @xmath115 is understood , and the limit @xmath116 has been taken . the @xmath113 term is related to the electric dipole moment ; the remaining terms are the desired contributions to the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon . the higgs derivative interactions from ( [ dim6broken ] ) contribute via the diagrams ( c1 ) , ( c2 ) and ( d1 ) , ( d2 ) of figure [ fig:4ddiags ] . diagram ( c1 ) with an insertion of the @xmath117 coupling is given by @xmath118 here @xmath119 is the small standard model muon yukawa coupling . the prefactor is proportional to the muon mass @xmath120 , since one of the vertices is the sm higgs - fermion vertex . we may therefore neglect the muon mass in the integrand , and use the on - shell conditions to obtain @xmath121 this vanishes , since the loop integral can only result in @xmath122 . diagram ( c2 ) and the insertions of the @xmath123 interactions vanish in an analogous way . the reason for this can be deduced without calculations from the operator @xmath124 , which , up to a total derivative , can be converted into @xmath125 . in the ndr scheme , by the field equations , this operator is proportional to lepton masses , or small coupling constants , and hence of higher - order in our approximations . the corresponding arguments can not be applied in the unbroken theory , since there the operator contains two higgs fields . diagrams ( d1 ) and ( d2 ) involve an internal charged higgs and a neutrino line . for diagram ( d1 ) we find @xmath126 the prefactor is proportional to the muon mass , hence we can neglect the muon and neutrino mass in the remainder of the expression . introducing the feynman parameter @xmath127 ( @xmath128 ) to combine denominators leads to @xmath129 & = & -\frac { e \gamma_{3,22 } m_\mu } { t^2 } \ , \mu^{2\varepsilon}\!\int\!\frac{d^dl}{(2\pi)^d}\int_0 ^ 1\!dx \frac{\bar u(p^\prime)p_r u(p)[(\bar x - x)p^\mu+ ( x-\bar x)p^{\prime \mu } ] } { ( l^2-m_\phi^2 + x\bar x q^2)^{2 } } \nonumber \\[0.1 cm ] & = & 0\,,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where in the last step we used that the integrand is antisymmetric under the exchange @xmath130 . for later purposes , we note that the zero arises due to a cancellation between a finite term and an ultraviolet - sensitive term that arises as the product @xmath131 of a uv divergence and a numerator of @xmath112 . to see this , we assume @xmath132 , expand the integrand of to first order in the external momenta , and extract the @xmath133 structure that is relevant to the magnetic moment . this results in @xmath134 \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar u(p^\prime , s^\prime)p_r u(p , s ) \nonumber\\[0.2 cm ] & = & \frac{i e \gamma_{3,22}m_\mu } { ( 4\pi)^{2 } t^2 } \ , \bar u(p^\prime , s^\prime)p_r ( p+p^\prime)^\mu u(p , s ) \times \left ( \frac{\varepsilon}{2}\times \frac{1}{\varepsilon } - \frac12 \right ) + { \cal o}(\varepsilon ) . \label{chargedhiggsoperatorsuv}\end{aligned}\ ] ] the total contribution is , of course , zero ; but the contribution due to the uv pole is finite despite the superficial divergence of the integral . this will be important when verifying the scheme independence in sec . [ subsec : scheme ] . an analogous result holds for ( d2 ) . diagrams ( e1 ) and ( e2 ) follow from the insertion of the operator @xmath135 in ( [ dim6broken ] ) and its hermitian conjugate , respectively . none of the two contributes to @xmath18 as the loop only depends on a single external four - momentum . we can use on - shell condition to convert each appearance of @xmath136 to a lepton mass . the only possible lorentz structure is then @xmath137 , which contributes only to the @xmath94 form factor . the muon anomalous magnetic moment follows by adding the non - vanishing matrix elements of the dipole and four - fermion operator , ( [ alphares ] ) and ( [ betares ] ) , respectively , resulting in @xmath138 \nonumber\\ & = & -\,\frac{4 m_\mu^2}{t^2}\left ( \frac{\mbox{re}\,(\alpha_{22})}{y_\mu e } + \sum_{k=1,2,3 } \frac{1}{16\pi^2}\ , \frac{m_{\ell_k}}{m_\mu}\ , \mbox{re}\,(\beta_{2kk2 } ) \right ) . \label{amures}\end{aligned}\ ] ] here @xmath115 refers to electron , muon and tau leptons , respectively . in passing to the last line of ( [ amures ] ) , we used that @xmath139 , being generated by gauge interactions , is real . it therefore follows from the definitions ( [ couplingdefs ] ) that @xmath140 , and hence @xmath141 is real as it should be . -0.0 cm , more precisely the matching coefficients of the class-0 operators . solid lines refer to leptons , with the right external line belonging to the doublet @xmath32 , the left one to @xmath142 . wavy lines denote hypercharge gauge bosons and the external photon , curly lines su(2 ) w - bosons . a solid - wavy ( solid - curly ) line refers to the scalar fifth component of the gauge field . dashed lines denote higgs bosons , including the external higgs field ( grey box ) . vertices involving higgs fields are localized at @xmath1 , all other vertices are integrated over position in the fifth dimension.,title="fig:",width=548 ] we now turn to the calculation of the matching coefficients in the rs model ( [ 5daction ] ) . the diagrams relevant to the anomalous magnetic moment in the full 5d theory with unbroken gauge symmetry are shown in figure [ fig : diagsall ] . the figure does not include genuine higgs - exchange diagrams , which involve three yukawa interactions ( rather than one yukawa and two gauge interactions as in figure [ fig : diagsall ] ) , and which we discuss separately in sec . [ subsec : higgs ] . in a direct calculation of @xmath53 in the 5d theory , the diagrams should be represented in terms of the fields and interactions in the expansion around the electroweak vacuum of the spontaneously broken theory , which depend on the scales @xmath143 , @xmath13 , @xmath144 , @xmath145 . in drawing the diagrams in figure [ fig : diagsall ] we already accounted for the fact that we only need to extract the contributions from the scales @xmath143 and @xmath13 , which gives directly the short - distance coefficients of the su(3)@xmath19su(2)@xmath19u(1 ) invariant effective lagrangian . the diagrams in the unbroken theory do not represent the infrared physics from the scales near and below the electroweak scale @xmath144 correctly , but the incorrect infrared contribution cancels in the matching procedure . the low - momentum contributions from diagrams with 5d non - zero - mode propagators have already been included through the calculations of the previous subsection . note that we do not consider diagrams with graviton exchange ; see @xcite for a discussion of the graviton contribution . the diagrams are understood in the mixed representation with an integration over four - dimensional loop momentum @xmath146 and the vertex positions in the fifth dimension . a generic diagram such as diagram b1a in figure [ fig : diagsall ] can have three different contributions : all 5d propagators propagate the zero mode . the loop integral does not contain the short - distance scales @xmath147 explicitly , and is purely long - distance . this corresponds to a contribution to the sm anomalous magnetic moment @xmath148 . there is no need to perform this computation here , so we subtract this contribution . * at least one of the 5d propagators propagates a kk mode , but the loop momentum @xmath146 satisfies @xmath149 . in this case , the subgraph consisting of propagators with kk modes can be contracted to a point . the reduced loop diagram must be computed with the 4d effective lagrangian . this corresponds to tree - level matching of class-1 operators and the one - loop operator matrix element calculations performed in the previous subsection . an explicit diagrammatic analysis shows that the relevant subgraphs in figure [ fig : diagsall ] correspond precisely to the operators ( [ dim61 ] ) , and neglected operators of dimension higher than six . in diagram b1a , for example , the only relevant contribution occurs when the gauge boson is a kk mode and all internal fermions are zero modes , which corresponds to the insertion of a local four - fermion operator as in diagram ( b ) of figure [ fig:4ddiags ] . the fermion - higgs effective vertex and diagram ( d1 ) are related exclusively to diagram w8 . if the gauge boson and at least one of the fermion propagators refers to a kk mode and the loop momentum is small , the contribution is suppressed and corresponds to a higher - dimension operator . if the gauge boson is the zero mode , then the flatness of the gauge zero mode and the orthogonality condition for the fermion modes forces all fermion lines to propagate zero modes as well . this is the sm contribution discussed above . * the loop momentum is of order @xmath150 or larger . this contribution goes into the one - loop matching coefficients of the class-0 operators . in the following we describe the computation of the matching coefficients mentioned in the second and third item . 0.3 cm the tree - level matching calculation is very similar to the one that generates flavour - changing four - quark operators from kk gluon exchange@xcite . here we perform the calculation in the 5d picture , which makes it particularly simple ( provided the 5d propagators are known ) . the relevant diagram is shown in figure [ fig : fourfermion ] . only hypercharge vector gauge boson exchange can generate the @xmath151 operator at tree level , since su(2 ) gauge fields do not interact with @xmath34 . the scalar fifth component of the 5d gauge boson can not be exchanged , since the two external zero - mode fermions at the vertex have the same handedness . from the tree diagram shown in figure [ fig : fourfermion ] , we obtain @xmath152 here @xmath153 , @xmath154 denote the hypercharges of the leptons , and @xmath155 is the @xmath156 component of the 5d gauge boson propagator given in ( [ gaugeprop1 ] ) of the appendix ( see also @xcite ) . we subtracted the zero mode from the propagator , since this corresponds to a sm contribution to @xmath53 . because of the large mass of the kk excitations , the external lepton momenta of order @xmath157 can be set to zero . the zero - momentum limit of the gauge - boson propagator ( [ gaugeprop1 ] ) is @xmath158 which agrees with a similar expression obtained in @xcite from the explicit summation over all kk excitations . the @xmath159 term is evidently the zero mode . subtracting it , neglecting @xmath160 relative to @xmath161 in the first term in curly brackets , since @xmath162 is very small , and employing the normalization ( [ orthonormfermion ] ) of the zero modes , we obtain @xmath163 the remaining integrals over the fifth - dimension coordinates are dominated by @xmath164 up to terms suppressed by some power of @xmath165 provided the bulk mass parameters satisfy @xmath166 and @xmath167 , which will be assumed . we can therefore set the lower integration limit to 0 and use the explicit form of the fermion zero modes from ( [ fermionzeromodessinglet ] ) , ( [ fermionzeromodesdoublet ] ) in the appendix to find @xmath168 with @xmath169 substituting this result for @xmath170 into ( [ couplingdefs ] ) and exploiting the unitarity of the flavour rotation matrices to the mass basis , we obtain @xmath171_{im } u_{mj } + \delta_{ij } \sum_n b_1(-c_{e_n } ) \,[v^\dagger]_{kn } v_{nl } \nonumber\\[-0.1 cm ] & & + \,\sum_{m , n } b_2(c_{l_m},c_{e_n } ) \ , [ u^\dagger]_{im } u_{mj } [ v^\dagger]_{kn } v_{nl}.\end{aligned}\ ] ] the first term does not change lepton flavour number @xmath172 , the next two may change @xmath173 , and only the term in the second line can produce @xmath174 transitions . all terms are formally required to compute @xmath175 relevant to the anomalous magnetic moment . a particularly simple result is obtained in the `` single - flavour approximation '' , where we ignore the presence of other leptons than the muon . this corresponds to replacing @xmath176 , and @xmath177 , such that @xmath178 setting further @xmath179 ( @xmath180 ) , we find @xmath181 ^ 2 \,\frac{4 r^2}{(1-r ) ( 1 - 2 r)}. \label{ffunc}\ ] ] according to ( [ 4dyukawa ] ) , @xmath182 is related to the muon mass by @xmath183 with @xmath184 and @xmath185 , we find @xmath186 and @xmath187 . in general , when @xmath188 is of order 1 and @xmath189 within a few orders of magnitude near @xmath190 , the deviation of @xmath191 from 1 is only a few percent , and the flavour - conserving four - fermion matching coefficient is dominated by the @xmath182-independent term @xmath192 . in this case the total contribution ( [ bsingflavour ] ) is suppressed by the large logarithm @xmath193 and the small hypercharge gauge coupling . 0.3 cm for completeness we also give the matching coefficient @xmath194 for the fermion - higgs operator @xmath195 , which gives rise to diagram ( d1 ) in figure [ fig:4ddiags ] . only su(2 ) gauge - boson exchange shown in figure [ fig : fermionhiggs ] can generate an operator with a single charged scalar at tree level . the fifth component of the 5d gauge boson can not contribute due to the boundary conditions . we find @xmath196 inserting into we obtain @xmath197 as above , we neglect @xmath160 relative to @xmath161 , and keep only the leading term in @xmath189 . using the normalization of the fermion modes simplifies the expression to @xmath198 \frac{\epsilon^{2c_{l_i}-1}}{1-\epsilon^{2c_{l_i}-1 } } \bigg ) . \label{c3coeff}\end{aligned}\ ] ] note that @xmath194 is about @xmath199 times larger than @xmath170 , since it is proportional to the su(2 ) gauge coupling and since its largest term does not feature the suppression factor @xmath200 that is present in @xmath170 . for @xmath201 larger than but not too close to @xmath202 the dependence of @xmath194 on the model parameters is rather mild , since the 1 in the round brackets dominates . the matching coefficient of the electromagnetic dipole operator is more difficult to compute , since it comes from the 5d one - loop diagrams in figure [ fig : diagsall ] . we are interested only in the electromagnetic dipole transition , so we take the external gauge boson to be the superposition @xmath203 corresponding to the photon . we also anticipate that the higgs doublet @xmath33 in the operators @xmath204 and @xmath205 will be replaced by its vacuum expectation value and therefore extract only the weak isospin component that corresponds to charged lepton @xmath206 transitions after electroweak symmetry breaking . these simplifications have already been employed to omit some additional diagrams with the photon coupling to the higgs - doublet field . to compute the matching coefficient we apply the following strategy : * subtract the zero mode from every internal 5d gauge boson propagator . it can be shown that selecting the gauge - boson zero modes forces the fermion propagators to only propagate zero modes . this follows from the flatness of the gauge boson and orthogonality of the fermion mode functions . thus , the subtracted terms correspond precisely to the standard model contribution to @xmath18 . * expand the diagram in the external fermion momenta @xmath207 , @xmath208 and neglect the ( tachyonic ) mass in the su(2 ) higgs propagator . this ensures that we pick up only the contribution from loop momenta @xmath150 as appropriate for a matching coefficient . some of the one - loop diagrams have tree - level subgraphs corresponding to propagating kk excitations while the loop momentum is of order of the electroweak or muon mass scale . these contributions are excluded by the above expansion ; they have already been accounted for by the other dimension-6 operators with coefficient functions @xmath209 , @xmath49 and the one - loop diagrams in sec . [ sec : lecalc ] as discussed above . we now illustrate this procedure by discussing the calculation of diagram b1a from figure [ fig : diagsall ] in further detail . with the 5d feynman rules from appendix [ ap:5drules ] we find for this diagram the expression @xmath210 & & \bar{l_{i}}(p^\prime)p_{r } \gamma_\rho \delta^{l}_{i}({p^\prime - l},z , y ) \gamma_\mu \delta^{l}_{i}({p - l},y,1/t ) \delta^{e}_{j}({p - l},1/t , x ) \gamma_\nu p_{r } e_{j}(p),\qquad \label{diag1text}\end{aligned}\ ] ] which contains the 5d propagators of the fermions and the zero - mode subtracted hypercharge gauge boson , and the wave functions @xmath211 , @xmath212 , @xmath213 of the external states , which are the zero modes of the 5d fields . the positions of the three vertices in the 5th dimension , @xmath127 , @xmath214 , @xmath37 , and the four - dimensional loop momentum @xmath146 are integrated over . the electromagnetic charge prefactor arises , because the coupling of the external photon in isospin space is @xmath215_{22}=q_\mu=-1 $ ] . we decompose each fermion propagator into its four chiral components using ( [ fermionpropagator ] ) . most of the 64 possible terms vanish due to the projectors @xmath216 in ( [ diag1text ] ) and the brane boundary conditions @xmath217 , see ( [ fermionbcfore ] ) , ( [ fermionbcforl ] ) . the two remaining terms can be deduced from ( [ kkdecfermionpropagator ] ) , which results in @xmath218 p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) , \label{diag1text2}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath219 , @xmath220 . in the kk picture the first term in square brackets corresponds to picking up three momentum factors from the propagator numerators , while the second contains two kk mass factors . in appendix [ ap : diags ] we provide the expressions corresponding to ( [ diag1text ] ) , ( [ diag1text2 ] ) for all 21 one - particle irreducible diagrams shown in figure [ fig : diagsall ] . we note that at this point the integral over the coordinate @xmath214 of the external photon vertex could be performed analytically . since the photon zero mode is constant and combines with @xmath221 to the dimensionless 4d electric charge , the remaining @xmath214-integral is @xmath222 and a similar expression for the mass terms . the key point is that the @xmath214-integral is the orthogonality relation of the fermion mode functions . thus , the kk number is not changed at the external photon vertex and the remaining sum involves only two mode functions . the kk sum can be expressed in terms of bessel functions . however , the result is algebraically complicated , so we do not make use of this simplification in the numerical evaluation of the diagrams . returning to ( [ diag1text2 ] ) we perform the expansion in the small external momenta @xmath207 , @xmath208 and pick up the terms linear in the momenta , since these produce the electromagnetic dipole structure @xmath223 after application of the gordon identity . since the various @xmath172-functions depend only on the square of the four - momentum argument , this expansion can be done by using , e.g. , @xmath224 the derivatives of all required propagator functions are listed in appendix [ app : expansions ] . in feynman gauge ( where the gauge boson propagator is proportional to @xmath225 ) , the first term in square brackets in ( [ diag1text2 ] ) turns into @xmath226 \bigg\}\,,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where terms odd in the loop momentum @xmath146 have already been dropped , since they integrate to zero . the angular integrations can now be done trivially . in the above integral we simply replace @xmath227 and perform the dirac algebra . employing the on - shell conditions , @xmath228 etc . what remains is a scalar integrand that depends on @xmath229 only , and the bulk coordinates @xmath230 . the integral can be evaluated numerically after performing the wick rotation @xmath231 . the propagators given explicitly in the appendix refer to these wick - rotated ( `` euclidean '' ) propagators . diagrams involving internal higgs lines are easier to evaluate , since the number of independent bulk coordinates to be integrated reduces to two or even one , due to the brane localization of the higgs field . for the numerical evaluation the loop integral needs to be ultraviolet and infrared finite . we find that the integration converges for large @xmath146 , as expected since the leading one - loop expression for the anomalous magnetic moment should not require uv renormalization . the diagrams are also ir finite with the exception of the internal insertion diagrams b1a and b1b , for which only the sum is finite , and the non - abelian diagram w8 . the ir divergence arises when all internal fermion modes are zero modes . there is no ir divergence in the internal insertion diagrams b3a , b3b with scalar hypercharge boson exchange , since the chirality - flip at the fermion-@xmath232 vertex forbids the propagation of zero modes in these diagrams . the existence of an ir divergence in b1a , b1b and w8 implies that the purely four - dimensional treatment described above potentially misses terms of the form @xmath233 . we discuss this further below . another comment is necessary on the diagrams with an external higgs insertion , such as b2a . the fermion propagator that connects the external higgs vertex to the internal gauge vertex is ( in this example ) @xmath234 if this expression contained a relevant @xmath235 contribution from the zero mode , the diagram would be long - distance sensitive , and the expansion in the small external momenta would be invalid . the second term is a mass term , see ( [ kkdecfermionpropagator ] ) , to which the zero mode can not contribute , since @xmath236 . hence this term can be expanded in @xmath207 , and since it depends only on @xmath237 , we can simply set @xmath238 to linear order . the zero mode is present in the first term , which contains @xmath239 . if the one - particle pole at @xmath240 remains in the final answer , then this part of the external higgs insertion into a zero mode needs to be amputated ; it corresponds to the first term in the sum of tree diagrams that sums to the sm lepton mass matrix . after amputation the remaining short - distance contribution is a one - loop correction to the chirality preserving @xmath241 vertex . the general @xmath241 vertex function with off - shell zero - mode fermions can be decomposed into `` on - shell '' and `` off - shell '' terms as follows : @xmath242 the first piece constitutes the correction to the on - shell @xmath241 vertex and is not relevant to the anomalous magnetic moment . it constitutes the long - distance piece that must be amputated . the off - shell term with a @xmath243 vanishes , since diagram b2a has an on - shell external @xmath208 line on the right . however , the @xmath244 term cancels the propagator factor @xmath245 from the internal fermion line , and represents a short - distance contribution that must be added to the matching coefficient of the dipole operator and hence contributes to @xmath18 . it follows that in all external insertion diagrams . diagrams b2b , b4b are treated similarly , with the appropriate modifications for an insertion into a line with momentum @xmath208 . ] we have two different contributions to consider . the first one can be obtained by replacing @xmath246 where the last expression follows from the explicit expression for the propagator functions given in the appendix . we note that the kk mode contribution to @xmath247 is not suppressed due to the large kk masses of order @xmath13 . thus , the external insertion diagrams are not suppressed relative to the internal insertions , contrary to what has been assumed in the previous literature , where the external insertions have been neglected . the second contribution stems from the off - shell vertex terms and explicitly contains the zero - mode propagator . it can be obtained via the replacement @xmath248 where the internal zero - mode pole is cancelled . we will refer to these second contributions as `` off - shell '' terms . they require the separate computation of the @xmath249 structure of the @xmath241 vertex , which can be obtained from the expansion in the small external momenta . the expansion must now be performed to second order , since we need the @xmath250 , @xmath251 structures in the vertex function @xmath252 . the second contribution appears to be suppressed by a power of the lepton mass matrix due to the two additional fermion zero mode profiles . the expansion of @xmath252 to second order brings an additional factor @xmath1 from the scale of the loop momentum . the ratio of the second to the first contribution can therefore be estimated as @xmath253 ^ 2\,,\ ] ] where we put @xmath254 for the second estimate . for symmetric bulk mass parameters @xmath255 such that @xmath256 , and anarchic yukawa couplings this is indeed of order @xmath257 , see ( [ 4dyukawa ] ) . for the other special choice @xmath258 we find @xmath259 for @xmath127 close to @xmath1 this approaches @xmath260 , and we obtain a lepton - mass independent suppression . thus , the `` off - shell '' terms are expected to be subleading for standard choices of the bulk mass parameters , which is indeed found in the exact numerical evaluation discussed in sec . [ subsec : singleflavour ] . we mentioned above that the naive four - dimensional calculation of the sum of the individually ir divergent diagrams b1a+b1b might be wrong , since it could miss terms of the form @xmath131 . a similar issue appears in the finite result ( [ betares ] ) for diagram ( b ) from figure [ fig:4ddiags ] , for which we would obtain zero , if the dirac algebra were performed naively in four dimensions . the finite results of both calculations depend on the treatment of @xmath113 in @xmath261 dimensions . in the following we show algebraically that the scheme dependence cancels if the same scheme is applied consistently to both parts , and that the finite result agrees with what we obtained above . both parts are limits of a diagram in the full 5d theory with fields expanded around the electroweak vacuum and massive zero - mode fermions . this diagram is finite ( as far as the @xmath262 structure is concerned ) . the divergences arise only when this diagram is split into a short - distance contribution from the kk scale , diagrams b1a+b1b , and a long - distance contribution from the electroweak and lepton mass scale , represented by the four - fermion operator insertion diagram . before factorizing the full - theory diagram we can freely anti - commute @xmath113 . the convention that corresponds to ( [ betares ] ) amounts to eliminating all chiral projectors except for two placed at the operator vertex @xmath263 . for consistency , the same convention must be applied to the starting expression for the diagrams b1a+b1b , which therefore reads @xmath264_{2 m } y^{\rm ( 5d)}_{mn}v_{n2 } ~ \frac{y_l}{2}\frac{y_e}{2 } \ , f^{(0)}_{l_m}(1/t)g^{(0)}_{e_n}(1/t ) \nonumber\\ & & \int^{1/t}_{1/k}\!\!dx dz \ , \frac{{f_{l_m}^{(0)}}^2\!(x)}{(k x)^4}\ , \frac{{g_{e_n}^{(0)}}^2\!(z)}{(k z)^4}\ , \,\mu^{2 \varepsilon } \int \!\!\frac{d^dl}{(2\pi)^d}\,\delta^{\rho\nu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l , x , z ) \nonumber \\ & & i^3\,\bar{l}_m(p^\prime ) \gamma_\rho p_l \frac{\slash p^{\,\prime}-\slash l}{(p^\prime - l)^2 } \left[\gamma^\mu \frac{\slash p-\slash l}{(p - l)^2 } + \frac{\slash p^{\,\prime}-\slash l}{(p^\prime - l)^2}\gamma^\mu \right ] \frac{\slash p-\slash l}{(p - l)^2 } \gamma_\nu p_r e_{n}(p)\,.\qquad \label{ddimb1}\end{aligned}\ ] ] to obtain this result , we write down the explicit expressions from appendix [ ap : diags ] and multiply it by @xmath265_{2i } v_{j2}$ ] so that the external states correspond to the sm muons in the mass eigenbasis . all fermion propagators can be replaced by zero - mode propagators , since only this term is ir divergent , and the chiral projectors are placed as discussed above . performing the integration over the bulk coordinate @xmath214 of the photon vertex , we arrive at ( [ ddimb1 ] ) . the ir divergence comes from @xmath149 , hence we can set @xmath266 in the zero - mode subtracted gauge - boson propagator . moreover , only the @xmath225 structure contributes to the ir divergence . after these simplifications , we can identify the expression ( [ bijstart ] ) for @xmath170 . we perform the expansion in external momenta and simplify the dirac algebra as much as possible . when the dirac structure is multiplied by a @xmath111 pole we do _ not _ anti - commute @xmath113 with @xmath267 , but since the external momenta are four - dimensional we may use that @xmath268 . the result of all this is that the ir sensitive contribution in the matching coefficient of the electromagnetic dipole operator is given by @xmath269 u(p , s).\quad \label{ircontribution}\end{aligned}\ ] ] the second term in brackets can not be further reduced without assumptions on @xmath113 . since @xmath270 vanishes in four dimensions , the entire expression is finite , but scheme - dependent . in the one - loop matrix element calculation of the four - fermion operator that led to ( [ betares ] ) we assumed the naive dimensional regularization ( ndr ) scheme to obtain the result in the last line . we repeat the calculation in an arbitrary scheme , leaving out the @xmath271 term , which is related to the matching coefficient of the electromagnetic dipole operator with @xmath272 and @xmath273 exchanged . it is easy to see that the ultraviolet @xmath111 pole in the one - loop matrix element ( [ betares ] ) that is relevant to the electromagnetic dipole transition is obtained correctly by approximating @xmath274 . dropping terms proportional to @xmath275 , we obtain @xmath276u(p , s ) . \label{uvcontribution}\end{aligned}\ ] ] now we can make the following two observations : * in the ndr scheme ( anti - commuting @xmath113 ) , between @xmath277u(p , s)$ ] , @xmath278 where the gordon identity is used in the last step , and the term not related to the electromagnetic dipole structure is dropped . then ( [ ircontribution ] ) is zero and ( [ uvcontribution ] ) coincides with ( [ betares ] ) . thus we reproduce the previous results . * in an arbitrary scheme the scheme - dependent terms drop out when summing @xmath279 and @xmath280 , and the result agrees with the one obtained before in the ndr scheme . this proves that the result is scheme - independent , and that the naive four - dimensional treatment of diagrams b1a , b1b fortuitously gives the correct result . a similar issue arises for the ir - sensitive diagram w8 , but in this case it turns out that the naive four - dimensional calculation needs to be corrected by a finite term of the form @xmath131 that is present when working consistently in @xmath281 dimensions . this finite term is scheme - dependent in general , and the scheme - dependence is compensated by the effective theory diagram ( d1 ) in figure [ fig:4ddiags ] . the zero result ( [ deltares ] ) for diagram ( d1 ) corresponds to a full - theory diagram in which the charged - higgs vertex in ( [ dim6broken ] ) is written as @xmath282 rather than @xmath283 . we must apply this convention consistently to diagram w8 as well . the ir sensitive part of w8 can be obtained from by replacing the internal fermion by the zero mode . then , rotating the external states to the mass eigenbasis by multiplying by @xmath265_{2 i } v_{j2}$ ] , the relevant part of w8 simplifies to @xmath284 \frac{\tau^a}{2}\right)_{\!\!22 } \left(\frac{-it^3}{k^3}\right ) \frac{[u^\dagger]_{2i } vy^{\rm ( 5d)}_{ij } v_{j2}}{\sqrt{2 } } f^{(0)}_{l_i}(1/t)g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \nonumber\\ & \times \mu^{2 \varepsilon}\int \!\!\frac{d^dl}{(2\pi)^d}\ , \int^{1/t}_{1/k}\!\!dx \ , \frac{{f_{l_i}^{(0)}}^2(x)}{(k x)^4 } \delta^{\rho\nu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^\prime - l , x,1/t ) f^{(0)}_{\gamma}(1/t ) \nonumber\\ & \times i^3 \,\bar l(p^\prime ) p_r \frac { ( p^\prime - l)_\nu\gamma_\rho\slashed{l } ( p+ p^\prime-2 l)^\mu } { ( p - l)^2 ( p^\prime - l)^2 l^2 } p_r e(p)\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] exploiting @xmath285 , which follows from ( [ gaugepropansatz ] ) , @xmath286 and @xmath287 , this simplifies further to @xmath288_{2i } u_{i2 } \,\mu^{2 \varepsilon}\int \!\!\frac{d^dl}{(2\pi)^d}\ , \int^{1/t}_{1/k}\!\!dx \ , \frac{{f_{l_i}^{(0)}}^2(x)}{(k x)^4 } \delta_{\parallel}^{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^\prime - l , x,1/t,\xi ) \nonumber\\ & & \times \bar l(p^\prime ) p_r \frac{(\slashed{p}^\prime-\slashed{l } ) \slashed{l } ( p+ p^\prime-2 l)^\mu } { ( p - l)^2 ( p^\prime - l)^2 l^2 } p_r e(p)\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] since the difference to the naive four - dimensional calculation arises only from @xmath149 , we apply a cut - off @xmath289 to the loop momentum . this allows us to set the gauge - boson propagator momentum to zero without generating a spurious uv divergence , and to identify the coefficient function @xmath194 , since @xmath290 . expansion to linear order in @xmath207 , @xmath208 results in @xmath291_{2i } u_{i2 } \,\mu^{2 \varepsilon}\int\limits^{\lambda } \!\!\frac{d^dl}{(2\pi)^d}\ , \frac{1}{l^4}\left[(p+p^\prime)^\mu- \frac{4 l^\mu ( p+p^\prime)\cdot l}{l^2}\right ] \nonumber\\ & & \times \bar l(p^\prime ) p_r e(p)\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] the difference between the correct and naive treatment comes from the second term in square brackets , where we must use @xmath292 instead of @xmath293 as done in the four - dimensional treatment of the integrand . using the definition ( [ couplingdefs ] ) of @xmath294 , we therefore find that the difference between the @xmath261-dimensional and four - dimensional result that must be added to the naive four - dimensional treatment of w8 is @xmath295 the result is independent of the arbitrary cut - off as it should be and is part of @xmath296 , the coefficient of the class-0 operator @xmath205 . we can check ( [ irterminw8 ] ) by noting that it should be minus the uv sensitive @xmath297 term in the matrix element calculation that led to ( [ chargedhiggsoperatorsuv ] ) . since @xmath99 this is indeed the case . in principle the issue of scheme - dependence could also occur for diagrams b5a , b5b and w3 , related to the effective theory diagrams ( c1 ) , ( c2 ) . however , it can be checked that in this case our convention for the position of the chiral projection operators in ( [ dim6broken ] ) implies that diagrams ( c1 ) and ( c2 ) are always zero and accordingly there are no @xmath297 terms in b5a , b5b and w3 . to check the gauge independence of the matching coefficient , we performed the calculation in 5d @xmath298 gauge , and verified that our numerical result is independent of @xmath299 for a range of values of @xmath299 . we also checked analytically that the @xmath299-dependent terms cancel . the proof is too lengthy to be presented here explicitly , but we find it instructive to discuss the structure of the argument and the key algebraic identities . it is clear that the subsets of diagrams with hypercharge and su(2 ) gauge boson exchange must be separately gauge - independent . it is also evident that the five diagrams bxa and the other five hypercharge exchange diagrams bxb must be separately invariant , since the dependence on the bulk mass parameters @xmath201 and @xmath300 is different whether the higgs coupling to the fermion is to the left or to the right of the one of the external photon . hence we consider first b1a to b5a , see figure [ fig : diagsall ] . the gauge - parameter dependence arises from the scalar gauge boson propagator @xmath301 ( see ( [ gaugeprop5def ] ) , ( [ gaugeprop5 ] ) ) and the longitudinal part @xmath302 of the vector gauge boson propagator . in diagrams b1a , b2a and b5a we therefore replace @xmath303 by the previous expression . using ( [ eq : gaugemoderelation ] ) , the mode representation of the propagator , and the completeness relation @xmath304 we derive the identity @xmath305 which is used to eliminate the propagator of the scalar component of the gauge boson in diagrams b3a and b4a . at this point all gauge - dependence is in the expression @xmath306 , which appears in all five diagrams . the delta - function term in ( [ del5remove ] ) results in a @xmath299-independent expression that can be ignored . to proceed we need an identity that relates the different diagram topologies internal insertions ( b1a , b3a ) , external insertions ( b2a , b4a ) , and higgs ( b5a ) diagrams . this is obtained as follows . after using ( [ del5remove ] ) , we integrate by parts the bulk coordinate derivatives on @xmath155 , which yields the corresponding derivatives on the two fermion propagators ( b3a ) , or one propagator and one external zero mode ( b4a ) adjacent to the gauge boson vertex . now we can use successively identities such as @xmath307 & & \hspace{1 cm } + \ , i \delta_i^l(p_1,x , z ) \delta(z - y ) - i \delta_i^l(p_2,z , y ) \delta(x - z ) \label{fermionrel}\end{aligned}\ ] ] which follow from the defining equations for the fermion propagator ( [ inversediracop ] ) , ( [ defdiracop ] ) . if one of the propagators on the left - hand side of ( [ fermionrel ] ) is an external zero mode , the corresponding delta - function and momentum term is absent . when this is used in b3a and b4a , the first term on the right - hand side of ( [ fermionrel ] ) cancels precisely the gauge - dependent terms of b1a and b2a , respectively , leaving over only the delta - function terms and the higgs diagram b5a . some of the delta - function terms vanish , since the remaining integral is independent of @xmath208 ( @xmath207 ) , such that the loop integral must result in @xmath308 ( @xmath309 ) . the surviving two terms correspond to diagrams with one deleted propagator . inspection shows that these two terms and the higgs diagram b5a are identical up to a different hypercharge prefactor . the prefactors are such that we obtain @xmath310 } - y_e \,\mbox{[b4a ] } - y_\phi \,\mbox{[b5a ] } = -1 + 2 - 1 = 0,\ ] ] which proves the gauge - parameter independence of the abelian diagrams b1a to b5a . the algebra works out in the same way for the symmetric diagrams b1b to b5b . the proof of gauge invariance of the su(2 ) gauge boson contributions though similar is more involved and we only make a few remarks . first , the three abelian diagram topologies w1 to w3 are by themselves gauge - independent , and the proof proceeds as above . the remaining eight genuinely non - abelian diagrams w4 to w10 can also be split into two groups using the structure of the vertices and propagators . it is useful to begin with diagram w5 containing two internal scalar w bosons , with @xmath311 vertex @xmath312 , and to proceed by treating the two terms separately . to show the gauge cancellation , identities such as @xmath313 \partial_y\delta_\perp(k , y , x ) = - \int_{1/k}^{1/t}\frac{dy}{k y}\ , \delta_\parallel(k , z , y,\xi ) \left[y\partial_y\frac{1}{y}\partial_y \delta_\perp(k , y , x)\right]\ ] ] must be used , where the derivative term on the right - hand - side can subsequently be eliminated by the equation of motion ( [ 1steqgaugeprop ] ) for the gauge - boson propagator , and the boundary terms in the partial integration vanish due to the orbifold boundary conditions on the branes . to simplify the proof of gauge - invariance of the genuinely non - abelian diagrams we assumed that the external photon has physical transverse polarization , @xmath314 . the calculation of the diagrams of figure [ fig : diagsall ] does not produce the expected form factor @xmath315 which can be converted into the anomalous magnetic moment structure via the gordon identity . instead , we find different coefficients of @xmath316 and @xmath317 , that is , there is an extra @xmath275 term . more precisely , we find a nonzero coefficient @xmath318 for the structure @xmath319 arising only from the genuinely non - abelian diagrams w4 to w10 in figure [ fig : diagsall ] . it can be shown that the same diagrams , but with an incoming doublet and outgoing su(2 ) singlet field lead to the appearance of the structure @xmath320 with coefficient @xmath321 . thus , the vertex function ( [ formfactor ] ) contains the parity - violating term @xmath322 we find analytically that the overall dependence of @xmath318 on the external lepton mass is @xmath323 where @xmath324 is independent of the mass of external states . therefore ( [ qformfactor ] ) can be rewritten as @xmath325 the presence of such a term does not necessarily violate the ward identity for the vertex function . the most general vertex function of on - shell fermions compatible with u(1)@xmath326 gauge invariance is given by ( see , e.g. , @xcite ) @xmath327 u(p , s ) \label{formfactorextended}\end{aligned}\ ] ] the form factor @xmath328 is related to the so - called anapole moment of the lepton . contrary to the magnetic and electric dipole moment the anapole moment is gauge - dependent @xcite and by itself not a physical observable . it is , however , non - zero in the standard model @xcite . since we dropped the @xmath329 terms in the course of our calculation , the left - over @xmath275 terms ( [ qformfactor2 ] ) should be interpreted as the rs contribution to the anapole moment of the muon . they are irrelevant for the dipole moment calculation . the @xmath330 term can be removed either analytically or by averaging the coefficients of @xmath316 and @xmath331 to extract the coefficient of @xmath133 . 0.3 cm in fact , there is an entire class of one - particle reducible ( 1pr ) diagrams shown in figure [ fig:1prdiags ] , which generates only terms @xmath332 . the diagrams in the first row give a short - distance contribution if the internal higgs propagator connecting to the fermion line is cancelled . in this case the contributions are finite and have exactly the same structure as the @xmath275 term arising from the diagrams of figure [ fig : diagsall ] discussed above . the diagrams in the second row of figure [ fig:1prdiags ] are different in that they are not only gauge dependent but also suffer from uv divergences . this is not a problem per se as the anapole moment is known to have both features already in the sm @xcite . in any case , we do not have to consider the contributions from the self - energy like 1pr diagrams further , since we are not interested in the anapole moment . the evaluation of the wilson coefficient of the electromagnetic dipole operator requires the numerical evaluation of up to four - dimensional integrals . the integration variables are typically three 5d coordinates and the modulus of the loop momentum . for @xmath333 the bessel functions in the propagators behave like exponentials and it is possible to determine the asymptotic behaviour of the integrand analytically . the numerical integration of the integrand in the high - momentum region is time - consuming and introduces significant uncertainties . the origin of this problem is large cancellations between the different bessel functions in the propagators . thus , we perform the 5d position integrals over the whole ( length ) of the fifth dimension , but limit the integral over the modulus of the momentum to the region below some momentum cut - off . in the high - momentum region we replace the integrand by its leading asymptotic behaviour , and integrate it from the cut - off to @xmath334 . in practice a cut - off of @xmath335 is already sufficiently high . in order to estimate the uncertainty associated with this approximation we vary the cut - off in the interval from @xmath336 to @xmath337 ; the typical uncertainties are of the order of a few per mille . some of the propagator functions feature discontinuous behaviour if two bulk coordinates coincide ( see appendix [ app : propagators ] ) . both speed and precision of the evaluation can be improved by explicitly splitting the integration domain into sectors where the integrand is continuous . this approach appears to be slightly more efficient than using a coordinate transformation to make the discontinuities manifest by mapping them onto the coordinate axes . separating the different regions leads to a reduction of uncertainties by about a factor of 2 to 10 , depending on the amount of discontinuous propagators ( and thus regions ) in the diagram . the calculation is performed in general covariant gauge . since the gauge invariant subsets of feynman diagrams are known ( see sec . [ gaugeinvariance ] ) a numerical verification of gauge invariance provides a powerful check for our code . furthermore , the error estimates provided by standard integration routines can be checked by using the small spurious residual dependence of @xmath22 on the gauge parameter @xmath299 . very large gauge parameters are numerically difficult to handle , but the limit @xmath338 , i.e. unitary gauge , can be performed analytically on the level of propagators and gives consistent results . limit can be taken before integration over loop momentum . however , for the anomalous magnetic moment terms we find that they are already gauge - parameter independent after integrating over bulk positions , at fixed value of 4d loop momentum @xmath146 . ] for the error estimates we typically choose @xmath339 and @xmath340 as reference gauge parameters . this choice already changes the contributions of individual diagrams significantly and provides a reliable check on the gauge - independence of the sum within numerical uncertainties . for instance , the result for the gauge invariant set of diagrams with an internal hypercharge boson ( b1-b5b ) varies by one to three percent when changing the the gauge parameter by a factor four , while the individual diagrams experience changes of order one . a similar behaviour is found for the genuinely non - abelian diagrams ( w4-w10 ) ; here the variation of the sum does not exceed two percent . the abelian @xmath341 diagrams also form a gauge invariant subset . however , the sum of w1 , w2 and w3 is over two orders of magnitude smaller than the individual diagrams . this large cancellation makes the result numerically unstable and prohibits a check of the @xmath299 independence . due to this cancellation the abelian @xmath341 diagrams are not important for the determination of @xmath22 . it should be noted that the gauge invariance proof in sec . [ gaugeinvariance ] does not discriminate between `` on - shell '' and `` off - shell '' terms as it takes into account the full propagator of the external fermion . that is , only the sum of both sets of terms needs to be gauge invariant . indeed we find numerically that the `` off - shell '' terms alone are @xmath299-dependent , but we checked analytically that the gauge - dependent terms are of the form @xmath342 and hence can combine with the other terms to a gauge - independent result . due to the relative smallness of the `` off - shell '' terms ( see also sec . [ subsec : singleflavour ] ) it is not possible to verify within the numerical accuracy that the on - shell terms contain a tiny residual gauge - dependence that cancels this @xmath299-dependence . the analytic proof , however , shows that this must be the case . as a further check we work with two separate implementations of our evaluation strategy , which both rely on mathematica to handle the numerical integrations . after combining the uncertainty due to the extrapolation and the error estimate for the integration itself , we determine @xmath22 with a typical uncertainty at the percent level . the overall evaluation time generally depends on the specific choice of the 5d input parameters and the desired precision ; a typical runtime for the results presented in sec . [ sec : result ] is @xmath343hours on an intel i7 - 950 3.4 ghz processor . 0.3 cm propagator . the leading contributions come from higher - dimension operators generated by diagrams such as the right one.,title="fig:",width=340 ] we note that the diagrams in figure [ fig : diagsall ] contain internal higgs lines , but they do not correspond to the usual higgs exchange contributions . for example , the sm higgs contribution to @xmath18 is not part of the zero mode contributions of these diagrams . the higgs exchange diagrams with an internal insertion , such as shown in figure [ fig : impossiblehiggs ] left , can not exist at the level of dimension - six operators @xmath344 , since the internal higgs propagator would correspond to the ( non - existing ) @xmath345 contraction of the higgs doublet , while the external line would be @xmath346 rather than @xmath33 . the leading higgs exchange contribution with all higgs interactions in the loop are generated at one loop by diagrams such as in figure [ fig : impossiblehiggs ] right . this corresponds to dimension-8 operators of the form @xmath347_{ij } \,\bar l_i\phi\sigma_{\mu\nu } e_j f^{\mu\nu } \phi^\dagger\phi\ , , \label{dim8higgs}\ ] ] and implies an additional @xmath348 suppression relative to the gauge - boson contribution . the loop integral is infrared divergent due to the two ( massless ) higgs propagators , which results in an additional logarithm of @xmath13 , similar to the @xmath349 in the sm higgs contribution . in the present paper , we do not address dimension-8 operators . the above operator , generated by higgs exchange , despite being suppressed , may , however , be of interest for flavour - changing processes , since it depends on the flavour structure @xmath350 of yukawa couplings , whereas the dimension-6 operators are proportional to a single yukawa matrix @xcite . however , there are contributions involving @xmath350 already at the dimension-6 level as we discuss next . the diagrams in figure [ fig : nonzerohiggs ] have an external higgs insertion , which allows for an internal higgs propagator . however , they contain either chiral components of the brane - to - brane fermion propagator that naively vanish because of @xmath351 , or require the external fermion propagator to be an on - shell zero - mode . we now discuss that in both cases there is a non - vanishing contribution to the matching coefficient of the dimension - six electromagnetic dipole operator , but argue that it is numerically small relative to the gauge - boson exchange term . 0.3 cm a sharp delta - function localized higgs profile leads to ambiguities in the interactions with 5d fields . in the kk - decomposed theory , after electroweak symmetry breaking , this becomes evident , when one solves the mode equations for the fermions @xcite . in the 5d unbroken theory the problem arises from the discontinuities of the 5d propagators at coincident points , when these points approach the tev brane coordinate @xmath11 . to avoid these ambiguities it is required to define the brane localized minimal rs model by the limit of a model with a regularized higgs profile with a small width @xmath352 , where @xmath353 as discussed in @xcite . since the fermion modes @xmath354 and @xmath355 vanish only directly on the brane , the finite width of the higgs profile leads to a non - vanishing coupling of the left - handed singlet and right - handed doublet modes to the higgs field , which is referred to as wrong - chirality higgs coupling ( wchc ) . the treatment of these couplings is subtle , since it involves very high kk excitations with @xmath356 , such that the limits of mode number to infinity and higgs regulator to zero do not necessarily commute @xcite . since we use 5d propagators , all kk modes are already summed , that is , we implicitly take the limit of the higgs regulator @xmath357 to zero after the sum over all kk modes . we comment below on how the presence of a cut - off on the scale of validity of the rs model might affect our result . it is convenient to consider a simple step - function higgs profile of the form @xmath358 with a dimensionless parameter @xmath359 . this choice for the profile and , up to small corrections of order @xmath348 , also for the higgs vacuum expectation value allows for an analytical calculation of the higgs - exchange diagrams . note that we consider ( [ higgsprofile ] ) as a regularization of the minimal rs model , implying @xmath360 in the end , and hence do not need to address the question which dynamics might generate this profile as a solution to the field equations . we calculate the diagrams shown in figure [ fig : nonzerohiggs ] starting from an expression , where all three higgs vertices are delocalized . in the limit @xmath360 , we find that the resulting contribution to the matching coefficient @xmath361 of the electromagnetic dipole operator takes the simple expression @xmath362_{ij } g_{e_j}^{(0)}(1/t)\ , , \label{aijwchc}\ ] ] where @xmath363 is a constant that can be computed analytically , and @xmath364 is the dimensionless 5d yukawa matrix . the expression after the @xmath19 symbol is dimensionless and depends on the 5d mass parameters @xmath300 , @xmath201 and scales @xmath143 , @xmath13 only through the 4d yukawa matrix @xmath365 , since @xmath366 see ( [ 4dyukawa ] ) . the presence of three yukawa matrices makes these diagrams particularly important for lepton - flavour changing observables . the details of the calculation and the flavour aspects will be presented in @xcite . the contribution of to @xmath367 is more model - dependent than the gauge - boson contributions as there is no general argument that connects the size of the elements of @xmath28 to those of the product @xmath368 . in the model with all entries of @xmath28 of the same order , and assuming no cancellations that introduce structure to the product of three anarchic yukawa matrices , we can use the current bound on the @xmath369 decay rate @xcite , which involves exactly the same diagrams , to constrain the product of yukawa factors and @xmath370 . this leads to a rough upper limit on the size of the higgs - exchange contribution to @xmath367 , @xmath371 which is independent of the kk scale @xmath13 . thus , higgs exchange is always irrelevant phenomenologically unless there is a significant enhancement of the yukawa coupling factor relevant to the muon anomalous magnetic moment relative to the anarchic estimate . if we abandon the assumption of anarchy as might be suggested by the strong constraint from lepton flavour violation , we can not use the @xmath369 decay rate to constrain the higgs contribution to @xmath53 as the two observables are not governed by the same model parameters . however , the requirement that the higgs contribution does not exceed the present experimental measurement of @xmath22 still imposes a constraint on the product of yukawa couplings as will be discussed in the next section . since the rs models should be defined as an effective theory with cut - off @xmath372 , it may be argued that the kk sum should be truncated once the kk masses exceed @xmath42 , and that the loop momentum in the diagrams of figure [ fig : nonzerohiggs ] should be restricted to values smaller than the cut - off . when the brane - localization limit @xmath360 is taken at fixed @xmath42 , the wrong - chirality higgs - coupling contribution to @xmath367 vanishes . alternatively , we may interpret brane localization as @xmath373 , in which case there is no simple analytic result for @xmath374 , but the magnitude is similar to ( [ aijwchc ] ) . thus , the rough bound ( [ wchcestimate ] ) should remain valid independent of the precise relation between @xmath357 and @xmath42 and the order of limits . the different treatments of the order of limit amounts to a different definition of the meaning of `` brane localization '' and hence the model itself . the higgs - exchange contribution ( contrary to the gauge boson exchange contribution discussed later ) is therefore model - dependent . a similar situation arises in the calculation of higgs production @xcite . there is another higgs contribution to electromagnetic dipole transitions at order @xmath161 that arises from the class-1 operator @xmath375 , which was not included in ( [ dim61 ] ) , since @xmath376 is non - zero only when the wrong - chirality higgs couplings are taken into account . tree - level matching with the step - function higgs profile ( [ higgsprofile ] ) gives the coefficient function ( see also @xcite ) @xmath377_{ij } g_{e_j}^{(0)}(1/t)\ , , \label{hijwchc}\ ] ] which differs from ( [ aijwchc ] ) only by the absence of the electromagnetic coupling and the loop factor . when two of the higgs fields in @xmath378 are put to their vacuum expectation values , this operator modifies the yukawa couplings and leads to flavour - changing couplings of the zero - mode fermions to the higgs boson . inserting this vertex into the higgs - exchange contribution to the electromagentic dipole transition similar to diagrams c and d of figure [ fig:4ddiags ] , we find that the result is suppressed relative to ( [ aijwchc ] ) by a factor of [ lepton mass]@xmath379 , where @xmath380 is the physical higgs mass . the additional lepton mass factors arise from the 4d yukawa coupling at one of the higgs - fermion vertices and the need for a helicity flip in the loop . thus , the higgs - exchange contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment and to radiative lepton flavour violating transtions from loop momentum @xmath381 is strongly suppressed relative to the contribution ( [ aijwchc ] ) that is generated at the kk scale . each of the three diagrams in figure [ fig : nonzerohiggs ] also contains `` off - shell '' contributions of the type discussed in sec . [ subsec : external ] , where the external zero - mode propagator is cancelled , resulting in a local short - distance contribution . since the zero mode always has the right chirality , the `` off - shell '' terms do not involve wrong - chirality higgs couplings , and we can work with a brane - localized higgs field from the start . then the diagrams involve at most one bulk coordinate integral from the photon vertex . this integral can be taken analytically , as well as the remaining integral over the loop momentum . here it proves useful to use the kk decomposition of the internal fermion propagators . the zero mode has to be subtracted from the internal propagators , since their contribution can not be associated with the kk scale @xmath13 . this subtraction also renders the loop integral infrared finite . the dependence on lepton flavour of the off - shell terms is of the form . ] @xmath382_{hk } y_{kj } [ f^{(0)}_{l_k}(1/t)]^2 g_{e_j}^{(0)}(1/t ) . \vspace{-0.4cm}\ ] ] due to the extra factor @xmath383 ^ 2 $ ] there is now a strong dependence on the bulk mass parameters in addition to the explicit form of the yukawa matrices , which makes it difficult to give a precise estimate for the off - shell higgs contribution to @xmath18 . for the symmetric choice of bulk mass parameters , @xmath384 , we expect the product @xmath383 ^ 2 $ ] to count as a factor of lepton mass @xmath145 ; in this case the `` off - shell '' contribution is small relative to the wchc contribution . in general , it can be of similar size . in principle this would allow for a flavour - specific cancellation between the two contributions , that is , a cancellation for @xmath16 , but not for the flavour - diagonal quantity @xmath18 , in which case the bound ( [ wchcestimate ] ) is invalidated . however , if we assume that the bulk mass parameters and anarchic yukawa matrices do not conspire in this way , the sum of all three `` off - shell '' higgs diagrams is two orders of magnitude smaller than the experimental uncertainty on @xmath53 , and hence negligible . naturally the question arises whether there exist contributions with wchcs in the gauge boson exchange diagrams of figure [ fig : diagsall ] . inspection shows that only the internal insertion diagrams b1a / b and b3a / b contain non - vanishing wrong - chirality higgs - fermion vertices , once the higgs profile is regulated by a finite width . the following analysis demonstrates , however , that these contribution vanish as @xmath385 , when the higgs profile regulator @xmath357 is removed . this should be contrasted to the case of the higgs - exchange diagrams discussed above , where the finite contribution ( [ aijwchc ] ) survives in the @xmath360 limit . we analyze the loop momentum integrand in the two regions @xmath386 and @xmath387 according to whether the loop momentum is much smaller ( larger ) than the width of the higgs profile at the tev brane . we assume @xmath353 and hence @xmath388 . for concreteness , we consider only a single term in the complete expression for diagram b1a ; the following arguments are general and also apply to the other terms and diagrams . consider therefore the expression @xmath389 the wrong - chirality higgs coupling appears at the vertex with bulk coordinate @xmath37 , which is confined to @xmath390 due to ( [ higgsprofile ] ) . each of the propagators @xmath391 and @xmath392 vanishes if @xmath37 is exactly equal to @xmath1 . let us start with the region of loop momentum much smaller than the inverse higgs profile width @xmath393 , in which case we can expand the wrong - chirality propagator functions for * @xmath394 * and @xmath395 . an important point is that propagator functions such as ( see ( [ dpfml ] ) ) @xmath396 are discontinuous at @xmath397 . acting on @xmath391 generates factor of @xmath398 , ] the second term is @xmath385 , since @xmath399 and @xmath37 is within distance @xmath352 near @xmath1 , while the first one is @xmath400 . but the first term is only operative , when @xmath401 , which constrains @xmath214 to be within the narrow higgs profile . this immediately leads to the following counting for the four different orderings for the coordinates @xmath37,@xmath402 and @xmath214 ( the arguments of the critical propagator functions ) : ( a ) @xmath403 , ( b ) @xmath404 , ( c ) @xmath405 and ( d ) @xmath406 . * for @xmath403 the product @xmath407 is of order @xmath408 . the @xmath37-integral provides a power of @xmath357 from the length of the integration interval and @xmath393 from the height of the higgs profile , so the whole contribution from ( a ) vanishes as @xmath408 for @xmath360 . * in case of @xmath404 , @xmath392 still counts as @xmath409 , but @xmath391 loses its suppression factor , since now the first line of ( [ dpfmlexample ] ) is the relevant one . hence , @xmath410 . now note that the requirement @xmath404 means that @xmath214 must be in @xmath411 , so the @xmath214 integration interval counts as @xmath412 . collecting all factors of @xmath357 , we see that the loop momentum integrand again scales as @xmath408 . * for @xmath405 the counting is obviously analogous to ( b ) . * for @xmath406 both propagators lose their @xmath357 suppression . however , both , the @xmath214 and the @xmath402 integration , are now limited to the interval @xmath411 . this restores the overall factor of @xmath408 . we see that irrespective of the ordering of bulk coordinates , the loop momentum integrand vanishes as @xmath408 for @xmath360 in the momentum region @xmath413 . as this point we expand the propagator functions in @xmath414 and @xmath415 and find that after carrying out the angular integration the loop momentum integrand is nearly constant ( that is , @xmath416 ) over the interval from @xmath150 to @xmath417 . hence the final integral over @xmath418 provides a factor @xmath419 and the entire diagram with loop momentum cut off at @xmath393 vanishes as @xmath385 when the higgs profile regularization is removed . it remains to estimate the contribution from very large loop momentum . when @xmath420 ( but still @xmath421 ) we find that the propagators exhibit universal behaviour . let @xmath422 be the distance between starting and end point of the propagation in the fifth dimension . then the propagators all behave as @xmath423 . hence , the coordinate integrals have support only if all coordinates are within a typical distance of order @xmath424 of each other ; otherwise the integrand is exponentially small . changing the integration variables from @xmath425 to @xmath426 we see that each integration over distance differences , e.g. @xmath427 , counts as @xmath424 . only the @xmath37 integral gives a factor of @xmath352 that is cancelled by the higgs profile height @xmath393 . collecting all factors shows that after integration over the bulk coordinates the remaining loop - momentum integrand is independent of @xmath357 and scales as @xmath428 . thus the integration over @xmath146 from @xmath393 to infinity scales as @xmath357 . this proves that the entire expression ( [ gaugewchexample ] ) vanishes in the limit @xmath360 , when the regularization of the higgs brane localization is removed . in a similar fashion all other terms with wrong - chirality higgs couplings in gauge boson exchange diagrams can be shown to vanish in the limit @xmath429 , so no correction needs to be applied to the calculation performed in the model with an exactly brane - localized higgs field . we now discuss our result for the muon anomalous magnetic moment . we will mostly restrict ourselves to the single - flavour approximation , and discuss briefly below why it should be a good approximation to neglect lepton - flavour changing contributions for the gauge boson diagrams . in this case the matching coefficients @xmath430 ( dipole operator ) and @xmath431 ( four - fermion operator ) defined in ( [ dim6broken ] ) are functions of @xmath143 , @xmath13 , the two bulk - mass parameters @xmath432 , @xmath433 , and the dimensionless 5d yukawa coupling @xmath434 . we fix the planck scale quantity @xmath143 to @xmath435gev @xcite , and determine @xmath433 from the value of the muon mass @xmath436mev through ( [ 4dyukawa ] ) , for given @xmath13 , @xmath432 , and @xmath437 . the other parameters that enter the analysis are the weinberg angle @xmath438 , the electromagnetic coupling @xmath439 , and the higgs vacuum expectation value @xmath440gev . the contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment from the four - fermion operator follows from ( [ amures ] ) and ( [ bsingflavour ] ) : @xmath441_{\rm 4f } = -\frac{m_\mu^2}{t^2}\,\frac{\beta}{4\pi^2 } = \frac{\alpha_{\rm em}}{8\pi c_w^2 } \,\frac{m_\mu^2}{t^2 } \,\frac{1}{\ln\frac{1}{\epsilon } } \ , f(\epsilon , c_l , c_e ) \approx 1.2\cdot 10^{-13}\,\times ( 1\,\mbox{tev}/t)^2 . \label{4fnum}\ ] ] in the last expression we adopted @xmath442tev and symmetric bulk mass parameters @xmath443 , which leads to @xmath187 , and made the dominant dependence on @xmath13 explicit . thus , the four - fermion operator makes a negligible contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment compared to the dipole operator discussed below , mainly due to the @xmath444 suppression . we find that @xmath445 is always a good approximation , independent of the values of @xmath13 and @xmath437 , when the bulk mass parameters are near the symmetric value . this can be different when @xmath432 is larger than about 0.65 , or smaller than 0.5 , but ( except for extreme choices of @xmath432 where @xmath433 becomes positive ) @xmath191 is never large enough to compensate the @xmath446 suppression . therefore we drop the four - fermion operator contribution from the further discussion . the contribution from the electromagnetic dipole operator is determined by five - dimensional loop integrals . for their evaluation we have to rely on numerical integration and must add to take the additional term from w8 into account . before discussing the result , we provide an order - of - magnitude estimate of this contribution . since the loop is dominated by momenta of order of the kk scale @xmath13 , one might expect the dimensionless wilson coefficient @xmath447 in to be of order @xmath448 . according to ( [ amures ] ) this would result in @xmath449 , which is very large . this estimate is , however , too naive as it does not take into account the wave functions of the external 5d states . the photon zero - mode profile provides a factor of @xmath450 . the conversion factors for the gauge couplings @xmath451 amount to @xmath452 , since the one - loop diagrams involve three gauge couplings . thus , we obtain an overall factor @xmath453 . furthermore , the external fermion zero - modes provide a factor of @xmath454 . since the integrals over the bulk coordinates are dominated by @xmath455 , we expect that @xmath447 is roughly proportional to @xmath456 . together with the vacuum expectation value @xmath457 in ( [ amures ] ) from the higgs insertion , this counts as a factor of order @xmath458 . the contribution to @xmath22 due to electromagnetic dipole operators is then estimated by arises from the loop diagram , the other from the definition of the @xmath95 form factor as coefficient of @xmath459 rather than @xmath460 . ] @xmath461 where the remaining loop factor should be @xmath462 . this estimate indicates that the contribution from the dipole operators is enhanced by a factor of the order @xmath463 compared to the contribution from the four - fermion operator ; this would lead to @xmath464 for @xmath465 , which is only a factor of three smaller than the present uncertainty of @xmath53 . for our numerical study it is convenient to split @xmath22 in contributions from an exchange of hypercharge @xmath466 bosons and @xmath341 bosons @xmath467_b + [ \delta a_\mu]_w\;\end{aligned}\ ] ] and to study them separately . the left panel in figure [ tdependence : fig ] shows the @xmath13 dependence of @xmath468_b$ ] ( dot - dashed ) and @xmath469_w$ ] ( dashed ) as well as the sum ( solid ) for the parameter choice @xmath470 and @xmath471 . note that the contribution due to hypercharge bosons @xmath466 has opposite sign than the non - abelian contribution . the dependence of @xmath22 on @xmath13 follows almost precisely the @xmath472 scaling , see . fitting the numerical @xmath13 dependence shown in figure [ tdependence : fig ] to @xmath473 one finds a best fit for @xmath474 . the contribution of to @xmath469_w$ ] is typically at the level of @xmath475 . this is consistent with the absence of a @xmath476 enhancement in . the left panel shows the result for @xmath22 for different choices of @xmath432 and @xmath437 normalized to @xmath477 . we see that the ratio is quite independent of the kk scale : the @xmath13 dependence is practically universal . also different choices of @xmath432 and @xmath437 change @xmath22 only mildly . from figure [ tdependence : fig ] we conclude not only that the correction to @xmath367 is quite insensitive to the specific choice for @xmath478 and the mass parameters @xmath432 and @xmath433 , but also that the estimate agrees fairly well with the numerical results if not for some amount of cancellation between @xmath479_w$ ] and @xmath479_b$ ] . explicit numerical values for a representative set of parameters are shown in table [ tevscaletable ] where a reference value of @xmath465 was used . .dependence of the contributions to @xmath22 on mass parameter asymmetry and yukawa coupling . @xmath13 has been fixed to @xmath480 . the uncertainties include the numerical error from the integration , and the uncertainty from the extrapolation and residual @xmath299 dependence . [ tevscaletable ] [ cols="^,^,^,^,^,^",options="header " , ] the robustness of the result with respect to the 5d parameters can be understood in the following way . consider the contribution from terms that do not have a fermion zero - mode propagator . as already mentioned above each external ( sm ) fermion comes with the corresponding zero - mode profile ; in our case @xmath481 and @xmath482 and we expect these mode factors together with the yukawa to combine roughly into a factor of the lepton mass . the dependence on the 5d parameters will then arise from the zero - mode subtracted fermion propagators . since the kk modes are quite insensitive to the 5d mass parameters the dependence is , as observed , mild . contributions from terms containing an explicit fermion zero - mode propagator , such as the so - called `` off - shell '' contributions or the ir sensitive part of w8 have two additional zero - mode factors ; for instance @xmath483 the product @xmath484 is very sensitive to the choice of the 5d mass parameters and one expects a much more pronounced dependence on 5d masses and yukawa couplings . however , as already argued in sec . [ subsec : external ] these terms will typically be suppressed and , hence , this effect is not seen in the total . we will illustrate this using the non - abelian diagrams as an example . consider the two special cases : a fixed doublet 5d mass such that @xmath485 and the symmetric choice @xmath470 . in all non - abelian diagrams contributing to the @xmath486 structure the actual loop is independent of @xmath433 ; thus after fixing @xmath485 the remaining dependence on @xmath433 from the external lines and on @xmath487 will always combine to a factor of the lepton mass @xmath109 irrespective whether a zero - mode propagator is involved or not . for the symmetric choice @xmath470 the identity @xmath488 suggests that the explicit factor @xmath484 for zero - mode propagators should count as an additional power of @xmath109 if the loop is dominated by the region very close to the ir brane . in this case the term with a zero - mode propagator will scale like @xmath489 rather than @xmath109 as for the remaining contributions . in particular , the `` off - shell '' diagrams which by definition have an explicit zero - mode propagator are sensitive to the 5d mass parameters and not necessarily proportional to the lepton mass . ; the dashed line refers to fixed @xmath490 , the dot - dashed one to the symmetric choice @xmath491 . diamonds correspond to electron , muon and tau mass , respectively . [ massdep : fig],scaledwidth=70.0% ] _ w$ ] on @xmath432 . squares correspond to the sum over all diagrams , circles to the `` off - shell '' terms only . [ zeromodesvsfull : fig],scaledwidth=70.0% ] to verify whether this intuitive picture is justified we study the lepton mass dependence of @xmath479_w$ ] numerically . figure [ massdep : fig ] shows the full contribution of all @xmath341 diagrams compared to the contribution of `` off - shell '' terms as a function of the lepton mass . and [ zeromodesvsfull : fig ] feynman gauge was used . furthermore , recall from the previous footnote that @xmath22 has one additional factor of @xmath109 relative to the coefficient function @xmath447 . ] both @xmath492 and @xmath493 are kept fixed . the total non - abelian contributions ( solid lines ) for both , the asymmetric and symmetric case are on top of each other and can not be distinguished on the logarithmic scale ; both are proportional to @xmath489 . the `` off - shell '' terms show exactly the same scaling for fixed doublet modes with @xmath494 ( dot - dashed line ) and are a factor @xmath495 smaller than the total contribution in agreement with our previous estimate . for @xmath496 ( dashed ) the lepton - mass dependence is more involved . following our argument above we expect @xmath497 behaviour . this is , however , only realized for lepton masses above @xmath498 . for leptons lighter than the muon we find same @xmath489 dependence as in the @xmath494 case . the source of this unexpected behaviour can be traced to two diagrams : w1 and w4 . both w1 and w4 contain a contribution where only fermion zero - modes propagate in the loop . our argument for the expected suppression of the off - shell terms by one additional power of the lepton mass relies on ir - brane dominance of the coordinate integrals due to the localization of the kk modes ( see sec . [ subsec : external ] ) . for the pure fermion zero - mode contribution this dominance is not present and these terms are only suppressed by a mass - independent factor instead of @xmath499 . the zero - mode terms are thus less suppressed for very light leptons and give rise to the @xmath500 behaviour in the low mass region of figure [ massdep : fig ] . the @xmath432 dependence of the different contributions to @xmath501_w$ ] is illustrated in figure [ zeromodesvsfull : fig ] . again sum over all diagrams shows almost no sensitivity whereas the small off - shell terms are quite sensitive to the specific choice for @xmath432 . using the overall dependence on @xmath502 and the relative insensitivity to mass parameters and yukawa couplings we can condense our result for the correction to @xmath18 in the minimal rs model into @xmath503 which is our main result . the exact results differ from this approximation by less than 10% for @xmath504 , @xmath505 and @xmath432 between @xmath506 and the symmetric choice . the difference between the current experimental average of the anomalous magnetic moments of @xmath507 and @xmath508 and the standard model prediction is given by @xcite @xmath509 where the two errors correspond to the combined experimental and theoretical uncertainties , respectively . since we find @xmath22 to be positive in the rs model , @xmath510 will be smaller than @xmath511 , decreasing the discrepancy between theory and experiment . however , the estimate shows that for @xmath512 the correction to @xmath513 is too small . even for a low kk scale of @xmath514 which corresponds to lowest kk excitations presently being excluded by direct searches , @xmath22 only reaches the level of @xmath515 of order of the error on @xmath53 , but too small to reconcile theory and experiment at the @xmath516 level . the above discussion applies to the gauge boson contribution to @xmath53 . in sec . [ subsec : higgs ] we already showed that in models with anarchic yukawa matrices the higgs - exchange contribution is limited to a few times @xmath517 , barring accidental cancellations that invalidate the @xmath16 constraint . abandoning the anarchy assumption , we may turn the argument around and try to glean some information on the specific product of three yukawa matrices that enters the higgs contribution from @xmath367 . to this end , we define the dimensionless quantity @xmath518_{2l}f_{l_l}^{(0)}(1/t ) [ y y^\dagger y]_{lm } g_{e_m}^{(0)}(1/t)v_{m2}\right]}{\sum_{lm}[u^\dagger]_{2l } f_{l_l}^{(0)}(1/t ) y_{lm } g_{e_m}^{(0)}(1/t)v_{m2}}\,,\end{aligned}\ ] ] which parametrises the flavour dependence of the contribution from to @xmath367 compared to a term with only a single yukawa matrix . note that the denominator of is simply the 4d muon yukawa coupling @xmath519 . from ( [ amures ] ) and we obtain @xmath520 adding the gauge - boson contribution this can be written as @xmath521\cdot 10^{-11}\,\times ( 1\,\mbox{tev}/t)^2\ ] ] with experimental and theoretical errors added linearly , the measurement ( [ smdeltaamu ] ) can then translated into the bound @xmath522 where we required that @xmath523 stays compatible with zero at the @xmath524 level . the pronounced asymmetry of upper and lower bound arises from the non - zero value of ( [ smdeltaamu ] ) . the limit is rather loose , reflecting the small coefficient of the higgs contribution , constraining the yukawa entries to `` average values '' of around @xmath525 to @xmath526 for @xmath442tev . for @xmath527 the higgs contribution is of the same order as the present theoretical uncertainty on @xmath367 , again for @xmath442tev . the bound weakens for larger kk scales . the generalization to the case with three lepton flavours is in principle straightforward : the yukawa factors have to be promoted to the @xmath528 yukawa matrix and the external muon states have to be represented in the mass basis , see ( [ eq : changebasis ] ) . in practice , this complicates the calculation , since it now depends on six bulk mass parameters and the full 5d yukawa matrix , and only three of these parameters can be eliminated by the known lepton masses . we now argue that this complication is not relevant for the gauge - boson contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment . in the interaction basis the only source of flavour change is the yukawa matrix itself . thus , independent of its topology each feynman diagram can schematically be written as @xmath529 where @xmath530 for external muon states . here @xmath531 and @xmath532 collect all factors depending on only flavour indices @xmath533 and @xmath534 , respectively . for the single - flavour approximation we observed that the dominant contribution to the dipole - operator wilson coefficient @xmath106 ( and thus to @xmath367 ) is largely insensitive to the specific choice for the 5d masses or yukawa couplings but depends linearly on the lepton mass . for the three - flavour case this means that the dominant contribution to @xmath367 is roughly proportional to the mass matrix : @xmath535_{\rm dom } \propto f^{(0)}_{l_i}(1/t)y_{ij}^{5d}g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t)\ , . \end{aligned}\ ] ] as the matrices @xmath536 and @xmath537 diagonalize the mass matrix @xmath538 the flavour dependence of the diagrams approximately combines into a lepton mass factor , irrespective of the specific choices of the bulk mass parameters @xmath201 , @xmath300 and 5d yukawa matrix . hence we can adopt the simplest choice for the calculation by taking the yukawa matrix diagonal , which corresponds to the single - flavour approximation . the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon is therefore reliably determined in this approximation , up to small corrections to ( [ eq : domcontrib ] ) , which are no larger than , e.g. , the effect of unaccounted higher dimensional operators . the fact that is , up to small corrections , already diagonal , implies that lepton flavour - violating transitions are suppressed . flavour - changing processes such as @xmath539 in the lepton sector or @xmath540 in the quark sector are therefore sensitive to the sub - dominant contributions that depend strongly on the 5d mass parameters . such terms arise , for example , when the internal fermion lines of a diagram propagate zero modes and the gauge boson is a kk mode ( see @xcite ) , or via the contribution of the `` off - shell '' part of the @xmath541 vertex with a subsequent mass insertion as discussed in the previous section . in this situation the suppression of `` off - shell '' diagrams is lifted and the terms have to be taken into account . also higgs exchange , though related to higher - dimensional operators , is relevant to flavour violation , since its different yukawa matrix dependence produces terms that are not aligned with the mass matrix @xcite . the first calculation of the muon anomalous magnetic moment in the rs model was done very soon @xcite after the invention of the model . the authors used the 4d formalism and computed multiple kk sums . they ( incorrectly ) concluded that external mass insertion diagrams are suppressed by a factor @xmath542 , which eliminates all diagrams except b1a and b1b in figure [ fig : diagsall ] . in these diagrams a misplaced chiral projector at the photon vertex eliminates one of the two terms in the integrand ( [ diag1 ] ) , ( [ diag2 ] ) . the final result for the gauge - boson contribution to @xmath22 in @xcite is opposite in sign to ours , which is consistent with the fact that the abelian hypercharge contribution @xmath479_b$ ] is negative . the final result ( [ eq : resultforgminus2 ] ) is , however , dominated by @xmath341-exchange , which was neglected in @xcite . @xcite also considered the higgs contribution and found that it puts important constraints on the bulk mass parameters . however , their higgs contribution does not seem to contain the @xmath543 suppression relative to the gauge - boson contribution that is expected on general grounds , see sec . [ subsec : higgs ] , when the wrong - chirality higgs couplings and `` off - shell '' terms are neglected as was done @xcite . the only other estimate of @xmath22 in the rs model with sm model fields in the bulk we are aware of is contained in @xcite . the calculation is restricted to a one - loop vertex diagram with kk photon exchange but only zero - mode fermions in the loop . this subset of contributions significantly underestimates the true result , since it is suppressed relative to ( [ dipoleestimate ] ) by a factor @xmath544 due to a cancellation in the photon kk sum . the calculations of lepton - flavour violating @xmath545 processes @xcite involve the same diagram topologies as @xmath18 , but the restriction to flavour violation allows to make some simplifying assumptions . ref . @xcite works in the kk picture and includes only the first kk excitation , while @xcite adopts the 5d formalism as we have done in this paper . these works do not consider external insertion diagrams , though this has been corrected in @xcite . the higgs exchange diagrams that can be neglected for @xmath18 provide the dominant source of flavour violation and are found to be of order @xmath546 ( again , in the absence of wrong - chirality higgs couplings and `` off - shell '' terms ) consistent with ( [ dim8higgs ] ) . ref . @xcite also considers the gauge - boson contributions , but assumes that only internal zero - mode fermions are relevant to flavour violation . since we have seen that the kk fermions in the loop are by far the dominant contribution to flavour - conserving quantities like @xmath18 , it would be interesting ( but numerically challenging ) to investigate how the small non - alignment of these terms feeds into flavour violation . in this paper we performed the first complete calculation of the gauge boson exchange contribution to the muon anomalous magnetic moment in the minimal randall - sundrum model . we find that the additional contribution to @xmath53 is enhanced by a factor @xmath476 relative to the naive estimate @xmath547 , resulting in @xmath548 nearly independent of the bulk mass and yukawa coupling parameters of the model . for @xmath549gev , which corresponds to first kk excitations around @xmath550tev , this is of order of the theoretical uncertainty on @xmath53 . the minimal rs model is , however , already excluded by electroweak precision tests unless @xmath13 is much larger , which makes the correction to @xmath367 unobservable . @xmath13 may be lower in models with custodial symmetry , but in this case the contribution from the extra states remains to be computed . the number given above refers to the model - independent contribution from gauge - boson exchange . we also determined the higgs - exchange mediated contributions to @xmath18 ; they depend on an unconstrained combination of 5d yukawa couplings . in anarchic scenarios this combination is constrained by @xmath16 , such that the higgs contributions to @xmath22 are below @xmath551 . in the general scenario the higgs contribution depends strongly on the model parameters . we used this to derive a rough limit on the product of yukawa factors and kk scale @xmath13 . the 5d framework developed here can be extended to an investigation of lepton and quark flavour - violating radiative processes in warped geometries that goes beyond the approximations adopted in @xcite . we hope to report on such results in the future . on the more formal side , it would be interesting to investigate the proper gauge - invariant regularization and renormalization of the rs model as an effective field theory , and the 5d formalism seems to be the suitable framework . we thank a. mck for many helpful discussions . we also thank k. agashe , c. delaunay , and r. sundrum for their comments on wrong - chirality higgs couplings . mb and jr thank the kavli institute for theoretical physics at uc santa barbara for hospitality , while part of this work was done . this work is supported in part by the sonderforschungsbereich / transregio 9 `` computergesttzte theoretische teilchenphysik '' and the gottfried wilhelm leibniz programme of the deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft ( dfg ) , and by the national science foundation under grant no . nsf phy05 - 51164 . in the following we provide the feynman rules for the five - dimensional electroweak standard model ( [ 5daction ] ) in the anti - de - sitter space time ( [ metric ] ) . the rules consist of the bulk mode functions , the vertices and the 5d propagators . the fermionic part of the action was given in . upon inserting the explicit expressions for the metric and the vielbein we obtain for a generic fermion field @xmath552 @xmath553 ^ 4 \bigg\lbrace \bar \psi \left ( i\slashed \partial + i\gamma^5(\partial_z-\frac{2}{z})-\frac{c}{z}\right ) \psi \nonumber \\ & \qquad\qquad\quad + \bar \psi\left ( g'_5 \frac{y}{2 } \slashed{b } + g_5 \frac{\tau^a}{2 } \slashed{w}^a + g'_5 \frac{y}{2 } \gamma^5{b_5 } + g_5 \frac{\tau^a}{2}\gamma^5{w^a_5 } \right ) \psi\bigg\rbrace\,,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath28 is the hypercharge of the fermion @xmath552 , and @xmath554 in case of a su(2 ) singlet fermion . the dimensionless parameter @xmath555 is related to the 5d mass @xmath556 via @xmath557 . the fifth dirac matrix is chosen such that @xmath558 in the chiral representation . splitting the fermion field into left- and right - handed components we obtain @xmath559 ^ 4 \left(\bar\psi_r i\slashed \partial \psi_r + \bar\psi_l i\slashed \partial \psi_l + \bar \psi_l(\partial_z-\frac{2}{z})\psi_r \right . \nn \\ & \qquad\qquad\left.- \bar \psi_r(\partial_z-\frac{2}{z})\psi_l -\frac{c}{z}\bar \psi_r\psi_l - \frac{c}{z}\bar \psi_l\psi_r \right ) + \ldots\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath560 and @xmath561 with @xmath562 and only the bilinear terms are given explicitly . substituting the factorization ansatz @xmath563 into the action , we obtain the mode equations @xcite [ eomfermion ] @xmath564 @xmath565 the orthonormality conditions @xmath566 ^ 4 f_l^{(n)}(z)f_l^{(m)}(z)= \int_{1/k}^{1/t}\rd z\,\left[\frac{1}{kz}\right]^4f_r^{(n)}(z)f_r^{(m)}(z ) = \delta_{nm}\end{aligned}\ ] ] fix the normalization of the modes . the solutions for the zero mass eigenvalue are particularly simple : @xmath567 however , to obtain the sm in the low - energy limit we have to prescribe boundary conditions to exclude one of the zero mode of definite handedness . if @xmath552 describes a lepton su(2 ) singlet , i.e. the right - handed massless field @xmath273 in the sm , one needs to impose the boundary condition @xmath568 which removes the left - handed solution for the zero - mode and fixes the boundary condition for the right - handed modes via . similarly , for left - handed sm fields the correct massless mode for the doublet lepton field @xmath272 is obtained by imposing the condition @xmath569 on the right - handed modes . in the following the labels on the fermion mode functions refer to the doublet ( @xmath272 ) and singlet ( @xmath273 ) field solution ; in particular , the subscript @xmath272 on a fermion mode or field will henceforth always refer to the lepton doublet @xmath272 and not to its handedness . the left - handed ( right - handed ) mode functions will instead be denoted by @xmath570 ( @xmath571 ) . the explicit expressions for the ( massless ) zero - modes are @xmath572 the mode functions for non - zero eigenvalue are given by @xmath573 and @xmath574 applying the boundary conditions ( [ fermionbcfore ] ) , ( [ fermionbcforl ] ) , adjusted to the present notation , the mass eigenvalues @xmath575 are determined from @xmath576 for the doublet and from @xmath577 for the singlet field . the normalization factors @xmath578 and @xmath579 can be computed via the orthogonality relation . let us start by repeating the expression for the different pieces of the action . the gauge part of the action for the non - abelian field can be written as @xmath580 \end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath581 , @xmath582 and @xmath583 were already used and @xmath584 . the action for the abelian field @xmath466 follows readily via the replacement @xmath585 and @xmath586 . the gauge fixing part of the action is chosen such that the mixed @xmath587 term in the second line of is removed and no mixing of the 4d vector boson @xmath588 and the goldstone @xmath589 can occur @xcite : @xmath590 ^ 2\;.\end{aligned}\ ] ] the bilinear part of the gauge action then takes the form @xmath591+\ldots\,,\end{aligned}\ ] ] where the boundary terms left after integration by parts vanish as the @xmath589 field vanishes on the branes . in the orbifold picture this follows directly if @xmath589 is assigned odd parity under orbifolding ; this is required to reproduce the observed low - energy particle spectrum . covariant gauge fixing implies the existence of ghosts which , however , are not needed in this work , since ghosts do not couple to the @xmath589 field . using the factorization ansatz @xmath592 for the gauge field , the profiles @xmath593 can be determined via the equation of motion @xmath594 the boundary conditions on the branes @xmath595 and the normalization @xmath596 note that the choice of the boundary condition follows from the need for a massless gauge boson mode to be present after integrating out the fifth dimension . the solution for zero mass eigenvalue has no dependence on the 5d coordinate and is given by @xmath597 the mode functions for non - zero mass eigenvalue are given by @xmath598 where the eigenvalues @xmath575 are given by the @xmath599-th zero of @xmath600 and @xmath601 is determined by . similarly , the mode equation for the goldstone modes @xmath589 is given by @xmath602 the boundary conditions @xmath603 remove the zero - eigenvalue solution from the spectrum . one finds @xmath604 and the mass eigenvalues @xmath575 are the same as those for the 4d vector boson @xmath605 . using the equations of motion yields the useful identities : @xmath606 the feynman rules for the vertices can be read off directly from the action . we denote non - abelian gauge fields @xmath588 by curly lines and the abelian field @xmath607 by wavy lines . the goldstones , @xmath589 and @xmath232 , are indicated by a superimposed solid line . in the unbroken theory all gauge interactions are flavour diagonal . therefore , the flavour index @xmath533 is conserved in all boson - fermion vertices . below , @xmath608 denotes the su(2 ) index of the gauge boson of weak isospin and @xmath28 is the hypercharge for the fermion . for every vertex , there is an integral @xmath609 over the bulk coordinate of the vertex . + + @xmath610 & & \frac{1}{(kz)^4}\,ig_5 \frac{\tau^a}{2 } \gamma^\mu\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath611 + @xmath612 & & \hspace{-0.5 cm } \frac{1}{(kz)^4}\,g_5 \frac{\tau^a}{2}\gamma_5\end{aligned}\ ] ] here we only give the rules for trilinear gauge boson self - interactions . @xmath613 are lorentz indices and @xmath614 are su(2 ) indices . the coordinate space derivatives always act on on the @xmath525-coordinate of the vertex and only on the propagator / external state with the indicated su(2 ) index . for every vertex , there is an integral @xmath609 over the bulk coordinate of the vertex . + @xmath615 + @xmath616 + @xmath617 as the higgs field is ir brane localized all interactions occur at @xmath1 in the 5th dimension ; therefore , we omit the @xmath525-coordinate of the vertices . the only flavour changing interaction of the theory ( with our basis choice ) is introduced by the yukawa coupling of the higgs to fermions . below @xmath618 and @xmath599 are su(2 ) indices of the higgs doublet , @xmath533 and @xmath534 are flavour indices . the higgs field is represented by dashed lines . + + @xmath619 & & i g_5 ' \frac{y}{2 } \left ( p + p ' \right)^\mu \\[1.6 cm ] & & i g_5 \frac{\tau^a}{2 } \left ( p + p ' \right)^\mu\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath620 + + @xmath621 & & \hspace{-0.5cm}i g_5g_5 ' \,\frac{y \tau^a}{2 } \eta_{\mu\nu } \\[1.6 cm ] & & \hspace{-0.5cm}\frac{i}{2 } \,g_5 ^ 2 \eta_{\mu\nu } \delta^{ab } \mathds{1}\end{aligned}\ ] ] the 5d propagators for bosons and fermions have been derived in the literature , see @xcite and @xcite respectively . however , we use slightly different conventions , e.g. our choice for the sign of the fermion mass term in the 5d lagrangian differs from @xcite . for completeness , we will therefore briefly sketch the strategy used to derive the propagators . note that we try to use the same notation as the existing literature in order to allow for an easier comparison with previous results . the fermion propagator is given by the inverse of the 5d dirac operator @xmath622 ^ 4\mathcal{d}\delta(p , z , z')=i\delta(z - z ' ) \mathds{1}\ , . \end{aligned}\ ] ] in the mixed 4d momentum / bulk coordinate space representation we can replace @xmath623 and obtain @xmath624 following @xcite we define a new function @xmath172 via @xmath625f(p , z , z')\;.\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath172 is also a matrix in dirac space and once we know @xmath172 we also know the full fermion propagator . inserting into and using the explicit representation for @xmath626 gives @xmath627 where each entry of the matrix is itself a @xmath628 matrix . the structure of suggests a solution of the form @xmath629 where @xmath630 are now scalar - valued functions . the differential equation then can be solved in two separate regions : @xmath631 and @xmath632 . in each region one finds two equations @xmath633 f^-(p , z , z')= 0\\ \left[-p^2-\partial_z^2+\frac{c^2+c-6}{z^2 } + \frac{4}{z}\partial_z\right ] f^+(p , z , z ' ) = 0\end{aligned}\ ] ] which can be solved : @xmath634 z^{5/2 } \left ( a_\pm^ < { j}_{c\pm 1/2}(pz)+b_\pm^ < { y}_{c\pm 1/2}(pz)\right ) \qquad \text { for } z ' > z \end{array } \right.\end{aligned}\ ] ] here , @xmath635 and @xmath28 are bessel functions and the coefficients @xmath636 and @xmath637 are functions of @xmath638 and @xmath207 that are fixed by the boundary conditions . continuity at @xmath639 , @xmath640 and the `` cusp condition '' for the delta - function , @xmath641 f^\pm(p , z , z')=i(kz')^4\end{aligned}\ ] ] provide two relations . two additional conditions that are required for an unambiguous determination of the propagator come from the boundary conditions on the branes . one has to enforce that the fermion propagator only contains the zero - mode of the correct handedness . these conditions are most conveniently found by explicitly writing in matrix form . for the propagator of the su(2 ) singlet field @xmath273 one finds @xmath642 -\sigma^\mu p_{\mu } f^-_e(p , z , z ' ) & ( -\partial_z + \frac{2}{z}-\frac{c}{z } ) f^+_e(p , z , z')\mathds{1 } \\ \end{array } \right)\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] the off - diagonal elements of conserve the handedness during propagation ; the diagonal elements lead to mixing of modes of different handedness . since in the mode representation ( see ( [ kkdecfermionpropagator ] ) below ) the upper - right submatrix corresponds to the pure `` left '' case , its entries must vanish on the branes for all values of @xmath316 , as follows from ; thus @xmath643 similarly , the upper - left submatrix must vanish for @xmath644 as the left - handed components of the singlet field must vanish .. ] this gives the second boundary condition : @xmath645f^-_e(p , z , z ' ) \right\|_{z=1/k,1/t}=0\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] analogously , the boundary conditions for the doublet fermion propagators are given by @xmath646f^+_l ( p , z , z ' ) \right\|_{z=1/k,1/t}=0\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] it is now straightforward but tedious to determine the coefficient functions @xmath647 and @xmath466 which again can be expressed in terms of bessel functions @xmath635 and @xmath28 . we give the results in a more concise form below . for our calculations it is most convenient to decompose the fermion propagators into their rl , lr , ll and rr chiral components : @xmath648 where the @xmath649 can be either @xmath273 or @xmath272 . the differential operators @xmath650 always act on the first bulk position argument ( @xmath127 in ) . the decomposition also allows for a simple representation in terms of kaluza - klein mode sums : @xmath651 analogous expressions hold for the singlet field @xmath273 . the chiral components @xmath652 and @xmath653 are scalar functions ; the dirac and lorentz structures of the propagator are contained only in the projectors and @xmath654 . since the final evaluation of the loop integrals is performed numerically we need the analytic expressions for these scalar functions after a wick rotation has been performed . in our matching calculation this rotation must be performed after the ( minkowski ) expressions for the wilson coefficients have been extracted and the dirac and lorentz algebra are already done . the wilson coefficients are then given as integrals over scalar functions . the wick rotation effectively amounts to the replacement @xmath655 or @xmath656 with @xmath657 , where @xmath207 is the loop momentum . the bessel functions @xmath635 and @xmath28 are replaced by the modified bessel functions @xmath658 and @xmath659 of the first and second kind , respectively , via @xmath660 to write the chiral components of the fermion propagator in a compact way we make use of the following functions which were first introduced in @xcite : @xmath661 additionally , the following functions are useful when taylor expansions of the propagators are needed @xmath662 the corresponding expressions in minkowski space can be recovered with help of the following substitution rules : [ euclidtominkowski ] @xmath663\to -\frac{\pi}{2 } s_+[j , y ] & & \qquad \tilde s_+[i_\nu , k_\mu]\to i \frac{\pi}{2 } \tilde s_+[j_\nu,(-1)^{\mu - c+1/2}y_\mu]\\ s_-[i , k]\to -\frac{\pi}{2 } s_-[j , y ] & & \qquad \tilde s_-[i_\nu , k_\mu]\to -i\frac{\pi}{2 } \tilde s_-[j_\nu,(-1)^{\mu - c-1/2}y_\mu]\end{aligned}\ ] ] where the brackets @xmath664 $ ] show how @xmath658 and @xmath659 have to be replaced with the bessel functions @xmath635 and @xmath28 , respectively . for the right - handed singlet fermion field the scalar functions are given by [ singletpropagators ] @xmath665 for the left - handed doublet field @xmath272 we find [ doubletpropagators ] @xmath666 note that here @xmath667 is the euclidean momentum . the derivation of the propagators for the gauge sector follows @xcite . the @xmath298 gauge is used to disentangle the orbifolding - even vector components of the 5d gauge field from the orbifolding - odd fifth component . the propagator for the `` vector part '' is then determined by the equation @xmath668\delta_{\rho\nu}(p , z , z')=ikz\,\delta(z - z ' ) \delta^{\mu}_{\nu}\,.\end{aligned}\ ] ] substituting the ansatz @xmath669 into gives two equations @xmath670 putting @xmath671 the second equation is automatically satisfied , if @xmath672 solves the first one . eq . can be solved with the same strategy employed before for the fermion case . here the boundary conditions read @xmath673 the propagator of the fifth component of the gauge field is denoted by @xmath674 and follows readily from @xmath675 \delta_5(p , z , z')= i kz\,\delta(z - z')\ , , \label{gaugeprop5def}\end{aligned}\ ] ] and the boundary condition @xmath676 again we only give the euclidean propagators : @xmath677 \xi \delta_5(p , x , y,\xi ) & = & \theta(x - y ) \,\frac{i k x y s_-(\tilde p , x,1/t,1/2)s_-(\tilde p , y,1/k,1/2 ) } { s_-(\tilde p,1/t,1/k,1/2 ) } \nonumber \\ & & + \,\theta(y - x ) \,\frac{i k x y s_-(\tilde p , y,1/t,1/2 ) s_-(\tilde p , x,1/k,1/2)}{s_-(\tilde p,1/t,1/k,1/2 ) } \label{gaugeprop5}\end{aligned}\ ] ] where @xmath678 . the minkowski space expressions can be recovered via . the sm contribution to @xmath18 is , from point of view of the matching calculation at the kk scale , a long - distance contribution . as described in the main text , this contribution is most effectively removed by subtracting the contribution of the sm gauge boson from each 5d boson propagator , which is equivalent to subtracting the zero mode . we therefore define the zero - mode subtracted ( zms ) propagators @xmath679 the boundary conditions for the fifth component of the gauge fields prevent the existence of a massless mode ; no subtraction is necessary for @xmath680 . the higgs field is ir brane localized . in the unbroken phase the higgs propagator has a tachyonic mass @xmath681 . since @xmath682 we can treat the mass term as a perturbation of order @xmath683 in the calculation of the matching coefficients , and work with a standard massless scalar 4d propagator for the higgs , @xmath684 where @xmath685 are su(2 ) indices . if the virtuality of the loop momentum is of the order of the kk scale @xmath13 one can expand the propagators in powers of the small external momenta . we effectively perform a taylor expansion of the form @xmath686 where all momenta are still minkowskian and @xmath422 can be any propagator . using the identities for derivatives of bessel functions we obtain analytic expressions for the derivatives . in the following we denote @xmath687 by @xmath688 . all expressions are only valid _ after _ the wick rotation has been performed . the expressions for fermion propagators read : , where @xmath689 in the su(2)-singlet fermion propagators and @xmath690 for the doublet ones , as in ( [ singletpropagators ] ) , ( [ doubletpropagators ] ) . ] @xmath691 & \widetilde{f^-_e}(p , x , y)= \nonumber\\ & \frac{i k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2}\theta(x - y)}{s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg(\tilde{s}'_-(p , x,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_-(p , y , 1/k , c ) + \tilde{s}_-(p , x,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}'_-(p , y , 1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & - \frac{\tilde{s}_- ( p , x,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_-(p , y , 1/k , c ) s'_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } { s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}\bigg)\nonumber\\ & + \frac{i k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2}\theta(y - x)}{s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg ( \tilde{s}'_-(p , y , 1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_-(p , x,1/k , c ) + \tilde{s}_-(p , y , 1/t , c ) \tilde{s}'_-(p , x,1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & - \frac{\tilde{s}_-(p , y , 1/t , c)\tilde{s}_-(p , x,1/k , c ) s'_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}{s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath692 & \widetilde{f^+_l}(p , x , y ) = \nonumber\\ & \frac{i k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2}\theta(x - y)}{s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg ( \tilde{s}'_+(p x , 1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_+(p , y , 1/k , c ) + \tilde{s}_+(p x , 1/t , c ) \tilde{s}'_+(p , y , 1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & - \frac{\tilde{s}_+(p x , 1/t , c)\tilde{s}_+(p , y , 1/k , c ) s'_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}{s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}\bigg ) \nonumber\\ & + \frac{i k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2}\theta(y - x)}{s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg ( \tilde{s}'_+(p , y,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_+(p , x,1/k , c ) + \tilde{s}_+(p , y,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}'_+(p , x,1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & - \frac { \tilde{s}_+(p , y,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_+(p , x,1/k , c ) s'_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}{s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}\bigg)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath693 & \widetilde{d^+f^-_e}(p , x , y ) = \nonumber \\ & \frac{i p k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2}\theta(x - y)}{s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg ( s'_+(p , x,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_-(p , y,1/k , c ) + s_+(p , x,1/t , c ) \tilde{s}'_-(p , y,1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & -\frac { s_+(p , x,1/t , c)\tilde{s}_-(p , y,1/k , c ) s'_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}{s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}\bigg ) \nonumber\\ & + \frac{i p k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2 } \theta(y - x)}{s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg ( \tilde{s}'_-(p , y,1/t , c ) s_+(p , x,1/k , c ) + \tilde{s}_-(p , y,1/t , c ) s'_+(p , x,1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & -\frac{\tilde{s}_-(p , y,1/,c ) s_+(p , x,1/k , c ) s'_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } { s_+(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}\bigg ) \nonumber\\ & - \frac{1}{2 p^2 } d^+f^-_e(p , x , y)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath694 & \widetilde{d^-f^+_l}(p , x , y ) = \nonumber\\ & -\frac{i p k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2 } \theta(x - y)}{s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg ( s'_-(p , x , 1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_+(p , y , 1/k , c ) + s_-(p , x , 1/t , c ) \tilde{s}'_+(p , y , 1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & - \frac{s_-(p , x , 1/t , c ) \tilde{s}_+(p , y , 1/k , c ) s'_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}{s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}\bigg ) \nonumber\\ & -\frac{i k^4 x^{5/2}y^{5/2 } \theta(y - x)}{s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } \bigg ( \tilde{s}'_+(p , y,1/t , c ) s_-(p , x,1/k , c ) + \tilde{s}_+(p , y,1/t , c ) s'_-(p , x,1/k , c ) \nonumber\\ & -\frac{\tilde{s}_+(p , y,1/t , c ) s_-(p , x,1/k , c ) s'_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c ) } { s_-(p,1/t , 1/k , c)}\bigg ) \nonumber\\ & - \frac{1}{2 p^2 } d^-f^+_l(p , x , y)\\[-0.2 cm ] \nonumber\end{aligned}\ ] ] for the gauge boson propagators we need : @xmath695 & & \hspace{-2 cm } \times \bigg(\frac { \tilde{s}^\prime_+(p , x , 1 /t , 1/2)\tilde{s}_+(l , y , 1/k , 1/2 ) } { { s}_-(p,1/t , 1/k , 1/2 ) } + \frac{\tilde{s}_+(p , x , 1 /t , 1/2 ) \tilde{s}^\prime_+(l , y , 1/k , 1/2 ) } { { s}_-(p,1/t , 1/k , 1/2 ) } \nn \\ & & \hspace{-1.3 cm } -\frac { \tilde{s}_+(p , x , 1 /t , 1/2 ) \tilde{s}_+(l , y , 1/k , 1/2 ) { s}^\prime_-(p,1/t , 1/k , 1/2 ) } { { s}_-(p,1/t , 1/k , 1/2)^2}\bigg ) \nn \\ & & \hspace{-2 cm } + \,\big\lbrace x\leftrightarrow y \big\rbrace \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath696 & & \hspace{-2 cm } \times \bigg(\frac{s^\prime_-(\tilde p , x,1/t,1/2)s_-(\tilde p , y,1/k,1/2 ) } { s_-(\tilde p,1/t,1/k,1/2 ) } + \frac{s_-(\tilde p , x,1/t,1/2)s^\prime_-(\tilde p , y,1/k,1/2 ) } { s_-(\tilde p,1/t,1/k,1/2 ) } \nn \\ & & \hspace{-1.3 cm } -\frac{s_-(\tilde p , x,1/t,1/2)s_-(\tilde p , y,1/k,1/2)s^\prime_-(\tilde p,1/t,1/k,1/2 ) } { s_-(\tilde p,1/t,1/k,1/2)^2 } \bigg)\nonumber \\ & & \hspace{-2 cm } + \left\lbrace x\leftrightarrow y \right\rbrace\end{aligned}\ ] ] in this section we provide explicit expressions for the diagrams relevant to the matching of the dipole operator . to simplify the expressions , we consider the diagrams with an external photon , that is the linear combination @xmath697 of diagrams with an external hypercharge and su(2 ) gauge boson . we furthermore assume that the external higgs field ( represented by a grey square ) has a vanishing upper isospin component , that is we pick up the lower component only , since this is relevant when @xmath33 is replaced by its vacuum expectation value . these simplifications allow us to drop diagrams , which are proportional to @xmath698 . using @xmath699 it is always possible to extract the 5d electromagnetic coupling . the electric charge of a fermion @xmath552 in units of positron charge is denoted by @xmath700 . in our convention the hypercharges are given by @xmath153 , @xmath701 , @xmath702 , and @xmath703_{22}=-1 $ ] . we use the short - hand @xmath704 and @xmath705 for momenta in the loops . the labels of the diagrams correspond to those given in figure [ fig : diagsall ] . the first expression for each diagram does not make use of any simplification . vertex factors and propagators are written in the form as given in appendix [ ap:5drules ] and no terms have been omitted . the second expression already includes some simplifications . in particular , the terms that vanish due to the presence of chiral projectors after multiplying out the chiral components of the fermion propagators have been dropped . this second representation is exact only if the diagram does not contain an insertion of the higgs field into an external line , since we applied the replacement ( [ extfirstterm ] ) . the ( small , see discussion in the main text ) `` off - shell '' terms present in these diagrams is not shown explicitly and must be added . these contributions can be readily obtained from the unsimplified expressions by replacing the external fermion propagator by the zero - mode propagator only , e.g. , in b2a one would replace @xmath706 one then applies standard dirac algebra and simplifications as for the other term shown explicitly , including an expansion in the external momenta @xmath207 , @xmath208 to the appropriate order . @xmath709 & = & \frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y^2_{l } y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta^{\rho\nu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l , x , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big [ f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) d^+f^-_{l_i}({\hat{p}},y , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}({p},x,1/t ) \left\ { \gamma_\rho ( \not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\mu \gamma_\nu \right\ } + \nonumber \\ & & d^+f^-_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) f^-_{l_i}({\hat{p}},y , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}({p},x,1/t ) \left\ { \gamma_\rho \gamma_\mu ( \not\!p-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\nu \right\ } \big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath710 & = & \frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y^2_{e } y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(1/t ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(x ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta^{\rho\nu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l , x , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big [ d^-f^+_{e_j}({p^{\,\prime}},1/t , z ) d^+f^-_{e_j}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) f^-_{e_j}({\hat{p}},y , x ) \left\ { \gamma_\rho \gamma_\mu ( \not\!p-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\nu \right\ } + \nonumber \\ & & d^-f^+_{e_j}({p^{\,\prime}},1/t , z ) f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) d^+f^-_{e_j}({\hat{p}},y , x ) \left\ { \gamma_\rho ( \not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\mu \gamma_\nu \right\ } \big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath711 & = & - \frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y_{l } y_{e } y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(x ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{5}(l , x , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big [ d^-f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}},y,1/t ) d^-f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}},1/t , x ) \left\ { \gamma_\mu ( \not\!p-\!\!\!\not l ) \right\}+ \nonumber \\ & & f^-_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) d^-f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}},y,1/t ) d^-f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}},1/t , x ) \left\ { ( \not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\mu \right\ } \big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath712 & = & - \frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y_{l } y_{e } y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(x ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{5}(l , x , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big [ d^-f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z,1/t ) d^-f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}^\prime},1/t , y ) f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}},y , x ) \left\ { \gamma_\mu ( \not\!p-\!\!\!\not l)\right\ } + \nonumber \\ & & d^-f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z,1/t ) f^-_{e_j}({\hat{p}^\prime},1/t , y ) d^-f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}},y , x ) \left\ { ( \not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\mu \right\ } \big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath713 & = & - \frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y^2_{l } y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\ ! \frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{5}(l , x , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big [ d^-f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}},y , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}({p},x,1/t ) \left\ { \gamma_\mu ( \not\!p-\!\!\!\not l ) \right\ } + \nonumber \\ & & f^-_{l_i}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) d^-f^+_{l_i}({\hat{p}},y , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}({p},x,1/t ) \left\ { ( \not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\mu \right\ } \big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath714 & = & - \frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y^2_{e } y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(1/t ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(x ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta^{\rho\nu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l , x , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big [ d^-f^+_{e_j}({p^{\,\prime}},1/t , z ) d^-f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}},y , x ) \left\ { \gamma_\mu ( \not\!p-\!\!\!\not l ) \right\ } + \nonumber \\ & & d^-f^+_{e_j}({p^{\,\prime}},1/t , z ) f^-_{e_j}({\hat{p}^\prime},z , y ) d^-f^+_{e_j}({\hat{p}},y , x ) \left\ { ( \not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l ) \gamma_\mu \right\ } \big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p)\end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath715 \left(\frac{-it^3}{k^3}\right ) y^{\rm(5d)}_{ij}~\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(l ) \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l,1/t , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_\alpha \delta^{l}_{i}({p^{\,\prime}-l},z , y)\gamma_\mu \delta^{l}_{i}({p - l},y,1/t ) ( -l_\beta ) p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\ & = & \frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y_{\phi}y_l y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(l ) \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l,1/t , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[d^+f^-_{l_i}(\hat{p^{\,\prime}},z , y ) d^-f^+_{l_i}(\hat{p},y,1/t ) \left(\gamma_\alpha\gamma_\mu\right)l_\beta + \nonumber \\ & & f^+_{l_i}(\hat{p^{\,\prime}},z , y ) f^+_{l_i}(\hat{p},y,1/t)\left\{\gamma_\alpha(\not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l)\gamma_\mu(\not\!p-\!\!\!\not l)\right\}l_\beta\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath716 \left(\frac{-it^3}{k^3}\right ) y^{\rm(5d)}_{ij}~\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(1/t ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(x ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(l ) \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l , x,1/t ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \delta^{e}_{j}({p^{\,\prime}-l},1/t , y)\gamma_\mu \delta^{e}_{j}({p - l},y , x)\gamma_\alpha l_\beta p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\ & = & -\frac{g'^2_5 e_5 q_\mu y_{\phi}y_e y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{4k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(1/t ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(x ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(l ) \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(l , x,1/t ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[d^-f^+_{e_j}(\hat{p^{\,\prime}},1/t , y ) d^+f^-_{e_j}(\hat{p},y , x ) \left(\gamma_\mu\gamma_\alpha\right)l_\beta + \nonumber \\ & & f^-_{e_j}(\hat{p^{\,\prime}},1/t , y ) f^-_{e_j}(\hat{p},y , x)\left\{(\not\!p^{\,\prime}-\!\!\!\not l)\gamma_\mu(\not\!p-\!\!\!\not l)\gamma_\alpha\right\}l_\beta\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] the amplitudes for the two diagrams above , @xmath717 and @xmath718 , can be obtained from the amplitudes for diagrams @xmath719 and @xmath720 , respectively , by replacing @xmath721 with @xmath722 in ( [ diag3 ] ) and ( [ diag7 ] ) . @xmath726_{22 } \epsilon^{ab3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta^{\beta\lambda}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l , x , y)\delta^{\nu\alpha}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \big[\{(p^{\,\prime}-p)-(p - l)\}_\nu\eta_{\mu\lambda}+\{(p - l)-(l - p^{\,\prime})\}_\mu\eta_{\nu\lambda } \nonumber \\ & & + \,\{(l - p^{\,\prime})-(p^{\,\prime}-p)\}_\lambda\eta_{\mu\nu}\big ] \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_\alpha \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z , x ) \gamma_\beta \delta^{l}_{i}({p},x,1/t ) p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\ & = & - \frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta^{\beta\lambda}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(\hat{p},x , y)\delta^{\nu\alpha}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(\hat{p}^\prime , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \big[(p^{\,\prime}-2p+l)_\nu\eta_{\mu\lambda}+(p-2l+p^{\,\prime})_\mu\eta_{\nu\lambda}+(l-2p^{\,\prime}+p)_\lambda\eta_{\mu\nu}\big ] \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[d^+f^-_{l_i}({l},z , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}(p , x,1/t ) \left\{\gamma_\alpha \gamma_\beta\right\}\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath727_{22 } \epsilon^{ab3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{5}(p - l , x , y)\delta_{5}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \{(p - l)-(l - p^{\prime})\}_\mu \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_5 \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z , x ) \gamma_5 \delta^{l}_{i}({p},x,1/t ) p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\ & = & - \frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{5}(p - l , x , y)\delta_{5}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times ( p-2l+p^{\prime})_\mu \ , \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[d^-f^+_{l_i}({l},z , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}(p , x,1/t)\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath728_{22 } \!\!\epsilon^{b3a } \!\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{5}(p - l , x , y ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \eta_{\beta\mu}\left[\delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \frac{\partial}{\partial y } f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) - f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) \frac{\partial}{\partial y } \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \right ] \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_\alpha \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z , x ) \gamma_5 \delta^{l}_{i}({p},x,1/t ) p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\[0.1 cm ] & = & -\frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z)f^{(0)}_\gamma(y)g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{}_{\mu } \delta_{5}(p - l , x , y)\times \left [ \frac{\partial}{\partial y } \delta^{\alpha\mu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \right ] \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[f^+_{l_i}(l , z , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}(p , x,1/t ) \left(\gamma_\alpha\!\!\!\not l\right)\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath729_{22 } \!\!\epsilon^{a3b } \!\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{5}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \eta_{\beta\mu}\left[\delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l , x , y ) \frac{\partial}{\partial y } f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) - f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) \frac{\partial}{\partial y } \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l , x , y ) \right ] \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_5 \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z , x ) \gamma_{\alpha } \delta^{l}_{i}({p},x,1/t ) p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\[0.1 cm ] & = & \frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dx}{(kx)^4 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z)f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{}_{\mu } \delta_{5}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z)\times \left[\frac{\partial}{\partial y } \delta^{\alpha\mu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l , x , y ) \right ] \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[f^-_{l_i}(l , z , x ) d^-f^+_{l_i}(p , x,1/t ) \left(\!\!\not l\gamma_\alpha\right)\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath730 \right)_{22 } \left(\frac{-it^3}{k^3}\right)y^{\rm ( 5d)}_{ij}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(1/t ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{}_{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta^{\mu\nu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l,1/t , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_\nu \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z,1/t ) p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\ & = & -i\frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(1/t ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{}_{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta^{\mu\nu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l,1/t , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[f^+_{l_i}(l , z,1/t ) \left(\gamma_\nu\!\!\!\not l\right)\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath731\frac{\tau^a}{2}\right)_{22 } \left(\frac{-it^3}{k^3}\right)y^{\rm ( 5d)}_{ij}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(1/t ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta_{h}(p^{\,\prime}-l ) \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l,1/t , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_\alpha \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z,1/t ) \,(l - p^{\prime})_\beta \left\{(l - p)+(l - p^{\prime})\right\}_\mu p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\ & = & \frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(1/t ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta_{h}(p^{\,\prime}-l ) \delta^{\alpha\beta}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l,1/t , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[f^+_{l_i}(l , z,1/t ) \left(\gamma_\alpha\!\!\!\not l\right)(p^{\,\prime}-l)_\beta \left(p+p^{\,\prime}-2l\right)_\mu\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath732_{22 } \epsilon^{ab3 } \left(\frac{-it^3}{k^3}\right)y^{\rm(5d)}_{ij}~\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta^{\beta\lambda}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l,1/t , y ) \delta^{\nu\alpha}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \big[\{(p^{\,\prime}-p)-(p - l)\}_\nu\eta_{\mu\lambda}+\{(p - l)-(l - p^{\,\prime})\}_\mu\eta_{\nu\lambda } \nonumber\\ & & + \,\{(l - p^{\,\prime})-(p^{\,\prime}-p)\}_\lambda\eta_{\mu\nu}\big ] \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_\alpha \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z,1/t)(l - p)_\beta p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\[0.1 cm ] & = & \frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky)}\int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta^{\beta\lambda}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l,1/t , y ) \delta^{\nu\alpha}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \big[(p^{\,\prime}-2p+l)_\nu\eta_{\mu\lambda}+(p-2l+p^{\,\prime})_\mu\eta_{\nu\lambda}+(l-2p^{\,\prime}+p)_\lambda\eta_{\mu\nu}\big ] \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[f^+_{l_i}(l , z,1/t ) \left(\gamma_\alpha\!\!\!\not l\right)(l - p)_\beta\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] @xmath733_{22 } \epsilon^{a3b } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta_{5}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \eta_{\lambda\mu}\left[\delta^{\beta\lambda}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l,1/t , y ) \frac{\partial}{\partial y } f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) - f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) \frac{\partial}{\partial y } \delta^{\beta\lambda}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l,1/t , y ) \right ] \nonumber \\ & & \times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime})p_{r } \gamma_5 \delta^{l}_{i}({l},z,1/t)(l - p)_\beta p_{r } e_{j}(p ) \nonumber \\ & = & -\frac{g^2_5 e_5 y^{\rm(5d)}_{{ij}}t^3}{2k^3 } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dy}{(ky ) } \int^{1/t}_{1/k } \!\!\!\frac{dz}{(kz)^4}\int \!\!\frac{d^4l}{(2\pi)^4 } \nonumber \\ & & f^{(0)}_{l_i}(z ) f^{(0)}_\gamma(y ) g^{(0)}_{e_j}(1/t ) \epsilon^{\mu } \delta_{h}(p - l ) \delta_{5}(p^{\,\prime}-l , y , z ) \nonumber \\ & & \times \left[\frac{\partial}{\partial y } \delta^{\beta\mu}_{\mbox{\tiny zms}}(p - l,1/t , y ) \right ] \!\times \bar{l_{i}}(p^{\prime } ) \big[d^-f^+_{l_i}(l , z,1/t)(l - p)_\beta\big ] p_{r } e_{{j}}(p ) \end{aligned}\ ] ] m. blanke , b. shakya , p. tanedo and y. tsai , arxiv:1203.6650 [ hep - 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ph ] . m. beneke , y. kiyo and d. s. yang , nucl . b * 692 * ( 2004 ) 232 [ hep - ph/0402241 ] . c. csaki , y. grossman , p. tanedo , y. tsai , arxiv:1004.2037v3 [ hep - ph ] . m. j. musolf and b. r. holstein , phys . d * 43 * ( 1991 ) 2956 . w. bernreuther and o. nachtmann , z. phys . c * 73 * ( 1997 ) 647 [ hep - ph/9603331 ] . n. dombey and a. d. kennedy , phys . b * 91 * ( 1980 ) 428 . c. csaki , c. grojean , j. hubisz , y. shirman and j. terning , phys . d * 70 * ( 2004 ) 015012 [ hep - ph/0310355 ] . m. beneke and j. rohrwild , in preparation . j. adam _ et al . _ [ meg collaboration ] , phys . lett . * 107 * ( 2011 ) 171801 , arxiv:1107.5547 [ hep - ex ] . a. hcker and w.j . marciano , _ the muon anomalous magnetic moment _ , in : j. beringer _ ( particle data group ) , phys . d * 86 * ( 2012 ) 010001 . f. goertz , arxiv:1112.6387 [ hep - ph ] .	we calculate the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon in the minimal randall - sundrum model with standard model fields in five - dimensional ( 5d ) warped space and a brane - localized higgs . we use a fully 5d framework to compute the one - loop matching coefficients of the effective theory at the electroweak scale . the extra contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment from the model - independent gauge - boson exchange contributions is @xmath0 where @xmath1 denotes the location of the tev brane in conformal coordinates , and is related to the mass of the lowest gauge boson kk excitation by @xmath2 . the result constitutes the first complete determination of the gauge - boson contribution to @xmath3 and is robust against the variation of the bulk fermion masses and 5d yukawa coupling . we also determine the strongly model - parameter dependent effect of higgs - exchange diagrams . tum - hep-846/12 + ttk-12 - 29 + sfb / cpp-12 - 45 + 1209.5897 [ hep - ph ] + jhep08(2013)010 + august 5 , 2013 * the muon anomalous magnetic moment in the randall - sundrum model * m. beneke@xmath4 , p. dey@xmath4 and j. rohrwild@xmath4 + _ @xmath5physik department t31 , + james - franck - strae 1 , technische universitt mnchen , + d85748 garching , germany + @xmath6institut fr theoretische teilchenphysik und kosmologie , + rwth aachen university , d52056 aachen , germany _ +
a 31-year - old pregnant woman ( 59 kg/170 cm , 34w+5 , g4p2a1l2 ) was admitted for caesarean section . the patient had no problems until fetal bowel obstruction was diagnosed by routine obstetrical ultrasonography taken 10 days earlier ( fig . general anesthesia was induced with 250 mg of thiopental sodium and 75 mg of succinylcholine . ten minutes after skin incision , a 2.66 kg , 46 cm of male baby was born with an apgar score of 7 at 1 min and 9 at 5 min . the newborn cried relatively well despite the moderately distended abdomen , so routine care was given , which included transfer to the neonatal intensive care unit ( nicu ) . peripheral oxygen saturation ( spo2 ) of the baby was maintained at 96 - 97% with 2 l / min of oxygen in the hood and first urine was passed at 4 h of age . however , abdominal distention was sustained and nothing was aspirated through the positioned oro - gastric tube . distended small bowel loops up to 3 cm and microcolon were seen and no more contrast was passed proximal to terminal ileum , which suggested ileal atresia ( fig . emergency surgery was performed at 10 h of age . under standard monitoring including electrocardiography ( ecg ) , non - invasive blood pressure ( nibp ) , end - tidal co2 ( etco2 ) , and spo2 ( dual monitor at right arm and left foot ) , the patient was intubated with a 3.5 fr cuffed endotracheal tube . two 24 gauge intravenous ( iv ) lines were started on the left arm and right leg , a 6 fr feeding tube was inserted for gastric decompression , and a foley catheter was inserted for hourly urine count . to minimize heat loss , the room temperature was increased , the patient was hatted , a warm air mattress and warmed iv fluids were used , and body temperature was monitored . the anesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane , fio2 of 0.3 - 0.4 with air , pressure control mode of 18 mmhg , and a respiratory rate ( rr ) of 20 breaths / min . bp was maintained at 50 - 80/30 - 45 mmhg , heart rate ( hr ) at 140 - 160 beats / min , etco2 at 32 - 40 mmhg , and spo2 98 - 100% . there were severe adhesions on the entire abdomen such that the anatomy was not easily distinguishable . moderate amount of reactive fluid was seen and moderate bleeding was ongoing . at 90 min of the surgery arterial blood gas analysis was taken , which showed ph 7.34 , paco2 38 mmhg , pao2 191 mmhg , hco3 20.5 mm / l , na 134 meq / l , k 4.2 meq / l , hb 10.2 g / dl , and blood sugar 118 mg / dl . packed red blood cells 30 ml were transfused and no other intraoperative symptoms were found . total time taken for surgery was 2 h 45 min and for anesthesia , 3 h 20 min . total fluid administered was sd 1 : 3 solution 20 ml , lactated ringer 's solution 50 ml , and normal saline 10 ml . after the surgery , the patient was extubated and spo2 was maintained over 97% without supplemental oxygen . urine output was 1 ml / h and 1.5 ml / h , respectively , during the first 2 h of surgery , however , no further urine was observed during last hour of surgery . however , 7 ml of urine was formed after 2 h of surgery without fluid loading and no further oliguria was seen . breast feeding was started 5 days after the surgery and the baby was discharged at postoperative day 24 . a 29-year - old , pregnant woman ( 70 kg/169 cm , 29w+5 , g1p0a0l0 ) was transferred from outlying hospital for polyhydroamnios with fetal abdominal mass . on obstetrical ultrasonography and magnetic resonance image , a cystic mass about 8.5 7 cm in size was observed in the fetal peritoneal cavity ( fig . 3 and 4 ) . on the decision that the baby required more maturation , surgery was postponed until gestational age 35 weeks with steroid therapy and follow - up sonography . at 35 weeks general anesthesia for caesarean section was induced with 250 mg of thiopental sodium and 75 mg of succinylcholine . ten minutes after skin incision , a profuse amount of meconium stained amniotic fluid was released and an approximately 2.5 kg male baby was delivered . after suction of the airway , intubation was tried with 3.5 fr cuffed endotracheal tube . a pulse oximeter was attached on the baby 's right hand and left leg , which showed 97% with 100% oxygen after resuscitation . two 24 gauge iv lines were started both on the right arm and right leg . anesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane and fio2 of 0.3 - 0.4 with air under standard monitoring and temperature devices similar to setting of case 1 . the ventilator was set by pressure control mode of 24 mmhg ( tv near 25 ml ) and rr of 30 breaths / min , however , spo2 dropped and was maintained around 70% . however , spo2 did not change so manual ventilation was applied with 100% oxygen for about 40 min until the abdomen opened and the cyst was evacuated . spo2 was maintained at 90% during that period and , just after cyst evacuation , it abruptly increased to 98% , so the fio2 was decreased to 0.3 . the ventilator was set by a pressure control mode of 18 mmhg ( tv near 30 ml ) , 25 breaths / min , and controlled according to the etco2 level . bp was maintained at 40 - 60/25 - 35 mmhg , hr at 130 - 160 beats / min , etco2 at 27 - 35 mmhg , and spo2 at 97 - 100% . severe adhesion to omentum , liver , and small bowel was seen and moderate ascites were found . after adhesiolysis , the cyst was removed and end - to - end anastomosis of the small bowel was performed . total time taken for the surgery was 3 h 30 min and for anesthesia , 4 h 10 min . total fluid administered was 5% dextrose in water ( d5w ) 35 ml and lactated ringer 's solution 130 ml . after 120 min of anesthetic induction , venous blood gas analysis was taken , which showed ph 7.29 , paco2 44 mmhg , pvo2 34 mmhg , hco3 21.2 mm / l , na 133 meq / l , k 3.7 meq / l , hb 18.7 g / dl , and blood sugar 121 mg / dl . just after the surgery , we looked for evidence of urination on drape linen , but it was dry . the baby was sent to the nicu with a secured et tube with manual assisted ventilation . foley catheterization was done at the nicu and urine output was very poor after the surgery . dopamin 5 g / kg / min was infused with normal saline 60 ml , fresh frozen plasma ( ffp ) 40 ml , and 20% albumin 13 ml over 6 h. furosemide 4 mg was iv injected two times during hydration period , however , only 4 ml of urine was formed . generalized edema appeared with heart murmur , but urine starting to pass at 10 - 20 ml / h at the same time . the baby was extubated 20 h after the surgery and spo2 was maintained over 95% without supplemental oxygen . a 31-year - old pregnant woman ( 59 kg/170 cm , 34w+5 , g4p2a1l2 ) was admitted for caesarean section . the patient had no problems until fetal bowel obstruction was diagnosed by routine obstetrical ultrasonography taken 10 days earlier ( fig . general anesthesia was induced with 250 mg of thiopental sodium and 75 mg of succinylcholine . ten minutes after skin incision , a 2.66 kg , 46 cm of male baby was born with an apgar score of 7 at 1 min and 9 at 5 min . the newborn cried relatively well despite the moderately distended abdomen , so routine care was given , which included transfer to the neonatal intensive care unit ( nicu ) . peripheral oxygen saturation ( spo2 ) of the baby was maintained at 96 - 97% with 2 l / min of oxygen in the hood and first urine was passed at 4 h of age . however , abdominal distention was sustained and nothing was aspirated through the positioned oro - gastric tube . distended small bowel loops up to 3 cm and microcolon were seen and no more contrast was passed proximal to terminal ileum , which suggested ileal atresia ( fig . emergency surgery was performed at 10 h of age . under standard monitoring including electrocardiography ( ecg ) , non - invasive blood pressure ( nibp ) , end - tidal co2 ( etco2 ) , and spo2 ( dual monitor at right arm and left foot ) , the patient was intubated with a 3.5 fr cuffed endotracheal tube . two 24 gauge intravenous ( iv ) lines were started on the left arm and right leg , a 6 fr feeding tube was inserted for gastric decompression , and a foley catheter was inserted for hourly urine count . to minimize heat loss , the room temperature was increased , the patient was hatted , a warm air mattress and warmed iv fluids were used , and body temperature was monitored . the anesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane , fio2 of 0.3 - 0.4 with air , pressure control mode of 18 mmhg , and a respiratory rate ( rr ) of 20 breaths / min . bp was maintained at 50 - 80/30 - 45 mmhg , heart rate ( hr ) at 140 - 160 beats / min , etco2 at 32 - 40 mmhg , and spo2 98 - 100% . there were severe adhesions on the entire abdomen such that the anatomy was not easily distinguishable . moderate amount of reactive fluid was seen and moderate bleeding was ongoing . at 90 min of the surgery arterial blood gas analysis was taken , which showed ph 7.34 , paco2 38 mmhg , pao2 191 mmhg , hco3 20.5 mm / l , na 134 meq / l , k 4.2 meq / l , hb 10.2 g / dl , and blood sugar 118 mg / dl . packed red blood cells 30 ml were transfused and no other intraoperative symptoms were found . total time taken for surgery was 2 h 45 min and for anesthesia , 3 h 20 min . total fluid administered was sd 1 : 3 solution 20 ml , lactated ringer 's solution 50 ml , and normal saline 10 ml . after the surgery , the patient was extubated and spo2 was maintained over 97% without supplemental oxygen . urine output was 1 ml / h and 1.5 ml / h , respectively , during the first 2 h of surgery , however , no further urine was observed during last hour of surgery . however , 7 ml of urine was formed after 2 h of surgery without fluid loading and no further oliguria was seen . breast feeding was started 5 days after the surgery and the baby was discharged at postoperative day 24 . a 29-year - old , pregnant woman ( 70 kg/169 cm , 29w+5 , g1p0a0l0 ) was transferred from outlying hospital for polyhydroamnios with fetal abdominal mass . on obstetrical ultrasonography and magnetic resonance image , a cystic mass about 8.5 7 cm in size was observed in the fetal peritoneal cavity ( fig . 3 and 4 ) . on the decision that the baby required more maturation , surgery was postponed until gestational age 35 weeks with steroid therapy and follow - up sonography . at 35 weeks general anesthesia for caesarean section was induced with 250 mg of thiopental sodium and 75 mg of succinylcholine . ten minutes after skin incision , a profuse amount of meconium stained amniotic fluid was released and an approximately 2.5 kg male baby was delivered . after suction of the airway , intubation was tried with 3.5 fr cuffed endotracheal tube . a pulse oximeter was attached on the baby 's right hand and left leg , which showed 97% with 100% oxygen after resuscitation . two 24 gauge iv lines were started both on the right arm and right leg . anesthesia was maintained with sevoflurane and fio2 of 0.3 - 0.4 with air under standard monitoring and temperature devices similar to setting of case 1 . the ventilator was set by pressure control mode of 24 mmhg ( tv near 25 ml ) and rr of 30 breaths / min , however , spo2 dropped and was maintained around 70% . however , spo2 did not change so manual ventilation was applied with 100% oxygen for about 40 min until the abdomen opened and the cyst was evacuated . spo2 was maintained at 90% during that period and , just after cyst evacuation , it abruptly increased to 98% , so the fio2 was decreased to 0.3 . the ventilator was set by a pressure control mode of 18 mmhg ( tv near 30 ml ) , 25 breaths / min , and controlled according to the etco2 level . bp was maintained at 40 - 60/25 - 35 mmhg , hr at 130 - 160 beats / min , etco2 at 27 - 35 mmhg , and spo2 at 97 - 100% . severe adhesion to omentum , liver , and small bowel was seen and moderate ascites were found . after adhesiolysis , the cyst was removed and end - to - end anastomosis of the small bowel was performed . total time taken for the surgery was 3 h 30 min and for anesthesia , 4 h 10 min . total fluid administered was 5% dextrose in water ( d5w ) 35 ml and lactated ringer 's solution 130 ml . after 120 min of anesthetic induction , venous blood gas analysis was taken , which showed ph 7.29 , paco2 44 mmhg , pvo2 34 mmhg , hco3 21.2 mm / l , na 133 meq / l , k 3.7 meq / l , hb 18.7 g / dl , and blood sugar 121 mg / dl . just after the surgery , we looked for evidence of urination on drape linen , but it was dry . the baby was sent to the nicu with a secured et tube with manual assisted ventilation . foley catheterization was done at the nicu and urine output was very poor after the surgery . dopamin 5 g / kg / min was infused with normal saline 60 ml , fresh frozen plasma ( ffp ) 40 ml , and 20% albumin 13 ml over 6 h. furosemide 4 mg was iv injected two times during hydration period , however , only 4 ml of urine was formed . generalized edema appeared with heart murmur , but urine starting to pass at 10 - 20 ml / h at the same time . the baby was extubated 20 h after the surgery and spo2 was maintained over 95% without supplemental oxygen . intraoperative fluids are administered by a guide consisting of replacement of preoperative deficit , maintenance , third space loss , and bleeding . dextrose solution is used for maintenance therapy and isotonic , non - glucose - containing solution for ongoing losses . although the common rule for hourly water requirement is well - known ( the 4 - 2 - 1 rule ) , 4 ml / kg / h for immediate newborn seems to be slightly too much , because they can be born with excessive extended - care facility ( ecf ) and their urine output can be very poor at 1 - 2 days of age . therefore , it can be subdivided into 2 ml / kg / h for day 1 , 3 ml / kg / h for day 2 , and 4 ml / kg / h for day 3 onward . d5w may be used for maintenance solution , however , care should be taken because hyponatremia may develop due to its hypotonic nature and newborns in the first day of life usually have poor urine output . also , tighter blood sugar analysis is required because hyperglycemia is prone to occur . instead of d5w , murat and dubois recommended 1 - 2% dextrose solution , which is sufficient to maintain an acceptable blood glucose level . in our second case , in which d5w was used , blood sugar was 69 mg / dl at age of 90 min , but rose to 121 mg / dl only after 100 min . generally , sodium supplementation is not required for the first 24 h. however , neonates should be given iv fluids which contain sodium when hyponatremia exists or extracellular fluid volume loss exceeds 5% of body weight per day . although we were not sure whether the baby had urinated , lactated ringer 's solution was infused in the second case because a large volume of normal saline may induce metabolic acidosis . fortunately , serum sodium and potassium were in acceptable range at 3 h of age ( 133 and 3.7 meq / l , respectively ) . preterm babies have a blood volume of 90 - 100 ml / kg and term babies have 80 - 90 ml / kg at delivery . the majority of volume loss during abdominal surgery is due to bleeding and third spacing . bleeding can be measured by weighing sponges , observing small calibrated suction bottles , and visual estimation . the third space loss may vary from 1 ml / kg / h for a minor surgery to as much as 15 - 20 ml / kg / h for major abdominal surgery , or even up to 50 ml / kg / h for necrotizing enterocolitis in premature infants . since the fluid loss into the third space is due to capillary leakage into tissues , the electrolyte and protein concentration of this fluid are similar to plasma . therefore , balanced salt solutions such as lactated ringer 's or normal saline are recommended as the first choice because they are effective , inexpensive , free of coagulation abnormality , anaphylaxis , and infection . albumin or other colloid solutions are rarely used and are indicated after administration of 30 - 50 ml / kg of crystalloid solution . large amount of lactated ringer 's solution is associated with a decreased serum osmolality and development of edema due to its slightly hypotonic nature , while normal saline is associated with development of dilutional or hyperchloremic acidosis . however , the number of pediatric studies aimed at evaluating its efficacy and tolerance are limited . in the case of massive third space losses in a preterm baby , intraoperative use of colloid solutions could be better than crystalloids because preterm babies have low serum albumin concentrations and reduced plasma oncotic pressure . although albumin maintains the colloid osmotic pressure , there is no evidence that albumin administration reduces mortality in critically ill patients with hypovolemia , burns , or even with hypoalbuminemia . a subgroup analysis showed there were no significant differences in outcomes between albumin and saline . instead , albumin had a higher mortality rate opposed to saline in adult traumatic brain injury patients . albumin is also associated with development of hypernatremia and chronic lung disease , and when it is used in subjects with highly increased intravascular permeability , colloids may actually leak into the interstitial space , which could worsen edema by pulling fluid from the intravascular compartment . in our second case , third space loss and bleeding were replaced with 12 - 15 ml / kg / h of crystalloids . however , the intravascular volume was thought to be lacking because of low bp , especially diastolic pressure , normal range of hb ( 18.7 mg / dl ) despite bleeding , and lots of bowel manipulation and oozing . however , the hb of a preterm neonate is unpredictable , varying from 14.5 to 21 mg / dl according to perinatal circumstances . therefore , it is better to have a hb estimation before surgery for reference value . after the surgery in our second case , laboratory study was performed , which showed pt / aptt / inr 14.2 sec/85.2 sec/1.22 ( normal range ; 10.4 - 13.3/23.2 - 39.4/0.85 - 1.25 ) , and serum albumin 1.59 g / dl ( normal range ; 3.5 - 5.0 ) . therefore , in the nicu , 60 ml of normal saline , 40 ml of ffp , and 13 ml of 20% albumin were infused during 6 h , which induced generalized edema . plasma is not indicated for intravascular volume expansion since other components are safer and better for those indications . however , when it is administered , it may act as a colloid , as it contains protein and albumin . there are no practical laboratory studies that definitely indicate the need for ffp in the perioperative period . rather , its use is guided by clinical evidence of nonsurgical bleeding , a high probability of clotting factor deficiency , or prolonged coagulation time . more than 50 ml of colloid and 60 ml of crystalloid at the postoperative phase to a 2.5 kg oliguric premature baby seems to be hazardous , since administration of excessive fluid and sodium may increase the risk of chronic lung disease and pda . intraoperative use of ffp and albumin might lessen crystalloids loading and restore coagulation factors and albumin . however , the decision to administer without laboratory data is very difficult . to gain more than 4 ml of sample to fully draped infants maintain cardiac output by increasing hr and may present with a normal bp until relatively late in their progression to uncompensated shock . therefore , bp alone is a poor index of hemodynamic status although diastolic pressure can be helpful in states of vasodilated preshock . thus , a significant tachycardia with other signs of decreased perfusion and a cause of fluid loss should be treated aggressively , even with a normal bp . the assessment of fluid deficits can not be based on measured losses alone as these are very inaccurate . hemodynamic status must be evaluated including hr , bp , capillary refill , urine output , and , if available , central venous pressure . dopamine may used if hypotension persists despite seemingly adequate volume resuscitation , especially when there is an intraabdominal process associated with sepsis . however , careful titration should be given to extremely prematures not to make intraventricular hemorrhage , since they have fragile vessels . neonates , particularly when premature , show physiologically low gfr and low urinary flow rate on the first day of life . in that period , the infant may be unable to increase water excretion to approximate water intake and may develop edema easily . renal maturation appears to be accelerated after 34 weeks of gestation and there is a rapid , almost two - fold increase in the gfr during the first week of life , which continues over the first few months . low gfr at birth is due to small glomerular capillary area available for filtration , structural immaturity of the glomerular capillaries , low arterial bp , high hematocrit , and renal vasoconstriction , which results in a low glomerular plasma flow . although delayed micturition in a healthy infant is not of concern until 24 h after birth , urine output in a critically ill infant should be assessed using urethral catheterization if indicated . when oliguria exists , initial laboratory examination including urinalysis , blood urea nitrogen , creatinine , and fractional excretion of sodium is required . twenty milliliters per kg of normal saline can be administered as two infusions at 10 ml / kg / h then dopamine and furosemide can be used in that order . unresponsive to increased cardiac output and diuresis , an abdominal sonography should be performed to define renal , urethral , and bladder anatomy . in conclusion , volume depletion may cause acute tubular necrosis , while overloading may induce pda , which is the cause of many complications of preterms . therefore , fluid deficits should be assessed and restored tightly by measured losses at present and various hemodynamic parameters .	intestinal obstruction was diagnosed in two fetuses at maternal antenatal care . both received emergency surgery on the day of their birth , at about 35 weeks gestational age . the disease progressed for a long time in both cases because prompt diagnosis and surgery are difficult to perform in utero . as a result , severe adhesion and distorted anatomy were observed in both cases . massive third space losses and bleeding were predicted during the surgery . however , the accurate ongoing losses were difficult to anticipate . the assessment of fluid deficits can not be based on measured losses alone , but hemodynamic status including blood pressure , heart rate , urine output , capillary refill , and/or central venous pressure should be evaluated additionally .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Joint Antitrust Consultative Commission Act''. SEC. 2. FINDINGS. The Congress finds as follows: (1) Antitrust laws are an important legal tool for opening markets to international competition and defusing trade tension. (2) All nations should make it a priority to enact and vigorously enforce strong competition laws to benefit consumers, encourage international competition and foster growth in jobs, productivity, and investment. (3) Japanese antimonopoly law is similar to United States antitrust law, partly as a result of its formulation during America's post-World War II occupation of Japan. However, there are observable differences in the respective antitrust enforcement environments of Japan and the United States. (4) In Japan-- (A) the lenient interpretation and enforcement of the antimonopoly law is insufficient to prevent business practices which result in significant barriers to foreign entry into the Japanese market; (B) private antitrust lawsuits are very difficult to file and virtually impossible to win in Japan because of strict requirements stipulating proof of damages; (C) due to political and bureaucratic pressures, criminal prosecution of antitrust violations rarely occurs in Japan; (D) many cartels are exempted and legal under the antimonopoly law in Japan. The large number of exempted and legal cartels contributes to an environment in which illegal cartels become less subject to criticism and scrutiny; and (E) the Japan Fair Trade Commission's capacity to enforce antimonopoly law is limited by the small size of its staff and the status of the Commission in the hierarchy of Japanese bureaucracies. (5) In the United States-- (A) corporations may be apprehensive about participating in certain business activities such as joint ventures or exclusive distributorship arrangements due to uncertainties concerning the enforcement of antitrust law; and (B) the cost of antitrust litigation, including the risk of treble damages, may have a negative impact on United States corporate competitiveness. SEC. 3. PURPOSES. The purposes of this Act are-- (1) to encourage a review of the antitrust policies of Japan and the United States in the context of a changing global economy and to foster ways of improving competition in both countries; (2) to encourage the Japan Fair Trade Commission and the United States Department of Justice and United States Federal Trade Commission toward more comparable levels of enforcement activity; (3) to ensure that the Japan Fair Trade Commission increasingly enforces the antimonopoly law based upon antitrust principles of protecting competition; (4) to encourage Japan to end unfair business practices that result in market foreclosure to foreign competition; (5) to increase awareness of criminal antitrust enforcement as a means of addressing anticompetitive business behavior in Japan; (6) to encourage the government of Japan to increase the investigative power of the Japan Fair Trade Commission; and (7) to encourage the government of Japan to reduce the number of cartels exempted from the antimonopoly law. SEC. 4. DEFINITIONS. In this Act-- ``antimonopoly law'' means codes enforced by the Japan Fair Trade Commission to promote fair and free competition by prohibiting private monopolization, unreasonable restraint of trade, and unfair business practices. ``antitrust policy'' means the general principles by which government is guided in maintaining competition in commercial activities. ``antitrust law'' means the body of statutes, court decisions, and other law designed to ensure the existence of competition in commercial activities. Antitrust law in the United States protects trade and commerce from unlawful restraints such as price fixing, exclusive dealings, and monopolies. ``Commission'' means the United States-Japan Joint Antitrust Consultative Commission established by section 5. SEC. 5. JOINT ANTITRUST CONSULTATIVE COMMISSION. (a) Establishment.--There is established the ``United States-Japan Joint Antitrust Consultative Commission''. (b) American Delegation.-- (1) Membership.--The American delegation to the Commission shall be composed of the following members: (A) Members of Congress: (i) The chairman of the Committee on Finance of the Senate, or the chairman's designee. (ii) The ranking minority member of the Committee on Finance of the Senate, or the ranking minority member's designee. (iii) The chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives, or the chairman's designee. (iv) The ranking minority member of the Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives, or the ranking minority member's designee. (v) The chairman of the Committee on the Judiciary of the Senate, or the chairman's designee. (vi) The ranking minority member of the Committee on the Judiciary of the Senate, or the ranking minority member's designee. (vii) The chairman of the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives, or the chairman's designee. (viii) The ranking minority member of Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives, or the ranking minority member's designee. (ix) The chairman of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate, or the chairman's designee. (x) The ranking minority member of the Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation of the Senate, or the ranking minority member's designee. (xi) The chairman of the Committee on Energy and Commerce of the House of Representatives, or the chairman's designee. (xii) The ranking minority member of the Committee on Energy and Commerce of the House of Representatives, or the ranking minority member's designee. (B) Executive officers: (i) The Attorney General, or the Attorney General's designee. (ii) The chairman of the Federal Trade Commission, or the chairman's designee. (iii) The Secretary of State, or the Secretary's designee. (iv) The Secretary of the Treasury, or the Secretary's designee. (v) The Secretary of Commerce, or the Secretary's designee. (vi) The United States Trade Representative, or the Trade Representative's designee. (2) Lead representative.--(A) The Attorney General, or the Attorney General's designee, shall be the American delegation's lead representative. (B) The lead representative shall-- (i) contact the Japanese lead representative to-- (I) set an agenda for the Commission's meetings; and (II) set mutually convenient annual meeting dates; (ii) supervise the establishment, procedures, and structure of the Commission with the Japanese lead representative, except such procedures shall allow representatives of industries discussed at such meetings an opportunity to present their views; (iii) assemble and maintain the reports, records, and other papers of the Commission for use by the American delegation and the public; and (iv) institute the comprehensive review required by section 8. (c) Japanese Delegation.-- (1) Contingency on commencement of activities.--The commencement of activities under this Act by the American delegation to the Commission is contingent on the creation by the appropriate Japanese officials of a Japanese delegation with representation from an appropriate range of institutions and interests that participate in antitrust activities in Japan, as determined by the lead representative of the American delegation. (2) Membership.--It is the sense of Congress that the Japanese delegation should have the same number of members as the American delegation and be composed of representatives of public, private, and other organizations involved in antitrust activities in Japan. It is the sense of the Congress that such a delegation should at a minimum include the following members: (A) Members of the Diet: (i) The chairman of the Budget Committee of the House of Representatives, or the chairman's designee. (ii) The ranking member of the main opposition party of the Budget Committee of the House of Representatives, or the ranking member's designee. (iii) The Budget Committee chairman of the House of Councillors, or the chairman's designee. (iv) The ranking member of the main opposition party of the Budget Committee of the House of Councillors, or the ranking member's designee. (v) The chairman of the Commerce Committee of the House of Representatives, or the chairman's designee. (vi) The ranking member of the main opposition party of the Commerce Committee of the House of Representatives, or the ranking member's designee. (vii) The chairman of the Commerce Committee of the House of Councillors, or the chairman's designee. (viii) The ranking member of the main opposition party of the Commerce Committee of the House of Councillors, or the ranking member's designee. (ix) The chairman of the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives, or the chairman's designee. (x) The ranking member of the main opposition party of the Judiciary Committee of the House of Representatives, or the ranking member's designee. (xi) The chairman of the Judiciary Committee of the House of Councillors, or the chairman's designee. (xii) The ranking member of the main opposition party of the Judiciary Committee of the House of Councillors, or the ranking member's designee. (B) Executive officers: (i) The chairman of the Japan Fair Trade Commission, or the chairman's designee, and 1 additional commissioner of the chairman's choice, or that commissioner's designee. (ii) The Minister of Finance, or the Minister's designee. (iii) The Minister of International Trade and Industry, or the Minister's designee. (iv) The Minister of Foreign Affairs, or the Minister's designee. (v) The Minister of Justice, or the Minister's designee. (3) Lead representative.--It is the sense of Congress that the Prime Minister, or the Prime Minister's designee, should appoint 1 of the members of the Japanese delegation as a lead representative to contact the United States lead representative to-- (A) set an agenda for the Commission's meetings; (B) set mutually convenient annual meeting dates; and (C) perform such other duties as may be assigned to the lead representative. (d) Meetings.--The Commission shall convene annually, with the first meeting to take place in Washington, D.C., in 1994 and the site of the meeting to alternate thereafter between the United States and Japan. (e) Federal Advisory Committee Act.--The Commission shall not be considered to be an advisory committee under the Federal Advisory Committee Act (5 U.S.C. App.). SEC. 6. COMMISSION FUNCTIONS. The Commission shall-- (1) discuss and make recommendations on long-term structural differences in antitrust policy and short-term antitrust disputes; and (2) serve as an open forum to promote more coherent enforcement of antitrust law in Japan and the United States. SEC. 7. REPORT. The recommendations and findings of the Commission, reflecting the major views expressed during the deliberations of the Commission, shall be completed and made public through issuance of a report in English by the agency from which the lead representative of the American delegation is selected, not more than 90 days after the Commission holds its annual meeting. It is the sense of Congress that the Japanese delegation should issue a Japanese language version of the report at the same time as the English language report is issued. SEC. 8. COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW. The lead representative of the American delegation shall institute a comprehensive review of the activities and responsibilities of the Commission not later than 180 days after the second annual meeting of the Commission to determine-- (1) whether the Commission is carrying out its purpose; (2) whether consistent with the purposes of this Act, responsibilities assigned to the Commission should be revised; and (3) whether the existence of the Commission should be continued. SEC. 9. COMPENSATION. Members of the American delegation to the Commission shall not be paid compensation for services performed on the Commission. SEC. 10. PAYMENT OF EXPENSES. The expenses of departments and agencies of the executive branch and of members and committees of the Senate and of the House of Representatives in carrying out this Act, including travel expenses and expenses relating to preparation of the report under section 7, shall be paid out of general funds that are available and not specifically appropriated for other purposes.	Joint Antitrust Consultative Commission Act - Establishes the United States-Japan Joint Antitrust Consultative Commission to: (1) discuss and make recommendations on long-term structural differences in antitrust policy and short-term antitrust disputes; and (2) serve as an open forum to promote more coherent enforcement of antitrust law in Japan and the United States. Requires the lead representative of the American delegation to institute a comprehensive review of the activities and responsibilities of the Commission within 180 days after its second annual meeting. Sets forth provisions regarding compensation and payment of expenses.
[ sec : intr ] the hi nearby galaxy survey ( things , @xcite ) brought an unprecedented level of precision to the measurement of the rotation curves of certain nearby spiral galaxies . this , when coupled with 3.6 @xmath1 images of the stellar component from the spitzer infrared nearby galaxies survey ( sings , @xcite ) , produces a stringent new data set for modeling the galactic dynamics of these systems . these tighter constraints are of paramount importance for testing alternative theories of gravity , in particular those with no galactic dark matter like modified newtonian dynamics ( mond - @xcite , but see also @xcite ) . mond is an appealing framework because , at least in galaxies , the gravitational field is fully determined by the matter distribution of the visible components . this means that a galaxy comprised of disky stellar and gaseous components , produces a rotation curve depending only on the properties of those components . it is crucial in order to keep up with the advancing observations , that we produce methods of modelling the galaxies with a similar level of sophistication . in this article , we develop a galactic n - body code for mond and apply it to fitting the high resolution rotation curves of the things survey . we compare predicted and fitted distances and make use of free parameters in the form of the scale - heights of the two baryonic components . mond has a different force law from newtonian dynamics , and this traditionally is rather tricky to solve ( @xcite ) . for instance , in the newtonian analogue , the ordinary poisson equation must simply be solved using the matter distribution in terms of its density , which includes stars ( @xmath2 ) , gas ( @xmath3 ) and cold dark matter ( @xmath4 ) , using [ eqn : qumond1 ] ^2_n=4 g ( _ * + _ g+_cdm ) to give the newtonian potential , @xmath5 . however , in a recently proposed version of mond , called qumond ( @xcite , but see also @xcite ) it was shown that the mond potential , @xmath6 , can be found exactly from the newtonian potential ( not including cold dark matter ) as follows [ eqn : qumond2 ] ^2= , where @xmath7 and @xmath8 , with @xmath9 being the mond acceleration constant chosen here to be @xmath10 . @xmath11 could take on another form , and similarly @xmath9 could take on a different value , but we choose here not to focus on this topic for fear of being sidetracked . we note that the @xmath12-function we adopt here is the analogue of the @xmath13-function used by @xcite to fit the terminal velocity curve of the milky way . very often in the literature , eq [ eqn : qumond2 ] is not solved , but rather an approximation is made that is referred to as the algebraic mond relation [ eqn : algmond ] = ( y ) _ n. this approximation ignores the curl field , which is negligible in most cases of high symmetry , but has the scope to be a significant component of the gravitational field in triaxial systems . here we are not advocating that it is imperative to use eq [ eqn : qumond2 ] for fitting rotation curves of relaxed spiral galaxies , but rather that when mond is extended to study interacting galaxies , or galaxies with lopsided matter distributions . our goal is to determine the gravity at locations inside the galaxy we are studying and the procedure to do this is as follows . we must set up a three dimensional grid , sliced into numerous cubic cells - usually we use 65 , 129 or 257 cells per dimension . in each cell there are the following . * an approximated , but near exact , value of the baryonic density ( step 1 , the source of eq [ eqn : qumond1 ] using only gas and stars ) . * a solution to the newtonian potential ( step 2 ) . * the source `` density '' - the right hand side of eq [ eqn : qumond2 ] ( step 3 ) . * the solution of the qumond potential ( step 4 ) getting from step 1 to 4 is in the details of the code , which we briefly describe here . we read in a set of particle positions that determine the density of the stars and gas in the galaxy on the grid using the cloud - in - cell technique ( step 1 ) . the stars and gas are allocated half of the total number of particles each and therefore the particles of gas and stars are weighted differently and according to the total mass of each component . with this density , we solve for the newtonian potential ( step 2 ; eq [ eqn : qumond1 ] ) using the full multigrid algorithm that is well known and described in @xcite . the full multigrid method is extended to three dimensions which implements red - black gauss - seidel relaxation . our default is to use six v - cycles , from finest to coarsest grid and back to finest with bilinear prolongation and restriction , as well as two pre and post smoothing steps before and after the coarse grid correction is computed . we then use finite differencing to find the source for eq [ eqn : qumond2 ] ( step 3 ) . the finite differencing technique used to solve eq [ eqn : qumond2 ] is described in @xcite . we use the same multigrid technique to solve eq [ eqn : qumond1 ] and eq [ eqn : qumond2 ] , only the source changes ( step 4 ) . we make a final finite differencing to determine the qumond gravity , @xmath14 , on the grid and then we interpolate to the point at which we wish to know the gravity . the interpolation scheme is the same as the scheme to assign density to the grid i.e. the cloud - in - cell technique . our final step is to calculate the circular speed associated with this qumond potential as a function of radius . this is taken as [ eqn : vc ] v_c^2=r_r\|_z=0 . although this is the first attempt to solve the modified poisson equation of qumond on a grid in a non - cosmological setting ( see @xcite for the cosmological analogue ) , this is not the first time a modified poisson equation linked to mond has been solved in such a way . @xcite developed a cubic particle - mesh code that solved the modified poisson equation and used it to investigate some important topics ( @xcite ) . @xcite developed a similar code and parallelised it and incorporated hydrodynamics into their simulations ( see @xcite ) . in addition to these , @xcite produced a spherical grid code that investigated various issues in the framework of mond ( @xcite ) . the key to a galactic n - body code , as opposed to a cosmological one , is the boundary conditions . in a cosmological code , the expectation that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic allows us to enforce periodic boundary conditions . at the galaxy scale , the boundary conditions must be set precisely at all outer grid cells , which is non - trivial in mond . it is not clear how accurately this was achieved in the previous codes , but here we implement a different strategy ( see @xcite and @xcite for other examples ) . we define a coarse grid which is many times ( @xmath15 ) larger than the galaxy we are studying . for this coarsest grid we set the boundary condition of the newtonian and qumond potentials to be zero . then we solve for the newtonian and qumond potentials everywhere on the grid . from this , we define a refined grid that is half the size of the coarse grid and we interpolate through the values of the potential on the coarse grid to define the boundary condition of the refined grid . we make this refinement up to ten times in order to zoom in on our galaxy , but the boundary conditions are correct at the sub percent level at all points on the grid by the second refinement . this also enables us to use different grid levels to find the potential at the location of a particle , depending on its position in the various grid levels . the limitation of this is that it is centrally refining , not arbitrarily towards regions of high density . note that the number of grid cells is constant for each refinement , so the resolution increases for the finer grids - with more cells per kpc . there is an initial guess that is required in multigrid methods . for clarity , our finest grid is 257x257x257 and we solve for the potential on this grid at 10 incremental levels of resolution ( box size ) . for each box size , in order to more rapidly calculate the potential on the finest grid , we smooth the calculated ( fed in ) density down to the coarsest possible level of resolution , which is a 3x3x3 grid . the coarsest density field is known in each of the 27 cells and we must solve for the potential in each of these cells . since for the largest box , of length 4 mpc , the density and potential in each of the 26 outer cells is zero , the potential in the central cell is simply proportional to the density in that central cell . this is true for both the newtonian step and the qumond step . following this , we perform the standard multigrid interpolation of the potential to finer grids and use the finer density defined on those grids to make a more rapid calculation of the potential on the finest grid . [ sec : ics ] our aim is to use this particle mesh code to fit rotation curves . to do this , we need to generate static n - body realisations of galaxies depending on their surface density . initially , to test the resolution of the code , we generated a realisation of a kuzmin disk and compared the analytical circular velocity to the circular velocity simulated by the code . kuzmin disks are unique in mond because their isopotential contours are spherically symmetric ( at least in each distinct hemisphere , above and below the disk mid - plane ) , meaning there is no curl field . the surface density of a kuzmin disk is given by @xcite to be @xmath16 . assuming an infinitely thin disk , and integrating this by @xmath17 , we get the enclosed mass @xmath18 . if we express the fraction of the total mass as @xmath19 , then we know the way to distribute particles in radius is @xmath20 . from this we randomly sample @xmath21 and distribute the particles according to a random azimuthal angle . we did this for a model where we set @xmath22 kpc and @xmath23 and we show in fig [ fig : kuz ] ( left hand panel ) the fractional difference between this , the simulated qumond rotation curve , and the analytically expected rotation curve . for the kuzmin disk , the 3d newtonian gravity on a star slightly below the disk is defined by @xmath24 and this points towards the position @xmath25 , as if all the mass was concentrated in a single point at the location @xmath26 . similarly , the gravity towards the centre of the disk is @xmath27 . therefore , the qumond gravity towards the centre of the disk is @xmath28 . note the subtlety here with respect to the subscripts of r and r. fig [ fig : kuz ] demonstrates that the accuracy of the code is less than 1% beyond 0.3 kpc and less than 0.1% beyond 1 kpc for this model . this depends greatly on the extent of the galaxy . a kuzmin disk , with scale radius @xmath22 kpc still has 5% of its mass beyond 30 kpc and so is rather unrealistically extended . in fig [ fig : kuz ] ( right hand panel ) we make the same plots for @xmath29 pc and @xmath30 to demonstrate that in that case the agreement is better than 0.1% down to @xmath3150 pc . in both cases , as for the real galaxies to follow , we use the following strategy to evaluate gravity at various radii , r. when @xmath32 we use the finest grid which has a default box - size of 4 kpc , when @xmath33 we use the second finest box of size 8 kpc , for @xmath34 we use the 16 kpc box and so on . these values need not be fixed and should be tailored to different galaxy sizes . although we can accurately simulate the gravitational field of a kuzmin disk to roughly 0.1% , it is equally important to ensure that the solution to poisson s equation does converge for more complex density distributions , which might not immediately follow from a smooth kuzmin disk . as mentioned above , our default parameters for using the full multigrid algorithm are that we make a standard number of six v - cycles at each level of the grid . before and after we make the coarse grid correction we always make two red - black gauss - seidel relaxation sweeps . for one of our galaxies , ngc 3621 , we have plotted in fig [ fig : converge ] the relative error ( as a function of radius ) between the simulated rotation speed for a series of numbers of v - cycles compared to the rotation speed found using 99 v - cycles . each different number of v - cycles is given a distinct colour . if a colour is not seen at a specific radius , this is because the relative error is less than @xmath35 and is most likely identical to the 99 v - cycles simulation . the discontinuities are caused by moving from one grid resolution to another . clearly , using only one or two v - cycles does not allow for convergence , but by six cycles the difference is less than 0.1% at all radii . since the theoretical accuracy of the code is roughly 0.1% as well ( see fig [ fig : kuz ] ) , it makes 6 v - cycles a sensible number of cycles to make until the accuracy can be improved . to compare the difference between solving the modified poisson equation of qumond ( eq [ eqn : qumond2 ] ) and the algebraic mond relation ( eq [ eqn : algmond ] ) we plot in fig [ fig : exp ] the rotation curve for an exponential disk galaxy with scale length @xmath22 kpc and total mass @xmath23 . there is a small but noticeable difference even for a perfectly symmetric and thin exponential disk . also plotted is the simulated rotation curve for a disk with scale - height of 1 kpc , with a @xmath36 distribution . this creates a @xmath37 difference out to @xmath38 kpc and is still significant at @xmath39 kpc . for this reason , scale - height is a crucial parameter that we will use to enhance the fits to the rotation curves of the galaxies . in order to generate realistic , static n - body realisations for galaxies we need the surface densities of both the stellar disk and the gaseous disk , like that plotted for ngc 3621 in fig [ fig : surfd ] . in our models we always separate stars and gas , giving half of the particles to each component and weighting them according to the relative masses of these two components . we use the well known rejection technique from @xcite to produce an n - body realisation of the two components that resembles the observed surface densities . typically we use @xmath40 particles and our most refined grid is only 4 kpc across , with @xmath41 cells per dimension . we are now in a position to compare simulated circular velocity curves with the observed rotation curves . this brings into question the various free parameters we employ . we assume that the uncertainty in the inclination of the galaxy is contained within the measurement errors associated with each data point . the error from inclination is addressed in de blok et al . ( 2008 ) , where the tilted ring fits find little variation in inclination for the galaxies we use . this leaves us with four free parameters : the distance to the galaxy , @xmath42 , the mass - to - light ratio ( @xmath0 ) of the stellar component of the galaxy and the scale - heights of both the stellar , @xmath43 , and gas , @xmath44 , disks - with @xmath36 distributions . we then make an exhaustive search through parameter space to find the quality of fit values , @xmath45 , of these parameters by comparing the simulated qumond rotation curve with the observed one . we initially enforce flat priors on the distance to be no more than two standard deviations and the @xmath0 is forced to be within the range set by the diet - salpeter and kroupa imfs . we then relax these priors if no good fit is found , or if a significantly improved fit is found despite not being preferred by current limits on the parameters . the scale - heights are free to vary from razor thin up to 1 kpc . it should be emphasised that @xcite have suggested that @xcite overestimate the error bars on some rotation curves , @xmath46 , and as such the reduced @xmath47 can not be directly used as a probability indicator in every case . the sample of five galaxies that we ve chosen is a subsample of the galaxies used in the mond fits of @xcite , which is itself a subset of the galaxies studied by @xcite . our sample removed all galaxies that had a significant spheroid component and also those galaxies that could be aided by the external field effect , which we devote a future paper to . here our goal is not to have a representative sample of galaxies to test mond in a statistical sense , but rather to highlight the potential of this poisson solver and to investigate the impact of variable scale - heights on rotation curve fits . the properties of the five galaxies themselves can be found detailed in @xcite . [ sec : res ] in fig [ fig : chi ] we plot the minimum reduced @xmath47 for each free parameter as a function of that parameter . specifically , this is the minimum @xmath47 achievable with that parameter fixed and every other parameter free . the distances and @xmath0 are limited according to the plotted range for each galaxy . each galaxy in fig [ fig : chi ] has a different line colour . in the top left hand panel , we plot reduced @xmath47 for each galaxy against distance . the fitted distance is normalised to the measured distance and similarly the fitted @xmath0 is normalised to the @xmath0 predicted by the diet - salpeter imf . the @xmath48 error on distance varies from galaxy to galaxy and can be found in table [ tab : par ] . for @xmath0 , the kroupa imf is typically 70% of the diet - salpeter value . clearly two galaxies ( ngc 2903 and ngc 3521 ) prefer substantially lower distances than the measurements suggest , whereas the other three galaxies have their minima closer to the measured distance . it is worth baring in mind that ngc 2903 and ngc 3521 have the largest uncertainties on their distances , 25% and 30% respectively . the @xmath0 plots ( top right and middle right ) have only four lines since we fix the @xmath0 of ddo 154 to the diet - salpeter value and do not vary it , nor do we vary its stellar scale - height . the concern here is that the curve for ngc 2903 rises sharply towards large @xmath47 when typical @xmath0 are tried . the gas scale - height is only significant for two galaxies . obviously ddo 154 is our only gas dominated galaxy and 95% of its mass is gaseous . it prefers as large a gas scale - height as possible and the @xmath47 rises sharply below 0.6 kpc . on the other hand , ngc 2403 prefers a thin gas disk below 0.4 kpc in scale - height . the other three galaxies prefer gas scale - heights larger than 0.5 kpc , but no significant gain is achieved for larger values than this . the stellar scale - height is strongly constrained by the rotation curves . all four stellar dominated galaxies show a clear minimum between 0.25 and 0.55 kpc and the quality of the fits would be significantly reduced if they were forced to be razor thin or 1 kpc in extent . in figs [ fig : com154]-[fig : com3521 ] we plot various fits to the five rotation curves as well as three contour plots ( ddo 154 only has one ) for the three combinations of the three free parameters ( gas scale - height has been omitted ) . a lower @xmath47 can be achieved by increasing the distance and gas scale - height . in table [ tab : par ] we give the parameters used for the three fits in the left hand panel of fig [ fig : com154 ] . in all figures showing the rotation curve , the fits and data points are rescaled to the distance of model ( a ) for that particular galaxy . in the case of ddo 154 this is 1.085 times the measured distance of 4.3 mpc and as such is 4.67 mpc . it is not possible to fit the inner curve and outer flat data points beyond 7 kpc with the same model . the flat outer points may be due to a warp in the outer part of its gaseous disk ( @xcite ) . nevertheless , the solid and dashed lines achieve excellent fits up to 6 kpc and the dashed line uses an acceptable distance and gas scale - height of only 0.65 kpc . the dotted line uses a razor thin gas disk and is a poor fit to the inner curve and poorer still to the outer curve . @xcite claim that dwarf galaxies ( such as ddo 154 ) have thicker h i disks than more massive spiral galaxies due to a lower restoring force from weaker gravity . in order to be a good fit in mond , the outer warp should be responsible for the anomalously low rotation speeds between 7 and 8.5 kpc . the @xmath47 minimum for ngc 3621 is obvious in the contour plots of fig [ fig : com3621 ] and puts strong constraints on all three parameters . the fits , whose parameters are given in table [ tab : par ] , at the top left hand panel show the best fit ( solid line ) and another fit with slightly larger distance ( dashed line ) , more in keeping with the measured distance . both are excellent fits . the dotted line shows the best fit model when the best fit stellar scale - height is replaced with a razor thin stellar disk and is a very poor fit to the central rotation curve . the best fit parameters are all within acceptable bounds and this is an excellent fit for mond . the contour plots in fig [ fig : com2903 ] show that in order to have a satisfactory fit , regardless of distance and stellar scale - height , the @xmath0 must be more than twice the predicted value . if this is the case , then an excellent fit can be achieved as shown in the top left panel . on the other hand , using a @xmath0 of only 50% larger than the predicted value gives a poor fit , as the dotted line attests . therefore , ngc 2903 is a problem for mond unless a reason can be found why it should have a @xmath0 that is twice the diet - salpeter prediction . if such a reason was found , it would be well fit by mond . in fig [ fig : com2403 ] the contour plot of distance against @xmath0 shows the requirement for a good fit to have either an excessively large @xmath0 or distance . this is aggravated by the tight error on the distance of a mere 8% and the relatively low predicted @xmath0 for the given stellar population . for instance , the predicted 3.6 @xmath1 diet - salpeter imf @xmath0 of ngc 2403 is 0.39 , whereas for ngc 2903 , 3521 and 3621 it is 0.61 , 0.73 and 0.59 respectively . in the top left hand panel of fig [ fig : com2403 ] we fit four curves to the observed rotation curve . the solid and dashed curves are the best fit models , which respectively use a @xmath49 discrepant fitted distance and regular @xmath0 , and a more regular distance but more discrepant @xmath0 . the other two lines are a model with the same parameters as the best fit , but using a razor thin stellar disk ( dotted line ) , and one with a regular distance and @xmath0 ( dot - dashed line ) . both of these are unsatisfactory fits . as with ngc 2903 , this galaxy ngc 2403 can only be consistent with mond if the cause of its higher than expected @xmath0 is found , however , this is a much less significant problem than ngc 2903 because even with the required @xmath0 for a good fit , it would still have a typical @xmath0 compared to other galaxies . for ngc 3521 , the preference is for a much lower distance than measured , which can be seen in the contour plot of fig [ fig : com3521 ] . this is not necessarily out of the question since the error on its distance is 30% , but the @xmath47 minimum is actually further from the mean than this . the parameters of the two models plotted against the observed rotation curve in the top left panel are given in table [ tab : par ] and correspond to a distance more than 1@xmath50 lower than the mean and roughly @xmath51 lower than the mean . both require sensible @xmath0 and the stellar scale - height is constrained to be close to 0.25 kpc . the fit with the less discrepant distance ( dashed line ) is a better fit to the inner 13 kpc and the discontinuity in measured rotation speed at this radius makes it difficult for any model to achieve a good fit to both the inner and outer curve . in general , this galaxy is well fit by mond . a somewhat surprising result is the tight constraint placed on the values of the stellar scale - height for the four stellar dominated galaxies and the gas scale - height of ddo 154 . from the contour plots of figs [ fig : com154 ] to [ fig : com3521 ] we see the relative lack of freedom in the stellar scale - heights and this gives us the opportunity to put a further constraint on the model by checking if the required scale - heights are consistent with the typical stellar vertical velocity dispersions of other spiral galaxies . making the assumption that the stellar velocity dispersions are isothermal with height above the disk we can use the following equation to solve for the stellar vertical velocity dispersion at any radius _ z,*^2(r ) = -d(r , z ) dz . a similar test could be used to constrain the gas scale - heights , but we do nt follow that route . the right hand side is comprised fully of quantities that are known in the rotation curve fitting code . as can be seen in fig[fig : scah ] , the vertical velocity dispersions of all the galaxies have a similar shape . generally , for the best fit models ( solid and dashed lines ) the trend is to have a large central vertical velocity dispersion @xmath52 of between 20 and 35@xmath53 and this drops to between 4 and 8@xmath53 by 15 kpc . the dotted lines , which are for very thin disks of only 0.05 kpc scale - height , have much lower velocity dispersions - with ngc 2403 and ngc 3621 being centrally just 8 and 10 @xmath53 respectively . @xcite studied the stellar velocity dispersions of a sample of 12 spiral galaxies of varying blue band magnitude in the range @xmath54=-18.76 to -22.22 . they found a trend for the vertical stellar velocity dispersions to scale with decreasing galaxy magnitude ( increasing luminosity ) . the three galaxies with @xmath55 , for which only ngc 3521 from our sample does not apply , were ngc 3198 , 3938 and 6503 and they had central stellar velocity dispersions of @xmath56 , @xmath57 and @xmath58 respectively , although ngc 3198 and ngc 3938 are inclined . the stellar velocity dispersions dropped to between 10 and 20 @xmath53 after 2 or 3 scale - heights , which is similar to our models . the larger galaxies with @xmath59 , which applies to ngc 3521 , had central stellar velocity dispersions between 50 and 120@xmath53 . this is larger than the central stellar velocity dispersion of ngc 3521 . even increasing the stellar scale - height to 1 kpc can only increase the central vertical stellar velocity dispersion to @xmath60 and this remains on the low end of the sample studied by @xcite . perhaps the increased velocity dispersions with luminosity are also linked to the increased prevalence of bulges with luminosity and ngc 3521 s lack of a significant spheroid bucks this trend . the stellar and gas scale - heights we use in the fits are given in table [ tab : par ] along with the stellar scale - heights suggested by @xcite . the suggested stellar scale - heights are simply one - fifth of the scale - lengths and for ngc 3521 and ngc 3621 respectively are 1.9 and 1.5 kpc . these values are several times larger than the fitted scale - heights of 0.25 and 0.5 kpc respectively . if these suggested scale - heights were enforced , it would not be possible to achieve a good fit to the rotation curves . therefore , it is vital to have a separate measurement of the stellar velocity dispersion to put an orthogonal limit on the scale - heights , as shown by @xcite in the case of ngc 6503 and @xcite . @xcite used the disk mass survey to demonstrate that the magnitude of vertical velocity dispersions led to the inference that galaxy disks must be submaximal . maximum disk simply means the fit to the rotation curve with the highest @xmath0 possible and the least amount of dark matter , such that all the rotation velocity is attributable to the disk in the central part . it would be interesting to see if this holds in mond for which the disk , by definition , must be maximal . @xcite made an analysis of the scale - heights of the gas dominated things galaxies in newtonian gravity and it is essential that a similar review is made of the same galaxies in mond . [ sec : efe ] external gravitational fields ( see forthcoming paper ) , usually the result of nearby galaxies or clusters , can cause a suppression of the boost to gravity due to mond . this is particularly likely for low surface brightness galaxies . an external gravitational field has a similar effect to decreasing the @xmath0 and increasing the scale - height , but they are not degenerate given the gaseous mass content and the radial dependence of the circular velocity on scale - height . it is an oft - quoted solution to unknown problems in mond , but it is important to emphasise that it would have no beneficial influence on ngc 2403 or ngc 2903 since it would simply impose a larger @xmath0 , making the situation worse . [ cols="<,^,^,^,^,^,^,^,^ " , ] [ tab : par ] here we have introduced an n - body code that solves the modified poisson equation of qumond ( see @xcite ) . with it , we fitted the rotation curves of five spiral galaxies from the things survey ( @xcite ) , using n - body realisations of the stars and the gas in each galaxy fixed by their surface densities . we allowed the distance , mass - to - light ratio and both the scale - heights of the stellar and gaseous disks to be free parameters , with priors set depending on observational constraints . we discovered that our best fits were excellent matches to the rotation curves of all five galaxies , except for some minor discrepancies at locations of publicised uncertainty in the observations . we displayed contour plots of reduced @xmath47 for the various free parameters of all galaxies and found that two galaxies , ngc 2403 and ngc 2903 , could only make satisfactory fits if their mass - to - light ratios were larger than the predicted values . the required increase in @xmath0 for ngc 2403 is moderate , but for ngc 2903 it is considerable . interestingly , the dark matter fits to these rotation curves given by @xcite , which can be seen in their tables 5 and 6 , also require larger @xmath0 . for ngc 2403 , a value 50% larger than the predicted diet - salpeter value and for ngc 2903 more than double was required , which is exactly what we have found . if this were an isolated incident , it could have less relevance , but there is a growing preference for stellar dominated galaxies to require much larger @xmath0s than predicted by stellar population models from typical initial stellar mass functions . large @xmath0s are also required for certain dwarf spheroidal galaxies surrounding the milky way , in particular carina , sextans and draco ( see @xcite ) and a large fraction of the early type galaxies studied by @xcite . the mond fits to the dynamics are in general still excellent , but a solution must be found to explain why certain galaxies can have @xmath0 described by a kroupa or diet - salpeter initial mass function and other galaxies need one up to twice as large . both the mond and dark matter fits to the rotation curves of ngc 2403 and ngc 2903 suggest there is a problem with the stellar population synthesis models of these galaxies . furthermore , the distance required for ngc 3521 is considerably lower than the mean , but this is acceptable due to the large uncertainty . a revised distance with tighted error bars could be very revealing . these issues need to be resolved before we can say that mond provides good fits to all five galaxies with reasonable parameters . the surprising result was that the mond fits put a tight constraint on the stellar scale - heights . the best fit scale - heights of all four stellar dominated galaxies were found to be between 0.25 kpc and 0.55 kpc and were strongly constrained to be larger than 0 and less than 1 kpc . for two galaxies , ngc 2403 and 2903 , the best fit stellar scale - heights were very close to the typical scale - height used , which is one fifth of the radial scale - length . on the other hand , ngc 3521 and ngc 3621 have best fit stellar scale - heights that are far lower than the suggested scale - height insofar as if the scale - height was fixed to this suggested value , a good fit to the inner data points would not be achievable . similarly , the only gas dominated galaxy we studied , ddo 154 , can achieve a good fit only if its gas scale - height is larger than @xmath310.6 kpc . in fact the quality of the fit improves with increasing scale - height . clearly , the use of both stellar and gas scale - heights as free parameters in mond fits to galaxy rotation curves is imperative . line of sight velocity dispersions of both components in a sample of similar face on galaxies should be used as a sanity check on their values since in mond the rotation curves and vertical velocity dispersions of both components are bound together to the mass distribution . + + + + + + + + + + + gwa , kvdh and wjgdb s research is supported by the university of cape town and the national research foundation of south africa . bf acknowledges the support of the avh foundation . g. g. is a postdoctoral fellow with the national science fund ( fwo - vlaanderen ) . the authors thank the things collaboration for providing their data . j. , tremaine s. , 2008 , galactic dynamics : second edition . galactic dynamics : second edition , by james binney and scott tremaine . isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 13026 - 2 ( hb ) . published by princeton university press , princeton , nj usa , 2008 . r. c. , armus l. , bendo g. , calzetti d. , dale d. a. , draine b. t. , engelbracht c. w. , gordon k. d. , grauer a. d. , helou g. , hollenbach d. j. , jarrett t. h. , kewley l. j. , leitherer c. , li a. , malhotra s. , regan m. w. , rieke g. h. , rieke m. j. , roussel h. , smith j .- d . t. , thornley m. d. , walter f. , 2003 , pasp , 115 , 928 w. h. , teukolsky s. a. , vetterling w. t. , flannery b. p. , 1992 , numerical recipes in fortran . the art of scientific computing , press , w. h. , teukolsky , s. a. , vetterling , w. t. , & flannery , b. p. , ed .	here we present a new particle - mesh galactic n - body code that uses the full multigrid algorithm for solving the modified poisson equation of the quasi linear formulation of modified newtonian dynamics ( qumond ) . a novel approach for handling the boundary conditions using a refinement strategy is implemented and the accuracy of the code is compared with analytical solutions of kuzmin disks . we then employ the code to compute the predicted rotation curves for a sample of five spiral galaxies from the things sample . we generated static n - body realisations of the galaxies according to their stellar and gaseous surface densities and allowed their distances , mass - to - light ratios ( @xmath0 ) and both the stellar and gas scale - heights to vary in order to estimate the best fit parameters . we found that ngc 3621 , ngc 3521 and ddo 154 are well fit by mond using expected values of the distance and @xmath0 . ngc 2403 required a moderately larger @xmath0 than expected and ngc 2903 required a substantially larger value . the surprising result was that the scale - height of the dominant baryonic component was well constrained by the rotation curves : the gas scale - height for ddo 154 and the stellar scale - height for the others . in fact , if the suggested stellar scale - height ( one - fifth the stellar scale - length ) was used in the case of ngc 3621 and ngc 3521 it would not be possible to produce a good fit to the inner rotation curve . for each of the four stellar dominated galaxies , we calculated the vertical velocity dispersions which we found to be , on the whole , quite typical compared with observed stellar vertical velocity dispersions of face on spirals . we conclude that modelling the gas scale - heights of the gas rich dwarf spiral galaxies will be vital in order to make precise conclusions about mond .
brca1 and brca2 germline mutations are associated with high penetrance for both breast and ovarian cancer ( miki et al . the overall prevalence of brca1/2 alterations in general population varies considerably among different ethnic groups , with respect to specific founder mutations . in 2000 , three founder alleles of brca1 ( c.5266dup , c.181t > g , c.4034dela ) were reported in polish families with a strong aggregation of breast or ovarian cancers and subsequently incorporated into the standard genetic screening panel ( gorski et al . further investigations were expanded in a large population of unselected female breast cancer patients ( brozek et al . 2011 ; gaj et al . 2012 ; lubinski et al . 2006 ; szwiec et al . 2014 ) as well as in consecutive ovarian cancer series ( brozek et al . 2008 ; majdak et al . 2005 ; menkiszak et al . 2003 ) . a relatively high germline mutation frequency at the level of 13.5 % for brca1 and 13.9 % for brca1/2 among cases with unselective primary ovarian carcinoma has been reported in studies by menkiszak et al . albeit both studies confirmed the strong founder effect for brca1 5266dup and c.181t > g alterations , the latter reported other recurrent brca1/2 mutations in the group of polish patients with ovarian cancer . in line with the recommendations of the american society of clinical oncology testing for recurrent brca1 mutations is required in each case of ovarian cancer in the polish population ( 1996 ) . according to the reports of the latest clinical trials patients with brca mutations and recurrent serous ovarian carcinoma may benefit from specific therapies targeting brca signaling pathways ( audeh et al . for the purpose of the most effective treatment as well as genetic counseling and prophylactic strategies for patients and their families , mutational analysis of brca1 and brca2 needs to be highly sensitive and cost - efficient . the aim of this study was to establish the frequency of germline brca1/2 mutations in consecutive ovarian cancer series from northern poland . additionally , it was of our interest to investigate whether an application of next generation sequencing can significantly improve brca1/2 mutation detection rate and subsequently effectiveness of further prophylactic and treatment strategies . the study comprises 134 unselected ovarian cancer patients who were referred to the university hospital in gdansk and the red cross hospital in gdynia between 2012 and 2013 . within the studied group 77.6 % ( n = 104/134 ) of patients were diagnosed with serous ovarian cancer , average age at diagnosis was 60.8 ( 2487 ) years . informed consent was obtained from all of the patients and the study was approved by the medical review board of medical university of gdansk . genomic dna was extracted from the whole blood using red - blood - cells lysis buffer followed by the standard phenol - chloroform procedure as described elsewhere . brca1 and brca2 mutation screening was performed using the brca mastr assay v1.2 ( multiplicom , niel , belgium ) followed by miseq targeted re - sequencing at minimum of 99x coverage ( illumina inc . ) . the analysis was performed with illumina variant studio software ( illumina inc . ) and geneious software ( biomatters ltd ) . presence of the brca1/2 mutations detected by ngs analysis was confirmed by pcr followed by bi - directional sanger sequencing ( abi prism 3130 , life technologies , inc . ) . the study comprises 134 unselected ovarian cancer patients who were referred to the university hospital in gdansk and the red cross hospital in gdynia between 2012 and 2013 . within the studied group 77.6 % ( n = 104/134 ) of patients were diagnosed with serous ovarian cancer , average age at diagnosis was 60.8 ( 2487 ) years . informed consent was obtained from all of the patients and the study was approved by the medical review board of medical university of gdansk . genomic dna was extracted from the whole blood using red - blood - cells lysis buffer followed by the standard phenol - chloroform procedure as described elsewhere . brca1 and brca2 mutation screening was performed using the brca mastr assay v1.2 ( multiplicom , niel , belgium ) followed by miseq targeted re - sequencing at minimum of 99x coverage ( illumina inc . ) . the analysis was performed with illumina variant studio software ( illumina inc . ) and geneious software ( biomatters ltd ) . presence of the brca1/2 mutations detected by ngs analysis was confirmed by pcr followed by bi - directional sanger sequencing ( abi prism 3130 , life technologies , inc . ) . in the group of 134 patients with unselected primary ovarian cancer , pathogenic brca1 or brca2 mutations were found in 20 individuals ( 14.9 % ) . in addition , two variants of unknown significance were detected ( brca1 : c.301 + 7g > a ; brca2 : c.9486_9488del ) . among the brca1/2 positive cases , 16 carried brca1 and four brca2 mutation , which accounts for 80 and 20 % , respectively . thirteen alterations ( n = 13/20 ; 65 % ) were recurrent brca1 mutations included in the standard genetic screening panel used in northern poland , as previously reported ( ratajska et al . the remaining seven mutations ( n = 7/20 ; 35 % ) , three located in brca1 and four in brca2 are not included in the standard targeted mutation analysis , which overall gives seven out of the 20 mutation positive cases ( 35 % ) . detailed clinical , histopathological and molecular data of brca1/2 positive patients are presented in table 1.table 1clinical , histopathological , and molecular data of the ovarian cancer patients with brca1/2 mutationno.case noexon / intronmutation in corresponding cdna predicted amino acid sequencemutation type rs number age ( years)figo stagehistologyfamily history brca1 gene 11155c.181t > g ( 300t > g)p.cys61glym2889767236iiicserousnegative 229654iiicserouspositive 32211c.3700_3704del ( 3819del5)p.val1234glnfs8f8035760961iiibserousunknown 43843iiicserousnegative 56652unknownserousunknown 65020c.5266dup ( 5382insc)p.gln1756profs74f39750724652iiicserouspositive 710863unknownserousunknown 813865unknownserouspositive 931446iiicendometrioidpositive 1032337iiicserouspositive 1136860unknownserousunknown 1237466unknownserousunknown 1337836unknownserousunknown 14789c.594 - 2a > cr.[=;594_670del]p.val179cysfs3f8035803324unknownserousunknown 158510c.1793t > ap.leu598n8035711843unknownendometrioidnegative 169513c.4357 + 2t > g;r.[=;4186_4357del]p.arg1377tyrfs2f8035815245iiicserousnegativebrca2 gene 17311c.3975_3978dupp.ala1327cysfs4f39751563645ivserouspositive 1893c.2808_2811delp.ala938profs21f8035935182unknownserouspositive 19103c.5042_5043delp.val168glufs7f8035947862iiicserousnegative 208714c.7180a > tp.arg2394*n8035894667iiicendometrioidunknown mutation type according to the hgvs nomenclature ; hgvs , human genome variation society . nomenclature commonly used is shown in brackets f , frameshift ; m , missense ; n , nonsense a reference snp number a positive family history was determined when at least one family member with breast / ovarian cancer was present besides the patient clinical , histopathological , and molecular data of the ovarian cancer patients with brca1/2 mutation mutation type according to the hgvs nomenclature ; hgvs , human genome variation society . nomenclature commonly used is shown in brackets f , frameshift ; m , missense ; n , nonsense a reference snp number a positive family history was determined when at least one family member with breast / ovarian cancer was present besides the patient out of the 20 brca1/2 positive patients , 17 were diagnosed with ovarian serous adenocarcinoma ( 85 % ) , whereas the other three with adenocarcinoma endometroides ( 15 % ) . overall , the frequency of brca1/2 mutations was 40 % ( n = 9/22 ) in the group diagnosed before or at age of 50 and approximately 10 % among patients older than 50 years ( n = 11/112 ) . the mean age of cancer diagnosis was 52 ( 2482 ) years in the group of mutation carriers and 62.3 ( 2787 ) years in patients with brca1/2 wild - type . finally , detailed family history was available only in 60 % ( n = 12/20 ) of brca1/2 positive patients , of whom in five individuals it was negative for breast / ovarian cancer in first and second degree relatives ( 41 % ) . the percentage of brca1/2 mutations in unselected ovarian cancer patients identified in the current study is comparable to that previously reported ( 14.9 vs 13.5 and 13.9 % ) ( brozek et al . the worldwide prevalence of brca1/2 mutations in consecutive ovarian cancer series is estimated at 5 to 15 % and varies markedly depending on the population s ethnic background ( berchuck et al . 2001 ) . effective and cost - efficient targeted mutation analysis is widely performed in patients with familial history of breast and ovarian cancer , including population - specific founder mutations . since the implementation of genetic screening panel covering the three founder mutations in 2000 , there have been subsequent reports on the prevalence of other recurrent brca1/2 mutations in poland ( brozek et al . 2012 ; gorski et al . 2004 ; perkowska et al . 2003 ; ratajska et al . 2008 ; szwiec et al . the standard testing panel has been expanded to five brca1 alterations in northern poland ( ratajska et al . 2008 ) . 2014 ) proposed to test six brca1 mutations in a group of women diagnosed with breast cancer at the age of 50 or below . it is widely accepted that the differences in frequency and spectrum of brca1/2 mutations may result from an application of different molecular techniques or ethnic diversity even within the same country ( brozek et al . , we performed a next generation sequencing in the group of 134 patients with unselected ovarian cancer . based on the results we conclude that the sensitivity of genetic screening covering the three founder brca1 mutations ( c.5266dup , c.181t > g , c.4034dela ) is established at 50 % ( only ten out of 20 mutations ) . expanded panel , comprising two additional recurrent mutations in brca1 ( c.3700_3704del and c.68_69delag ) increases detection rate to 65 % . in the present study fairly high frequency of previously selected mutations c.5266dup was the most common brca1 alteration detected in the studied group ( n = 8/13 ; 62 % ) . the second most common brca1 mutation was a frame shift deletion c.3700_3704del ( n = 3/13 ; 23 % ) . the c.3700_3704del mutation is frequently detected in the caucasian populations and has been reported as one of the three most prevalent alterations in north - eastern and south - central poland , along with the c.5266dup and c.181t > g ( brozek et al . furthermore , a relatively low frequency of the other two founder mutations , c.4034dela and c.68_69delag in our region denotes heterogenity of brca1 alterations in polish patients with ovarian cancer . the remaining seven mutations detected in brca1 and brca2 genes were identified only in unique patients . however , all detected genetic variants have been previously reported in the breast cancer information core ( bic ) database ( szabo et al . 2000 ) . interestingly , within this study a relatively high proportion of deleterious brca2 mutations ( 20 % ) was observed . for instance , a c.2808_2811del deletion identified in an 82-year old patient is a recurrent mutation , frequently detected in non - ashkenazi breast / ovarian cancer patients and described to have multiple origins ( infante et al . the other brca2 genetic variants detected in the current study , although less frequent , were also previously reported ( szabo et al . 2000 ) . a substantial percentage of brca1/2 positive patients diagnosed after the age of 60 ( n = 8/20 ) is consistent with the previous reports , indicating that the incidence of ovarian cancer in older age does not exclude brca germline mutation , especially as far as the brca2 gene is concerned ( brozek et al . limited significance of age at diagnosis as well as patient s family history justifies genetic screening for the founder brca1/2 mutations in all ovarian cancer patients . however , according to the current study , as many as 35 % of mutation positive individuals can be missed in the routine screening . this proportion can be even higher after taking into account possible large rearrangements in brca genes that were not examined in the present study . 2013 ) these brca1/2 mutations are relatively rare ( 3.7 and 4.8 % of all brca1 alterations , respectively ) in the polish population , we can not entirely exclude their occurrence . moreover , a deletion comprising exon 17 has been detected in two unrelated polish high - risk breast and ovarian cancer families ( rudnicka et al . the importance of mutation detection , apart from genetic counselling and prophylactic management arises in the considerance of recent clinical trials , with the implementation of poly ( adp - ribose ) polymerase 1 ( parp1 ) inhibitors . parp1 is a member of chromatin - associated polymerases involved in posttranslational adp - ribosylation and dna strand breaks repair ( el - khamisy et al . it has been reported that tumor cells with brca1/2 mutation , since their deficiency in homologous recombination , are markedly sensitized to the parp inhibition , resulting in chromosomal instability and consequent apoptosis ( bryant et al . 2005 ; farmer et al . 2005 ) . according to the results of phases 1 and 2 trials with parp1 inhibitor olaparib , brca mutation positive patients with platinum - sensitive relapsed serous ovarian cancer respond preferentially to parp inhibition , with a significant reduction in risk of disease progression in comparison to patients with wild - type brca ( audeh et al . these observations raise promising perspectives for personalized therapy in brca carriers and further emphasizes the necessity for proper mutational analysis of brca1/2 in a group of ovarian cancer patients . in conclusion , we propose routine genetic screening for at least five recurrent brca1 mutations ( c.5266dup , c.181t > g , c.3700_3704del , c.68_69delag , c.4034dela ) in all ovarian cancer patients in the polish population . in addition , in the negative cases for above - mentioned alterations analysis of the entire brca1/2 genes with an application of new generation sequencing should be performed . unfortunately , given the potential costs of such expanded diagnostics it will probably need to be limited to the selected group of patients with specific clinical and histopathological characterization . to establish recommendations for the entire brca1/2 genes mutational analysis further studies in larger ovarian cancer series with detailed family history are required . moreover , based on the results we confirm that next generation sequencing is a sensitive , reliable tool which can be applied in molecular diagnostics of brca1/2 genes in a group of selected patients .	the importance of proper mutational analysis of brca1/2 in individuals at risk for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome is widely accepted . standard genetic screening includes targeted analysis of recurrent , population - specific mutations . the purpose of the study was to establish the frequency of germline brca1/2 mutations in a group of 134 unrelated patients with primary ovarian cancer . next generation sequencing analysis revealed a presence of 20 ( 14.9 % ) mutations , where 65 % ( n = 13 ) were recurrent brca1 alterations included in the standard diagnostic panel in northern poland . however , the remaining seven brca1/2 mutations ( 35 % ) would be missed by the standard approach and were detected in unique patients . a substantial proportion ( n = 5/12 ; 41 % ) of mutation - positive individuals with complete family history reported no incidence of breast or ovarian cancer in their relatives . this observation , together with the raising perspectives for personalized therapy targeting brca1/2 signaling pathways indicates the necessity of comprehensive genetic screening in all ovarian cancer patients . however , due to the limited sensitivity of the standard genetic screening presented in this study ( 65 % ) an application of next generation sequencing in molecular diagnostics of brca1/2 genes should be considered .
treadmill exercise , both full weight - bearing and partial weight - bearing , is a dynamic training approach that provides intervention for walking and gait analysis . in patients with neuromuscular disorders , such as stroke , spinal cord injury ( sci ) , or cerebral palsy ( cp ) , treadmill exercise is a frequently used rehabilitation training model that has been shown to yield functional improvements [ 14 ] . clinical investigations showed that in patients with cp , treadmill training can improve walking endurance , walking speed , and standing performance [ 5 , 6 ] . in stroke rehabilitation , partial - support treadmill training is also a widely used training mode for gait correction [ 7 , 8 ] . spasticity is a sign of upper motor neuron lesion with increased stretch reflex depending on movement velocity , which can be caused by stroke , spinal cord injury , brain injury , cerebral palsy , or other neurological conditions . one of the treatment choices for spasticity is the intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin a ( bont - a ) [ 10 , 11 ] . although several studies support the beneficial effects of treadmill training , most excluded bont - a - treated patients or did not mention these patients [ 1214 ] . the effects of treadmill training on the physiological adaptation to paralysis effects caused by bont - a remain poorly understood . in this paper , we review the mechanisms of treadmill exercise and bont - a treatment and discuss their combined effects on the central nervous system , physiological activity , and changes in the muscle and neuromuscular junction ( nmj ) . this may contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms underlying currently used treatments and , possibly , suggest directions for future research . in neurorehabilitation , locomotor training is based essentially on principles that promote the movement of the limbs and trunk to generate sensory information consistent with locomotion . whether full weight - bearing or partial - weight bearing , treadmill training can be used as a strategy for locomotor training in people with certain disabilities to improve muscle adaptation and walking ability . a major focus of research has been to elucidate the benefits of treadmill training , such as functional recovery or restoration in neural plasticity . one of the major questions limiting the rehabilitative implementation of treadmill training pertains to the molecular mechanisms through which treadmill training promotes synaptic plasticity and functional recovery . clinical investigations have shown beneficial effects of treadmill training , which is often used in patients with cerebral palsy ( cp ) or stroke for walking and gait training [ 1316 ] . in patients with cp , walking speed and gross motor function improved significantly after treadmill training . a recent systemic review showed that gait impairment and activity level were improved after body weight supported treadmill training . recently , robotic - assisted treadmill training was developed and was found to improve walking and standing performance in patients with cp . in patients with cp , the neural modulation of soleus h - reflex suppression was proposed as the mechanism accounting for the improvement in functional gait pattern after treadmill training therapy . in animal models of sci , locomotor training using a body weight supported treadmill ( bwst ) suggested that interneurons in the lumbar cord formed circuits for rhythmic and alternating hindlimb flexion - extension movement [ 20 , 21 ] . because this conceptual mechanism included the responsiveness of the spinal central pattern generators to sensory input with locomotion , bwst training provides an environment in which one can learn to execute the stepping leg movement [ 2224 ] . the amplitude and coordination of the firing of motor units in leg muscles were also found to increase after considerable bwst training in patients with complete or incomplete chronic sci . the animal and human studies led to the suggestion that bwst training may tap into this central pattern generator subsystem and contribute to enabling walking in highly impaired patients [ 2528 ] . treadmill training also increased the expression of nerve - associated factors , such as the brain - derived neurotrophic factor ( bdnf ) and neurotrophin-3 ( nt-3 ) in the spinal cord ; this expression may be related to the improvement in local neural circuitry [ 2933 ] . although an isolated spinal cord learned to stand on a stationary treadmill or step on a moving treadmill , the training effect for sci did not transfer to the other task . hence , the cord has a limited capacity for relearning multiple tasks in the absence of supraspinal input . thus , factors such as task specificity , training intensity , or training duration are issues that warrant attention in future experiments . although injured axons in peripheral nerves have better regeneration than those in the central nervous system and despite the recent advances in microsurgical techniques , the functional outcomes in injured peripheral nerves are clinically poor [ 3840 ] . some studies had evaluated the effects of treadmill training on axon regeneration following peripheral nerve injury . in animal studies of nerve transection following repair , treadmill training was shown to facilitate growth in the length of regenerating axons , to retrieve restoration of h - reflex , and to increase the amplitude of cmap in injured peripheral nerves [ 41 , 42 ] . in the sciatic nerve crush animal model , ilha et al . found improvement in sciatic functional index ( sfi ) scores and a better morphology of regenerating nerve fibers after treadmill training . as bdnf is highly expressed in active neurons , bdnf - mediated machinery may be responsible for the spinal central pattern generation induced using treadmill locomotor training [ 4446 ] . both the wilhelm group and ying and colleagues provided evidence that the effect of treadmill training on axon regeneration requires bdnf produced by the regenerating axons themselves . this neurotrophic factor was a likely mechanism of the effect of treadmill training in enhancing axon regeneration following peripheral nerve injury . in normal rats , the adaptation of the energy transportation system was found after treadmill training . chow and colleagues demonstrated that after 8 weeks of training , a significant increase in mitochondrial - related mrnas was observed . they also found that mitochondrial dna and mitochondrial transcription factor a were upregulated in the trained muscle . safdar and colleagues have advocated treadmill endurance exercise as a medicine and a lifestyle approach to improve systemic mitochondrial function . they showed that 5 months of exercise resulted in a substantial increase in mitochondrial oxidative capacity and respiratory chain assembly , restored mitochondria morphology , blunted the process of apoptosis , and prevented mitochondrial dna depletion and mutations . several muscle adaptation mechanisms have been observed in normal or diseased animal models following treadmill training . in one recent study that measured changes in denervated soleus muscle via sciatic nerve resection and treadmill training , jakubiec - puka et al . showed that the number of capillary blood vessels , amount of myosin heavy chains , and muscle fiber nuclei were increased , with concomitant decreases in the number of severely damaged muscle fibers and amounts of collagen . in diabetic rats , treadmill running has been shown to increase the level of nerve growth factor in the soleus muscle , and apoptotic cell death was suppressed via accelerating p - pi3-k activation . in summary , the adaptation mechanisms induced via treadmill exercise are multifactorial with cellular changes inside the muscle fibers as well as changes in peripheral and central nervous systems . spasticity is a clinical symptom of upper motor neuron lesion that is characterized by a velocity - dependent increase in stretch reflexes . although some objective methods of measuring spasticity such as the hoffmann reflex ( h - reflex ) , the tendon reflex ( t - reflex ) , and the stretch reflex ( sr ) have been developed , the clinical and experimental use of the three methods is limited due to moderate reliability and sensitivity . clinically , the six - point - ordinal modified ashworth scale ( mas ) is now the most commonly used measure of spasticity . showed that in cerebral palsy , the mas is a marginally reliable assessment of spasticity . they suggested that the use of the scale should therefore be interpreted with great caution . in another study evaluating the reliability for ankle plantar flexor in patients with traumatic brain injury , although some controversy to the mas approach has been recognized , most of the literature supports the reliability of the mas . . showed that the reliability was good for the distal ankle plantar flexors but not for the proximal hip adductors . bohannon and smith have advocated the mas as a reliable test of elbow flexor muscle spasticity . in an assessment of knee extensor , ansari and colleagues showed a good reliability for mas evaluation on the poststroke knee extensor . pandyan and colleagues showed that the reliability of the scale is better in the upper limb . . suggested that a high interrater reliability of the mas can be clinically achieved but not in all circumstances . therefore , we contend that the clinical reliability of applying the mas for spasticity evaluation may depend on the joints and muscles tested [ 54 , 60 ] . the neuromuscular junction ( nmj ) in vertebrates is a favorable model system for investigating the molecular mechanisms of synapse formation and neural plasticity . the nmj is a region where the axons of motor nerves connect with the skeletal muscles and serves to efficiently communicate the electrical impulse from the motor neuron to the skeletal muscle to signal contraction [ 61 , 62 ] . neurotransmitters , such as acetylcholine ( ach ) , are formed in the neuron body and then transported to the synapse along the axon . in the terminal axon of a nerve , neurotransmitters are packed in vesicles . when an impulse from the central nervous system is transmitted to the nmj , ach is released , which binds with acetylcholine receptors on the postsynaptic muscle fibers . the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor ( achr ) is a transmembrane ligand - gated ion channel . this receptor is composed of four homologous subunits : , , , and or . during myogenesis , the expression of the muscle regulatory factors ( mrfs ) family is associated not only with activated satellite cells and myonuclei but is also crucial in regulating the ongoing rates of achr gene transcription [ 6567 ] . the expression of the achr subunits and the distribution of these receptors among muscular fibers are regulated developmentally , with achr gene expression at its highest levels during myogenic differentiation . the soluble n - ethylmaleimide - sensitive - factor attachment protein receptor ( snare ) is the most widely studied element of the intracellular machinery involved in intracellular trafficking . the core exocytotic machinery is composed of three snares : ( 1 ) vesicle - associated membrane protein synaptobrevin ( vamp ) , ( 2 ) synaptosomal - associated protein of 25 kd ( snap-25 ) , and ( 3 ) syntaxin-1 on the plasma membrane [ 7073 ] . the botulinum toxin was first described as a sausage poison and fatty poison because this bacterium often caused toxicity by growing in improperly handled or prepared meat products . in the late 1960s , scott and schantz were the first to work on a standardized botulinum toxin preparation for therapeutic purposes . scott , an ophthalmologist , first applied tiny doses of the toxin to treat crossed eyes ( strabismus ) and uncontrollable blinking ( blepharospasm ) . in december 1989 , bont - a ( botox , allergan inc . , irvine , ca , usa ) was approved by the us food and drug administration ( fda ) for the treatment of strabismus , blepharospasm , and hemifacial spasm in patients over 12 years old . dysport ( ipsen ltd . , uk ) is another brand of bont - a used for therapeutic purposes . in the peripheral and central nervous systems , neuronal plasticity plays a pivotal role in the recovery process after injury . however , the intrinsic neuronal determinants for the regulation of this fundamental process remain poorly defined . the intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin is a unique strategy for investigating the process of neuronal plasticity in motor nerves and entails the elimination of regulated neurotransmitters while leaving the viability of the nerve endings unaltered . seven botulinum neurotoxins ( a to g ) have been found , and all act in the postsynaptic cholinergic nerve terminals . bont - a is a type of bacterial zinc - dependent endopeptidase that acts specifically at the neuromuscular junction [ 10 , 77 ] . the complex of bont - a comprises a 150 kd neurotoxin protein , as well as nontoxin nonhemagglutinin proteins . the 150 kd neurotoxin protein is the biologically active component , while the nontoxin nonhemagglutinin protein stabilizes and protects the active neurotoxin component . the 150 kd neurotoxin protein is pharmacologically inactive until the disulfide bond is cleaved to form one 100 kd heavy chain and one 50 kd light chain . after the endocytotic uptake of bont - a from postsynaptic terminals , the light chain of bont - a cleaves snap-25 [ 79 , 80 ] . this renders ach - containing vesicles unable to dock and fuse to the presynaptic membrane . by inhibiting the release of acetylcholine at the nmj , neuroparalysis and denervation of the involved muscles occur , which decreases the ability of the muscles to generate force [ 79 , 80 ] . once paralysis has been produced by bont - a , new nerve sprouting is elicited , and the newly created synapses are responsible for the initial synaptic transmission . a previous study showed that the effect of botulinum toxin lasts for approximately 3 to 6 months . the muscle that received the bont - a injection then regains muscle mass and recovers its contraction ability . one to two weeks after bont - a injection , muscle mass and force were significantly reduced but returned to nearly normal at 36 months after injection . studies showed that muscle mass following bont - a injection was reduced by approximately 70% to 30% within 1 to 6 months [ 8284 ] . a 30% to 90% ( approximately ) reduction in muscle force was reported in animal studies [ 83 , 8587 ] . the wide range of reduction in muscle mass and force generation occurred in a dose - dependent manner [ 85 , 88 ] . the mass and structural integrity of contralateral muscles that received bont - a injection and those of noninjected peripheral muscles were affected in both clinical and animal studies . clinically , the diffusion of the injected bont - a to adjacent muscles was reported in patients with spasmodic torticollis , facial hemispasm , blepharospasm , or palmar hyperhidrosis [ 8991 ] . . showed that muscle atrophy and decreased muscle force were observed in the quadriceps muscles of the contralateral hindlimbs . in a rat model that used the contralateral gastrocnemius muscle for comparison , the injected toxin was found to have no effect on the force of the contralateral leg using a 1 unit / kg injection dose . neuroparalysis produced via bont - a elicits nerve sprouting and newly created synapses that are responsible for the initial synaptic transmission at the onset of recovery [ 81 , 93 ] . however , whether synaptic transmission occurs at the newly developed sprouts has not been directly demonstrated . recently , rogozhin and colleagues advocated that the original synaptic sites play the predominant role in functional restoration after bont - a rather than the nerve sprouts , as previously thought . at approximately 90 days after exposure to bont - a , the restoration of parent nmj functioning and a concomitant retraction of the outgrowth neurites could be found . following bont - a injection , genes related to nmj remodeling and myogenesis , including subunits of achr , igf-1 , mrfs , musk , and p21 , eventually lead to nmj stabilization and muscle function recovery [ 9597 ] . in neuromuscular disorders , a treadmill walking study in cats showed that after a temporal reduction in ankle extensor activity via bont - a injection , the functional deficit recovery was not associated with the return of the electromyogram ( emg ) pattern . however , the emg burst of the synergistic muscle that was not poisoned by bont - a was increased . the authors concluded that this early functional recovery is not due to muscle hypertrophy but is instead attributable to neuronal adaptation due to an increased gain in stretch reflex or central drive [ 99 , 100 ] . the compound muscle action potential ( cmap ) represents the summation of a group of nearly simultaneously activated action potentials from a muscle or a group of muscles that are innervated by the same nerve . the reduction in cmap parallels the decrease in the mean rectified voltage during a maximal voluntary contraction . a recent study showed that the cmap amplitude was significantly reduced , while no changes of distal latency were found in the gastrocnemius following a bont - a injection for 4 weeks . this result was compatible with the results of a previous study demonstrating that an injection of bont - a caused localized muscle paralysis but no disruption in axonal transport . after bont - a injection , the cmap amplitude typically requires more than 3 months for full recovery . in rat exercise training models , the two most frequently used models are either voluntary wheel running or forced treadmill training . in the wheel running training model , voluntary running activity occurs in a nonstressed environment . however , the training speed and duration are technically challenging to monitor [ 103105 ] . some groups use ramp protocols , and others use the model with a consistent speed and exercise duration [ 84 , 107 ] . the advantage of treadmill training is that the animals can be made to exercise at a desirable training intensity and duration . however , the experimental conditions are often stressful , and the training pattern is far removed from normal mouse behavior . the interaction effect between treadmill and bont - a injection has not been clearly demonstrated . combined bont - a injection and 7 days of voluntary wheel running exercise in juvenile rats attenuated the bont - a - induced loss in muscle fiber size . although the number of myo - d positive nuclei was increased after bont - a injection , the results showed that exercise had no effects on myonuclear production . the authors concluded that this early effect of combined bont - a and exercise may be due to the passive stretching of paralyzed muscle fibers . this passive stretch effect was supported by a study that showed an increased expression of mechanosensitive carp and the ankrd2 gene in rats receiving bont - a gastrocnemius injection and 3 weeks of wheel running exercise . in a study by chen et al . , a muscle atrophy attenuation effect was observed in gastrocnemius following bont - a injection after 1 week of exercise . another study found that muscle mass was not changed after 3 weeks of wheel running . recently , tsai et al . showed that after bont - a injection , the gastrocnemius mass did not increase after 4 weeks or 8 weeks of treadmill training [ 84 , 86 ] . as previous studies have shown that there is no significant effect of treadmill training on muscle mass following bont - a injection , it is reasonable to postulate that the strength of muscle following bont - a with or without treadmill training is likely unchanged [ 84 , 86 , 110 ] . however , one recent study showed that after the intramuscular injection of bont - a into the gastrocnemius , treadmill training improved the recovery of muscle contraction strength . in the study , an increase in cmap amplitude was observed in the gastrocnemius of bont - a - injured rats after 4 weeks of treadmill running . this functional improvement was confirmed via the improvement of the sciatic functional index ( sfi ) . in sciatic nerve injury , the sfi is an experimental method used for the functional assessment of the extent of sciatic nerve injury and for the monitoring of recovery [ 111113 ] . in one recent study , tsai et al . demonstrated an increase in igf-1 , gap-43 , myod , myf-5 , and myogenin expression , as well as the upregulation of achr and - subunit expression , in the bont - a - paralyzed gastrocnemius after 8 weeks of treadmill running . synaptic transmission at the nmj is mediated through the achr , and control of achr transcription is crucial for the regeneration and maintenance of synapses in muscle . the expression and transcription of achr genes are governed by the sequential expression of mrfs [ 6567 ] . . showed that when the neuromuscular junction begins to differentiate , myod , myf-5 , and mrf4 display different specificities for the transactivation of the genes encoding the different subunits of the achr . taken together , after treadmill training the upregulation of igf-1 , gap-43 , mrfs , and achr may be related to the increased activity of distal nerve sprouting , increased activity of achr , and original nmj regeneration , thus explaining the better recovery of muscle strength . although effort was put forth to create animal models simulating spasticity [ 114117 ] , there is currently no universally adopted free - moving animal model that can be used to mimic the spastic changes in clinical situations such as cerebral palsy or stroke . in human clinical situations , a stroke may cause spasticity . in the rat stroke model , such as the suture method or the middle cerebral artery ligation , paralysis instead of spasticity some commonly used spastic animal models , such as spinal cord transection and s2 transection spastic rat tail models , are generated for the purpose of observing neuronal overactivity . thus , many studies observing the effects of bont - a or combined effects of bont - a and exercise training in muscles use normal animals [ 8285 , 87 , 94 , 96 , 109 , 110 ] . to discover a free - moving spastic animal model is therefore an important pursuit for future research . the temporal blockade of neuromuscular function by bont - a is a useful method for investigating changes in muscle physiology from paralysis to recovery . figure 1 summarizes the effects of treadmill training on muscle activity and the nmj of bont - a - induced muscle atrophy . the major effect of bont - a is predominantly in the peripheral muscles , especially in the blockade of nmj functions that cause muscle atrophy and weakness . the adaptation mechanisms induced via treadmill training are multifactorial and include enhanced axon regeneration , activation of the spinal central pattern generator , and functional recovery in the sfi , h - reflex , and cmap [ 42 , 43 , 84 , 119 ] . the molecular mechanisms through which treadmill training promotes synaptic plasticity and functional recovery include the enhancement of igf-1 , mrfs , achr , and neurotrophin expression [ 29 , 30 , 44 , 47 , 87 ] . based on the review , the muscle and nerve recovery effects of treadmill training may counteract the spasticity reduction effect from bont - a . when considering the therapeutic strategies of combining bont - a and treadmill training in the practice of neurorehabilitation , clinicians should take this potential counteractive effect into consideration . in this review paper , we highlighted the mechanisms of cellular effects following bont - a injection and treadmill training and further showed how the combined effects of both treadmill and bont - a influence muscle and nmj activity .	botulinum toxin a ( bont - a ) is a bacterial zinc - dependent endopeptidase that acts specifically on neuromuscular junctions . bont - a blocks the release of acetylcholine , thereby decreasing the ability of a spastic muscle to generate forceful contraction , which results in a temporal local weakness and the atrophy of targeted muscles . bont - a - induced temporal muscle weakness has been used to manage skeletal muscle spasticity , such as poststroke spasticity , cerebral palsy , and cervical dystonia . however , the combined effect of treadmill exercise and bont - a treatment is not well understood . we previously demonstrated that for rats , following bont - a injection in the gastrocnemius muscle , treadmill running improved the recovery of the sciatic functional index ( sfi ) , muscle contraction strength , and compound muscle action potential ( cmap ) amplitude and area . treadmill training had no influence on gastrocnemius mass that received bont - a injection , but it improved the maximal contraction force of the gastrocnemius , and upregulation of gap-43 , igf-1 , myo - d , myf-5 , myogenin , and acetylcholine receptor ( achr ) subunits and was found following treadmill training . taken together , these results suggest that the upregulation of genes associated with neurite and achr regeneration following treadmill training may contribute to enhanced gastrocnemius strength recovery following bont - a injection .
To improve your odds of a high-quality marriage, try not to have too many sexual partners before you meet “the one.” And when you do find him or her, consider inviting at least 150 people to your wedding. That’s just some of the practical advice offered by a pair of psychology researchers from the University of Denver who have studied 418 people who participated in the Relationship Development Study. All of them were single and between the ages of 18 and 40 when they joined the study in 2007 and 2008, and all of them had tied the knot by the time the researchers checked in with them five years later. The goal was to identify patterns of behavior that tended to set people up for successful and fulfilling marriages. The researchers asked study volunteers questions about “marital happiness, confiding in one another, believing things are going well in the relationship, and thoughts of divorce,” according to their report published this week. Those who ranked in the top 40% were considered to have “high-quality marriages.” The researchers — Galena Rhoades and Scott Stanley — emphasized that the choices men and women make long before they say “I do” seem to have a strong influence on their marriages years later. “What happens in Vegas doesn’t stay in Vegas, so to speak,” they wrote. “Our past experiences, especially when it comes to love, sex, and children, are linked to our future marital quality.” For instance, the study volunteers were asked how many sexual partners they had before they got married, and the response (on average) was five. But 23% of them had slept only with the person they married, and they scored higher on the marriage quality test than those who had more experience. In fact, for women, the higher the number of sexual partners, “the less happy she reported her marriage to be,” according to the report. People who had already been through a divorce or who had lived with someone before meeting their current spouse were also less likely to have a high-quality marriage. The researchers found that 35% of these people earned that designation, compared with 42% of those who had only lived with their eventual spouse. What’s wrong with having a past? “More experience may increase one’s awareness of alternative partners,” Rhoades and Stanley wrote, and “a strong sense of alternatives is believed to make it harder to maintain commitment to, and satisfaction with, what one already has.” There’s also the fact that people who have more ex-significant others have been through more breakups. “A history of multiple breakups may make people take a more jaundiced view of love and relationships,” they added. The researchers also noted that 24% of the people in the study either had children from a prior relationship by the time they tied the knot or married someone who did. “There is no question that raising children from prior relationships can add stress to a marriage,” the researchers wrote. Couples that took relationship milestones seriously were more likely to have high-quality marriages compared with couples that merely stumbled into things. For instance, 32% of the study volunteers said their relationship with their husband or wife began with a casual hookup. Among these folks, 36% had a high-quality marriage, compared with 42% of those who took things more slowly. Likewise, among couples who moved in together before “making a commitment to marry,” only 31% had a high-quality marriage, the researchers reported. That compares with 43% of couples who decided to live together only after agreeing that they were on a path to marriage. You might think that cohabitation before marriage would improve one’s chances for a successful marriage, since it gives couples time to adjust to the realities of living together. But Rhoades and Stanley theorized that once men and women had meshed their finances, furniture and pets, the effort required to get out of a less-than-ideal relationship was simply too great. “Some may therefore slide into a marriage that they would have otherwise avoided,” the researchers wrote. A safer way to test a relationship would be to take a trip together or meet one another’s families, they added. Even worse than casually moving in together before marriage was having a child together before marriage, at least for those who had graduated from college. Only 3% of college-educated couples who had a baby before they got married had a high-quality marriage. That compares with 44% of college-educated couples who had not yet had a child together. Finally, there’s the matter of the wedding itself. Among the 418 study volunteers, 11% did not have a formal wedding ceremony, and only 28% of these couples had a high-quality marriage. Meanwhile, 41% of couples that did have formal weddings achieved high-quality marriage status. The researchers speculated that “couples who are struggling or less happy in their relationship may be less likely to want to celebrate getting married.” They also noted that “the act of having a public ceremony ... symbolizes a clear decision to commit to one’s marriage.” Apparently, the larger the guest list, the bigger the statement. The researchers found that 47% of couples that got hitched in front of 150 or more guests had high-quality marriages, compared with only 31% of those who had 50 or fewer guests. That means that couples who had big weddings were 52% more likely to have high-quality marriages than couples who had smaller weddings. (In case you were wondering, 37% of the couples who had medium-sized weddings went on to have high-quality marriages.) How could this possibly matter? “There is some reason to believe that having more witnesses at a wedding may actually strengthen marital quality,” the researchers wrote. People want to keep the promises they make in public, so the bigger the crowd, the greater the pressure, this thinking goes. For those who are already married and can’t go back in time to rewrite their relationship history, Rhoades and Stanley have some encouraging words: “No one is doomed to an unhappy marriage.” It’s never too late for couples to make deliberate decisions about important milestones instead of simply sliding into them. Talking openly about how past experiences shape your current views can help as well, they wrote. The Relationship Development Study was funded with a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, part of the National Institutes of Health. The new report was published by the National Marriage Project at the University of Virginia. \|\|\|\|\| , Christian Post Reporter By Napp Nazworth Christian Post Reporter Successful marriages are linked to wedding size and premarital sexual relations, a new study from University of Virginia's National Marriage Project finds. Those with happy marriages were more likely to have had a large number of guests at their wedding and have had fewer romantic relationships prior to getting married, according to the study, "Before 'I Do:' What Do Premarital Experiences Have to Do with Marital Quality Among Today's Young Adults?" by Galena K. Rhoades, research associate professor of psychology at the University of Denver, and Scott M. Stanley, research professor and co-director of the Center for Marital and Family Studies at the University of Denver. The researchers speculate that those with prior relationships have difficulties in marriage because they are able to compare their current spouse to previous partners, and devoting oneself to a single spouse may be more difficult after having a lot of experience. "In most areas, more experience is better. You're a better job candidate with more experience, not less. When it comes to relationship experience, though, we found that having more experience before getting married was associated with lower marital quality," Rhoades explained. Prior romantic experiences could include sexual encounters or cohabiting partners. Women who had a child from a prior relationship reported lower marital quality, but the same was not true for men. Among those who lived together before getting married, couples who made a deliberate decision to start living together reported happier marriages than those who "slid" into cohabiting before getting married. "We believe that one important obstacle to marital happiness is that many people now slide through major relationship transitions — like having sex, moving in together, getting engaged or having a child — that have potentially life-altering consequences," Stanley said. Those with bigger weddings had happier marriages even after controlling for income and education (since larger weddings are generally more expensive). Among those with 50 or fewer wedding guests, 31 percent reported a high quality marriage. For those with 51 to 149 guests, that number rose to 37 percent. And for those with 150 or more guests, almost half, 47 percent, reported having a high quality marriage. The researchers suspect that a large wedding indicates that the newlyweds have a strong network of friends and family that can help them navigate the challenges of marriage. "In what might be called the 'My Big Fat Greek Wedding' factor, this study finds that couples who have larger wedding parties are more likely to report high-quality marriages," said W. Bradford Wilcox, director of the National Marriage Project and a professor of sociology at the University of Virginia. "One possibility here is that couples with larger networks of friends and family may have more help, and encouragement, in navigating the challenges of married life. Note, however, this finding is not about spending lots of money on a wedding party, it's about having a good number of friends and family in your corner." The data is from the Relationship Development Study, which is funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. This longitudinal study interviewed 1,000 Americans 11 different times beginning in 2007 and 2008. All of them were unmarried and between the ages of 18 and 34. The NMP study looked at the 418 of them that got married over the course of the study. Based upon the study, Stanley had a word of advice to any single person who would like to marry some day: "Remember that what you do before you say 'I do' may shape your odds of forging a successful marital future." \|\|\|\|\| Published on Feb 12, 2015 Dr. Stanley discusses the Before I Do Report published by The National Marriage Project. Before I Do, co-authored by psychologists Galena K. Rhoades and Scott M. Stanley, explores the association between premarital experiences and post-marital quality among today’s young adults. Here is a link to more information on the Before I Do report: http://nationalmarriageproject.org/re... \|\|\|\|\| Study: Bigger Weddings, Fewer Partners, Less ‘Sliding’ Linked to Better Marriages The latest National Marriage Project report, co-authored by psychologists Galena K. Rhoades and Scott M. Stanley, explores the association between premarital experiences and post-marital quality among today’s young adults. The report makes three key points: 1 – What happens in Vegas doesn’t always stay in Vegas. In other words, past relationship experiences—and their consequences—are linked to future marital quality. For instance, men and women who had a child before marriage are less likely to enjoy a high-quality marriage. 2 – Sliding versus deciding. Couples who make intentional decisions regarding “major relationship transitions” are more likely to flourish than those who slide through transitions. For instance, among those who cohabited, couples who decided to live together before marriage in an intentional way are more likely to enjoy happy marriages, compared to couples who just slid into cohabitation before marriage. 3 – The Big Fat Greek Wedding Factor. Americans who had more guests at their nuptials are more likely to report high-quality marriages than those with a small wedding party, even after controlling for their education and income. Rhoades and Stanley came to these insights by analyzing new data from the Relationship Development Study, a national study based at the University of Denver and funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Between 2007 and 2008, more than 1,000 Americans who were unmarried but in a relationship with someone of the opposite sex, and between the ages of 18 and 34, were recruited into the study. Comparing the make-up of that parent sample of 1300 subjects to 2010 Census data indicates that this sample was reasonably representative of unmarried adults in the United States in terms of race/ethnicity and income. Over the course of the next five years and 11 waves of data collection, 418 of those individuals got married. The authors looked closely at those 418 new marriages, their respondents’ prior romantic experiences, their spouses’ relationship history, and the quality of their marriages. This new report is based on their analysis of these American couples. Click here for more from Galena Rhoades on “Vegas” More from Scott Stanley on “Sliding vs Deciding” For answers to these questions, see the full report.	– To boost your odds of a lasting marriage, you might want to extend the list of wedding invitations. Why? Perhaps because when a lot of people see you making your commitment, you're more likely to work to keep it, say researchers. Their new study finds that couples who had at least 150 guests were 52% more likely to have a high-quality marriage than those who had 50 or fewer guests. "Note, however, this finding is not about spending lots of money on a wedding party—it's about having a good number of friends and family in your corner," a sociology professor from the University of Virginia tells the Christian Post. Researchers based their work on a survey of 418 people aged under 40 at the study's start, the Los Angeles Times reports. The study used questions on "marital happiness, confiding in one another, believing things are going well in the relationship, and thoughts of divorce" to define high-quality marriages. Some findings: History matters: Those with fewer sexual partners prior to marriage had higher survey scores than did those with more partners. "More experience may increase one’s awareness of alternative partners,” the researchers say. "A strong sense of alternatives is believed to make it harder to maintain commitment to, and satisfaction with, what one already has." Don't slide: "Sliding" into big transitions "like having sex, moving in together, having a child, and, of course, getting married" was linked to weaker relationships, researcher Scott Stanley explains on YouTube. "Sliding," he says, refers to simply "letting (an event) happen," whereas "deciding" refers to making a conscious choice about the transition, the study explains. Those who casually decide to move in together may find it more difficult to get out of a so-so relationship down the road and wind up "sliding" into a so-so marriage, the study says. Be warned, however: Having a big wedding can also go quite wrong.
bisphosphonates - related osteonecrosis of the jaws ( bronj ) management is controversial : there are no evidence - based guidelines in the literature associated with good results for a long - term follow - up , in particular regarding surgical procedures . the main purposes of each treatment are to reduce pain and to control infection and slow the progression of the disease , taking into account as main target the eradication of bronj promoting the complete healing . most of the authors privilege a noninvasive approach especially for asymptomatic stages of bronj ( stage i in ruggiero 's staging ) but also different surgical approaches have been proposed , with variable types of surgical techniques and with or without discontinuation of bisphosphonates protocols [ 312 ] . migliorati and colleagues reported percentages of healing variable from 17.317.6% for medical therapy or surgical debridement to 46.3% for free flap or surgical resection procedures . clinicians should always carefully consider the possibility of extensive surgery in oncological patients because of general status and life expectancy . one of the exclusion criteria was contraindications for surgery under general anaesthesia : this element appears to be an important limit to surgical procedure and confirms the choice for early minimal invasive surgical therapy in stages i and ii of bronj . the widespread variant of bronj ( stage iii ) , in particular those with mandibular fractures , requires bone resection with extension to apparently healthy margins such as bleeding points and normal colour of bone surfaces . on the basis of bronj pathogenesis , many authors recommend a large resection because an insufficient elimination of necrotic material may result in a recurrence of bone exposure . the aim of this retrospective study is to present our experience in a wide number of patients treated with different kinds of surgical and nonsurgical approaches based or not on the use of laser - assisted techniques : the rationale to use laser with low dosages is the biostimulating effect reported in literature on both bone and soft tissues . one hundred and ninety patients ( 52 males , 138 females ; 62 with multiple myeloma ( mm ) , 85 with bone metastasis ( bm ) , and 43 with osteoporosis ( op ) , mean age 67.3 10 years ) affected by bronj were evaluated at the unit of oral pathology and medicine and laser - assisted surgery of the university of parma , italy , between january 2004 and november 2011 ( table 1 ) . at the time of bronj diagnosis , mean duration of bpt was 26 20 months ( ranging between 3 and 72 months ) for cancer patients and 90 40 months ( ranging between 24 and 144 months ) for noncancer patients . thirty - nine patients ( 20.5% ) were smokers , 22 ( 11.5% ) had diabetes , and 125 patients ( 65.7% ) received long - term corticosteroid treatments ( table 2 ) . among the 43 osteoporotic patients , 2 were treated for rheumatoid arthritis , 39 for osteoporosis , and 2 for both rheumatoid arthritis and osteoporotic , disease ; corticosteroids were used in both the patients with rheumatoid arthritis , in 15 out of 39 osteoporotic patients and in 1 out of 2 patients with osteoporosis an rheumatoid arthritis . one hundred twenty out of 190 patients ( 63.2% ) had mandibular involvement , 53 out of 190 ( 27.9% ) had bronj in the maxilla , and 17 out of 190 patients ( 8.9% ) had the involvement of both the jawbones . all these patients were subclassified according to the staging system proposed by the aaoms in the following groups : stage i ( 34/190 ) , stage ii ( 126/190 ) , and stage iii ( 30/190 ) ( table 1 ) . incisional biopsy was performed independently from surgical procedure for bronj for lesions suspected to be manifestations of primary disease : specimen of every bronj lesions were extracted for histological evaluation . patients satisfying inclusion criteria but presenting a very poor health condition or mandibular fracture or diffused stage iii bronj not treatable under local anaesthesia were not included in the present evaluation ; lack of consent to surgery was also an exclusion criteria for these patients . an orthopantomography ( opt ) and a ct scan of the lesion were obtained in all cases . in each case the first therapeutic approach was chosen on the basis of the most updated guidelines available at the time of treatment . surgical approach was taken into account after three consecutive antibiotic cycles not leading to a stable improvement of bronj . each surgical intervention was performed under local anaesthesia and planned according to the extension of the lesion : limited or extensive treatments have been performed with the same kind of approach for both laser - assisted and nonlaser - assisted protocols . in all surgical cases , mucoperiosteal flaps were elevated to visualize and remove the necrotic bone . in addition to antibiotic or surgical treatment in two separate groups we performed lllt applications using nd : yag laser . according to the ethical standards of the academic hospital of parma , we obtained a specific informed consensus for each patient . g1 : bronj sites treated only with antibiotic therapy ( oral amoxicillin 1 gr 2 times / day with oral metronidazole 250 mg 2 times / day ) for two weeks . mouthwashes with chlorhexidine ( 0.20% ) and hydrogen peroxide ( 3% ) were also prescribed two / three times a day , sometimes with antimycotic rinses . g2 : bronj sites treated with antibiotic therapy ( as described in g1 ) and lllt . each lllt application was performed with nd : yag laser ( 1064 nm , fidelis plus , fotona , slovenia ) used at 1.25 w power , 15 hz frequency , very short pulse mode ( vsp ) and 320 m of fibre diameter . the laser light was used in a nonfocused way with a scanning method , 2 mm from tissue , for 1 minute ( power density : 268.81 w / cm , fluence : 14.37 j / cm ) and repeated 5 times : this kind of protocol has been tested for thermal changes on bone and soft tissues without funding any damage depending by thermal elevation . g3 : bronj sites treated with antibiotic and traditional surgical therapy . in this group antibiotic treatment was usually prescribed beginning three days prior to the operation and ending 10 days after it . conservative ( and , when possible , early ) surgical treatments were reserved for these lesions consisting in ( a ) sequestrectomy of necrotic bone , ( b ) superficial debridement / curettage and ( c ) corticotomy / surgical removal of alveolar and/or cortical bone . operations were performed using traditional surgical instruments : cold blade scalpel to incise mucosal tissues and rotary cutting instruments to remove necrotic bone . . sites were treated with medical and surgical therapy in association with lllt ( nd : yag laser ) applications . surgical operations were performed as described in g3 in association with laser nd : yag biostimulation ( 1.25 w power , 15 hz frequency , fibre of 320 m ) . the operated site was then treated every week with lllt applications ( same protocol described for g2 ) for 2 months . g5 : bronj sites treated with antibiotic , er : yag laser surgical therapy , and lllt . surgical removal of necrotic and peripherical bone was achieved with er : yag laser . bone resection or vaporization of the necrotic areas was obtained with variable parameters , from 250 mj 20 hz ( vsp ) with a fluence of 50 j / cm up to 300 mj , 30 hz and fluence of 60 j / cm . during the surgical intervention we used as irrigation a iodopovidone solution ; er : yag laser device has been used with a distilled water irrigation system ( figures 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , and 8) . results were evaluated by comparing the performed treatments in cancer and non cancer groups ; statistical analysis was performed using fisher test , and results were considered statistically significant for p < 0.05 . nonsurgical approach adopted on 69 sites induced an improvement in 35 sites ( 50.7% ) and complete healing in 19 sites ( 27.5% ) , while surgical approach performed on 97 sites induced an improvement in 84 sites ( 86.6% ) , of which , 78 completely healed ( 80.41% of the total ) . improvement was recorded in 31 out of the 38 ( 81.5% ) bronj sites treated in non cancer patients and in 88 out of 128 ( 68.75% ) sites in cancer patients . complete healing was recorded in 27 out of 38 ( 71.5% ) bronj sites treated in non cancer patients and in 69 out of 128 ( 53.9% ) sites in cancer patients . results in terms of clinical improvement and complete healing are reported in tables 4 , 5 , 6 , and 7 for both groups of patients . the mean follow - up was 16.44 10.95 months ( ranging from 6 to 54 ) . for non cancer patients , a statistically significant result in terms of improvement was recorded from the comparison between bronj sites treated with antibiotic therapy alone ( g1 ) and sites treated with local lllt applications ( g2 ) ( p = 0.0031 ) . moreover , in this group of patients , the comparison between non surgical ( g1 + g2 ) and surgical ( g3 + g4 + g5 ) approach confirmed a statistically significant result in terms of both clinical improvement ( p = 0.0080 ) and healing ( p < 0.0001 ) ( table 4 ) . for cancer patients a statistically significant difference in terms of improvement was recorded when the bronj sites treated with antibiotic therapy alone ( g1 ) were compared to those treated with local lllt applications ( g2 ) ( p = 0.0046 ) . moreover , in this group of patients , the comparison between non surgical ( g1 + g2 ) and surgical ( g3 + g4 + g5 ) approach reported a statistically significant difference in terms of both clinical improvement ( p < 0.0001 ) and healing ( p < 0.0001 ) . the comparison between surgical group without lllt ( g3 ) and surgical groups with lllt ( g4 + g5 ) highlighted a statistically significant results in terms of clinical improvement ( p = 0.0061 ) ( table 5 ) . the comparison between the performed treatment in cancer and non cancer patients showed a significant difference in terms of complete healing for surgical approach ( g3 + g4 + g5 ) ( p = 0.200 ) . minimally invasive surgical approach with er : yag laser and the use of lllt represent a good choice for bronj treatment especially for antibacterial and biostimulant properties . surgery performed with er : yag and followed by laser biostimulation ( lllt ) may determine complete mucosal healing and reduce the microbial component , thus decreasing patient symptoms and providing a higher level of quality of life . moreover , er : yag laser surgery allows partial or total resection of the jaw without using conventional rotary cutting tools . preservative surgery can also be performed by gradual vaporization of necrotic bone at increasing depths . surgical ablation of bone tissue is performed reducing the thermal damage to the adjacent tissue with a quicker healing . it is therefore possible to clearly distinguish avascular portions of the bone from those that are still vascularised . the er : yag laser has great potential for hard tissue treatment due to its high absorption by both water and hydroxyapatite . such a device provides a clean and precise cut with minimal injury to the adjacent hard and soft tissues while producing an ablated surface favorable for cell attachment . conservative surgery , maintaining the overall integrity of the jawbone , is chosen on the basis of specific features in individual cases , ranging from simple curettage to debridement of the necrotic area , from sequestrectomy to resection of larger bone portions . the mini - invasive technique of ablation of the necrotic bone usually induces resurface and causes bleeding from healthy bone which could help in the future revascularization . as already reported in literature [ 17 , 18 ] , medical therapy alone induces only little improvement of bronj lesions in both cancer and non cancer patients . in nonsurgical - treated patients in both evaluated groups , lllt applications induced a higher improvement of bronj suggesting that the application of lllt can be useful , especially for patients that can not be treated surgically . a statistically significant difference was observed for surgical approach , both for a complete mucosal healing and for a clinical improvement . the evaluation of the percentage of the sites , with clinical healing achieved with the different treatments , clearly showed how the combination of antibiotic therapy , conservative surgery , and lllt applications gives better results in both groups of patients . from our experience , medical approach alone ( antibiotic therapy ) does not provide permanent clinical outcomes . symptoms improvement and complete mucosal healing were obtained in 22.7% and 18.2% in cancer patients and in 30% and 20% in osteoporotic patients . surgical approach performed in early stages of bronj induces better results between 53.8% and 100% . osteoporotic patients obtained higher levels of improvement with every approach ; surgical therapy with or without laser induced complete mucosal healing in all cases ( 100% ) . for cancer patients er : yag laser surgery induced complete remission of bronj in a statistically significant number of cases ( 90.3% versus 53.8% obtained with traditional surgery ) ( tables 4 and 5 ) ; as reported in literature [ 1921 ] , this technique allows a mininvasive surgery probably related to the good results of this approach in bronj treatment . angiero et al . , scoletta et al . , and romeo et al . our experience confirms that lllt in both categories cancer and osteoporotic patients can offer great results in terms of reduction of inflammation and pain control as we already reported [ 24 , 25 ] . independently by the performed therapy , the percentage of complete bronj healing was related to the stage of disease ( table 7 ) : 75% stage i , 54.24% stage ii , and 33.3% stage iii . in conclusion an early conservative surgical approach with er : yag laser combined with lllt , for bronj , could be considered as more efficient in comparison to medical therapy alone for the management and quality of life of these patients .	bisphosphonates - related osteonecrosis of the jaw ( bronj ) has been reported with increasing frequency in literature over last years , but its therapy is still a dilemma . one hundred ninety patients affected by bronj were observed between january 2004 and november 2011 and 166 treated sites were subdivided in five groups on the basis of the therapeutical approach ( medical or surgical , traditional or laser - assisted approach , with or without low level laser therapy ( lllt ) ) . clinical success has been defined for each treatment performed as clinical improvement or complete mucosal healing . combination of antibiotic therapy , conservative surgery performed with er : yag laser and lllt applications showed best results for cancer and noncancer patients . nonsurgical approach performed on 69 sites induced an improvement in 35 sites ( 50.7% ) and the complete healing in 19 sites ( 27.5% ) , while surgical approach on 97 sites induced an improvement in 84 sites ( 86.6% ) and the complete healing in 78 sites ( 80.41% ) . improvement and healing were recorded in 31 ( 81.5% ) and 27 ( 71.5% ) out of the 38 bronj sites treated in noncancer patients and in 88 ( 68.75% ) and in 69 ( 53.9% ) out of the 128 in cancer patients .
the evolution and persistence of altruism , despite the direct fitness disadvantage associated with altruistic behaviors , have been intensely discussed since the origin of species ( darwin , 1872 ) . the most influential contribution to this problem is hamilton 's rule ( hamilton , 1963 , 1964 , 1975 ) , according to which cooperation in structured populations , and in particular altruism , requires that br > c , where b and c represent the benefit ' and cost ' of cooperation , whereas r corresponds to a measure of relatedness ' between individuals ( see box 1 ) . this formulation illustrates very generally how cooperation can be consistent with natural selection acting at the level of individuals . a considerable number of formal extensions of hamilton 's rule have concurred to reinforce its importance ( queller , 1985 , 1992 ; lehmann and keller , 2006 ) . precisely connecting the various theoretical frameworks to actual biological systems , however , faces two major difficulties : ( i ) theoretically , hamilton 's rule derives its generality from its purely mathematical basis ( box 1 ; supplementary text s1 ) , but this comes at an expense : the definitions of the parameters b , r , c can be subtle and may subsume many intricate and idiosyncratic details ( frank , 1998 ; gardner et al , 2007 ) ; ( ii ) experimentally , r can be measured and varied ( gilbert et al , 2007 ) , but measuring quantitatively the variables determining the cost and benefit parameters b and c can be time consuming and tricky ( grafen , 1984 ; emlen and wrege , 1992 ; bowles and posel , 2005 ; krakauer , 2005 ) , and even more challenging is manipulating these parameters in natural settings ( field et al , 2006 ) . in this work , we overcome some of the problems of ( ii ) by using a tractable synthetic microbial system that allows us to explore experimentally the nature of difficulty ( i ) . microbes have been argued recently to be choice systems for bridging the gap between theoretical models and biological phenomena ( crespi , 2001 ; rainey and rainey , 2003 ; velicer , 2003 ; kerr et al , 2006 ; mehdiabadi et al , 2006 ; west et al , 2006 ; gilbert et al , 2007 ; maclean and brandon , 2008 ; gore et al , 2009 ) . in addition , the field of synthetic biology has illustrated how design principles of biological networks can be investigated by forward engineering of novel behaviors in cells ; the resulting systems , having been built from the ground up , are amenable to manipulation , thereby serving as simplified experimental systems for the study of more complex phenomena ( sprinzak and elowitz , 2005 ; mukherji and van oudenaarden , 2009 ; song et al , 2009 ; tanouchi et al , 2009 ) . thus , we previously built and analyzed a synthetic microbial system comprised of two genetically engineered cooperator ' and noncooperator ' strains of escherichia coli , represented , respectively , by producers and nonproducers of a common good . ' the common good , specifically the small molecule rhl autoinducer ( miller and bassler , 2001 ) , is synthesized solely by producers , but activates expression of the antibiotic resistance gene chloramphenicol acetyltransferase ( cat ) in both strains , as rhl autoinducer is membrane permeable . in mixed cultures of producers and nonproducers containing the antibiotic chloramphenicol ( cm ) , nonproducers which do not bear the burden of production outgrow producers and increase in proportion at the expense of producers ( chuang et al , 2009 ) . this synthetic system may be viewed as an experimental implementation of one of the simplest models originally introduced by hamilton for conceptual purposes ( box 1 ) . by forming mixed groups , indexed by g , with sufficiently different initial proportions ( pg ) of producers , one can vary the parameter r characterizing the structure of the population , because r is here directly related to the distribution of the pg 's , and a higher variance of pg results in higher r. it is thus possible to satisfy hamilton 's rule brc>0 , and to obtain an increase in the overall fraction of producers , p>0 , despite the fact that within each mixed subpopulation , the proportion of producers decreases ( pg<0 for all g)a situation that can be interpreted as an instantiation of the so - called simpson 's paradox ( wagner , 1982 ) . experimentally , this is observed in the synthetic system ( chuang et al , 2009 ) when the variance of initial producer proportions , is sufficiently large ( corresponding to high r ) . an important feature of the synthetic approach is that both the structure of the population and the interactions between individuals can be experimentally manipulated . whereas in previous work on simpson 's paradox we varied the population structure of a single - fixed system of producers and nonproducers ( thus keeping the intrinsic properties of the system constant ) , here we hold constant the population structure while altering the nature of the interactions between producers and nonproducers . with the synthetic approach , we are able to modify with relative ease two intrinsic properties of the bacterial system : ( i ) the growth difference between producers and nonproducers , when having access to the same amount of common good autoinducer and ( ii ) the growth improvement , for both producers and nonproducers , because of the presence of autoinducer . such modifications allow us to study quantitatively how varying the parameters associated with microbial biology affects the three parameters b , r and c entering hamilton 's rule . first , to control the growth difference between producers and nonproducers , we introduced an auxotrophic mutation , argh , solely into the synthetic producer strain ( figure 1a ) . as the argh gene remains intact in nonproducers , varying the level of arginine ( in minimal media ) should allow us to tune the relative growth of producers compared with nonproducers . a similar approach using histidine mutants was recently used in a study of yeast cooperation ( gore et al , 2009 ) . as expected , when arginine was not limiting , the growth of arg producers in the absence of antibiotic was equivalent to the original arg producers ( figure 1b ) . as we lowered the arginine concentration , this first modified system ( figure 1a ) thus gives us the ability to test the effect of decreasing the growth of producers relative to nonproducers ( see below ) . second , to control the growth rate improvement conferred by the autoinducer common good , we increased the dosage of the rhlr gene , which encodes the transcription factor to which rhl autoinducer must bind to activate resistance to antibiotic ( figure 2a ) . this was accomplished by transforming into both producers and nonproducers a second compatible plasmid , which either provided extra copies of rhlr ( extra rhlr ' ) or not ( control ' ) . as extra rhlr cells contain more autoinducer - sensitive transcription factor , they should respond more readily to the autoinducer common good . indeed , when we added to a population of cells ( producers or nonproducers ) with extra rhlr the same amount of autoinducer as before , we observed that their growth rate in the presence of antibiotic increased compared with the original system ( figure 2b ) . this second modified system ( figure 2a ) thus gives us the ability to test the effect of varying the influence of the common good . to assess how varying these two elements would affect the interactions between producers and nonproducers , we performed experiments in which we measured the change in overall producer proportion ( p ) when producer nonproducer subgroups were formed and grown in selective conditions in antibiotic - containing media . in each experiment , we fixed the compositions of the subgroups ( i.e. fixed the distribution of pg ) by creating mixtures containing 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 , and 95% producers . in accordance with our previous study of simpson 's paradox , in large concentrations of arginine and without extra copies of rhlr , the change in total producer proportion p in the whole population ( ensemble of all subgroups ) was positive , that is producers were overall favored ( chuang et al , 2009 ) . next , we changed either the amount of arginine ( figure 1c ) or the dosage of rhlr ( figure 2c ) . using the first modified system with arg producers , we observed that the change in overall producer proportion p became negative at low arginine concentrations ( figure 1c ) . this can be easily understood from the perspective of hamilton 's rule . with the proper definition of the parameters b , c and r ( box 1 ; supplementary text s1 ) , decreasing the level of arginine in the first modified system ( figure 1a ) leads to an increase of the cost parameter c , as intuitively expected , as well as a moderate decrease in b. thus , the difference brc can become negative , causing nonproducers to be favored in the overall population . when using the second modified system with cells expressing extra copies of rhlr , we also observed a decrease in p ( figure 2c ) . from the perspective of hamilton 's rule , this means that increasing the dosage of rhlr transcription factor in the second modified system ( figure 2a ) , which makes the autoinducer common good more helpful ( as the same amount of autoinducer stimulates faster growth in antibiotic ) , leads to a nonintuitive decrease of the benefit parameter b. the reason is that the parameter b entering hamilton 's equation , given by equation ( 3 ) of box 1 , is a linear regression coefficient . in a linear system however , the increased dosage of rhlr caused the relationship between growth and producer proportion to become nonlinear . as a result , b depends here both on the dosage of rhlr and on the distribution of the initial producer proportions pg ( figure 3 ) ; it is thus a nonintuitive function dependent both on intrinsic ' properties of the microbes and extrinsic ' properties of the population structure ( box 1 ) . our synthetic microbial system clearly illustrates the general problem in applying hamilton 's rule to real biological systems ( gardner et al , 2007 ) . as hamilton 's rule is a demonstrated mathematical inequality , the problem in analyzing any particular system centers on the relation between b , c and r and the parameters of the system ( box 1 ; supplementary text s1 ) . this generally leads to parameters b and c that are not necessarily related in a simple way to the intrinsic parameters describing the organisms only , but also involve the population structure . thus , even if one has measured the values of b , c and r for a particular system of producers and nonproducers , one can not predict what will result from changing either the structure of population or the biochemistry of the individuals . nonproducer mixtures has to be a linear function of the fraction of producers ( pg ) , as in the model in box 1 , for the knowledge of the values of b and c to provide a sufficient basis for predicting the evolution of the system upon changes of its population structure . our original synthetic system ( chuang et al , 2009 ) was specifically designed to be in the linear regime . this property is , however , not generic and we found here that modifications of the system readily pushed it out of the linear regime . a nonlinear growth response to a molecular signal ( figure 3 ) is a feature commonly found in biological systems and is probably inherent to common good - based cooperation in microbes . hamilton 's rule indicates that the maintenance of producers is typically destabilized relative to the ideal linear case . more precisely , the stronger the nonlinearities of the system , the stronger are the constraints on the population dynamics ( e.g. constraints on the distribution into groups ) implied by hamilton 's rule . this suggests that in each particular system under study , an important goal should be to characterize the nonlinearities controlling the dynamics of cooperating microorganisms . in a recent study of the problem of cooperation in yeast sucrose metabolism ( gore et al , 2009 ) , for instance , nonlinear benefits explain why both invertase producers and nonproducers could mutually persist instead of being taken over by nonproducers . we developed here an approach based on synthetic biology for addressing the nature of the main biological constraints underlying a general principle well known in evolutionary biology , hamilton 's rule . as a first step , we showed how a simple mathematical model ( box 1 ; supplementary text s1 ) , which serves as a transparent illustration of hamilton 's rule , could be implemented in a microbial system ( chuang et al , 2009 ) . we then took a further step by exploring the response of the synthetic system to different modifications , so as to understand how the properties of a generic biological system are most likely to deviate from those of our specifically designed system . as a result of this approach , we found that a major constraint for the maintenance of cooperation in microorganisms has the form of a nonlinear growth response to a molecular signal ( figure 3 ) . beyond its specific conclusions , this study illustrates how synthetic biology can be used to develop and analyze mathematical models in a biological context , following an approach that could be extended to address other basic questions in biology beyond the maintenance of cooperation . the original system ( chuang et al , 2009 ) consists of a producer and nonproducer strain , both derived by plasmid transformation of e. coli strain jc1191 , which has genotype att::rhl - catlva(sp ) sdia::frt att::rhl - catlva(sp ) , which is the spectinomycin ( sp ) resistance - marked integration ( into the bacteriophage attachment site ) of an rhl autoinducer - responsive promoter ( prhl ) driving an unstable ( andersen et al , 1998 ) version of cat . specifically , the rhl - catlva cassette ' carries both placi - rhlr and prhl - catlva ( chuang et al , 2009 ) . therefore , the growth of rhl - catlva strains in cm is strongly dependent on rhl autoinducer . producers carry in addition the low copy , gfp - marked production plasmid , pzs2r - gfp , rhli , whereas nonproducers carry a control plasmid lacking gfp and rhli . rhli encodes rhl autoinducer ( c4-hsl ) synthase ( parsek et al , 1999 ) . an arginine - dependent producer was made by bacteriophage p1 transduction of argh::frt(kan ) from the keio reference strain jw3932 ( baba et al , 2006 ) into jc1191 to create jc1209 . the kan marker was looped out using a transient source of flp recombinase ( cherepanov and wackernagel , 1995 ) and the resulting plasmid - free strain was transformed with the production plasmid to create jc1211 . nonproducer pair with increased dosage of rhlr was created by transforming the original producer and nonproducer strains with a second compatible plasmid , pza12-rhlr . this plasmid has a medium copy origin of replication ( p15a ) , the ampicillin resistance gene -lactamase ( bla ) , and rhlr under control of the placo1 promoter . pza12-rhlr was constructed by subcloning the rhlr coding sequence into pza12 ( lutz and bujard , 1997 ) . as the strains in this study are laci , the increased copy number of rhlr only increases rhlr expression moderately through leakiness of the placo1 promoter . a control pair of producers and nonproducers with no further increase in rhlr dosage was created by transforming instead with the control vector pza1r , which lacks rhlr . strains carrying pza1 vectors were maintained by selection with ampicillin ( 50 g / ml ) . growth media , growth conditions , and quantification of the relative growth of producers and nonproducers were performed as described ( chuang et al , 2009 ) except that for the experiments involving arginine limitation ( figure 1 ) , the producer nonproducer mixtures were subjected to an initial dilution of 1/50 into mops minimal media ( neidhardt et al , 1974 ) ( supplemented with thiamine , uracil , dextrose , antibiotics , and arginine ) containing 4.5 g / ml cm . 1x arginine is defined as 520 m . in brief , a typical experiment involved setting up subpopulations with different proportions of producers ( pg=10 , 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 , and 95% producers ) . each mixture was first diluted and grown in the absence of cm , and then at time 0 , ' each subpopulation was diluted into media containing cm . growth curves were obtained by periodic measurements of optical density at 600 nm ( od600 ) in a plate reader ( wallac victor 2 ) . before ( i.e. at time 0 ) and after a period of limited growth ( 1214 h at 30c ) , the initial ( pg ) and final ( pg ' ) producer proportions within each group were determined by flow cytometry as described ( chuang et al , 2009 ) the initial ( p ) and final ( p ) global producer proportions were measured by pooling equal volumes of each subpopulation and subjecting the global pool to flow cytometry . the original system ( chuang et al , 2009 ) consists of a producer and nonproducer strain , both derived by plasmid transformation of e. coli strain jc1191 , which has genotype att::rhl - catlva(sp ) sdia::frt att::rhl - catlva(sp ) , which is the spectinomycin ( sp ) resistance - marked integration ( into the bacteriophage attachment site ) of an rhl autoinducer - responsive promoter ( prhl ) driving an unstable ( andersen et al , 1998 ) version of cat . specifically , the rhl - catlva cassette ' carries both placi - rhlr and prhl - catlva ( chuang et al , 2009 ) . therefore , the growth of rhl - catlva strains in cm is strongly dependent on rhl autoinducer . producers carry in addition the low copy , gfp - marked production plasmid , pzs2r - gfp , rhli , whereas nonproducers carry a control plasmid lacking gfp and rhli . rhli encodes rhl autoinducer ( c4-hsl ) synthase ( parsek et al , 1999 ) . an arginine - dependent producer was made by bacteriophage p1 transduction of argh::frt(kan ) from the keio reference strain jw3932 ( baba et al , 2006 ) into jc1191 to create jc1209 . the kan marker was looped out using a transient source of flp recombinase ( cherepanov and wackernagel , 1995 ) and the resulting plasmid - free strain was transformed with the production plasmid to create jc1211 . nonproducer pair with increased dosage of rhlr was created by transforming the original producer and nonproducer strains with a second compatible plasmid , pza12-rhlr . this plasmid has a medium copy origin of replication ( p15a ) , the ampicillin resistance gene -lactamase ( bla ) , and rhlr under control of the placo1 promoter . pza12-rhlr was constructed by subcloning the rhlr coding sequence into pza12 ( lutz and bujard , 1997 ) . as the strains in this study are laci , the increased copy number of rhlr only increases rhlr expression moderately through leakiness of the placo1 promoter . a control pair of producers and nonproducers with no further increase in rhlr dosage was created by transforming instead with the control vector pza1r , which lacks rhlr . strains carrying pza1 vectors were maintained by selection with ampicillin ( 50 g / ml ) . growth media , growth conditions , and quantification of the relative growth of producers and nonproducers were performed as described ( chuang et al , 2009 ) except that for the experiments involving arginine limitation ( figure 1 ) , the producer nonproducer mixtures were subjected to an initial dilution of 1/50 into mops minimal media ( neidhardt et al , 1974 ) ( supplemented with thiamine , uracil , dextrose , antibiotics , and arginine ) containing 4.5 g / ml cm . 1x arginine is defined as 520 m . in brief , a typical experiment involved setting up subpopulations with different proportions of producers ( pg=10 , 20 , 30 , 40 , 50 , 60 , 70 , 80 , 90 , and 95% producers ) . each mixture was first diluted and grown in the absence of cm , and then at time 0 , ' each subpopulation was diluted into media containing cm . growth curves were obtained by periodic measurements of optical density at 600 nm ( od600 ) in a plate reader ( wallac victor 2 ) . before ( i.e. at time 0 ) and after a period of limited growth ( 1214 h at 30c ) , the initial ( pg ) and final ( pg ' ) producer proportions within each group were determined by flow cytometry as described ( chuang et al , 2009 ) the initial ( p ) and final ( p ) global producer proportions were measured by pooling equal volumes of each subpopulation and subjecting the global pool to flow cytometry .	a fundamental problem in biology is understanding the evolutionary emergence and maintenance of altruistic behaviors . a well - recognized conceptual insight is provided by a general mathematical relation , hamilton 's rule . this rule can in principle be invoked to explain natural examples of cooperation , but measuring the variables that it involves is a particularly challenging problem and controlling these variables experimentally an even more daunting task . here , we overcome these difficulties by using a simple synthetic microbial system of producers and nonproducers of an extracellular growth - enhancing molecule , which acts as a common good . ' for this system , we are able to manipulate the intrinsic growth difference between producers and nonproducers , as well as the impact of the common good on the growth rate of its recipients . our synthetic system is thus uniquely suited for studying the relation between the parameters entering hamilton 's rule and the quantities governing the systems ' behavior . the experimental results highlight a crucial effect of nonlinearities in the response to the common good , which in general tend to limit the predictive value of hamilton 's rule .
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``State Criminal Alien Assistance Program II''. SEC. 2. PURPOSE. The purpose of this Act is to assist States and units of local governments by providing financial assistance for costs incurred by such States and local governments for processing illegal immigrants through their law enforcement and criminal justice systems. SEC. 3. REIMBURSEMENT OF INDIRECT COSTS RELATING TO THE INCARCERATION OF ILLEGAL ALIENS. (a) In General.--Section 501 of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (8 U.S.C. 1365) is amended-- (1) in subsection (a), by striking ``a State for'' and all that follows through ``State'' and inserting the following: ``each State and unit of local government for-- ``(1) costs incurred by the State or unit of local government for the imprisonment of any illegal alien who is convicted of a felony by such State; and ``(2) indirect costs related to the imprisonment described in paragraph (1).''; and (2) by striking subsections (c) through (e) and inserting the following: ``(c) Definitions.--As used in this section-- ``(1) the term `indirect costs' includes costs relating to-- ``(A) court proceedings, attorneys for units of local government, and detention of illegal aliens; ``(B) indigent defense; ``(C) State and local prosecution; ``(D) autopsies; and ``(E) translation and interpreter services; and ``(2) the term `State' has the meaning given such term in section 1101(a)(36) of this title. ``(d) Authorization of Appropriations.--There are authorized to be appropriated $500,000,000 for each of the fiscal years 2006 through 2009 to carry out subsection (a)(2).''. (b) State Allocations.-- (1) Based on percentage of undocumented aliens.-- (A) In general.--From the amount appropriated for a fiscal year pursuant to section 501(d) of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (8 U.S.C. 1365(d)), the Attorney General shall allocate $333,000,000 for States and units of local government in accordance with subparagraph (B). (B) Formula.--The amount allocated under this paragraph for each State (including units of local government within such State) for a fiscal year shall be equal to the product of-- (i) the total amount available to be allocated under this paragraph for that fiscal year; and (ii) the percentage of undocumented aliens residing in the State compared to the total number of such aliens residing in all States, as determined by the Statistics Division of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, as of January 2005, based on the 2000 decennial census. (2) Based on number of undocumented alien apprehension states.-- (A) In general.--From the amount appropriated for a fiscal year pursuant to such section 501(d), the Attorney General shall allocate $167,000,000, in addition to amounts allocated under paragraph (1), for each of the 6 States with the highest number of undocumented alien apprehensions for such fiscal year. (B) Determination of allotments.--The amount allocated under this paragraph for a fiscal year for each State described in subparagraph (A) (including units of local government within each such State) shall be equal to the product of-- (i) the total amount available to be allocated under this paragraph for the fiscal year; and (ii) the percentage of undocumented alien apprehensions in the State in that fiscal year compared to the total of such apprehensions for all such States for the preceding fiscal year. (C) Data.--For purposes of this paragraph, the highest number of undocumented alien apprehensions for a fiscal year shall be based on the apprehension rates for the 4-consecutive-quarter period ending before the beginning of the fiscal year for which information is available for undocumented aliens in such States, as reported by the Department of Homeland Security.	State Criminal Alien Assistance Program II - Amends the Immigration and Reform and Control Act of 1986 to provide for the reimbursement of State and local costs incurred for: (1) the imprisonment of any illegal alien who is convicted of a felony by such State; and (2) indirect costs including court proceedings, attorneys for local government, illegal alien detention, indigent defense, State and local prosecution, autopsies, and translation and interpreter services. Obligates reimbursement funds. Allocates such amount based upon the percentage of undocumented aliens in a State compared to the total number of undocumented aliens in all States. Obligates additional funds for each of the six States with the highest number of apprehended undocumented aliens.
Four more planes reportedly spotted lasers several thousand feet in the air over New York and New Tuesday night, bringing the total to 20 similar incidents in the last week. Two planes west of Warwick, NY, an American flight 20 miles south of Newark and a Spirit Airlines plane 20 miles southwest of LaGuardia reported being illuminated by lasers, the Federal Aviation Administration confirmed to Fox News. The FAA notified law enforcement and is investigating. Pointing a laser at a plane is a federal crime. The light can be disorienting for pilots approaching an airport. The number of reported laser incidents was up to nearly 2,000 through May 15, a record pace. Pilots of 12 different planes reported laser sightings on Wednesday and four more pilots reported sightings on Thursday over New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Fox News Channel's Laura Ingle contributed to this report \|\|\|\|\| 1. American 1976, an Airbus 321 at 3,000 feet 20 miles south of Newark Liberty International Airport at 9:25 pm. 2. Shuttle America 3482, Embraer E170 at 7,000 feet seven miles west of Warwick, NY at 9:45 pm. 3. Express Jet 5887, Embraer E145 at 7,000 feet, five miles west of Warwick, NY at 9:40 pm. 4. Spirit Airlines 710, Airbus A320, at 7,500 feet, 20 miles southwest of LaGuardia Airport at 12:10 am. 5. United Express 5898, Toronto to Newark, was illuminated by a green laser struck left side of aircraft at 10:16 p.m. 6. United Airlines 1933, Houston to Newark, was illuminated for about 3 seconds about 7 miles southwest of Newark, at 11:35 p.m. At least six more flights over New York and New Jersey reported being illuminated by lasers Tuesday night, making 22 such incidents in recent weeks.In this recent rash of hits, six planes reported laser strikes including United Flight 1933 on approach to Newark."1933, we just got lasered from our 10 o'clock position," a pilot said.The FAA notified law enforcement about the reports, and the FAA is investigating. Below are the details on each flight:Like the previous rash of strikes, these laser hits were spread out from Newark to Warwick in Orange County, New York to LaGuardia in Queens. Twelve pilots reported spotting lasers Wednesday night, followed by at least another four pilots while flying over New Jersey and Pennsylvania Thursday night."We're they pointing it at you?" the tower asked"Directly pointing right at us. I saw the flash to left and out my head down," the pilot said.But as we reported in an investigation last year, laser strikes have plagued pilots flying in and out of our major airports ever since the hand-held devices became cheap and easy to get and much more powerful.They are able to ignite a pack of matches and shine blinding light miles into the sky."You have this searing intensity, this bright light shining into the aircraft, so you experience flash blindness," said Captain Hamilton, a commercial pilot.Captain Robert Hamilton knows first-hand the power and the danger of lasers."What goes through your mind is, 'Will I be able to complete the flight?'" Hamilton said.FAA Data show about 4,000 laser strikes reported by pilots every year for past five years nationwide.Our research of government records has found numerous accounts of pilots reporting blurred vision, temporary blindness even retinal damage due to lasers.One passenger made clear what he thought about anyone thinking it's all a harmless game."Idiots on the ground who want to play with toys hopefully someone will find them and lock them up," said John Andersen, of West Haven, Connecticut.Newark had 28 reported laser-pointing incidents last year.	– Authorities appear no closer to figuring out the source of those mysterious lasers dazzling pilots over New Jersey and New York even as more incidents are recorded. After pilots reported lasers hitting at least 11 planes last week, nine more flights have been affected, including four last night. Two of the flights were a few miles west of Warwick, NY, one was 20 miles south of Newark Liberty International, and one was 20 miles southwest of LaGuardia, reports WABC. All were under 7,500 feet. Fox News reports laser incidents have been popping up at "a record pace" this year with almost 2,000 as of May 15.
But the sources stressed that Dear said many things to law enforcement and the extent to which the "baby parts" remark played into any decision to target the Planned Parenthood office was not yet clear. He also mentioned President Barack Obama in statements. Related: Planned Parenthood Official Says Attack Was Motivated by Opposition to Abortion Dear is being held on no bond, and isn't expected to appear in court until Monday, according to jail booking records. Friday morning's shooting at the Colorado Springs clinic resulted in a five-hour standoff between the suspect and police. One of the three killed was a police officer, Garrett Swasey, 44; the other two, described as civilians, will be identified pending autopsies, officials said. U.S. Attorney General Loretta E. Lynch on Saturday condemned the attack and said the federal government would provide any assistance it could. "This unconscionable attack was not only a crime against the Colorado Springs community, but a crime against women receiving healthcare services at Planned Parenthood, law enforcement seeking to protect and serve, and other innocent people," Lynch said. Law enforcement officials are looking into the background of the suspect. Police are interviewing people who knew Dear, including his girlfriend in Colorado. They are also examining his computer and any social media footprint. Sources said there would have been nothing apparent in Dear's background — including a felony conviction or previous mental health issue — that would have disqualified him from buying an AK-47 style, high-powered rifle used in the shootings. Related: Officer Slain in Colorado Planned Parenthood Attack Was Beloved Dad, Church Leader But a look at Dear's criminal past shows a history of other arrests, including ones for domestic violence against his then-wife in 1997, and being a "Peeping Tom" in 2002 after a neighbor in South Carolina reported him watching her, according to documents obtained by NBC News. A relative by marriage told NBC News that the allegations against Dear are shocking. “I could never imagine him doing anything like this," said the relative, who did not want to be identified. A former neighbor of Dear’s in South Carolina told The Associated Press that Dear often acted strangely, but he didn’t think he was dangerous. "He was really strange and out there, but I never thought he would do any harm," Dear’s former next door neighbor John Hood told the AP. Hood said Dear rarely talked but when he did, he offered unsolicited advice, like recommending that Hood put a metal roof on his house so the U.S. government couldn't spy on him, the AP reported. Other former neighbors told the AP that Dear hid food in the woods, sometimes lived in a cabin in North Carolina with no electricity or running water and said he made a living off selling prints of his uncle's paintings of Southern plantations and the Masters golf tournament. James Russell, who lived near Dear's cabin told the AP that alleged gunman tended to avoid eye contact, but if he did communicate, he mostly rambled about things that didn’t make sense. "If you talked to him, nothing with him was very cognitive," Russell said. In Colorado, people who encountered Dear also said he was fairly quiet. Jamie Heffelman, owner of the Highline Cafe in Hartsel, told the AP that Dear sometimes visited the post office to pick up his mail, but he didn’t say much. "Nobody really knows him. He stays to himself," she said. \|\|\|\|\| Jason Burtis expresses his emotion at a service at Hope Chapel in Colorado Springs. This was the church of Officer Garrett Swasey, who was killed in the Planned Parenthood shootings. Nov. 29, 2015 Jason Burtis expresses his emotion at a service at Hope Chapel in Colorado Springs. This was the church of Officer Garrett Swasey, who was killed in the Planned Parenthood shootings. Matthew Staver/For The Washington Post A gunman opened fire at a Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood clinic, authorities said, killing at least three people and wounding at least nine others. A gunman opened fire at a Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood clinic, authorities said, killing at least three people and wounding at least nine others. A gunman opened fire at a Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood clinic, authorities said, killing at least three people and wounding at least nine others. The gunman suspected of storming a Planned Parenthood clinic and killing a police officer and two others used the phrase “no more baby parts’’ to explain his actions, according to a law enforcement official, a comment likely to further inflame the heated rhetoric surrounding abortion. The attack on the clinic, allegedly by Robert Lewis Dear Jr., was “definitely politically motivated,’’ said the official, speaking on the condition of anonymity because the investigation is still underway. NBC News, which first reported the comment, said that Dear also mentioned President Obama in a range of statements to investigators that left his precise motivation unclear. Yet even as authorities released few details about Friday’s shootings, the politics of the highly charged abortion issue seemed to outstrip their efforts to be methodical. Antiabortion activists denied any knowledge of Dear and said he is not affiliated with their movement, but abortion rights advocates countered that comments by conservatives against Planned Parenthood had precipitated the violence. Vicki Cowart, president of Planned Parenthood of the Rocky Mountains, cited “eyewitness accounts” in asserting that Dear “was motivated by opposition to safe and legal abortion.” “We’ve seen an alarming increase in hateful rhetoric and smear campaigns against abortion providers and patients over the last few months,” she said in a statement. “That environment breeds acts of violence.” A suspected gunman is in custody after a shooting at a Planned Parenthood clinic in Colorado left three people dead, including one police officer. Here's what else we know about the incident. (The Washington Post) In an interview, she said that the waiting room at the Colorado Springs Planned Parenthood clinic was bustling at midday Friday when a shot rang out. A medical assistant immediately recognized the sound and moved everyone to the back of the building, behind a locked door that separates the lobby from exam rooms, Cowart said, relating what staff members had told her. Once there, everyone scattered into rooms that also had locks and, following their training, turned their phones to silent to avoid drawing attention to themselves. Most of the people in the clinic waited out the five-hour ordeal in these locked rooms, Cowart said. Staff workers undergo regular training and drills for emergencies, such as an armed attack. But other than that, she said, there were no dedicated “safe rooms” or special security measures in place. “It’s built as a health center that has comfortable rooms for patients and good flow for efficiency,” Cowart said. Video cameras are mounted in various spots inside and outside the building, and police were able to monitor the shooter by watching the live feed, she said. The clinic is in a one-floor, stand-alone building owned by Planned Parenthood, where staff provide services primarily to women: birth control counseling; STD and HIV testing; breast exams; and abortions, both surgical and via medication. All of these services were available Friday, when about 30 people had signed up for appointments and others came in as walk-ins or to pick up prescriptions. Planned Parenthood has been at the center of a political storm as the 2016 presidential campaign heats up. Republican candidates have denounced the organization, especially after an antiabortion group released a series of surreptitiously filmed videos in which Planned Parenthood officials discussed the techniques and financial aspects of harvesting fetal-tissue samples for scientific research. The videos were edited in misleading ways, Planned Parenthood has said. Dear, 57, is accused of fatally shooting University of Colorado police officer Garrett Swasey and two as-yet-unnamed civilians in the attack on the Colorado Springs clinic. At least four other officers and five civilians were also injured. Officials said Saturday that the injured victims were expected to recover. Dear, who moved to Colorado last year, was described by people who know him as a malcontent and drifter who has had numerous run-ins with the law. He is being held without bond and is scheduled to appear in court Monday, local media reported. Dear is expected to first face state charges and then federal charges, said the law enforcement official. It was unclear Saturday whether an attorney for Dear had been appointed. Authorities said Dear was armed with what they described as a long gun and had also walked into the clinic with several unspecified items that could have been explosives. Obama, in his first reaction to the shootings, issued a refrain for more gun-control measures, which has become a familiar ritual after mass shootings. But unlike after other incidents — such as June’s shooting deaths of nine people in a historic black church in Charleston, S.C. — Obama limited his remarks to a written statement. Regardless of the motive, he said, the frequency of mass killings in the United States is unacceptable. “This is not normal. We can’t let it become normal,” the president said. “If we truly care about this . . . then we have to do something about the easy accessibility of weapons of war on our streets to people who have no business wielding them. Period. Enough is enough.” On the Republican campaign trail, presidential candidates who in the past have criticized Planned Parenthood avoided comment. Sen. Ted Cruz (Tex.) and Ohio Gov. John Kasich referred to the shootings, but neither mentioned the organization. All three leading Democratic candidates issued statements supporting Planned Parenthood, and they were joined by others in the abortion rights community who condemned the criticism of the organization and said it led to the shootings. Antiabortion groups were quick to denounce the shooting and distance themselves from Dear, with numerous activists saying they have never interacted with or heard of him. Troy Newman, president of Operation Rescue, a controversial group that tracks abortion clinics and posts information about abortion doctors on its Web site, said he immediately entered Dear’s name into his membership database and came up empty. “One thing we do know is the guy is a very dangerous, unstable individual who desired to kill people, and that is not in any way what the pro-life movement stands for,” Newman said. The law enforcement response to the shootings also came under scrutiny on Saturday because authorities had engaged in a five-hour standoff with the shooter. The first call for help came in to the Colorado Springs Emergency Communications Center about 11:38 a.m. authorities said, with numerous officers and agents deploying to the scene. Dear was taken into custody at 4:52 p.m. At least once during the intervening hours, officials said the shooter had been contained, then appeared to reverse themselves. But Jim Davis, who formerly headed the FBI’s Denver division and served as executive director of Colorado’s Public Safety Department, said the response “went exactly as planned” and reflected what was learned from the 1999 massacre at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colo. Two students killed 12 fellow students, a teacher and themselves in that incident, and authorities were later criticized for waiting too long to intervene. “The lesson from Columbine is we can’t wait for communications to be set up, can’t wait for a tactical team to arrive, so police are trained to just go to the sound of the gunfire,’’ Davis said. Lowery and Markon reported from Washington. Paquette reported from Colorado Springs. Sandhya Somashekhar, Peter Holley, Jennifer Jenkins, Alice Crites and Julie Tate in Washington contributed to this report.	– The man being held in Friday's shooting at a Colorado Planned Parenthood talked about "no more baby parts" and President Obama after his arrest, reports the Washington Post, citing an anonymous law enforcement official, who contends that the attack was "definitely politically motivated." But sources tell NBC News, which first reported the "baby parts" comment, that Robert Lewis Dear said many things following his arrest. A former neighbor says Dear "was really strange and out there, but I never thought he would do any harm." NBC notes that while nothing in Dear's past would have prevented him from legally buying a firearm, he had been charged with domestic violence against his then-wife in 1997, and with being a Peeping Tom on a neighbor. That the attack was politically motivated is a sentiment echoed by the president of Planned Parenthood of the Rocky Mountains, who says in a statement that "eyewitness accounts" confirm that Dear was "was motivated by opposition to safe and legal abortion." Police have not yet confirmed a motive, notes the AP, and the investigation is ongoing. Dear is due in court Monday; he's currently being held without bond.
SECTION 1. DEFINITIONS. In this Act: (1) Administrator.--The term ``Administrator'' means the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. (2) Mid-level ethanol blend.--The term ``mid-level ethanol blend'' means an ethanol-gasoline blend containing greater than 10 and up to and including 20 percent ethanol by volume that is intended to be used in any conventional gasoline-powered onroad, nonroad, or marine engine, or onroad or nonroad vehicle. SEC. 2. EVALUATION. (a) In General.--The Administrator, acting through the Assistant Administrator of the Office of Research and Development at the Environmental Protection Agency, shall-- (1) not later than 45 days after the date of enactment of this Act, enter into an agreement with the National Academy of Sciences to provide, within 18 months after the date of enactment of this Act, a comprehensive assessment of the scientific and technical research on the implications of the use of mid-level ethanol blends, comparing mid-level ethanol blends to gasoline blends containing 10 percent or zero percent ethanol; and (2) not later than 30 days after receiving the results of the assessment under paragraph (1), submit a report to the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Environment and Public Works of the Senate on the findings of the assessment, together with the agreement or disagreement of the Administrator with each of its findings. (b) Waivers.--Prior to the submission of the report under subsection (a)(2), any waiver granted under section 211(f)(4) of the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7545(f)(4)) before the date of enactment of this Act that allows the introduction into commerce of mid-level ethanol blends for use in motor vehicles shall have no force or effect. The Administrator shall grant no new waivers under such section 211(f)(4) until after the submission of the report described under subsection (a)(2). (c) Contents.--The assessment performed under subsection (a)(1) shall include the following: (1) An evaluation of the short-term and long-term environmental, safety, durability, and performance effects of the introduction of mid-level ethanol blends on onroad, nonroad, and marine engines, onroad and nonroad vehicles, and related equipment. Such evaluation shall consider the impacts of qualifying mid-level ethanol blends or blends with higher ethanol concentrations as a certification fuel, and shall consider the effect mid-level ethanol blends have on carbon emissions, taking into account carbon emissions from their life-cycle production, as compared to gasoline blends containing 10 percent or zero percent ethanol. Such evaluation shall include a review of all available scientific evidence, including all relevant government and industry data and testing, including that relied upon by the Administrator and published at 75 Fed. Reg. 68094 et seq. (November 4, 2010), 76 Fed. Reg. 4662 et seq. (January 26, 2011), and 76 Fed. Reg. 44406 et seq. (July 25, 2011), and identify gaps in understanding and research needs related to-- (A) tailpipe emissions; (B) evaporative emissions; (C) engine and fuel system durability; (D) onboard diagnostics; (E) emissions inventory and other modeling effects; (F) materials compatibility; (G) operability and drivability; (H) fuel efficiency; (I) fuel economy; (J) consumer education and satisfaction; (K) cost-effectiveness for the consumer; (L) catalyst durability; and (M) durability of storage tanks, piping, and dispensers for retail. (2) An identification of areas of research, development, and testing necessary to-- (A) ensure that existing motor fuel infrastructure is not adversely impacted by mid-level ethanol blends, including an examination of potential impacts of mid- level ethanol blends on metal, plastic, rubber, or any other materials used in pipes or storage tanks; and (B) reduce the risk of misfueling by users at various points in the distribution and supply chain, including at bulk storage, retail storage, and distribution configurations by-- (i) assessing the best methods and practices to prevent misfueling; (ii) examining misfueling mitigation strategies for blender pumps, including volumetric purchase requirements and labeling requirements; (iii) assessing the adequacy of misfueling mitigation plans approved by the Environmental Protection Agency; and (iv) examining the technical standards and recommendations of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the American National Standards Institute, and the International Organization for Standardization regarding fuel pump labeling. SEC. 3. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. In order to carry out this Act, the Administrator shall utilize up to $900,000 from the funds made available for science and technology, including research and development activities, at the Environmental Protection Agency.	(Sec. 2) Requires the Assistant Administrator of the Office of Research and Development at the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to: enter into an agreement with the National Academy of Sciences to make a comprehensive assessment of research on the implications of using mid-level ethanol blends, comparing mid-level ethanol blends to gasoline blends containing 10% and 0% ethanol; and report on assessment findings and whether the EPA Administrator agrees or disagrees with each of them. Defines a mid-level ethanol blend as an ethanol-gasoline blend containing greater than 10% and up to and including 20% ethanol by volume that is intended to be used in any conventional gasoline-powered onroad, nonroad, or marine engine, or onroad or nonroad vehicle. Nullifies waivers granted under the Clean Air Act before the enactment of this Act that allow the introduction into commerce of mid-level ethanol blends for use in motor vehicles, and prohibits the Administrator from granting any new waivers until after the report is submitted. Requires the assessment to include: (1) an evaluation of the environmental, safety, durability, and performance effects of the introduction of mid-level blends on onroad, nonroad, and marine engines, onroad and nonroad vehicles, and related equipment; and (2) an identification of areas of research, development, and testing necessary to ensure that existing motor fuel infrastructure is not adversely impacted by mid-level ethanol blends and to reduce the risk of misfueling by users at various points in the distribution and supply chain. Requires the evaluation to review all available scientific evidence and identify gaps in understanding and research needs related to tailpipe emissions, evaporative emissions, engine and fuel system durability, onboard diagnostics, emissions inventory and other modeling effects, materials compatibility, operability and drivability, fuel efficiency, fuel economy, consumer education and satisfaction, cost-effectiveness for the consumer, catalyst durability, and durability of storage tanks, piping, and dispensers for retail. (Sec. 3) Directs the Administrator to use certain funds made available to the EPA for science and technology, including research and development activities, to carry out this Act.
SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE. This Act may be cited as the ``Paleontological Resources Preservation Act''. SEC. 2. FINDINGS. The Congress finds the following: (1) Paleontological resources are nonrenewable. Such resources on Federal lands are an accessible and irreplaceable part of the heritage of the United States and offer significant educational opportunities to all citizens. (2) Existing Federal laws, statutes, and other provisions that manage paleontological resources are not articulated in a unified national policy for Federal land management agencies and the public. Such a policy is needed to improve scientific understanding, to promote responsible stewardship, and to facilitate the enhancement of responsible paleontological collecting activities on Federal lands. (3) Consistent with the statutory provisions applicable to each Federal land management system, reasonable access to paleontological resources on Federal lands should be provided for scientific, educational, and recreational purposes. SEC. 3. PURPOSE. The purpose of this Act is to establish a comprehensive national policy for preserving and managing paleontological resources on Federal lands. SEC. 4. DEFINITIONS. As used in this Act: (1) Casual collecting.--The term ``casual collecting'' means the collecting of a reasonable amount of common invertebrate and plant paleontological resources for personal, scientific, educational or recreational use, either by surface collection or using non-powered hand tools resulting in only negligible disturbance to the Earth's surface and other resources. (2) Secretary.--The term ``Secretary'' means the Secretary of the Interior with respect to lands administered by the Secretary of the Interior or the Secretary of Agriculture with respect to National Forest System Lands administered by the Secretary of Agriculture. (3) Federal lands.--The term ``Federal lands'' means lands administered by the Secretary of the Interior, except Indian lands, or National Forest System Lands administered by the Secretary of Agriculture. (4) Indian lands.--The term ``Indian Lands'' means lands of Indian tribes, or Indian individuals, which are either held in trust by the United States or subject to a restriction against alienation imposed by the United States. (5) State.--The term ``State'' means the fifty States, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and any other territory or possession of the United States. (6) Paleontological resource.--The term ``paleontological resource'' means any fossilized remains, traces, or imprints of organisms, preserved in or on the earth's crust, that are of paleontological interest and that provide information about the history of life on earth, except that the term does not include-- (A) any materials associated with an archaeological resource (as defined in section 3(1) of the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 (16 U.S.C. 470bb(1))); or (B) any cultural item (as defined in section 2 of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (25 U.S.C. 3001)). (7) Common invertebrate and plant paleontological resources.--The term ``common invertebrate and plant paleontological resources'' means fossils that are not significant. (8) Significant.--The term ``significant'' is a fossil that meets scientific significance criteria as determined by the Secretary in the promulgation of uniform rules and regulations under this Act. (9) Qualified applicant.--The term ``qualified applicant'' is someone who possesses a graduate degree in paleontology or related topics; or the equivalent experience with one who meets that standard. SEC. 5. MANAGEMENT. (a) In General.--The Secretary shall manage and protect paleontological resources on Federal lands using scientific principles and expertise. The Secretary shall develop appropriate plans for inventory, monitoring, and the scientific and educational use of paleontological resources, in accordance with applicable agency laws, regulations, and policies. These plans shall emphasize interagency coordination and collaborative efforts where possible with non-Federal partners, the scientific community, and the general public. (b) Coordination of Implementation.--To the extent possible, the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of Agriculture shall coordinate in the implementation of this Act. SEC. 6. PUBLIC AWARENESS AND EDUCATION PROGRAM. The Secretary shall establish a program to increase public awareness about the significance of paleontological resources. SEC. 7. COLLECTION OF PALEONTOLOGICAL RESOURCES. (a) Permit Requirement.-- (1) In general.--Except as provided in this Act, a paleontological resource may not be collected from Federal lands without a permit issued under this Act by the Secretary. (2) Casual collecting exception.--The Secretary may allow casual collecting without a permit on Federal lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Forest Service, where such collection is not inconsistent with the laws governing the management of those Federal lands and this Act. (3) Previous permit exception.--Nothing in this section shall affect a valid permit issued prior to the date of enactment of this Act. (b) Criteria for Issuance of a Permit.--The Secretary may issue a permit for the collection of a paleontological resource pursuant to an application if the Secretary determines that-- (1) the permitted activity shall be carried out by a qualified applicant; (2) the permitted activity is undertaken for the purpose of furthering paleontological knowledge or for public education; (3) the permitted activity is consistent with any management plan applicable to the Federal lands concerned; and (4) the proposed methods of collecting will not threaten significant natural or cultural resources. (c) Permit Specifications.--A permit for the collection of a paleontological resource issued under this section shall contain such terms and conditions as the Secretary deems necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act. Every permit shall include requirements that-- (1) the paleontological resource that is collected from Federal lands under the permit will remain the property of the United States; (2) the paleontological resource and copies of associated records will be preserved for the public in an approved repository, to be made available for scientific research and public education; and (3) specific locality data will not be released by the permittee or repository without the written permission of the Secretary. (d) Modification, Suspension, and Revocation of Permits.-- (1) The Secretary may modify, suspend, or revoke a permit issued under this section-- (A) for resource, safety, or other management considerations; or (B) when there is a violation of term or condition of a permit issued pursuant to this section. (2) The permit shall be revoked if any person working under the authority of the permit is convicted under section 9 or is assessed a civil penalty under section 10. SEC. 8. CURATION OF RESOURCES. Any paleontological resource, and any data and records associated with the resource, collected under a permit, shall be deposited in an approved repository. The Secretary may enter into agreements with non- Federal repositories regarding the curation of these resources, data, and records. SEC. 9. PROHIBITED ACTS; PENALTIES. (a) In General.--A person may not-- (1) excavate, remove, damage, or otherwise alter or deface or attempt to excavate, remove, damage, or otherwise alter or deface any paleontological resources located on Federal lands unless such activity is conducted in accordance with this Act; (2) exchange, transport, export, receive, or offer to exchange, transport, export, or receive any paleontological resource if, in the exercise of due care, the person knew or should have known such resource to have been excavated, removed, exchanged, transported, or received from Federal lands in violation of any provisions, rule, regulation, law, ordinance, or permit in effect under Federal law, including this Act; or (3) sell or purchase or offer to sell or purchase any paleontological resource if, in the exercise of due care, the person knew or should have known such resource to have been excavated, removed, sold, purchased, exchanged, transported, or received from Federal lands. (b) False Labeling Offenses.--A person may not make or submit any false record, account, or label for, or any false identification of, any paleontological resource excavated or removed from Federal lands. (c) Penalties.-- (1) In general.--Except as provided in paragraphs (2) and (3), a person who knowingly violates or counsels, procures, solicits, or employs another person to violate subsection (a) or (b) shall, upon conviction, be guilty of a class A misdemeanor. (2) Damage over $1,000.--If the sum of the scientific or fair market value of the paleontological resources involved and the cost of restoration and repair of such resources exceeds the sum of $1,000, such person shall, upon conviction, be guilty of a class E felony. (3) Multiple offenses.--In the case of a second or subsequent such violation, such person shall, upon conviction, be guilty of a class D felony. (d) General Exception.--Nothing in subsection (a) shall apply to any person with respect to any paleontological resource which was in the lawful possession of such person prior to the date of the enactment of this Act. SEC. 10. CIVIL PENALTIES FOR VIOLATIONS OF REGULATIONS OR PERMIT CONDITIONS. (a) In General.-- (1) Hearing.--A person who violates any prohibition contained in an applicable regulation or permit issued under this Act may be assessed a penalty by the Secretary after the person is given notice and opportunity for a hearing with respect to the violation. Each violation shall be considered a separate offense for purposes of this section. (2) Amount of penalty.--The amount of such penalty assessed under paragraph (1) shall be determined under regulations promulgated pursuant to this Act, taking into account the following factors: (A) The scientific or fair market value, whichever is greater, of the paleontological resource involved. (B) The cost of response, restoration, and repair of the resource and the paleontological site involved. (C) Any other factors considered relevant by the Secretary assessing the penalty. (3) Multiple offenses.--In the case of a second or subsequent violation by the same person, the amount of a penalty assessed under paragraph (2) may be doubled. (4) Limitation.--The amount of any penalty assessed under this subsection for any one violation shall not exceed an amount equal to double the cost of response, restoration, and repair of resources and paleontological site damage plus double the scientific or fair market value of resources destroyed or not recovered. (b) Petition for Judicial Review; Collection of Unpaid Assessments.--Any person against whom an order is issued assessing a penalty under subsection (a) may file a petition for judicial review of the order with an appropriate Federal district court within the 30-day period beginning on the date the order making the assessment was issued. The court shall hear the action on the record made before the Secretary and shall sustain his action if it is supported by substantial evidence on the record considered as a whole. (c) Hearings.--Hearings held during proceedings instituted under subsection (a) shall be conducted in accordance with section 554 of title 5, United States Code. (d) Use of Recovered Amounts.--Any penalties collected under this section shall be available to the Secretary and without further appropriation may be used only as follows: (1) To protect, restore, or repair the paleontological resources and sites which were the subject of the action, or to acquire sites with equivalent resources, and to protect, monitor, and study the resources and sites. Any acquisition shall be subject to any limitations contained in the organic legislation for such Federal lands. (2) To provide educational materials to the public about paleontological resources and sites. (3) To provide for the payment of Rewards as provided in section 11. SEC. 11. REWARDS FORFEITURE. (a) Rewards.--The Secretary may pay from penalties collected under section 9 or 10 an amount equal to the lesser of one-half of the penalty or $500, to any person who furnishes information which leads to the finding of a civil violation, or the conviction of criminal violation, with respect to which the penalty was paid. If several persons provided the information, the amount shall be divided among the persons. No officer or employee of the United States or of any State or local government who furnishes information or renders service in the performance of his official duties shall be eligible for payment under this subsection. (b) Forfeiture.--All paleontological resources with respect to which a violation under section 9 or 10 occurred and which are in the possession of any person, and all vehicles and equipment of any person that were used in connection with the violation, may be subject to forfeiture to the United States upon-- (1) the person's conviction of the violation under section 9; (2) assessment of a civil penalty against any person under section 10 with respect to the violation; or (3) a determination by any court that the paleontological resources, vehicles, or equipment were involved in the violation. SEC. 12. CONFIDENTIALITY. Information concerning the nature and specific location of a paleontological resource the collection of which requires a permit under this Act or under any other provision of Federal law shall be withheld from the public under subchapter II of chapter 5 of title 5, United States Code, or under any other provision of law unless the responsible Secretary determines that disclosure would-- (1) further the purposes of this Act; (2) not create risk of harm to or theft or destruction of the resource or the site containing the resource; and (3) be in accordance with other applicable laws. SEC. 13. REGULATIONS. As soon as practical after the date of the enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall issue uniform regulations as are appropriate to carry out this Act, providing opportunities for public notice and comment. SEC. 14. ROCK COLLECTING ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LANDS. Casual collecting of rocks and minerals for personal use is a valid use of National Forest System lands and requires no permit except as provided by other statutes and agency regulations. SEC. 15. SAVINGS PROVISIONS. Nothing in this Act shall be construed to-- (1) invalidate, modify, or impose any additional restrictions or permitting requirements on any activities permitted at any time under the general mining laws, the mineral or geothermal leasing laws, laws providing for minerals materials disposal, or laws providing for the management or regulation of the activities authorized by the aforementioned laws including but not limited to the Federal Land Policy Management Act (43 U.S.C. 1701-1784), the Mining in the Parks Act, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (30 U.S.C. 1201-1358), and the Organic Administration Act (16 U.S.C. 478, 482, 551); (2) invalidate, modify, or impose any additional restrictions or permitting requirements on any activities permitted at any time existing laws and authorities relating to reclamation and multiple uses of the public lands; (3) apply to, or require a permit for, amateur collecting of a rock, mineral, or invertebrate or plant fossil that is not protected under this Act; (4) affect any lands other than Federal lands or affect the lawful recovery, collection, or sale of paleontological resources from lands other than Federal lands; (5) alter or diminish the authority of a Federal agency under any other law to provide protection for paleontological resources on Federal lands in addition to the protection provided under this Act; or (6) create any right, privilege, benefit, or entitlement for any person who is not an officer or employee of the United States acting in that capacity. No person who is not an officer or employee of the United States acting in that capacity shall have standing to file any civil action in a court of the United States to enforce any provision or amendment made by this Act. SEC. 16. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS. There is authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be necessary to carry out this Act.	Paleontological Resources Preservation Act - Directs the Secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture (the Secretaries) to: (1) manage and protect paleontological resources on Federal land using scientific principles and expertise; and (2) develop plans for inventorying, monitoring, and deriving the scientific and educational use of such resources.Directs the Secretaries to establish a program to increase public awareness about the significance of paleontological resources.Prohibits a person from collecting a paleontological resource from Federal land without a permit issued under this Act by one of the Secretaries. Authorizes the Secretaries to allow casual collecting of common invertebrate and plant paleontological resources for scientific, educational, and recreational uses, without a permit, on certain Federal lands where not inconsistent with laws governing management of such lands and this Act. Recognizes as valid permits issued before enactment of this Act.Prohibits: (1) excavating, removing, or altering a paleontological resource located on Federal lands, except in compliance with this Act; (2) exchanging or receiving such a resource, if the person knew or should have known such resource to have been illegally removed from Federal lands; (3) selling or purchasing a paleontological resource, if the person knew or should have known such resource to have been illegally removed from Federal lands; or (4) making or submitting false records, accounts, or identification of any paleontological resource excavated or removed from Federal lands. Imposes criminal penalties for violating this Act.Sets forth requirements for the assessment of civil penalties by the Secretaries for violations of any prohibitions contained in regulations or permits issued under this Act. Requires any recovered amounts to be available for use: (1) to protect or restore the paleontological resources and sites which were the subject of the action, or to acquire sites with equivalent resources and to protect, monitor, and study the resources and sites; (2) to provide educational materials to the public about paleontological resources and sites; and (3) as a reward.Requires that information on the nature and specific location of a paleontological resource that requires a permit under this Act or other Federal law be withheld from the public, including under the Freedom of Information Act, except under specified conditions.Declares that no permit is required by this Act for the casual collecting of rocks and minerals on National Forest System lands for personal use.
it is widely recognized that the availability of contaminants should be considered in environmental risk- and life cycle assessment and regulation . similarly , the availability of micronutrients is of interest when evaluating whether sufficient levels of these elements are present in soil for uptake by biota . a prerequisite for elements present in the solid phase to be exchangeable with the solution phase and their subsequent mobility and uptake by biota is to be geochemically reactive . the geochemically reactive concentration , further briefly denoted as reactive concentration , is the amount in the solid phase that is available for interaction with the dissolved phase at short time scales of less than seconds up to days , through processes such as sorption / desorption and ( surface ) precipitation / dissolution reactions . the fraction of the total element concentration being reactive is related to their source and soil properties . the reactive concentration is considered potentially available for uptake by biota , thereby excluding the inert fraction which is incorporated in crystal lattices of minerals or occluded in particles ( oxides , organic matter ) . in contrast to the potential availability ( i.e. , the reactive concentration as defined in this paper ) the actual availability is ph dependent and further determined by the concentration of reactive surfaces , competing ions and complexing ligands , species - specific physiology and kinetic constraints . various methods have been suggested to determine reactive concentrations in soils , including radioactive and stable isotopic dilution , single selective- and sequential extractions . isotopic dilution is conceptually the most sound approach because of its mechanistic basis and conditions of minimal disturbance of the solid / liquid exchange processes . the choice of method depends on the objective of the particular study and may differ for scientific research , as opposed to more standardized investigations for risk - assessment and regulatory purposes that can be performed at relatively low cost and by less - specialized laboratories . extraction of trace elements using dilute nitric acid which specifies a method of extracting trace elements from soil at approximately ph 0.5- 1.0 using a 0.43 m hno3 solution . using this method the potential environmental available trace elements as defined in iso 17402 is extracted . because the method is now standardized it is important to critically evaluate its performance to determine reactive element concentrations in soil . the 0.43 m hno3 extraction , further denoted na - extraction , was introduced in 1954 by westerhoff to extract cu in soil . the principle of the extraction is the dissolution of metal cations by competitive desorption with protons . dissolution of oxyanions is due to their protonation at low ph and ( partial ) dissolution of hydrous oxides of al , fe and mn to which the anions are adsorbed . the na - extraction has been used for various elements to assess their leaching , bioavailability , and human bioaccessibility . the applicability and comparability of the method in different laboratories in terms of repeatability and reproducibility , was established in an interlaboratory validation study . in this study we aim at a thorough evaluation of this extraction and a better mechanistic understanding of acid extractions at different proton concentrations . important questions are ( 1 ) is the proton activity of the extract high enough to fully desorb reversibly bound metal , ( 2 ) to which extent oxy - anions adsorbed to oxides are dissolved or remain adsorbed / readsorb to not fully dissolved oxides and whether the ( co)dissolved amount is geochemically reactive , ( 3 ) to which extent equilibration time determines extracted amounts and ( 4 ) whether trace metal bearing minerals dissolve or possibly precipitate in the extract . to obtain quantitative insight in the mechanism of the extraction , we have modeled the extraction of a large number of soil samples with varying soil properties and metal content using a mechanistic multisurface model . in a separate approach to evaluate the suitability of na to extract reactive elements , we have assessed the performance of the model to predict dissolved concentrations , as measured in 0.01 m cacl2-extracts of these soils , using nitric acid extractions with varying acidity , including 0.43 m hno3 , as alternative model - input . the results of this evaluation will enable the reader to make a well - considered choice for which purpose and under which conditions the method is appropriate to quantify the geochemically reactive concentration of specific elements . soil characteristics , element contents and ratios of na : aqua regia ( ar ) extracted elements are summarized in tables s1s4 of the supporting information ( si ) . contains 49 samples ( 020 cm depth ) from the netherlands of various types including sandy , peat and clay soils with metal contents ranging from background to heavily contaminated levels.data set nl2 contains 69 soil samples from all diagnostic horizons down to 120 cm from 11 soil profiles in the netherlands . element contents in both data sets were determined using na ( 4 h extraction ) and ar for al , mn , fe , v , cr , co , ni , cu , zn , as , se , mo , cd , sb , ba , and p using archived soil samples . additionally , nl 1 includes cd , cr , cu , ni , pb , and zn contents extracted with 0.01 , 0.1 , 0.43 , 2 m hno3 , and 0.05 m na2edta and measured ph in these extracts . all soils were extracted with 0.01 m cacl2 ( 1:10 weight to volume ratio ) , in which ph , doc and concentrations of cd , cu , ni , pb , and zn were measured . a subset of 70 samples from nl1 and nl2 was extracted with 0.01 m cacl2 in which dissolved as , b , ba , be , co , cr , li , mo , sb , se , sn , v , and s were determined together with po4 , doc , and ph . contains 136 portuguese soils ( 015 cm depth ) including noncontaminated sites as well as fields impacted by industrial activities and mining practices . a subset of 15 samples was extracted with 0.01 m cacl2 ( 1:10 weight to volume ratio ) in which ph , dissolved concentrations and doc were determined . consists of five top - soil samples from sandy , peat and river - clay soils ( the soils were extracted in triplicate using 0.1 , 0.43 , 0.5 , and 1.0 m hno3 ( 48 h extraction ) . reactive concentrations in the four data sets were extracted with na according to modified versions of the extraction procedure by houba et al . a general description of the na - extraction is given below , details per data set are given in the si . the standard extraction time is 2 h. because the applied extraction time varied among data sets , being 2 , 4 , or 48 h , we evaluated the effect of time by extracting a subset of the samples from all three data sets for each of the three applied extraction times . the sieved and air - dried soil sample ( < 2 mm ) is extracted with 0.43 m hno3 at room temperature . the extraction solution is obtained by dilution of 30 ml concentrated hno3 ( 65% , analytical grade ) in 1000 ml ultrapure water . the soil material together with the extracting solution at a 1:10 weight to volume ratio are shaken during 2 ( standard ) , 4 or 48 h ( see description per data set ) . after centrifugation and filtration dissolved concentrations in the filtrates are measured using icp - aes and/or icp - ms . the ph after extraction is usually between 0.5 and 1 , which is required to extract the potential environmental available metals , as defined in iso 17402 . for calcareous soils , the final ph may be higher and should be adjusted by adding additional nitric acid . this is advised to be done using 0.2 ml of 5 m hno3 for each % of caco3 in order to affect as little as possible the solid to solution ratio . because none of the samples in the evaluated data sets included calcareous soils , a subset of 11 samples from the nl1 , nl2 and prt data sets was extracted during 2 , 4 , and 48 h. the samples were selected to resemble the variation in som , clay and al / fe-(hydr)oxide contents and ph of all samples . to minimize variation due to sample heterogeneity a single sample of each soil was used for the extraction and subsamples from solution were collected after each time . the change in the solid to solution ratio was minimized by extracting 10 g of soil with 100 ml 0.43 m hno3 and taking only 1 ml of the extract for analysis . implemented in the orchestra softwarecombines advanced models for ion binding , that is , the nica - donnan model for particulate ( som ) and dissolved ( dom ) organic matter , the generalized two layer model ( gtlm ) for fe / al(hydr)oxides and a donnan model for clay together with selected mineral equilibria ( table s5 of the si ) . we used the default model parameters included in orchestra , for elements for which no generic parameters are available we used additional parameters from dijkstra et al . the theoretical recovery of the extraction was evaluated by calculating the dissolved concentrations in the na - extract , accounting for the binding capacity of the major reactive mineral and organic adsorbents in the soils , at a reactive concentration equal to that determined with na . the recovery was then calculated according to1 with ls = the liquid to solution ratio ( l.kg ) ; mdiss - model = the total dissolved concentration calculated with the model ( mol l ) and mna - extract = the reactive concentration as determined with na ( mol.kg ) . sample specific inputs include ( 1 ) na - extracted concentrations of the considered elements , competing ions ca , mg , mn , so4 and po4 ( measured as s and p ) , ( 2 ) the ph of the na - extract , ( 3 ) concentrations of the reactive surfaces ( adsorbents ) : som , al / fe-(hydr)oxide and clay and ( 4 ) dissolved no3 set to 0.43 moll . doc was not measured in the na - extracts and was set to the concentration measured in the cacl2-extracts . this concentration is likely a low estimate for doc in the na - extract because dijkstra et al . measured increasing doc with decreasing ph below ph 4 in ph - static soil extractions . ion binding to dom and som was modeled with generic humic acid ( ha ) representing the binding to both humic- and fulvic acids with ha set to 50% of dom / pom . the content of al- and fe-(hydr)oxides , which are partially dissolved , was calculated as the difference between oxalate and na extracted al and fe . the ph was set at 0.9 based on the average ph in data sets nl1 and prt . results have to be interpreted with some care because this ph is below its range in the data used for the parametrization of the nica - donnan ( ph > 3 ) and gtlm models ( ph > 4 ) . however , the mechanistic nature of the model together with adequately predicted dissolved concentrations at ph 2 in a previous study give confidence using the model beyond the lower limit of its calibration domain . in addition , the use of the model under these low - ph conditions assumes that the considered mineral and organic surfaces have the same reactivity as in the ph - range where these models are generally applied . the suitability of the 0.43 m hno3 and other nitric acid extracts of various concentrations and ar as alternative model input were evaluated by assessing predicted solution concentrations in 0.01 m cacl2 soil solution extracts against measurements . sample specific model inputs include : ( 1 ) reactive element concentrations determined either with 0.1 , 0.43 , 2 m hno3 or ar of the considered elements and s , ( 2 ) concentrations of som , dom , al / fe-(hydr)oxide and clay , ( 3 ) measured ph and dissolved concentrations of ca , mg , na , k , and po4 in the cacl2 extract . the activities of al and fe in solution were assumed to be in equilibrium with al- and fe - hydroxide ( logks of 8.5 and 2.5 respectively ) . the redox status of the soil ( pe ) was set to ph+pe = 11 being a representative value for aerobic soils . model calculations for 248 samples of data sets nl1 , nl2 , and prt give a median recovery by the na - extraction of more than 90% for co , ni , zn , cd , pb , se , and sb ( figure 1 ) . lower recoveries are predicted for cu ( 69% ) , cr ( 2% ) , and v(47% ) , elements which share a very high affinity for binding to som . chromium and v were assumed to be present in their trivalent ( cr ) and tetravalent ( vo ) redox states under the ambient soil conditions . similarly lower recovery is calculated for the oxyanions as ( 89% ) and mo ( 49% ) . for cu a clear relation is found between the modeled recovery and the ratio of measured reactive cu : som ( figure s1a , si ) . consistently , the measured ratio of na and ar extracted cu ( na : ar ) as a function of cu(na):som ( molkg ) declines toward low cu : som ratios ( figure s1b , si ) . these findings indicate that the na - extraction is too weak to extract total reactive cu at low cu : som ratios , due to binding sites with a very high affinity for cu even at the low ph of the extraction . the very low recovery of reactive cr ( 2% ) seems to be unrealistic since na extracts 7% of that extracted by ar . the extremely low recovery of cr is likely the result of poor model parametrization of cr in the nica - donnan model . the calculated recovery of reactive as and mo varies strongly between soil samples ( p5 = 0.40.5% ; p95 = 99% ) . the recovery of the oxy - anions as and mo is negatively correlated with the content of al- and fe - hydroxides not dissolved in the hno3-extract (= oxalate minus na extracted al and fe , figure s2 , si ) whereas the recovery of se and sb was invariably high . the oxy - anions as , mo appear to remain partly adsorbed and/or are readsorbed to the remaining al / fe - hydroxides . this is likely due to strong specific sorption of these oxy - anions compared to se and sb . although the hydrous oxides bear a strong positive charge at the low ph of the na - extract , electrostatics are thought to play a minor role because , according to the model calculations , the oxy - anions are nearly completely present in their uncharged protonated form . the calculated recovery of reactive ba is on average 88% but with large variation . low recoveries ( p5 = 29% ) occur in in samples with high so4-content for which oversaturation with barite is calculated . except for barite , good correspondence between modeled and measured trends in fractions of metal extracted with 0.1 and 0.43 m hno3 relative to 2 m hno3 ( figure 2b ) , except for cr , gives confidence in the used model approach . average recovery of the 0.43 m hno3-extraction according to eq 1 from dissolved concentrations in the extract calculated with the multisurface model for the soil samples of data sets nl1 , nl2 , and prt , error bars indicate 1 standard deviation . ( a ) average fractions of elements extracted with 0.1 , 0.43 , and 0.5 m hno3 relative to the amount extracted with 1.0 m hno3 for the ecn data set ; ( b ) average fractions of 0.1 and 0.43 m hno3 extracted metal relative to the amount extracted with 2.0 m hno3 as measured ( 0.1 meas and 0.43 meas ) or modeled ( 0.1 model and 0.43 model ) for data set nl1 error bars indicate standard deviations ; ( c ) average fraction 0.05 m edta to 0.43 m hno3 extracted metal for data set nl1 . extracted amounts increase with extraction time for all elements ( table 1 ) . no data are available for mo , se , and sb because their concentrations were below the limit of quantification . the relative increase between 2 and 4 h is small with ratios < 1.20 for most elements except si ( 1.66 ) , fe(1.33 ) , and cr ( 1.32 ) . the larger effect on fe and si indicates that especially the dissolution of fe-(hydr)oxide and silicate minerals is rate limited . the large difference for chromium is likely due to the dissolution of cr present in mixed cr the time effect is notably small ( ratio < 1.05 ) for the elements ba , cd and cu . the increase between 2 and 48 h is usually larger than a factor 1.2 except for ba , cd and cu . the effect is again notably large for si ( ratio = 5.3 ) , fe ( 2.9 ) and cr ( 3.17 ) . relatively large effects ( 1.5 < ratio < 1.9 ) are found for as which is generally associated with iron- and aluminum ( hydr)oxides , and for co , ni , and zn , elements which may form mixed metal aluminum hydroxide surface precipitates or double layered hydroxides ( dlh ) . iron and aluminum oxides are increasingly dissolved with increasing acidic concentration of the extracting solution as follows from the increasing ratio of na - extracted to oxalate extracted al and fe ( table s6 , si ) . model calculations indicate that at the final ph of the 0.1 , 0.43 , and 2 m hno3 extractions al- and fe-(hydr)oxides will be dissolved completely when chemical equilibrium is reached . however , none of the three concentrations hno3 dissolve oxalate - extractable fe completely . this observation together with the large increase of extracted fe with time indicates that incomplete dissolution of fe-(hydr)oxides by na is due to kinetic constraints . this is unlikely due to dissolution of clay minerals such as illite of which less than 1% of the total al content was released after 1 h by na . extracted amounts increase with increasing hno3 concentration with the largest differences for the macro - elements fe , al , and p ( figure s3 , si ) . large differences between 0.1 and 0.43 m hno3-extracted p , v , cr , cu , sn , sb , as , and pb ( figure 2a and b ) are consistent with their high affinity for fe / al-(hydr)oxides ( po4 , sbo3 and aso4/aso3 and pb ) and organic matter ( cations vo , cr , cu , pb ) . the low solubility of cr(iii ) may also be due to its presence in mixed cr small differences between 0.1 and 0.43 m hno3 were observed for ni , cd , and zn , which have a medium affinity for organic matter . differences between 0.1 and 0.43 m hno3 are negligible for weakly binding na , mg , and k and indicates that these elements were already dissolved by 0.1 m hno3 and that 0.43 m hno3 does not substantially dissolve clay minerals , which contain significant amounts of mg and k. this finding is in agreement with the small release of k ( < 1% of the total content after 1 h ) from illite in 0.43 m hno3 . generally the differences between the 0.43 and the 1 m ( figure 2a ) and 2 m hno3 ( figure 2b ) extraction are small except for strongly binding as , sb ( to al / fe-(hydr)oxide ) , cr , cu , pb , and v ( to om ) . negligible differences were found between the 0.5 and 0.43 m hno3 extraction ( figure 2a ) . statistical analysis of na and 0.05 m edta extracted elements in data set nl1 shows strong correlation between methods with r 0.98 for cd , cu , zn , r = 0.95 for pb and r = 0.91 for ni and similar amounts extracted by both methods ( figure 2c ) . the na - extraction appears to be somewhat stronger than edta for cu , pb , ni , and zn . the largest differences were found for ni and zn with strong variation in their ratios edta : na ( 0.11.3 ) at ph > 7 . good correspondence between na and edta for cd , cu , pb , and zn was also found by de vries et al . who found strong correlation between na ( 1 h extraction ) and 0.05 m na2edta ( 24 h extraction ) extracted metal in 72 samples of hungarian and slovakian soils with a large range in metal concentration . the na - extraction appeared to be somewhat weaker for cd , cu , and pb ( na : edta = 0.80.9 ) but stronger for zn ( na : edta = 1.3 ) . found very similar results for cd , cu , pb , and zn extracted with 0.1 m na2edta and na ( 2 h equilibration ) in 89 organic uk soils . linear regression between the logarithm of concentrations extracted by both extractions had slopes not significantly different from one and intercepts not significantly different from zero . a few studies compared na - extracted metal with that obtained by isotopic dilution . show that both methods compare well for cd , pb , and zn in four acid to near neutral ( ph 3.56.4 ) organic soils but show substantially larger values determined with na in three calcareous soils for cd ( factor 2 ) , pb , and zn ( factor 515 ) . ren et al . found comparable results for both methods for cu in 9 soils ( 4.8 ph 7.8 ) and for cd in 6 soils ( 4.8 ph 6.64 ) , no cd data were available for the higher ph soils because the cd spike was too low to produce significant changes in isotopic ratios in the soil suspensions . garforth et al . found higher reactive metal determined with na than by isotopic dilution , up to a factor three , for cd , cu , ni , pb , and zn in four soils ( 4.8 ph 7.4 ) . the results of these studies indicate that na - extraction gives comparable results with isotopic dilution for cu and for cd , pb and zn in acid to near neutral soils but may overestimate reactive cd , pb , and zn in calcareous soils . the lower reactive concentration obtained by isotopic dilution may also be partly due to slow exchange between the isotopic spike and adsorbed metal , while desorption is likely more rapid at low ph in 0.43 m hno3 . figure 3 shows the comparison between modeled and measured dissolved concentrations in 0.01 m cacl2-extracts of as , cd , co , and v ( see figure s4 of the si for the other elements ) and model performance in terms of the mean error and root mean square error of the 10-log - transformed data ( referred to as logme and logrmse respectively ) for all elements using either ar or na extracted element as model input . model performance for cd and cu is about equal for both ar and na . the most obvious differences in model performance are for co , ni , pb , zn , co , mo , sb , se , and v. for these elements , except mo , the accuracy of the model calculations using na is superior to those using ar as model input , based on both logme and logrmse . using ar results in considerable overprediction of dissolved co , ni , pb , zn , sb , se , and v ( 0.6 < logme < 1.6 ) whereas the calculations based on na are closer to measurements ( 0.5 < logme < 0.5 ) except for co and pb which are substantially overpredicted ( logme = 0.9 ) but to a lesser extent compared with ar ( logme = 1.6 and 1.2 respectively ) . the mismatch between modeled and measured pb is likely due to limitations in the modeling of pb binding to humics and fe - oxides and binding of pb to mn - oxides not being included in the model . the substantial overprediction of dissolved co ( up to over 1 order of magnitude ) is limited to samples with ph > 6 ( figure 3 ) . similarly dissolved ni and zn are substantially overpredicted for part of the samples with ph > 6 . at neutral and more alkaline ph , co , ni , and zn in soils may form mixed metal these precipitates are presumably at least partly dissolved by the na - extract and are solubility - controlled but not geochemically reactive under ambient conditions . overprediction of dissolved ni and co is already observed at reactive concentrations as low as 0.1 mmol.kg whereas dissolved zn is overpredicted from 1 mmol.kg onward . at these low concentrations , the presence of such precipitates is , however , less likely and overprediction may be due to overestimation of reactive ni , co , and zn by ( partial ) dissolution of hydrous oxides together with elements entrained in these oxides . assessment of modeled dissolved concentrations as , cd , co , and v in 0.01 m cacl2-extracts against measured dissolved concentrations using either 0.43 m hno3 ( red circles ) or aqua regia ( black circles ) extracted metal as input to the geochemical model , dashed lines indicate + or 2 logrmse of the model calculations for ar ( black ) and 0.43 m hno3 ( red ) respectively . the logrmse ( bottom middle ) and logme ( bottom right ) of the modeled dissolved concentrations in the 0.01 m cacl2 extracts for all elements using either 0.43 m hno3 ( red circles ) or aqua regia ( black circles ) extracted metal as input to the model . this underprediction was also observed by dijkstra et al . , who therefore used the amount of mo extracted at ph 10 as the reactive concentration , which substantially improved their model results . these findings indicate that na is too weak to fully extract reactive mo , which is in line with the modeled recovery of 40% ( figure 1 ) . the good model performance for dissolved cr based on na ( logme = 0.07 ) seems inconsistent with the extremely low recovery calculated using the same geochemical model . the generic nica - donnan parameters of cr substantially overestimate the affinity for cr to bind to humic substances . due to the overestimated affinity the model calculates a substantial part of cr to be bound to particulate organic matter , even at low ph ( ph = 0.9 ) whereas cr in solution is largely predicted to be present as free cr . at the higher ph of the cacl2-extractions ( 3.7 < ph < 7.3 ) dissolved cr is calculated to be largely present as cr complexed with humic substances ( > 90% ) and the solid solution partitioning of cr in the cacl2 extracts is thus largely determined by the solid solution partitioning of organic matter . model calculations of total dissolved cr in these cacl2 extracts are therefore rather insensitive to the exact value of the model parameters . is limited to data set nl1 and the elements analyzed in these extracts , that is , cd , cu , ni , pb , zn , cr , and as . model calculations based on 0.1 m hno3 lead to a clear underestimation of dissolved cu , cr , and as , that is , the elements with a high affinity for binding to som and/or al / fe- ( hydr)oxides ( figure 4 ) and 0.1 m hno3 is therefore considered too weak to determine their reactive concentrations . using 0.43 m hno3 the model adequately calculated dissolved concentrations of all elements ( 0.3 logme 0.3 ) except pb , and also resulted in lower logrmse compared to 0.1 m hno3 . differences between logme of the 0.43 and 2 m hno3-extraction are small ( 0.030.26 ) . calculations using 0.43 m hno3 give somewhat better results for cd , ni , and zn , that is , the elements with relatively low affinity to bind to organic matter , whereas 2 m hno3 gives somewhat better results for cu , which has a high affinity for organic matter , as well as for as with its high affinity for al / fe-(hydr)oxides . log mean errors ( log me ) of the modeled solution concentrations in the 0.01 m cacl2-extracts using either 0.43 m hno3 or aqua regia extracted metal as input to the multisurface model ( a , data sets nl1 , nl2 , and prt ) or various concentrations ( 0.1 , 0.43 , and 2 m ) hno3 ( b , data set nl1 only ) . model performance using na extracted reactive metal in relation to soil properties has been analyzed to get insight in specific causes of deviations , either being due to uncertainties in model inputs including the reactive metal or by specific limitations of the model this analysis was performed by plotting the log transformed error ( log[me]model log[me]measured ) against na - extracted element , ph of the cacl2-extract , som- , hfo- and clay content ( figure s5 of the si ) . there are no specific trends in model performance in relation to soil properties for the elements cd , sb , se , ba , pb , and v. dissolved concentrations of both cr and cu are underpredicted at low ph ( ph < 5 ) . at higher ph , predicted cr is too high whereas cu is predicted well . the strongest underestimation of dissolved cu and cr is observed for samples with low reactive cr or cu ( 1 molkg ) and/or high som contents ( > 10% ) . no such underprediction at low ph was observed for samples with manipulated ph in ph - static experiments . this indicates that underprediction is due to incomplete recovery of reactive cr and cu by na rather than to model limitations and agrees well with the low fraction reactive cu ( ratio na : ar ) at low cu contents . dissolved as is underpredicted at high ph , as was also found in ph - static experiments . the deviation at high ph is therefore most likely due to limitations in the modeling of as , possibly related to inadequate description of competition with po4 and neglected competition with doc . strong underprediction is observed for samples below ph 5 together with high ( > 20% ) som contents . underprediction can be due to incomplete recovery of reactive mo by na as observed by dijkstra et al . in addition the underprediction at ph < 5 and high som can be due to overestimation of hfo , determined by oxalate because it also extracts al and fe bound to organic matter , which can be substantial in such samples geochemical modeling of the na - extraction shows that it quantitatively recovers ( > 90% ) reactive elements when equilibrium conditions are met . however , at low reactive element to organic matter ratios reactive concentrations of elements with a particularly high affinity for organic matter , such as cu , v , and cr , may be underestimated . this may lead to underestimation of reactive concentrations of micronutrients in the low concentration range at which they can be deficient for biota . the results of this study indicate that underestimation of reactive metal is unlikely at higher , possibly toxic , concentrations for all considered elements except mo . a potential limitation of the method maybe overestimation of the reactive concentration by dissolution of hydrous oxides . although this potential effect should be taken into consideration we observed it only for co , ni , and zn in near neutral and higher ph soils ( figure 3 and si figure s4 ) . similarly the dissolution of carbonates may lead to the overestimation of the reactive concentration . although our evaluation does not include calcareous soils , studies in which reactive concentrations were determined by isotopic dilution indicate overestimation of reactive cd , zn , and pb in calcareous soils by na - extraction . both potential limitations of the na - extraction discussed above will not lead to underestimation of environmental risks for metal cations . for those assessments that conclude unacceptable risk based on the na - extraction , a more accurate assessment ( e.g. , isotopic dilution ) can be used in a next tier . the na appears to be too weak to extract reactive mo and also as in soils in which substantial amounts of amorphous iron are not dissolved by na . since the concentrations of these elements in our samples are low , we recommend to further investigate the performance of the na - extraction using samples with higher ( contaminated ) levels of these elements , and to explore whether alkaline solutions are more adequate to extract reactive oxy - anion element concentrations .	recently a dilute nitric acid extraction ( 0.43 m ) was adopted by iso ( iso-17586:2016 ) as standard for extraction of geochemically reactive elements in soil and soil like materials . here we evaluate the performance of this extraction for a wide range of elements by mechanistic geochemical modeling . model predictions indicate that the extraction recovers the reactive concentration quantitatively ( > 90% ) . however , at low ratios of element to reactive surfaces the extraction underestimates reactive cu , cr , as , and mo , that is , elements with a particularly high affinity for organic matter or oxides . the 0.43 m hno3 together with more dilute and concentrated acid extractions were evaluated by comparing model - predicted and measured dissolved concentrations in cacl2 soil extracts , using the different extractions as alternative model - input . mean errors of the predictions based on 0.43 m hno3 are generally within a factor three , while mo is underestimated and co , ni and zn in soils with ph > 6 are overestimated , for which possible causes are discussed . model predictions using 0.43 m hno3 are superior to those using 0.1 m hno3 or aqua regia that under- and overestimate the reactive element contents , respectively . low concentrations of oxyanions in our data set and structural underestimation of their reactive concentrations warrant further investigation .
/ Updated By Mary Emily O'Hara A classic drive-in theater in northeast Alabama said it was cancelling plans to show Disney’s new Beauty & the Beast film, about a girl who falls in love with an animal, because of the film’s "homosexual character." The Dekalb County theater’s new owner explained in a Thursday night Facebook post that “we are first and foremost Christians” and "When companies continually force their views on us we need to take a stand." An NBC News request for comment did not immediately receive a response. NBC News also discovered that the “Coming Soon” section of the Alabama theater’s website featured a poster for the film Fierce!, a “dragumentary” that says on its Facebook page it’s a “heartfelt look at the drag community during the fight towards equality." Josh Gad (left) and Luke Evans in "Beauty and the Beast" Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures Controversy over the new Disney film, which stars Emma Watson in the iconic role of Belle and Dan Stevens as the monster who captures her heart, began almost immediately after the film’s director told British gay magazine Attitude that ‘Beauty and the Beast’ features a gay character, played by Josh Gad. "LeFou is somebody who on one day wants to be Gaston and on another day wants to kiss Gaston," Condon told Attitude. "He's confused about what he wants. It's somebody who's just realising that he has these feelings." Condon also promised fans a "nice, exclusively gay moment" toward the film’s ending. Some fans applauded the move, while other criticized the "clownish sidekick" as a gay stereotype. A petition appeared early Thursday on LifePetitions, a platform for “the pro-life and pro-family communities.” The petition to boycott ‘Beauty and the Beast,’ which had garnered over 50,000 signatures by Friday morning, aims to tell Disney that “children's entertainment is no place to promote a harmful sexual political agenda.” The move to show the first-ever out LGBT character in a Disney film comes nearly one year after a then-high schooler Alexis Isabel Moncada started a viral hashtag urging the company to #GiveElsaAGirlfriend. Moncada was 17 at the time, and told the Daily Dot that she hoped Disney would give Elsa a "fire princess" to fall in love with. "We’re portraying princesses as this one form, even though every girl can be a princess," Moncada told the Daily Dot. "If I would have had that kind of representation as a kid, I wouldn’t have felt so alone in it." \|\|\|\|\| In Disney’s upcoming live-action reboot of Beauty and the Beast, LeFou, Gaston’s simpering sidekick, has been reimagined as a gay man who follows in the muscular villain’s footsteps out of both a sense of reverence and (unrequited?) love. In a recent interview with Attitude magazine, director Bill Condon was frank in his description of LeFou’s feelings for Gaston and promised that by the film’s end, audiences could expect an “exclusively gay moment in a Disney movie” that’s long overdue. For one Alabama drive-in theater, however, Beauty and the Beast‘s 21st century depiction of queer romance is reason enough to refuse to show the film. In a recent Facebook post, the owner of the Henagar Drive-In Theatre stated that even though the theater was scheduled to screen the movie when it premieres later this month, news of LeFou’s newfound homosexuality was in conflict with their Christian beliefs. “If we can not take our 11 year old grand daughter and 8 year old grandson to see a movie we have no business watching it,” the post reads. “If I can’t sit through a movie with God or Jesus sitting by me then we have no business showing it.” While the owners of the theater might have assumed that their customers would feel similarly, but the bulk of the comments on the post so far have been rather sharp critiques of the owners’ narrow minded thinking. “Your understanding of Jesus is pretty slim,” one person wrote. “There are more verses in the Bible about eating pork than there are about being Gay. I love Drive IN movie theatres, but I hope yours becomes as closed as your mind.” I’ve reached out to both Disney and the people at Henagar and will update if hear back. \|\|\|\|\| Moviegoers at a drive-in theater in Alabama won’t be able to see a retelling of the “tale as old as time.” The Henagar Drive-In Theatre in DeKalb County has canceled its screenings of “Beauty and the Beast” because the film will feature Disney’s first openly gay character. Director Bill Condon recently told Attitude magazine that Josh Gad’s LeFou — villain Gaston’s (Luke Evans) eccentric sidekick — will be Disney’s first-ever LGBTQ character — a way of honoring the original 1991 animated film’s late lyricist Howard Ashman. “Josh Gad, incidentally, plays Gaston’s worshipful stooge LeFou as maximally silly and fawning, but I must have missed the memo where that spells ‘gay,'” Variety chief film critic Owen Gleiberman wrote in his review. The announcement follows the Alabama theater’s change in ownership. “When companies continually force their views on us, we need to take a stand. We all make choices and I am making mine,” a statement on the northeast Alabama theater’s Facebook page read. “If we cannot take our 11-year-old granddaughter and 8-year-old grandson to see a movie, we have no business watching it. If I can’t sit through a movie with God or Jesus sitting by me, then we have no business showing it.” The company acknowledged that their actions may be controversial, but concluded “that’s fine.” “We are first and foremost Christians,” the statement continues. “We will not compromise on what the Bible teaches. We will continue to show family-oriented films so you can feel free to come watch wholesome movies without worrying about sex, nudity, homosexuality, and foul language.” Disney didn’t immediately respond to a request for comment. “LeFou is somebody who on one day wants to be Gaston and on another day wants to kiss Gaston,” Condon told U.K.’s Attitude. “He’s confused about what he wants. It’s somebody who’s just realizing that he has these feelings. And Josh makes something really subtle and delicious out of it. And that’s what has its payoff at the end, which I don’t want to give away. But it is a nice, exclusively gay moment in a Disney movie.” Gad tweeted on Tuesday that he’s “beyond proud” of the milestone. The film, starring Emma Watson as Belle and Dan Stevens as the Beast, hits theaters on March 17. Here’s the Henagar Drive-In’s full statement below. As of December 16th the Henagar Drive-In is under new ownership. Movies scheduled prior to that date and four weeks after this date were not scheduled by the new owners. That being said…It is with great sorrow that I have to tell our customers that we will not be showing Beauty and the Beast at the Henagar Drive-In when it comes out. When companies continually force their views on us we need to take a stand. We all make choices and I am making mine. For those that do not know Beauty and the Beast is “premiering” their first homosexual character. The producer also says at the end of the movie “there will be a surprise for same-sex couples”. If we can not take our 11 year old grand daughter and 8 year old grandson to see a movie we have no business watching it. If I can’t sit through a movie with God or Jesus sitting by me then we have no business showing it. I know there will be some that do not agree with this decision. That’s fine. We are first and foremost Christians. We will not compromise on what the Bible teaches. We will continue to show family oriented films so you can feel free to come watch wholesome movies without worrying about sex, nudity, homosexuality and foul language. Thank you for your support!	– A drive-in theater in Alabama says it won't show Disney's live-action remake of Beauty and the Beast after the film's director announced it would feature Disney's first openly gay character, Fusion reports. Director Bill Condon says LeFou, sidekick to the film's villain and played by Josh Gad, is gay and the film will feature an "exclusively gay moment." But patrons of Henagar Drive-In Theatre won't see it. "When companies continually force their views on us, we need to take a stand," the owner of the drive-in says in a Facebook post Thursday. "If I can't sit through a movie with God or Jesus sitting by me, then we have no business showing it." The owner of the theater, which recently changed ownership, says having a gay character makes the film inappropriate for children. He says he's a Christian and the theater puts the Bible ahead of any financial considerations. That's good, because most of the responses to the post have been critical of the theater. But Henagar Drive-In Theatre isn't alone. NBC News reports a "pro-life and pro-family" group has started an online petition to boycott Beauty and the Beast (which NBC notes was already the story of "a girl who falls in love with an animal") because LeFou is gay. The petition has more than 50,000 signatures. Meanwhile, Variety's film critic says if Beauty and the Beast was attempting to portray LeFou as gay, it failed. So this may all be much ado about nothing.
become familiar with the brain - oriented obesity control system ( boocs ) , including the two principles and three basic rules of this psychosomatic approach . describe the design of the quasi - experimental study , including more than 21,000 japanese workers over 15 years . the all subjects were public service employees working for the municipal governments of fukuoka prefecture , japan . they had the membership of a health service organization that provides a variety of services such as health examinations , health seminars and guidance , and health insurance programs.15 of the members of this health service organization , those who were actively employed as of april 1 , 1992 , with at least 6 months of employment and aged 59 years or younger as of march 31 , 1993 , were included in the study population . the newest computerized personnel data file was used to identify the date of his or her employment and establishment of the membership , and the date of his or her retirement ( only for the retired ) . in 1992 , the seminars were held 10 times a year , which was 1-day or 2-day program and consisted of lectures on health care by physicians and practical exercises by health care professionals such as a physical instructor , a dietician , and a psychologist . all participants received an individual interview of follow - up by occupational health nurses 1 year after the seminar . at the beginning of the fiscal year 1993 to 1997 , the occupational health nurses selected the workers with obesity and the risk of diabetes and/or hypertension with verifying the annual health check - up data of the previous year and sent them a letter to encourage them to participate in the program . the intervention subjects were those who first participated in the program during 1993 to 1997 . for the workers without participation in boocs program , conventional health guidance was provided for health promotion and disease prevention . the first group was composed of those with obesity at 25 or higher score of bmi , or with health problems relating to obesity , which was found in the annual health check - up in 1992 . the second group was composed of the rest of the workers after excluding the comparative obese controls , and they were defined as reference subjects . the boocs program utilizes psychosomatic approach for behavior modification , which is distinct from the others.14 under the two principles and three basic rules ( table 1 ) , effective and active guidance is provided for health promotion and disease prevention . although lifestyle modification in a conventional approach starts with prohibition and inhibition of unhealthy behaviors such as alcohol drinking , smoking , and high calorie - intake , its strictness frequently results in the rebound of body weight and the appearance of guilty conscience . on the contrary , the boocs program does not induce such dilemmas because it begins with no prohibition and makes us recover from brain fatigue . moreover , the three basic rules translating the principles easily lead us to modify our behavior for health and well - being in our everyday life . abbreviation : boocs , brain - oriented obesity control system . adapted from fujino.14 all subjects were followed up from april 1 , 1993 , to march 31 , 2008 , at longest . the follow - up was stopped when the subject died or retired and lost the membership because of compulsory retirement ( usually at the age of 60 years ) or voluntary retirement . the follow - up periods for the participants in the program were different according to the year of participation , 1993 to 1997 . personal information , including date of hire and that of retire / death , was computerized and the person years of the active membership were calculated on the basis of the information . first , standardized mortality ratios ( smrs ) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals ( cis ) were calculated . person years at risk were accumulated for the subjects in the follow - up period . expected numbers of deaths were calculated by multiplying the person years with sex- , age- , calendar - year- , and cause - specific death rates of the general population in japan , 1993 to 2007.16 second , hazard ratios ( hrs ) and corresponding 95% cis were calculated between participants and comparative obese controls with adjusted by age as of march 31 , 1993 , and occupation as potential confounders . also , survival curves were drawn for all deaths between participants and comparative obese controls . statistical analyses were performed with sas version 9.3 ( sas institute inc , cary , nc ) , and phreg and lifetime procedures were used for calculating hrs and drawing survival curves , respectively . this study was approved by the ethical review board of university of occupational and environmental health , kitakyushu , japan . the all subjects were public service employees working for the municipal governments of fukuoka prefecture , japan . they had the membership of a health service organization that provides a variety of services such as health examinations , health seminars and guidance , and health insurance programs.15 of the members of this health service organization , those who were actively employed as of april 1 , 1992 , with at least 6 months of employment and aged 59 years or younger as of march 31 , 1993 , were included in the study population . the newest computerized personnel data file was used to identify the date of his or her employment and establishment of the membership , and the date of his or her retirement ( only for the retired ) . in 1992 , the health service organization introduced the health seminars that were specific to boocs program . the seminars were held 10 times a year , which was 1-day or 2-day program and consisted of lectures on health care by physicians and practical exercises by health care professionals such as a physical instructor , a dietician , and a psychologist . all participants received an individual interview of follow - up by occupational health nurses 1 year after the seminar . at the beginning of the fiscal year 1993 to 1997 , the occupational health nurses selected the workers with obesity and the risk of diabetes and/or hypertension with verifying the annual health check - up data of the previous year and sent them a letter to encourage them to participate in the program . the intervention subjects were those who first participated in the program during 1993 to 1997 . for the workers without participation in boocs program , conventional health guidance was provided for health promotion and disease prevention . the first group was composed of those with obesity at 25 or higher score of bmi , or with health problems relating to obesity , which was found in the annual health check - up in 1992 . the second group was composed of the rest of the workers after excluding the comparative obese controls , and they were defined as reference subjects . the boocs program utilizes psychosomatic approach for behavior modification , which is distinct from the others.14 under the two principles and three basic rules ( table 1 ) , effective and active guidance is provided for health promotion and disease prevention . although lifestyle modification in a conventional approach starts with prohibition and inhibition of unhealthy behaviors such as alcohol drinking , smoking , and high calorie - intake , its strictness frequently results in the rebound of body weight and the appearance of guilty conscience . on the contrary , the boocs program does not induce such dilemmas because it begins with no prohibition and makes us recover from brain fatigue . moreover , the three basic rules translating the principles easily lead us to modify our behavior for health and well - being in our everyday life . all subjects were followed up from april 1 , 1993 , to march 31 , 2008 , at longest . the follow - up was stopped when the subject died or retired and lost the membership because of compulsory retirement ( usually at the age of 60 years ) or voluntary retirement . the follow - up periods for the participants in the program were different according to the year of participation , 1993 to 1997 . personal information , including date of hire and that of retire / death , was computerized and the person years of the active membership were calculated on the basis of the information . first , standardized mortality ratios ( smrs ) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals ( cis ) were calculated . person years at risk were accumulated for the subjects in the follow - up period . expected numbers of deaths were calculated by multiplying the person years with sex- , age- , calendar - year- , and cause - specific death rates of the general population in japan , 1993 to 2007.16 second , hazard ratios ( hrs ) and corresponding 95% cis were calculated between participants and comparative obese controls with adjusted by age as of march 31 , 1993 , and occupation as potential confounders . also , survival curves were drawn for all deaths between participants and comparative obese controls . statistical analyses were performed with sas version 9.3 ( sas institute inc , cary , nc ) , and phreg and lifetime procedures were used for calculating hrs and drawing survival curves , respectively . this study was approved by the ethical review board of university of occupational and environmental health , kitakyushu , japan . figure 1 shows a process of recruitment and enrollment of the study subjects . from the personnel files , a total of 21,626 workers ( 13,835 males and 7791 females ) were identified as the study subjects . after excluding 46 of them with no meeting the inclusion criteria , the number of boocs participants , comparative obese controls , and reference subjects were 2307 ( 1565 males and 742 females ) , 1835 ( 1230 males and 605 females ) , and 17,438 ( 11,012 males and 6426 females ) , respectively . frequently seen occupations were a clerk and a firefighter in males , and a clerk , a kindergarten teacher / a nurse , and a food supplier in females ( table 2 ) . abbreviation : boocs , brain - oriented obesity control system . * those who had obesity with body mass index 25 or obesity - related health problems , and who did not participate in boocs program . as of march 31 , 1993 . during the follow - up period , 24 ( 22 males and 2 females ) , 40 ( 35 males and 5 females ) , and 259 ( 206 males and 53 females ) deceased in participants , comparative obese controls , and reference subjects , respectively ( table 3 ) . in males of the deceased , 10 , 16 , and 90 persons with malignant neoplasms and 5 , 6 , and 50 persons with diseases of the circulation were included in the participants , comparative obese controls , and reference subjects , respectively ( table 4 ) . abbreviation : boocs , brain - oriented obesity control system . * those who had obesity with body mass index 25 or obesity - related health problems , and who did not participate in boocs program . abbreviations : boocs , brain - oriented obesity control system ; icd-10 , international classification of diseases , tenth revision ; smr , standardized mortality ratio . * those who had obesity with body mass index 25 or obesity - related health problems , and who did not participate in boocs program . those who were the rest of nonparticipants after excluding the comparative obese controls observed number of death . smrs for all causes were lower than those of the general population in japan at 0.36 ( 95% ci : 0.22 to 0.52 ) in participants , 0.87 ( 95% ci : 0.69 to 1.29 ) in comparative obese controls , and 0.44 ( 95% ci : 0.38 to 0.51 ) in reference subjects . for those with malignant neoplasms , decreased smrs were found to be statistically significant only in participants at 0.48 ( 95% ci : 0.23 to 0.82 ) and in reference subjects at 0.57 ( 95% ci : 0.46 to 0.70 ) . regarding those deceased because of diseases of the circulation and suicide , no statistically significant decrease or increase in smrs was seen among both participants and comparative obese controls ( table 4 ) . in females , despite the lower number of deceased workers , smrs for all causes were statistically significantly lower among participants at 0.14 ( 95% ci : 0.01 to 0.41 ) and among reference subjects at 0.45 ( 95% ci : 0.33 to 0.58 ) ( table 4 ) . compared with comparative obese controls , hrs for all causes were significantly lower in participants at 0.54 ( 95% ci : 0.31 to 0.94 ) . survival curves were also statistically different and such significant mortality changes were persisted during follow - up period ( p = 0.014 by log - rank test ; fig . 2 ) . nevertheless , the mortality effect was not found in females with 0.26 ( 95% ci : 0.02 to 2.52 ) ( data not shown ) . regarding other categories of cause of deaths , no significant change was observed in hrs , probably because of the small number of deaths in both males and females ( data not shown ) . survival curves of subjects according to boocs participation , 1993 to 2007 ( all deaths , male ) . in this study , protective effect for mortality by boocs program was indicated by significantly decreased hr for all causes of deaths to 0.54 ( 95% ci : 0.31 to 0.94 ) and its persistence in males until the end of follow - up ( p = 0.014 by log - rank test ) . one of the reasons for such preventive effects of boocs program may be related to improvement of obesity during follow - up . using the same data set of male workers in this study , we obtained the results that changes of bmi during the first 5 years were more remarkable , that is , higher by 1% to 5% , in participants than those in both comparative obese controls and reference subjects.17 these data coincide with the previous reports1822 that both all - cause and cancer mortality were associated with obesity . so - called legacy effect may exist in this study because only participant group showed mortality benefit after better bmi control disappeared.23 these effects brought by boocs program may result in the protective effect for mortality in this study . as mentioned earlier , boocs program is a unique method with a way of psychosomatic approach prioritizing mental and physical recovery from fatigue . although relevant lectures regarding nutrition , physical exercise , and risk factors of lifestyle - related diseases are sufficiently provided in boocs program , it should be noted that harmful factors for health , for example , smoking and drinking , are not initially inhibited . according to fujino,14 the founder of the program , this approach is quite useful for making the participants fully aware of the fundamentals of health promotion and disease prevention , which leads them to modify their health behavior . he also insists that prohibitive and compulsive instructions are ineffective for behavior modification , and , in particular , those people who understand significance of health would result in failure through such methods and fall into vicious circle such as rebounding body weight . this approach may be consisted of the concept of behavior science and several reputed methods.14,2430 nevertheless , the mechanism why boocs program is effective for behavior modification has not been clarified yet ; therefore , further studies are strongly needed in the future . the reason why such effect was not seen in females may be a small number of deceased workers and the low statistical power of our analysis . in addition , some sociological factors might be related to the results in female workers . in japan , the traditional gender roles still remain , which argues that women should do housework.31 the actual situations , where the promotion in the workplace is provided more for males than for females , and many japanese women have retired after marriage or childbearing until recently , are seen . as shown in table 3 , more retired or left subjects were found among female workers than among male workers during the follow - up period . some studies pointed out that working women may have more physical and mental health problems than housewives.31,32 although only a few female workers died in this study , we should pay attention to health status among them . advantages of this study are as follows : it is based on a large - scale working - population , long - term follow - up , and almost no dropouts from follow - up . all of those points may be fundamental and important in epidemiological studies , and make our results valid and reliable . on the contrary , limitations of this study are as follows : no randomization was considered when dividing the subjects into participants and nonparticipants , and no information was collected on lifestyle such as smoking and drinking . therefore , attention should be paid in interpreting the results because they may include potential confounders that could influence on the mortality risks calculated in the study . in occupational epidemiology , the healthy - worker effect ( hwe ) is usually seen as the workers show significantly lower mortality risks than the general population.33 indeed , decreased smrs were found in both participants and nonparticipants in this study , which could conceal the real mortality effect in the population . this potential problem can be controlled by the risk indicators , such as hrs , which is calculated for the internal reference group . therefore , we believe this approach minimized potential bias by hwe . in conclusion , in quasi - experimentally 15-year follow - up study of health effect of participation in boocs program with 13,835 male and 7791 female japanese workers , the numbers of deceased workers were 22 , 35 , and 206 males and 2 , 5 , and 53 females among participants , comparative obese controls , and reference subjects , respectively . the smrs for all causes and all neoplasms in comparison with the general population were statistically lower among participants and reference subjects , which may be due to the hwe . mortality risk from all causes in comparison with comparative obese controls was statistically lower in participants with hr = 0.54 ( 95% ci : 0.31 to 0.94 ) accompanied by significantly different survival curves ( p = 0.014 by log - rank test ) in males . such protective effect on mortality in males may be related to improvement of obesity by participation in the program . the results indicate a mortality benefit by participation in boocs program . for prevention of metabolic syndrome , effective measures are strongly needed in the future , and it is suggested that boocs program will contribute to them as a new approach for health promotion .	objective : this study aims to demonstrate the protective effect on mortality among participants of a health education program , brain - oriented obesity control system ( boocs).methods : a quasi - experimentally designed , 15-year ( 1993 to 2007 ) follow - up study was conducted with a total of 13,835 male and 7791 female japanese workers . they were divided into three groups : participants in the program ( 1565 males and 742 females ) , nonparticipant comparative obese controls ( 1230 males and 605 females ) , and nonparticipant reference subjects ( 11,012 males and 6426 females ) . hazard ratios were calculated with survival curves drawn to evaluate the mortality effects by the program participation.results:the male participants showed significantly lower mortality risk for all causes of death at hazard ratio = 0.54 ( 95% confidence interval : 0.31 to 0.94 ) with significantly different survival curves ( p = 0.014 by log - rank test ) than obese controls.conclusions:the results support a protective effect on mortality by participating in boocs program .
Talk about a shrinking population. A survey of Japanese people aged 18 to 34 found that almost 70 percent of unmarried men and 60 percent of unmarried women are not in a relationship. Moreover, many of them have never got close and cuddly. Around 42 percent of the men and 44.2 percent of the women admitted they were virgins. The government won’t be pleased that sexlessness is becoming as Japanese as sumo and sake. The administration of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has talked up boosting the birthrate through support for child care, but until the nation bones up on bedroom gymnastics there’ll be no medals to hand out. Far from getting together and getting it on, the sexes are growing apart. There are now many more virgins than in 2010, when the last study was conducted and when only 36.2 percent of men and 38.7 percent of women said they had never had sex. The study, released Thursday, was conducted by the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. The institute has conducted the same survey every five years since 1987, when the proportion of unmarried men and women who said they had no partner stood at 48.6 percent and 39.5 percent, respectively. There was no accounting for the discrepancy between the genders, except perhaps for the age-old problem of men and women having different understandings of the word “commitment.” The surveys did not ask about same-sex partners. The institute said the increase in singles was particularly sharp for people in their late 20s, the age at which science tells us women are most fertile. Asked about their hopes for the future, there seemed to be recognition that families are what humans are destined for. Nearly 90 percent of the respondents said they want to get married “sometime in the future.” But 30 percent of the 2,706 men sampled and 26 percent of the 2,570 female respondents said they were not currently looking for a relationship. “They want to tie the knot eventually. But they tend to put it off as they have gaps between their ideals and the reality,” said Futoshi Ishii, head of the NIPSSR’s population dynamics research department. “That’s why people marry later or stay single for life, contributing to the nation’s low birthrate.” Boosting the birthrate is one of the coveted goals of the Abe administration, which has declared it will raise the fertility rate from the current 1.4 to 1.8 by 2025 or so. The government hopes to achieve this by making it easier for families to raise children, such as by increasing the places available at nursery schools. The survey suggests it may also have to find a way to play cupid. Meanwhile, the same study found that the number of children among couples who have been married for between 15 and 19 years averaged a record-low 1.94. But in a plus for female empowerment, it also showed the ratio of women who returned to work after having their first child exceeded 50 percent for the first time. The study, conducted in June last year, covered 8,754 single people and 6,598 married couples across the country. \|\|\|\|\| That's according to a government survey published last week, claiming that 42% of men and 44.2% of women -- almost half of Japan's millennial singles aged between 18 to 34 -- are virgins. While some prefer it that way, others would like their fortunes to change, with 85.7% of men and 89.3% of women harboring hopes of marriage in the future. The survey did not look at same-sex partners. Japan's lack of interest in sex is blamed on everything from a stagnant economy to Japanese manga fans favoring fantasy over reality. Changing social norms The latest government survey found that 42 % of men aged between 18 to 34 were still virgins. Japan has one of the world's lowest birthrates and is home to a severely aging population, with a recent survey finding 34.6 million Japanese aged over 65. But despite, the government's attempts to boost the number of marriages and children, this year's survey results from the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, don't reveal a swerve in the right direction. Nancy Snow, a professor of public diplomacy from the Kyoto University of Foreign Studies, told CNN that changing social and economic norms contributed to the decrease in relationships between men and women. "Men are making about a third to half of what they used to make during Japan's economic boom years in the 1980s. Some men's sense of self is tied to their salary and they feel threatened by women who are empowering themselves," said Snow. She explained that the income decrease made men in Japan feel less confident in attracting Japan's increasingly successful class of women, who have become used to earning their own money and putting themselves first. "While men are going from a cradle to grave trajectory, there are a lot of professional women with disposable incomes, who think that marriage might not just be worth it," said Snow. 'Solving the virgin problem' Photos: Inspiring Japan's middle-aged virgins A nude sketching class in Tokyo aims to help Japan's middle-aged virgins by allowing them to spend time with a real female body. Hide Caption 1 of 6 Photos: Inspiring Japan's middle-aged virgins A Japanese government survey in 2010 found that one in four Japanese men in their thirties who've never been married are virgins. The figures were only slightly less for women. Hide Caption 2 of 6 Photos: Inspiring Japan's middle-aged virgins A flyer for the nude art class. Hide Caption 3 of 6 Photos: Inspiring Japan's middle-aged virgins The classes are offered bimonthly in Tokyo by the non-profit White Hands. Hide Caption 4 of 6 Photos: Inspiring Japan's middle-aged virgins White Hands offers a course and textbook on how to graduate from virginity. Hide Caption 5 of 6 Photos: Inspiring Japan's middle-aged virgins Sexual apathy is extremely troubling for Japan, which has the world's most rapidly aging population and is where citizens are not producing enough children to sustain a healthy economy in the coming years. Hide Caption 6 of 6 There are support groups for men who want to overcome their anxiety of approaching women. White Hands, a Tokyo-based non-profit offers regular nude art classes, where mostly middle-aged men sketch naked female models. The classes, complete with textbooks, also try to help people feel more comfortable with their sexuality. Class organizer Shingo Sakatsume, who calls himself a "sex helper," understands how growing interest in the fantasy world of anime is leading single men to choose entertainment over real love and sex. "By solving the virgin problem, I think we can solve many other problems related to sex," Sakatsume, told CNN in 2015. JUST WATCHED Japan's virtual high school Replay More Videos ... MUST WATCH Japan's virtual high school 02:43 Snow asserted that such nude art classes could potentially be more helpful if there were also women on hand to draw naked male models. "Here's an opportunity to bring men and women together -- they could have wine to break the ice and communicate more," said Snow. "To just make it men looking at a female model perpetuates the problem." Is 35 the new 25? Though the Japanese population is aging at a breakneck speed, Snow said that the latest survey only looked at young people as data sets and didn't take into account their specific stories or circumstances. "If you're living until you're 90, then putting off having a dating partner till your thirties until you've found yourself might seem rational -- there's a lot more self-exploration going on," said Snow. \|\|\|\|\| A group of friends walk along Takeshita Street in Harajuku on May 25, 2010, in Tokyo. (Mark Kolbe/Getty Images) Japan's demographic challenges are well-known: It's home to the world's oldest population and has a shrinking birthrate and an astonishing number of single people. And it seems that, despite government efforts to incentivize marriage and child-rearing, things aren't quite trending in the right direction. According to the Japan Times, a new survey of Japanese people ages 18 to 34 found that 70 percent of unmarried men and 60 percent of unmarried women are not in a relationship. It gets worse: Around 42 percent of men and 44.2 percent of women admitted that they were virgins. The study is carried out by Japan's National Institute of Population and Social Security Research every five years. The organization has noted a marked trend since its first foray on questions of relationships and sex in 1987, when it found that 48.6 percent of men and 39.5 percent of women surveyed were unmarried. In 2010, 36.2 percent of men and 38.7 percent of women in the 18-34 age bracket said they were virgins. The number of children among couples who have been married for between 15 and 19 years averaged a record low this year. The Japanese government under Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has said it wants to raise the nation's fertility rate from 1.4 to 1.8 by 2025. It's offering better child-care services and tax incentives for married couples, though such programs have yet to bear statistical fruit. Most people surveyed said they want to get married at some point. It's just not clear when. "They want to tie the knot eventually. But they tend to put it off as they have gaps between their ideals and the reality," Futoshi Ishii, head researcher for the study, told Japan Times. "That’s why people marry later or stay single for life, contributing to the nation’s low birthrate." This is not unique to Japan — in various parts of the developed world, economic uncertainty is reshaping the way millennials and other young people conceive of their sex lives and marital choices. But it's particularly pronounced in the Asian nation, where experts and government officials have spent the better part of a decade fretting over the country's population decline and, as WorldViews once put it, "sexual apathy." A booming industry surrounds Japan's growing condition of loneliness, a phenomenon at once quite particular to the Japanese, yet also a glimpse into a future where many people live atomized lives mediated exclusively through personal technology. There was one clearly positive indicator in the survey: For the first time, the proportion of women returning to work after having their first child in Japan's once notoriously patriarchal society exceeded 50 percent. More on WorldViews Lonely Japanese men protest the 'blood-soaked conspiracy' of Valentine's Day In Tokyo, the 'war on Christmas' is led by lonely, single men In Japan, the elderly are committing more crimes than teenagers	– While America might more typically worry about what its youth are doing, Japan spends a lot of time worrying about what they're not doing, and what they're not doing is having sex—at all, apparently. A new government survey suggests that the country's millennials are not only in no hurry to marry, but apparently aren't in any rush to do the deed. To wit, a whopping 44% of women and 42% of men, amounting to nearly half of the country's millennial singles ages 18 to 34, say they are still virgins, reports the Washington Post. But the percentage of these singles who say they hope to marry in the future is up close to 90%. "People marry later or stay single for life, contributing to the nation’s low birthrate," the head researcher tells the Japan Times. "They want to tie the knot eventually, but they tend to put it off as they have gaps between their ideals and the reality." With an aging generation of baby boomers weighing down what is already the world's oldest population, Japan has for years been trying to encourage its dwindling number of young people to marry and have children. But complicating this quandary, CNN reports that the apparent lack of interest in engaging in actual sex could result in part from the country's many manga fans choosing fantasy over reality. Plus more women are making more money and choosing to marry later or not at all, while many men report feeling intimidated by them. "They feel threatened by women who are empowering themselves," one expert says. (A quarter of young men and almost half of young women in Japan go so far as to say they despise sexual contact.)
Police fatally shot a woman in Austin, Texas early Sunday after her husband placed a mental health call because he was worried about his wife's behavior. Austin Assistant Police Chief Troy Gay told reporters that officers were told the woman was behaving erratically and had a weapon. When police arrived at the scene, a woman came out of an apartment and told officers to shoot her, Gay said. As the officers approached, Gay said the woman began pointing a weapon at them. Gay said the officers asked the woman to stand down. When she didn't, the officers fired at the woman, according to NBC affiliate KXAN. © Police activity at the scene in Austin, Texas. Image: Police activity at the scene in Austin, Texas. Gay said the woman was still moving after being shot and "had the weapon in her hand pointing at the direction of the officers." Gay said the officers fired several more shots over fear that the woman still posed a threat, according to KXAN's report. Police did not identify the weapon they said was recovered at the scene. KXAN reported that the woman had a gun. Related: Department of Justice to Collect Data on Police Shootings, In-Custody Deaths The woman, who officials only identified as a 26-year-old female, was transported to the hospital where she later died. Police said they have audio of the incident but no video was recorded at the time. The two officers involved in the shooting have been placed on administrative leave. Both have been with the department for three years. Austin police have opened an official investigation into the incident. This is the eighth fatal officer-involved shooting in Austin this year, according to KXAN. \|\|\|\|\| AUSTIN (KXAN) — A mental health call involving a woman who had a gun turned deadly early Sunday morning. It happened just before 4 a.m. at the Club at Summer Valley Apartments at 744 W. William Cannon, at the corner of South 1st Street. Austin police say they were originally called to the apartment complex for a husband who called stating his wife had a weapon. When the officers arrived and started assessing the situation, a white woman came out of the breezeway. Asst. Chief Troy Gay says the woman had a weapon in her hands and “extended the weapon towards the officers and said ‘shoot me, shoot me, kill me.'” Gay says officers gave her verbal commands to drop the weapon but she proceeded to move towards the officers, and they in turn fired their weapons. As she was lying on the ground, police say she was still moving after being shot and she still “had the weapon in her hand pointing at the direction of the officers.” Fearing they were still in danger, Gay says the officers fired several more shots. “The weapon was then away from the female and officers were able to have the weapon in their possession,” explains Gay in a news conference. The 26-year-old woman was taken to the hospital where she died a short time later. Two officers were involved in the shooting, both have been with the department for three years. They will be placed on administrative leave pending the investigation, which is standard protocol. This is the eighth deadly shooting involving Austin Police Department officers this year. The most recent was on Sept. 15 in southwest Austin. Police say Morgan Wayne Crocker, 34, was shot and killed during a burglary call. When officers arrived the second time, they saw Crocker trying to run away from the apartment complex. In order to get him to stop, one officer used a stun gun on the suspect, but he rolled over on the ground and when he rolled over, police say he took out a weapon and shot at one of the officers. The officers shot back and wounded the man but police say he continued to resist after being shot. He died at the hospital. In April, police say the deadly shooting of a man wielding knives in a store parking lot appeared to be “suicide by cop”—which could be the situation in Sunday’s shooting.	– Police in Texas shot and killed a woman after responding to a mental health call, NBC News reports. The woman's husband called police, saying she was acting erratically and he was worried about her; he also informed police that she had a weapon. When officers arrived on the scene at an Austin apartment complex around 4am Sunday, the unidentified 26-year-old woman came out of one of the complex's buildings, pointed a gun toward the officers, and said, "Shoot me, shoot me, kill me," said assistant chief Troy Gay, per the Austin-American Statesman. After she didn't comply with commands to drop her weapon, the officers say they fired at her. The woman continued to point the gun at officers while on the ground, and officers, fearing for their safety, fired several more shots, Gay said, per KXAN. The woman was taken to the hospital, where she died not long after. The two officers involved in the shooting, who haven't been named, will be placed on paid administrative pending an investigation. Both are three-year veterans of the force. Police say they have audio of the encounter, but no video. There have been eight instances of fatal shootings involving Austin police in 2016, per KXAN. (The FBI is making a big change regarding stats on police shootings.)
CLOSE Facebook Live: Detroit Police Lieutenant Brian Bowser speaks about the infant bodies found at the former Cantrell Funeral Home. Junfu Han, Detroit Free Press Buy Photo A Detroit Police vehicle parked outside of Cantrell Funeral Home in Detroit, Friday, October 12, 2018. (Photo: Junfu Han, Detroit Free Press)Buy Photo The badly decomposed bodies of 11 infants were found in the ceiling of a former funeral home on Detroit's east side, Detroit police said. The remains were found late Friday afternoon by state investigators just hours after they received an anonymous letter explaining how to find the bodies carefully hidden inside the false ceiling, Detroit police said. The bodies had been hidden inside the former Cantrell Funeral Home at 10400 Mack Avenue at Garland, about 10 blocks east of the Indian Village neighborhood. The funeral home was closed by state authorities in April after they found numerous violations of state law. After the infants' bodies were uncovered, Michigan State Police used a cadaver-trained police dog to search the entire building, but no additional bodies were found, said Detroit police Lt. Brian Bowser. "We do have names for some of the remains and we're going to try to contact the families," Bowser said. He said he was unable to say how long the remains had been stored there or how old they were. But he said he was upset "by the callousness" of whoever had placed the remains of infants, some of them apparently stillborn, inside a cardboard box hidden in the drop-down ceiling of a stairwell. Police want to speak to the former home's longtime owner, Raymond Cantrell, Bowser said. "Obviously, it was either an employee or someone who had knowledge" of the business and the building who hid the bodies, for unknown reasons, he added. Buy Photo Detroit Police Homicide lieutenant Brian Bowser talks outside of Cantrell Funeral Home in Detroit on Friday, October 12, 2018. (Photo: Junfu Han, Detroit Free Press) The successor business of the shuttered funeral home in Detroit operates on Kelly Road in Eastpointe as Cantrell Funeral Services. That firm's answering service said none of the owners or managers were available to comment Friday night. The firm's website praises the former Detroit's home's longtime owner, Raymond Cantrell. The website says: "Our father, Raymond E. Cantrell, founder of Cantrell Funeral Home in Detroit, has provided excellent service for over 50 years. As the next generation of funeral directors, our goal is to continue in his footprints of quality, family-oriented and customer focused funeral service." A spokesman for the Michigan Department of Licensing and Regulatory Affairs confirmed Friday that state inspectors found the bodies. “We will use the evidence gathered today to add to our open investigation and will continue to work with local law enforcement as this case proceeds,” LARA communications director Jason Moon said in an email. In April, state investigators found that embalmed bodies had been stored for months in an unrefrigerated garage and other unsanitary areas, allowing them to deteriorate — one body was kept from January until April before it was cremated, according to state officials. The funeral home, which had operated for half a century, also had committed numerous other violations of state rules, such as the failure to deposit more than $21,000 in prepayments by at least 13 customers who'd signed contracts for future funeral services, according to the Michigan Department of Licensing and Regulation. Also in April, state regulators suspended the funeral home's license and suspended the individual mortuary science license of the manager, Jameca LaJoyce Boone, according to state website. Read more: Overall, state officials had charged the operators of Cantrell Funeral Home with "fraud, deceit, dishonesty, incompetence, and gross negligence in the practice of mortuary science," according to a report issued in April about the decision to close the business. In particular, the state says that anyone "who converts funds paid pursuant to a prepaid contract to his or her own use or benefit … is guilty of a felony punishable by a fine of $5,000 or imprisonment of not more than five years, or both," according to the website of the state Department of Licensing and Regulatory Affairs. Contact Bill Laitner: [email protected] Read or Share this story: https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2018/10/12/11-infant-bodies-found-funeral-home/1620656002/ \|\|\|\|\| DETROIT (AP) — Authorities say the bodies of 11 babies have been found in a funeral home that was closed six months ago. Michigan Department of Licensing and Regulatory Affairs spokesman Jason Moon says inspectors found the bodies Friday at the Cantrell Funeral Home on the city's east side. Detroit police say eight or nine bodies were found in a cardboard box and the others in one or more caskets, all hidden in a ceiling. Police ordered a search of the building to ensure there are no additional bodies inside. The regulatory agency suspended the license of the funeral home in April after inspectors found decomposing embalmed bodies and other violations. Violations also included two improperly stored bodies covered in what appeared to be mold and a third body with unknown fluids covering the facial area.	– Authorities say the bodies of 11 babies have been found in a funeral home that was closed six months ago. Michigan Department of Licensing and Regulatory Affairs spokesman Jason Moon says inspectors found the bodies Friday at the Cantrell Funeral Home on Detroit's east side. The Free-Press reports authorities discovered the remains thanks to an unsigned letter that detailed their whereabouts in what the paper describes as a "false ceiling." Detroit police say eight or nine bodies were found in a cardboard box and the others in one or more caskets, all hidden in the ceiling. "We do have names for some of the remains and we're going to try to contact the families," said Detroit police Lt. Brian Bowser. Police ordered a search of the building to ensure there were no additional bodies inside, and the Free-Press reports a cadaver-trained police dog didn't turn up anything. The regulatory agency suspended the license of the funeral home in April after inspectors found decomposing embalmed bodies and other violations, reports the AP. Violations also included two improperly stored bodies covered in what appeared to be mold and a third body with unknown fluids covering the facial area.