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Arabic Machine Learning 260

طبلة الأذن جهاز سمعي | أذن تاريخسبتمبر 2011: تاريخ: سبتمبر 2011: طبلة الأذن Eardrum: أو الغشاء الطبلي Tympanic Membrane: هو غشاء حيوي رقيق يفصل الأذن الخارجية عن الأذن الوسطى لدى البشر و الفقاريات الأخرى. ووظيفته هي نقل الصوت من الهواء إلى داخل عظيمات الأذن الوسطى. عظم المطرقة يصل الفجوة بين طبلة الأذن والعظيمات الأخرى. يمكن أن يؤدي تمزق أو ثقب طبلة الأذن إلى فقدان السمع التوصيلي. التطور: التشريح: يتشكل الغشاء الطبلي مثل مخروط مستوي مشيرا إلى الداخل باتجاه الأذن الداخلية، ويتكون من ثلاث طبقات : * الجلد الجلدية * المشععة، ألياف الكولاجين الدائرية * المخاطية، ظهارة المظاهر الإكلينيكية: الثقب المتعمد: معرض الصور: External and middle ear, opened from the front. Right side. Horizontal section through left ear; upper half of section. The right membrana tympani with the hammer and the chorda tympani, viewed from within, from behind, and from above. Auditory tube, laid open by a cut in its long axis. Chain of ossicles and their ligaments, seen from the front in a vertical, transverse section of the tympanum. Right tympanic membrane as seen through a speculum. مراجع: ثبت المراجع:

Eardrum Auditory system | Ear Otheruses: dateMarch 2010: date: March 2010: The eardrum, or tympanic membrane, is a thin membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear in humans and other tetrapods. Its function is to transmit sound from the air to the ossicles inside the middle ear. The malleus bone bridges the gap between the eardrum and the other ossicles. Rupture or perforation of the eardrum can lead to conductive hearing loss. Collapse or retraction of the ear drum can also cause conductive hearing loss or even cholesteatoma. Intentional rupture: The Bajau people of the Pacific intentionally rupture their eardrums at an early age in order to facilitate diving and hunting at sea. Many older Bajau therefore have difficulties hearing. Gallery: External and middle ear, opened from the front. Right side. Horizontal section through left ear; upper half of section. The right membrana tympani with the hammer and the chorda tympani, viewed from within, from behind, and from above. Auditory tube, laid open by a cut in its long axis. Chain of ossicles and their ligaments, seen from the front in a vertical, transverse section of the tympanum. Right tympanic membrane as seen through a speculum. References: reflist:

Tympan (anatomie) Système auditif | Médecine de la plongée Tympan (homonymie): En anatomie, le tympan est une membrane fibreuse séparant l'oreille externe et l'oreille moyenne. Le tympan est chargé de récolter les vibrations dues aux sons arrivant par le conduit auditif externe, et de les transmettre à la chaîne ossiculaire. Morphologie : Le tympan a une forme arrondie légèrement plus étroite dans le sens antéropostérieur (sa hauteur est en moyenne de 10mm sa largueur de 8mm). Il n'est pas dans un plan sagittal mais regarde en avant en bas et en dehors. De ce fait, il a une surface plus grande que la section du conduit auditif externe, soit environ 60 mm². Le tympan n'est pas une membrane plane, mais a une forme de cône, dont le sommet, correspondant à lombilic du marteau, est déprimé vers l'intérieur de 2mm par rapport aux bords. Insertion : Le tympan s’insère dans le sillon tympanique (sulcus) par l’intermédiaire d’un bourrelet fibreux annulaire dit de Gerlach. Cet anneau, au niveau de l’échancrure de Rivinus, s’insère sur la courte apophyse du marteau en donnant les ligaments tympano-malléolaire antérieur et postérieur. Le tympan peut être visualisé grâce à un examen otoscopique. Le schéma suivant révèle les différentes parties du tympan : Galerie anatomie : Tympan droit normal message galerie: :::Légende du Schéma simplifié du tympan droit * Incisure de Rivinus * Pars flaccida * Manche du marteau (aussi appelé longue apophyse du marteau) * Pars tensa (membrane épidermique fibreuse) * Triangle lumineux de Politzer * Courte apophyse du marteau * Bourrelet fibro-cartilagineux annulaire de Gerlache * Ligaments tympano-malléolaires * Ombilic * Galerie pathologie image: |tympanosclérose du tympan Large perforation du tympan gauche image: Perforation tympanique droite : 1) Tympanoslérose 2) Manche du marteau 3) Tête de l’étrier message galerie: Structure : À partir des ligaments tympano-malléolaires on décrit deux parties : * la pars tensa : située au-dessous des ligaments, elle représente la majeure partie du tympan. Cette portion est la plus rigide. Elle est, de l’extérieur vers l’intérieur, constituée de trois couches : la couche épithéliale qui est la continuité de l'épithélium pavimenteux stratifié recouvrant l'oreille externe. la couche fibreuse, la lamina propria, contenant en grande partie des fibres de collagène très organisées, dans une grande quantité de substance fondamentale. Cette organisation permet au tympan d'avoir ses caractéristiques de plasticité et d'élasticité qui permettent aux sons de le faire entrer en vibration. la couche muqueuse : la plus interne est une muqueuse respiratoire de type épithélium cubique, qui recouvre toute l'oreille moyenne. * La pars flacida ou membrane de Schrapnell, au-dessus des ligaments, est de très petite taille mais dépourvue de la couche intermédiaire fibreuse, ce qui en fait un point de fragilité électif de l’édifice. Opérations chirurgicales sur le tympan : * Paracentèse (Petite chirurgie) On perce parfois les tympans lorsque cela s'avère nécessaire. Il s'agit d’un acte qui n’est pas anodin et qui répond à des critères précis, notamment dans ses indications et dans sa réalisation. Suivant les indications, la paracentèse peut se pratiquer sous anesthésie locale (par injection ou par contact) ou sous anesthésie générale, mais jamais à vif. C'est un acte préalable à l'implantation d'un drain transtympanique (ou diabolo). * Chirurgie Dans les chirurgies des osselets et surtout de l’étrier, l’accès à la chaine des osselets se fait en soulevant le tympan sous le sulcus, il n’est donc pas ouvert. Cette technique est également usitée pour les greffes simples. Dans les cas les plus complexes une "voie postérieure" est choisie pour permettre un accès large aux cavités de l'oreille moyenne. Cette voie nécessite le décollement du pavillon et une mastoïdectomie, à savoir un fraisage de la mastoïde. Palette Système auditif: Portail médecine:

إل باسو، تكساس مدن تكساس إل باسو (El Paso) مدينة أمريكية تقع في ولاية تكساس. وهي حاضرة مقاطعة إل باسو، وأكبر مدن منطقة غرب تكساس، وسادس أكبر مدن الولاية. حسب تقديرات عام 2005 عدد سكان المدينة 598590 نسمة. تقع المدينة على الحدود الأمريكية المكسيكية بالقرب من مدينة خواريز المكسيكية. توجد في المدينة جامعة تكساس في إل باسو التي تأسست في عام 1914 كمدرسة. مساحة المدينة 648.9 كم2: . اسم المدينة أخذ من عبارة "El Paso de Norte" (الطريق أو الممر نحو الشمال) والتي تشير إلى مدينة خواريز المكسيكية حالياً.

El Paso, Texas El Paso, Texas | Cities in Texas | County seats in Texas | Populated places in El Paso County, Texas | Populated places in Texas with Hispanic majority populations | Populated places established in 1659 | Place names of Spanish origin in the United States | Mexico–United States border towns | Butterfield Overland Mail El Paso: El Paso, is a city in and the county seat of El Paso County, Texas, United States, and lies in far West Texas. In the 2010 census, the city had a population of 649,121. It is the sixth largest city in Texas and the 19th largest city in the United States. Its metropolitan area covers all of El Paso County, whose population in the 2010 census was 800,647. El Paso stands on the Rio Grande (Río Bravo del Norte), across the border from Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico. The image to the right shows Downtown El Paso and Juárez, with the Juárez Mountains in the background. The two cities form a combined international metropolitan area, sometimes called Juarez-El Paso, with Juárez being the significantly larger of the two in population. Together they have a combined population of 2 million, with Juárez accounting for 2/3 of the population. In 2010 El Paso was awarded an All-America City Award, the oldest community recognition program in the United States. El Paso is home to the University of Texas at El Paso (founded in 1914 as The Texas State School of Mines and Metallurgy, and later, Texas Western College; its present name dates from 1967) and the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at El Paso. Fort Bliss, one of the largest military complexes of the United States Army, lies to the east and northeast of the city, with training areas extending north into New Mexico, up to the White Sands Missile Range and neighboring Holloman Air Force Base in Alamogordo. The Franklin Mountains extend into El Paso from the north and nearly divide the city into two sections, the western half forming the beginnings of the Mesilla Valley and with the eastern slopes connecting in the central business district at the south end of the mountain range. * History History of El Paso, Texas: The El Paso region has had human settlement for thousands of years, as evidenced by Folsom points from hunter-gatherers found at Hueco Tanks. The earliest known cultures in the region were maize farmers. At the time of the arrival of the Spanish the Manso, Suma, and Jumano tribes populated the area and were subsequently incorporated into the Mestizo culture in the area, along with immigrants from central Mexico, captives from Comanchería, and genízaros of various ethnic groups. The Mescalero Apache roamed the region as well. Spanish explorer Don Juan de Oñate was the first European explorer known to have arrived at the Rio Grande near El Paso, in 1598, celebrating Thanksgiving Mass there on April 30, 1598 (several decades before the Pilgrims' Thanksgiving). However, it is thought that the 4 survivors of the Narváez expedition passed through the area in the mid-1530s. El Paso del Norte (the present day Ciudad Juárez), was founded on the south bank of the Río Bravo del Norte, (Rio Grande) in 1659 by Spanish conquistadors. In 1680 the small village of El Paso became the base for Spanish governance of the territory of New Mexico, remaining the largest settlement in New Mexico until its cession to the US in 1848, when Texas took it in 1850. Present day El Paso City largely remained undeveloped during most of Spanish control. Instead, Spanish settlement was centered on El Paso del Norte (the present day Ciudad Juárez). Although, the Spanish Crown and the local authorities of El Paso del Norte had made several land concessions to bring agricultural production to the northern bank of the river in present day El Paso City, continual Indian raids and warfare overwhelmed any attempts. The Apache Wars and subsequent Comanche Wars left northern Mexico, then including present day New Mexico, Texas, Coahuila, in a state of perpetual instability. Consequently, present day Juárez remained the northern-most villa with the Río Bravo del Norte, (Rio Grande) and Apache attacks dissuading settlement and development north. The water of the river, the sand dunes to the south (médanos) and the fortifications at Paso del Norte and El Real de San Lorenzo, provided a natural defense against further raids although in some decades several thousand strong Apache armies made raids deep into Mexico, slaughtering the male population and enslaving the women and children. As a result, the Rio Grande proved a boundary line of actual Hispanic presence. Nonetheless, in the early years of Spanish power, several attempts were made which successfully colonized areas north for some decades. Being a grassland then, the Hispanic civilian and military population, and the small community of Spanish friars and their Amerindian wards ranched the area and developed small scale but successful agriculture consisting of vineyards and fruits. However, in 1680, after the successful Pueblo Revolt that decimated the Spanish colonies in northern New Mexico, Paso del Norte became the base for Spanish governance of the territory of New Mexico with the present-day El Paso remaining a neutral battle-ground. From El Paso, the Spaniards led by Diego de Vargas, grouped to recolonize the Spanish territory centered on Santa Fe stretching from Socorro to Taos. The Bourbon reforms of the eighteenth century affected the Paso del Norte region, as New Spain's enlightened bureaucrats deemed the region—with a thriving population of over 10,000 by mid-century—capable of self-defense. Viceregal troops garrisoned in the Presidio of Paso del Norte were redeployed elsewhere on New Spain's frontier. New policies of Indian gifting helped to stabilize relations with the Apaches and Comanches, providing a respite to El Paso's agriculturalist population. With the Mexican Constitution of 1824, part of present-day El Paso became the southernmost locality of the Territorio de Nuevo Mexico (modern New Mexico) and part of the newly-established state of Chihuahua. It communicated with Santa Fe and Mexico City by the Royal Road (Camino Real de Tierra Adentro). American spies, traders and fur trappers visited the area since 1804 and some intermarried with the area's Hispanic elite, as occurred with fur trapper, miner, and merchant Hugh Stephenson (1798–1870). Although there was no combat in the region during the Mexican Independence, Paso del Norte experienced the negative effects it had on its wine trade. The Texas Revolution (1836) was not felt in the region as the area was never considered part of Texas until 1848. As early as the mid 1840s, alongside long extant Hispanic settlements such as the Rancho de Juan María Ponce de León, Anglo settlers like Simeon Hart and Hugh Stephenson began to establish themselves. Stephenson, who had married into the local Hispanic aristocracy, established the Rancho de San José de la Concordia, which became the nucleus of Anglo and Hispanic settlement within the limits of modern-day El Paso, in 1844. Given the reclamations of the Texas Republic that wanted a chunk of the Santa Fe trade, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo effectively made the settlements on the north bank of the river a formal American settlement, separate from Old El Paso del Norte on the Mexican side. The present Texas–New Mexico boundary placing El Paso on the Texas side was drawn in the Compromise of 1850. El Paso County was established in March 1850, with San Elizario as the first county seat. The United States Senate fixed a boundary between Texas and New Mexico at the thirty-second parallel, thus largely ignoring history and topography. A military post called The Post opposite El Paso (meaning opposite El Paso del Norte, across the Rio Grande) was established in 1854. Further west, a settlement on Coons' Rancho called Franklin became the nucleus of the future El Paso, Texas. A year later pioneer Anson Mills completed his plan of the town, calling it El Paso. During the Civil War, there was a Confederate presence in the area until it was captured by the Union California Column in 1862. It was then headquarters for the 5th Regiment California Volunteer Infantry until December 1864. After the war was concluded, the town's population began to grow. El Paso was incorporated in 1873 and encompassed the small area communities that had developed along the river. With the arrival of the Southern Pacific, Texas and Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroads in 1881, the population boomed to 10,000 by the 1890 census attracting newcomers ranging from businessmen and priests, to gunfighters and prostitutes. El Paso became a violent and wild boomtown known as the "Six Shooter Capital" because of its lawlessness. Prostitution and gambling flourished until World War I, when the Department of the Army pressured El Paso authorities to crack down on vice (thus benefitting vice in neighboring Ciudad Juárez). The city developed into the premier manufacturing, transportation, and retail center of the U.S. Southwest. The Mexican Revolution greatly impacted the city, bringing an influx of refugees—and capital—to the bustling boom town. Spanish-language newspapers, theaters, movie houses, and schools were established, many supported by a thriving Mexican refugee middle class. Large numbers of clerics, intellectuals, and businessmen took refuge in the city, particularly between 1913 and 1915. The population exceeded 100,000. The Jesuit Order established a network of schools catering to the children of the Mexican community, and the large number of refugee floating population was attended by various philanthropic organizations, including the National Catholic Welfare Fund. Mining and other industries gradually developed in the area. The El Paso and Northeastern Railway was chartered in 1897, in order to help exploit the natural resources of surrounding ares, especially in southeastern New Mexico Territory. The Arizona and Southeastern Railroad was slowly extended towards El Paso (owned by the Phelps Dodge company), in order to allow the construction of a second copper refinery in El Paso to refine copper ore being produced in Arizona and southwestern New Mexico by Phelps Dodge. In 1901, the Arizona and Southeastern was re-named the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad, and the tracks finally reached El Paso in 1902. The 1920s and 1930s saw the emergence of major business development in the city partially enabled by Prohibition era bootlegging. The Depression era hit the city hard and population declined through the end of World War II. Following the war, military expansion in the area as well as oil discoveries in the Permian Basin (North America) helped to cause rapid economic expansion in the mid 1900s. Copper smelting, oil refining, and the proliferation of low wage industries (particularly garment making) led the city's growth. The expansion slowed again in the 1960s but the city has continued to grow in large part because of the increased importance of trade with Mexico. Geography: El Paso is located at (31.790208, -106.423242).1: It lies at the intersection of three states (Texas, New Mexico, and Chihuahua) and two countries (the USA and Mexico). It is the only major Texas city on Mountain Time. Ciudad Juárez used to be on Central Time, but both cities are now on Mountain Time. The city's elevation is 3,800 feet (1,140 m) above sea level. North Franklin Mountain is the highest peak in the city at above sea level. The peak can be seen from in all directions. Additionally, this mountain range is home to the famous natural red-clay formation, the Thunderbird, from which the local Coronado High School gets its mascot's name. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 250.5 square miles (648.9 km²). The Franklin Mountains State Park is the largest urban park in the United States and resides entirely in El Paso, extending from the north and dividing the city into several sections along with Fort Bliss and El Paso International Airport. The Rio Grande Rift, which passes around the southern end of the Franklin Mountains, is where the Rio Grande flows. The river defines the border between El Paso from Ciudad Juárez to the south and west until the river turns north of the border with Mexico, separating El Paso from Doña Ana County, New Mexico. Mt. Cristo Rey, a volcanic peak (an example of a pluton) rises within the Rio Grande Rift just to the west of El Paso on the New Mexico side of the Rio Grande. Other volcanic features include Kilbourne Hole and Hunt's Hole, which are Maar volcanic craters 30 miles (50 km) west of the Franklin Mountains. El Paso is surrounded by the Chihuahuan Desert, the easternmost section of the Basin and Range Region. Being in the westernmost tip of Texas, and due to the huge size of the state, El Paso is closer to four other state capitals (US and Mexican) than it is to its own capital of Austin, Texas (the other capitals being, Phoenix (Arizona), Santa Fe (New Mexico), neighboring Mexican city Chihuahua (Chihuahua), and Hermosillo (Sonora). dateJanuary 2011: date: January 2011: Areas: * Central El Paso ** Downtown El Paso ** Sunset Heights * East El Paso ** Ysleta * Far East El Paso-Montana Vista * Mission Valley El Paso (Lower Valley and Ysleta, Texas) * Northwest El Paso (Commonly known as West El Paso or Upper Valley) * Northeast El Paso * West Central El Paso With the city limits are traditional suburban areas that are located on the far eastern and western edges. Texas suburbs outside the city: * Anthony * Canutillo * Clint * Fabens * Homestead Meadows North * Homestead Meadows South * Horizon City * Montana Vista * San Elizario * Socorro * Sparks * Vinton * Tornillo * Westway New Mexico suburbs: Although New Mexican areas of Anthony, Sunland Park, and Chaparral lie adjacent to El Paso County, they are considered to be part of the Las Cruces, New Mexico metropolitan area by the United States Census Bureau. Both metro areas do however, share a large commuter population, and also a media market. * Anthony * Sunland Park * Chaparral Climate: El Paso has a hot desert climate (Koppen BWh) with very hot summers, usually with little or no humidity, and mild, dry winters. Rainfall averages per year, much of which occurs during the summer from July through September and is predominantly caused by the monsoon. During this period, southerly and southeasterly winds carry moisture from the Pacific, the Gulf of California, and the Gulf of Mexico into the region. When this moisture moves into the El Paso area and places to the southwest, orographic lift from the mountains, combined with strong daytime heating, causes thunderstorms, some severe enough to produce flash flooding and hail, across the region. The sun shines 302 days per year on average in El Paso, 83 percent of daylight hours, according to the El Paso Weather Bureau. It is from this that the city is nicknamed "The Sun City." Due to its dry climate, El Paso often experiences wind and dust storms during the spring, usually starting in March and lasting to early May. With an average wind speed of up to date: September 2010: with gusts that have been measured at over , dateSeptember 2010: these wind storms kick up large amounts of sand causing loss of visibility. El Paso, at elevation, is also capable of receiving snow; weather systems have produced over a foot of snow on several occasions. In 1980, three major snowstorms produced over a foot of snow; one in February, another in April and the last one in December, producing a white Christmas for the city. date: September 2010: A major snowstorm in December 1987 dumped over two feet (65 cm) of snow. One example of El Paso's varying climate was the winter storm of early February 2011, which caused closures of schools, businesses, and City Hall. The snow stopped after about a day, but then because of below freezing temperatures El Paso utilities went into a crisis. Electric wires were broken, causing area blackouts; many water utility pipes froze, causing areas of the city to be without water for several days. When the pipes thawed, water was unsafe to drink due to filtration systems not working, therefore schools were closed again.date: March 2011: Monthly means range from in January to in July, but the warmest highs are typically in June. There are 60 nights below freezing, 109 days at or above and 20 days above each year. The city's record high is , and its record low is , with weather records for the area maintained by the National Weather Service since 1879. * Flooding Although the average annual rainfall is only about 9 inches (225 mm), many parts of El Paso are subject to occasional flooding during intense summer monsoonal thunderstorms. In late July and early August 2006, over of rain fell in a week, overflowing all the flood-control reservoirs and causing major flooding city-wide. The city staff has estimated damage to public infrastructure as $21 million, and to private property (residential & commercial) as $77 million. Much of the damage was associated with development in recent decades in arroyos protected by flood-control dams and reservoirs, and the absence of any storm drain utility in the city to handle the flow of rain water. * Temperature statistics -: Cityscape: 10 Tallest Buildings in El Paso El Paso's tallest building, the Wells Fargo Plaza, was built in the early-1970s as State National Plaza. The black-windowed, building is famous for its 13 white horizonal lights (18 lights per row on the east and west sides of the building, and 7 bulbs per row on the north and south sides) that were lit at night. The tower did use a design of the United States flag during the 4th of July holidays as well as the American hostage crisis of 1980, and was lit continuously following the September 11 attacks in 2001 until around 2006. During the Christmas holidays, a design of a Christmas tree was used, and at times, the letters "UTEP" was used to support University of Texas at El Paso athletics. The tower is now only lit during the holiday months, or when special events take place in the city. Central Business Districts in Texas: : Demographics El Paso has historically been predominantly Hispanic. In the 1870s, a population of 23 Non-Hispanic whites and 150 Hispanics was reported. In 1916, the Census Bureau reported El Paso's population as 53% Hispanic and 44% non-Hispanic white. According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, the racial composition of El Paso was as follows: * White: 77.8% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 15.0%) * Black or African American: 3.1% * Native American: 0.5% * Asian: 1.2% * Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 0.1% * Some other race: 15.1% * Two or more races: 2.2% * Hispanic or Latino (of any race): 80.0% (Mexican: 75.0%) Source: As of the census2: of 2010, there were 649,121 people, 216,694 households, and 131,104 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,263.0 people per square mile (873.7/km²). There were 227,605 housing units at an average density of 777.5 per square mile (300.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 80.84% White, 3.39% African American, 0.73% Native American, 1.18% Asian, 0.14% Pacific Islander, 11.00% from other races, and 3.34% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 86.62% of the population. There are 182,063 households, out of which 42.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.6% were married couples living together, 18.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.5% were non-families. 19.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.07 and the average family size was 3.54. In the city the population was spread out with 31.0% under the age of 18, 10.0% from 18 to 24, 29.1% from 25 to 44, 19.2% from 45 to 64, and 10.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $32,124, and the median income for a family was $35,432. Males had a median income of $28,989 versus $21,540 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,388. About 19.0% of families and 22.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.8% of those under age 18 and 17.7% of those age 65 or over. According to the 2006 United States Census Bureau population estimates, the El Paso metropolitan area had a population of 736,310. In 2010 CQ Press ranked El Paso safest city in the U.S. with a population over 500,000. In 2010, many Mexicans fleeing drug violence in Ciudad Juarez settled in El Paso. Benjamin Sáenz, a novelist and a literature professor at the University of Texas at El Paso, said during that year that El Paso was "becoming a lot more Mexican and a lot less Chicano." * The Tigua Indians of Ysleta del Sur Pueblo Located between the cities of El Paso and Socorro lies the sovereign Ysleta del Sur Pueblo Nation, with its own governing body. It is one of the three Federally-recognized Indian tribes in Texas. The Tigua Indians have been at their present location since a successful Pueblo Revolt of 1680 that forced the Spaniards and New Spaniards (future Mexicans) to retreat south to present day Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua and El Paso. The tribe is led by a governor and a tribal council. Elections for tribal governor and tribal council are held once annually. As of January 2011, the governor is Frank Paiz. Government: Municipal : The city government is officially non-partisan; the county government is not. Mayors and City Council members may not serve for more than ten years in their respective offices. The current mayor of El Paso is John Cook, who defeated Mayor Joe Wardy in 2005 and was reelected in 2009. The current members of the El Paso City Council, who are elected every four years to staggered terms, are Emma Acosta (District 3), Susie Byrd (District 2), Steve Ortega (District 7), and Carl Robinson (District 4; Northeast), whose terms will end in 2013, and Eddie Holguin (District 6), Cortney Niland (District 8), Ann Lilly (District 1; Westside), and Dr. Mike Noe (District 5; Eastside), whose terms will end in 2015. Lilly, Byrd, Ortega, and Holguin, and have been on the council since 2005. Acosta has been on the council since 2008, Robinson since 2009, and Niland and Noe since 2011. Due to the term limits clause in the City Charter, several City Council members will not be eligible in the next election: Byrd, Holguin, Lilly, and Ortega, as well as Mayor Cook. According to city charter amendments approved on February 7, 2004, the city of El Paso operates under a council-manager form of government. This system combines the strong political leadership of elected officials, in the form of eight Council Members, with the strong managerial experience of an appointed local government manager. All power is concentrated in the elected council, which hires a professionally trained manager to carry out its directives and oversee the delivery of public services. Joyce Wilson was selected by the city council in 2004 as El Paso's first City Manager. * El Paso County The El Paso County Judge is Democrat Veronica Escobar, and the County Commissioners are as follows: Democrats Anna Perez (Precinct 1), Sergio Lewis (Precinct 2), Willie Gandara, Jr. (Precinct 3), and Republican Dan Haggerty (Precinct 4). Escobar and Lewis were first elected to their position in 2010, and have been in office since 2011. Perez and Gandara were first elected to their positions in 2008, and have been in office since 2009. Haggerty was first elected to his position in 1994, and has been in office since 1995. The El Paso County Sheriff is Richard Wiles, Democrat, since 2009. * State The Texas Department of Criminal Justice operates the El Paso I District Parole Office in the city. The El Paso II District Parole Office is in an unincorporated area east of Horizon City. * Texas Legislature El Paso City and County vote overwhelmingly Democratic, like most of the Texas–Mexico border area and urban Texas. The El Paso metropolitan area is represented in the Texas State House by Democrats Marisa Marquez, Chente Quintanilla, Naomi Gonzalez, and Joe Pickett, and Republican Dee Margo; and in the State Senate by José R. Rodríguez (D-El Paso). Quintanilla will not seek re-election in 2012. Federal: The El Paso metropolitan area is represented by Silvestre Reyes (D-El Paso), former chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, and Republican Quico Canseco (R-San Antonio) in the House of Representatives. The current U.S. Senators for Texas are Kay Bailey Hutchison (R-Texas) and John Cornyn (R-Texas), however the El Paso area has heavily voted against them in Senatorial elections. Economy: dateAugust 2010: El Paso is the Operational Headquarters of Helen of Troy Limited, a NASDAQ listed company that manufactures personal health care products under many labels such as OXO, Dr. Scholl's, Vidal Sassoon, Sunbeam, among others. Also headquartered in El Paso is Western Refining, listed on the New York Stock Exchange, and Spira Footwear,date: August 2010: and Fred Loya Insurance, an insurance company. Until 1996, El Paso was home to El Paso Natural Gas Company. It is now in Houston, Texas under the name El Paso Corporation. Farah Clothing Company was also headquartered in El Paso until 1998 when Farah along with other clothing manufacturing companies such as Levi's, moved their plants in search of cheaper labor. In the 1980s El Paso was known as the blue jeans capital of the world because it produced over 2 million pairs of jeans every week from different jean companies in El Paso. As of 2006, the only remaining companies in the clothing industry are Wrangler and a smaller company by the name of Border Apparel.dateAugust 2010: More than 70 Fortune 500 companies have offices in El Paso, including The Hoover Company, Eureka, Boeing, and Delphi (auto parts). El Paso is an important entry point to the U.S. from Mexico. Once a major copper refining area, chief manufacturing industries in El Paso now include food production, clothing, construction materials, electronic and medical equipment, and plastics. Cotton, fruit, vegetables, livestock, and pecans are produced in the area. With El Paso's attractive climate and natural beauty, tourism has become a booming industry as well as trade with neighboring Ciudad Juárez. Education is also a driving force in El Paso's economy. El Paso's three large school districts are among the largest employers in the area, employing more than 19,000 people between them. The University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) has an annual budget of nearly $250 million and employs nearly 3,600 people. A 2002 study by the university's Institute for Policy and Economic Development stated that the University's impact on local businesses has resulted in $349 million. The military installation of Fort Bliss is a major contributor to El Paso's economy. Fort Bliss began as a Cavalry post in 1848. Today, Fort Bliss is the site of the United States Army's Air Defense Artillery Center and produces approximately $80 million in products and services annually, with about $60 million of those products and services purchased locally. Fort Bliss' total economic impact on the area has been estimated at more than $1 billion, with 12,000 soldiers currently stationed at the Fort. During the 2005 round of Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC), Fort Bliss came out an enormous winner. By 2013, BRAC growth is expected to add almost 28,000 new troops, 16,000 new spouses, and 21,000 new children to the El Paso community. The growth is expected to create a strong economic ripple throughout the El Paso area. With the growth in Fort Bliss, the economy is expected to profit an additional $10 billion by 2012, and an additional $5 billion each year after that. In addition to the military, the federal government has a strong presence in El Paso to manage its status and unique issues as a border region. The Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), and the Customs and Border Protection Agency (CBP) all have agency operations in El Paso to regulate traffic and goods through ports of entry from Mexico. Including these agencies, government job growth in the area is expected to rise to 64,390 jobs by 2007. Many small businesses have been created with the growth of Fort Bliss. These companies support and provide many goods and services in areas as automotive, food and retail clothing. Another type of service provided by some companies are related directly to the Military itself such as Flags and Guidons, other areas that have flourished is the sewing and uniform companies Call center operations make up 7 of the top 10 business employers in El Paso. With no signs of growth slowing in this industry, in 2005 the 14 largest call centers in El Paso employed more than 10,000 people. The largest of these in terms of employees are EchoStar, MCIdate: June 2011: /GC Services, and West Telemarketing. Analysts in the area say that job growth in 2005 will be in the form of health care, business and trade services, international trade, and telecommunications. Items and goods produced: petroleum, metals, medical devices, plastics, machinery, automotive parts, food, defense-related goods, tourism, boots Largest city employers: * El Paso Independent School District 8,663 * Fort Bliss (civilian employees) 6,803 * Ysleta Independent School District 6,500 * City of El Paso 6,264 * University of Texas at El Paso 4,871 * Socorro Independent School District 3,995 * Sierra Providence Health Network 3,761 * El Paso Community College 3,728 * Wal-Mart 3,706 * El Paso County 2,700 * Las Palmas and Del Sol Regional Health Care System 2,244 * Echostar 2,012 All numbers are estimates as of 2006.dateNovember 2007: : Sports * Major league teams El Paso does not have any major league sports team. El Paso is the third largest city without a major sports team (Basketball, Baseball, Football, Hockey) in the continental United States. El Paso hosts the annual NCAA Hyundai Sun Bowl. El Paso is also the site of the Borderland Derby horse race held in the nearby suburb of Sunland Park. * Sports date: March 2011: * Arenas UTEP owns the two largest stadiums in El Paso: * Sun Bowl Stadium has a capacity of 51,400 and is home to the UTEP Miners football team, coached by Mike Price. It is also home to the annual Sun Bowl, soccer games, and special events such as concerts. * Don Haskins Center has a capacity of 12,222 and is used for UTEP's basketball teams and special events such as concerts and boxing matches. It is also where the graduation ceremony takes place for UTEP students. Other arenas in El Paso include: * Cohen Stadium has a capacity of 9,725 and is used primarily for the El Paso Diablos Independent baseball club. It also hosts concerts and boxing matches and is able to host soccer games as well. * El Paso County Coliseum has a capacity of 5,250. It is currently used primarily for special events such as concerts, wrestling matches, and others. It can also be utilized for hockey and arena football. * Memorial Gym is a 5,000 seat multi-purpose arena located on the UTEP campus. It was home to the Miners basketball teams until the Don Haskins Center, then known as the Special Events Center, opened in 1976. * Patriot Stadium has a capacity of around 3,000 and is solely used for the Chivas El Paso Patriots soccer club. * Education Col-begin: Col-2: : Public school districts The city of El Paso is served by: * Canutillo Independent School District * El Paso Independent School District * Socorro Independent School District * Ysleta Independent School District Nearby areas are served by: * Anthony Independent School District * Clint Independent School District * Fabens Independent School District * Gadsden Independent School District (in New Mexico) * San Elizario Independent School District * Tornillo Independent School District * Colleges and universities * Two-year and vocational colleges with campuses in the El Paso Suburbs of Sunland Park and Anthony, New Mexico, with a new campus in Chaparral, New Mexico. This college is a part of the New Mexico State University system. * Four-year colleges & satellite campuses * University of Texas at El Paso, or UTEP. * Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center El Paso Campus * Texas Tech College of Architecture at El Paso * University of Phoenix-Santa Teresa, NM Campus * Park University * Webster University * Medical school * Texas Tech University-Paul L. Foster School of Medicine * Private and parochial schools There are several parochial schools within the Roman Catholic Diocese of El Paso: * Primary schools: ** Father Yermo Primary School ** Loretto Academy Primary School ** Most Holy Trinity Catholic School ** Our Lady of the Assumption Catholic School ** Our Lady of the Valley Catholic School ** St. Joseph's Catholic School ** St. Matthew's Catholic School ** St. Patrick Cathedral School ** St. Pius X Catholic School ** St. Raphael Catholic School * Secondary schools: ** Cathedral High School ** Father Yermo High School ** Loretto Academy Other private schools include the following: * Bethel Christian School * Bridges Academy * Covenant Christian Academy * Community of Faith Christian School * El Paso Adventist Junior Academy * El Paso Country Day School * El Paso Jewish Academy * Faith Christian Academy * Jesus Chapel School * Immanuel Christian School * Journey Academy * Lydia Patterson Institute * Mount Franklin Christian Academy * Northeast Christian Academy * North Loop Christian Academy * Palm Tree Academy * Radford School * Rose of Sharon Academy * St. Clement's Parish School * Trinity Lutheran Church and School Col-end: : Public libraries El Paso Public Library operates public libraries in El Paso. * Hospitals * Del Sol Medical Center * Las Palmas – Del Sol Rehab. Hospital * Las Palmas Medical Center * Horizon Specialty Hospital * University Medical Center- The city's general hospital and the only Level I trauma center in the area (Formerly Thomason Hospital) * Rio Vista Rehab. Hospital * Sierra Medical Center * Southwestern General Hospital * William Beaumont Army Medical Center * Providence Memorial Hospital * Physicians Hospital * Highlands Regional Rehabilitation Hospital * Sierra Providence East Medical Center * Culture * Literature El Paso has been home to these figures such as: A-to-Z- * Alicia Gaspar de Alba * Frank Ambriz * José Antonio Burciaga * Dagoberto Gilb * Arturo Islas * Tom Lea * Cormac McCarthy * Howard McCord * Pat Mora * John Rechy * Benjamin Alire Saenz * Eddie Guerrero * Debbie Reynolds * Points of interest * Area museums * The Centennial Museum and Chihuahuan Desert Gardens is located on the grounds of UTEP, including a comprehensive collection of El Paso Brown, Native American pottery, as well as educational exhibits for students. * The is located on the eastern slope of North Franklin Mountain. Its grounds include native plants of the American Southwest as well samples of Native American shelters, in an unspoiled location. The museum includes dioramas for schoolchildren which illustrate the culture and geology of the American Southwest, such as Hueco Tanks in El Paso County. One diorama (see image to the right) is of the Cueva de la Olla (cave of the pot) which is located in the Sierra Madre of Chihuahua, an example of the Paquimé culture. * The El Paso Museum of Art is located next to the Plaza Theater next to San Jacinto Plaza, the public square downtown. It contains works of southwestern artists such as Tom Lea. [https://www.bliss.army.mil/Museum/fort_bliss_museum.htm Fort Bliss Museums & Study Center] The Magoffin Homestead, dating from 1875, is now a State Historic Site. * The is located adjacent to the El Paso Museum of Archaeology. , Santa Teresa, New Mexico * Theaters: * The Abraham Chavez Theatre is located adjacent to the El Paso Convention & Performing Arts Center, welcomes patrons with a three-story-high glass-windowed entry and unique sombrero-shaped architecture making it a distinct feature on El Paso's southwestern landscape. * The Plaza Theatre is a historic building located at 125 Pioneer Plaza in El Paso, Texas. The theater stands as one of the city's most well-known landmarks. It shows various Broadway productions, musical concerts, and individual performers. It has a seating capacity of 2,100. * McKelligon Canyon is a park, located in the Franklin Mountains, open to hikers and picnickers. In the canyon, McKelligon Canyon Amphitheatre is surrounded on three sides by dramatic canyon walls; the 1,500-seat amphitheatre is used for concerts and special events, such as Viva El Paso! Sites within the city limits: * Chamizal National Memorial * El Paso Zoo * Fort Bliss * Franklin Mountains State Park * Cathedral Church of Saint Patrick * El Paso High School * Magoffin Home State Historic Site * Plaza Hotel * Plaza Theatre * Union Depot * University of Texas at El Paso * Wyler Aerial Tramway * Ysleta Mission Transportation: El Paso is served by El Paso International Airport, Amtrak via the historic Union Depot, Interstate 10, U.S. Highway 54 (known locally as "The Border Highway", "54", the "North-South Freeway" or officially as the Patriot Freeway), U.S. Highway 180 and U.S. Highway 62 (Montana Avenue), U.S. Highway 85 (Paisano Drive), Loop 375, Loop 478 (Copia Street-Pershing Drive-Dyer Street), numerous Texas Farm to Market Roads (a class of state highway commonly abbreviated to FM) and the city's original thoroughfare, State Highway 20, the eastern portion of which is known locally as Alameda Avenue (formerly U.S. Highway 80). Texas 20 also includes portions of Texas Avenue in Central El Paso, Mesa Street from Downtown to the West Side, and Doniphan Drive on the West Side. Northeast El Paso is connected to West El Paso by Transmountain Road. The city also shares 4 international bridges and one railbridge with Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. In 2009, El Paso was home to number 52, number 98 and number 100 of the 100 most congested roads in Texas, which are, respectively: North Zaragoza Road between Sun Fire Boulevard and Interstate 10; Lee Trevino Drive between Montana Avenue and Interstate 10; and Interstate 10 between Patriot Freeway and Loop 375. Airports: * El Paso International Airport * Horizon Airport Passenger rail: * Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, serves El Paso at the historic Union Depot, operating its Sunset Limited three times weekly between New Orleans and Los Angeles. Major highways: * Interstate 10 The primary thoroughfare through the city, connecting the city with other major U.S. cities such as Los Angeles, Phoenix, Houston, New Orleans, Gulfport,& Mobile, with the east end located in Jacksonville, Florida. I-10 is also a connector to Interstate 25, which connects with the cities of Albuquerque, Santa Fe, Colorado Springs, Denver, Fort Collins, Cheyenne, Casper, and north to the junction with I-90, located in Buffalo, Wyoming. * U.S. Highway 54 Officially called the Patriot Freeway; also known as the North-South Freeway. A business route runs along Dyer Street, the former US 54, from the freeway near Fort Bliss to the Texas–New Mexico border, where it again rejoins the expressway. The original U.S. 54 was a transcontinental route connecting El Paso with Chicago. * U.S. Highway 62 Santa Fe Street south of Paisano Drive concurrently with US 85, Paisano Drive east of Santa Fe Street to Montana Avenue, then Montana Avenue concurrently with US 180. * U.S. Highway 85 Santa Fe Street south of Paisano Drive concurrently with US 62 and Paisano Drive west of Santa Fe Street to I-10. * U.S. Highway 180 Montana Avenue, which is a bypass route to the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex to the east, and Flagstaff, Arizona to the west. * SH 20 Alameda Avenue (formerly US 80), Texas Avenue, Mesa Street and Doniphan Drive. * SH 178 Artcraft Road in Northwest El Paso extends from Interstate 10 west to the New Mexico state line, at which point it becomes New Mexico Highway 136, the Pete V. Domenici International Highway. * Loop 375 Texas Highway Loop 375 encircles the city of El Paso. Between Interstate 10 and Fort Bliss, including the stretch that crosses the Franklin Mountains via Smuggler's Pass, it is TransMountain Road. In the Ft. Bliss Military Reservation in between Northeast and East El Paso, it is officially the Purple Heart Memorial Highway. In East El Paso, the north- and southbound section is known as Joe Battle Boulevard, or simply as "the Loop". South of I-10, in the east and westbound portion, it is known as the Cesar Chavez Border Highway, a four-lane expressway which is located along the U.S.-Mexico border between Downtown El Paso and the Ysleta area. * Loop 478: Copia Street, Pershing Drive and Dyer Street. * Spur 601. Once known as the Inner Loop, it was officially named the Liberty Expressway by the El Paso City Council in April 2010 at the request of Maj. Gen. Howard Bromberg, the commanding general of Fort Bliss. It was fully completed on April 27, 2011; it connects the Patriot Freeway (US 54) and Biggs Army Air Field to the Purple Heart Memorial Highway (Loop 375). * North Loop Road, as well as Delta Drive between North Loop Road and Alameda Avenue (Texas Highway 20). * Zaragoza Road, running more or less north from the Ysleta International Bridge to US 62-180 (Montana Avenue); it lies mostly in East El Paso. * A portion of Clark Drive from Alameda Avenue (Texas Highway 20) north to Trowbridge Drive in South-Central El Paso. * McRae Boulevard, running north from Interstate 10 to US 62-180 (Montana Avenue) in East El Paso. * Texas Farm Road 2529 includes Stan Roberts Avenue and McCombs Street between Dyer Street and Stan Roberts Avenue in Northeast El Paso. * Runs east from McCombs Street (Texas Farm Road 2529) in far Northeast El Paso; does not have a city street name. * Texas Farm Road 3255 runs north from US 54 to the New Mexico state line in Northeast El Paso and bears the city street name Martin Luther King Boulevard. Mass transit: The Sun Metro Mass Transit System operates a system of medium to large capacity natural gas powered buses all around the city of El Paso. El Paso County Transit makes trips with small capacity buses mainly in the Eastern El Paso area. On September 1, 2009, NMDOT Park and Ride began operating commuter bus service to and from Las Cruces, New Mexico. Historically, El Paso and Ciudad Juarez had a shared streetcar system with a peak electrified route mileage of in 1920. The first electrified line across the Rio Grande which opened on January 11, 1902 was preceded by a network that relied on animal labor. The system quickly spread into residential and industrial areas of El Paso. In 1913 a interurban line was built to Ysleta. At the close of 1943 the holding company of El Paso Electric sold its subsidiary the El Paso Electric Railway Company and its Mexican counterpart to one of National City Lines' subsidiaries. This resulted in the formation of El Paso City Lines whose domestic streetcar lines were replaced by buses in 1947. The international streetcar line which crossed the border via the Stanton Street Bridge continued to operate until 1973. In 1977 El Paso City Lines and two other bus companies were bought by the municipality and merged to form Sun City Area Transit (SCAT). In 1987 SCAT restyled itself Sun Metro. In 2011, Sun Metro has been named the most Outstanding Public Transit System of the Year in all of North America for a mid-size transit system by the American Public Transportation Association. Walkability: A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked El Paso 44th most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities. International border crossings: The first bridge to cross the Rio Grande at El Paso del Norte was built in the time of Nueva España, over 250 years ago, from wood hauled in from Santa Fe. Today, this bridge is honored by the modern Santa Fe Street Bridge, and Santa Fe Street in downtown El Paso. Several bridges serve the El Paso-Ciudad Juárez area. In addition to the Santa Fe Street Bridge, there is the Bridge of the Americas, Stanton Street Bridge, the Cordova Bridge, and the Zaragoza Bridge. There is also a land crossing at nearby Santa Teresa, New Mexico, and the Fabens-Caseta International Bridge in nearby Fabens, Texas. Media: Newspapers: The main newspapers are the English language daily El Paso Times, founded in 1881; and the Spanish language daily El Diario de El Paso. The now defunct El Paso Herald Post was also founded in 1881 as the El Paso Herald, which then merged with the El Paso Post in 1931. The paper was shut down in 1997. Radio stations: El Paso Radio: Radio stations from Las Cruces, New Mexico and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua can also be heard within the El Paso market. Television: El Paso was the largest city in the United States without a PBS television station within the city limits until 1978. El Paso viewers had to watch channel 22, KRWG from Las Cruces until 1978. In fact, the city had only three English-speaking channels and two Spanish-language channels (channel 2 and channel 5) from Juarez, and cable TV subscribers in the 1970s and 1980s could receive four Los Angeles independent channels: KTLA, KHJ, KTTV and KCOP. Over time, as more television stations signed on and more cable channels were added (and the internet expanded), the L.A. stations would disappear from the lineup. The last to be removed was KTLA in the Fall of 2006, when KVIA-TV opened its own CW station. El Paso's current television stations are as shown in the table below: El Paso TV: Cellular phone coverage: KTSM TV reports that cellular phone users in El Paso are subject to International Calling fees (unless they disable roaming with their cellular phone providers). Popular culture: List of people from El Paso, Texas: * "El Paso" by Marty Robbins was a popular Country ballad released in 1959. Robbins followed it up with a sequel, "El Paso City," in 1976. * Fleetwood Mac held their first concert that featured Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham in El Paso in 1975. Stevie Nicks attended Loretto Academy and Bassett Junior High in El Paso as a teenager. * "Take The Money and Run"- a hit song by the Steve Miller Band- tells the story of two bandits who "go down to old El Paso" and "get into a great big hassle." * The current Blue Beetle comic book series takes place in El Paso. * El Paso has become a favored destination for musicians of all stripes. See Vanity Fair's * In Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2, the penultimate mission is set in El Paso. * The Chinga Chavin song "Asshole From El Paso" (most famously recorded by Kinky Friedman), a parody of Merle Haggard's "Okie from Muskogee", mentions El Paso in both the lyrics and the title. * American artist Tori Amos references El Paso in her song, "Mother Revolution," featured on 2005's The Beekeeper. * In the film 'For a Few Dollars More', a bank in El Paso is robbed. * In the second season of "Breaking Bad", DEA Agent Hank Schrader is transferred from his office in Albuquerque to the headquarters in El Paso. Filmed in El Paso: * The Burning Plain (2009) starring Charlize Theron. One scene was shot on 2nd floor at Southwest General Hospital. * Stephen Fry In America (2008) documentary * The Last Conquistador (2008), a PBS POV documentary about the Oñate statue controversy * Glory Road (2006) starring Josh Lucas is set in El Paso. * Man on Fire (2004) starring Denzel Washington and Dakota Fanning. * The Day After Tomorrow (2004) starring Dennis Quaid and Sela Ward. * Saving Jessica Lynch (2003) starring Laura Regan. * Kingpin (NBC pilot) (2003) starring Yancey Arias and Brian Benben. * The Original Latin Kings of Comedy (2002) featuring George Lopez, Cheech Marin, Joey Medina, Alex Reymundo and Paul Rodriguez was shot at the Abraham Chavez Theater. * Traffic (2000) starring Benicio del Toro, Michael Douglas, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Dennis Quaid and Don Cheadle. * Committed (2000) starring Heather Graham. * On the Border (1998) starring Casper Van Dien, Bryan Brown, Daniel Baldwin. * Lolita (1997) starring Jeremy Irons and Melanie Griffith. * Last Man Standing (1996) starring Bruce Willis, Bruce Dern, Christopher Walken, Karina Lombard. * Blue Sky (1994) starring Jessica Lange and Tommy Lee Jones. * Wild at Heart (1990) starring Nicolas Cage and Laura Dern. * Extreme Prejudice (1987) starring Nick Nolte and Powers Boothe. * Lost in America (1985) starring Albert Brooks and Julie Hagerty. * Paris, Texas (1984) starring Harry Dean Stanton and Dean Stockwell. * Lone Wolf McQuade (1983) starring Chuck Norris and David Carradine. * Wrong is Right (1982) starring Sean Connery. * The Border (1982) starring Jack Nicholson and Harvey Keitel. All the border scenes, the refugee camp scene, and the U.S. Embassy scene were shot in and around El Paso. * Resurrection (1980) starring Ellen Burstyn. * When You Comin' Back, Red Ryder? (1979) starring Hal Linden and Lee Grant. * Big Wednesday (1978) starring Jan Michael Vincent and Gary Busey. * I Thought It Was A Go (2007) starring Kaelo Makua James and Chris "Nyph" Ashness. A Deathcore music video featuring the Deathcore band The Odessa Trail. * The Bad News Bears in Breaking Training (1977) starring William Devane. * The Getaway (1972) starring Steve McQueen and Ali MacGraw. * (1966), which is reputed to be one of the worst films ever made, was shot in and around El Paso. It premiered in 1966 at the downtown Capri Theater. * Take the High Ground! (1953), starring Richard Widmark and Karl Malden. Sister cities: El Paso, Texas has the following sister cities: * Mexico: – Chihuahua, México * Spain: – Jerez de la Frontera, Spain * Spain: – Mérida, Spain * Mexico: – Juárez, México * Mexico: – Torreón, México * Mexico: – Zacatecas, México

El Paso El Paso localité du Texas : la ville américaine située au Texas: El Paso est une ville du sud-ouest américain située dans l'État du Texas. Elle est la sixième ville texane en importance et se trouve dans la partie la plus occidentale de celui-ci, à environ d'altitude . Elle est également le siège administratif du comté d'El Paso. El Paso est situé à la frontière du Mexique sur l'une des rives du fleuve Río Grande alors que l'imposante ville mexicaine de Ciudad Juárez partage l'autre rive. La population combinée des deux villes dépasse les d'habitants. Les montagnes Franklin divisent la ville en deux pour une superficie de . Selon le recensement de 2000, El Paso compte habitants (en anglais : El Pasoans), dont plus de deux tiers sont d'origine hispanique. Histoire : Des découvertes archéologiques signalent une présence humaine millénaire dans la région d'El Paso. Pendant l'ère des premiers colonisateurs espagnols, les Manso et les Suma habitaient le terroir tel que rapporté par l'expédition de Juan de Oñate de 1598. En 1827, Ponce de León établit un ranch sur le site de la ville actuelle. Durant la période de la République du Texas, la région appartient à l'État mexicain de Chihuahua mais se joint au Texas lors de l'entrée dans l'Union. Un trading post nommé Franklin est fondé quelques années plus tard avant de devenir El Paso (du nom El Paso del Norte, désignant Juarez) en 1859. Dès les années 1920, la ville devient le siège de Farah Clothing Company, qui devient dans les années 1970 l'un des plus gros producteurs de pantalons pour hommes. Elle est cependant affectée par une grève des ouvrières qui réclame, à partir de juillet 1972, une hausse des salaires et le droit de se syndiquer. La firme refuse, tandis que l'AFL-CIO autorise un boycott national des produits de Farah, et que l'évêque et sénateur d'El Paso, George McGovern, candidat démocrate à l'élection présidentielle de 1972, soutient les grévistes. La firme ne cèdera qu'en 1974. Lieux historiques et musées : * Fort Bliss est une importante base de l'armée américaine, établie en 1848. Le Biggs Army Air Field y est établi (code AITA : BIF). * La Mission San Elizario (1777) est une chapelle historique située dans le village de San Elizario en banlieue d'El Paso. On y trouve également une vieille prison fréquentée par Billy the Kid. * Le musée du U.S. Border Patrol (la police frontalière) se trouve à El Paso. Galerie photographique : El Paso vue de l’espace Sports : * Les El Paso Diablos (baseball) jouent au Stade Cohen (construit en 1990) dans l'Association Américaine * Le Sun Bowl est un match annuel de championnat de football collégial joué à El Paso depuis 1936. Le Sun Bowl Stadium (construit en 1963) est situé sur le campus de l'université du Texas à El Paso (UTEP). Médias : * El Paso Times (quotidien fondé en 1881). Climat : Si on se réfère à la classification de Koppen, le climat de El Paso est de type BWk (climat désertique sec et froid). Les hivers sont secs et assez frais. On compte en moyenne 61 jours de gel par an. Les étés sont chauds, voire torrides. L'air est sec avec un taux d'humidité moyen annuel de seulement 47 %. La moyenne des précipitations annuelles est de seulement . Il pleut surtout de juillet à septembre et ces pluies estivales sont à associer au phénomène de la mousson nord-américaine. À cette période de l'année, le vent souffle le plus souvent du sud ou du sud-est. Ce vent apporte dans la région de l'humidité en provenance du golfe de Californie et du golfe du Mexique. La combinaison de plusieurs phénomènes : existence de courants d'air ascendants d'origine orographique et réchauffement de l'air au cours de la journée par le soleil, engendre des orages qui peuvent parfois être violents. El Paso, en raison de son altitude ( au-dessus du niveau de la mer), est susceptible de recevoir des précipitations sous forme de neige. Une grosse tempête de neige en apporta près de de manteau neigeux au sol. Le record de chaleur à El Paso s'établit à et le record de froid à Personnalités liées à la ville : * Cedric Bixler Zavala, chanteur du groupe The Mars Volta * Al Jourgensen, fondateur du groupe de métal industriel Ministry * Eddie Guerrero, lutteur professionnel * Chavo Guerrero, lutteur professionnel, neveu du premier * Vickie Guerrero, actuellement employée à la WWE * Gene Roddenberry, créateur de Star Trek * Hal Warren, réalisateur du film * Don Bluth, célèbre réalisateur de dessins animés.

نيوبي مصطلحات إنترنت :هذه الصفحة خاصة بالمصطلح، للأميرة الفريجية انظر نيوبي (ميثولوجيا) نيوبي (تنطق "نوبي" أيضاً) noob, n00b, newbie: أو نووب، أيضا "nub" و"newb"، هي كلمة مشتقة من كلمتي "new boy". وهي تعني "مبتديء" عامة ، أو الشخص الذي بدأ لتوه استخدام الإنترنت لكن بشكل غير صحيح وتعتبر كلمة شبه مهينة لشخصٍ ظل في مجال الإنترنت فترة كبيرة ولا يظهر أدنى دليل على حصوله على معلومة ما مفيدة، أو خبرة . أو تطلق على شخصٍ جديد نوعاً ما إلى مجالٍ ما، كمهنة، نادي، إلخ. أصل المصطلح : أقدم استخدام للمصطلح كان في عصر حرب فييتنام، فكانت لفظ عامّي للجيش الأمريكي. لكن الآن فهي تستخدم تقريبا حصريا في الكتابة في الإنترنت. يرجع أصل المصطلح "new boy" إلى المدارس الإنجليزية التي كان يطلق بعض الطلاب على الطلاب الجدد هذا المصطلح بدأ المصطلح في الانتشار في مجموعة أخبار talk.bizarre وظهر على السطح من خلالها. ثم في ألعاب الفيديو. لكن المصطلح الآن يستخدم بشكل واسع، ومن المشتقات التي تستخدم بطريقة واسعة، مصطلح "clueless newbie". تهجآت أخرى : لكلمة نيوبي عدة طرق أخرى للتلفظ والكتابة، بعض الطرق : * noob * newb * newbie * n00b * nub * newby * new boy الاختلاف بين Newb وn00b : يزعم البعض أن "newb" تختلف عن "noob"، فنيوب ("newb")، تعني شخصاً ما جديداً على مهمة ما أو مهنة ما. على الناحية الأخرى "n00b"، فتعني شخصاً جديدا على مهمة أو مهنة ما (مثل "newb")، لكنه يعرف القليل وليس عنده رغبة في التعلم أكثر. التصنيف : ليس هناك معياراً محدداً لكي يصنف الشخص كمبتدئ أو لا، فمن الممكن أن يُطلق عليه هذا المصطلح في مجموعة أخبار، أو مجتمع إنترنت (موقع/منتدى ويب)، وفي مجموعة أخبار أو مجتمع إنترنت آخر لا يطلق عليه نوب وينال احترامه بشكل عادي. الصفات : الصفات ليست قياسية، لكن ما يُلاحظ عموما هو : نقل الأكواد : إذا كان ذلك المبتدئ في مجتمع إنترنت ما، فكل ما يقوم به هو نقل الكود البرمجي. (انظر : طفل السكريبت / مخطوطة كيد) الأسئلة الغبية : دائما ما يتجه إلى سؤال الأسئلة الغبية وعدم إظهار الدقة، بل إظهار الإزعاج. صفحات الإنترنت : غالبا ما يقوم بصيانة صفحات الإنترنت الخاصة به، ويضع خلفية صوتية، أو ألوان بشعة، وضعف وقلة في المحتوى. لغتهم : كثيراً ما يكثروا من لفظ "Lol"، فيبدوا فرحين فرحاً هستيرياً. ويكثروا من وضع الحروف الكبيرة (upper-case) وسط الحروف الصغيرة (lower-case).

Newbie Beginners and newcomers | Internet slang | MUD terminology | Video game culture Newby (disambiguation): Newbie or noob or "'n00b"' is a slang term for a or , or somebody inexperienced in any profession or activity. Contemporary use can particularly refer to a beginner or new user of computers, often concerning Internet activity, such as online gaming or Linux use. It can have derogatory connotations, but is also often used for descriptive purposes only, without a value judgment. The term's origin is uncertain. Earliest uses probably date to late twentieth century U.S. military jargon, though possible precursor terms are much earlier. Variant forms of the noun include newby and newbee, while the related term noob (often spelt n00b) is often used in online gaming. History: Its etymology is uncertain. It may derive from "newie", which is attested in U.S. and Australian sources of the 1850s and means a neophyte in a place or situation; alternatively, it may derive from the British public school slang "new boy" or "new blood", which is attributed to the same era and was applied to a schoolboy in his first term. In the 1960s–1970s the term "newbie" had a limited usage among U.S. troops in the Vietnam War as a slang term for a new man in a unit. Its earliest known usage on the Internet may have been on the Usenet newsgroup talk.bizarre. The term is believed to have entered online usage by 1981. Variants: Coming from an oral tradition, the term has variant spellings. Among alternative forms are newby, nubie, and "newbee" (e.g. Los Angeles Times of August 1985: "It had to do with newbees. I could be wrong on the spelling, but newbees are the rookies among the Blue Angels..."). Two related terms are "newb", a beginner who is willing to learn; and "noob" (often spelt "n00b" or "nub"), a derogatory name. "noob" was among candidates for the one-millionth English word selection by the Global Language Monitor.

Newbie Culture informatique | Lexique et notions du jeu vidéo Noob (homonymie): date=juillet 2008: Newbie (prononcé [ˈnjuːbɪ: ] en anglais britannique, ou [ˈnuːbɪ: ] en anglais américain) est une personne qui débute (notamment dans le jeu vidéo). Il peut aussi être écrit newbee, noobi, ou encore noubi aussi. Le mot newbie, d'origine anglaise, est une variante de new boy. Il est issu du langage familier de l'école publique anglaise et de l'argot militaire anglais et américain (rarement utilisé durant la guerre du Vietnam où les soldats utilisaient FNG, Fucking New Guy) et désigne un néophyte. Le mot est souvent utilisé avec une connotation quelque peu ironique, mais non péjorative. Dans le domaine des jeux vidéo en ligne, il a été déformé par le Leet speak en "newb", "nub", "n00blet", "noob"... On fait une distinction entre un newbie et un noob. On s'accorde généralement à dire qu'un newbie est une personne qui, parce qu'elle est nouvelle, est inexpérimentée et ignorante des mécanismes du jeu et de l'étiquette, tandis qu'un noob est un joueur qui est généralement considéré comme étant expérimenté, mais qui néanmoins fait souvent des erreurs, des solécismes, ou qui adopte un comportement qui s'apparenterait plus à celui d'un débutant. Noob est aussi utilisé pour insulter une personne sans employer un mot vulgaire : il définit alors le mot "idiot". On utilise ce genre de mot dans de nombreux jeux compétitifs. On trouve diverses contractions du mot newbie : newb (prononcé [ˈnuːb: ]), difficile à différencier phonétiquement de noob, naab qui est plutôt une insulte envers les personnes qui ne réfléchissent pas au bon fonctionnement d'une partie, qui n'en font qu'à leur tête ou tout simplement ne savent pas jouer et empêchent le bon fonctionnement des autres joueurs. nob et même nub ainsi que noobie. En français, on parle parfois de « débutants » ou « d'amateurs » dans un langage courant. À l'opposé d'un noob, on trouve le Roxor : joueur très puissant, de l'anglais "to rock" (ébranler, secouer) ou encore le PGM (Pro gamer master : qui gagne sa vie en jouant aux jeux vidéo).

منتدى التعاون الاقتصادي لدول آسيا والمحيط الهادي منظمات دولية اقتصادية منتدى التعاون الاقتصادي لدول آسيا والمحيط الهادي أو حرفيا التعاون الاقتصادي لآسيا-الباسفيك Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation: ويرمز له اختصارا إبيك (APEC) هو منتدى يضم 21 دولة تطل على المحيط الهادي والتي تسعى لتشجيع التجارة الحرة والتعاون الاقتصادي في منطقة آسيا ودول المحيط الهادي، تأسس عام 1989 تلبية للنمو الاقتصادي المتزايد للدول المطلة على المحيط الهادي، وظهور تكتلات اقتصادية أخرى في العالم مثل الاتحاد الأوروبي والنافتا، حيث تسعى إبيك لرفع مستوى المعيشة والتعليم من خلال تحقيق نمو اقتصادي متوازن وتشارك العوائد بين دول آسيا والمحيط الهادي، حيث يشكل تعداد السكان القاطنين للدول المطلة على المحيط الهادي ما يقارب من 40% من عدد سكان العالم. يحضر الاجتماع السنوي لإبيك رؤساء الحكومات من الدول الأعضاء عدا جمهورية الصين (تايوان) الممثلة تحت اسم تايبيه الصينية على مستوى وزير، حيث يتغير مكان انعقاد المنتدى سنويا بين الدول الأعضاء، ومن أبرز العادات لهذا المؤتمر هو أن رؤساء الحكومات يرتدون الملابس الوطنية للبلد المضيف. اقرأ أيضا : * الشراكة الاقتصادية الاستراتيجية عبر المحيط الهادي

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 1989 establishments | International economic organizations | International organizations of Asia | International organizations of Oceania | Multiregional international organizations | Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APEC: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a forum for 21 Pacific Rim countries (formally Member Economies) that seeks to promote free trade and economic cooperation throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional economic blocs (such as the European Union) in other parts of the world, APEC works to raise living standards and education levels through sustainable economic growth and to foster a sense of community and an appreciation of shared interests among Asia-Pacific countries. Members account for approximately 40% of the world's population, approximately 54% of the world's gross domestic product and about 44% of world trade. An annual APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting is attended by the heads of government of all APEC members except the Republic of China (Taiwan), which is represented under the name Chinese Taipei by a ministerial-level official. The location of the meeting rotates annually among the member economies, and until 2011, a famous tradition involved the attending leaders dressing in a national costume of the host member. * History In January 1989, Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke called for more effective economic cooperation across the Pacific Rim region. This led to the first meeting of APEC in the Australian capital of Canberra in November, chaired by Australian Foreign Affairs Minister Gareth Evans. Attended by political ministers from twelve countries, the meeting concluded with commitments for future annual meetings in Singapore and South Korea. Countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) opposed the initial proposal, instead proposing the East Asia Economic Caucus which would exclude non-Asian countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. This plan was opposed and strongly criticized by Japan and the United States. The first APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting occurred in 1993 when U.S. President Bill Clinton, after discussions with Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating, invited the heads of government from member economies to a summit on Blake Island. He believed it would help bring the stalled Uruguay Round of trade talks back on track. At the meeting, some leaders called for continued reduction of barriers to trade and investment, envisioning a community in the Asia-Pacific region that might promote prosperity through cooperation. The APEC Secretariat, based in Singapore, was established to coordinate the activities of the organization. During the meeting in 1994 in Bogor, Indonesia, APEC leaders adopted the Bogor Goals that aim for free and open trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific by 2010 for industrialized economies and by 2020 for developing economies. In 1995, APEC established a business advisory body named the APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC), composed of three business executives from each member economy. * Member Economies APEC currently has 21 members, including most countries with a coastline on the Pacific Ocean. However, the criterion for membership is that the member is a separate economy, rather than a state. As a result, APEC uses the term member economies rather than member countries to refer to its members. One result of this criterion is that membership of the forum includes Republic of China (participating under the name "Chinese Taipei") alongside People's Republic of China (see Cross-Strait relations), as well as Hong Kong, which entered APEC as a British colony but it is now a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. Possible enlargement: India has requested membership in APEC, and received initial support from the United States, Japan and Australia. Officials have decided not to allow India to join for various reasons. However, the decision was made not to admit more members until 2010. Moreover, India does not border the Pacific Ocean, which all current members do. However, India has been invited to be an observer for the first time in November 2011. In addition to India, Mongolia, Pakistan, Laos, Bangladesh, Costa Rica, Colombia, Panama and Ecuador, are among a dozen countries seeking membership in APEC by 2008. Colombia applied for APEC's membership as early as in 1995, but its bid was halted as the organization stopped accepting new members from 1993 to 1996, and the moratorium was further prolonged to 2007 due to the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Costa Rica, Colombia and Ecuador had hoped to become members by 2010. dateApril 2010: Guam has also been actively seeking a separate membership, citing the example of Hong Kong, but the request is opposed by the United States, which currently represents Guam. * APEC's Three Pillars To meet the Bogor Goals, APEC carries out work in three main areas: * 1. Trade and Investment Liberalisation * 2. Business Facilitation * 3. Economic and Technical Cooperation * APEC and Trade Liberalisation According to the organization itself, when APEC was established in 1989 average trade barriers in the region stood at 16.9 percent, but had been reduced to 5.5% in 2004. * APEC's Business Facilitation Efforts APEC has long been at the forefront of reform efforts in the area of business facilitation. Between 2002-2006 the costs of business transactions across the region was reduced by 6 percent, thanks to the APEC Trade Facilitation Action Plan (TFAPI). Between 2007 and 2010, APEC hopes to achieve an additional 5 percent reduction in business transaction costs. To this end, a new has been endorsed. According to a 2008 research brief published by the World Bank as part of its , increasing transparency in the region's trading system is critical if APEC is to meet its Bogor Goal targets. The APEC Business Travel Card, a travel document for visa-free business travel within the region is one of the concrete measures to facilitate business. In May 2010 Russia joined the scheme, thus completing the circle. * Proposed Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific APEC is considering the prospects and options for a Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP) which would include all member economies of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). Since 2006, the APEC Business Advisory Council, promoting the theory that a free trade area has the best chance of converging the member nations and ensuring stable economic growth under free trade, has lobbied for the creation of a high-level task force to study and develop a plan for a free trade area. The proposal for a FTAAP arose due to the lack of progress in the Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations, and as a way to overcome the 'spaghetti bowl' effect created by overlapping and conflicting elements of free trade agreements between members – there are as many as 60 free trade agreements and 117 being negotiated in Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region. The FTAAP is more ambitious in scope than the Doha round, which limits itself to reducing trade restrictions. The FTAAP would create a free trade zone that would considerably expand commerce and economic growth in the region. The economic expansion and growth in trade could exceed the expectations of other regional free trade areas such as the ASEAN Plus Three (ASEAN + China, Japan, and South Korea). Some criticisms include that the diversion of trade within APEC members would create trade imbalances, market conflicts and complications with nations of other regions. The development of the FTAAP is expected to take many years, involving essential studies, evaluations and negotiations between member economies. It is also affected by the absence of political will and popular agitations and lobbying against free trade in domestic politics. * APEC Study Center Consortium In 1993, APEC Leaders decided to establish a network of APEC Study Centres (ASCs) amongst universities and research institutions in APEC member economies. Notable centers include: * Australian APEC Study Centre, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia * Berkeley APEC Study Center, University of California, Berkeley, United States * Chinese Taipei APEC Study Center, Taiwan Institute of Economic Research, Taiwan * HKU APEC Study Center, Hong Kong University, Hong Kong, China * Kobe APEC Study Center, Kobe University, Japan * Nankai APEC Study Center, Nankai University, People's Republic of China * Philippine APEC Study Center Network, Philippine Institute for Development Studies, Philippines * The Canadian APEC Study Centre, The Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, Vancouver, Canada * Indonesian APEC Study Centre, APEC Study Center University of Indonesia, Indonesia. * APEC Business Advisory Council The APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC) was created by the APEC Economic Leaders in November 1995 with the aim of providing advice to the APEC Economic Leaders on ways to achieve the Bogor Goals and other specific business sector priorities, and to provide the business perspective on specific areas of cooperation. Each economy nominates up to three members from the private sector to ABAC. These business leaders represent a wide range of industry sectors. ABAC provides an annual report to APEC Economic Leaders containing recommendations to improve the business and investment environment in the Asia-Pacific region, and outlining business views about priority regional issues. ABAC is also the only non-governmental organisation that is on the official agenda of the APEC Economic Leader’s Meeting. * Annual APEC Economic Leaders' Meetings Since its formation in 1989, APEC has held annual meetings with representatives from all member economies. The first four annual meetings were attended by ministerial-level officials. Beginning in 1993, the annual meetings are named APEC Economic Leaders' Meetings and are attended by the heads of government from all member economies except Taiwan, which is represented by a ministerial-level official. The annual Leaders' Meetings are not called summits. * Meeting developments In 1997, the APEC meeting was held in Vancouver. Controversy arose after officers of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police used pepper spray against protesters. The protesters objected to the presence of autocratic leaders such as Indonesian president Suharto. At the 2001 Leaders' Meeting in Shanghai, APEC leaders pushed for a new round of trade negotiations and support for a program of trade capacity-building assistance, leading to the launch of the Doha Development Agenda a few weeks later. The meeting also endorsed the Shanghai Accord proposed by the United States, emphasising the implementation of open markets, structural reform, and capacity building. As part of the accord, the meeting committed to develop and implement APEC transparency standards, reduce trade transaction costs in the Asia-Pacific region by 5 percent over 5 years, and pursue trade liberalization policies relating to information technology goods and services. In 2003, Jemaah Islamiah leader Riduan Isamuddin had planned to attack the APEC Leaders Meeting to be held in Bangkok in October. He was captured in the city of Ayutthaya, Thailand by Thai police on August 11, 2003, before he could finish planning the attack.date: February 2008: Chile became the first South American nation to host the Leaders' Meeting in 2004. The agenda of that year was focused on terrorism and commerce, small and medium enterprise development, and contemplation of free trade agreements and regional trade agreements. The 2005 Leaders' Meeting was held in Busan, South Korea. The meeting focused on the Doha round of World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations, leading up to the WTO Ministerial Conference of 2005 held in Hong Kong in December. Weeks earlier, trade negotiations in Paris were held between several WTO members, including the United States and the European Union, centered on reducing agricultural trade barriers. APEC leaders at the summit urged the European Union to agree to reducing farm subsidies. Peaceful protests against APEC were staged in Busan, but the meeting schedule was not affected. At the Leaders' Meeting held on November 19, 2006 in Hanoi, APEC leaders called for a new start to global free-trade negotiations while condemning terrorism and other threats to security. APEC also criticised North Korea for conducting a nuclear test and a missile test launch that year, urging the country to take "concrete and effective" steps toward nuclear disarmament. Concerns about nuclear proliferation in the region was discussed in addition to economic topics. The United States and Russia signed an agreement as part of Russia's bid to join the World Trade Organization. The APEC Australia 2007 Leaders' Meeting was held in Sydney from 2-9 September 2007. The political leaders agreed to an "aspirational goal" of a 25% reduction of energy intensity correlative with economic development. Extreme security measures including airborne sharpshooters and extensive steel-and-concrete barricades were deployed against anticipated protesters and potential terrorists. However, protest activities were peaceful and the security envelope was penetrated with ease by a spoof diplomatic motorcade manned by members of the Australian television program The Chaser, one of whom was dressed to resemble the Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. The APEC USA 2011 Leaders' Meeting was held on Honolulu, Hawaii from 8-13 November 2011. * APEC Leaders' Family Photo At the end of the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting, the leaders in attendance gather for what is officially known as the APEC Leaders' Family Photo. A long-standing tradition for this photo involved the attending leaders dressing in a costume that reflects the culture of the host member. The tradition dates back to the first such meeting in 1993 when then-U.S. President Bill Clinton outfitted the leaders in leather bombardier jackets. However, at the 2010 meeting, Japan opted to have the leaders dress in smart casual rather than the traditional kimono. Similarly, when Honolulu was selected in 2009 as the site for the 2011 APEC meeting, U.S. President Barack Obama joked that he looked forward to seeing the leaders dressed in "flowered shirts and grass skirts." However, after viewing previous photos, and concerned that having the leaders dress in aloha shirts might give the wrong impression during a period of economic austerity, Obama decided that it might be time to end the tradition. Leaders were given an specially designed aloha shirt as a gift but were not required to wear it for the photo. * Meeting locations The location of the meeting is rotated annually among the members. * Criticism APEC has been criticized for failing to clearly define itself or serve a useful purpose. According to the organization, it is "the premier forum for facilitating economic growth, cooperation, trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific region" established to "further enhance economic growth and prosperity for the region and to strengthen the Asia-Pacific community." However, whether it has accomplished anything constructive remains debatable, especially from the viewpoints of European countries that can not take part in the activities of APEC and European countries used to having the sphere of influence on the unprecedented colonial territories during 19th century and 20th century in the Asia-Pacific region.

Coopération économique pour l'Asie-Pacifique Zone de libre échange La Coopération économique pour l'Asie-Pacifique (APEC) est une organisation intergouvernementale visant à faciliter la croissance économique, la coopération, les échanges et l'investissement de la région Asie Pacifique. Elle se réunit en forum chaque année. * Objectifs L'APEC a été établi en 1989 pour améliorer la croissance économique et la prospérité pour la région et pour renforcer la communauté Asie-Pacifique. Depuis son commencement, l'APEC a travaillé pour réduire les tarifs et autres entraves aux échanges commerciaux à travers la région Asie-Pacifique, créant des économies nationales efficaces et augmentant considérablement les exportations. La clef de la vision de l'APEC est la réalisation des « Objectifs de Bogor » : une zone de libre échange et d'investissements dans l'Asie-Pacifique d'ici 2010 pour les économies industrialisées et d'ici 2020 pour des économies en voie de développement. Ces buts ont été adoptés par les dirigeants lors de leur réunion de 1994 à Bogor, Indonésie. L'APEC travaille également à créer un environnement sûr et efficace pour l'échange des marchandises, des services et des personnes à travers des frontières dans la région par une politique commune et par la coopération économique et technique, y compris sur le plan sanitaire, par exemple en encourageant en 2006 la coopération et la préparation à une éventuelle pandémie de grippe aviaire (H5N1). * Fonctionnement L'APEC est seul groupe inter-gouvernemental dans le monde fonctionnant sur la base des engagements non contraignants, du dialogue ouvert et du respect égal pour les vues de tous les participants. À la différence de la communauté européenne ou d'autres organisations économiques multilatérales, l'APEC n'a aucun engagement de traité exigé par ses participants. Les décisions prises par l'APEC sont obtenues par le consensus et les engagements sont entrepris sur une base volontaire. L'APEC a 21 membres, qui représentent plus du tiers de la population du monde (2,6 milliards de personnes), approximativement 60 % du PIB du monde et environ 47 % du commerce mondial. Il représente également la zone économique la plus dynamique dans le monde, ayant participé à presque 70 % de la croissance économique globale entre 1994 et 2004. * Pays membres * Australie: (1989) * Brunei: (1989) * Canada: (1989) * Corée du Sud: (1989) * États-Unis: (1989) * Indonésie: (1989) * Japon: (1989) * Malaisie: (1989) * Nouvelle-Zélande: (1989) * Philippines: (1989) * Singapour: (1989) * Thaïlande: (1989) * Chine: (1991) * Hong Kong: (1991) * Chinese Taipei: (1991) * Mexique: (1993) * Papouasie-Nouvelle-Guinée: (1993) * Chili: (1994) * Pérou: (1998) * Russie: (1998) * Viêt Nam: (1998) * Sommets * 1989 : Canberra, Australie: * 1993 : Blake Island, États-Unis: * 1994 : Bogor, Indonésie: * 1995 : Ōsaka, Japon: * 1996 : Manille, Philippines: * 1997 : Vancouver, Canada: * 1998 : Kuala Lumpur, Malaisie: * 1999 : Auckland, Nouvelle-Zélande: * 2000 : Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei: * 2001 : Shanghai, Chine: * 2002 : Los Cabos, Mexique: * 2003 : Bangkok, Thaïlande: * 2004 : Santiago, Chili: * 2005 : Pusan, Corée du Sud: * 17-19 novembre 2006 : Hanoï, Viêt Nam: * 7-9 septembre 2007 : Sydney, Australie: * 20-23 novembre 2008 : Lima, Pérou: * 8-15 novembre 2009 : Singapour, Singapour: * 7-14 novembre 2010 : Yokohama, Japon: * 7-13 novembre 2011 : Honolulu, États-Unis: Évènements : * Samedi : Les dirigeants du Forum de coopération économique Asie-Pacifique (APEC), réunis en sommet à Lima (Pérou), estiment que les mesures de protectionnisme peuvent avoir comme conséquences d'exacerber la crise économique actuelle. Notes et références : références:

فاينانشال تايمز صحف بريطانية | صحف دولية فاينانشال تايمز Financial Times: هي صحيفة بريطانية دولية تتحدث عن الأعمال. صحيفة يومية صباحية يتم نشرها في لندن. ويتم طباعتها في 24 موقع. وأهم منافسيها هي وال ستريت جورنال وهي صحيفة مالية يومية تصدر في مدينة نيويورك والتي هي بدورها أيضاً تطبع بعدة لغات. تم تأسيسها في عام 1888 من قبل جيمس شيريدان وأخوه. تاريخ : ولدت الفاينانشيال تايمز في 18 فبراير من عام 1888، أي قبل عام من صحيفة وول ستريت جورنال، لمواجهة فاينانشال نيوز المختصة في الأخبار المالية والتي ظهرت في عام 1884 من قبل مجموعة الاخوة بري. في عام 1945 اندمجت الجريدتين تحت اسم فاينانشال تايمز. وأصبحت فيما بعد شركة قابضة إنجليزية يملكها S. Pearson Published Limited. لأسباب اقتصادية وعملية، طبعة هذه الصحيفة سنة 1893 على ورق بلون السلمون، وتحول هذا إلى عادة وبدأ في استخدام هذا اللون يميز الصحافة المالية. بذرة صحافة: مراجع وهوامش : ثبت_المراجع:

Financial Times National newspapers published in the United Kingdom | Business newspapers | Pearson PLC | Economy of the United Kingdom | International newspapers | Publications established in 1888 | 1888 establishments in the United Kingdom | Financial Times dateAugust 2011: date: August 2011: (July 2011) The Financial Times (FT) is an international business newspaper. It is a morning daily newspaper published in London and printed in 24 cities around the world. Its primary rival is the Wall Street Journal, published in New York City. Along with FT.com, it has an average daily readership of 2.1 million people worldwide (PwC audited figures, November 2011). FT.com has 4million registered users and 250,000 digital subscribers, as well as 585,681 paying users. FT Chinese has more than 1.7 million registered users. The Financial Times actually has a claimed circulation of 337 thousand copies – worldwide (for November 2011). Founded in 1888 by James Sheridan and Horatio Bottomley, the Financial Times competed with four other finance-oriented newspapers, in 1945 absorbing the last, the Financial News (founded in 1884). The FT specialises in UK and international business and financial news. Printed as a broadsheet on light salmon paper, the FT is the only paper in the UK providing full daily reports on the London Stock Exchange and world markets. * History The FT was launched as the London Financial Guide on 9 January 1888, renaming itself the Financial Times on 13 February the same year. Describing itself as the friend of "The Honest Financier and the Respectable Broker", it was a four-page journal. The readership was the financial community of the City of London. The Financial Times established itself as the sober but reliable "stockbroker's Bible" or "parish magazine of the City", its only rival being the slightly older and more daring Financial News. In 1893, the FT turned light salmon to distinguish it from the similarly named Financial News. Also in the 1890s it also collaborated with Walter R Skinner in publishing series of years books and manuals regarding mining investment around the world. In 1993, the FT printed a single edition on white to commemorate this change a hundred years earlier. The paper has sometimes been informally known as the "Pink Un". From initial rivalry, the two papers were merged by Brendan Bracken in 1945 to form a single six-page newspaper. The Financial Times brought a higher circulation while the Financial News provided editorial talent. Over the years, the newspaper grew in size, readership and breadth of coverage. It established correspondents in cities around the world, reflecting early moves in the world economy towards globalisation. Pearson bought the paper in 1957. As cross-border trade and capital flows increased during the 1970s, the FT began international expansion, facilitated by developments in technology and the growing acceptance of English as the language of business. On 1 January 1979, the first FT was printed outside the UK, in Frankfurt. Since then, with increased international coverage, the FT has become a global newspaper, printed in 22 locations with four international editions to serve the UK, continental Europe, the U.S., Asia and the Middle East. The European edition is distributed in continental Europe and Africa. It is printed Monday to Saturday at five centres across Europe. Thanks to correspondents reporting from all the centres of Europe, the FT is regarded as the premier news source involving the European Union, the Euro, and European corporate affairs. On 13 May 1995 the Financial Times group made its first foray into the online world with the launch of FT.com. This provided a high summary of news from around the globe and was supplemented in February 1996 with the launch of stock prices followed in spring 1996 by the second generation site. The site was funded by advertising and contributed to the online advertising market in the UK in the late 1990s. Between 1997 and 2000 the site underwent several revamps and changes of strategy as the FT Group and Pearson reacted to changes online. FT.com is one of the few UK news sites successfully operating on subscriptions. On 18 March 2009 the Financial Times launched newssift.com, a semantic search engine that sifts through business news. In 1997, the FT launched the U.S. edition, printed in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Dallas, Atlanta, Orlando and Washington, D.C., although the newspaper was first printed outside New York City in 1985. In April 2009, the FTs U.S. circulation was 143,473. In September 1998, the FT became the first UK-based newspaper to sell more copies internationally than within the UK. Worldwide circulation stands at 421,059 with global readership estimated at over 1.4 million in more than 140 countries. In 2000, the Financial Times started publishing a German language edition, Financial Times Deutschland, with news and editorial team based in Hamburg. Its initial circulation in 2003 was 90,000. Originally a joint venture with German publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, FT eventually sold its 50% stake to its German partner in January 2008. The editor of the FT is Lionel Barber, who took over from Andrew Gowers in autumn 2005. In October 2006, the FT launched FT Alphaville, an Internet-based daily news and commentary service for financial professionals. On 23 April 2007, the FT relaunched, with a new typeface, new labelling, but no reduction in paper size. This redesign has been billed as the “most dramatic revamp [of the FT] in a generation” and includes more panels in the news pages, more first page feature content in the “Companies and Markets” section, and sports content that is more squeezed to allow an extra foreign news page. Changes include the reintroduction, above the leaders, of the FT's 1888 motto, “Without fear and without favour” and more signposts to FT.com. To coincide with the redesign, Pearson PLC announced an advertising campaign centred on the tag-line “We Live in Financial Times”, created by the agency DDB London. The FT redesign was handled by and was the first major project for design firm Shake-up Media and young American designer Ryan Bowman. In 2009 it was incorporated into the Weekend City Press Review where summaries of the weekend FT papers are published, as well as twelve other leading national papers, on a weekly subscription basis. * Content The Financial Times reports business and features share and financial product listings. About 110 of its 475 journalists are outside the UK. The FT is usually in two sections, the first section covers national and international news, the second company and markets news. FT Magazine is a weekly magazine published with the Financial Times Weekend Edition. Elements are incorporated in the main newspaper for the USA weekend edition. * How to Spend It How to Spend It is a weekly magazine published with the Financial Times Weekend Edition. Founded and launched by Julia Carrick with Lucia van der Post as founding editor, its articles concern luxury goods such as yachts, mansions, apartments, designs, horlogerie, haute couture and automobiles, as well as fashion and columns by individuals in the arts, gardening, food, and hotel and travel industries. To celebrate its 15th anniversary, FT launched the on-line version of this publication howtospendit.com on 3 October 2009. Some media commentators were taken aback by the online launch during the financial austerity of the late-2000s recession. The magazine has been derided in rival publishers' blogs, as "repellent" in the Telegraph and "a latter-day Ab Fab manual" in the Guardian. Editorial stance: It advocates free markets and is in favour of globalisation. During the 1980s it supported Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan's monetarist policies. It has aligned itself with Labour in the UK. It was also supportive of Gordon Brown, the former British Prime Minister. FT editorials tend to be pro-European Union. In the 2008 United States presidential election, the Financial Times endorsed Barack Obama. In the 2010 UK General Election the paper criticised the Conservative Party, but stated that on balance it would support them. In 2010, its competitor, The Wall Street Journal, dubbed the FT an "orthodox Keynesian company". An article in the FT in November 2011 referred to the opinion pages of the Wall Street Journal as "the conservative bible". * The Lex column The Lex column is a daily feature on the back page of the first section. It features analyses and opinions covering business and financial topics and is global in scope. The FT calls Lex its agenda-setting column. The column first appeared on Monday, 1 October 1945. The origin of the name may stand for "Lex Mercatoria" a Latin expression meaning literally "merchant law". It was conceived by Hargreaves Parkinson for the Financial News in the 1930s and took it to the Financial Times when the two merged. Lex boasts some distinguished alumni who have gone on to make careers in business and government – including Nigel Lawson (former Conservative Chancellor of the Exchequer), Richard Lambert (CBI director and former member of the Bank of England's monetary policy committee), Martin Taylor (former chief executive of Barclays), John Makinson (chairman and chief executive of Penguin), John Gardiner (former chairman of Tesco), David Freud (former UBS banker and Labour adviser, now a Conservative peer), John Kingman (former head of UKFI and a banker at Rothschild’s), George Graham (RBS banker), Andrew Balls (head of European portfolio management at PIMCO) and Jo Johnson (Conservative Member of Parliament for Orpington). Ownership and related products: The Financial Times Group is a division of Pearson PLC. It includes the Financial Times, FT.com, FT Search Inc., the publishing imprint FT Press, a 50% shareholding in The Economist, Mergermarket (an online intelligence reporting family) and numerous joint ventures including Vedomosti in Russia. In addition, the FT Group has a unit called FT Business which is a provider of specialist information on retail, personal and institutional finance segments. It is a publisher of The Banker, Money Management and Financial Adviser (a publication targeted at professional advisers), This is Africa, fDi intelligence and Professional Wealth Management (PWM). The Financial Times Group announced the beta launch of newssift FT Search, Inc. in March 2009. Newssift.com is a next generation search tool for business professionals indexing millions of articles from thousands of global business news sources, not just the FT. The Financial Times Group acquired Money Media (an online news and commentary site for the industry) and Exec-Appointments (an online recruitment specialist site for the executive jobs market). The FT Group had a 13.85% stake in Business Standard Ltd of India, the publisher of the Business Standard. FT Group has since sold this stake in April 2008 and has entered into an agreement with Network 18 to launch Financial Times in India, though it is speculated that they may find it difficult to do so, as the brand Financial Times in India is owned by The Times Group, the publisher of The Times of India and The Economic Times. The group also publishes America's Intelligence Wire, a daily general newswire service. The Financial Times’ Financial Publishing division provides print and online content for consumer and professional financial audiences. Examples of publications and services include: Investors Chronicle, a personal finance magazine and website; FT Money, a weekly personal finance supplement in FT Weekend; FT Wealth, a magazine for the global high-net-worth community and FTfm, a weekly review of the global fund management industry. Money-Media, a separate arm of Financial Publishing, delivers a range of digital information services for fund management professionals around the globe, including: Ignites, Ignites Europe, Ignites Asia, FundFire and BoardIQ. Intelligence, includes publications and events for the European pensions industry (Pensions Management, Pensions Week and schemeXpert.com). Financial Publishing also provides local language services through Nordic Region Pensions & Investment News (nrpn), Nederlands Pensioen & Beleggingsnieuws (npn), Deutsche Pensions & Investmentnachrichten (dpn), Schweizer Pensions & Investmentnachrichten (spn), The group also publishes MandateWire, a financial information company that provides sales and market intelligence for US and European investment professionals. FT Knowledge is an associated company which offers educational products and services. FT Knowledge has offered the "Introducing the City" course (which is a series of Wednesday night lectures/seminars, as well as weekend events) during the Autumn and Spring since 2000. FT Predict is a prediction market contest the Financial Times is hosting that allows users to buy and sell contracts based on future financial, political, and news-driven events by spending fictional Financial Times Dollars (FT$). Based on the assumptions displayed in James Surowiecki's The Wisdom of Crowds, this contest allows people to use prediction markets to observe future occurrences while competing for weekly and monthly prizes. The Financial Times also ran a business related game called "In the Pink" (a phrase meaning "in good health", also a reference to the colour of the newspaper and to the phrase "in the red" meaning to be making a loss). The player is put in the virtual role of Chief Executive and the goal is to have the highest profit when the game closes. The winner of the game (the player who makes the highest profit) will receive a real monetary prize of £10,000. The game ran from 1 May to 28 June 2006. Since 2005, the FT has sponsored the annual Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award. Indices: The Financial Times collates and publishes a number of financial market indices, which reflect the changing value of the constituents. The longest running being the former Financial News Index, started on 1 July 1935 by the Financial News. The FT published a similar index, which was replaced by the former which was renamed the Financial Times (FT) Index on 1 January 1947. The index started as an index of industrial shares and companies with dominant overseas interests such as the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later BP), British-American Tobacco, Lever Brothers (later Unilever) and Shell were excluded. The oil and financial sectors were included decades later. The FTSE All-Share Index, the first one of the FTSE series of indices, was created in 1962, comprising the largest 594 UK companies by market capitalisation. The letters F-T-S-E represent that FTSE is a joint venture between the Financial Times (F-T) and the London Stock Exchange (S-E). On 13 February 1984 the FTSE 100 was introduced, representing about 80 percent of the London Stock Exchange's value. In 1995 FTSE Group was made an independent company. The first of several overseas offices was opened in New York City in 1999, Paris in early 2000, and Hong Kong, Frankfurt, and San Francisco in 2001. Madrid was opened 2002, and Tokyo in 2003. Other well-known FTSE indices include the FTSE 350 Index, the FTSE SmallCap Index, the FTSE AIM UK 50 Index and FTSE AIM 100 Index as well as the FTSE AIM All-Share Index for stocks, and the FTSE UK Gilt Indices for government bonds. * People * Lionel Barber (Editor) * Gillian Tett (US Managing Editor) * Lucy Kellaway (Management Columnist) * John Authers (Head of Lex) * Tim Harford (Senior Columnist) * Gideon Rachman (Chief International Affairs Commentator) * Martin Wolf (Chief Economics Commentator) * Jurek Martin (Columnist and former Washington Bureau Chief) In July 2006, the FT announced a "New Newsroom" project to integrate the newspaper more closely with FT.com. At the same time it announced plans to cut the editorial staff from 525 to 475. In August, it announced that all the required job cuts had been achieved through voluntary layoffs. A number of former FT journalists have gone on to high-profile jobs in journalism, politics and business. Robert Thomson, previously the paper's US managing editor, was the editor of The Times and is now the publisher of the Wall Street Journal. Will Lewis, a former New York correspondent and News Editor for the FT, is the current editor of the Daily Telegraph. Dominic Lawson went on to become editor of the Sunday Telegraph until he was sacked in 2005. Andrew Adonis, a former education correspondent, became an adviser on education to Tony Blair, who was the British prime minister, and was given a job as an education minister and a seat in the House of Lords after the 2005 election. Ed Balls became chief economic adviser to the Treasury, working closely with Gordon Brown, the chancellor of the exchequer (or finance minister) before being elected as a Member of Parliament in 2005, and has been Secretary of State for Children, Schools and Families since July 2007. Bernard Gray, a former defence correspondent and Lex columnist, was chief executive of publishing company CMP before becoming chief executive of TSL Education, publisher of the Times Educational Supplement. David Jones, at one time the FT Night Editor, then became Head of IT. He was a key figure in the newspaper's transformation from hot metal to electronic composition and then onto full-page pagination in the 1990s. He went onto become Head of Technology for the Trinity Mirror Group. Sir Geoffrey Owen was Editor, Financial Times, 1981–1990. Thereafter he joined the London School of Economics – Centre for Economic Performance (CEP) as Director of Business Policy in 1991 and was appointed Senior Fellow, Institute of Management, in 1997. He continues his work there. During his tenure at the FT he had to deal with rapid technological change and issues related to it, for example, repetitive strain injury (RSI) issue which affected dozens of FT journalists, reporters and staff in the late 1980s. * Editors * 1888: Leopold Graham * 1889: Douglas MacRae * 1890: William Ramage Lawson * 1892: Sydney Murray * 1896: A. E. Murray * 1909: C. H. Palmer * 1937: D. S. T. Hunter * 1940: A. G. Cole * 1945: Hargreaves Parkinson * 1949: Sir Gordon Newton * 1972: Fredy Fisher * 1981: Sir Geoffrey Owen * 1991: Richard Lambert * 2001: Andrew Gowers * 2005: Lionel Barber * Political allegiance The Financial Times declared its support for Labour as early as the 1992 general election, when Neil Kinnock was attempting for the second time to return Labour to government for the first time since they had been ousted from power in 1979. In one of the surprise election results of the 20th century, John Major's Conservatives were elected for a fourth successive term; though their first under Major himself, as the previous three victories had been under Margaret Thatcher. For the 2010 general election, the Financial Times supported the Conservatives, despite criticising them. The party was re-elected after 13 years out of power. Failing to gain an overall majority they formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats. * References== 2:

Financial Times Presse économique britannique | Presse quotidienne britannique | Presse écrite britannique | Titre de presse créé en 1888 presse: Le (FT) est un quotidien économique et financier britannique, mais dont la majorité des lecteurs résident dans d'autres pays depuis 1998. Il est généralement considéré comme le quotidien économique de référence en Europe. Tiré en 2006 à plus de exemplaires, le FT aurait environ 1,6 million de lecteurs. Il est particulièrement reconnaissable à ses pages de couleur saumon. Le FT est imprimé simultanément dans 23 villes : Londres, Leeds, Dublin, Paris, Francfort, Stockholm, Milan, Madrid, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Dallas, Atlanta, Miami, Washington, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapour, Séoul, Dubaï, Johannesbourg et Istanbul. Histoire : Lancé le sous le titre de par Horatio Bottomley, il est renommé dès le 13 février . En 1997, le Financial Times a lancé sa version américaine et en 2000, sa version allemande, en langue allemande, le FT Deutschland. Contenu : Le journal est divisé en deux cahiers, l'un d'informations nationales et internationales diverses, l'autre sur l'actualité des entreprises et des marchés financiers. Groupe : Le FT group, filiale du groupe Pearson PLC, possède entre autres de l'hebdomadaire The Economist. Il a vendu sa participation dans Les Échos. Affaires révélées : Affaire Wolfowitz: Journaux britanniques:

إينغفار كامبراد رجال أعمال سويديون | مواليد 1926 | أشخاص يحتمل أن يكونوا أحياء | بليونيرات | أثرياء العالم | قادة | صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الوفاة إينغفار فيودور كامبراد ولد في 30 مارس 1926 في ليونغبي، السويد. وهو رجل أعمال سويدي، ورئيس شركة أثاث إيكيا، وقد صنف عام 2008 من قبل قائمة فوربس كسابع أغنى رجل في العالم بثروة قدرها 31 بليون، وفي الوقت الحالي مصنف كأغني شخص في أوروبا ورابع أغنى شخص في العالم. * حياته ولد كامبراد لأسرة ألمانية وعاش في إحدى المزارع بالقرب من منطقة لوينغبي بالسويد.كان يمتلك حس اقتصادي رهيب ،فبدأ بداية * إيكيا تعتبر إيكيا أضخم وأهم شركة أثاث في العالم، حيث توجد في أكثر من 40 دولة من مختلف المناطق.عام 1943 أسس شركة إيكيا وهو في سن السابع عشر. اسم شركته تتكون من الحروف الأولى لاسمهIngvar Kamprad، مع اسم مزرعة عائلته التي ولد بها Elmtaryd واسم القرية Agunnaryd. * المصادر == ثبت_المراجع:

Ingvar Kamprad 1926 births | Living people | People from Älmhult Municipality | Swedish people of German descent | Swedish businesspeople | Businesspeople in retailing | Swedish billionaires | IKEA Ingvar Feodor Kamprad (; born 30 March 1926) is a Swedish business magnate: and the founder of IKEA, a retail company. According to Forbes magazine, as of 2011 he is the 162nd wealthiest person in the world with an estimated net worth of around US$6 billion in 2011. According to Swedish business weekly Veckans Affärer, he is the wealthiest person in the world with an estimated wealth of between $50bn and $90bn, owning the IKEA franchise through Interogo Foundation and Stichting INGKA Foundation. Biography: Early life: Ingvar Kamprad was born in Pjätteryd, now part of Älmhult Municipality, and grew up on a farm called Elmtaryd (now spelled Älmtaryd), near the small village of Agunnaryd in Ljungby Municipality in the province of Småland, Sweden. He is a second generation Swede of German descent, his grandfather having moved the family to Sweden from Germany. Late life: Kamprads second wife Margareta passed away from an undisclosed disease the 12th of December 2011 Career: Kamprad began to develop a business as a young boy, selling matches to neighbors from his bicycle. He found that he could buy matches in bulk very cheaply from Stockholm, sell them individually at a low price, and still make a good profit. From matches, he expanded to selling fish, Christmas tree decorations, seeds, and later ballpoint pens and pencils. When Kamprad was 17, his father gave him a cash reward for succeeding in his studies. IKEA was founded in 1943 at his uncle Ernst's kitchen table. In 1948, Kamprad diversified his portfolio, adding furniture. His business was mostly-mail order. The acronym IKEA is made up of the initials of his name (Ingvar Kamprad) plus those of Elmtaryd, the family farm where he was born, and the nearby village Agunnaryd. Kamprad has lived in Epalinges, Switzerland since 1976. According to an interview with TSR, the French language Swiss TV broadcaster, Kamprad drives a 15-year-old Volvo 240, flies only economy class, and encourages IKEA employees always to write on both sides of a paper. He reportedly recycles tea bags and is known to pocket the salt and pepper packets at restaurants." In addition, Kamprad has been known to visit IKEA for a "cheap meal." He is also known to buy Christmas paper and presents in post-Christmas sales. The firm he created is still known for the attention it gives to cost control, operational details and continuous product development, allowing it to lower its prices by an of average 2-3% over the decade to 2010, while continuing its global expansion. Kamprad explains his social philosophy thusly in his "A Furniture Dealer's Testament," "It is not only for cost reasons that we avoid the luxury hotels. We don't need flashy cars, impressive titles, uniforms or other status symbols. We rely on our strength and our will!" Despite this, Kamprad allows himself some luxuries; he owns a villa in an upmarket part of Switzerland, a large country estate in Sweden, and a vineyard in Provence, France; he also drove a Porsche for several years. While working with furniture manufacturers in Poland earlier in his career, Kamprad became an alcoholic. He has, however, stated that his drinking is now under control. * Net worth According to Swedish business weekly Veckans Affärer, he is one of the wealthiest people in the world. This report is based on the assumption that Kamprad owns the entire company, an approach that both IKEA and the Kamprad family reject. Kamprad retains little ownership in the company, having transferred his interest to Stichting INGKA Foundation and INGKA Holding as part of a complex tax sheltering scheme that leaves his actual degree of control vague. As of March 2007, Ingvar Kamprad was the fourth wealthiest person in the world, according to Forbes magazine, with an estimated net worth of US$33 billion. In March 2010, Forbes magazine estimated his fortune at US$23 billion, making him the 11th richest person in the world. Though, as of March 2011, Kamprad's net worth had declined substantially (down US$17 billion) to a final value of US$6 billion. He had fallen from 11th spot on Forbes to 162nd because his lawyers produced documents that prove the foundation he created, and heads, in Liechtenstein owns IKEA, and its bylaws bar him and his family from benefiting from its funds. * Stichting INGKA Foundation The Dutch-registered Stichting INGKA Foundation is named after Ingvar Kamprad (i.e. ING + KA) who owns INGKA Holding, the parent company for all IKEA stores. The charitable foundation was reported by the business newspaper The Economist in May 2006 to be technically the world's wealthiest charity – with an estimated value of at least US$36 billion in 2006 (larger than the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) – but its primary purpose is corporate tax-optimization and anti-takeover protection for IKEA. Kamprad is chairman of the foundation. Works : While generally a private person, Kamprad has published a few notable works. He first detailed the IKEA concept of frugality and enthusiasm in a manifesto entitled A Testament of a Furniture Dealer. Written in 1976, it has since been considered the fundamental ideology of the IKEA furniture retail concept. He also worked with Swedish journalist Bertil Torekull on the book Leading by Design: The IKEA Story. In the autobiographical account, he further describes his philosophies and the trials and triumphs of the founding of IKEA. Fascist involvement : In 1994, the personal letters of the Swedish fascist activist Per Engdahl were made public after his death, and it was revealed that Kamprad had joined Engdahl's pro-fascist New Swedish Movement in 1942. Kamprad had raised funds for and recruited members to said group at least as late as September 1945. When Kamprad quit the group is unknown, but he remained a friend of Engdahl until the early 1950s. Kamprad devotes two chapters to his time in Nysvenska Rörelsen in his book, Leading By Design: The IKEA Story and, in a 1994 letter to IKEA employees, called his affiliation with the organization the "greatest mistake of his life." In 2011, journalist Elisabeth Åsbrink revealed that the Swedish secret service created a file on Kamprad already in 1943 titled "Nazi" and that Kamprad in a interview 2010 told her: "Per Engdahl is a great man, and I will maintain that as long as I live".

Ingvar Kamprad Personnalité suédoise du monde des affaires | Entrepreneur | Naissance en Suède | Naissance en 1926 | Personnalité vaudoise dateoctobre 2009: . Ingvar Feodor Kamprad , né le , est un entrepreneur suédois, qui a fait fortune en créant la chaîne de magasins Ikea. En 2010, il est à la 11e: place du classement des hommes les plus riches de la planète. Biographie : En 1926, il naît dans le Småland, région pauvre de Suède. Pendant sa jeunesse, il vend des allumettes, puis des décorations de Noël. Par la suite, il se consacre à la vente de semences : « J'ai acheté des semences pour le jardin. J'ai fait une grande réussite avec ça. Je rendais visite à toutes les maisons de mon village. Après cette année, j'ai pu m'acheter ma première bicyclette.» C'est en 1943 qu'il crée Ikea. C'est l'acronyme tiré de Ingvar Kamprad, de la ferme familiale, Elmtaryd, et du nom de son village natal, Agunnaryd. L'entreprise vend des stylos, de la petite maroquinerie, des cadres, des nappes, des bijoux et des bas en nylon par le porte à porte. En 1945, elle se diversifie dans la vente par correspondance au moyen d'un catalogue. En 1947, le catalogue ajoute des meubles. En 1951, l'entreprise se consacre exclusivement à la vente de meubles. En 1953, c'est l'ouverture d'un premier magasin. En 1955, pour riposter aux pressions exercées sur ses fournisseurs faites par ses concurrents, l'entreprise développe ses premiers meubles. Il remarque qu'il y avait beaucoup de progrès dans la rationalisation de la fabrication, mais peu pour tout ce qui touchait la maison. Il décide donc de développer des produits selon la devise FFP, c'est-à-dire la fonctionalité, la forme et la facilité à être produit. En 1956, la formule qui fera la marque de fabrique de l'entreprise apparaît : les meubles sont livrés en paquets plats et sont montés par l'acheteur. En 1963, la Norvège voit l'implantation du premier magasin Ikea en dehors de la Suède. En 1976, Kamprad s'établit à Épalinges, sur les hauts de Lausanne, en Suisse romande. D'après le magazine Forbes de mars 2007, Ingvar Kamprad est le 4e: homme le plus riche du monde, avec une fortune estimée à 33 milliards de dollars américains, ce qu'il conteste : « Ni moi ni ma famille ne sommes propriétaires d'IKEA. Voilà plus de 20 ans que j'ai cédé toutes mes actions afin de garantir la continuité de l'entreprise ». Le groupe Ingka Holding est sous le contrôle de la Fondation Ingka de droit néerlandais. Mécène : * Dès 1973, Fondation pour soutenir des jeunes, notamment dans le secteur du design * Chaque année un demi-million de francs pour des bourses pour des formations * 2006, don d'un demi-million de francs Suisse à l'École cantonale d’art de Lausanne pour construire un amphithéâtre. Affaire des sympathies nazies : Certaines sources (comme la journaliste Elisabeth Åsbrink en 2011 ) affirment que dans sa jeunesse, Kamprad fut membre de la Jeunesse nordique, équivalent suédois des Jeunesses hitlériennes. Son père et sa grand-mère vouaient en effet une admiration sans bornes à Adolf Hitler, admiration sans doute partagée par le jeune Ingvar. Il dit aujourd'hui ne plus se souvenir s'il fut officiellement membre ou non de cette organisation. En 1994, la presse révèle son engagement et de ses relations durables avec Per Engdahl, leader du mouvement pro-nazi de Suède. Dans une lettre adressée à ses salariés, Ingvar Kamprad assuma son passé, mis sur le compte d'une « erreur de jeunesse », et fit des excuses à ses salariés. Un journal suédois affirma ensuite qu'Ikea avait démarré grâce à des fonds apportés par des Nazis. Kamprad nia fermement : « Ils auraient pu m'accuser de meurtre... mais pas d'avoir emprunté de l'argent ». Notes et références : Références:

بلو جين معالجات آي‌ بي‌ إم تاريخسبتمبر 2010: معالج آي بي إم بلوجين (إل - بي): نوع الالة: RISC-based distributed-memory multi-processor إصداراته: IBM BlueGene/L&P نظام التشغيل: Linux بنية الاتصال:الشبكة الشجرية : 3-D Torus, المترجمات: : XL Fortran 90, XL C, C++. صفحة معلومات الباعة: www-1.ibm.com/servers/deepcomputing/bluegene/ عام الإنتاج:2004 لـ BlueGene و 2007 لـ BlueGene * BlueGene/L إن الـ BlueGene/L هو الأول في جيل جديد من الأنظمة المتوازية والتي كانت من إنتاج شركةIBM. المعالج الأساسي في النظام هو معالج PowerPC 400 يعمل على تردد 700 MHz اثنان من هذه المعالجات تستقرّ على رقاقة واحدة، ولهما ذاكرة خابية مشتركة من المستوى الثالث سعتها4 ميغابايت ,كما ويوجد لكلّ من المعالجات ذاكرة خابية خاصة به من المستوى الثاني بسعة 2 كيلوبايت. للمعالجات منفذين لتحميل القيم من الخابية الخاصة بكل منهما ومنفذ وحيد لتخزين القيم ضمنها، وسرعة هذه المنافذ هي 8 بايت\دور.و هذه تساوي نصف عرض الحزمة المطلوب من أجل وحدتي حساب عمليات الفاصلة العائمة. للمعالجات 32 كيلو بايت من ذاكرة التعليمات وذاكرة البيانات على اللوحة الأم والتي تشكل ذاكرة خابية من المستوى الأول. في الحالة المثالية يستطيع المعالج الوصول إلى معدل 2.8 G من عمليات الفاصلة العائمة في الثانية وذلك لأن وحدتي حساب الفاصلة العائمة تستطيع القيام بعمليات ضرب-جمع مدموجة. نلاحظ أن الخابية من المستوى الثاني أصغر من الخابية من المستوى الأول، ذلك غير مألوف إلا أنه يزيد من أداء المعالج. في الحقيقة فإن المستوى الثاني يمثل محطة تخزينية للخابية الأكبر منها ذات المستوى الثالث. إن تجميع المعالجات في هذا النظام يتم كالتالي: v كل معالجين يتم وضعهما على رقاقة واحدة. v كل رقاقتين من الرقاقات السابقة تتوضعان على كرت حاسوبي واحد، ويخصص لها 512ميغابايت ذاكرة. v كل 16 كرت حاسوبي يتم ضمها في عقدة واحدة. v كل 32 من العقد يتم ضمها في حجرة واحدة. v في الحالة العظمى يحوي النظام 64 من الحجرة السابقة. و بالتالي يحوي على 65,356 شريحة و 130,712 معالج. في العمليات العادية يعمل فقط معالج واحد من معالجي الشريحة بينما يعمل الاخر على مهام الاتصال. في هذه الحالة يكون معدل العمل الأعظمي يساوي 183.5 Tflop/s. كما أنه من الممكن إذا كانت متطلبات الاتصال قليلة أن يتم استخدام المعالجين من أجل القيام بالعمليات الحسابية وعندها يتضاعف الأداء. إن قيمة الأداء التالية 360 Tflop/s هي التي تستخدمها شركة IBM للتسويق. * BlueGene/P في النصف الاخر من العام 2007 ظهر النظام BlueGene/P. البنية الداخلية له مشابهة لبنية BlueGene/L إلا أن معظم مكوناته أكبر وأسرع. فالمعالجات هي من النوع PowerPC 450 التي تعمل على تردد 850 ميغاهيرتس. هنا يمكن لأربع معالجات أن تعمل في الدور الواحد. الخابية من المستوى الثالث كبرت من 4 إلى 8 ميغابايت، وذاكرة الرقاقة كبرت من 512 ميغابايت إلى 2 غيغابايت. و أيضا عرض الحزمة أصبح 13.6 GB/s. بخلاف الاصدار L فإن هذا الاصدار يعمل تماما على نظام SMP. إن تجميع المعالجات في هذا النظام يتم كالتالي: * كل 4 معالجات يتم وضعها على رقاقة واحدة. * كل 32رقاقة من الرقاقات السابقة تتوضع على لوح واحد. * كل 32 لوح يتم ضمهم في رف واحد. * يمكن للنظام أن يحوي على 216 رف وبالتالي أداء أعظمي يصل إلى 3 Pflop/s. كلا الإصدارين يشتركان في كمية الطاقة القليلة الذين يحتاجانها، حيث يصرف 1024 معالج طاقة قدرها 40KW فقط. العديد من الجامعات والحكومات استخدمت هذا النظام BlueGene/P في أبحاث الأسلحة، وعلم الفلك الشعاعي ,و دراسات المناخ وغيرها من المجالات. كما أن مستخدمي هذا النظام لاحظوا السرعة الفائقة له في معالجة البيانات, * المراجع * http://www-03.ibm.com/systems/deepcomputing/bluegene * http://www.phys.uu.nl/steen/web08/bl-g-proc.html

Blue Gene Power Architecture | IBM supercomputers | Parallel computing | Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory dateDecember 2011: Blue Gene is an IBM project aimed at designing a supercomputer that can reach an operating speeds in the PFLOPS (petaFLOPS) range, with low power consumption.The project created three generations of supercomputers, Blue Gene/L, Blue Gene/P, and Blue Gene/Q. Blue Gene systems have led for several years the Top500 ranking of the most powerful supercomputers and have been deployed in many supercomputing centers. The project was awarded the 2008 National Medal of Technology and Innovation. U.S. President Barack Obama bestowed the award on October 7, 2009.. * History In December 1999, IBM announced a $100 million research initiative for a five-year effort to build a massively parallel computer, to be applied to the study of biomolecular phenomena such as protein folding . The project had two main goals: to advance our understanding of the mechanisms behind protein folding via large-scale simulation, and to explore novel ideas in massively parallel machine architecture and software. Major areas of investigation included: how to use this novel platform to effectively meet its scientific goals, how to make such massively parallel machines more usable, and how to achieve performance targets at a reasonable cost, through novel machine architectures. The initial design for Blue Gene was based on an early version of the Cyclops64 architecture, designed by Monty Denneau. The initial research and development work was pursued at IBM T.J. Watson Research Center. In 1999 Alan Gara moved from Columbia University, were he had been leading work on the QCDOC architecture to the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center. The QCDOC system was a special purpose computers for QCD computations; it used a chip with an embedded PowerPC core on it. At IBM, Alan Gara started working on an extension of the QCDOC architecture into a more general-purpose supercomputer: The 4D nearest-neighbor interconnection network was replaced by a network supporting routing of messages from any node to any other; and a parallel I/O subsystem was added. DOE started funding the development of this system and it became known as Blue Gene/L (L for Light); development of the original Blue Gene system continued under the name Blue Gene/C (C for Cyclops) and, later, Cyclops64. In November 2001, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) joined IBM as a research partner for Blue Gene. Development proceded at IBM T.J. Watson Research Center and at IBM Rochester with the goal of delivering a system to LLNL * Blue Gene/L In November 2004 a 16-rack system, with each rack holding 1,024 compute nodes, achieved first place in the TOP500 list, with a Linpack performance of 70.72 TFLOPS. It thereby overtook NEC's Earth Simulator, which had held the title of the fastest computer in the world since 2002. From 2004 through 2007 the Blue Gene/L installation at LLNL gradually expanded to 104 racks, achieving 478 TFLOPS Linpack and 596 TFLOPS peak. The LLNL BlueGene/L installation held the first position in the TOP500 list for 3.5 years, until in June 2008 it was overtaken by IBM's Cell-based Roadrunner system at Los Alamos National Laboratory, which was the first system to surpass the 1 PetaFLOPS mark. While the LLNL installation was the largest Blue Gene/L installation, many smaller installations followed. In November 2006, there were 27 computers on the TOP500 list using the Blue Gene/L architecture. All these computers were listed as having an architecture of eServer Blue Gene Solution. For example, three racks of Blue Gene/L were housed at the San Diego Supercomputer Center. While the TOP500 measures performance on a single benchmark application, Linpack, Blue Gene/L also set records for performance on a wider set of applications. Blue Gene/L was the first supercomputer ever to run over 100 TFLOPS sustained on a real world application, namely a three-dimensional molecular dynamics code (ddcMD), simulating solidification (nucleation and growth processes) of molten metal under high pressure and temperature conditions. This achievement won the 2005 Gordon Bell Prize. In June 2006, NNSA and IBM announced that Blue Gene/L achieved 207.3 TFLOPS on a quantum chemical application (Qbox). At Supercomputing 2006, Blue Gene/L was awarded the winning prize in all HPC Challenge Classes of awards. In 2007, a team from the IBM Almaden Research Center and the University of Nevada ran an artificial neural network almost half as complex as the brain of a mouse for the equivalent of a second (the network was run at 1/10 of normal speed for 10 seconds). * Major features The Blue Gene/L supercomputer was unique in the following aspects: * Trading the speed of processors for lower power consumption. Blue Gene/L used low frequency and low power embedded PowerPC cores with floating point accelerators.While the performance of each chip was relatively low, the system could achieve better computer to energy ratio, for applications that could use larger numbers of nodes. * Dual processors per node with two working modes: co-processor mode where one processor handles computation and the other handles communication; and virtual-node mode, where both processors are available to run user code, but the processors share both the computation and the communication load. * System-on-a-chip design. All node components were embedded on one chip, with the exception of 512 MB external DRAM. * A large number of nodes (scalable in increments of 1024 up to at least 65,536) * Three-dimensional torus interconnect with auxiliary networks for global communications (broadcast and reductions), I/O, and management * Lightweight OS per node for minimum system overhead (system noise). * Architecture The Blue Gene/L architecture was an evolution of the QCDSP and QCDOC architectures. Each Blue Gene/L Compute or I/O node was a single ASIC with associated DRAM memory chips. The ASIC integrated two 700 MHz PowerPC 440 embedded processors, each with a double-pipeline-double-precision Floating Point Unit (FPU), a cache sub-system with built-in DRAM controller and the logic to support multiple communication sub-systems. The dual FPUs gave each Blue Gene/L node a theoretical peak performance of 5.6 GFLOPS (gigaFLOPS). The two CPUs were not cache coherent with one another. Compute nodes were packaged two per compute card, with 16 compute cards plus up to 2 I/O nodes per node board. There were 32 node boards per cabinet/rack. By integration the of all essential sub-systems on a single chip, and the use of low-power logic, each Compute or I/O node dissipated low power (about 17 watts, including DRAMs). This allowed very aggressive packaging of up to 1024 compute nodes plus additional I/O nodes in the standard 19-inch rack, within reasonable limits of electrical power supply and air cooling. The performance metrics in terms of FLOPS per watt, FLOPS per m2 of floorspace and FLOPS per unit cost allowed scaling up to very high performance. With so many nodes, component failures were inevitable. The system was able to electrically isolate a row of faulty components to allow the machine to continue to run. Each Blue Gene/L node was attached to three parallel communications networks: a 3D toroidal network for peer-to-peer communication between compute nodes, a collective network for collective communication (broadcasts and reduce operations), and a global interrupt network for fast barriers. The I/O nodes, which run the Linux operating system, provided communication to storage and external hosts via an Ethernet network. The I/O nodes handled filesystem operations on behalf of the compute nodes. Finally, a separate and private Ethernet network provided access to any node for configuration, booting and diagnostics. To allow multiple programs to run concurrently, a Blue Gene/L system could be partitioned into electronically isolated sets of nodes. The number of nodes in a partition had to be a positive integer power of 2, with at least 25 : 32 nodes. To run a program on Blue Gene/L, a partition of the computer was first be reserved. The program was then loaded and run on all the nodes within the partition, and no other program could access nodes within the partition while it was in use. Upon completion, the partition nodes were released for future programs to use. Blue Gene/L compute nodes used a minimal operating system supporting a single user program. Only a subset of POSIX calls was supported, and only one process could run at a time on node in co-processor mode -- or one process per CPU in virtual mode. Programmers needed to implement green threads in order to simulate local concurrency. Application development was usually performed in C, C++, or Fortran using MPI for communication. However, some scripting languages such as Ruby and Python have been ported to the compute nodes. Blue Gene/P: In June 2007, IBM unveiled Blue Gene/P, the second generation of the Blue Gene series of supercomputers and designed through a collaboration that included IBM, LLNL, and Argonne National Laboratory's . Design: The design of Blue Gene/P is a technology evolution from Blue Gene/L. Each Blue Gene/P Compute chip contains four PowerPC 450 processor cores, running at 850 MHz. The cores are cache coherent and the chip can operate as a 4-way symmetric multiprocessor (SMP). The memory subsystem on the chip consists of small private L2 caches, a central shared 8 MB L3 cache, and dual DDR2 memory controllers. The chip also integrates the logic for node-to-node communication, using the same network topologies as Blue Gene/L, but at more than twice the bandwidth. A compute card contains a Blue Gene/P chip with 2 or 4 GB DRAM, comprising a "compute node". A single compute node has a peak performance of 13.6 GFLOPS. 32 Compute cards are plugged into an air-cooled node board. A rack contains 32 node boards (thus 1024 nodes, 4096 processor cores). By using many small, low-power, densely packaged chips, Blue Gene/P exceeded the power efficiency of other supercomputers of its generation, and at 371 MFLOPS/W Blue Gene/P installations ranked at or near the top of the Green500 lists in 2007-2008. Installations: The following is an incomplete list of Blue Gene/P installations. Per November 2009, the TOP500 list contained 15 Blue Gene/P installations of 2-racks (2048 nodes, 8196 processor cores, 23.86 TFLOPS Linpack) and larger. * On November 12, 2007, the first Blue Gene/P installation, JUGENE, with 16 racks (16,384 nodes, 65,536 processors) was running at Forschungszentrum Jülich in Germany with a performance of 167 TFLOPS. When inaugurated it was the fastest supercomputer in Europe and the sixth fastest in the world. In 2009, JUGENE was upgraded to 72 racks (73,728 nodes, 294,912 processor cores) with 144 terabytes of memory and 6 petabytes of storage, and achieved a peak performance of 1 PetaFLOPS. This configuration incorporated new air-to-water heat exchangers between the racks, reducing the cooling cost substantially. * The first laboratory in the United States to receive a Blue Gene/P was Argonne National Laboratory. At completion, the 40-rack (40960 nodes, 163840 processor cores) "Intrepid" system was ranked #3 on the June 2008 Top 500 list. The Intrepid system is one of the major resources of the INCITE program, in which processor hours are awarded to "grand challenge" science and engineering projects in a peer-reviewed competition. * Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory installed a 36-rack Blue Gene/P installation, "Dawn", in 2009. * The King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST) installed a 16-rack Blue Gene/P installation, "Shaheen", in 2009. * A Blue Gene/P system is the central processor for the Low Frequency Array for Radio astronomy (LOFAR) project in the Netherlands and surrounding European countries. This application uses the streaming data capabilities of the machine. * A 2-rack Blue Gene/P has been installed on September 9, 2008 in Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, and is operated by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences and the Sofia University. * In 2010, a Blue Gene/P was installed at the University of Melbourne for the Victorian Life Sciences Computation Initiative. * Applications * Veselin Topalov, the challenger to the World Chess Champion title in 2010, confirmed in an interview that he had used a Blue Gene/P supercomputer during his preparation for the match. * The Blue Gene/P computer has been used to simulate approximately one percent of a human cerebral cortex, containing 1.6 billion neurons with approximately 9 trillion connections. * The IBM Kittyhawk project team has ported Linux to the compute nodes and demonstrated generic Web 2.0 workloads running at scale on a Blue Gene/P. Their paper published in the ACM Operating Systems Review describes a kernel driver that tunnels Ethernet over the tree network, which results in all-to-all TCP/IP connectivity. Running standard Linux software like MySQL, their performance results on SpecJBB rank among the highest on record.date: September 2010: * In 2011 a Rutgers University / IBM / University of Texas team linked the KAUST Shaheen installation together with a Blue Gene/P installation at the IBM Watson Research Center into a "federated high performance computing cloud", winning the IEEE SCALE 2011 challenge with an oil reservoir optimization application. Blue Gene/Q: The third supercomputer design in the Blue Gene series, Blue Gene/Q aims to reach 20 Petaflops in the 2012 time frame. It continues to expand and enhance the Blue Gene/L and /P architectures. Design : * The Blue Gene/Q Compute chip is a 18 core chip. The 64-bit PowerPC A2 processor cores are 4-way simultaneously multithreaded, and run at 1.6 GHz. Each processor core has a quad SIMD double precision floating point unit. The processor cores are linked by a crossbar switch to a 32 MB eDRAM L2 cache, operating at half core speed. The L2 cache is multi-versioned, supporting transactional memory and speculative execution, and has hardware support for atomic operations. L2 cache misses are handled by two built-in DDR3 memory controllers running at 1.33 GHz. The chip also integrates logic for chip-to-chip communications in a 5D torus configuration, with 2GB/s chip-to-chip links. 16 Processor cores are used for computing, and a 17th core for operating system assist functions such as interrupts, asynchronous I/O, MPI pacing and RAS. The 18th core is used as a spare in case one of the other cores is permanently damaged, like in manufacturing, but is normally shut down. The Blue Gene/Q chip is manufactured on IBM's copper SOI process at 45 nm, and will deliver 205 GFLOPS at 1.6 GHz and draw 55 watts. It is 19×19 mm large (359.5 mm²) and comprises 1.47 billion transistors. The chip is mounted on a compute card, along with 16 GB DDR3 DRAM (i.e., 1 GB for each user processor core). * A compute drawer will have 32 compute cards, each water cooled and connected into a 5D network torus. * Racks will have 32 compute drawers for a total of 1024 compute nodes, 16,384 user cores and 16 TB RAM. * Separate I/O drawers will be air cooled and contain 8 compute cards and 8 PCIe expansion slots for Infiniband or 10 Gigabit Ethernet networking. * Performance At the time of the Blue Gene/Q system announcement in November 2011, an initial 4-rack Blue Gene/Q system (4096 nodes, 65536 user processor cores) achieved #17 in the TOP500 list with 677.1 TeraFLOPS Linpack, outperforming the original 2007 104-rack BlueGene/L installation described above. The same 4-rack system achieved the top position in the Graph500 list with over 250 GTEPS (giga traversed edges per second). Blue Gene/Q systems also topped the Green500 list of most energy efficient supercomputers with about 2 GFLOPS/W. * Installations === The archetypal Blue Gene/Q system called Sequoia will be installed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2012 as a part of the Advanced Simulation and Computing Program running nuclear simulations and advanced scientific research. It will consist of 98,304 compute nodes comprising 1.6 million processor cores and 1.6 PB memory in 96 racks covering an area of about , drawing 6 megawatts of power. A Blue Gene/Q system called Mira will be installed at Argonne National Laboratory in the early in 2012. It will consist of 49,152 compute nodes, with 70 PB of disk storage (470 GB/s I/O bandwidth).

Blue Gene Superordinateur | Architecture Power Blue Gene est une architecture de superordinateurs. Le projet est cofinancé par le Département de l'Énergie des États-Unis et développé par IBM. Il a pris la tête du classement TOP500 du au (dans une version non finalisée), avec 36,01 téraflops au test Linpack. Le record était précédemment détenu par le NEC Earth Simulator de 35,86 téraflops. Blue Gene fut dépassé par le supercalculateur Columbia (42,7 téraflops) avant de reprendre l'avantage, le même mois, avec 70,7 téraflops ( processeurs à 700 MHz). L'architecture évolua jusqu'à 367: téraflops (record réalisé avec processeurs), puis 478 téraflops en novembre 2007. En juin 2008, il perd à nouveau son titreen: face à un ordinateur militaire, Roadrunner, construit à base de processeurs Cell, destinés à la base à la Playstation 3. Commercialisation : Plusieurs machines existent désormais dans le monde, le Blue Gene étant le premier superordinateur à être commercialisé et produit en plusieurs exemplaires. Une machine Blue Gene a notamment été commandée par l'organisation Astron, aux Pays-Bas, à des fins de recherche astronomique - LOFAR. 3 ordinateurs Blue Gene étaient classés en octobre 2006 parmi les 10 ordinateurs les plus puissants de la planète . Pour l'instant deux Blue Gene sont installée en France , dont l'un au centre de calcul du CNRS à Orsay. Caractéristiques du BlueGene/L : * 1 mégawatt ; * ethernet (1Gb/s chacun) ; * ASIC intégrant deux contrôleurs embarqués PowerPC 440, un sous-système de mémoire cache et un de communication : Processeurs (Novembre 2007) ; * mémoire vive : 16 To de type DDR ; * capacité de stockage : 400 To ; * Système d'exploitation : Unix/AIX ; * Puissance actuelle (novembre 2007) : 478.2 téraflops ; Emploi de la machine : * Simuler en temps réel des repliements de protéines (voir prion) dans le cadre de recherche en génétique ; * Data mining intensif sur des statistiques médicales à grande échelle pour en découvrir les corrélations cachées ; * Analyse en temps réel de signaux radioastronomiques dans le cadre des recherches sur l'origine de l'univers ; * Simuler le vieillissement d'une centrale nucléaire à court et long terme et analyser les dégradations causées par la radioactivité (EDF) ; * en: - simulation d'une colonne corticale humaine ; Une retombée sera probablement aussi une certaine satisfaction pour la communauté Linux, et quelques références ponctuelles pour le constructeur de la machine, IBM.: Références : Articles connexes : * Blue Brain

أفعوانية ألعاب الأفعوانية هي نموذج مصغر لسكة حديدية، مرتفع عن الأرض، وملتوية. يركباه الناس للتسلية الترفيه ويوجد عادةً في مدينة الملاهي والحدائق الحديثة بغرض التسلية. تعود براءة هذا الاختراع إلى اماركوس عدنا طومسون "LaMarcus Adna Thompson" وكان ذلك في 20 يناير 1885. تتكون الافعوانية سكة حديدية حيث لها مسار الذي يرتفع في أنماط التصاميم المختلفة، وأحيانا في الواحد أكثر من مرتفع لتسبب ظاهرة الانقلاب (مثل الحلقات الرأسية) التي بدورها تقلب راكبيها رأسا على عقب فترة وجيزة لأسفل. المسار ليس بالضرورة أن يكون دائرة كاملة، ويحمل المكوك الوقايات الدوارة التي تساعد في ضبط النفس والجلوس ثابتاً.كما تحتوي على عربات لتسمح لعدد أكبر من الركاب حيث تتصل العربات مع بعضها البعض مكونةً القطار. وقد تشغل عربة واحدة في بعض الأحيان من باب الوقاية. تاريخ الافعوانيات : الجبل الروسي Russian mountain يعتقد أن أقدم الأفعوانيات قد نشأت من التلال ما يسمى ب "الجبل الروسي "، والتي شيدت خصيصا من الجليد، وتقع خصوصا حول مدينة سان بطرسبرج. بنيت في القرن 15، وقد بنيت على ارتفاع ما بين 70 و 80 قدما (24 م) وكان المنحدر يميل بـ 50 درجة الانخفاض، واستخدمت الدعائم الخشبية لتدعيمها. المصطلح "الجبل الروسي -Russian mountain " لا تزال تعبر عن الافعوانية في العديد من اللغات. ويقول بعض المؤرخين أن أول افعوانية بنيت تحت إمرة كاترين العظمى في روسيا في حدائق Oreinbaum في سانت بطرسبرغ في عام 1784. مؤرخون آخرون يعتقدون أن تم بناء الافعوانية الأولى من قبل الفرنسيين. The Les Montagnes Russes à Belleville (The Russian Mountains of Belleville) التي شيدت في باريس عام 1812 حوت منتزهات Aeriennes على مراكب ذات عجلات ظهرت مغلقة بإحكام إلى المسار (سكة حديدة)، لتبقيها القضبان على الطريق ،ولتسير بسرعة هائلة. كما ان اسم الجبل الروسي (الافعوانية) في الفرنسية والإسبانية والبرتغالية والإيطالية "؛ montagnes russes"، "montañas rusas"، "montanhas - russas" و"مونتاني روسيه" على التوالي. بذرة لعبة: Roller coasters: no: he:

Roller coaster Roller coasters Other uses: The roller coaster is a popular amusement ride developed for amusement parks and modern theme parks. LaMarcus Adna Thompson patented the first coasters on January 20, 1885. In essence a specialized railroad system, a roller coaster consists of a track that rises in designed patterns, sometimes with one or more inversions (such as vertical loops) that turn the rider briefly upside down. The track does not necessarily have to be a complete circuit, as shuttle roller coasters exhibit. Most roller coasters have multiple cars in which passengers sit and are restrained. Two or more cars hooked together are called a train. Some roller coasters, notably Wild Mouse roller coasters, run with single cars. History: History of the roller coaster: Russian mountain: The oldest roller coasters are believed to have originated from the so-called "Russian Mountains", which were specially constructed hills of ice, located especially around Saint Petersburg. Built in the 15th century, the slides were built to a height of between 70 and , consisted of a 50 degree drop, and were reinforced by wooden supports. Some historians say the first real roller coaster was built under the orders of Russia's Catherine the Great in the Gardens of Oranienbaum in Saint Petersburg in the year 1784. Other historians believe that the first roller coaster was built by the French. The Les Montagnes Russes à Belleville (The Russian Mountains of Belleville) constructed in Paris in 1812 and the Promenades Aeriennes both featured wheeled cars securely locked to the track, guide rails to keep them on course, and higher speeds. The name Russian Mountains to designate a roller coaster is preserved in most Latin languages. Ironically, the Russian term for roller coasters is американские горки ("amerikanskie gorki") "American Mountains". * Scenic gravity railroads In 1827, a mining company in Summit Hill, Pennsylvania constructed the Mauch Chunk gravity railroad, an 8.7 mi (14 km) downhill track used to deliver coal to Mauch Chunk (now known as Jim Thorpe), Pennsylvania. By the 1850s, the "Gravity Road" (as it became known) was providing rides to thrill-seekers for 50 cents a ride. Railway companies used similar tracks to provide amusement on days when ridership was low. Using this idea as a basis, LaMarcus Adna Thompson began work on a gravity Switchback Railway that opened at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York in 1884. Passengers climbed to the top of a platform and rode a bench-like car down the track up to the top of another tower where the vehicle was switched to a return track and the passengers took the return trip. This track design was soon replaced with an oval complete circuit. In 1885, Phillip Hinkle introduced the first full-circuit coaster with a lift hill, the Gravity Pleasure Road, which was soon the most popular attraction at Coney Island. Not to be outdone, in 1886 LaMarcus Adna Thompson patented his design of roller coaster that included dark tunnels with painted scenery. "Scenic Railways" were to be found in amusement parks across the county, with Frederick Ingersoll's construction company building many of them in the first two decades of the 20th century. * Popularity, decline and revival By 1919, the first underfriction roller coaster had been developed by John Miller. Soon, roller coasters spread to amusement parks all around the world. Perhaps the best known historical roller coaster, The Cyclone, was opened at Coney Island in 1927. The Great Depression marked the end of the first golden age of roller coasters, and theme parks in general went into decline. This lasted until 1972, when The Racer was built at Kings Island in Mason, Ohio (near Cincinnati). Designed by John Allen, the instant success of The Racer began a second golden age, which has continued to this day. * Steel roller coasters In 1959 the Disneyland theme park introduced a new design breakthrough with the Matterhorn Bobsleds. This was the first roller coaster to use a tubular steel track. Unlike conventional rails set on wooden railroad ties, tubular steel can be bent in any direction, which allows designers to incorporate loops, corkscrews, and many other maneuvers into their designs. Most modern roller coasters are made of steel, although wooden coasters are still being built. New designs and technologies are pushing the limits of what can be experienced on the newest coasters. Electromagnetically launched coasters are examples of such technologies. * Etymology There are several explanations of the name roller coaster. It is said to have originated from an early American design where slides or ramps were fitted with rollers over which a sled would coast. This design was abandoned in favor of fitting the wheels to the sled or other vehicles, but the name endured. Another explanation is that it originated from a ride located in a roller skating rink in Haverhill, Massachusetts in 1887. A toboggan-like sled was raised to the top of a track which consisted of hundreds of rollers. This Roller Toboggan then took off down gently rolling hills to the floor. The inventors of this ride, Stephen E. Jackman and Byron B. Floyd, claim that they were the first to use the term "roller coaster". The term jet coaster is used for roller coasters in Japan, where such amusement park rides are very popular. In many languages, the name refers to "Russian mountains". Contrastingly, in Russian, they are called "American mountains". In Scandinavian languages, the roller coaster is referred as "mountain-and-valley railway". Mechanics: dateMarch 2009: Physics of roller coasters: The cars on a typical roller coaster are not self-powered. Instead, a standard full circuit coaster is pulled up with a chain or cable along the lift hill to the first peak of the coaster track. The potential energy accumulated by the rise in height is transferred to kinetic energy as the cars race down the first downward slope. Kinetic energy is then converted back into potential energy as the train moves up again to the second peak. This hill is necessarily lower, as some mechanical energy is lost to friction. Not all rides feature a lift hill, however. The train may be set into motion by a launch mechanism such as a flywheel launch, linear induction motors, linear synchronous motors, hydraulic launch, compressed air launch or drive tire. Such launched coasters are capable of reaching higher speeds in a shorter length of track than those featuring a conventional lift hill. Some roller coasters move back and forth along the same section of track; these are known as shuttles and usually run the circuit once with riders moving forwards and then backwards through the same course. A properly designed ride under good conditions will have enough kinetic, or moving, energy to complete the entire course, at the end of which brakes bring the train to a complete stop and it is pushed into the station. A brake run at the end of the circuit is the most common method of bringing the roller coaster ride to a stop. One notable exception is a powered roller coaster. These rides, instead of being powered by gravity, use one or more motors in the cars to propel the trains along the course. If a continuous-circuit coaster does not have enough kinetic energy to completely travel the course after descending from its highest point (as can happen with high winds or increased friction), the train can valley: that is, roll backwards and forwards along the track, until all kinetic energy has been released. The train will then come to a complete stop in the middle of the track. This, however, works somewhat differently on a launched coaster. When a train launcher does not have enough potential energy to launch the train to the top of an incline, the train is said to "roll back." On some modern coasters, such as Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio, Kingda Ka in Jackson, New Jersey and Stealth at Thorpe Park in Surrey, UK this is an occurrence highly sought after by many coaster enthusiasts. In 2006, NASA announced that it would build a system using principles similar to those of a roller coaster to help astronauts escape the Ares I launch pad in an emergency. * Safety date: March 2009: Many safety systems are implemented in roller coasters. One of these is the block system. Most large roller coasters have the ability to run two or more trains at once, and the block system prevents these trains from colliding. In this system, the track is divided into several sections, or blocks. Only one train at a time is permitted in each block. At the end of each block, there is a section of track where a train can be stopped if necessary (either by preventing dispatch from the station, closing brakes, or stopping a lift). Sensors at the end of each block detect when a train passes so that the computer running the ride is aware of which blocks are occupied. When the computer detects a train about to travel into an already occupied block, it uses whatever method is available to keep it from entering. The trains are fully automated. The above can cause a cascade effect when multiple trains become stopped at the end of each block. In order to prevent this problem, ride operators follow set procedures regarding when to release a newly loaded train from the station. One common pattern, used on rides with two trains, is to do the following: hold train #1 (which has just finished the ride) right outside the station, release train #2 (which has loaded while #1 was running), and then allow #1 into the station to unload safely. Another key to safety is the control of the roller coaster's operating computers: programmable logic controllers (often called PLCs). A PLC detects faults associated with the mechanism and makes decisions to operate roller coaster elements (e.g. lift, track-switches and brakes) based on configured state and operator actions. Periodic maintenance and inspection are required to verify structures and materials are within expected wear tolerances and are in sound working order. Sound operating procedures are also a key to safety. Roller coaster design requires a working knowledge of basic physics to avoid uncomfortable, even potentially fatal, strain to the rider. Ride designers must carefully ensure the accelerations experienced throughout the ride do not subject the human body to more than it can handle. The human body needs time to detect changes in force in order to control muscle tension. Failure to take this into account can result in severe injuries such as whiplash. The accelerations accepted in rollercoaster design are generally in the 4-6Gs (40–60 m s−2) range for positive vertical (pushing you into your seat), and 1.5-2Gs (15–20 m s−2) for the negative vertical (flying out of your seat as you crest a hill).dateFebruary 2010: This range safely ensures the majority of the population experiences no harmful side effects. Lateral accelerations are generally kept to a minimum by banking curves. The neck's inability to deal with high forces leads to lateral accelerations generally limited to under 1.8Gs.date: February 2010: Sudden accelerations in the lateral plane result in a rough ride. Despite safety measures, accidents can, and do, occur. Regulations concerning accident reporting vary from one authority to another. Thus in the USA, California requires amusement parks to report any ride-related accident that requires an emergency room visit, while Florida exempts parks whose parent companies employ more than 1000 people from having to report any accidents at all. Rep. Ed Markey of Massachusetts has introduced legislation that would give oversight of rides to the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). Ride accidents can also be caused by riders themselves or ride operators not following safety directions properly, and, in extremely rare cases, riders can be injured by mechanical failures. In recent years, controversy has arisen about the safety of increasingly extreme rides. There have been suggestions that these may be subjecting passengers to translational and rotational accelerations that may be capable of causing brain injuries. In 2003 the Brain Injury Association of America concluded in a report that "There is evidence that roller coaster rides pose a health risk to some people some of the time. Equally evident is that the overwhelming majority of riders will suffer no ill effects." A similar report in 2005 linked roller coasters and other thrill rides with potentially triggering abnormal heart conditions that could lead to death. Autopsies have shown that recent deaths at various Disney parks, Anheuser-Busch parks, and Six Flags parks were due to previously undetected heart ailments. Statistically, roller coasters are very safe compared to other activities. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission estimates that 134 park guests required hospitalization in 2001 and that fatalities related to amusement rides average two per year. According to a study commissioned by Six Flags, 319 million people visited parks in 2001. The study concluded that a visitor has a one in one-and-a-half billion chance of being fatally injured, and that the injury rates for children's wagons, golf, and folding lawn chairs are higher than for amusement rides. Types of roller coasters: dateMarch 2009: Today, there are two main types of roller coaster: * Steel roller coasters * Wooden roller coasters Steel coasters are known for their smooth ride and often convoluted shapes that frequently turn riders upside-down via inversions. Wooden coasters are typically renowned by enthusiasts for their rougher ride and "air time" produced by negative G-forces when the train reaches the top of hills along the ride. There are also hybrid roller coasters that combine a steel structure with wooden tracks, or a wooden structure with steel tracks. Modern roller coasters take on many different forms. Some designs take their cue from how the rider is positioned to experience the ride. Traditionally, riders sit facing forward in the coaster car, while newer coaster designs have ignored this tradition in the quest for building more exciting, unique ride experiences. Variations such as the stand-up roller coaster and the flying roller coaster position the rider in different ways to provide different experiences. Stand-up coasters involve cars that have the riders in a standing position (though still heavily strapped in). Flying coasters have the riders hanging below the track face-down with their chests and feet strapped in. Vekoma "Flying Dutchman" coasters have the riders starting out sitting above the track, then they fully recline so that the riders are looking at the sky. Eventually, they twist into the "flying" position. B&M flying coasters have the riders hanging below the track like in an inverted (hanging) coaster. To go into the flight position, the section of the car where the riders' feet are raised to the track. That way, they start in the flight position. In addition to changing rider viewpoint, some roller coaster designs also focus on track styles to make the ride fresh and different from other coasters. See Roller coaster elements for the various parts of a roller coaster and the types of thrill elements that go into making each roller coaster unique. col-begin: col-3: : By train type * 4th Dimension roller coaster * Bobsled roller coaster * Diving Machine roller coaster * Floorless roller coaster * Flying roller coaster * Inverted roller coaster * Inverted Impulse roller coaster * Mine Train roller coaster * Motorbike roller coaster * Pipeline roller coaster * Side friction roller coaster * Spinning roller coaster * Stand-up roller coaster * Steeplechase roller coaster * Suspended roller coaster * Virginia Reel roller coaster * Flying Turns * Terrain roller coaster col-3: : By track layout * Corkscrew roller coaster * Dueling roller coaster * Figure 8 roller coaster * Möbius Loop roller coaster * Out and Back roller coaster * Racing roller coaster * Shuttle roller coaster * Twister roller coaster * Wild Mouse roller coaster * Vertical Drop roller coaster col-3: : By mechanics * Chain-lift/cable lift/Elevator lift/Ferris Wheel lift roller coaster * Launched roller coaster * Powered roller coaster col-end: : By height A Kiddie roller coaster is a roller coaster specifically designed for families and children not able to ride the larger rides. Several height-related names have been used by parks and manufacturers for marketing their roller coasters. While often used among coaster fans, their definitions are not always agreed upon, nor are the terms necessarily accepted industry wide. A Mega Coaster or Hyper Coaster is a complete-circuit roller coaster with a height or drop greater than 200 feet. The first roller coaster to be classified as a hyper coaster is Magnum XL-200 at Cedar Point built by Arrow Dynamics. Ever since its debut, hyper coasters have been among the most popular style of rollercoasters worldwide. Bolliger and Mabillard and Intamin are the most prominent hyper coaster manufacturers. A Giga Coaster is a complete-circuit roller coaster with a height or drop greater than 300 feet. The term was coined by a Cedar Point and Intamin partnership after the construction of Millennium Force. So far, there are only three Giga coasters worldwide: Millennium Force at Cedar Point, Steel Dragon 2000 at Nagashima Spa Land in Japan, and Intimidator 305 at Kings Dominion. Millennium Force and Intimidator 305 were built by Intamin while Steel Dragon 2000 was built by Chance-Morgan. However, Bolliger & Mabillards first Giga coaster will open in 2012 at Canada's Wonderland as Leviathan. A Strata coaster is a complete-circuit roller coaster with a height or drop greater than 400 feet. The term was adopted and attributed by Intamin. Only two Strata coasters have been built worldwide, both using Intamin's hydraulically launched Accelerator Coaster design. The first was Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point, which opened in 2003 and stands at a height of . The second was Kingda Ka at Six Flags Great Adventure, which opened in 2005 with a record-breaking height of . Tower of Terror II at Dreamworld Australia, and at Six Flags Magic Mountain, respectively, were the first roller coasters to break the barrier, but are not considered Strata coasters, since they are shuttle roller coasters and their cars travel only high. * Gallery * Major roller coaster manufacturers

Montagnes russes Montagnes russes Les montagnes russes sont des attractions mettant en scène des trains parcourant des trajets sinueux et à fort dénivelés dans le but de créer une sensation de peur et à la fois d'amusement chez les passagers. On les retrouve principalement dans les parcs à thèmes où elles y figurent comme les attractions les plus appréciées. Étant à la base un système spécialisé de chemin de fer, les montagnes russes sont constituées de rails qui montent et descendent selon des schémas spécifiques, avec parfois un ou plusieurs retournements (le plus commun étant le looping) qui placent brièvement le passager avec la tête en bas. Les rails ne doivent pas nécessairement former un circuit fermé bien que les puristes considèrent que le terme « montagnes russes » ne devrait être utilisé que pour les circuits fermés. La plupart des montagnes russes ont des wagons pouvant contenir deux, quatre ou six passagers chacun et dans lesquels ceux-ci s'installent pour parcourir le circuit. L'ensemble des wagons accrochés entre eux est appelé train. Histoire : Le concept de « montagnes russes » vient des courses de luges se déroulant sur des collines de neige spécialement construites pour celles-ci, particulièrement dans les environs de Saint-Pétersbourg . À la fin des années 1700, leur popularité est telle que des entrepreneurs commencent à copier l'idée ailleurs, en utilisant des voitures munies de roues attachées sur des voies. Une compagnie, Les Montagnes russes à Belleville, construit et s'occupe de montagnes russes à Paris, en 1812. Le premier looping est probablement construit à Paris, depuis un schéma anglais, en 1846 . Le principe est le suivant : une personne dans un traîneau est lancée dans une boucle (ronde) d'environ quatre mètres de diamètre. Néanmoins, aucune de ces voies ne forme un circuit complet. LaMarcus Adna Thompson dépose un brevet pour les premières montagnes russes le . Dans les années 1880 les premières montagnes russes aux États-Unis sont basées sur des trains mus par gravité. Mises à disposition par des compagnies du chemin de fer, leur but est de divertir pendant les week-ends, lorsque le nombre de voyageurs diminue. Le premier circuit complet (en boucle) apparait en 1884 à Coney Island, un an plus tard Phillip Hinkle introduit le lift hill, un système tirant le train sur la première côte du circuit. En 1912, John A. Miller (souvent appelé le « Thomas Edison » des montagnes russes), développe une nouvelle roue, lunderfriction, qui permet au train d'aller très vite tout en restant sur le rail. Peu après, les montagnes russes investissent les parcs d'amusement du monde entier. Une des plus célèbres historiquement est probablement The Cyclone à Coney Island, construite en 1927. Ces premières montagnes russes sont construites en bois, certaines comme Kennywood et Blackpool Pleasure Beach sont encore opérationnelles 70 ans plus tard. La Grande Dépression marque la fin du premier âge d'or des montagnes russes, c'est à partir de là que les parcs d'attractions en général déclinent économiquement (comme un grand nombre d'entreprises). En 1959, le parc à thème Disneyland de Disneyland Resort introduit un nouveau modèle de voie tubulaire en acier, mis en place sur le Matterhorn Bobsleds. Ce système a été développé conjointement par Walt Disney Imagineering et Arrow Dynamics. Au contraire de ses homologues en bois, ces montagnes russes permettent au train non seulement d'être guidé mais aussi d'être accroché à la voie, et ainsi de faire des loopings et de descendre autour d'un axe vertical. C'est en 1972 que Racer, à Paramount's Kings Island, connaît un succès populaire. Un deuxième âge d'or commence alors. Les plus grandes innovations impliquent des modifications du train. Certains font asseoir le passager dans une armature plus 'corps-à-corps', permettant aux jambes de rester en l'air et d'avoir une meilleure visibilité du sol. Une autre variation consiste à laisser les passagers dans une position debout. Certains trains ont des sièges face à l'arrière du véhicule, leurs utilisateurs ne peuvent pas prévoir les virages ou les descentes, cela augmente l'effet de surprise. Une des dernières innovations (vue sur Incredible Hulk Coaster ou sur Space Mountain) consiste à propulser le train lors de la première montée, cela augmente la vitesse de départ. En 2009, des montagnes russes lancées construites par S&S Power franchiront à nouveau le cap de 200 km/h après Kingda Ka. Sa vitesse de pointe sera de , le train sera propulsé en moins de 3 secondes, le nom prévu est Ring°Racer et sera situé en Allemagne. , le looping de 36 m a été retiré pour permettre le passage de trains plus légers.) Premières montagnes russes en bois à dépasser les 61 m : Son of Beast. Ce sont aussi des méga montagnes russes et des hyper montagnes russes. ;2001 Premières montagnes russes avec une descente verticale de 90° : Gravity Max à Discovery World à Taïwan: . Premières montagnes russes à utiliser un système de propulsion magnétique : Hypersonic XLC à Kings Dominion États-Unis: . Elles sont démontées depuis fin 2007. Premières montagnes russes a posséder un "lift hill" et un système de propulsion : California Screamin à Disney's California Adventure aux États-Unis: . ;2002 Premières montagnes russes à utiliser un système de propulsion hydraulique : Xcelerator à Knott's Berry Farm aux États-Unis: . Premières montagnes russes à posséder 10 inversions : Colossus à Thorpe Park au Royaume-Uni: :* Premières montagnes russes dont les sièges peuvent tourner sur un axe horizontal (montagnes russes quadridimensionnelles): X² à Six Flags Magic Mountain aux États-Unis: . ;2003 Premières montagnes russes à circuit fermé à dépasser la barre des 120 m : Top Thrill Dragster à Cedar Point aux États-Unis: . Ce sont des Strata montagnes russes Premières montagnes russes dont la première descente dépasse 90° (97°) : Vild-Svinet, BonBonLand au Danemark: . ;2004 Premières montagnes russes avec une fly-through station : Thunderhead à Dollywood aux États-Unis: . Premières montagnes russes à posséder un "lift hill" vertical : Typhoon, Bobbejaanland, Belgique: . ;2005 Premières Montagnes russes dépassant les 200km/h (206km/h) :Kingda Ka à Six Flags Great Adventure Etats-Unis: ;2009 Premières montagnes russes dépassant 206km/h (207.5km/h) : Ring°Racer à Nürburgring Allemagne: ;2010 Premières Montagnes russes dépassant les 230km/h (240km/h) : Formula Rossa à Ferrari World Abu Dhabi Émirats arabes unis: ;2011 Record du monde de la chute la plus raide en montagnes russes (121°) : Takabisha à Fuji-Q Highland Japon: }} Fonctionnement : Contrairement à ce que certaines personnes pensent, les trains ne possèdent pas de moteurs et n'avancent donc pas par eux-mêmes, mais grâce à la gravité, et à des mécanismes situés sur les rails du circuit. Les énergies mécaniques : La vitesse des véhicules est donnée par une énergie qui est transférée au train au départ du circuit, et qui lui permet de rejoindre la fin du parcours. Cette énergie est souvent obtenue par une colline sur laquelle est hissé le train au moyen d'une chaîne que l'on appelle « crémaillère », mais peut aussi provenir d'un «lancement» du train grâce à des moteurs. Le train une fois hissé en haut de la colline aura accumulé un maximum d'énergie appelée « énergie potentielle » initiale dont l'expression est : E_Pm.g.H où m est la masse du train (passagers compris), g l'accélération de la pesanteur (environ /s) et H la hauteur du point le plus haut du circuit (en prenant le point le plus bas comme origine). Lorsque la vitesse du train est négligeable au point le plus haut, cette énergie potentielle initiale constitue l'« énergie mécanique » du train : E_m: E_Pm.g.H Lors de la descente, l'énergie potentielle va être transférée en une autre énergie appelée « cinétique » : E_c: \frac12.m.v^2 (soit 0,5 multiplié par la masse du train, multiplié par la vitesse du véhicule au carré). Ce transfert se réalise (théoriquement, si on néglige les déperditions par frottement) de telle sorte que la somme de l'énergie potentielle et de l'énergie cinétique soit égale en tout point à l'énergie mécanique du train : E_mE_P: E_p+E_cm.g.h+\frac12.m.v^2 où h est l'altitude du point considéré, et v la vitesse en ce point. Dans le cas où le point culminant du circuit (altitude H) est suivi d'une descente vertigineuse vers le point le plus bas (altitude 0), la vitesse atteinte peut être spectaculaire. Elle est donnée par l'équation : m.g.H: \frac12.m.V^2 qui donne la valeur de V : V\sqrt{2.g.H} La vitesse atteinte sur le Silver Star d'un dénivelé de , est théoriquement de , soit plus de . En pratique, les frottements diminuent la vitesse d'environ 3 %. Ce phénomène de transfert d'énergie se produit à chaque montée et descente d'une colline, et se traduit donc par le ralentissement lors de la montée, puis de l'accélération lors de la descente. En dehors de tout frottement, ce mouvement pourrait être (quasi) éternel en circuit fermé. En réalité, ces énergies varient au fil du parcours et sont en quelque sorte « consommées » par la friction entre les rails et les roues des wagons, et par la résistance de l'air. L'énergie mécanique diminue le long du circuit, sa valeur finale est réduite et permet de freiner et d'arrêter le train en bout de course. C'est pour cette raison que les ingénieurs dans ce domaine cherchent à réduire le plus possible le contact entre les rails et le véhicule. Ce « problème » qu'est la friction a été considérablement réduit avec l'apparition des montagnes russes en acier, mais si celles en bois continuent à être fabriquées c'est parce qu'elles produisent un effet de peur supplémentaire chez le passager, dû aux vibrations, liées à l'apparence instable de l'attraction. * Mécanismes Le train quitte la station grâce à des roues équipées de pneus situées sur le circuit, qui le font avancer jusqu'à une distance prévue. * Dans le cas de montagnes russes classiques, il arrive ensuite généralement à la montée principale. Il est ici tiré vers le sommet par une chaîne (la crémaillère), ou par un mécanisme plus récent : un câble (qui a l'avantage d'être plus rapide et moins bruyant). Un système de sécurité permet au train de ne pas redescendre au cas où cette chaîne céderait : une barre métallique vient se bloquer sur une partie « en escalier » des rails, pour qu'il ne puisse avancer que dans un sens (vers le haut). Une fois au sommet, le train est entraîné (par la chaîne) vers la pente et commence sa descente. * Dans le cas de montagnes russes « à lancement », pour obtenir son énergie, le train peut être « propulsé » par deux types de moteurs : un moteur linéaire : une série d'aimants situés en chaîne sur les rails sont synchronisés pour faire accélérer le train au fur et à mesure qu'il passe à proximité d'eux; ou un moteur hydraulique : un câble relie le train à un treuil situé au bout de la ligne droite qui va être parcouru. Ce treuil va tourner sous la pression de fluides liquides produit par le moteur, et va donc tirer le train. Un moteur hydraulique est plus puissant, donc plus rapide qu'un moteur linéaire : les montagnes russes les plus rapides du monde (« Kingda Ka ») sont propulsées par un moteur hydraulique. Il existe aussi des systèmes à usage unique comme le catapultage à pneu du Incredible Hulk ou le catapultage avec système de porte-avions du Space Mountain à Disneyland Resort Paris uniquement. À partir de cette étape, le train ne dépend plus d'aucun mécanisme et avance alors tout seul, grâce à la gravité et aux énergies mécaniques. Il parcourt alors le circuit par lui-même, jusqu'à la station. * Différentes montagnes russes Aujourd’hui il existe deux principales familles de montagnes russes : celle en bois et celle en métal (généralement de l'acier). Chaque type a ses caractéristiques propres, des possibilités de sensations différentes et ses défenseurs et ses détracteurs. * Les montagnes russes en bois (nommées souvent avec le terme anglais Wooden coaster) permettent principalement d'avoir un aspect ancien, plus rustique et principalement de ressentir une sensation de lévitation produite par la force de gravité négative quand le train passe la crête d'un sommet ("air time" ou envolée). * Les montagnes russes en métal (nommées souvent avec le terme anglais Steel coaster) permettent des circuits très variés avec parfois de nombreuses circonvolutions et/ou envolées (air time). Les visiteurs sont souvent malmenés par des inversions appelés boucles (ou loopings), écrous, bretzels et autres noms évocateurs. * Les montagnes russes hybrides qui utilisent le bois et le métal. L'un pour les rails et l'autre pour le support en fonction de l'effet recherché. Néanmoins ce n'est pas vraiment la nature du support qui différencie les montagnes russes entre elles, ce sont plutôt l'expérience des visiteurs par rapport à ce support. L'une des méthodes est simplement de prendre chaque élément pouvant constituer les montagnes russes pour les qualifier. Le type sera donc une concentration de ces différents éléments. En les classant ainsi, on distingue huit principales catégories de montagnes russes. * Grandes catégories Les différentes montagnes russes sont caractérisées en grande partie par leurs différents moyens de transport, qui engendrent des possibilités de sensations différentes : les passagers peuvent ainsi se retrouver au-dessus des rails, en dessous, debout, allongé et même la tête en bas. On retrouve alors neuf principales catégories de montagnes russes : * Montagnes russes assises (Sit down roller coaster) : ce sont les montagnes russes «classiques» où le passager est assis normalement dans un train, et parcours un circuit pouvant présenter des inversions. * Montagnes russes inversées (Inverted roller coaster) : le passager se retrouve assis sur un siège situé en dessous des rails (sans la structure d'un train autour) ; Il ne voit donc pratiquement pas le circuit et se retrouve avec les jambes se balançant dans le vide. Cependant, les sièges suivent strictement l'inclinaison des rails. * Montagnes russes sans sol (Floorless roller coaster) : le passager se retrouve assis sur un siège qui est directement fixé sur les rails (sans structure de train autour). Il peut donc apercevoir les rails sous ses pieds. * Montagnes russes à véhicule suspendu (Suspended roller coaster) : le passager est assis dans un train dont les voitures sont mobiles et suspendues en dessous des rails. C'est-à-dire que les voitures se balancent indépendamment de l'inclinaison des rails. * Montagnes russes volantes (Flying roller coaster) : le passager est allongé sous les rails. Il a donc une vue directe avec le sol, pour des sensations inédites. Elles sont souvent utilisées pour des attractions attribuées (thématisées) à des volatiles, ou à Superman, à cause de la posture du passager. * Montagnes russes Bobsleigh (Bobsleds roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes assez spéciales, présenté sous forme de « glissade » du train sur une piste en forme demi-cylindrique. Le circuit est ainsi comparable à une piste de bobsleigh. * Montagnes russes pipeline (Pipeline roller coaster) : ces montagnes russes sont assez rares et spéciales, les rails se situent de part et d'autre du wagon, si bien que les supports sont, sur la majeure partie du parcours, circulaires. Le train, composé d'un seul wagon, passe donc au "milieu" du rail. * Montagnes russes en position verticale (Stand-up roller coaster) : c'est une montagne russe classique, où les passagers sont maintenus debout dans les trains, au lieu d'être assis. * Montagnes russes quadridimensionnelles (4th Dimension roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes où le passager est au-dessus du vide et où les sièges peuvent effectuer un mouvement de rotation avant et arrière de 360° maximum. Il existe une variation où les sièges sont disposés de la même manières mais où ils ne permettent pas de rotations. Ce type de montagnes russes s'appelle Wing Rider. * Machine plongeante (Diving Machine roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes où les trains effectuent une ou plusieurs descentes à 90°, les trains ont deux ou trois rangées, et entre 6 et 10 sièges de front. * Montagnes russes E-Powered (Powered coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes en métal dont le train est motorisé. * Hyper montagnes russes (Hypercoaster) : il s'agit de montagnes russes dont la structure dépasse et ne possédant aucune inversion. Toutes les hyper montagnes russes sont des méga montagnes russes mais l'inverse n' est pas forcément réciproque. * Train de la mine (Mine Train roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes assises sans inversion où le train parcourt une mine d'or. * Montagnes russes de motos (Motorbike roller coaster) : le passagers est assis dans un wagon ayant une forme de moto. Ces montagnes russes sont toujours lancées * Montagnes russes à friction latérale (Side friction roller coaster) : ce sont de vieilles montagnes russes en bois dont la direction est assurée par des rails se trouvant sur le côté du train. * Montagnes russes tournoyantes (Spinning roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes dans lesquels les wagons effectuent des rotations latérales sur eux-mêmes. Crush's Coaster, au Parc Walt Disney Studios, fait partie de cette catégorie. * Montagnes russes steeplechase (Steeplechase roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes à rail vertical ou les wagons ressemblent à des chevaux. Le seul exemplaire restant est Steeplechase à Pleasure Beach, Blackpool. * Luge sur rail (Sommerrodelbahn) : ce sont des attractions hybrides mélangeant montagnes russes et luge d'été et destinées au milieu montagnard. * Virginia Reel : il s'agissait de montagnes russes en bois tournoyantes à friction latérale . Plus aucun exemplaire ne subsiste. * Schéma de la voie On peut également classer les montagnes russes par le « design » de leur circuit. Il ne se distinguent pas tous par leurs sensations fortes mais surtout par l'originalité de leur circuit. Il en existe également plus d'une vingtaine différent, en voici les principaux : * Montagnes russes lancées (Launched roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes dont les trains sont propulsés, par catapultage, par roues de friction, ou par des moteurs linéaires à induction ou synchrone. * Duel de montagnes russes (Dueling coaster) : on appelle ainsi deux montagnes russes positionnés à proximité (souvent parallèlement) et dont les deux circuits se croisent pour donner l'impression que les trains de chacun des parcours manquent de se percuter de justesse. L'exemple le plus célèbre étant Dueling Dragons, du parc Universal's Islands of Adventure, à Orlando. * Montagnes russes aller & retour (Out and Back roller coaster) : ce sont les montagnes russes dont le trajet suit une ligne droite, fait un angle de 180° puis revient en longeant le même chemin. * Montagnes russes racing (Racing roller coaster) : on appelle ainsi deux montagnes russes similaire, construites en parallèle, et fonctionnement simultanément pour que les trains de chaque circuit aient l’impression de faire la course. Certaines d'entre elles permettent que l'on puisse toucher, en tendant le bras, les mains des personnes dans le train opposé. * Montagnes russes navette (Shuttle roller coaster) : ces montagnes russes présentent des circuits non fermés: les trains sont expulsés au bout du circuit, puis reviennent. Citons l'exemple du modèle de série Boomerang de Vekoma. * Montagnes russes twister (Twister roller coaster) : dans ces montagnes russes, le circuit ne respecte pas un trajet simple et linéaire : c'est l'opposé d'un « out and back ». * Wild Mouse : ces montagnes russes sont caractérisés par des petits véhicules d'en moyenne quatre personnes, de vitesse modérée, mais où est favorisé les virages serrés procurant une force de gravité latéral élevée, ainsi que les « chutes » rapides. Le passager a l'impression que le véhicule va tomber du circuit. * Montagnes russes aquatiques (Water coaster) : le parcours comprend une section « aquatique ». * Montagnes russes intérieures (Indoor Coaster), parfois appelées montagnes russes dans le noir. Elles sont situées dans des sortes de hangars, sans lumière extérieure, pour permettre d'utiliser différents effets spéciaux, et peuvent être théoriquement de toutes catégories, bien qu'il n'en existe que de type assis (standard) dans les faits. L'obscurité permet de « cacher » les rails, ainsi, les passagers n'ont aucun repère par rapport au circuit, pour créer un effet d'angoisse. Cela permet également d'utiliser des effets de lumière ou encore de créer des décors pour donner un thème à l'attraction. Cette désignation reste toutefois dépendante des autres types. * Montagnes russes à anneau de Möbius (Möbius Loop roller coaster) : ce sont des montagnes russes duel ou racing où il n' y a qu' un seul circuit mais deux gares. * Figure 8 (Figure eight roller coaster) : ce sont de petites montagnes russes dont le parcours reprend la forme du chiffre "8" et ce sur plusieurs niveaux. * Spécificités de hauteur Cedar Point fut le premier parc à proposer des montagnes russes dépassant des limites de hauteurs. Ainsi (peut-être pour des raisons de merchandising) il fut le premier à utiliser des noms spécifiques pour classer les montagnes russes par classe de hauteur, ces noms passèrent dans l'usage populaire. * Méga montagnes russes : les méga montagnes russes (de l'anglais Mega coaster) sont des montagnes russes dont le point le plus haut culmine à plus de . Le premier d'entre eux a été conçu par Bolliger & Mabillard et porte le nom de Apollos Chariot . Il se situe à Busch Gardens Europe aux États-Unis. Au-delà de , elles deviennent des giga montagnes russes. Le terme Hyper montagnes russes est également utilisé pour cette classification, mais son usage est ambiguë puisqu’il désigne le même type de montagnes russes mais ne possédant aucune inversion. * Giga montagnes russes : les giga montagnes russes (de l'anglais Giga coaster) sont des montagnes russes dont le point le plus haut culmine à plus de . Au-delà de , elles deviennent des strata montagnes russes. * Strata montagnes russes : les Strata montagnes russes (de l'anglais Strata coaster) sont des montagnes russes dont le point le plus haut culmine à plus de . Il n'existe que 2 exemplaires de strata montagnes russes au monde : Kingda Ka (139 mètres) au parc Six Flags Great Adventure (États-Unis - New Jersey). Top Thrill Dragster (128 mètres) au parc Cedar Point (États-Unis - Ohio). Ils ont tous les deux été conçus et construits par la société Intamin. Certains inconditionnels de montagnes russes espèrent que la limite des , soit dépassée et inaugureraient ainsi les premières « Tera montagnes russes ». * Notes et références colonnes: 2:

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