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Which term describes something a behaviorist would pair with an unconditioned stimulus in order to produce a classically conditioned response?

['(A)Conditioned stimulus', '(B)Positive reinforcement', '(C)Conditioned response', '(D)Unconditioned response', '(E)Negative reinforcement']

(D)Behaviorists research how conditioning influences human behavior. They do this by studying how different stimuli, which are external events that elicit behaviors, relate to responses. These responses are physical reactions or behaviors. Punishment (choice A) and reinforcement (choice E) are kinds of stimuli in the context of operant conditioning. A stimulus, choice B, is something that elicits a behavior, not the behavior itself. An instinct, choice C, is a specific kind of automatic response that occurs in some nonhuman animals.

Which of the following lists all the elements of classical conditioning?

['(A) one, two, three, four', '(B)Primary reinforcement, secondary reinforcement, continuous reinforcement, acquisition', '(C)Unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned response', '(D)Behavior, generalization, acquisition, discrimination, response', '(E)Behavioral response, shaping, observational learning, modeling, latent learning, cognition']

(E)Behaviorists research how conditioning influences human behavior. They do this by studying how different stimuli, which are external events that elicit behaviors, relate to responses. These responses are physical reactions or behaviors. Choice A refers to cognition (thinking). The context for the term “response” in the question is learning/behaviorism, not the cognitive perspective. Choice B describes a stimulus, which is an external event that elicits a behavior. Choice C is a definition of learning. Choice D is a definition of transduction, which happens in the senses.

Which of the following is likely to occur when the conditioned stimulus is presented many times without the unconditioned stimulus?

['(A)Discrimination', '(B)Shaping', '(C)Spontaneous recovery', '(D)Extinction', '(E)Overjustification']

(B)An unconditioned stimulus (like food) automatically causes an unconditioned response (like salivation). The term unconditioned refers to the fact that the unconditioned stimulus automatically causes the unconditioned response without any prior training or experiences; this is a reflexive relationship. If a conditioned stimulus, choice A, is paired several times with an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus will eventually cause the conditioned response, choice C. An unconditioned response, choice D, is the reaction to an unconditioned stimulus. Behavioral contingency, choice E, refers to any stimulus/response relationship in behaviorism.

Spontaneous recovery can happen only after which of the following stages of classical conditioning?

['(A)Generalization', '(B)Extinction', '(C)Punishment', '(D)Reinforcement', '(E)Deindividuation']

(A)In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus is paired (presented along) with a conditioned stimulus in order to produce a conditioned response (choice C). Positive reinforcement (choice B) and negative reinforcement (choice E) are types of reinforcement that are used in operant conditioning, not classical conditioning. An unconditioned response (choice D) refers to the response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Sometimes organisms begin to respond with the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Which term below is the opposite of this process?

['(A)Generalization', '(B)Behaviorism', '(C)Structuralism', '(D)Overjustification', '(E)Discrimination']

(C)The four elements listed in choice C are the required elements in any classical conditioning example. An unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response. The unconditioned stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus several times until, eventually, the conditioned stimulus causes the conditioned response. Choice A lists the basic elements of one kind of operant-conditioned response. Choices B, D, and E are lists of other terms associated with conditioning, but they aren’t specific to classical conditioning.

Which of the following concepts would early behaviorists NOT be interested in researching?

['(A)Acquisition', '(B)Discrimination', '(C)Cognition', '(D)Extinction', '(E)Shaping']

(D)When a conditioned stimulus (like the sound of a bell) is presented many times without the unconditioned stimulus (like food), eventually the conditioned response (salivation) will become extinct. Discrimination, choice A, is related to classical conditioning. It occurs when organisms respond only to a specific conditioned stimulus. Shaping, choice B, is not related to classical conditioning. Spontaneous recovery, choice C, is related to classical conditioning. It is the return of a conditioned response after extinction. Overjustification, choice E, is not related to classical conditioning.

Which of the following terms applies to both classical and operant conditioning?

['(A)Unconditioned stimulus and conditioned response', '(B)Generalization and discrimination', '(C)Shaping and reinforcement', '(D)Cognitive map and latent learning', '(E)Observational and vicarious learning']

(B)Spontaneous recovery can occur only after a classically conditioned response becomes extinct. Extinction of a conditioned response occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented many times without an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the conditioned response becomes extinct. Later, the conditioned response may return spontaneously. Choice A, generalization, is related to classical conditioning. It occurs when an organism responds to any stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus. Punishment, reinforcement, and deindividuation (choices C, D, and E) do not relate to classical conditioning.

To a behaviorist, what is the most important difference between reinforcement and punishment?

['(A)Reinforcement increases the chances that a behavior will be repeated, and punishment decreases those chances.', '(B)Organisms interpret reinforcements as rewards, and they interpret punishments as aversive.', '(C)The major difference between reinforcements and punishments is the frequency of application.', '(D)Reinforcements are generally less effective at modifying behavior in the long term.', '(E)Punishments are used when behaviors need to be eliminated, while reinforcements are used when behaviors need to be decreased or just controlled.']

(E)The description in the question describes the process of generalization. The opposite of this process is discrimination, which occurs when an organism responds only to the specific conditioned stimulus. Generalization, choice A, occurs when an organism responds to any stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus. Behaviorism, choice B, refers to the overall perspective of behaviorism, which includes all types of conditioning. Structuralism (choice C) and overjustification (choice D) are not relevant to learning and conditioning.

Which of the following are two of the factors that differentiate schedules of reinforcement?

['(A)Frequency and amplitude', '(B)Positive and negative', '(C)Complete and partial', '(D)Interval and ratio', '(E)Cognitive and behavioral']

(C)John Watson wrote the “Behaviorist Manifesto,” which argued that psychology should be the science of behavior. He wrote that psychologists should exclusively study behavior rather than nonobservable phenomena like cognition. The concepts mentioned in choices A, B, D, and E (acquisition, discrimination, extinction, and shaping) are principles behaviorists often research.

How can you tell the difference between a conditioned response and an unconditioned response?

['(A)A conditioned response is elicited by the conditioned stimulus alone.', '(B)An unconditioned response occurs each time the conditioned stimulus is detected.', '(C)Conditioned responses are less frequent but more intense than unconditioned responses.', '(D)Unconditioned responses are caused by operant conditioning, and conditioned responses are caused by classical conditioning.', '(E)The unconditioned responses can be elicited only by primary reinforcers.']

(B)The processes of generalization and discrimination can occur during both operant and classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, organisms begin responding to any stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus (generalization) or only to that specific conditioned stimulus (discrimination). During operant conditioning, an organism may start to generalize the behavior that is associated with reinforcement or may discriminate and do only the exact behavior that is associated with the reinforcement. The terms in choice A, unconditioned stimulus and conditioned response, apply only to classical conditioning. The terms in choice C, shaping and reinforcement, apply only to operant conditioning. The terms in choice D, cognitive map and latent learning, and the terms in choice E, observational and vicarious learning, aren’t specific to either classical or operant conditioning.

Professor Wilikins is demonstrating principles of learning to her class. She gently blows air into the eye of a student volunteer while saying the word "puff," and the puff of air makes the student blink. After three pairings, the student blinks when Professor Wilikins says "puff" but does not blow any air toward the student. What psychological principle is Professor Wilikins demonstrating?

['(A)Operant conditioning', '(B)Semantic conditioning', '(C)Latent learning', '(D)Expectancy effect', '(E)Classical conditioning']

(A)By definition, a stimulus that increases the chances that a behavior is repeated is a reinforcement. A stimulus that decreases the chances that a behavior is repeated is a punishment. Choice B refers to interpretation, and behaviorists do not rely on that kind of cognitive process. Choices C, D, and E are incorrect statements.

Dr. Hix has been working with a client for weeks in an effort to help him reduce his smoking habit. The client calls and is excited because he hasn't smoked for seven days in a row. Dr. Hix says, "That's great! Please check the reinforcement chart we made to see which reward you should give yourself." What kind of conditioning is Dr. Hix using to help this client?

['(A)Fixed-ratio schedule', '(B)Classical conditioning', '(C)Operant conditioning', '(D)Aversive conditioning', '(E)Positive punishment']

(D)The schedules of reinforcement differ based on interval and ratio. An interval is the amount of time required between behaviors before a reinforcement is delivered. A ratio is the number of behaviors required before a reinforcement is delivered. The terms listed in choices A, B, C, and E do not have anything to do with different schedules of reinforcement.

My dog, Watch, looks up and starts salivating whenever she hears me pick up her dog bowl from the floor. If this response is classically conditioned, what is most likely the unconditioned stimulus?

['(A)Watch salivating', '(B)Watch looking up', '(C)The sound of the food bowl', '(D)Previous training about food', '(E)The smell of dog food']

(A)Conditioned responses are elicited by conditioned stimuli. The first stage of classical conditioning is the relationship between the unconditioned stimulus and the unconditioned response. The conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, which still produces the unconditioned response. When the conditioned stimulus is presented alone and the response occurs, it is a conditioned response. Choice B is incorrect because an unconditioned response is not elicited by a conditioned stimulus. Choices C, D, and E all include inaccurate details about conditioning.

Mrs. Ridcully, a dog trainer, is struggling to train a dog to learn a new trick. Mrs. Ridcully classically conditioned the dog to sit whenever she whistled. However, the dog responds only to Mrs. Ridcully's specific whistle, not to the whistle of the dog's owner (who hired Mrs. Ridcully to train the dog). What operant principle is causing this difficulty?

['(A)Instinctive drift', '(B)Selective attention', '(C)Proactive interference', '(D)Discrimination', '(E)Extinction']

(E)This scenario is an example of classical conditioning because there is a clear, unconditional relationship between the puff of air (unconditioned stimulus) and the eye blink (unconditioned response). The word “puff” (conditioned stimulus) eventually elicits the response of the eye blink (now a conditioned response). The example does not fit the operant conditioning model (choice A) because there is neither a reinforcement nor a punishment in the scenario. Choice B, semantic conditioning, is not a psychological term. Latent learning (choice C) and expectancy effect (choice D) are not relevant to this scenario.

Mr. Stibbons is frustrated with how much his son cries every time Mr. Stibbons tells him "no." Mr. Stibbons lectured his son for 20 minutes yesterday when this happened. Today, though, when Mr. Stibbons told his son "no," his son repeated the same crying behavior as before. What can we conclude based on this example?

['(A)The son keeps crying because he thinks he is the center of attention.', '(B)No classical conditioning relationship exists between frustration and crying.', "(C)Mr. Stibbons's lecture is probably not a punishment for his son.", '(D)The negative reinforcement of the lecture is not working.', '(E)Mr. Stibbons needs to use a positive reinforcement.']

(C)The treatment Dr. Hix is using with this client is an example of operant conditioning because it involves a reinforcement. Dr. Hix and the client created the reinforcement chart to reinforce the client for avoiding smoking. They hope that the reinforcements increase the chances that the client will stay cigarette-free. This scenario is not an example of classical conditioning, choice B, because there is no unconditioned stimulus–unconditioned response pair in the example. Fixed-ratio schedule, aversive conditioning, and positive punishment (choices A, D, and E) are all terms associated with behaviorism that do not apply to this example.

Mrs. Whitlow's third-period class is very noisy. The students constantly talk and are disruptive whenever Mrs. Whitlow tries to teach a lesson. However, Mrs. Whitlow notices that whenever she has students use their laptops during class, the students stop talking and the disruptive behaviors stop. Mrs. Whitlow starts to use the student laptops more during class. Which of the following terms best describes how Mrs. Whitlow's behavior was conditioned?

['(A)Negative reinforcement', '(B)Positive reinforcement', '(C)Aversion training', '(D)Positive modeling', '(E)Engagement strategy']

(E)Any unconditioned stimulus must automatically cause the unconditioned response. The smell of food is the unconditioned stimulus as it would automatically trigger salivation in the dog. Thus, Watch salivating (choice A) is the unconditioned response. If the smell of food was paired with the sound of picking up the food bowl a number of times, Watch may start salivating just at the sound. The sound of the bowl (choice C) has become a conditioned stimulus. Choice B, Watch looking up, is a voluntary response and not classically conditioned. Choice D is not referred to in the example.

When Ms. Brevis decides to train her cat to jump up into her lap on command, she uses cat treats to reinforce the jumping behavior. Later, though, Ms. Brevis notices that her cat is gaining weight because of the treats. What technique can Ms. Brevis use to maintain the desired behavior but avoid giving too many treats?

['(A)Classical conditioning instead of operant conditioning', '(B)Insight learning after initial conditioning', '(C)Negative reinforcement replacing the positive reinforcement', '(D)Spontaneous recovery after extinction', '(E)Fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement']

(D)When an organism responds only to a specific conditioned stimulus, discrimination has occurred. In this example, discrimination is the dog responding only to Mrs. Ridcully’s whistle rather than to a similar stimulus, which is the whistle of the dog’s owner. Choice A, instinctive drift, isn’t relevant to this example. No instinctive reaction is involved in this example. Selective attention (choice B) and proactive interference (choice C) aren’t relevant to operant conditioning. Instead, these terms relate to memory theory. Choice E, extinction, does not apply to this example. The conditioned response is not extinct since it is still elicited by Mrs. Ridcully’s whistle.

Mrs. Ogg, a computer programmer, is working on a project for a casino. The casino manager asked her to program a video poker machine to make sure that players win only after they get a winning hand and only after they have been playing for somewhere between 10 and 23 minutes. Which schedule of reinforcement best matches the program Mrs. Ogg is writing?

['(A)Fixed-ratio schedule', '(B)Variable-interval schedule', '(C)Fixed-interval schedule', '(D)Variable-ratio schedule', '(E)Variable-frequency schedule']

(C)In operant conditioning, a punishment decreases the chances that the original behavior will be repeated. Mr. Stibbons may intend for the lecture to be punishing. Since his son repeated the original behavior, though, the lecture is probably not a punishment. Choice A includes the phrase “center of attention,” and the example doesn’t include any details that justify that conclusion. Choice B is factually incorrect. There may be a classical conditioned relationship between frustration and crying. Choice D uses the term “negative reinforcement” incorrectly, so it is also factually incorrect. Choice E may be true, but the example doesn’t provide enough details to justify that conclusion as the best choice.

Dr. Reiman is developing the new summer reading program for children at her library. A few other librarians suggest giving the children ice cream coupons for every book they read. Dr. Reiman decides against this idea because she is concerned that giving rewards might decrease the children's intrinsic motivation to read. What learning principle supports Dr. Reiman's decision?

['(A)Overjustification effect', '(B)Primary reinforcement', '(C)Secondary reinforcement', '(D)Latent learning effect', '(E)Proactive interference']

(A)This is an example of negative reinforcement because a stimulus was removed (the students’ disruptive behaviors) and Mrs. Whitlow repeated the behavior (having students use laptops). Positive reinforcement, choice B, is incorrect because a stimulus was removed, not added. Aversion training, choice C, is a term used in the context of treating psychological disorders. Positive modeling (choice D) and engagement strategy (choice E) are not psychological terms.

Jason watches his brother Shawn sneak downstairs to play video games after they were both supposed to be in bed. Their parents don't wake up. Shawn comes back upstairs an hour later, says that playing the games was a lot of fun, and does not get in trouble. A few nights later, Jason sneaks downstairs to play video games. What kind of learning most influences Jason in this scenario?

['(A)Positive reinforcement', '(B)Vicarious reward', '(C)Observational learning', '(D)Obedience training', '(E)Permissive parenting style']

(E)Ms. Brevis can use a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement to maintain the desired behavior (the cat jumping into her lap) by not giving a food treat (positive reinforcement) every time the cat jumps into her lap. Now that the behavior is established, Ms. Brevis can give her cat a treat only after the cat does the desired behavior twice. Then she can wait until the cat does the behavior three times to give the reinforcement. Ms. Brevis can continue to increase this ratio until the cat has to jump up ten times (for example) before receiving a treat. In this way, Ms. Brevis maintains the desired conditioned behavior but does not have to give too many cat treats. Choice A is incorrect because operant conditioning will better maintain the desired behavior. In addition, training the cat to jump into her lap using classical conditioning will be difficult to impossible. Choices B and D don’t make sense in the context of this scenario. Choice C is incorrect because nothing in this scenario indicates that negative reinforcement will be practical. To use negative reinforcement, Ms. Brevis would have to remove a stimulus that would cause the cat to jump into her lap. Imagining what that stimulus might be is difficult.

Olaf is the ringmaster at a local circus. He specializes is training small dogs to do amazing tricks, such as pulling open a file cabinet, getting out a file, balancing a sugar bowl on the nose, and serving Olaf a plate of salmon. You ask Olaf how he trains the dogs. He responds, "It's not that hard. I just wait to reward them when they do anything even close to what I want them to do, then reward them each time they get a little closer, and eventually I get them to do exactly what I want." What behavioral technique is Olaf describing?

['(A)Generalization', '(B)Conservation', '(C)Structuralism', '(D)Shaping', '(E)Functionalism']

(B)The video poker machine described in the scenario delivers a reinforcement (a payout) after a winning hand and after a random amount of time between 10 and 23 minutes. This matches a variable-interval schedule—when a reinforcement is delivered after the desired behavior is performed and a variable amount of time has passed. This scenario is not a fixed-ratio schedule, choice A, because the reinforcement is not delivered after a specific number of times the desired behavior has been performed. The scenario is not a fixed-interval schedule, choice C, because the time between reinforcement varies. This scenario is not a variable-ratio schedule, choice D, because the reinforcement is not delivered after a variable number of times the desired behavior has been performed. Choice E is not a psychological term.

Which of the following researchers was most involved with the earliest research into classical conditioning?

['(A)Ivan Pavlov', '(B)John Watson', '(C)Robert Rescorla', '(D)John Garcia', '(E)B. F. Skinner']

(A)If someone is already intrinsically motivated to perform a behavior (such as a child who loves reading), giving that person a reward (positive reinforcement) can decrease that intrinsic motivation. This is the overjustification effect. Primary reinforcement, choice B, does not help explain this scenario. Ice cream is a primary reinforcement. It doesn’t, though, support Dr. Reiman’s decision. Secondary reinforcement, choice C, does not help explain this scenario. The coupon is an example of a secondary reinforcement. It doesn’t, though, support Dr. Reiman’s decision. Latent learning effect (choice D) and proactive interference (choice E) refer to cognitive processes that do not relate to the reward scenario described in the question.

Which of the following psychologists is most associated with operant conditioning research?

['(A)Ivan Pavlov', '(B)John Watson', '(C)Robert Rescorla', '(D)John Garcia', '(E)B. F. Skinner']

(C)Jason is most influenced by observational learning in this scenario. He watches the behavior of his brother and whether his brother Shawn is rewarded or punished. These observations may influence Jason’s behaviors in the future. Positive reinforcement, choice A, is incorrect because Jason is never rewarded or punished for his behavior. Instead, he just watches Shawn as a model. Vicarious reward (choice B) and obedience training (choice D) are not psychological terms. Permissive parenting style, choice E, is not relevant to this example because no information is presented in the scenario about parenting style.

Which of the following psychologists is most associated with establishing the behaviorist perspective as a dominant force in psychological thinking?

['(A)Ivan Pavlov', '(B)John Watson', '(C)Robert Rescorla', '(D)John Garcia', '(E)B. F. Skinner']

(D)Shaping occurs when a trainer provides a positive reinforcement whenever the organism makes a small step toward the eventual desired behavior. The trainer waits until the organism gets a little closer to the desired behavior, and eventually shapes the organism toward the actual desired behavior. Generalization, choice A, is incorrect because the organism isn’t reacting to a similar conditioned stimulus or performing a similar behavior in order to get a reinforcement. Conservation, structuralism, and functionalism (choices B, C, and E) are psychological terms but are not relevant to the context of conditioning.

Which researcher is the most likely author of this quote? "Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness."

['(A)Ivan Pavlov', '(B)John Watson', '(C)Robert Rescorla', '(D)John Garcia', '(E)Albert Bandura']

(A)Ivan Pavlov’s research established the classical conditioning model. Other researchers used his initial findings to develop the current principles and vocabulary associated with classical conditioning. The researchers listed in choices B, C, D, and E participated in research related to conditioning but were not involved in the earliest research into classical conditioning.

Which of the following researchers would have been most interested in cognitive interpretations of external events?

['(A)Albert Bandura', '(B)John Watson', '(C)B. F. Skinner', '(D)John Garcia', '(E)Ivan Pavlov']

(E)B. F. Skinner is the most well-known operant conditioning researcher and one of the most well-known psychologists in history. His research using the Skinner box and other apparatuses established operant conditioning as one of the most important and dominant areas of psychology research for much of the 1900s. The researchers listed in choices A, B, C, and D participated in research related to conditioning but not primarily research into operant conditioning.

A researcher wants to investigate which conditioned responses are developed by children who grow up in extremely stressful homes. Which of the following research methods would the researcher need to use?

['(A)Experiment', '(B)Survey', '(C)Correlation', '(D)Case study', '(E)Random assignment']

(B)John Watson wrote the “Behaviorist Manifesto” in 1913. He argued that if researchers wanted psychology to be a science, they needed to restrict their studies to observable, measurable phenomena (like behavior). The researchers listed in choices A, C, D, and E participated in research related to conditioning. However, they were not primarily involved with arguing that behaviorism should be the dominant force in psychology.

Esmerelda is a psychology graduate student researching different kinds of positive reinforcements on the behavior of pigeons. She randomly separates the pigeons into two groups. Birds in group A get a food pellet for pecking the target disk. Birds in group B get sweet-flavored water for pecking the target disk. What is the most likely operational definition of the dependent variable in this study?

['(A)The amount of food or flavored water each pigeon consumes (B)The number of pigeons in group A versus the number in group B', '(C)The number of times a pigeon pecks the target disk', '(D)The operant-conditioned responses resulting from the positive reinforcements', '(E)The difference in the amount of time pigeons in group A spent in the Skinner box versus the amount of time those in group B spent in the Skinner box']

(B)This quote is from John Watson’s “Behaviorist Manifesto” (actual title: “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” in Psychological Review, 20, 158–177, 1913). In this essay, Watson argued that if psychology wanted to be a science, researchers needed to restrict their thinking to observable, measurable phenomena (like behavior). The researchers listed in choices A, C, D, and E participated in research related to learning. However, none of them is the most likely author for this quote. The quote makes an overall philosophical argument about the nature of psychology, and Watson is the psychologist most associated with that philosophical viewpoint.

One of the most common current psychological therapies combines principles of behaviorism (like positive reinforcement) with talk therapy that focuses on how clients interpret past events and the actions of others. What is this approach to treatment called?

['(A)Behavioral psychotherapy', '(B)Rational emotive treatment', '(C)Reciprocal determinism', '(D)Humanistic behavioral therapy', '(E)Cognitive-behavioral therapy']

(A)Albert Bandura’s research investigated observational learning and modeling. He developed the theory of reciprocal determinism, which included a patient’s cognitive interpretations and feelings as a crucial element in the theory. The researchers listed in choices B, C, D, and E were behaviorists and would not have been interested in cognition. Behaviorists thought that psychologists should study observable phenomena like behaviors rather than unobservable events like cognition.

Which of the following combinations of psychological perspectives emphasizes measuring observable phenomena carefully?

['(A)Humanism and psychoanalysis', '(B)Behaviorism and neuroscience', '(C)Cognitive and evolutionary', '(D)Structuralism and social-cultural', '(E)Incrementalism and psychometrics']

(D)In order to study this research question, this researcher would have to find children who grew up in extremely stressful homes. It would obviously be impossible (and very unethical) to “assign” children to a stressful home. In an experiment, choice A, the researcher must be able to assign participants to either an experimental or a control group. The survey method, choice B, would not be practical. Identifying enough children who grew up in extremely stressful homes would be difficult. Additionally, a survey would not provide useful data for this research question. A correlational study, choice C, requires correlating two variables, which isn’t the situation described in this question. Random assignment, choice E, is an element in the experimental method.

The graph below best illustrates which of the following?

['(A)The spacing effect', '(B)The impact of elaborative rehearsal on recall', "(C)Hermann Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve", '(D)The effect of visual imagery on retention', '(E)The serial position effect']

(C)The operational definition of the dependent variable is how the researcher measures (quantifies) the dependent variable. It is the effect of the independent variable. In this study, the independent variable is the kind of positive reinforcement. So, the dependent variable is how effective that reinforcer is at conditioning the pigeon. The number of times a pigeon pecks the target disk is a good way to measure the effectiveness of conditioning. The descriptions in choices A, B, D, and E don’t refer to measuring the dependent variable to determine the effectiveness of conditioning.

What are the three memory processes of the information-processing model?

['(A)Sensory, short-term, long-term', '(B)Shallow, intermediate, deep processing', '(C)Recall, recognition, relearning', '(D)Encoding, storage, retrieval', '(E)Space, time, frequency']

(E)Cognitive-behavioral therapy is a very commonly used treatment technique. It combines principles of conditioning (usually operant conditioning) with cognitive talk therapy. It strives to help clients change the ways they think about their past and how others treat them. Behavioral psychotherapy (choice A) and humanistic behavioral therapy (choice D) do not combine principles of behaviorism and the cognitive perspective as described in the question. Rational emotive treatment, choice B, is a type of cognitive therapy. However, it does not incorporate conditioning. Reciprocal determinism, choice C, is a theory associated with Albert Bandura. It is not a type of therapy.

Where are stored memories integrated with the information that is currently being processed?

['(A)Iconic memory', '(B)Explicit memory', '(C)Working memory', '(D)Echoic memory', "(E)Broca's area"]

(B)Both behaviorism and neuroscience emphasize the need to measure observable variables carefully. Behaviorists measure stimuli and physical responses. Biopsychologists measure neurological responses in the brain and elsewhere in the nervous system. (Biopsychologists also research the influence of genetics and the endocrine system.) Choices A, C, and D all include psychological perspectives. However, none of them focus exclusively on measuring observable phenomena. Note that structuralism in choice D is also a historical perspective, not a current one. The terms in choice E, incrementalism and psychometrics, do not refer to specific psychological perspectives.

Which of the following is an example of an explicit memory?

['(A)Robert can play a song on the piano without having to look at his fingers.', '(B)Jessica can text her friend without having to think about where the letters are located.', '(C)Pari can shift gears in her car and, at the same time, have a conversation with a passenger.', '(D)McRae recalls the winning season his football team had during his senior year in high school.', '(E)James can automatically do a flip turn in the swimming pool.']

(E)When recalling a list of terms, the first and last items in the list will likely be best remembered. This occurs because of increased rehearsal for items early in the list, called the primacy effect. Since the person has recently been exposed to the items at the end of the list, those items may still be stored in short-term memory. This is called the recency effect. Choice A, the spacing effect, refers to the increase in retention if practice is distributed over time. Elaborative rehearsal, choice B, does increase the likelihood that information will be transferred to long-term storage but is not demonstrated in this graph. Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve, choice C, demonstrated that forgetting occurs soon after repetition ends but that forgetting stabilizes over time. Visual imagery, choice D, can impact retention by providing additional retrieval cues. However, this is not illustrated in the graph.

Which of the following refers to sensory memories that are devoted to storing auditory information?

['(A)Iconic', '(B)Implicit', '(C)Explicit', '(D)Working', '(E)Echoic']

(D)The three processes necessary for memory formation are encoding—getting information into the information-processing system, storage—maintaining information over time, and retrieval—getting information out. Sensory, short-term, and long-term (choice A) refer to the three different memory systems. Shallow, intermediate, and deep processing (choice B) refer to how information is encoded into memory. Recall, recognition, and relearning (choice C) refer to how information is retrieved from long-term memory. Space, time, and frequency (choice E) refers to types of information that are automatically processed into the memory system.

Which of the following is an example of chunking?

['(A)Mentally placing items from your shopping list at specific points in your house and then later taking a mental walk around your house to help you recall where you put them', '(B)Grouping items on a shopping list as "frozen foods," "dairy," "fruits and vegetables," or "bakery"', '(C)Visually connecting items from your shopping list with a numbered list of rhyming words, such as "one is a bun" and "two is a shoe"', '(D)Rehearsing the items on your list for 5 minutes each day on Monday through Friday before your shopping trip on Saturday', '(E)Writing new lyrics to one of your favorite songs using the items on your shopping list']

(C)Working memory describes the active processing that occurs in short-term memory, such as the integration of information stored in long-term memory with current incoming information. Iconic memory, choice A, refers to visual sensory memory. Explicit memory, choice B, is a specific type of long-term memory that includes information for personal events or general information. Echoic memory, choice D, is auditory sensory memory. Broca’s area, choice E, is responsible for speech production and is located in the left frontal lobe.

Which region of the brain is primarily responsible for the formation of new memory?

['(A)Hippocampus', '(B)Amygdala', '(C)Cerebellum', '(D)Frontal lobe', '(E)Hypothalamus']

(D)Explicit memories are those that require conscious recall. They include memories for personal events and general information that have been learned over a lifetime. Choices A, B, C, and E all reflect implicit memories, which are those that occur without conscious awareness. Implicit memories include automatic skills.

Hearing the words "student," "bus," "desk," and "backpack" led to research participants more easily recalling the word "school," even though that word was not specifically mentioned. This demonstration best illustrates which of the following?

['(A)Source amnesia', '(B)Priming', '(C)Chunking', '(D)Flashbulb memory', '(E)Echoic memory']

(E)Echoic memory is auditory sensory memory. Iconic memory, choice A, is visual sensory memory. Implicit memory, choice B, includes automatic memories for skills. Explicit memories, choice C, are consciously recalled memories, such as for personal events. Working memory, choice D, is a part of short-term memory where current information is combined with long-term memories.

Which of the following examples most accurately illustrates mood congruent memory?

['(A)Megan accidentally left her grocery list at home. As she tried to recall it while at the store, she could remember the first and last few items but had difficulty remembering items in the middle.', "(B)After Brian's stroke, he could remember details from important events in his past but had difficulty forming new memories.", '(C)Lillian could recall exactly where she was and what her elementary school teacher said when the teacher announced to the class that President John F. Kennedy had been assassinated.', '(D)While feeling sad after breaking up with her boyfriend, Jen was flooded with memories of other heartbreaking events in her life.', '(E)When Angie studied her notes for her United States history class, she tried to tie the events to places she had recently visited on a family trip.']

(B)Chunking is the process of grouping items to aid in recall. Choice A refers to a memory mnemonic called the method of loci. Choice C is also a memory mnemonic called the peg word technique. Choice D may take advantage of the spacing effect to increase recall. Although choice E may help in recall by making the information more meaningful, it is not an example of chunking.

What is the primary difference between explicit memory and implicit memory?

['(A)Explicit memory refers to information already stored in long-term memory, and implicit memory is the ability to form new memories.', '(B)Explicit memories are stored in the cerebellum, while implicit memories are stored throughout the cerebral cortex.', '(C)Explicit memory is primarily encoded semantically, and implicit memory is encoded based on visual or auditory cues.', '(D)Explicit memories are primarily echoic, while implicit memories are primarily iconic.', '(E)Explicit memories must be deliberately and consciously recalled, while implicit memories are automatically and unconsciously recalled.']

(A)The hippocampus is the primary brain region responsible for memory formation. Damage to the hippocampus leads to anterograde amnesia, which is where a person loses the ability to form new memories. The amygdala, choice B, is primarily involved in the emotional responses of fear and anger. The cerebellum, choice C, is responsible not only for coordinating the movements to maintain balance but also for the storage of implicit memory. Choice D, the frontal lobe, contains the centers for reasoning and movement. The hypothalamus, choice E, regulates homeostasis and links the endocrine system to the nervous system.

Which of the following is the most accurate example of a procedural memory?

['(A)Recalling the names of all 50 states in the United States', '(B)Quizzing yourself on psychology terms before your big final exam', '(C)Riding your bicycle to school', "(D)Reciting a Shakespearean sonnet you've memorized for your English final exam (E)Telling your best friend about all the places you visited on your summer vacation 245.Which of the following is limited to holding approximately 7 units of information for up to 30 seconds?", '(A)Echoic memory', '(B)Iconic memory', '(C)Short-term memory', '(D)Semantic memory', '(E)Long-term memory']

(B)Priming occurs when exposure to particular stimuli—for example, the words “student,” “bus,” and so on—unconsciously activates retrieval of specific information, such as the word “school.” Source amnesia, choice A, occurs when the origins of stored information are misattributed. Chunking, choice C, is the grouping of information that increases the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory. A flashbulb memory, choice D, is formed for an emotional or a salient event and has an especially vivid quality. An echoic memory, choice E, is a brief sensory memory for auditory information.

The ability to focus on one aspect of the environment and block out others is called

['(A)framing.', '(B)confirmation bias.', '(C)homeostasis.', '(D)mental set.', '(E)selective attention.']

(D)Mood congruent memory occurs when our current mood acts as a retrieval cue. Thus, when Jen feels sad, mood congruent memory triggers the recall of other sad events in her life. Choice A refers to the serial position effect. Choice B illustrates anterograde amnesia, which is most likely due to damage to the hippocampus. Choice C is an example of a flashbulb memory. Choice E illustrates the deep processing of information as Angie tries to make the information she is learning personally meaningful.

The best example of a category is referred to as a

['(A)concept.', '(B)prototype.', '(C)phoneme.', '(D)morpheme.', '(E)schema.']

(E)Explicit memories require conscious processing. Deliberate effort is needed to locate the stored information about experienced events or acquired facts. Implicit memories become automatically recalled, often through practice. They can be accessed without our conscious awareness. Choice A incorrectly characterizes explicit and implicit memories as both of them are long-term memories. Choice B is incorrect because explicit memories are stored in the cerebral cortex and implicit memories are stored in the cerebellum. Choice C is incorrect because both types of memory can be encoded semantically, visually, or auditorily. Choice D is incorrect because echoic (auditory) and iconic (visual) memory are both types of sensory memory.

Answering questions on a multiple-choice exam requires that you narrow down your choices to one correct answer. This process is a good example of

['(A)trial and error.', '(B)functional fixedness.', '(C)divergent thinking.', '(D)incubation.', '(E)convergent thinking.']

(C)Procedural memories are implicit. This means they are performed automatically and involve performing a specific skill. Therefore, knowing how to ride a bike is a procedural memory. Choices A, B, D, and E are all examples of explicit memories for consciously recalled facts or personally experienced events.

Making delicious chocolate chip cookies requires that you carefully follow the steps of a recipe. This best illustrates the use of

['(A)trial and error.', '(B)mental set.', '(C)an algorithm.', '(D)belief perseverance.', '(E)a heuristic.']

(C)Short-term memory is limited to holding approximately 7 units of information (±2) for up to 30 seconds. Echoic memory, choice A, is a sensory memory system. Echoic (auditory) memory holds information for up to 4 seconds. Iconic memory, choice B, is also a sensory memory system. Iconic (visual) memory holds information for up to ½ second. Semantic memory, choice D, refers to information encoded in memory based on the information’s meaningfulness. Long-term memory, choice E, theoretically holds an unlimited amount of information for an indefinite period of time.

Which of the following is the best example of the use of a heuristic?

['(A)Following the step-by-step instructions to fix a washing machine', "(B)Brainstorming ideas for your next short-story assignment in English class (C)Trying on and discarding multiple pairs of shoes to find just the right pair to wear with a new outfit (D)Deciding that the 7-foot-tall man you saw at the grocery store must have played professional basketball (E)Wearing broken glasses because you didn't think about using a paper clip to fix them 251.Which of the following is the best example of confirmation bias?", "(A)When your car won't start, the first thing you check is your battery to see if you've left the lights on, just like you did last week.", "(B)When solving a math problem, you approach it the same way you've always done, even though it takes more time than using a different method and is ultimately not working.", "(C)When it's time to hang a new picture on the wall, you can't find a hammer so you use the heel of your shoe.", "(D)Although the members of Brett's baseball team had batting averages around 0.300 and his average was a poor 0.218, Brett still couldn't understand why the coach couldn't see what a great hitter he was.", '(E)Zoe believes climate change is a hoax. When writing a report, Zoe ignored data that supported climate change and focused on sources that supported her beliefs.']

(E)Selective attention refers to how we filter extraneous stimuli in order to focus on one aspect of our external world. Framing, choice A, refers to the way information is presented. For example, how a question is asked can impact the choice you give. Confirmation bias, choice B, happens when we look only for information that supports our previous beliefs. Homeostasis, choice C, refers to the way we maintain balance within the body, such as regulating body temperature or hunger. Mental set, choice D, occurs when we consider only solutions that have worked before when dealing with problems.

Executives are designing an advertising campaign for a new ice cream. One ad claims that the ice cream is "20% fat," while the other asserts that the product is "80% fat free." A sample of consumers in a market research study show a preference for the ice cream that is "80% fat free." The consumers' preference reflects the (A)spacing effect.

['(B)framing effect.', '(C)spotlight effect.', '(D)bystander effect.', '(E)placebo effect.']

(B)The prototype is the best example given of a category. Prototypes help us more effectively store and retrieve information by helping us link similar ideas. A concept, choice A, is a grouping of similar items, ideas, or people. Phonemes, choice C, are speech sounds that compose our language. Morphemes, choice D, are the smallest units of language that carry meaning, such as a suffix. A schema, choice E, is a complex set of categories that helps use organize our world.

What's the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic?

["(A)When you use an algorithm, a solution is always guaranteed. However, using heuristics doesn't always lead to successful problem solving.", '(B)Finding a solution takes more time when you use a heuristic than when you use an algorithm.', "(C)When you use an algorithm, you have a sudden realization of how to solve a problem. This doesn't happen when you use a heuristic.", '(D)Heuristics require that you follow a step-by-step procedure, while algorithms are mental shortcuts.', '(E)Using a heuristic is more likely to lead to creative thinking than is using an algorithm.']

(E)Convergent thinking requires searching for a single correct choice. Thus, completing a multiple-choice test requires that you eliminate possible choices to find the single correct choice. Trial and error, choice A, is a problem-solving device where you try various solutions until you find one that succeeds. Functional fixedness, choice B, hinders good problem solving because you become unable to see other uses for objects beyond the original intent. Divergent thinking, choice C, is the opposite of convergent thinking. Divergent thinking is the ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem (for example, brainstorming). Incubation, choice D, may promote insight into or the sudden realization of a solution to a problem. When you stop thinking about a problem for a while, the choice may suddenly become clear.

When asked to decide what leads to more deaths in the United States per year, tornadoes or lightning strikes, most people say tornadoes. However, lightning strikes actually lead to more deaths. Because tornadoes receive more nationwide attention and press, these may impact people's impressions. This example best illustrates (A)the representativeness heuristic.

['(B)belief perseverance.', '(C)the availability heuristic.', '(D)confirmation bias.', '(E)divergent thinking.']

(C)A step-by-step problem-solving strategy that guarantees a solution is called an algorithm. When you follow the step-by-step instructions of a recipe, you are using an algorithm. Trial and error, choice A, is a problem-solving device where you randomly try solutions until you find one that works. Mental set, choice B, can hinder good problem solving because you become limited to considering only solutions that have worked in the past. Belief perseverance, choice D, is also an obstacle to good problem solving because you cling to a belief despite contradictory evidence. A heuristic, choice E, is a problem-solving shortcut. Such a strategy may save time, but it doesn’t guarantee a successful outcome like an algorithm does.

The words "dine" and "dime" sound exactly the same except for the sounds "n" and "m." These sounds are different (A)phonemes.

['(B)morphemes.', '(C)prototypes.', '(D)memes.', '(E)mnemonics.']

(D)A heuristic is a rule of thumb or a decision-making shortcut. In choice D, you have decided that a 7-foot-tall man must be a basketball player because he fits your prototype. This is an example of the representativeness heuristic. Choice A illustrates the step-by-step process of an algorithm. Choice B is an example of divergent thinking that requires the generation of multiple solutions to a problem. Choice C is an example of trial-and-error problem solving. Choice E demonstrates functional fixedness. This is an obstacle to problem solving because we limit ourselves to seeing only one use for an object.

The words "antibody" and "antisocial" both contain the prefix "anti-," which means "opposite." A prefix is an example of

['(A)babbling.', '(B)a phoneme.', '(C)grammar.', '(D)a morpheme.', '(E)a prototype.']

(E)Confirmation bias occurs when we look only for evidence that supports our preconceived ideas. Thus, Zoe is looking only for evidence to support her view that climate change is a hoax. Choice A is an example of the availability heuristic. Since you left your lights on last week, it’s the first thing you think of today. Choice B reflects a mental set. When you continue to use a math solution that has worked in the past, even when it’s not working now, you are experiencing mental set. When we can’t see another use for an object other than what it was originally designed for, we are experiencing functional fixedness, which is choice C. As you use a shoe to hang a picture when you don’t have a hammer, you are demonstrating that you are not functionally fixed. Choice D reflects overconfidence, which is when a person’s belief in his or her own ability is greater than the person’s actual performance. Brett believes he is a great hitter, but his batting average tells a different story.

Saeed learned to speak Farsi as a child and immigrated to the United States when he was a teenager. As an adult, he is fluent in English but has difficulty pronouncing the "th" sound in the words "mother" and "father." When did Saeed lose the ability to discriminate and produce specific phonemes not found in his native language?

['(A)When he was prelinguistic', '(B)When he was cooing', '(C)When he was babbling', '(D)At the one-word stage', '(E)At the two-word stage']

(B)How information is presented or how a question is asked can impact the decisions we make. There is no difference between an ice cream that is 20% fat or that is 80% fat free. However, the way the ice cream is framed or described may make a difference for health-conscious consumers who are purchasing the ice cream. The spacing effect, choice A, occurs when recall improves because practice was distributed over time. The spotlight effect, choice C, happens when a person overestimates others’ interest in and memory of his or her appearance and behavior. Choice D, the bystander effect, decreases the likelihood of help when more individuals are present. The placebo effect, choice E, occurs when there is an improvement based solely on the belief in a treatment.

Micah has been practicing a piece for his piano recital for months. While playing, Micah has found that he can think about what happened at school and not lose his place in the piece. Micah's ability best illustrates which of the following?

['(A)Automatic processing', '(B)Framing', '(C)Cognitive dissonance', '(D)', '(E)Effortful processing']

(A)Algorithms are logical, step-by-step procedures used to solve problems. When you follow the rules of an algorithm, you are guaranteed to find a solution. In contrast, heuristics are mental shortcuts. Heuristics can save time but can lead to more problem-solving errors. Choice B, that heuristics take more time to find a solution, is incorrect. Instead, heuristics save time. Choice C, a sudden realization of a solution to a problem, refers to insight, not to the use of either algorithms or heuristics. Choice D is incorrect because it has the definitions of algorithms and heuristics backward. Algorithms use step-by-step procedures. Heuristics are mental shortcuts. Choice E is incorrect because creative thinking can be the result of using either an algorithm or a heuristic.

While Allison was watching a storm over the lake, a flash of lightning lit up the dark skies. Even though the flash of light disappeared from the sky quickly, Allison could still briefly "see" the light. It appears that this information was being held in Allison's

['(A)iconic memory.', '(B)short-term memory.', '(C)eidetic memory.', '(D)implicit memory.', '(E)flashbulb memory.']

(C)The availability heuristic involves judging the likelihood of an event on the basis of how easily examples of that event come to mind. Because tornadoes gain more national attention than lightning strikes, tornadoes are more likely to be the first thing a person thinks of in response to being asked what causes more deaths each year. The representativeness heuristic, choice A, is a mental shortcut we use when we make decisions about a current problem based on the prototype stored in memory. Belief perseverance, choice B, occurs when we cling to our previous beliefs even when evidence directly contradicts them. Confirmation bias, choice D, happens when we look for only supporting information and ignore information that contradicts our previous notions. Divergent thinking, choice E, is the process of searching for multiple solutions to solve a problem.

Audra is taking a multiple-choice test in her psychology class. Such a test is considered an example of (A)a recall test.

['(B)an implicit memory test.', '(C)a test of recognition.', '(D)an iconic memory test.', '(E)mood congruent memory.']

(A)Phonemes are speech sounds that are the basis for language. The speech sounds “n” and “m” differentiate these two almost identical words. Morphemes, choice B, are the smallest units of language that have meaning. Prototypes, choice C, are the best examples of a category. Memes, choice D, are ideas or trends that are culturally specific. Mnemonics, choice E, are memory devices that provide organization and/or visual cues that aid in memory recall.

Carrie finds that she remembers more when she studies 10 minutes each night instead of cramming the night before a test for 3 hours. Carrie is taking advantage of

['(A)the serial position effect.', '(B)the spacing effect.', '(C)semantic encoding.', '(D)the testing effect.', '(E)chunking.']

(D)A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning. A morpheme can be a word or a part of a word like a suffix or prefix. Babbling, choice A, is the first stage of language development where children practice phonemes (for example, “da da da da”). Phonemes, choice B, are speech sounds. Grammar, choice C, is the set of rules for word order, or syntax, that helps us derive meaning from sounds, called semantics. A prototype, choice E, is the best example of a category (for example, a robin may best represent the category of bird).

Researchers found that when a rat's hippocampus was removed a few hours after the animal had learned where to find a treat, the memory for the event did not form. What process has primarily been disrupted?

['(A)Chunking', '(B)Serial processing', '(C)Priming', '(D)Consolidation', '(E)Convergent thinking']

(C)At about 10 months of age, a child’s babbling starts to sound like the phonemes of his or her native language. Before that, infants can make any sound in any language. Children begin to specialize in the language that they hear. They also lose the ability to discriminate and produce speech sounds in other languages. Prelinguistic, choice A, refers to the time right after birth when babies communicate through crying. When infants begin cooing, choice B, they are making vowel sounds. The one-word stage, choice D, occurs when a child is typically 1 year of age. The two-word stage, choice E, occurs at 2 years of age. During these later stages, children are acquiring vocabulary and learning the rules of grammar.

Researchers used a ribbon to tie the ankle of a 3-month-old to a mobile hanging above a crib. The infant quickly learned that kicking his leg would make the mobile turn. When tested later, the infant kicked more when placed into the same crib. This finding best supports which of the following?

['(A)Serial position effect', '(B)Retroactive interference', '(C)Infantile amnesia', '(D)Context-dependent memory', '(E)Retrograde amnesia']

(A)Automatic processing does not require conscious attention. When a person practices something enough, it becomes automatic. Since Micah has been practicing the piano piece so often, his finger movements have become automatic. In fact, he no longer has to pay attention to playing the piano and can actually do something else at the same time, like think about school. Framing, choice B, is how information is presented. Cognitive dissonance, choice C, refers to the discomfort someone feels when two thoughts are inconsistent. Stimulus generalization, choice D, happens when an individual responds to a stimulus that is similar to an original conditioned stimulus. Choice E, effortful processing, refers to conscious, deliberate thinking that requires conscious effort.

Sara is studying for her psychology test. Which of the following methods is most likely to help her encode the information into long-term memory?

['(A)Repeating each concept 10 times', '(B)Grouping the concepts based on the letter each word starts with', '(C)Making flash cards of each word and its definition', '(D)Creating personal examples and connections to the newly learned information', '(E)Rewriting the concepts in different colors of ink']

(A)Iconic memory is visual sensory memory. Visual information, like the lightning flash, is held briefly in iconic memory. Then the information either decays quickly or is transferred to short-term memory. Choice B, short-term memory, stores 7 ± 2 units of information for up to 30 seconds. Choice C, eidetic or “photographic” memory, occurs when information is retained in great detail after limited exposure. Implicit memory, choice D, is memory for automatic processes, such as tying one’s shoes. Flashbulb memories, choice E, are typically detailed for salient and emotional events.

When you see your friend at lunch, she says, "I heard the best joke from my brother yesterday!" Then she tells you the same joke that you had told her yesterday. Your friend is most likely experiencing

['(A)mood congruent memory.', '(B)encoding failure.', '(C)source amnesia.', '(D)retrieval failure.', '(E)retrograde amnesia.']

(C)A recognition test, like a multiple-choice test, provides retrieval cues and is a test of familiarity. A recall test, choice A, requires memory reconstruction, such as an essay test. Implicit memory, choice B, does not require conscious thought, such as the ability to ride a bike. Iconic memory, choice D, is visual sensory memory. Mood congruent memory, choice E, occurs when our emotions act as retrieval cues for remembering personal events.

Cade accepted an invitation for a blind date. His date described herself as having a medium build with long, dark hair. As he waits to meet her at the coffee shop, he focuses only on people who match that description and ignores anyone who doesn't. This best illustrates

['(A)cognitive dissonance.', '(B)social facilitation.', '(C)mere exposure effect.', '(D)selective attention.', '(E)reciprocity norm.']

(B)When information is rehearsed repeatedly over time, recall is improved. This is called the spacing effect. The serial position effect, choice A, occurs when we recall items at the beginning and at the end of a list. Semantic encoding, choice C, refers to encoding information based on the information’s meaning. The testing effect, choice D, leads to improved recall due to repeated testing of learned information. Chunking, choice E, is the grouping of information into meaningful units to improve recall.

Which of the following is the best example of inattentional blindness?

['(A)Images disappear when they are projected on the part of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye.', '(B)You do not notice that your best friend is wearing a different shirt at the end of the school day than he wore during first period.', '(C)While sitting in a movie theater, the words "Buy popcorn" flash so quickly on the screen that you don\'t process them consciously. However, the message unconsciously influences you to get a snack.', "(D)You get in a car accident because you were texting and didn't notice that the car in front of you stopped.", '(E)When continually staring at a stabilized image of a triangle, parts of the image begin to fade and reappear.']

(D)The hippocampus appears to be the brain region responsible for the formation of new memories. Memory consolidation takes place during sleep when long-term storage of information occurs. Choice A, chunking, helps increase the capacity of short-term memory (by grouping individual memories into larger “chunks”). This is not the process referred to in this question. Serial processing, choice B, occurs when you focus on one aspect of a problem in a deliberate and conscious, step-by-step manner. Priming, choice C, occurs when you are exposed to a particular stimulus that unconsciously leads to the retrieval of specific information later. Convergent thinking, choice E, is a type of problem solving when you are looking for a single solution to a problem.

Merle refuses to get a yearly flu shot because she believes that she will get the flu from the vaccine, even though her doctor has explained that the virus is inactive and cannot make her sick. Merle's resistance best illustrates which of the following?

['(A)Belief perseverance', '(B)Framing', '(C)Cognitive dissonance', '(D)Trial and error', '(E)Misinformation effect']

(D)Content-dependent memory refers to situations when the encoding of information occurs in the same surroundings as where retrieval takes place. The external cue, or context, triggers our recall. Serial position effect, choice A, occurs when we can recall items at the beginning and end of a list but have difficulty recalling terms in the middle. Retroactive interference, choice B, happens when newly learned information blocks our ability to recall information previously learned. Infantile amnesia, choice C, refers to the fact that we have limited recall for personal events that occur before the age of three. Retrograde amnesia, choice E, occurs when individuals are unable to recall events from their past.

Which of the following best illustrates telegraphic speech?

['(A)"Mine!"', '(B)"I love you, Daddy."', '(C)"Mommy goed to the store."', '(D)"Mommy up!"', '(E)"My dolly is cold."']

(D)Deep processing improves memory recall. In this case, Sara is using elaborative rehearsal by adding personal details and meaning. This type of deep processing is more likely to transfer the information to long-term memory. Choice A relies on maintenance rehearsal. It may keep the information in short-term memory but does not ensure the transfer to long-term memory. Choices B and E rely on shallower processing based on the appearance or sounds of the letters. Making flash cards, choice C, is also a shallow processing method. This method is unlikely to help Sara encode the concepts semantically.

A stroke patient heard the following sentence, "The boy wore a brown belt." Afterward, the patient had difficulty in correctly answering the question, "What color was the belt?" Which brain area has most likely been impacted by damage caused by the stroke?

["(A)Broca's area", '(B)The motor cortex in the frontal lobe', "(C)Wernicke's area", '(D)The somatosensory cortex', '(E)The amygdala']

(C)Source amnesia happens when you can’t recall where you first acquired information stored in your memory. In this case, when your friend mistakenly says that the joke started with her brother instead of you, this is source amnesia. Mood congruent memory, choice A, occurs when a person’s current emotional state acts as a retrieval cue for stored information. Encoding failure, choice B, refers to when information is not stored in memory because you weren’t paying attention to it. Retrieval failure, choice D, happens when information is stored but can’t be pulled from long-term memory without a cue. Choice E, retrograde amnesia, is when a person loses memory of his or her past.

In a study conducted by Dan Simons and Daniel Levin, a confederate holding a map asked a random pedestrian for directions. As they talked, two people holding a door walked in between them. During the interruption, the confederate was replaced by one of the people holding the door. Fifty percent of pedestrians failed to notice they were talking to a different person. Which of the following concepts best explains their findings?

['(A)Belief perseverance', '(B)Change blindness', '(C)Episodic memory', '(D)Mental set', '(E)Source amnesia']

(D)Selective attention allows us to narrow our focus on only one aspect of the external world. Cognitive dissonance, choice A, occurs when we have two competing ideas that cause us internal discomfort. To reduce the discomfort, we must change our belief. Social facilitation, choice B, is shown when our performance improves because of the presence of others. The mere exposure effect, choice C, is demonstrated when our liking of an object increases when we are subjected to the object over time. The reciprocity norm, choice E, dictates that when someone helps us, we should help him or her in return.

Researchers have found that over 90% of American drivers believe they are better-than-average drivers. This belief can make them engage in more risky behaviors. This demonstrates the widespread impact of (A)mental set.

['(B)hindsight bias.', '(C)source amnesia.', '(D)overconfidence.', '(E)the misinformation effect.']

(D)Inattentional blindness happens when you are focused on one aspect of the environment and do not see another that is in plain view. Thus, while you were focused on texting, you didn’t notice that the car in front of you had stopped. Choice A refers to the blind spot. This region of the retina is where the optic nerve leaves the eye. Because there are no rods or cones there, an image that falls on this area disappears. Choice B is referring to change blindness, which is a form of inattentional blindness. Here, an obvious difference in the external world goes unnoticed. In this case, not noticing that your friend is wearing a different shirt later in the school day demonstrates change blindness. Choice C refers to a questionable claim that information presented below an absolute threshold can be unconsciously processed. Choice E refers to a study investigating sensory adaptation in vision. When a stimulus is unchanging, like staring continually at an image of a triangle, the sensory neurons decrease neural firing. This results in no longer “seeing” the complete image.

When research participants were asked to listen to a series of 15 numbers and then recall them, most remembered 7 numbers. This finding best supports the research of which of the following psychologists?

['(A)George Miller', '(B)Hermann Ebbinghaus', '(C)Alan Baddeley', '(D)Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin', '(E)Eric R. Kandel and James H. Schwartz']

(A)When we cling to our prior beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence, we are experiencing belief perseverance. Framing, choice B, refers to how information is presented or how a question is asked. Cognitive dissonance, choice C, happens when two thoughts, or our belief and behavior, are inconsistent and lead to discomfort. To reduce our discomfort, we must change what we believe or how we behave. Trial and error, choice D, is when you try a number of solutions to a problem until you find one that works. The misinformation effect, choice E, explains how misleading information can be incorporated into the gaps in memory to create false memories.

Hermann Ebbinghaus studied lists of nonsense words, such as BAZ and LUR. He was interested in investigating the impact of the passage of time on memory retention. Which of the following best represents his findings?

['(A) frapish dingbats galorine', '(B) ptert tret rtet rter', '(C) ret sub first quit', '(D) aft bash tiks world', '(E) for this get that']

(D)Telegraphic speech occurs during the two-word stage of language development when children communicate in grammatically correct sentences. Choice A better reflects the language of a child in the one-word stage. Choices B and E reflect more complex sentences not typical of telegraphic speech. Choice C is more complex speech and also demonstrates overregularization. After children have learned a grammatical rule, they will often misuse it. In this case, the child has learned to add “-ed” to make something past tense. However, this rule works with regular verbs, not irregular verbs as shown in this case.

Which of the following psychologists demonstrated how easily misleading information can be incorporated into our memories, leading to the creation of false recollections?

['(A)Hermann Ebbinghaus', '(B)Mary Cover Jones', '(C)Alan Baddeley', '(D)George Miller', '(E)Elizabeth Loftus']

(C)Wernicke’s area is associated with speech comprehension. Broca’s area, choice A, is primarily concerned with speech production. The motor cortex in the frontal lobe, choice B, focuses on generating the impulses that move our bodies. The somatosensory cortex, choice D, is located in the parietal lobe and is responsible for processing sensory information related to touch (for example, pain). The amygdala, choice E, plays an important role in emotional responses, such as anger.

Benjamin Lee Whorf believed that if a language does not have a way to communicate about the past, those who speak that language cannot think about the past. His belief is referred to as

['(A)aphasia.', '(B)linguistic determinism.', '(C)the language acquisition device.', '(D)a critical period.', '(E)receptive language.']

(B)When we fail to notice an obvious change in our environment, change blindness has occurred. Belief perseverance, choice A, happens when a person clings to his or her preconceived notions in the face of contradictory evidence. Episodic memory, choice C, is a type of explicit memory for personal events. Mental set, choice D, occurs when we continue to use a problem-solving strategy because it has worked for us in the past. Source amnesia, choice E, happens when we cannot recall where we learned information that we have stored in memory.

Wolfgang Köhler challenged a chimpanzee, Sultan, to solve a number of problems. For example, Sultan was placed into a cage with fruit placed outside of his reach. He could reach a stick, but it was too short to reach the fruit. After surveying the situation, Sultan suddenly used the shorter stick to pull a longer stick to him and then used that longer stick to get the fruit. Köhler demonstrated Sultan's use of (A)mental set.

['(B)framing.', '(C)an algorithm.', '(D)insight.', '(E)the availability heuristic.']

(D)Overconfidence occurs when we believe we know more than we actually do or can perform better than we actually can. For example, not every driver can be in the upper half of the distribution. Mental set, choice A, occurs when we continue to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past, even when they may not be effective now. Hindsight bias, choice B, is when we observe an outcome and feel that it was predictable. Source amnesia, choice C, occurs when we have difficulty recalling where we first learned information or when we attribute it to the wrong source. The misinformation effect, choice E, is the source of many of our false memories. When we experience a gap in memory, we often fill it with what makes sense in the context. This misinformation can be incorporated into memory and then become indistinguishable from real memories.

Who suggested that all humans have the inborn ability to learn grammar rules?

['(A)B. F. Skinner', '(B)Paul Broca', '(C)Carl Wernicke', '(D)Noam Chomsky', '(E)Benjamin Lee Whorf']

(A)George Miller referred to the number of units we can hold in short-term memory as the “magical number seven.” Hermann Ebbinghaus, choice B, is an early memory researcher known for his work on the forgetting curve. Alan Baddeley, choice C, is primarily known for his model of working memory. Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, choice D, proposed the three-stage model of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Eric R. Kandel and James H. Schwartz, choice E, revealed the physical basis for memory when they observed changes in the synaptic connections among neurons of a sea slug that was learning a new response.

In an experiment, researchers Loftus and Palmer (1974) asked a sample of 45 students from the University of Washington to watch a film of a car accident. Afterward, participants were asked either one of two questions: "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" or "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?". Loftus and Palmer found that participants who heard the word "smashed" estimated greater speeds. Which of the following is the dependent variable?

['(A)The number of participants', '(B)The location of the school the students attended', '(C)The wording of the questions asked', '(D)The reported speed of the cars', '(E)The educational level of the participants']

(B)Hermann Ebbinghaus found that at the time he first learned the nonsense words, he could immediately recall 100% of them. However, he found that memory loss occurred immediately after he stopped rehearsing the words. As time passed, memory loss stabilized as illustrated in the graph below. Choice A demonstrates a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement. On this intermittent schedule, a fixed amount of time must pass before reinforcement is given. An example of this is being paid for your work every two weeks. When reinforced on a fixed amount of time, the response rate falls off after each reinforcement and then picks up as the reinforcer approaches, creating the scalloped appearance of this illustration. Choice C represents a normal distribution of scores, called a normal or bell curve. Such a distribution is found when the data are clustered around the mean at the center of the curve and when fewer scores lie at the extremes. Choice D is a representation of the optimal level of arousal when doing either a difficult or an easy task. Performance of a task is best for difficult tasks when arousal is low. For easy tasks, best performance occurs when arousal levels are high. Choice E illustrates acquisition and extinction in classical conditioning. During the acquisition period, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is repeatedly paired with the conditioned stimulus (CS). For example, in Ivan Pavlov’s studies, meat powder (US) was paired with the sound of a metronome (CS). The learned or conditioned response (CR) became more likely to occur as the animal learned the association. In Pavlov’s experiment, salivation (CR) to the sound of the metronome (CS) increased. However, when the CS was presented over a number of trials without the US, the CR weakened and disappeared. This is called extinction.

In an experiment, researchers Loftus and Palmer (1974) asked a sample of 45 students from the University of Washington to watch a film of a car accident. Afterward, participants were asked either one of two questions: "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" or "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?". In Loftus and Palmer's experiment, participants were all students at the University of Washington. As a result, these subjects may not be representative of the general population. For example, students may be younger, have higher intelligence test scores, or have better memories than people in the average population. Such a concern best illustrates which of the following?

['(A)Confirmation bias', '(B)Experimenter bias', '(C)Interviewer bias', '(D)Sampling bias', '(E)Hindsight bias']

(E)Elizabeth Loftus’s groundbreaking studies demonstrated how malleable memory can be. Participants were given purposefully misleading information concerning a filmed car accident. These participants later altered their memories for the event. Loftus called this phenomenon the misinformation effect. Hermann Ebbinghaus, choice A, is an early memory researcher known for demonstrating how quickly memory decays after rehearsal ends, called the forgetting curve. Mary Cover Jones, choice B, is an early behaviorist who applied classical conditioning principles to help children overcome naturally occurring fears. Alan Baddeley, choice C, is known for expanding our understanding of working memory. George Miller, choice D, is known for his research suggesting that short-term memory is limited to holding 7 units of information (“the magical number seven”).

Researchers asked college females to judge the attractiveness of male faces on a 9-point scale. While looking at each face, participants were presented with either a pleasant or unpleasant scent. Participants rated the faces as being less attractive when presented with an unpleasant scent. What is the independent variable in this study?

['(A)The gender of the participants', '(B)The ability of the participants to recall the faces', '(C)Exposure to either a pleasant or an unpleasant scent', '(D)The attractiveness rating given to each picture', '(E)The educational level of the subjects']

(B)Benjamin Lee Whorf’s linguistic determinism suggests that our language shapes the way we conceptualize the world. Aphasia, choice A, refers to language impairment due to damage in either Broca’s or Wernicke’s area. The language acquisition device, choice C, was suggested by Noam Chomsky to explain how language is innately acquired. A critical period, choice D, refers to a period during development when specific events must take place. Less-than-ideal conditions during that time may lead to developmental delay. Receptive language, choice E, refers to the language children understand before they can speak.

Researchers asked 10-and 12-year-old children to write text messages describing ten scenarios (for example, telling a friend that children missed the bus and would be late). Participants who used more textisms, such as abbreviations or symbols, tended to score more highly on a reading task. What is the primary reason why researchers should be cautious before concluding that using textisms causes greater reading ability?

['(A)This is a correlational study, so the subjects have not been randomly assigned to differing conditions to determine if a possible cause-and-effect relationship is present.', '(B)Using children in research is unethical because they cannot give researchers their informed consent prior to participating in the experiment.', '(C)In an experiment, confounding variables, like age, should be controlled or they would make it difficult to determine if a cause-and-effect relationship exists.', '(D)This is an experiment conducted in an artificial environment. To know if there is cause and effect, researchers need to consider text messages written by children in their everyday lives.', '(E)This is a case study, which is a descriptive research method and cannot be used to determine cause and effect.']

(D)Sultan used insight, which is also called the “aha experience.” Insight occurs when we have suddenly realized the solution to a problem. Mental set, choice A, can be detrimental to good decision making as we have a tendency to rely on solutions that have worked for us in our past. Framing, choice B, is how information is presented that can impact our decisions. An algorithm, choice C, is a systematic decision-making strategy that guarantees a successful outcome. We use the availability heuristic, choice E, when we judge the probability of an event based on our past experiences.

Participants in a research study played a game where they were given the numbers 2, 4, 6. Participants were then asked to propose three other numbers to see if they could determine the rule behind the given numbers. Researchers found that the majority of their participants proposed sets of numbers such as "4, 8, 10," "6, 8, 12," or "20, 22, 24" based on their hypothesis that the rule was a "sequence of even numbers." Once the participants felt they knew the rule, they proposed only sequences that supported their incorrect beliefs. The correct rule was just three increasing numbers, meaning that 7, 9, 11 satisfies the rule. This research study best demonstrates

['(A)insight.', '(B)confirmation bias.', '(C)functional fixedness.', '(D)framing.', '(E)misinformation effect.']

(D)Noam Chomsky is a nativist who believes that all humans have an inborn ability to acquire grammar rules. B. F. Skinner, choice A, argued that language is learned through interactions with others in the environment. Paul Broca, choice B, suggested that the ability to produce speech is centered in a region located in the left frontal lobe. Carl Wernicke, choice C, argued that our ability to comprehend language is concentrated in a region in the left temporal lobe. Benjamin Lee Whorf, choice E, suggested that language fundamentally shapes our ability to perceive the world.

H. M. underwent brain surgery to stop his epileptic seizures. However, he experienced severe amnesia as a result. To investigate his remaining abilities, researchers asked H. M. to trace the outline of a 5-pointed star while watching his hand in a mirror. H. M. could not remember doing the task. However, his performance improved. These findings suggest that

['(A)people have implicit and explicit memory systems.', '(B)deep processing leads to better memory retention than does shallow processing.', '(C)retrograde amnesia appears to be caused by damage to the hippocampus.', '(D)selective attention is vital to the encoding of new memories.', '(E)proactive interference hinders the ability to recall new information.']

(D)The speed of the cars reported by the students is the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the measured outcome in the experiment. Choice A, the number of participants, is not manipulated between groups. Therefore, it is not an independent variable. Choices B and E, where students attended school and their educational levels, respectively, refer to potential confounding variables. The independent variable, choice C, is the factor manipulated in the experiment. The wording of the question differs for different groups.

H. M. underwent brain surgery to stop his epileptic seizures. However, he experienced severe amnesia as a result. To investigate his remaining abilities, researchers asked H. M. to trace the outline of a 5-pointed star while watching his hand in a mirror. Which of the following was used in the long-term study of H. M.'s memory abilities?

['(A)Correlational study', '(B)Cross-sectional study', '(C)Case study', '(D)Survey', '(E)Randomization']

(D)Sampling bias occurs when participants in an experiment are not representative of the general population. Since participants in Loftus and Palmer’s experiment were all college students from the University of Washington, they are not representative of the general population across a number of characteristics, such as age or education. Confirmation bias, choice A, occurs when an individual seeks only information that supports his or her preconceived ideas. Experimenter bias, choice B, refers to when a researcher’s preconceived ideas about the results of an experiment influences his or her actions. Interviewer bias, choice C, occurs when the interviewer influences what the subject says by subtly communicating his or her expectations through, for example, the phrasing of questions. Hindsight bias, choice E, occurs when we perceive that the outcome of an event was predictable and we believe that we “knew it all along.”

Dr. Simonds is a psychologist interested in the techniques students use to improve their memory for class content. Dr. Simonds is most likely which type of psychologist?

['(A)Biological', '(B)Cognitive', '(C)Evolutionary', '(D)Sociocultural', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(C)Exposure to either a pleasant or an unpleasant scent is the independent variable as it is the factor that is manipulated. The gender of the participants (choice A) and the educational level of the subjects (choice E) are both subject variables. They can act as potentially confounding variables but are not manipulated in this study. The dependent variable is the outcome or what is measured in the experiment. In this case, it is participants’ attractiveness rating on a scale of 1–9. Therefore, choice D is the dependent variable. Choice B, the ability to recall the pictures, is incorrect because it is not the outcome of the manipulation.

B. F. Skinner believed that children learn language by associating words with meanings. The association is formed when a child is positively reinforced for saying a word or phrase correctly. B. F. Skinner's ideas best represent which of the following psychological perspectives?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Social-cultural', '(C)Sociocultural', '(D)Behavioral', '(E)Psychodynamic']

(A)From the description of this study, it appears that the subjects were not randomly assigned to different experimental groups. Thus, it is most likely a correlational study. Since there is no manipulation of an independent variable under controlled conditions, researchers would not be able to conclude whether or not there is a cause-and-effect relationship between using textisms and reading ability. Choices B, C, and D are incorrect as this is not an experiment. Choice E is also incorrect as the described study is not a case study, which is an in-depth investigation into a single case.

As children acquire language, they overregularize grammatical rules, such as saying "tooths" instead of "teeth" or "foots" instead of "feet." This ability changes how which of the following perspectives views language development?

['(A)Cognitive', '(B)Behavioral', '(C)Evolutionary', '(D)Biological', '(E)Humanistic']

(B)Confirmation bias occurs when we seek out only information that supports our previous beliefs. Once the participants settled on the rule of a “sequence of even numbers,” they proposed only sets of numbers that supported that conclusion. Choice A, insight, occurs when we have a sudden realization of the solution to a problem. Choice C, functional fixedness, happens when we cannot see another way an object can be used. Framing, choice D, refers to how information is presented. The misinformation effect, choice E, happens when we fill in the gaps in our memories with what makes sense, leading to the creation of false memories.

Most intelligence tests have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Based on this information and on the IQ score distribution shown below, approximately what percentage of individuals are categorized as intellectually disabled?

['(A)0.1', '(B)2.1', '(C)14', '(D)16.1', '(E)34']

(A)Explicit memories for personal events and factual information require conscious recall. These memories are processed by the hippocampus. Implicit memories for skills are automatically recalled and are stored in the cerebellum. In H. M.’s case, he cannot recall doing the puzzle because of the damage done during surgery to his hippocampus. The puzzle is a task. H. M.’s performance can improve with practice and become more automatic; thus, it is implicit. Choices B, C, D, and E are not reflected in the differences in the abilities H. M. demonstrated during testing.

Intelligence that is reflected in tests of mental ability, as suggested by Charles Spearman, is called

['(A)practical intelligence.', '(B)multiple intelligences.', '(C)crystallized intelligence.', '(D)general intelligence (g).', '(E)the Flynn effect.']

(C)The case study was the research method employed in the long-term study of H. M.’s memory abilities. A case study is an in-depth investigation of a single unique case. A cross-sectional study, choice B, involves the collection of data from individuals of different ages at a set point in time. There is no indication that any correlational analysis, choice A, was performed. Correlational analysis looks at how one variable changes as a second variable changes. A survey, choice D, is a descriptive research method that allows researchers to collect self-report data from a sample of a population. Randomization, choice E, refers to the process of collecting data using a chance method.

Factor analysis (A)is a statistical procedure that allows researchers to identify clusters of abilities.

['(B)is used to sample from the population randomly.', '(C)allows researchers to determine if the difference in group scores is statistically significant.', '(D)is used to compute the standard deviation for a distribution of test scores.', '(E)is used to determine the reliability of intelligence tests.']

(B)Cognitive psychologists are interested in how we process and store information, make decisions, and interpret events. Since Dr. Simonds is interested in techniques students use to improve memory, Dr. Simonds is most likely a cognitive psychologist. Biological psychologists, choice A, center on the workings of the nervous system in explaining human behavior. Evolutionary psychologists, choice C, explain human behavior through natural selection. Sociocultural psychologists, choice D, are sensitive to the social and cultural contexts that influence behavior. Psychodynamic psychologists, choice E, focus on unconscious motives to explain human behavior.

Howard Gardner suggested that an individual who excels at mentally manipulating objects and enjoys creating and interpreting visual images exhibits which of the following types of intelligence?

['(A)Bodily-kinesthetic', '(B)Crystallized', '(C)Spatial', '(D)Practical', '(E)Logical-mathematical']

(D)The behavioral perspective, of which B. F. Skinner was a pioneer, concentrates on how we learn our behaviors from the environment. Skinner proposed that a primary way in which we learn is operant conditioning—learning behavior through either reinforcement or punishment. The cognitive perspective, choice A, focuses on internal mental processes, such as problem solving and language. Choice B is incorrect because B. F. Skinner did not describe how language was influenced by any sociocultural factors. Biological psychologists, choice C, focus on how the functioning of the nervous system produces thoughts and behavior. The psychodynamic perspective, choice E, was founded on the beliefs of Sigmund Freud and focus primarily on the role of unconscious forces on behavior.

Robert Sternberg suggested that we have a type of intelligence that is not learned through training, is not found in books, and requires the individual to rely on personal experience to solve new problems. This triarchic intelligence is referred to as (A)analytic intelligence.

['(B)general intelligence.', '(C)creative intelligence.', '(D)emotional intelligence.', '(E)practical intelligence.']

(B)Behavioral psychologists, like B. F. Skinner, proposed that we learn language through our interactions with the environment. These interactions may include learning associations between words and meanings through operant conditioning or learning by observation. If children imitate the language of adults in their environment, they would not be hearing words such as “tooths” or “foots.” Thus, overgeneralization reflects a greater sophistication of language use than behaviorists assumed. Cognitive psychologists, choice A, focus on how we perceive and interpret the world. They focus on the schemas children develop about their world, including the grammatical templates they create and practice. The evolutionary perspective, choice C, attempts to explain the origin of adaptive human traits through the process of natural selection. Biological psychologists, choice D, focus on how the functioning of the nervous system produces our thoughts and behavior. Humanistic psychologists, choice E, emphasize our potential for growth and self-fulfillment.

Which of the following is most similar to Spearman's concept of g?

['(A)Interpersonal intelligence', '(B)Analytical intelligence', '(C)Emotional intelligence', '(D)The Flynn effect', '(E)Existential intelligence']

(B)Intellectual disability is defined as scoring below 70 on a standardized intelligence test. Scores on such tests tend to be normally distributed, with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Based on this information, below 70 is 2 standard deviations below the mean. Thus, 2% + 0.1% = 2.1%. Choice A (0.1) is incorrect as it represents only the scores falling below 3 standard deviations below the mean. Choice C (14) is incorrect as it reflects the scores falling between 1 and 2 standard deviations below the mean. Choice D (16.1) is incorrect as it represents the scores falling below 1 standard deviation from the mean (14% + 2% + 0.1% = 16.1%). Choice E (34) is incorrect as it signifies the scores 1 standard deviation below the mean.

Of the following, who demonstrates a high level of emotional intelligence?

['(A)Ken, an architect, enjoys the challenge of designing functional and beautiful buildings.', '(B)Rik, a professional basketball player, is known for his agility and ability to handle the ball.', '(C)Jane, a writer, reviews local concerts and musicals for the local news.', '(D)Jim, a psychologist, investigates the relationship between brain development and learning.', '(E)Elizabeth, an office manager, skillfully handles conflicts among employees.']

(D)Charles Spearman proposed the idea of general intelligence (g) that refers to the mental abilities that underlie all intelligent behavior. Practical intelligence, choice A, is a type of intelligence, suggested by Robert Sternberg, that reflects our street smarts. Multiple intelligences, choice B, was first proposed by Howard Gardner. He suggested that intelligence is composed of 8 separate intelligences, including kinesthetic and intrapersonal intelligence. Crystallized intelligence, choice C, was proposed by Raymond Cattell and refers to knowledge gained through experience. The Flynn effect, choice E, refers to the increase in intelligence test scores over time.

An achievement test (A)quantifies the abilities associated with high levels of emotional intelligence.

["(B)assesses the skills associated with Sternberg's concept of creative intelligence.", '(C)figures the standard deviation in a distribution of intelligence test scores.', '(D)determines the reliability of an assessment tool.', "(E)measures an individual's level of knowledge or skill in a specific area."]

(A)Factor analysis allows researchers to examine patterns in test scores statistically. Intelligence tests tend to measure a number of abilities. Some questions may assess memory abilities, and others might measure processing speed. Factor analysis looks to see if there is a relationship, or correlation, between different items on a test. In other words, if someone scores high on memory-related items, will the person also score high on items measuring processing speed? Charles Spearman believed that if you scored high on one ability, you would also score high on others. He explained that all intelligent behavior has the same underlying factor. He called this g, or general intelligence. Factor analysis could not be used for the purposes described in choices B, C, D, or E.

Which of the following refers to the measure of a person's intellectual attainment based on the age at which it takes the average person to achieve that same level?

['(A)Aptitude', '(B)Mental age', '(C)Criterion', '(D)Intrapersonal intelligence', '(E)General intelligence']

(C)Those with spatial intelligence do extremely well with tasks requiring the ability to think in three dimensions. Such individuals do well at both creating visual images and interpreting them, such as creating art or solving puzzles. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, choice A, is seen in those who have good hand-eye coordination and high physical agility, such as professional athletes. Crystallized intelligence, choice B, refers to knowledge gained over a lifetime of experiences. Practical intelligence, choice D, is illustrated in a person’s ability to apply his or her skills to everyday problems that confront the person. Logical-mathematical intelligence, choice E, is the type of intelligence needed for scientific reasoning and for performing mathematical calculations.

If an 8-year-old child does as well as the average 10-year-old child on an intelligence test, the 8-year-old child would have an IQ of

['(A)80', '(B)100', '(C)110', '(D)125', '(E)150']

(E)Practical intelligence is often referred to as street smarts. Such intelligence is gained through experience. Analytic intelligence, choice A, is the type of intelligence learned in books. It refers to our ability to solve complex hypothetical problems. General intelligence, choice B, is often referred to as g. This refers to the underlying ability we possess that allows us to engage in intelligent behavior. Creative intelligence, choice C, is another part of Sternberg’s triarchic theory. This type of intelligence allows us to go beyond what is found in a book to generate novel solutions to everyday problems. Emotional intelligence, choice D, is a sensitivity to our own emotions and the ability to regulate those emotions. It also allows us to understand the feelings of others and respond appropriately to their emotional needs.

If an intelligence test is pretested with a representative sample, the test is

['(A)undergoing factor analysis.', '(B)being evaluated for its content validity.', '(C)determining heritability of intelligence.', '(D)undergoing a check on its reliability.', '(E)being standardized.']

(B)Analytical intelligence, as suggested by Robert Sternberg, is needed for scientific reasoning, perceiving cause and effect, and problem-solving abilities. These skills are also considered an important part of g, or general intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence, choice A, refers to the ability to relate well to others. Emotional intelligence, choice C, is our ability to perceive, understand, and manage our own emotions or those of others. The Flynn effect, choice D, refers to the increase in standardized intelligence test scores over time. Existential intelligence, choice E, is a proposed ninth intelligence from Howard Gardner. Those high in this intelligence are especially able to consider big questions about human existence and life’s meaning.

For an intelligence test with normally distributed scores, with a mean of 100, and with a standard deviation of 15, approximately what percentage of the population scored 70 and above?

['(A)34', '(B)50', '(C)68', '(D)84', '(E)98']

(E)Those high in emotional intelligence are adept at reading others’ emotional cues and know what to say when handling conflict. Thus Elizabeth, who can skillfully handle disagreements at work, demonstrates a high level of emotional intelligence. Ken’s ability to design buildings, choice A, reflects a high level of Gardner’s spatial intelligence. Rik’s skills on the basketball court, choice B, demonstrates a high level of Gardner’s bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Jane’s ability to discern musical skill, choice C, reflects Gardner’s idea of musical intelligence. Jim’s research abilities, choice D, suggest a high level of Gardner’s logical-mathematical intelligence.

The Flynn effect refers to the (A)negative impact of a test taker's expectations on performance.

['(B)relative impact of nature and of nurture on intelligence.', '(C)increase of intelligence test scores over time.', '(D)difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal testing of intelligence at different ages.', '(E)ability to predict school achievement based on a comparison of mental and chronological ages.']

(E)An achievement test measures what people have learned. For example, the AP Psychology exam, which attempts to gauge what you know about psychology, is an achievement test. Choices A and B measure specific underlying skills associated with a particular definition of intelligence. These skills would be largely unlearned. A specific mathematical formula, not an achievement test, is used to determine a standard deviation from a distribution of scores. Thus, choice C is incorrect. Many measures can be used to check the reliability of an assessment, choice D, such as the test-retest.

If an individual takes the same test multiple times and the scores are consistent, the test is considered to be (A)valid.

['(B)standardized.', '(C)heritable.', '(D)reliable.', '(E)positively skewed.']

(B)Mental age refers to the age when a child demonstrates intellectual performance like the average person at that same physical age. Aptitude, choice A, refers to an individual’s ability to learn. Criterion, choice C, is what a test is designed to measure. Intrapersonal intelligence, choice D, is one of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences. General intelligence, choice E, refers to the underlying abilities behind intelligent behavior.

The ability to think abstractly, reason quickly, identify patterns, and integrate information is referred to as

['(A)crystallized intelligence.', '(B)practical intelligence.', '(C)fluid intelligence.', '(D)intrapersonal intelligence.', '(E)savant syndrome.']

(D)The formula for determining the intelligence quotient (IQ) is In this case, Choice A, 80, incorrectly divides the chronological age by the mental age before multiplying by 100. Choice B, 100, is the IQ of someone whose mental age equals his or her chronological age. Choice C, 110, and choice E, 150, cannot result from the scenario provided.

Richard Lewontin designed a demonstration where genetically diverse seeds were planted into two different environments. He allowed them to grow to their full heights. One environment had barely enough light, water, and nutrients for the plants to survive. The other environment was ideal for plant growth. Lewontin suggested that the differing heights of the plants within one of the environments had to be due to the genetic differences in the seeds, and not the environment. This demonstration was developed to illustrate which of the following concepts?

['(A)Statistical significance', '(B)Heritability', '(C)Factor analysis', '(D)Predictive validity', '(E)Grit']

(E)When a test is standardized, it is pretested with a representative sample. This method allows individuals to compare their scores against the norm. Factor analysis, choice A, is a statistical measure that allows researchers to group similar abilities. A test has content validity, choice B, when questions measure the intended knowledge or characteristic. Heritability, choice C, refers to the percentage that a specific trait occurs in a population due to heredity. Reliability, choice D, concerns the consistency of test scores across different administrations.

When Sue's glasses broke while she was at school, she used a paper clip to hold them together until she could get them fixed. According to Robert Sternberg, Sue's solution shows a high level of which of the following intelligences?

['(A)Practical', '(B)Analytical', '(C)Bodily-kinesthetic', '(D)Spatial', '(E)Creative']

(E)In a set of scores that are normally distributed, 50% of the population scores above the mean. In this example, the mean is 100. With a standard deviation of 15, a score of 70 falls 2 standard deviations below the mean. Approximately 48% of the scores fall into this range (34% + 14% = 48%). Thus, 50% + 48% = 98%. The percentages listed in choices A, B, C, and D do not correspond to percentages as described by the normal curve in relation to the proportion of scores that are 2 standard deviations below the mean or higher.