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FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an I/Q modulator and, in particular, to an I/Q modulator for processing a time-discrete I/Q signal. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION AND PRIOR ART Conventional I/Q modulators are used in transmitting means for carrier-frequency transmission systems, e.g. transmitters for digital broadcasting, and in base stations for mobile communications. One example of such a transmitting means is shown in FIG. 4 . The transmitting means 400 comprises an I/Q modulator 402 with predistortion, the I/Q modulator 402 comprising a first input connected to the input of the transmitting means 400 , and an output. The first input of the I/Q modulator has an I/Q signal applied thereto. The output of the I/Q modulator is connected to a first input of a first mixer 404 . A second input 404 of the mixer is connected to an oscillator 406 . An output of the mixer 404 is connected to an input of an amplifier 408 . An output of the amplifier 408 is connected to an antenna 410 . The amplifier 408 and the antenna 410 have arranged between them a decoupling means 412 which is connected to the input of an attenuator 414 . An output of the attenuator 414 is connected to a first input of a second mixer 416 . A second input of the second mixer 416 is connected to the oscillator 406 . An output of the mixer 416 is connected to an input of an I/Q demodulator 418 . An output of the I/Q demodulator 418 is connected to a first input of a comparator 420 . A second input of the comparator 420 is connected to an output of a delay element 422 . An output of the comparator 420 is connected to a second input of the I/Q modulator 402 . An input of the delay element 422 is connected to the first input of the I/Q modulator 402 . The decoupling means 412 , the attenuator 414 , the second mixer 416 , the I/Q demodulator 418 and the comparator 420 define a feedback for determining the predistortion parameters. In the following, the mode of operation of a transmitting means according to FIG. 4 will be described briefly. An I/Q signal, which is e.g. a message-carrying baseband signal comprising an I component and a Q component, is modulated onto a carrier signal by means of the I/Q modulator. In order to compensate distortions of the first mixer 404 and of the amplifier 408 , the I/Q modulator carries out a predistortion of the I/Q signal in addition to the modulation. This is important especially when transmit signals with non-constant envelopes are used. The latter occur e.g. in cases in which amplitude-modulated instead of frequency-modulated signals are used so as to achieve a higher spectral efficiency of the modulation method. The non-constant envelope of the transmit signal causes in connection with the non-linearities of the first mixer 404 and of the amplifier 408 disturbances outside the useful frequency band. These disturbances are referred to as adjacent-channel emissions and should typically not exceed an application-specific limit value. The predistorted output signal of the I/Q modulator 402 is fed to the first mixer 404 in which the signal is up-converted with the aid of the oscillator 406 . The up-converted signal is then amplified by the amplifier 408 , e.g. a travelling wave tube, and sent to the antenna 410 and transmitted. Part of the signal sent to the antenna 410 is previously tapped off by the decoupling means 412 and, for further processing, it is attenuated by the attenuator 414 so as to reverse the effect of the amplification of the amplifier 408 . The tapped-off attenuated signal is fed to the second mixer 416 for down-conversion. The down-converted signal is fed to the I/Q demodulator so as to be demodulated into an I/Q signal. The demodulated I/Q signal now carries the information on the distortion caused in the original I/Q signal by the first mixer 404 and the amplifier 408 . When this demodulated distorted I/Q signal is supplied to the comparator 420 , the comparison between the original I/Q signal and the distorted I/Q signal will provide the information indicating what predistortion of the I/Q modulator has to be chosen so that the distortions caused by the first mixer 404 and the amplifier 408 can be compensated for in the best possible way. A feature which is important to the comparison is that the original I/Q signal is delayed in time by the delay element 422 prior to the comparison in the comparator 420 so that the original I/Q signal is actually the signal which caused the predistorted I/Q signal. This method of adjusting the predistortion of the I/Q modulator 402 in dependence upon a comparison is referred to as adaptive predistortion. An example of such an adaptive predistortion is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,049,832. U.S. Pat. No. 5,049,832 discloses an amplifier linearization of an amplifier circuit by adaptive predistortion in the case of which an input signal for a power amplifier of the amplifier circuit is derived from an input modulation signal of the amplifier circuit by predistortion, i.e. the input signal of the power amplifier is predistorted so as to achieve a linear amplification of the input signal by the power amplifier. The predistortion of the input modulation signal is adjusted via a table, which is addressed in dependence upon the square of the amplitude of the input modulation signal, the contents of the table being continuously updated so that, when the input modulation signal is being distorted, variations of the distortion caused by the power amplifier can be taken into account through the table. FIGS. 5A and 5B show the components and FIG. 5C shows the overall configuration of a conventional I/Q modulator 500 with predistortion of the I/Q signal or baseband signal. FIG. 5A shows means 502 for applying an I/Q signal or baseband signal, which comprises an I component and an Q component, to a carrier signal, which comprises a first subcomponent, in this case a cosine component, and a subcomponent, in this case a sine component, which is substantially orthogonal to this first subcomponent, so as to produce an output signal y(t). y ( t )= i ( t )·cos ω 0 t−q ( t )·sin ω 0 t with ω 0 =2 πf 0   equa. 1 Means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal comprises a first multiplier 506 , a second multiplier 508 , means 510 for producing a carrier signal and an adder 512 . The first multiplier 506 comprises a first input, which is a first input of the means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal and which has the I component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, a second input, which is connected to a first output of the means 510 for producing a carrier signal, and an output which is connected to a first input of the adder 512 . The second multiplier 508 comprises a first input, which is a second input of the means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal and which has the Q component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, a second input, which is connected to a second output of the means 510 for producing a carrier signal, and an output which is connected to an inverting second input of the adder 512 . The means 510 for producing a carrier signal produces a carrier signal which can be represented as a complex function in the following way: e jω 0 t =cos ω 0 t+j sin ω 0 t   equa. 2 The first multiplier 506 multiplies the first subcomponent of the carrier signal by the I component of the I/Q signal, as can be seen from the first multiplication of equation 1, so as to obtain a multiplied I component, and the second multiplier 508 multiplies the second subcomponent of the carrier signal by the Q component of the I/Q signal so as to obtain a multiplied Q component, as can be seen from the second multiplication of equation 1. The adder 512 forms subsequent to the first multiplier 506 and the second multiplier 508 the difference between the multiplied I component and the multiplied Q component, as shown in equation 1, so as to produce the output signal y(t) of the means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal. Also the I/Q signal is now represented as a complex function. x ( t )= i ( t )+ jq ( t )  equa. 3 The function of the means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal can be described by the following complex representation: y ( t )= Re{ x ( t )· e jω 0 t }  equa. 4 FIG. 5B shows a predistortion means 504 for predistorting an I/Q signal, i.e. an I component and a Q component of an I/Q signal. In a complex representation, the I/Q signal is predistorted by multiplication with a predistortion signal p ( t )= p 1 ( t )+ jp 2 ( t )=ρ( t )· e jφ(t)   equa. 5 so as to obtain a predistorted I/Q signal. x p ( t )= x ( t )· p ( t )= i p ( t )+ jq p ( t )  equa. 6 i p ( t )= i ( t )· p 1 ( t )− q ( t )· p 2 ( t )  equa. 7 q p ( t )= i ( t )·p 2 ( t )− q ( t )· p 1 ( t )  equa. 8 The predistortion means 504 comprises a first multiplier 514 , a second multiplier 516 , a third multiplier 518 , a fourth multiplier 520 , a first adder 522 , a second adder 524 , and means 526 for producing a predistortion signal. The first multiplier 514 comprises a first input, which is connected to a first input of the predistortion means 504 and which has the I component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and a second input, which is connected to a first output of the means 526 for producing a predistortion signal p(t) and which has applied thereto the first predistortion component p 1 (t) of the predistortion signal according to equation 5, and an output which is connected to a first input of the first adder 522 . The second multiplier 516 comprises a first input, which is connected to a second input of the predistortion means 504 and which has the Q component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and a second input, which is connected to a second output of the means 526 for producing a predistortion signal and which has the second predistortion component p 2 (t) of the predistortion signal p(t) applied thereto, and an output which is connected to an inverting second input of the first adder 522 . The third multiplier 518 comprises a first input, which is connected to the second input of the predistortion means 504 and which has the Q component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, a second input connected to the first output of the means 526 for producing a predistortion signal, and an output connected to a first input of the second adder 524 . The fourth multiplier 520 has an input, which is connected to the first input of the predistortion means 504 and which has the I component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, a second input connected to the second output of the means 526 for producing a predistortion signal, and an output connected to a second input of the second adder 524 . An output of the first adder is a first output of the predistortion means 504 and an output of the second adder is a second output of the predistortion means 504 . The means 526 for producing the predistortion signal supplies at the first output the first component p 1 (t) of the predistortion signal p (t) and at the second output the second component p 2 (t) of the predistortion signal p (t) depending on the I component i(t) of the I/Q signal and on the Q component q(t) of the I/Q signal, the I component being applied to a first input of the means 526 for producing the predistortion signal and the Q component of the I/Q signal being applied to a second input. In the following, the mode of operation of the predistortion means 504 shown in FIG. 5B will be described briefly. The first adder 522 has the function of forming the difference indicated in equation 7, the first multiplier 514 carrying out the first multiplication occurring in equation 7 and the second multiplier 516 carrying out the second multiplication occurring in equation 7. The second adder 524 has the function of forming the sum indicated in equation 8, the third multiplier 518 carrying out the second multiplication occurring in equation 8 and the fourth multiplier 520 carrying out the first multiplication occurring in equation 8. FIG. 5 c shows the overall configuration of the conventional I/Q modulator 500 with predistortion of the I/Q signal comprising the means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal according to FIG. 5A and the predistortion means 504 according to FIG. 5B . The conventional I/Q modulator 500 according to FIG. 5C now supplies at its output, i.e. as a result of the addition of the adder 512 , the following output signal: y ( t )= Re{ x ( t )· p ( t )· e jω 0 t }  equa. 9 y ( t )= Re{ x p ( t )· e jω 0 t }=i p ( t )·cos ω 0 t−q p ( t )·sin ω 0 t   equa. 10 This is the predistorted I/Q signal modulated on a carrier signal. FIG. 6 shows an I/Q modulator 600 with predistortion of the carrier signal. In contrast to the I/Q modulator according to FIGS. 5A , B, C, the carrier signal, instead of the I/Q signal, is now predistorted by a predistortion signal p (t) so as to obtain a predistorted carrier signal. t p ( t )= p ( t )· e jω 0 t =ρ( t )· e j[ω 0 t+φ(t)]   equa. 11 For an I/Q modulator with predistortion of the carrier signal, the output signal of this I/Q modulator is obtained on the basis of equation 9 and equation 11. y ⁡ ( t ) = Re ⁢ { x _ ⁡ ( t ) · t _ p ⁡ ( t ) } = i ⁡ ( t ) · ρ ⁡ ( t ) · cos ⁡ [ ω 0 ⁢ t + ϕ ⁡ ( t ) ] - q ⁡ ( t ) · ρ ⁡ ( t ) · sin ⁡ [ ω 0 ⁢ t + ϕ ⁡ ( t ) ] equa . ⁢ 12 The I/Q modulator 600 in FIG. 6 comprises a first multiplier 602 , a second multiplier 604 , a third multiplier 606 , a fourth multiplier 608 , means 610 for producing a carrier signal, an adder 612 and means 614 for producing a predistortion signal. The first multiplier 602 comprises a first input, which is connected to a first input of the I/Q modulator 600 and which has the I component i(t) of the I/Q signal applied thereto, a second input connected to an output of the second multiplier 604 , and an output connected to a first input of the adder 612 . The second multiplier 604 comprises a first input, which is connected to a first output of the means 614 for producing a predistortion signal and which has the magnitude ρ(t) of the predistortion signal p (t) applied thereto, and a second input, which is connected to a first output of the means 610 for producing a carrier signal and which has a first subcomponent of the carrier signal, here a cosine function, applied thereto, and the output which is connected to the second input of the first multiplier 602 . The third multiplier 606 comprises an input, which is connected to a second input of the I/Q modulator 600 and which has the Q component q(t) of the I/Q signal applied thereto, a second input connected to an output of the fourth multiplier 608 , and an output connected to an inverting second input of the adder 612 . The fourth multiplier 608 comprises a first input, which is connected to a first output of the means 614 for producing a predistortion signal and which has the magnitude ρ(t) of the polar predistortion signal p (t) applied thereto, a second input, which is connected to a second output of the means 610 for producing a carrier signal and which has a second subcomponent of the carrier signal, here the sine function, applied thereto, and the output which is connected to the second input of the third multiplier 606 . The means 610 for producing a carrier signal comprises the above-mentioned first and the above-mentioned second output, which have applied thereto the first and second subcomponents of the carrier signal, here the cosine and sine components, and an input, which is connected to a second output of the means 614 for producing the predistortion signal and which has the phase φ(t) of the polar predistortion signal applied thereto. Depending on at least the I component i(t) of the I/Q signal at a first input of the means 614 for producing a predistortion signal, which is connected to the first input of the I/Q modulator 600 , and the Q component q(t) of the I/Q signal at a second input of the means 614 for producing a predistortion signal, which is connected to the second input of the I/Q modulator 600 , the means 614 for producing a predistortion signal supplies at the first output thereof the magnitude ρ(t) of the predistortion signal p (t) and at the second output thereof the phase φ(t) of the predistortion signal p (t). In the following, the mode of operation of the I/Q modulator 600 with predistortion of the carrier signal according to FIG. 6 will be described briefly. The adder 612 has the function of forming the difference in equation 12. The first summand of equation 12 is produced by the first multiplier 602 and the second multiplier 604 and the second summand of equation 12 is produced by the third multiplier 606 and the fourth multiplier 608 . The second multiplier 604 performs the second multiplication of the first summand of equation b 12 , i.e. the multiplication of the first subcomponent of the carrier signal with the magnitude of the predistortion signal, so as to produce a predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal, whereas the first multiplier 602 performs the first multiplication of the first summand of equation 12, i.e. the multiplication of the predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal with the I component of the I/Q signal. The fourth multiplier 608 performs the second multiplication of the second summand of equation 12, i.e. the multiplication of the second subcomponent of the carrier signal with the magnitude of the predistortion signal, so as to obtain a predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal, and the third multiplier 606 performs the first multiplication of the second summand of equation 12, i.e. the multiplication of the predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal with the Q component of the I/Q signal. One disadvantage of the conventional I/Q modulator 500 with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to FIGS. 5A , B, C, and of the I/Q modulator 600 with predistortion of the carrier signal according to FIG. 6 is that six and four multipliers, respectively, are required for realizing the I/Q modulators in circuitry. In the case of modern transmitting means the predistortion and the I/Q modulations are carried out digitally i.e. in a time-discrete manner. In view of the large bandwidth and the high precision demands of modern transmission methods, such as e.g. W-CDMA (CDMA=Code-Division Multiple Access), expensive, fast, digital multipliers having a high resolution of typically 14 bits are required for this purpose. Another disadvantage is that, in view of the high numbers of multipliers, the number of gates and the power consumption of the conventional I/Q modulators according to FIGS. 5A , 5 B, 5 C and according to FIG. 6 are very high. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is the object of the present invention is to provide a simplified I/Q modulator for processing a time-discrete I/Q signal and a simplified method of processing a time-discrete I/Q signal. In accordance with a first aspect of the present invention, this object is achieved by an I/Q modulator for processing a time-discrete I/Q signal comprising an I component and a Q component which is substantially orthogonal thereto, the I/Q signal being based on a sampling frequency which is equal to substantially four times a carrier frequency of a carrier signal onto which the I/Q signal is to be modulated, said I/Q modulator comprising: predistortion means for predistorting the I component and the Q component with a predistortion signal which depends on the I component and the Q component and which comprises a first predistortion component and a second predistortion component, the predistortion means being arranged for forming a predistorted I component as a difference between the I component multiplied by the first predistortion component and the Q component multiplied by the second predistortion component and for forming, in temporal alternation therewith, a predistorted Q component as a sum of the I component multiplied by the second predistortion component and of the Q component multiplied by the first predistortion component, so as to obtain a predistorted output signal and means for adjusting the signs of the temporally alternating predistorted I components and predistorted Q components of the predistorted output signal so that two temporally successive predistorted components have a first sign and two additional successive predistorted components, which follow said first-mentioned components in time, have a second sign, which is inverse to said first sign, so as to produce an output signal at an output of the I/Q modulator. In accordance with a second aspect of the present invention, this object is achieved by An I/Q modulator for processing a time-discrete I/Q signal comprising an I component and a Q component which is substantially orthogonal thereto, the I/Q signal being based on a sampling frequency which is equal to substantially four times a carrier frequency of a carrier signal onto which the I/Q signal is to be modulated, said I/Q modulator comprising: a first multiplier for multiplying the I component by a predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal so as to obtain a multiplied I component; a second multiplier for multiplying the Q component by a predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal so as to obtain a multiplied Q component; an adder for adding the multiplied I component and the inverted multiplied Q component; and predistortion means for predistorting a carrier signal so as to produce a predistorted carrier signal, which comprises first and second predistorted subcomponents, from a predistortion signal which depends on the I component and on the Q component and which comprises a first predistortion component and a second predistortion component, said predistortion means being arranged for selecting, in temporal alternation, the first predistortion component and the second predistortion component as predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal, wherein in a group of four temporally successive selected predistortion components for the predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal the signs of the second and third selected predistortion components of said group are inverted, and said predistortion means being additionally arranged for selecting, in temporal alternation, the second predistortion component and the first predistortion component as predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal, wherein in a group of four temporally successive selected predistortion components for the predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal the signs of the third and fourth selected predistortion components of said group are inverted, and wherein the predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal is equal to the predistortion component at a time instant at which the predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal is not equal. In accordance with a third aspect of the present invention, this object is achieved by a method of processing a time-discrete I/Q signal comprising an I component and a Q component which is substantially orthogonal thereto, the I/Q signal being based on a sampling frequency which is equal to substantially four times a carrier frequency of a carrier signal onto which the I/Q signal is to be modulated, said method comprising the following steps: predistorting the I component and the Q component with a predistortion signal which depends on the I component and the Q component and which comprises a first predistortion component and a second predistortion component, the predistortion being carried out such that a predistorted I component is formed as a difference between the I component multiplied by the first predistortion component and the Q component multiplied by the second predistortion component and that, in temporal alternation therewith, a predistorted Q component is formed as a sum of the I component multiplied by the second predistortion component and of the Q component multiplied by the first predistortion component, so as to obtain a predistorted output signal; and adjusting the signs of the temporally alternating predistorted I components and predistorted Q components of the predistorted output signal so that two temporally successive predistorted components have a first sign and two additional successive predistorted components, which follow said first-mentioned components in time, have a second sign, which is inverse to said first sign, so as to produce an output signal. In accordance with a fourth aspect of the present invention, this object is achieved by a method of processing a time-discrete I/Q signal comprising an I component and a Q component which is substantially orthogonal thereto, the I/Q signal being based on a sampling frequency which is equal to substantially four times a carrier frequency of a carrier signal onto which the I/Q signal is to be modulated, said method comprising the following steps: multiplying the I component by a predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal so as to obtain a multiplied I component; multiplying the Q component by a predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal so as to obtain a multiplied Q component; adding the multiplied I component and the inverted multiplied Q component; and predistorting the carrier signal so as to produce a predistorted carrier signal, which comprises first and second predistorted subcomponents, from a predistortion signal which depends on the I component and on the Q component and which comprises a first predistortion component and a second predistortion component, said predistortion being carried out such that the first predistortion component and the second predistortion component are selected, in temporal alternation, as predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal, wherein in a group of four temporally successive selected predistortion components for the predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal the signs of the second and third selected predistortion components of said group are inverted, and said predistortion being additionally carried out such that the second predistortion component and the first predistortion component are selected, in temporal alternation, as predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal, wherein in a group of four temporally successive selected predistortion components for the predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal the signs of the third and fourth selected predistortion components of said group are inverted, and wherein the predistorted first subcomponent of the carrier signal is equal to the predistortion component at a time instant at which the predistorted second subcomponent of the carrier signal is not equal. The present invention is based on the finding that, by selecting a specific sampling ratio of the digital signals in a time-discrete i.e. digital realization of an I/Q modulator, the structure of the digital I/Q modulator can be simplified substantially due to the symmetry properties of the orthogonal subcomponents of the carrier signal, which has the I/Q signal applied thereto. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the following, preferred embodiments of the present invention will be explained in detail making reference to the drawings enclosed, in which: FIGS. 1A and B show the components and FIG. 1C shows the overall configuration of a first embodiment of a digital I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to the present invention; FIG. 2 shows a second embodiment of a digital I/Q modulator with predistortion of the carrier signal according to the present invention; FIG. 3 shows a third embodiment of a digital I/Q modulator with predistortion of the carrier signal according to the present invention; FIG. 4 shows a conventional transmitting means comprising an I/Q modulator with predistortion; FIGS. 5A , B show the components and FIG. 5C shows the overall configuration of a conventional I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal; and FIG. 6 shows an I/Q modulator with predistortion of the carrier signal. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS When an I/Q modulator is digitally realized, all the signals are represented by sampled values at intervals T A =1/f A , wherein f A is the sampling rate and wherein the time t=nT A and the phase Ω 0 =ω 0 T A . n is the time index. An I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to FIGS. 5A , B, C is then described by the following equations in the time-discrete case: i p ( n )= i ( n )· p 1 ( n )− q ( n )· p 2 ( n )  equa. 13 q p ( n )= i ( n )· p 2 ( n )+ q ( n )· p 1 ( n )  equa. 14 y ( n )= i p ( n )·cos Ω 0 n−q p ( n )·sin Ω 0 n   equa. 15 Making use of time-discrete signals, these equations result from equations 7, 8 and 10 for the I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal. An I/Q modulator with predistortion of the carrier signal according to FIG. 6 is, however, described in a time-discrete manner by the following equation: y ( n )= i ( n )·ρ( n )·cos [Ω 0 n +φ( n )]− q ( n )·ρ( n )·sin [Ω 0 n +φ( n )]  equa. 16 Making use of time-discrete signals, this equation results from equation 12 for an I/Q modulator with predistortion of the carrier signal. Since the orthogonal functions cosine and sine are here used for the subcomponents of the carrier signal, the symmetry properties i.e. the periodic properties of these functions can be used for digitally realizing the I/Q modulators. When the sampling rate f A is chosen to be equal to four times the carrier frequency f 0 , the following equation is obtained: Ω 0 = ω 0 ⁢ T A = 2 ⁢ π ⁢ ⁢ f 0 f A ⁢ = f A = 4 ⁢ f 0 ⁢ · π 2 equa . ⁢ 17 and, consequently: cos Ω 0 n = . . . ,1,0,−1,0, . . . for n = . . . ,0,1,2,3, . . .   equa. 18 sin Ω 0 n = . . . ,0,1,0,−1, . . . for n = . . . ,0,1,2,3, . . .   equa. 19 When this selected sampling frequency f A is taken into account in equation 15 for the output signal of an I/Q modulator 500 with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to FIG. 5C , the following equation is obtained for the output signal in the case of this sampling rate: y ⁡ ( n ) = … ⁢ , i p ⁡ ( 0 ) , - q p ⁡ ( 1 ) , - i p ⁡ ( 2 ) , q p ⁡ ( 3 ) , … = { ( - 1 ) ⁢ n 2 ⁢ i p ⁡ ( n ) ⁢ n ⁢ ⁢ even ( - 1 ) ⁢ n + 1 2 ⁢ q p ⁡ ( n ) n ⁢ ⁢ odd equa . ⁢ 20 It can be seen that the I component and the Q component of the predistorted I/Q signal according to equation 6 are only required alternately. Hence, the four multipliers of the predistortion means 504 of FIG. 5B can be replaced by two multipliers and two multiplexers, and the two outputs of the predistortion means 504 can be combined so as to form one output. At this output of a resultant predistortion means, the following is obtained: υ ⁡ ( n ) = … ⁢ , i p ⁡ ( 0 ) , - q p ⁡ ( 1 ) , - i p ⁡ ( 2 ) , q p ⁡ ( 3 ) , … ⁢ ⁢ for ⁢ ⁢ n = … ⁢ , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , ⁢ … = { i p ⁡ ( n ) n ⁢ ⁢ even q p ⁡ ( n ) n ⁢ ⁢ odd equa . ⁢ 21 As can be seen from a comparison of equation 20 and equation 21, the means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal according to FIG. 5A is simply implemented as means for adjusting the signs. FIGS. 1A and B show the components and FIG. 1C shows the overall configuration of a first embodiment of an I/Q modulator 100 with predistortion of the I/Q signal, said I/Q modulator 100 following from these considerations and comprising a predistortion means 102 according to FIG. 1A and means 104 for adjusting the signs according to FIG. 1B . FIG. 1A shows the predistortion means 102 of the I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to the present invention. The predistortion means 102 comprises a first multiplexer 106 , a second multiplexer 108 , an inverter 110 , means 112 for producing a predistortion signal, a first multiplier 114 , a second multiplier 116 , an adder 118 and a control unit 119 . The first multiplexer 106 comprises a first input connected to a first input of the predistortion means 102 , which has the I component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, a second input connected to a second input of the predistortion means 102 , which has the Q component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and an output which is connected to a first input of the first multiplier 114 . The second multiplexer 108 comprises a first input connected to the first input of the predistortion means 102 , a second input connected to an output of the inverter 110 , and an output connected to a first input of a second multiplier 116 . The inverter 110 additionally comprises an input which is connected to the second input of the predistortion means 102 . The means 112 for producing a predistortion signal comprises a first input connected to the first input of the predistortion means 102 , a second input connected to the second input of the predistortion means 102 , a first output connected to a second input of the first multiplier 114 , and a second output connected to a second input of the second multiplier 116 . The first multiplier 114 additionally comprises an output connected to a first input of the adder 118 , and the second multiplier 116 additionally comprises an output connected to a second input of the adder 118 . The adder 118 comprises an output which constitutes the output of the predistortion means 102 having the output signal applied thereto. In the following, the mode of operation of the predistortion means 102 according to FIG. 1A will be described briefly. The adder 118 produces alternately according to equation 21 at the output of the predistortion means 102 either the I component i p or the Q component q p of the predistortion I/Q signal according to equation 6. In so doing, the adder 118 alternately executes the subtraction according to equation 13 or the addition according to equation 14; for the subtraction according to equation 13, the inverter 110 is switched into the signal path for the second summand of equation 13. The first multiplexer 106 , the first multiplier 114 and the means 112 for producing a predistortion signal produce alternately in dependence upon the time index n either the first summand of equation 13 or the second summand of equation 14, which each contain the first predistortion component p 1 (n) of the predistortion signal p(n), i.e. in equation 13 the predistortion of the I component i(n) of the I/Q signal by the first predistortion component p 1 (n) of the predistortion signal and in equation 14 the predistortion of the Q component q(n) of the I/Q signal by the first predistortion component p 1 (n) of the redistortion signal. The multiplication of the first predistortion component p 1 (n) of the predistortion signal with either the I component or the Q component is executed by the first multiplier 114 . The selection of either the I component or the Q component for the multiplication of the first multiplier 114 is executed by the first multiplexer 106 , which is controlled by a control function m(n) of the control unit 119 depending in the time index n. In dependence upon the control function m(n), the first multiplexer 106 selects among its inputs the input which is addressed by the result of the control function, i,e. the multiplexer 106 selects in dependence upon the control function either the I component at the “0” input, the first input of the first multiplexer 106 which is selected for the result “zero” of the control function, or the Q component at the “1” input, the second input of the first multiplexer 106 , which is selected for the result “one” of the control function. The second multiplexer 108 , the second multiplier 116 , the inverter 110 and the means 112 for producing a predistortion signal produce again alternately and in dependence upon the time index n either the second summand of equation 13 or the first summand of equation 14, which each contain the second predistortion component p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal p(n), i.e. in equation 13 the predistortion of the Q component and in equation 14 the predistortion of the I component of the I/Q signal by the second predistortion component p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal. The multiplication of the second predistortion component p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal with either the I component or the Q component is carried out by the second multiplier 116 . The selection of either the Q component or the I component of the I/Q signal for the multiplication of the second multiplier 116 is carried out by the second multiplexer 108 which is also controlled by the control function m(n) of the control unit 119 in synchronism with the first multiplexer 106 . In dependence upon the control function m(n) of the control unit 119 , the second multiplexer 108 selects among its inputs the input which is addressed by the result of the control function, i.e. either I component of the I/Q signal at the “1” input or first input of the second multiplexer 108 , when the control function m(n) provides the result “one”, or the inverted Q component of the I/Q signal at the “0” input or second input of the second multiplexer 108 , when the control function m(n) provides the result “zero”. The inverter 110 before the “0” input of the second multiplexer 108 provides the negative sign of the subtraction according to equation 13 taking place alternately in the adder 118 . The control function m(n) of the control unit 119 for controlling the first multiplexer 106 and the second multiplexer 108 is given by the following equation: m ( n )= n mod2= . . . ,0,1,0,1, . . . for n = . . . ,1,2,3, . . .   equa. 22 n mod 2 is the divide remainder of the whole-number division (div) of n divided by 2 (n div 2). Finally, it should be pointed out that the means 112 for producing a predistortion signal p(n), i.e. the first predistortion component p 1 (n) and the second predistortion component p 2 (n), respectively adjusts the predistortion signal in dependence upon the I component and the Q component of the predistortion signal. FIG. 1B shows the means 104 for adjusting the signs of the first embodiment of an I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to the present invention. As has already been mentioned hereinbefore, the means 502 for applying an I/Q signal to a carrier signal according to FIG. 5A is simply implemented as a means for adjusting the signs, so as to obtain from the output signal v(n) according to equation 21 of the predistortion means 102 of FIG. 1A the output signal y(n) according to equation 20 of the I/Q modulator 100 with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to FIG. 1C . The means 104 for adjusting the signs comprises a multiplexer 120 having a first and a second input and an output, and an inverter 122 having an input and an output. The first input of the multiplexer 120 is directly connected to an input of the means 104 for adjusting the signs, whereas the second input of the multiplexer 120 is connected to the output of the inverter 122 . The output of the multiplexer 120 is an output of the means 104 for adjusting the signs. Also the inverter 122 has its input connected to the input of the means 104 for adjusting the signs. In the following, the function of the means 104 for adjusting the signs will be described briefly. Depending on the result of a control function s(n) of a control unit 123 , the multiplexer 120 selects either the first input or “0” input, which is associated with the result “zero” of the control function s(n), or the second input or “1” input, which is associated with the result “one” of the control function s(n). In dependence upon the input selected, the output signal v(n) of the predistortion means 102 is either inverted, i.e. the sign is reversed, or it is applied unchanged to the output of the means 104 for adjusting the signs, so as to supply the output signal of the I/Q modulator. The control function s(n) of the control unit 123 , which controls the multiplexer 120 , can be derived from the comparison of equations 20 and 21, where the control function s(n) must map equation 21 on equation 20. s ( n )=[( n+ 1)div 2]mod 2= . . . ,0,1,1,0, . . . for n = . . . ,0,1,2,3, . . .   equa. 23 The function div in this equation is a whole-number division without any divide remainder, whereas the function mod is the divide remainder of a whole-number division div. FIG. 1C finally shows the overall configuration of the I/Q modulator 100 which comprises the predistortion means 102 according to FIG. 1A and the means 104 for adjusting the signs according to FIG. 1B . The advantage of the I/Q modulator 100 according to FIG. 1C is to be seen in the fact that it only requires two multipliers, instead of six multipliers, as shown in FIG. 5C for the conventional I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal, and that, consequently, the number of gates as well as the power consumption are reduced. Taking into account the selection of the sampling frequency according to equation 17 and the resultant consequences according to equations 18 and 19 in equation 16 for the output signal of an I/Q modulator with predistortion of the carrier signal and in equation 11 for the predistorted carrier signal, the following equations are obtained: t 1 ( n )=ρ( n )·cos[Ω 0 n +φ( n )]= . . . p 1 (0),− p 2 (1),− p l (2),p 2 (3), . . .   equa. 24 t 2 ( n ) =ρ( n )·sin[Ω 0 n +φ( n )]= . . . , p 2 (0), p 1 (1),− p 2 (2),− p 1 (3), . . .   equa. 25 y ( n )= i ( n )· t 1 ( n )− q ( n )· t 2 ( n )  equa. 26 wherein p 1 ( n )=ρ( n )·cosφ( n ), p 2 ( n )=ρ( n )·sin φ( n )  equa. 27 FIG. 2 shows a second embodiment of an I/Q modulator 200 with predistortion of the carrier signal following from these considerations. The I/Q modulator 200 comprises a first multiplexer 202 , a second multiplexer 204 , a first multiplier 206 , a second multiplier 208 , an adder 210 , a first inverter 212 , a second inverter 214 , means 216 for producing a predistortion signal, and a control unit 217 . The first multiplexer 202 , the second multiplexer 204 , the first inverter 212 , the second inverter 214 , the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal and the control unit 217 define a predistortion means 201 for predistorting a carrier signal. The first multiplexer 202 comprises a first input, which is connected to a first output of the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal and which has a first predistortion component p 1 (n) applied thereto, a second input, which is connected to a second output of the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal and which has a second predistortion component p 2 (n) applied thereto, a third output connected to an output of the first inverter 212 , a fourth input connected to an output of the second inverter 214 , and an output connected to a first input of the first multiplier 206 . The second multiplexer 204 comprises a first input connected to the output of the second inverter 214 , a second input connected to the first output of the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal, a third input connected to the second output of the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal, a fourth input connected to the output of the first inverter 212 , and an output connected to a first input of the second multiplier 208 . The first multiplier 206 additionally comprises a second input, which is connected to a first input of the I/Q modulator 200 and which has the I component i(n) of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and an output connected to a first input of the adder 210 . The second multiplier additionally comprises a second input, which is connected to a second input of the I/Q modulator 200 and which has the Q component q(n) of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and an output connected to a second input of the adder 210 . The adder 210 comprises, in addition to the first and the second input, also an output which is an output of the I/Q modulator 200 having the output signal y(n) of the I/Q modulator applied thereto. The means 216 for producing a predistortion signal additionally comprises a first input connected to the first input of the I/Q modulator 200 , and a second input connected to the second input of the I/Q modulator 200 . In addition, an input of the first inverter 212 is connected to the first output of the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal, and an input of the second inverter 214 is connected to the second output of the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal. In the following, the function of the I/Q modulator 200 according to FIG. 2 will be described briefly. The adder 210 forms the difference according to equation 26 so as to produce the output signal y(n) of the I/Q modulator 200 . The first multiplier 206 produces the signal at the first input of the adder 210 , which is described by the first summand of equation 26 as product of the I component i(n) of the I/Q signal and of the first predistorted subcomponent t 1 (n) of the carrier signal, whereas the second multiplier 208 produces the signal at the second input of the adder 210 , which is described by the second summand of equation 26 as product of the Q component q(n) of the I/Q signal and of the second predistorted subcomponent t 2 (n) of the carrier signal. The first multiplexer 202 produces the first predistorted subcomponent t 1 (n) of the carrier signal which is described by equation 24. As can be seen from equation 24, the predistortion component of the predistortion signal varies with the time index n, i.e. either the first predistortion component p 1 (n) or the second predistortion component p 2 (n) determining the first predistorted subcomponent t 1 (n) of the carrier signal is selected, and also the sign of the respective predistortion component varies with the time index n. The function of the first predistorted subcomponent of the carrier signal in dependence upon n can be realized by a multiplexer with four inputs and one output, i.e. the first multiplexer 202 in FIG. 2 , which is controlled by a control function l(n) of the control unit 217 . Depending on the result of this control function l(n), the respective input of the first multiplexer 202 assigned to this result is selected and applied to the output of the first multiplexer 202 . If the result of the control function is “zero”, the “0” input, i.e. the first input of the first multiplexer 202 , is selected, which has the predistortion component p 1 (n) applied thereto. If the result of the control function is “one”, the “1” input, i.e. the second input of the first multiplexer 202 , is selected, which has the second predistortion component p 2 (n) applied thereto. If the result of the control function is “two”, the “2” input, i.e. the third input of the first multiplexer 202 , is selected, which has applied thereto the first predistortion component −p 1 (n) inverted by the first inverter 212 . If the result of the control function is “three”, the “3” input, i.e. the fourth input of the first multiplexer 202 is selected, which has applied thereto the second predistortion component −p 2 (n) inverted by the second inverter 214 . It follows that the assignment of the first predistorted subcomponent t 1 (n) of the carrier signal in equation 24 to the first predistortion component p 1 (n) and the second predistortion component p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal in dependence upon n is described by the control function l(n). l ( n )= n mod 4  equa. 28 The function mod is the divide remainder of the whole-number division (div). The second multiplexer 204 in FIG. 2 produces the second predistorted subcomponent t 2 (n) of the carrier signal, which is described by equation 25. As can be seen from equation 25, the predistortion component of the predistortion signal varies with the time index n, i.e. either the first predistortion component p 1 (n) or the second predistortion component p 2 (n) constituting part of the predistortion signal and determining the second predistorted subcomponent of the carrier signal, is selected, and also the sign of the respective predistortion component varies with the time index n. The function of the second predistorted subcomponent t 2 (n) of the carrier signal in dependence upon n can again be realized by a multiplexer with four inputs and one output, i.e. here the second multiplexer 204 in FIG. 2 , which is again controlled by the control function l(n) of the control unit 217 in synchronism with the first multiplexer 202 . Depending on the result of this control function l(n), the respective input of the second multiplexer 204 assigned to this result is selected and applied to the output of the second multiplexer 204 . If the result of the control function l(n) is “zero”, the “0” input, i.e. the first input of the second multiplexer 204 , is selected, which has applied thereto the second predistortion component −p 2 (n) inverted by the second inverter 214 . If the result of the control function is “one”, the “1” input, i.e. the second input of the second multiplexer 204 , is selected, which has the first predistortion component p 1 (n) applied thereto. If the result of the control function is “two”, the “2” input, i.e. the third input of the second multiplexer 204 , is selected, which has the second predistortion component p 2 (n) applied thereto. If the result of the control function is “three”, the “3” input, which is the fourth input of the second multiplexer 204 , is selected; this input has applied thereto the first predistortion component −p 1 (n) inverted by the first inverter 212 . Finally, it should also be pointed out that the means 216 for producing a predistortion signal in FIG. 2 produces the predistortion signal p(n), i.e. the first predistortion component p 1 (n) and the second predistortion component p 2 (n), in dependence upon at least the I and the Q components i(n), q(n) of the I/Q signal. The first predistortion component p 1 (n) is applied to the first output of the means 216 for producing the predistortion signal, and the second predistortion component p 2 (n) is applied to the second output of the means 216 for producing the predistortion signal. An advantage of the digital I/Q modulator 200 according to FIG. 2 is to be seen in the fact that, in comparison with the conventional I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal according to FIG. 5C , it requires only two, instead of six, multipliers and that, consequently, the number of gates as well as the power consumption are reduced. FIG. 3 shows a third embodiment of a digital I/Q modulator with carrier predistortion, which can be derived from the I/Q modulator 200 of FIG. 2 . The I/Q modulator 300 of FIG. 3 comprises, similar to the I/Q modulator 100 of FIG. 1C and FIGS. 1A , B, a predistortion means 302 and means 304 for adjusting the signs. The means 304 for adjusting the signs is here not described, since it is identical to the means 104 for adjusting the signs according to FIG. 1B and since the multiplexer 320 thereof also uses the control function s(n) according to equation 23. In the following, the configuration and the function of the predistortion means 302 will, however, be described. The predistortion means 302 of the I/Q modulator 300 comprises a first multiplexer 306 , a second multiplexer 308 , an inverter 310 , means 312 for producing a predistortion signal, a first multiplier 314 , a second multiplier 316 , an adder 318 and a control unit 319 . The first multiplier 306 comprises a first input, which is connected to a first output of the means 312 for producing a predistortion signal and which has the first predistortion component p 1 (n) of the predistortion signal applied thereto, a second input, which is connected to a second output of the means 312 for producing a predistortion signal and which has the second predistortion component p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal applied thereto, and an output connected to a first input of the first multiplier 314 . The second multiplier 308 comprises a first input connected to an output of the inverter 310 , a second input connected to the first output of the means 312 for producing a predistortion signal, and an output connected to a first input of the second multiplier 316 . The first multiplier 314 additionally comprises a second input, which is connected to a first input of the I/Q modulator 300 and which has the I component i(n) of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and an output which is connected to a first input of the adder 318 . The second multiplier 316 additionally comprises a second input, which is connected to a second input of the I/Q modulator 300 and which has the Q component q(n) of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and an output which is connected to a second input of the adder 318 . The adder 318 comprises an output which is an output of the predistortion means 302 , and produces from the signals at the first and second inputs thereof the output signal of the predistortion means 302 . The means 312 for producing a predistortion signal, i.e. the first predistortion component p 1 (n) and the second predistortion component p 2 (n), additionally comprises a first input, which is connected to the first input of the I/Q modulator 300 and which has the I component of the I/Q signal applied thereto, and a second input, which is connected to the second input of the I/Q modulator and which has the Q component of the I/Q signal applied thereto. Finally, an input of the inverter 310 is connected to the second output of the means 312 for producing a predistortion signal. The adder 318 performs at a time instant or time index n the subtraction according to equation 13 and at another, subsequent time instant the addition according to equation 14 so that, as can be seen from equation 21, the output of the predistortion means 302 has alternately applied thereto either the I component i p (n) or the Q component q p (n) of the predistorted I/Q signal according to equation 6. It follows that the first multiplier 314 alternately performs the multiplication of the first summand according to equation 13, i.e. the multiplication of the I component i(n) of the I/Q signal with the first predistortion component p 1 (n) of the predistortion signal, and the multiplication of the first summand according to equation 14, i.e. the multiplication of the I component i(n) of the I/Q signal with the second predistortion component p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal. In a similar way, the second multiplier 316 alternately performs the multiplication of the second summand according to equation 13, i.e. the multiplication of the Q component q(n) of the I/Q signal with the second predistortion component p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal, and the multiplication of the second summand according to equation 14, i.e. the multiplication of the Q component q(n) of the I/Q signal with the first predistortion component p 1 (n) of the predistortion signal. The first multiplier 306 performs the selection of the predistortion component, here p 1 (n) or p 2 (n), used for the first summands of equation 13 and equation 14, i.e. it causes the above-described alternating multiplication of the first multiplier 314 . Depending on the value of a control function m(n) of the control unit 319 , the first multiplexer 306 selects either the first or the second input of the first multiplexer 306 and thus either the first or the second predistortion component of the predistortion signal. If the value of the control function m(n) depends on n zero, the “0” input, i.e. the first input of the first multiplexer 306 , which has the first predistortion component p 1 (n) applied thereto, will be selected. If the value of the control function is “one”, the “1” input, i.e. the second input of the first multiplexer 306 , which has the second predistortion component p 2 (n) applied thereto, will be selected. The control function m(n) for alternating equation 13 with equation 14 corresponds to the control function m(n) according to equation 22. The second multiplier 308 performs the selection of the predistortion component, here p 2 (n) or p 1 (n), used for the second summands of equation 13 and equation 14, i.e. it causes the above-described alternating multiplication of the second multiplier 316 . Depending on the value of the control function m(n) of the control unit 319 , the second multiplexer 308 selects, in synchronism with the first multiplexer 306 , either the first or the second input of the second multiplexer 308 . If the value of the control function m(n) depends on n zero, the “0” input, i.e. the first input of the second multiplexer 308 , which has the inverted second predistortion component −p 2 (n) of the predistortion signal applied thereto, will be selected. If the value of the control function is “one”, the “1” input, i.e. the second input of the second multiplexer 308 , which has the first predistortion component p l (n) of the predistortion signal applied thereto, will be selected. An advantage of the I/Q modulator 300 with carrier predistortion according to the third embodiment of the present invention is to be seen in the fact that, in comparison with a conventional I/Q modulator with predistortion of the I/Q signal, it comprises only two, instead of six, multipliers, and that, consequently, the number of gates as well as the power consumption are reduced. The means 112 , 216 and 312 for producing a predistortion signal in FIGS. 1 , 2 and 3 , which serve to produce the predistortion signal, i.e. the first predistortion component and the second predistortion component, produce the predistortion signal p (t) at least in dependence upon the I and Q components i(t), q(t) of the I/Q signal. p ( t )= p [ x ( t )]= p [i ( t ), q ( t )]  equa. 29 The respective means for producing a predistortion signal may be a table which, depending on the condition of the I/Q signal, i.e. the amplitude of the I/Q signal, is addressed so as to output the first and second predistortion components. The table can, however, also be addressed with other optional parameters. In the case of the example of a transmitting means according to FIG. 4 , which can have installed therein the I/Q modulator, these other optional parameters may take into account e.g. the temperature dependence, the ageing properties, power variations etc. of the transmitting means and, primarily, of the transmitter amplifier included therein. The table increases in size in accordance with the number of additional optional parameters. The table may also be a dynamic table comprising variable tabular values. The contents of this dynamic table can, e.g. in the case of the transmitting means of FIG. 4 , be adjusted in dependence upon a comparison between an original I/Q signal, which has been fed to the distorting elements of the transmitting means following the I/Q modulator, and a signal outputted by these elements, so as to effect the optimum dynamic adjustment of the predistortion of the I/Q signal by means of said table, i.e. by means of the predistortion signal, at any time. As has already been described in FIG. 4 , this is carried out e.g. via a feedback and is referred to as adaptive predistortion of the I/Q signal. Due to their reduced number of multipliers, the I/Q modulators with predistortion of the I/Q signal and with carrier predistortion according to the present invention offer substantial structural advantages in comparison with conventional I/Q modulators with predistortion of the I/Q signal. Structurally simplified and energy-efficient I/Q modulators can be realized.

An I/Q modulator processes a time-discrete I/Q signal comprising an I component and a Q component. The I/Q signal is based on a sampling frequency which is equal to four times a carrier frequency of a carrier signal onto which the I/Q signal is modulated. A predistorter of the modulator predistort the I and components with a predistortion signal, which depends on the I and Q components, so as to form a predistorted I component and, in temporal alternation therewith, a predistorted Q components. An adjuster of the modulator adjusts the signs of the predistorted I and Q components so that two temporally successive predistorted components have a first sign and two additional successive predistorted components, which follow the first-mentioned components in time, have a second sign which is the inverse of the first sign, so as to produce therefrom an output signal at an output of the modulator.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS Not Applicable STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY FUNDED SPONSORED RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT Not Applicable DESCRIPTION OF ATTACHED APPENDIX Not Applicable BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to the field of online registries and more specifically to an online birthday gift register. The occasion of a person's birthday is associated with gift giving activities. Some businesses, such as restaurants, give a person a free desert or other food item when the patron presents a form of identification showing that it is their birthday. More recently, with the advent of the Internet, products and services are being purchased on line. A person can enter a web site domain and view photos of various products and purchase those products via an online payment processes. Some retail stores have set up computerized gift registries where a person can enter gifts they would like to receive so that people interested in buying a gift for that person can view the list and choose a gift that they know will appeal to the receiver of the gift. Still others have patented ways for a person to have access to gifts or incentives via an Internet web site such as Kazumori Ukigawa et al in his U.S. Pat. No. 6,938,098. Other patented gift registry concepts are: Steven Robertson—U.S. Pat. No. 6,609,106; Francis Eaton, U.S. Pat. No. 7,117,168; Rod Auletta, Patent application 2005/0091120A1 William Veeneman, Patent application 2005/0038712A1 Sean Brown et al, patent application 2004/0249712A1 Brett Webb, patent application 2002/0143664A1 William Dodd, U.S. Pat. No. 6,321,211B1 However, there are deficiencies in the prior art sited because none of the art sited addresses the ability of a person to register his or her birth date on line and to be able to select free or discounted birthday gifts and to print customized certificates for presentation to local participating businesses. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The primary object of the invention is to provide an online birthday register that allows registered users to select free gifts from participating businesses. Another object of the invention is to provide an online birthday register that allows users to search for gifts by category and sub category. Another object of the invention is to provide an online birthday register that allows the user to print customized gift certificates to be presented to participating businesses to obtain free birthday gifts. A further object of the invention is to provide an online birthday register that allows participating merchants to track their account balance, referral fees, gift certificate inventory and registered users gift selection and buying activity. Yet another object of the invention is to provide an online birthday register that allows the facilitator of the online site to track gift certificates and to collect referral fees from the participating businesses. Another object of the invention is to provide an online birthday register that allows the facilitator of the online site to track gift certificates issued, account balances, certificate inventory, user profile information and referral fee payments. Another object of the invention is to provide an embodiment of an online birthday register that allows a user to pick a predetermined number of gift categories and two weeks before the user's birthday, links to the gift certificates are automatically Emailed to the user in the categories of gifts the user pre-selected. Other objects and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following descriptions, taken in connection with the accompanying drawings, wherein, by way of illustration and example, an embodiment of the present invention is disclosed. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention, there is disclosed an online birthday gift register comprising: a birthday gift register software system, said system allowing a user to register his or her personal information including birth date online, said system allowing a user to search gifts by category and sub category online, said system providing a method for a user to select a gift and to print a customized gift certificate, said gift certificate capable of being presented to a participating business for redeeming a free gift, said software system providing a method for participating businesses to monitor said birthday register online site for user gift buying activities, said software system providing the facilitator of the online site the ability to monitor the certificate downloading and or printing activity of the users so that the facilitator can charge the participating business a referral fee for each certificate, and said software system capable of matching zip codes of registered users to zip codes of local businesses. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The drawings constitute a part of this specification and include exemplary embodiments to the invention, which may be embodied in various forms. It is to be understood that in some instances various aspects of the invention may be shown exaggerated or enlarged to facilitate an understanding of the invention. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of the flow of actions for a person to sign up with and use the birthday gift registry of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the flow of actions that a participating business can take regarding activities of registered users and the offering of targeted Emails to users based on user profiles. FIG. 3 shows a diagram of how users can view gifts by category FIG. 4 shows a diagram of how users can view gifts by sub category. FIG. 5 shows a diagram of how users can view gifts from a list based on sub category. FIG. 6 shows a diagram of an alternate embodiment where the user pre-selects gift categories he or she wishes to receive certificates from. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Detailed descriptions of the preferred embodiment are provided herein. It is to be understood, however, that the present invention may be embodied in various forms. Therefore, specific details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but rather as a basis for the claims and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to employ the present invention in virtually any appropriately detailed system, structure or manner. Referring now to FIG. 1 we see a block diagram of the user interface portion of the software system of the birthday gift register of the present invention. The user enters the birthday gift register 2 by using his or her computer and Internet service to access www.thebirthdayregister.com web site. Once at the site, the user is told of the advantages of using the site and that by signing up and registering on the site, he or she is entitled to receive free or discounted birthday gift certificates. For purposes of simplicity, the term “free” will be used in the rest of the present description in place of the words “free or discounted”. The potential user is also told that personal information that they enter as they sign up will be made available to participating businesses on a “blind” basis. That is, the participating business can learn about the user's preferences and personal data but not know the user's name or Email address. The users are also told that their data will not be disclosed or sold to any other retailers, third parties or list gatherers. The user then fills out the user profile 4 which includes such personal information as name, age, Email, gender, and birth date. The user is then given a pass code so that when the user enters the site in the future, he or she can go directly to the gift selection category 6 . Alternately, the present birthday register system may be set up so that the user is allowed to visit the gift selection portion 6 of the site first, thereby increasing the user's inclination to register onto the birthday register site. The registered user also has the option to enter his or her birth date and see a historic record 12 of events that happened on that date or famous people who were born on that day and/or date. After the user selects the gift category, a gift category heading 50 is displayed, as shown in FIG. 3 , that shows the user a choice of gift categories 52 . In this case the user has chosen the Restaurants and Food category 51 as evidenced by the dot 51 placed before that category. The software system then automatically shifts to the Restaurant and Food page that displays a plurality of types of food 54 as shown in FIG. 4 . In this case the user has picked Indian food 56 . The system then automatically advances to the Indian restaurant page heading 58 as shown in FIG. 5 . This page displays the names of Indian restaurants 60 as will as advertising materials 58 and gift offer for each restaurant. The user then picks the restaurant of his or her choice, in this case “Asian Palace” Referring back to FIG. 1 , the user now selects this option 20 . The gift registry then checks on how many gift certificates he or she has already selected 22 . A pre determined number, for example five gifts, is set as a limit for any one calendar year birthday. If the selection is over the limit 28 , the system sends the user a friendly note explaining that the gift limit has been reached. If the gift limit has not been reached, 24 the system prepares a gift certificate that includes the user's name, birth date and zip code for the gift to be received and any other custom information about the gift. For example, there may be an expiration date, or a specific time of day to use the certificate, or there may be a printed bar code or other special number sequence that the business issuing the gift can scan. The user then prints out the gift certificate 26 and can then show the certificate along with proof of identification, zip code and birth date, and claim his or her gift 30 from the participating business. Optionally, the user can create a wish list 14 by looking at the various gifts that are available from participating businesses or by filling in a space provided for gifts that do not appear on the gift registry. Friends or family can be notified of this list 16 and told how to access the list in order to choose a gift for the user. The friend or family member can view the list, select a gift 18 , pay for it online, and then have a custom gift certificate printed out 26 to give to the user so that he or she may present the certificate to the appropriate business establishment and receive his or her gift 30 or have the gift shipped directly to the user. Friends or family also have the option to purchase and receive the gift so that they can give the gift to the user. FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of features that are available to participating businesses and to the facilitator of the gift register site. A participating business can log onto the secured section of the site 32 by entering a special pass code. The participating business can then check on how many gift certificates 34 have been selected by users and assigned to a business regarding the use of the participating businesses goods or services. This information can help the business to prepare for delivery of the free gifts promised to users. The participating business can also check on user's activity such as the volume of certificate requests per category 38 . These types of statistics can let the business know what categories of gifts are most popular at any given time. A participating business can also check on users wish lists 46 to determine what people are interested in purchasing. The statistics can be broken down according to age or zip code, however, the lists do not give out individual users names or Email addresses. The register software system can also compile demographic patterns of users who have asked for specific business goods or services 48 so that a participating business can target their offerings to those specific demographics. Additionally, participating business can prepare targeted Email solicitations 49 based on user demographics and forward them to the facilitator of the site so that the solicitations are matched with the user's interests, yet the businesses do not have direct access to user's names and addresses. These solicitations can also be sorted by user zip code number so that adverting appeals can be made to specific section of a city or county. An alert mechanism 40 notifies the facilitator of the site as to when a user, or friend or family member of a user has a gift certificate. This information lets the business know when to expect the user to come in to receive a gift, and it also automatically informs the facilitator of the event. It also causes a referral fee to be extracted from the businesses online account to be paid to the facilitator of the birthday register. Other alerts are sent to the facilitator when a current user refers a friend to the site or when a user persuades a business to sign up with the site. In both cases, the user receives additional gift credits for causing the new referral. Referring now to FIG. 6 we see an alternate embodiment of the present invention where a user registers an the online birthday register of the present invention 60 and enters his or her personal information 62 including birth date, gender and age. The user is then invited to review a list of gift categories 66 as shown in the category selection guide in FIG. 3 and to select a fixed amount of categories, for example five categories. Two weeks before the user's birthday 68 the user receives an Email from the facilitator of the site which includes links up to five business gift certificates that are in the categories that the user pre selected. The links include printable personalized gift certificates from the five participating businesses. The facilitator extracts a referral fee 70 from each participating business when the user prints the certificate 72 . On or about the date of the user's birthday, the user can present the certificate 74 to the participating business along with personal identification and receive a free gift from the participating business. While the invention has been described in connection with a preferred embodiment, it is not intended to limit the scope of the invention to the particular form set forth, but on the contrary, it is intended to cover such alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

Online birthday register software system, allowing a user to register his personal information including birth date online. The system allows a user to search for and select gifts by category and sub category and provides a method for the user to select gifts and to print customized gift certificates. The gift certificates and proof of birth date can be presented to participating businesses for redeeming free or discounted gifts. The software system provides a method for participating businesses to monitor the birthday register site for user gift selection and buying activities. The facilitator of the online site has the ability to monitor the certificate activity of the users so that the facilitator can charge participating businesses a referral fee for each gift certificate. The software system is capable of matching zip codes of registered users to zip codes of local businesses.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY [0001] This application claims priority under 35 USC §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/177,074, filed on May 11, 2009, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/121,398, filed on Dec. 10, 2008, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT [0002] This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. DK-41526 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. TECHNICAL FIELD [0003] This disclosure relates to methods of diagnosing and predicting early renal function decline (ERFD), using biomarkers sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFAS, TNF, and IL-6. BACKGROUND [0004] The traditional model of the development of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in type 1 diabetes (T1DM), in which microalbuminuria (MA) leads to proteinuria and then proteinuria is followed by renal function loss, has been challenged recently. Increase in urinary albumin excretion is an important determinant of diabetic nephropathy progression, but it does not entirely explain this phenomenon. For example, the loss of renal function commences earlier than previously recognized and precedes the onset of proteinuria (Perkins et al., J Am Soc Nephrol. 18:1353-1361, 2007). A longitudinal study of T1DM (the 1st Joslin Study of Natural History of Microalbuminuria) showed that renal function decline began with the onset of MA in about one third of patients and progressed in a linear fashion from normal kidney function to renal insufficiency (Perkins et al., 2007, supra). In addition, renal function decline occurred in a noticeable proportion of patients with T1DM and normal albumin excretion (Perkins et al., 2007, supra; Caramori et al., Diabetes 52:1036-1040, 2003). SUMMARY [0005] As shown herein, progressive early renal function decline (ERFD), e.g., in type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes begins while glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is in the normal or elevated range and before onset of proteinuria. Inflammation and apoptosis may be involved in this process. The present methods can be used to identify diabetic subjects with early renal function decline, based on serum markers of the TNF pathway (e.g., TNFα, sTNFR1, and sTNFR2), the Fas pathways (e.g., sFas), and IL-6. The present methods can also be used to identify or predict diabetic subjects at risk for developing end stage renal disease (ESRD), based on serum or plasma markers of the TNF pathway (e.g., sTNFR1). [0006] In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods for determining (e.g., predicting or diagnosing) whether a human subject has an increased risk of developing early renal function decline (ERFD). These methods can include obtaining a sample from a human subject who has normoalbuminuria (NA), microalbuminuria (MA), or proteinuria (PT), and measuring the levels of one or more (including all) biomarkers selected from the group consisting of TNFa, soluble TNF receptor type 1 (sTNFR1), soluble TNFR2 (sTNFR2), soluble Fas (sFas), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), in the subject sample. These measured levels can then be compared with suitable reference levels of the one or more biomarkers. In some aspects, this comparison, or observations obtained from such a comparison, can be used to determine whether the subject has an increased risk of developing ERFD. For example, a difference between the levels of the one or more biomarkers in the subject sample and the reference levels can indicate that the subject has an increased risk of developing ERFD. In some cases, the difference can be that the levels of the one or more biomarkers in the subject sample are higher (e.g., significantly higher) than the reference levels of the same biomarkers. In some instances, the subject sample can include serum from the subject. In some cases, the subject can be a subject with diabetes, e.g., Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes. For example, the subject can be selected because they have diabetes, e.g., Type 1 or 2 diabetes. Furthermore, the subject can be a subject with normoalbuminuria, microalbuminuria, or proteinuria. For example, the subject can be selected because they have normoalbuminuria, microalbuminuria, or proteinuria. Methods for identifying subjects with normoalbuminuria, microalbuminuria, or proteinuria are known in the art and are disclosed below. In some instances, biomarkers measured in subjects with Type 1 diabetes can include, e.g., sTNFR1, sTNFR2, and sFas; TNFa, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, and sFas; or TNFa, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFas, and IL-6. In some instances, biomarkers measured in subjects with Type 2 diabetes can include, e.g., TNFa, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFas, and IL-6. In some instances, the human subject can be a subject that does not present any clinical signs or symptoms of chronic heart disease (CHD) or ischemic heart disease. Furthermore, in some cases, the human subject can be a subject that has a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 90 mL/minute or more. [0007] In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods for determining whether a human subject has an increased risk of developing chronic kidney disease (CKD), or end stage renal disease (ESRD), or both. Such methods can include obtaining a sample from a human subject who has proteinuria, and measuring the level of soluble TNF receptor type 1 (sTNFR1) in the subject sample. These measured levels can then be compared with suitable reference levels (e.g., a reference levels of sTNFR1). In some aspects, this comparison, or observations obtained from such a comparison, can be used to determine whether the subject has an increased risk of developing CKD, ESRD, or both. For example, a difference between the levels of the sTNFR1 in the subject sample and the reference levels can indicate that the subject has an increased risk of developing CKD, ESRD, or both. In some cases, the difference can be that the levels of the sTNFR1 in the subject sample are higher (e.g., significantly higher) than the reference levels. In some instances, the human subject can be a subject with Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes. In some instances, the human subject can be a subject with Type 1 diabetes and/or proteinuria. [0008] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Methods and materials are described herein for use in the present disclosure; other, suitable methods and materials known in the art can also be used. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. All publications, patent applications, patents, sequences, database entries, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. [0009] Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description and figures, and from the claims. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0010] FIGS. 1A-1F are 3-D bar graphs showing mean cC-GFR in the study population of individuals with type 1 diabetes according to albuminuria status (NA=normoalbuminuria and MA=microalbuminuria) and tertile (T1, T2, T3) of an inflammatory marker: 1 A, sTNFR1; 1 B, sTNFR2; 1 C, TNFα; 1 D, sFas; 1 E, sICAM-1; 1 F, IP10). P value for trend across the tertiles in NA (light grey bars) and in MA (dark grey bars), respectively. [0011] FIGS. 2A-2B are bar graphs showing the proportion of the event=renal function loss defined as the top quartile of the fastest progression in the prospective 2nd Joslin Kidney Study ( 2 A) and in the replicative 1st Joslin Kidney Study ( 2 B), stratified by tertiles of the respective marker. [0012] FIGS. 3A-3D are 3-D bar graphs showing adjusted mean GFR (ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) in subjects with Type-2 Diabetes according to Albumin excretion rate status (NA=normoalbuminuria, MA=microalbuminuria, and PT=proteinuria) and tertile (T1, T2, T3): 3 A, TNFα; 3 B, IL6; 3 C, sTNFR1; 3 D, sFas. [0013] FIG. 4 is a bar graph showing the association between TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, IL-6, and sFas in subjects with type II diabetes. Data shown the difference in mean GFR (ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) between the highest, and the lowest tertiles of five markers (TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, IL6, and sFas) in the crude analysis after adjustment for age, gender, and AER status. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0014] Low-grade chronic inflammation is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy (Navarro et al., Cytokine. Growth Factor. Rev. 17:441-450, 2006, and Galkina et al., J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 17:368-377, 2006). Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα/TNF) is a key mediator of inflammation and plays a role in apoptosis. In animal models, its effects on kidneys include reduced glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and increased albumin permeability (Navarro, supra). TNFα mediates its signal via two distinct receptors, tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2), which are membrane-bound and also present in soluble form in serum (Macewan et al., Cell. Signal., 14:477-492, 2002). TNFα mediates its inflammatory effects by induction of a broad spectrum of chemokines including interleukin 8 (IL8); monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP1); interferon gamma inducible protein 10 (IP-10) and adhesion molecules such as intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) (Segerer et al., J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 11:152-176, 2000; Wong et al., Clin. Exp. Immunol., 149:123-131, 2007). [0015] The Fas pathway mediates apoptosis and may play a role in the progression of diabetic nephropathy (Kumar et al., Nephron. Exp. Nephrol., 96:e77-e88, 2004; Kumar et al., Mol. Cell. Biochem., 259:67-70, 2004; Schelling et al., Lab. Invest., 78:813-824, 1998; and Perianayagam et al., J. Lab. Clin. Med., 136:320-327, 2000). The binding of Fas ligand (FasL) to Fas, its membrane-bound receptor which is also present in serum in soluble form (sFasL, sFas), leads to an apoptotic response (Baba et al., Nephrology, 9:94-99, 2004 and Ortiz et al., Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., 14:1831-1834, 1999). [0016] Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic, proinflammatory cytokine that has been associated with complications in diabetes. Specifically, cross-sectional studies of subjects with type 2 diabetes demonstrate that elevated serum levels of Il-6 are associated with diabetic nephropathy (Shikano et al., Nephron., 85:81-5, 2000). However, a similar association between 11-6 and diabetic nephropathy has not been reported for type 1 diabetes (Schram et al., Diabetologia., 48:370-8, 2005; Niewczas et al., Clin J Am Soc Nephrol., 4:62-70, 2009). [0017] The majority of studies on serum markers of TNFα-mediated inflammation and apoptosis in diabetic nephropathy have explored their association with MA and proteinuria rather than with GFR (Zoppini et al., J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 86:3805-3808, 2001). [0018] The large cross-sectional study described herein investigated whether serum concentrations of markers including the TNFα and TNF-related markers (sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sICAM-1, sVCAM-1, IL8, MCP1, IP10), involved in Fas-related apoptosis (sFasL and sFas), IL-6, and CRP, are associated, independently from albuminuria, with variation in renal function in patients with T1DM who do not have proteinuria or advanced renal function impairment. This knowledge will facilitate the development of new diagnostic tools for identifying patients with early renal function decline and help the search for intervention protocols for high-risk patients that may be more effective if implemented 5-10 years earlier in the disease course. [0019] The studies described herein also investigated whether serum concentrations of TNFR1 are associated with GFR in subjects with various stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and whether such an association can be used as a predictive marker of ESRD in such subjects. [0020] In these studies, glomerular filtration rate was estimated by a cystatin C-based formula (cC-GFR) that was previously shown to be an accurate way of evaluating renal function in patients with diabetes (Macisaac et al., Diabet. Med., 24:443-448, 2007 and Perkins et al, J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 16:1404-1412, 2005). [0021] In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods of determining whether a subject is predisposed to develop early renal function decline (ERFD). These methods can include generating a subject profile by obtaining a biological sample, e.g., a urine or blood (e.g., serum and/or plasma) sample, from the subject, measuring the level of at least one biomarker described herein in the sample, and comparing the level of the biomarker in the urine or blood sample with a predetermined reference profile. A reference profile can include a profile generated from one or more subjects who are known to be predisposed to develop ERFD (e.g., subjects in a study who later develop ERFD), and/or a profile generated from one or more subjects who are not predisposed to develop ERFD. A “predisposition to develop ERFD” is a significantly increased risk of developing ERFD, e.g., the subject is statistically more likely to develop ERFD than a “normal” subject (e.g., a subject who has diabetes but does not have an increased risk of developing ERFD). In some aspects, a subject with a predisposition to develop ERFD is one whose sample contains one or more of the biomarkers disclosed herein in amounts that differ (e.g., significantly differ) from, or are above, below, greater than or equal to, less than or equal to, or about the same as, depending on whether the reference represents a normal risk subject or a high risk subject, from the level of the same one or more biomarkers in a reference profile. In some cases, the difference in the levels of the one or more biomarkers can be e.g., about a factor of two or at least about a factor of two (e.g., at least twice or half the level of the biomarker present in the reference profile), wherein the reference profile represents a subject who is not predisposed to develop ERFD. [0022] In some embodiments, the subject can have one or more risk factors for developing ERFD, e.g., duration of diabetes, elevated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels (e.g., above 8.1% or above 9%), age over 35 years, elevated plasma cholesterol levels, high mean blood pressure, elevated albumin to creatinine ratio (e.g., above about 0.6), and hyperglycemia (e.g., blood glucose of over about 200 mg/dL). In some embodiments, the subject can have microalbuminuria (e.g., excretes 30-300 μg/min albumin). In another aspect, the subject may not have microalbuminuria and/or is a subject with normoalbuminuria (e.g., excretes about less than 30 μg/min) and/or has normal renal function (e.g., has serum creatinine levels at less than 1.2 mg/dl). In some embodiments, the subject can have type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Alternatively or in addition, the subject can be non-diabetic. In some embodiments, the subject can have proteinuria, e.g., macroalbuminaria (e.g., the subject excretes more than about 300 μg/min albumin). In some embodiments, the subject does not have, does not have a diagnosis of, or does not present any clinical signs or symptoms of, chronic heart disease (CHD). In some embodiments, the subject does not have, does not have a diagnosis of, or does not present any clinical signs or symptoms of, ischemic heart disease. [0023] In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods of determining whether a subject is predisposed to develop end stage renal disease (ESRD). These methods can include generating a subject profile by obtaining a biological sample (e.g., a urine or blood (e.g., serum) sample) from the subject, measuring the level of at least one biomarker described herein in the sample, and comparing the level of the biomarker in the urine or blood sample with a predetermined reference profile. In some embodiments, these methods include generating a subject profile by obtaining a biological sample (e.g., a urine or blood (e.g., serum) sample) from the subject, measuring the level of TNFR1 in the sample, and comparing the level of TNFR1 sample with a predetermined TNFR1 reference profile. Reference profiles can include a profile generated from one or more subjects who are known to be predisposed to develop ESRD (e.g., subjects in a study who later develop ESRD), and/or profiles generated from one or more subjects who are not predisposed to develop ESRD. A “predisposition to develop ESRD” is a significantly increased risk of developing ESRD, i.e., the subject is more likely to develop ESRD than a “normal” subject, i.e., a subject who has diabetes but does not have an increased risk of developing ESRD. In some embodiments, a subject with a predisposition to develop ESRD is one whose sample has a listed biomarker (e.g., TNFR1) in amounts that significantly differ from, or are above, below, greater than or equal to, less than or equal to, or about the same as the level of the same biomarker in the reference profile, depending on whether the reference represents a normal risk subject or a high risk subject. In some cases, the difference in the levels of the one or more biomarkers can be, e.g., about a factor of two or at least about a factor of two (e.g., at least twice or half the level of the biomarker present in the reference profile), wherein the reference profile represents a subject who is not predisposed to develop ESRD. [0024] In some embodiments, the subject can have one or more risk factors for developing ESRD. Such factors can include, but are not limited to, e.g., duration of diabetes, elevated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels (e.g., above 8.1% or above 9%), age over 35 years, elevated plasma cholesterol levels, high mean blood pressure, elevated albumin to creatinine ratio (e.g., >0.6), and hyperglycemia (e.g., blood glucose of over 200 mg/dL). In some embodiments, the subject can have normal kidney function (e.g., GFR=90 mL/min or more). In some embodiments, the subject can have chronic kidney disease (CKD) (e.g., stage 1 CKD (e.g., GFR=90 mL/minute or more)), stage 2 CKD (e.g., GFR=60 to 89 mL/minute), stage 3 CKD (e.g., GFR=30 to 59 mL/minute), stage 4 CKD (e.g., GFR=15 to 29 mL/min), or stage 5 CKD (e.g., GFR=less than 15 mL/min or on dialysis). In some embodiments, the subject has proteinuria (e.g., excretion greater than or equal to 300 μg/min albumin). In some embodiments, the subject has CKD (e.g., stage 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 CKD) and proteinuria. In some embodiments, the subject has diabetes (e.g., type 1 or type 2 diabetes). In some embodiments, the subject is a non-diabetic. [0025] In some embodiments, the methods can include measuring the level of a plurality of the biomarkers described herein, e.g., one or more biomarkers (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or all of the biomarkers) can be measured. The level(s) of the biomarker(s) can be used to generate a biomarker profile for the subject. [0026] The methods described herein can also include obtaining a sample from a subject, e.g., a blood or urine sample, and determining the level of the biomarker(s) in the sample. [0027] In some embodiments, the methods include normalizing for urine creatinine concentrations. [0028] The methods described herein can include contacting a sample obtained from a subject with biomarker-specific biomolecules, e.g., an array of immobilized biomarker-specific biomolecules, and detecting stable or transient binding of the biomolecule to the biomarker, which is indicative of the presence and/or level of a biomarker in the sample. The subject biomarker levels can be compared to reference biomarker levels obtained from reference subjects. Reference biomarker levels can further be used to generate a reference profile from one or more reference subjects. In one aspect, the biomarker-specific biomolecules are antibodies, such as monoclonal antibodies. In another aspect, the biomarker-specific biomolecules are antigens, such as viral antigens that specifically recognize the biomarkers. In yet another aspect, the biomarker-specific biomolecules are receptors (e.g., the TNF receptor). [0029] The disclosure also features a pre-packaged diagnostic kit for detecting a predisposition to ERFD. The kit can include biomarker-specific biomolecules as described herein and instructions for using the kit to test a sample to detect a predisposition to ERFD. The kit can also be used to determine the efficacy of a therapy administered to prevent ERFD by contacting the biomarker-specific biomolecules with a sample obtained from a subject undergoing a selected therapy. The level of one or more biomarkers in the sample can be determined and compared to the level of the same one or more biomarkers detected in a sample obtained from the subject prior to, or subsequent to, the administration of the therapy. Subsequently, a caregiver can be provided with the comparison information for further assessment. Biomarkers [0030] In some embodiments, the methods described herein include the measurement of levels of certain soluble biomarkers, including one or more of sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFAS, TNF, and IL-6. Specific alterations in one or more of the biomarkers listed herein are statistically related to the development of ERFD. These biomarkers serve as early biomarkers for disease, and characterize subjects as at high risk for future disease. The systematic names of the molecules are as follows: [0031] TNFa: Tumor Necrosis Factor; TNF (TNF superfamily, member 2); Entrez GenelD: 7124; mRNA: NM_000594.2; protein: NP_000585.2. [0032] soluble TNF Receptor type 1 (sTNFR1): soluble Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Subfamily, member 1A; sTNFRSF1A; Entrez GeneID: 7132; mRNA: NM_001065.2; protein: NP_001056.1; see also WO9531544; Fernandez-Botran et al., FASEB J. 5(11):2567, 1991; and US2006039857. [0033] soluble TNF receptor type 2 (sTNFR2): soluble Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Subfamily, member 1B; sTNFRSF1B; Entrez GenelD: 7133; mRNA: NM_001066.2; protein: NP_001057.1; see also WO9531544; Fernandez-Botran et al., FASEB J. 5(11):2567, 1991; and US2006039857. [0034] soluble Fas (sFas): soluble Tumor Necrosis Factor Receptor Superfamily, member 6 (sTNFRSF6); Entrez GenelD: 355; mRNA: NM_000043.3, NM_152871.1, NM_152872.1, NM_152873.1, NM_152874.1, NM_152875.1, NM_152876.1, or NM_152877.1; Protein: NP_000034.1, NP_690610.1, NP_690611.1, NP_690612.1, NP_690613.1, NP_690614.1, NP_690615.1, or NP_690616.1. See also U.S. Pat. No. 5,652,210; Chen et al., Science, 263:1759-1762, 1994; Hachiya et al., and WO 96/01277. [0035] Interleukin-6 (IL6); Entrez GeneID; 3569; mRNA: NM_000600.3; Protein: NP_000591.1. [0036] In some embodiments, other markers, e.g., urinary or serum biomarkers, of renal failure can also be used, as are known in the art. [0037] A “subject” level can also be referred to as a “test” profile. A subject level can be generated from a sample taken from a subject prior to the development of microalbuminuria (e.g., when the subject is excreting less than 30 mg of albumin a day or has an albumin-creatinine (A/C) ratio of less than 30 in a random urine specimen). Thus, a “subject” level is generated from a subject being tested for predisposition to DN. [0038] A “reference” level can also be referred to as a “control” level. A reference level can be generated from a sample taken from a normal individual or from an individual known to have a predisposition to ERFD, or from an individual known to have ESRD and/or CKD. The reference level, or plurality of reference levels, can be used to establish threshold values for the levels of, for example, specific biomarkers in a sample. A “reference” level includes levels generated from one or more subjects having a predisposition to ERFD, levels generated from one or more subjects having ESRD and/or CKD, or levels generated from one or more normal subjects. [0039] A reference level can be in the form of a threshold value or series of threshold values. For example, a single threshold value can be determined by averaging the values of a series of levels of a single biomarker from subjects having no predisposition to ERFD. Similarly, a single threshold value can be determined by averaging the values of a series of levels of a single biomarker from subjects having a predisposition to ERFD. Thus, a threshold value can have a single value or a plurality of values, each value representing a level of a specific biomarker, detected in a urine sample, e.g., of an individual, or multiple individuals, having a predisposition to ERFD. [0040] As described herein, a subject level can be used to identify a subject at risk for developing ERFD based upon a comparison with the appropriate reference level or levels. Subjects predisposed to having ERFD can be identified prior to the development of microalbuminuria or with microalbuminuria by a method described herein. For example, a subject level of a biomarker described herein detected in a sample from a subject can be compared to a “reference” level of the same biomarker detected in a sample obtained from a reference subject. If the reference level is derived from a sample (or samples) obtained from a reference subject having a predisposition to ERFD, then the similarity of the subject level to the reference level is indicative of a predisposition to ERFD for the tested subject. Alternatively, if the reference level is derived from a sample (or samples) obtained from a reference subject who does not have a predisposition to ERFD, then the similarity of the subject level to the reference level is not indicative of a predisposition to ERFD for the tested subject. As used herein a subject level is “similar” to a reference level if there is no statistically significant difference between the two levels. In some embodiments, a subject level differs significantly from the reference level of the same biomarker(s), when the reference level is from a reference subject who does not have a predisposition to ERFD, is indicative of a predisposition to ERFD in the subject. [0041] In some embodiments, the biomarker for ERFD can include one or more of, e.g., TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, Fas, and IL-6, including any combination of TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, Fas, and IL-6. In some embodiments, the biomarker for ERFD can include TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, Fas, and IL-6. [0042] In some embodiments, the biomarker for end stage renal disease (ESRD) can include sTNFR1. Methods of Detection [0043] Any method known in the art for determining levels of an analyte in a biological sample can be used. An exemplary biochemical test for identifying levels of biomarkers employs a standardized test format, such as the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) (see, e.g., Molecular Immunology: A Textbook , edited by Atassi et al.; Marcel Dekker Inc., New York and Basel 1984, for a description of ELISA tests). In some embodiments, the biochemical test can include a multiplex particle-enhanced immunoassay with a flow cytometry based detection system (e.g., LUMINEX®). [0044] It is understood that commercial assay kits (e.g., ELISA) for various cytokines and growth factors are available. For example, ELISA kits are available from R&D systems. sFas can be measured, e.g., using the Quantikine Human sFas Immunoassay from R&D Systems. Arrays and chips known in the art can also be used. EXAMPLES [0045] The invention is further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims. Example 1: Concentrations of Markers of TNFα and Fas-Mediated Pathways and Renal Function in Non-Proteinuric Patients with Type 1 Diabetes [0046] Characteristics of the Study Population [0047] The study group was selected from the population attending the Joslin Clinic, a major center for the treatment of patients of all ages with T1DM or T2DM. The population is about 90% Caucasian, and most reside in eastern Massachusetts. Detailed descriptions of the Joslin Clinic population and the recruitment protocol for this study have been published previously (Rosolowsky et al., Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 2008). Eligibility criteria included residence in New England, diabetes diagnosed before age 40 years, treatment with insulin, current age 18-64 years, diabetes duration 3-39 years, and multiple measurements in the preceding two-year interval of hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR). For each patient, the measurements of HbA1c were summarized by the mean, and the measurements of ACR by the median. Exclusion criteria included proteinuria (median ACR ≧250 for men and ≧355 μg/min for women), ESRD, other serious illness, extreme obesity (body mass index >40 kg/m 2 ), or a median HbA1c less than 6.5% (near normoglycemia). [0048] Trained recruiters administered a structured interview and brief examination to eligible patients at a routine visit to the clinic, the enrollment visit. The interview solicited the history of diabetes and its treatment, other health problems, and use of medications. The recruiter measured seated blood pressure twice (five minutes apart) with an automatic monitor (Omron Healthcare, Inc) and averaged them to reduce variability and also obtained samples of blood and urine. [0049] Current and past use of medications (particularly ACE inhibitors, Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers, and other antihypertensive drugs) was recorded during the enrollment interview and supplemented by examination of clinic records to confirm prescription dates. All archived clinical laboratory measurements of HbA1c, ACR and serum cholesterol were also extracted. Details of the assays used were described previously (Ficociello et al., Clin J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 2:461-469, 2007, and Krolewski et al., N. Engl. J. Med., 332:1251-1255, 1995). ACR values were converted to Albumin Excretion Rate (AER) according to a formula published previously (Krolewski, supra). For characterizing patients' recent exposures, repeated measures were summarized by their median (AER) or mean (HbA1c, cholesterol, lipids). [0050] Enrollment blood samples were drawn by venipuncture into sterile collection tubes (SST Plus BD Vacutainer) (BD, NJ, USA), centrifuged at 3600 rpm for 10 minutes at 6° C. (Centrifuge 5810 R, USA) and then aliquoted into 1.5 ml sterile, non-toxic non-pyrogenic tubes cryogenic tubes (CRYOTUBES™ CRYOLINE™ System) [NUNC™ Serving Life Science, USA] and frozen at −80° C. until further analysis. Length of storage, defined as the interval between the dates of sample collection and assay-determination (range 2 to 5 years), was included as a covariate in the analysis to estimate the extent of degradation of each analyte during storage. [0051] Serum cystatin C concentration (Dade Behring Diagnostics) was assayed on a BN PROSPEC™ System nephelometer (Dade Behring Incorporated, Newark, Del., USA). The range of detection was 0.30 to 7.50 mg/L, and the reported reference range for young, healthy persons was 0.53 to 0.95 mg/L. The intra-individual coefficient of variation for subjects with diabetes was 3.8 and 3.0 percent in samples from the lowest and highest quartiles of the cystatin C distribution, respectively (Perkins et al., J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 18:1353-1361, 2007). [0052] The estimated glomerular filtration rate (cC-GFR ml/min) is the reciprocal of cystatin C (mg/L) multiplied by 86.7 and reduced by subtracting 4.2. This formula was recently developed by MacIsaac et al., supra, as a reliable estimate of GFR in patients with diabetes. The method used for measuring cystatin-C was similar with respect to assay, equipment, and coefficient of variation as that reported by MacIsaac, supra. [0053] The study group included 667 participants: 304 with MA and 363 with normoalbuminuria. Selected characteristics at their enrollment are summarized in Table 1 according to AER group. In the NA group, the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles of the AER distribution (11, 15, and 21 μg/min) were centered in the NA range (<30 μg/min)], but in the MA group these AER percentiles (45, 69, 131 μg/min) were entirely in the lower half of the MA range (30-300 μg/min). In comparison with the NA group, the MA group had an older age, higher proportion of men, longer duration of diabetes, higher HbA1c and significantly lower cC-GFR. The difference in cC-GFR between the two study groups was clearer when renal function was grouped into categories, the latter two of the four corresponding to mild and moderate renal function impairment, present in 36% of the MA group but only in 10% of the NA group. [0000] TABLE 1 Characteristics of the study group according to albuminuria status. NORMO- MICRO- ALBU- ALBU- MINURIA MINURIA Characteristics (n = 363) (n = 304) P AER* (μg/min) 15 (11-21) 69 (45-131) by design Age (yrs) 39 ± 12 41 ± 12 <0.05 Male (%) 44% 61% <0.0001 Diabetes duration (yrs) 20 ± 9  23 ± 10 <0.0001 HbA1c† (%) 8.3 ± 1.2 8.6 ± 1.5 <0.01 cC-GFR‡ (ml/min/ 118 ± 24  99 ± 27 <0.0001 1.73 m 2 ) cC-GFR categories: >130 ml/min 30% 10% 90-130 61% 54% 60-89  9% 28% <60  1%  8% Data are mean ± standard deviation or median (quartiles) or %. *AER: median albumin excretion rate during the preceding 2-year window †HbA1c: mean hemoglobin A1c during the preceding 2-year window ‡cC-GFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate based on serum cystatin-C [0054] To distinguish the relative contributions of AER and various clinical characteristics to the large variation in renal function within the study group, the NA and MA groups were divided at the group-specific median cC-GFR (115 and 101 nil/min, respectively) into groups with higher and lower cC-GFR (Table 2). The median (25th, 75th percentiles) of the resulting distributions of cC-GFR in the NA groups were 136 (125, 148) and 102 (92, 109) ml/min and in the MA groups were 115 (108, 124) and 82 (64, 91) ml/min. All of the characteristics in Table 2 were significantly different between NA and MA groups, but many were not significantly different between the groups with higher and lower cC-GFR (two-way ANOVA). For example, the expected associations of higher HbA1c, systolic blood pressure and serum cholesterol with MA were present, as were the associations of cigarette smoking and treatment with an ACEi or ARB. However, none of these characteristics were associated with lower cC-GFR. In contrast, older age and longer diabetes duration were significantly associated with both MA and lower cC-GFR, as was evidence of medical attention represented by treatment with antihypertensive or lipid lowering agents. [0000] TABLE 2 Characteristics of the study group according to albuminuria status and group-specific median cC-GFR. NORMOALBUMINURIA MICROALBUMINURIA GROUP CONTRAST cC-GFR >115 cC-GFR <115 cC-GFR >101 cC-GFR <101 AER cC-GFR Characteristic (n = 183) (n = 180) (n = 152) (n = 152) P* P† AER 13 (10-18) 18 (12-23) 56 (42-100) 85 (51-161) By Design <0.0001 (μg/min) Age (y)  37 ± 11  40 ± 13  36 ± 12  45 ± 11 <0.05 <0.0001‡ Diabetes 19 ± 9  21 ± 10 20 ± 9 26 ± 9 <0.0001 <0.0001‡ duration (y) HbA1c (%)  8.3 ± 1.2  8.3 ± 1.2  8.7 ± 1.6  8.4 ± 1.4 <0.005 ns BMI (kg/m 2 ) 25.6 ± 3.6 26.7 ± 4.3 27.2 ± 4.8 27.7 ± 5.2 <0.0005 <0.05 Systolic BP 118 ± 12 120 ± 13 124 ± 12 125 ± 15 <0.0001 ns (mmHg) ACEI or 18% 21% 49% 55% <0.0001 ns ARB Rx (%) Anti-  7% 16% 14% 30% <0.001 <0.0001 hypertensive Rx (%) Serum 183 ± 29 181 ± 29 190 ± 33 193 ± 30 <0.0001 ns Cholesterol (mg/dl) Lipid 24% 34% 31% 42% <0.05 <0.005 lowering Rx (%) Current  9% 12% 19% 18% <0.005 ns smoker (%) Data are mean ± standard deviation or median (quartiles) or %. *P-value for the albuminuria main effect in an ANOVA †P-value for the cC-GFR main effect in an ANOVA; Serum Markers of Inflammation or Apoptosis and Impaired Renal Function [0055] All markers were measured by immunoassay. Samples were thawed, vortexed and centrifuged, and measurements were performed in the supernatant. sTNFR1, sTNFR2 and IL-6 were measured using enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay (ELISA) (DRT100, DRT200 and high sensitive immunoassay HS600B, respectively) (R&D, Minneapolis, Minn., USA) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) was measured in only a subset of the study group (156 individuals). The serum concentrations of the other protein markers were measured in a multiplex assay run on the Luminex platform. This is a multiplex particle-enhanced, sandwich type, liquid-phase immunoassay with laser-based detection system based on flow cytometry. Adipokine-panel B (HADK2-61K-B) [Linco-Milipore, USA] was used to measure TNFα; human Sepsis-Apoptosis Panel (HSEP-63K) [Linco-Milipore, USA] was used to measure sFas, sFasL, sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1; and Beadlyte® Human Multi-Cytokine Detection (48-011) [Upstate-Milipore, USA] with protocol B was used to measure IL8, IP10, MCP1. Protocols provided by vendors were followed. Briefly, the method included use of 96-well filter plates [Milipore, USA], the capture antibodies specific for each analyte bound covalently to fluorescently labeled microspheres, biotinylated detection antibodies and streptavidin-phycoerythrin. Detection incorporates two lasers and a high-tech fluidics system [Luminex 100S, Austin, Tx, USA]. Values of median fluorescence intensity were fitted to a 5-parameter logistic standard curve (Gottschalk et al., Anal. Biochem., 343:54-65, 2005). [0056] Assay sensitivities were: TNFα, 0.14 pg/ml; sTNFR1 and sTNFR2, 0.77 pg/ml; sFas, 7 pg/ml; sFasL, 6 pg/ml; sICAM-1, 30 pg/ml; sVCAM-1, 33 pg/ml; IL8, 0.7 pg/ml; IP10, 1.2 pg/ml; MCP1, 1.9 pg/ml; IL-6, 0.04 pg/ml. If required, samples were diluted (sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFAS, sFASL, sICAM-1, and sVCAM-1). The number of freeze-thaw cycles was one for all measurements of TNFα, IL8, IP10, MCP1 and for the majority of measurements of the other analytes. The number did not exceed two for any measurement. [0057] Two internal serum controls were prepared in the same manner as study samples and were stored in a large number of aliquots at −80° C. Aliquots of the two controls were included in each assay (Aziz et al., Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol., 5:755-761, 1998) for estimating the inter-assay CV. For most assays, inter-assay CV was between 8.5% and 15.8% (15.8% TNFα, 13.0% sTNFR1, 12.7% sTNFR2, 8.5% sFas, 13.5% sFasL, 8.1% sVCAM-1, and 14.7% IP10). It was higher for the remaining three (25.2% sICAM-1, 33.3% IL8, and 28.4% MCP1). Immunoassay for TNFα, sFas and sFasL detects the free form of the protein, whereas ELISA for sTNFR1 and sTNFR2 detects the total amount of protein, free and bound with their ligand TNFα, (information provided by manufacturer). [0058] Serum concentrations of markers of inflammation or apoptosis were examined in the same manner as the characteristics shown in Table 2. Four markers (sTNFR1, sTNRF2, sFas, and sICAM-1) were significantly associated both with AER and with cC-GFR (Table 3). TNFα and IP-10) were significantly associated only with cC-GFR group and two (IL-8 and CRP) were significantly associated only with AER group. [0059] Analyses were done in SAS (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C., version 9.1.3). T-tests and Chi-square tests with alpha=0.05 were used for continuous variables and frequencies, respectively. Analyses in Tables 2 and 3 and FIG. 1 were ANOVAs for unbalanced design. Linear regression with cC-GFR as dependent variable was used for multivariate analysis. AER and serum concentrations of the markers were transformed to their logarithms for analysis. Missing data for serum markers never decreased the study sample by more than 5% in any model, so no remedial action was taken. [0060] For the six markers significantly associated with cC-GFR in Table 3, the patterns of association are illustrated in FIGS. 1A-F . Separately for the NA and MA groups, patients were grouped according to the tertiles of the distribution of each marker, and the mean cC-GFR for each subgroup was depicted as a vertical bar. In both AER groups, the decrease in cC-GFR with increasing marker concentration was steepest for sTNFR1 and sTNFR2. The pattern was similar for TNFα but the differences among subgroups were smaller. For all three markers, the decrease appears steeper in the MA group than in the NA group. For the remaining three markers (sICAM-1, IP10 and sFas), a pattern of differences among subgroups was less apparent. [0000] TABLE 3 Serum concentrations of markers of inflammation or apoptosis according to AER group and cC-GFR above or below median NORMOALBUMINURIA MICROALBUMINURIA GROUP CONTRAST cC-GFR >115 cC-GFR <115 cC-GFR >101 cC-GFR <101 AER cC-GFR (n = 182) (n = 181) (n = 152) (n = 152) P* P† TNF-mediated pathway TNFα pg/ml 3.6 (2.3, 4.8) 3.9 (2.8, 5.8) 4.0 (2.6, 5.4) 4.8 (3.3, 6.4) ns <0.005  sTNFR1 ng/ml 1.2 (1.0, 1.4) 1.4 (1.2, 1.7) 1.4 (1.2, 1.6) 2.0 (1.6, 2.5) <0.0001 <0.0001 sTNFR2 ng/ml 2.1 (1.7,2.6) 2.6 (2.1, 3.6) 2.3 (1.9, 2.9) 3.2 (2.5, 5.4) <0.0001 <0.0001 Potential downstream effectors: Chemokines IL-8 pg/ml 4.4 (2.4, 10.4) 6.1 (3.4, 13.3) 7.6 (3.8, 18.3) 7.0 (4.0, 15.5) <0.05  ns IP-10 pg/ml 107 (79, 136) 122 (88, 171) 102 (75, 141) 115 (80, 158) ns <0.001  MCP-1 pg/ml 124 (75, 184) 120 (77, 184) 113 (78, 191) 105 (77, 174) ns ns Adhesion molecules sICAM-1 ng/ml 133 (109, 152) 137 (119, 169) 149 (123, 173) 152 (123, 191) <0.0005 <0.005  sVCAM-1 ng/ml 386 (301, 481) 389 (303, 489) 376 (295, 467) 394 (330, 495) ns ns Fas-mediated pathway sFasL pg/ml 0.12 (0.08, 0.19) 0.13 (0.07, 0.20) 0.12 (0.08, 0.18) 0.11 (0.06, 0.16) ns ns sFas ng/ml 3.8 (3.0, 4.7) 4.5 (3.7, 5.5) 4.5 (3.6, 5.6) 5.4 (3.7, 6.9) <0.0001 <0.0001 Other inflammatory markers CRP μg/ml 1.2 (0.5, 3.2) 1.1 (0.6, 2.7) 1.4 (0.5, 3.9) 1.6 (0.8, 3.2) <0.05  ns IL-6 pg/ml 0.8 (0.6, 1.4) 0.9 (0.7, 1.5) 0.8 (0.4, 1.3) 0.9 (0.6, 2.2) ns ns Data are medians (quartiles); analyses were done on concentrations transformed to their logarithms. *P-value for the albuminuria main effect in an ANOVA; †P-value for the cC-GFR main effect in an ANOVA; [0061] These markers were studied further by examining their correlations with each other, and with the two nephropathy measures, cC-GFR and AER (Table 4). The negative correlations between the six markers and cC-GFR recapitulate the negative associations shown in Table 3 and FIG. 1 . All pairs of markers are significantly correlated, but the coefficients are generally modest. Only the correlation of the two receptors (sTNFR1 and sTNFR2) with cC-GFR and with each other exceeded 0.50. Note the poor (although significant) correlations between TNFα and its receptors (r=0.11 for TNFα/sTNFR1 and r=0.20 for TNFα/sTNFR2). [0000] TABLE 4 Spearman correlation coefficients between cC-GFR, AER, and serum markers of inflammation and apoptosis in the study group AER TNFa sTNFR1 sTNFR2 sFas IP-10 sICAM cC-GFR −0.31 −0.15 −0.57 −0.56 −0.27 −0.13* −0.17 AER 1.00 0.11 0.41 0.28 0.04‡ −0.12† 0.20 TNFa 1.00 0.11* 0.20 0.34 0.19 0.17 sTNFR1 1.00 0.81 0.26 0.20 0.21 sTNFR2 1.00 0.32 0.26 0.27 sFas 1.00 0.14* 0.12* IP-10 1.00 0.14* sICAM 1.00 *p < 0.01, †p < 0.05 ‡p = ns, otherwise all other p < 0.0001. [0062] The independence of the associations of these six markers of inflammation or apoptosis with cC-GFR was examined in multiple regression models. Only sTNFR1, sTNFR2 and sFAS remained significant when all were included in the model. Although sTNFR2 was statistically significant in this model, its contribution was small due to its high collinearity with sTNFR1, so it was not retained in subsequent modeling. Most notable about this model was that the serum markers alone (sTNFR1 and Fas) explained 41% of the variation in cC-GFR (adjusted r2) and addition of age and AER to the model increased the adjusted r2 to only 45% (Table 5). Addition of the other clinical covariates from Table 2 did not improve the adjusted r 2 . The relative influence of these covariates on cC-GFR is summarized in Table 5 by the cC-GFR estimated at the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles of each covariate, with and without adjustment for other covariates. [0000] TABLE 5 Mean cC-GFR at the 25 th , 50 th and 75 th Percentiles of Each Significant Covariate and the Corresponding Estimates Adjusted for the Other Covariates Univariate analysis Multivariate analysis * cC-GFR cC-GFR Per- (ml/min/ p- (ml/min/ p- Covariate centile 1.73 m 2 ) value 1.73 m 2 ) value Age [y] <0.0001 <0.002 31 25 th 115 114 40 50 th 109 112 48 75 th 104 110 AER [μg/min] <0.0001 <0.000 22 25 th 119 115 39 50 th 111 112 79 75 th 102 108 sTNFR1 [pg/ml] <0.0001 <0.000 1216 25 th 121 120 1442 50 th 112 112 1764 75 th 101 103 sFas [pg/ml] <0.0001 <0.008 3.63 25 th 112 113 4.50 50 th 110 112 5.72 75 th 107 111 * Adjusted r 2 for the multivariate model was 0.45, whereas it was 0.41 after adjustment for sTNFR1 and sFas only. Adjustments for gender, HbA1c, bmi, anti-hypertensive and lipid-lowering treatment, and duration of storage samples did not modify the associations significantly. [0063] The effect on cC-GFR is the most pronounced for sTNFR1, and it is hardly changed by multivariate adjustment. Adjustment for the other potentially relevant clinical covariates—such as gender, hemoglobin A1c, body mass index, renoprotective and other antihypertensive treatment and lipid-lowering treatment, and duration of storage of serum specimens did not modify the association of sTNFR1 and Fas with cC-GFR. When the analysis was repeated using sTNFR2 instead of sTNFR1, the result was similar, indicating that measurement of either receptor yields roughly the same information. [0064] The primary focus of this study was on cC-GFR (not albuminuria) as an outcome in early diabetic nephropathy and its attempt to differentiate the observed effect of markers on GFR from their potential associations with AER. Both uni- and multivariate analyses were performed. In univariate analyses, six markers were unrelated to renal function (CRP, IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, sVCAM-1, and sFasL) and six were significantly associated with variation in cC-GFR (TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFas, sICAM-1, and IP10). Among the six, the associations of TNF receptors with decreased cC-GFR were the strongest. [0065] Based on multivariate analysis, of the six markers, only the concentrations of sTNFR1, sTNFR2 and sFas contributed independently to cC-GFR. The effect of TNF receptors on cC-GFR was much more pronounced than the effects of clinical covariates as age and AER (Table 5). Furthermore, serum concentrations of sTNFR1 and sTNFR2 are highly correlated (Spearman r=0.81) and show roughly the same associations with cC-GFR. [0066] This study provides evidence for the first time that markers of TNFα- and Fas-mediated pathways are strongly associated with variation in cC-GFR in patients with T1DM and early diabetic nephropathy. This association is independent of the association of these markers with AER. These findings support the hypothesis that inflammation and apoptosis are involved in early renal function decline in T1DM. [0067] Other cross-sectional studies in T1DM reported that serum concentrations of TNFα-related markers were elevated in comparison with healthy subjects and that the higher concentrations of these markers were associated with elevated urinary albumin excretion (Zoppini, supra, and Schram et al., Diabetologia, 48:370-378, 2005). Cross-sectional association between serum concentrations of sTNFRs and variation in GFR has been shown in T2DM (Lin et al., Kidney. Int., 69:336-342, 2006) as well as in non-diabetic individuals (Keller et al., Kidney. Int., 71:239-244, 2007 and Knight et al., J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 15:1897-1903, 2004). In the prospective CARE study, high serum concentrations of sTNFR2 were found to be associated with faster progression of renal function loss (Tonelli et al., Kidney. Int., 68:237-245, 2005). However, all subjects in that study had chronic kidney disease (GFR<60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 ) at baseline. [0068] One may argue that the association of TNFα receptors and cC-GFR simply reflects impaired renal handling of these proteins. Indeed, these receptors are cleared mainly by the kidneys as shown by tracer studies of radiolabelled sTNFR2 in animals (Bemelmans et al., Cytokine, 6:608-615, 1994). Also serum concentrations of soluble TNF receptors increase in advanced renal failure, as demonstrated in bi-nephrectomized mice (Bemelmans, supra) and in human studies (Brockhaus et al., Kidney. Int., 42:663-667, 1992). However, the majority of patients in this study had normal renal function, and even the renal function loss resulting from uni-nephrectomy does not raise serum sTNF receptor concentrations in animals. Moreover, serum concentrations of sFasL, which has a molecular mass similar to soluble TNF receptors, is not associated with cC-GFR, while the receptors are strongly associated with variation in cC-GFR. Based on those data potentially decreased clearance of those molecules is not the most likely explanation of these findings. [0069] Adhesion molecules and chemokines are potential downstream effectors of the TNF-sTNFRs inflammatory pathway (Segerer, supra). Expression of IL-8, MCP-1, and IP-10 mRNA is induced in TNFα-activated PBMNC taken from individuals with diabetes, but not from healthy ones (Wong, supra). Expression and serum concentrations of chemokines and adhesion molecules, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1, increase as diabetic nephropathy develops (Wong, supra, and Nelson et al., Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., 20:2420-2426, 2005). In the univariate analysis described here, serum concentrations of IP-10 and sICAM-1 were associated with variation in cC-GFR and they correlated with their potential upstream regulators. Nevertheless, the observed effects were weak, and disappeared in multivariate analysis, as one would expect if their effect were not independent of the TNF receptors or sFas. [0070] Analysis of the Fas-mediated pathway revealed an independent effect of the serum concentration of sFas on variation in cC-GFR and a lack of an effect of the serum concentration of sFasL. A similar pattern of disparate effects of sFas and sFasL was previously demonstrated in individuals with advanced kidney disease (Perianayagam, supra). Also, in a small number of individuals with T1DM and without proteinuria, sFas was reported to correlate with both ACR and GFR (Protopsaltis et al., Med. Princ. Pract., 16:222-225, 2007). [0071] The mechanism of action of soluble Fas receptor has not been well known but may be similar to that of TNF receptors in that it leads to an enhanced Fas-mediated response in the kidney. The Fas-related system is involved mainly in regulation of apoptosis (Schelling, supra), whereas the TNF-system regulates apoptotic and inflammatory responses. Consistent with this is the tubulointerstitial apoptosis seen in strepotozocin-induced diabetic rats (Kumar, supra) and in human diabetic kidneys (Kumar, supra). Some evidence also suggests that TNFα may induce Fas-mediated apoptosis (Elzey et al., J. Immunol. 167:3049-3056, 2001 and Boldin et al., J. Biol. Chem., 270:387-391, 1995). In this study serum concentrations of TNFα and sFas were markedly correlated. [0072] The relatively poor correlations between TNFα and its receptors may have resulted from low detection of TNFα bound to its receptors and its association with cC-GFR being weaker than that of its receptors. [0073] In conclusion, this study provides the first clinical evidence that markers of the TNF- and Fas-mediated pathways are strongly associated with glomerular filtration rate in patients with T1DM and NA or MA. sTNFR1, sTNFR2 and sFas are the markers representing these associations most strongly. Example 2: Serum Concentrations of TNFa, Soluble TNF Receptor Type 1 and 2 and Fas Predict Strongly Early Renal Function Decline in Human Subjects with Type 1 Diabetes and No Proteinuria and Carry Strong Diagnostic Potential [0074] Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) starts to decline before proteinuria occurs in type 1 diabetes (Perkins et al., J Am Soc Nephrol. 18:1353-1361, 2007). This phenomenon is referred to as “early renal function decline” (ERFD). The clinically approved diagnostic marker for progression of diabetic nephropathy, microalbuminuria (MA), does not predict renal function decline sufficiently at this early stage. First, the presence of MA is not necessary for renal function decline to occur. Second, only a proportion of people with MA develop renal function decline (Perkins et al., 2007, supra). There is an urgent need for novel diagnostic tools that can identify patients at high risk of progression and to implement enhanced therapeutic strategies. [0075] In the population of 667 patients with type 1 diabetes and no proteinuria described in Example 1, serum concentrations of TNFa, soluble TNF receptor type 1 (STNFR1), soluble TNFR2, and soluble Fas were associated with lower GFR in the cross-sectional phase. The next prospective phase of the study included the subset of 398 patients who were followed for 3-5 years. Serum concentrations of TNFa, sTNFR1, sTNFR2 and Fas emerged as strong predictors of GFR decline with strength at least comparable to microalbuminuria. Repeated measurements over time were performed to evaluate intraindividual variation and their impact on the prediction. [0076] To validate these findings the study was replicated in an independent population sample of type 1 diabetic population from the 1st Joslin Kidney Study (n=299, observation period 8-12 years). The results, shown in FIGS. 2A-2B , demonstrated that the predictive effect of those four markers is comparably strong. [0077] In summary, the association of serum concentrations of TNFa, STNFR1, STNFR2, and sFas with ERFD were validated in subjects with type 1 diabetes in the cross-sectional study (see Example 1), a prospective study that included repeated measurements and consideration of the confounding clinical factors, and were further replicated in the independent population sample. This strongly demonstrates that implementation of those markers will significantly strengthen diagnostic algorithm to identify subjects with type 1 diabetes and early diabetic nephropathy at high risk of renal function decline. [0078] The former studies on inflammatory markers focused on albumin excretion, or on much more advanced stages of diabetic nephropathy. The present results demonstrate the strong diagnostic potential of those markers for GFR prediction, rather than albuminuria; as discussed above, GFR is a much more accurate marker of ERFD than is albuminaria. Furthermore, these results (i.e., the prospective and replication studies) demonstrate the usefulness of these markers in the very early stages of diabetic nephropathy. Example 3: Serum Concentrations of TNFα, Soluble TNF Receptor Types 1 and 2, Soluble Fas, and IL-6 Predict Renal Function Decline in Human Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes [0079] Subject Selection [0080] The study group included 404 individuals with type 2 diabetes and normoalbuminuria (NA), microalbuminuria (MA), and proteinuria (PT), attending the Joslin clinic. Study group characteristics, sorted according to Albumin Excretion Rate (AER), are shown in Table 6. [0000] TABLE 6 Characteristics of the study group according to AER status. NA MA PT Characteristics (n = 217) (n = 127) (n = 60) Age (yr)  55 ± 10 56 ± 9 58 ± 10 DM Duration (yr) 12 ± 8 14 ± 8 16 ± 8  cC-GFR (ml/min/1.73 m2) 110 ± 30  95 ± 34 76 ± 32 cC-GFR categories >120 ml/min 32.3% 22.1% 13.3% >90 ml/min 44.2% 29.9% 15.0% 60 to 89 ml/min 19.8% 32.3% 36.7% <60 ml/min  3.7% 15.8% 35.0% [0081] Serum Marker Analysis [0082] Serum concentrations of TNFα, soluble TNF receptor 1 (sTNFR1), soluble TNF receptor 2 (sTNFR2), soluble intercellular and vascular adhesion molecules (sICAM-1 and sVCAM-1, respectively), soluble Fas (sFas), IL-6, and CRP were measured in each of the subjects by ELISA or using the Luminex® platform. Results are shown below. [0000] TABLE 7 Median plasma concentrations of biomarkers of inflammation, apoptosis, and endothelial function according to AER status and group-specific median GFR. NA MA PT Group Contrast Plasma GFR >108 GFR ≦108 GFR >91 GFR ≦91 GFR >71 GFR ≦71 AER GFR markers (n = 111) (n = 106) (n = 64) (n = 63) (n = 30) (n = 30) P P TNFα 3.3 5.1 3.5 6.4 5.2 5.3 <0.05 <0.0001 (pg/mL) sTNFR1 1009 1394 1162 1891 1516 2707 <0.0001 <0.0001 (pg/mL) sTNFR2 1913 2614 2236 3416 2959 4801 <0.0001 <0.0001 (pg/mL) sFas 5.0 6.8 5.3 7.7 7.2 9.3 <0.0001 <0.0001 (pg/mL) OPG 279 377 316 425 359 476 <0.0001 NS (pg/mL) OPN 825 1080 1013 1716 1835 2918 <0.005 NS (pg/mL) IL6 (pg/mL) 1.1 2.0 2.0 2.4 2.2 2.4 <0.0001 <0.001  CRP (mg/L) 1.8 4.0 4.1 3.9 3.7 5.0 <0.0005 NS sICAM-1 161 179 172 181 191 176 <0.01 NS (ng/mL) sVCAM-1 450 481 404 481 481 523 <0.05 NS (ng/mL) [0000] TABLE 8 Spearman correlation coefficients among plasma biomarkers of inflammation, apoptosis, and endothelial function. TNFα sTNFR1 sTNFR2 IL6 CRP sFas OPG OPN sICAM-1 sVCAM-1 GFR −0.48* −0.84* −0.79* −0.42* −0.23* −0.58* −0.44* −0.27* −0.21* −0.27* TNFα 1.00 0.49* 0.54* 0.28* 0.15‡ 0.47* 0.38* 0.17† 0.31* 0.34* sTNFR1 1.00 0.89* 0.51* 0.29* 0.68* 0.46* 0.24* 0.31* 0.33* sTNFR2 1.00 0.47* 0.27* 0.65* 0.41* 0.19† 0.34* 0.38* IL6 1.00 0.58* 0.34* 0.33* 0.05 0.33* 0.13§ CRP 1.00 0.12§ 0.26* −0.05 0.25* −0.11§ sFas 1.00 0.53* 0.24* 0.33* 0.36* OPG 1.00 0.15‡ 0.29* 0.28* OPN 1.00 0.05 0.27* sICAM-1 1.00 0.22* sVCAM-1 1.00 [0083] A cross sectional analysis of the data presented in Tables 7-8 was performed. Specifically, marker levels were analyzed in 364 individuals from the group shown in Table 6 with GFR greater than or equal to 60 mL/minute/1.73 m 2 and either normal urinary albumin excretion (NA; n=217 of 346) or microalbuminuria (MA; n=129 of 346). The data is shown in Table 9. None of these subjects tested exhibited signs of ischemic heart disease. [0000] TABLE 9 Median Plasma Concentrations of Markers of Inflammation or Apoptosis according to AER and GFR. Normoalbumuria Microalbuminuria cC- cC- cC- cC- GFR >118 GFR <118 GFR >107 GFR <107 Plasma marker n = 106 n = 105 n = 58 n = 55 TNFα (pg/mL) 3.3 4.7 3.4 5.3 sTNFR1 (ng/mL) 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.8 sTNFR2 (ng/mL) 1.9 2.6 2.2 3.1 sFas (pg/mL) 5.0 6.5 5.2 7.6 IL-6 (pg/mL) 1.1 1.9 2.0 2.2 P = 0.0001 [0084] As shown above, higher concentrations of TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFas, and IL-6 were strongly associated with lower GFR in NA subjects and MA subjects. These associations remained highly significant (p<0.0001) after adjustment for age, gender, and albuminuria status. The associations between GFR and CRP, sICAM-1, and sVCAM-1 were borderline significant. [0085] These observations suggest that serum evaluation of the markers TNFα, sTNFR1, sTNFR2, sFas, and IL-6 can be used to predict ERFD in type 2 diabetics with NA and MA. Example 4: Serum Concentrations of Soluble TNF Receptor 1 Predicts End Stage Renal Disease in Subjects with Baseline Proteinuria [0086] Subject Selection [0087] 434 subjects attending Joslin Diabetes Clinic with type 1 diabetes and baseline proteinuria were followed for an average of 8 years and progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) as an outcome has been evaluated. [0088] Serum Marker Analysis [0089] Serum concentrations of soluble TNF receptor 1 (sTNFR1) were measured using ELISA. The associations between the serum levels of sTNFR1 and end stage renal disease controlled for the baseline stage of chronic kidney disease was then assessed. Results are shown in Table 10. [0000] TABLE 10 sTNFR1 Levels in Subjects with Baseline Proteinuria TNFR1 [pg/ml] ESRD Subject no. Median Q1 Q3 CKD <3 0 213 2078 1728 2437 1 28 2242 1756 3062 CKD = 3 0 78 3199 2719 3899 1 46 4156 3172 4772 CKD >3 0 9 5518 4869 8327 1 60 6605 5402 7590 [0090] As shown in Table 10, serum levels of sTNFR1 are associated with CKD (as assessed by GFR) and ESRD. The association between sTNFR1 and ESRD remained significant after adjustment for baseline stage CKD. [0091] These observations support that sTNFR1 can be used to predict the progression of diabetic nephropathy. Furthermore, these observations support that sTNR1 can be used to predict ESRD in patients with type 1 diabetes and proteinuria. OTHER EMBODIMENTS [0092] It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims.

This disclosure relates to methods of diagnosing and predicting renal disease, using one, two, or more biomarkers, including sTN-FR1, sTNFR2, sFAS, TNF, and IL-6.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention [0001] The present invention is related to an automatic bill storage device which stores accommodated bills and more specifically to an automatic bill storage device in which a bill is contacted by a pair of storing bars which move in a loop-like motion within and outside the safe to move the bill into storage. DESCRIPTION OF RELATED ART [0002] In this specification, “bill” is a generic term which may include a banknote, folding money, a script, a check a security bond, a coupon or a ticket, or any other elongated flexible members which are to be stored in a stacked arrangement. [0003] An example of the prior art for an automatic bill storage device for storing money in a safe can be found in the Japanese patent publication 8-109354. In this prior art, a receiving bill is held in a safe by posts which are fixed to a pair of rotating disks which rotate in opposite directions from each other. This prior art is relatively inexpensive because of its simple structure. However, it requires a large space because it can not hold bills in the rotating area of the posts. Other examples of prior art can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 6,244,589 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,836,435 which discloses various configurations of stacking banknotes in a cash box. [0004] The industry is still seeking a compact and efficient bill storage apparatus. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] The present invention is directed to an automatic bill storage device for storing bills in a compact and efficient manner, and more particularly to an automatic bill storing device that includes a bill loading device for initially receiving a bill and positioning it at an initial storage position within the bill storage device. The bill can be initially validated to determine if it is genuine before it is translated to the initial storage position. The storage space for the bills can include a retainer member that is located on one side of the initial storage position. The bill can be moved, for example, by belts and/or rollers to the initial storage position and a bill contact device can engage the bill at the initial storage position and translate the bill to the other side of the retaining device to the storage location. The retaining device can have an aperture at its center for permitting the bill to move to the storage location. A spring biased support plate can be biased towards the initial storage position to provide a support for the stored bills. [0006] A contact member can contact an intermediate portion of the bill and translate the bill past the retaining member and if the retaining member has an aperture through the aperture with the contact member providing a moving contact to the surface of the bill as it extends from the intermediate portion of the bill towards one end of the bill as it is moved towards the storage location and extended in one plane. A second bill contact member can also be utilized to both push the bill towards the storage location and to maintain the position of the bill as the first contact member translates from an intermediate position towards one end of the bill. In one embodiment of the invention, a pair of contact members can be pivotally mounted to respectively contact intermediate portions of the bill and then to extend a pushing contact towards the opposite ends of the bill as it is moved towards the storage location. The respective contact members move in a loop-like motion as they translate along the length of the bill. The particular configuration of the components in the manner in which the components relatively move help facilitate a compact design to enable the automatic bill storage device to be utilized, for example, in vending machines. The bills can be stored in a manner in which they are not folded, but remain in a straight condition, and can be stored in a stacked array within a safe box, which is located on the other side of the aperture opening. Additionally, since the pair of contact members can contact the bill initially at an intermediate position as it is forced through either an aperture in a restraining device, or around the edge of a restraining device, the bills need not be precisely located, but can still be drawn safely into the storage location. In one embodiment, a holding bar can contact an intermediate or central point of the bill, while the contact members can extend in traverse directions from the holding bar for bending and moving the bill from the initial storage position to the storage location. [0007] An alternative device can have a holding member contacting a lower portion of the bill as the contact member forces the bill around a restraining member and again extends traverse to the movement of the bill towards one end of the bill on the other side of the restraining member. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0008] [0008]FIG. 1 is a side view of a first embodiment of the invention; [0009] [0009]FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a first embodiment which shows a left-hand side view; [0010] [0010]FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a first embodiment with an outside frame removed; [0011] [0011]FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a first embodiment with a coverplate removed; [0012] [0012]FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a first embodiment with a side plate removed; [0013] [0013]FIG. 6 is a cross section view of the first embodiment; [0014] [0014]FIG. 7 is a partial front elevation view; [0015] [0015]FIG. 8 is a partial view of a bill transporting device; [0016] [0016]FIG. 9 is an exploded perspective view of a holding device of a bill transporting device; [0017] [0017]FIG. 10 is a view of the first embodiment in a standby state; [0018] [0018]FIG. 11 is a view of the first embodiment with the storing bars in contact with a bill; [0019] [0019]FIG. 12 is a view of the first embodiment with the bill being drawn into the safe by the storing bars; [0020] [0020]FIG. 13 is a view of the first embodiment where the bill is completely drawn into the safe by the storing bars; [0021] [0021]FIG. 14 is a view of the first embodiment where the storing bars are returned to the predetermined position; [0022] [0022]FIG. 15 is a perspective view of a bill accepting storing device of a second embodiment; [0023] [0023]FIG. 16 is a left side elevated view of a second embodiment with the outside frame removed; [0024] [0024]FIG. 17 is a right side elevated view of the second embodiment with the outside frame removed; [0025] [0025]FIG. 18 is a rear perspective view of a portion of the second embodiment; [0026] [0026]FIG. 19 is a right side elevated view of the second embodiment with the right side cover removed; [0027] [0027]FIG. 20 is a perspective view of the second embodiment with the right hand side cover and the outside cover removed; [0028] [0028]FIG. 21 is a perspective view of the second embodiment with the side plates removed; [0029] [0029]FIG. 22 is a right side elevated view of the second embodiment where the outside cover is taken away; [0030] [0030]FIG. 23 is a right side elevated view of the second embodiment with the right side cover and the outside cover removed with an illustration of a bill drawing finished; [0031] [0031]FIG. 24 is a right side elevated view of the second embodiment illustrating a bill being moved to a storing section; and [0032] [0032]FIG. 25 is a right side elevated view of the second embodiment illustrating the end of a bill drawing operation. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0033] The following description is provided to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the invention and sets forth the best modes contemplated by the inventor of carrying out his invention. Various modifications, however, will remain readily apparent to those skilled in the art of storing bills and particularly automates consoles that deal with monetary bills. [0034] In FIG. 1, a bill acceptor 1 comprises an accepting device 2 for receiving bills, a storing device 3 for safely accumulating stored bills, and a transporting device 4 for moving accepted bills into storage. A bill which has been verified by the accepting device 2 is then transported to storing device 3 by a belt within the transporting device 4 to be stored in the safe box. Bill acceptor 1 can be installed in a vending machine. A jamming sensor 51 which can include an optical-type sensor is located in the front of the entrance of the storing device 3 . [0035] Storing device 3 shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 is box like in shape and comprises an outer housing or case 10 , a safe 11 , a transporting device 30 u , driving device 40 , a pair of storing bars 12 u , 12 L and lid 60 . Outer case 10 has a removable door 10 d which pivots with pin 10 p at the bottom of the storing device 3 . Safe 11 is box-like in shape as shown in FIG. 3 and stores the bills on its inside and is the inner case of outer case 10 . Driving device 40 is located at a storing space which is between safe 11 and outer case 10 . Lid 60 is detachable to the outer case 10 and covers the transporting device 30 u . A receiving opening 13 passes through a bill from the accepting device 2 and is slit like in shape and is formed at upper-board 10 u of the outer case 10 . An oblong elongated hole 14 is formed on side board 10 s of the outer case 10 . Driven pin 41 of the driving device 40 passes through the elongated hole 14 and protrudes through the outside of outer case 10 . [0036] Driving piece 15 which is an L-shaped section is located at the vending machine side and is moveable in the horizontal direction which is guided by a guiding-rail (not shown). Pin 18 protrudes from crank 17 and is located at an elongated hole 16 which extends in the longitudinal direction, and can move along elongated hole 16 . Crank 17 is fixed at rotating shaft 19 which is rotated by an electric motor (not shown). Therefore, driving piece 15 moves backwards and forwards by one rotation of crank 17 . Driven pin 17 is moved to the right by driving piece 15 as shown in FIG. 2. Driven pin 41 is accompanied with drive piece 15 , because it is drawn by springs 98 a , 98 b , and 98 d. [0037] As shown in FIGS. 6 and 7, a bill storing space 22 , which is box-like in shape and is opened at the bottom side, comprises a base box 20 , a first right wall 21 u and second right wall 21 L. Base box 20 is box-like in shape and bottom side and right hand side have openings. First right wall 21 u and second right all 2 L are channel-like in shape and are inserted at the right side of base box 20 and are fixed. First guide 12 f is the upper surface 20 f and is also bent at base box 20 . Also, second guide 12 b is the upper surface 20 f on the right hand side. A gap which is located between first right wall 21 u and second right wall 21 L, is located at the middle of base box 20 . This gap is the bill receiving opening 23 . A rectangle-shaped pusher 124 is located in the bill storing space 22 and pushes the received bills to the desired location. Pusher 24 is fixed at the right hand end of a pair of coil springs 26 u and 26 L which are fixed at the left hand wall 25 . [0038] Bill transporting device 30 u is located adjacent first right wall 21 u . Shaft 30 a and 30 b rotate across first right wall 21 u . Pulleys 31 L, 31 c and 31 r are fixed to both ends of shaft 30 a and to the middle of shaft 30 a . Gear 34 (shown in FIG. 7) is fixed to the end of shaft 30 a and is driven by the driving source (not shown) of transporting device 4 and is synchronized with transporting device 4 . Also, pulleys 32 L, 32 c , and 32 r are fixed to both ends of shaft 30 b and to the middle of shaft 30 b. [0039] Driving belt 311 is wound around pulleys 31 L and 32 L while driving belt 33 c is wound around pulleys 31 c and 32 c . Also, driving belt 33 r is wound around pulleys 31 r and 32 r . The surfaces of driving belt 31 L, 31 c and 31 r are positioned at a predetermined distance from first right side wall 21 u and are parallel. As shown in FIG. 6, the lower section of the first right side wall 21 u is semicircle-like in shape in order to permit the bills to be guided smoothly. Second right side wall 21 L is located slightly to the left from first right side wall 21 u , and they are parallel. The upper section of second right side wall 21 L is semicircle-like in shape. Therefore, the bills are guided smoothly. The lower end of the bills which are send downwards by the bill transporting device 30 u do not become jammed as the upper end of second right side wall 21 L, and the second right side wall 21 L are shifted for the first right side wall 21 u to the upper section of the second right side wall 21 L which is semicircle-like in shape. [0040] Next, the pushing device 30 w of bill transporting device 30 u is explained by referring to FIGS. 8 and 9. Elongated holes 35 u and 35 w , lying grooves 35 v and 35 w and round holes 35 x and 35 y are perforated at vertical walls 35 a and 35 b of fixed guide 35 which is channel-like in shape. Elongated holes 35 u and 35 w are extended in the vertical direction and are located at the lower section. Lying grooves 35 v and 35 w are extended to be level and are located at the middle section. Round holes 35 x and 35 y are located at the upper section. Lying grooves 35 w and round hole 35 y are perforated at vertical wall 35 b from lying grooves 35 v and round hole 35 x. [0041] Sliding piece 39 is channel-like in shape and can slide along the fixed guide 35 . Slanting surfaces 39 c and 39 d are formed at vertical walls 39 a and 39 b at the top of sliding piece 39 . Elongated holes 39 u and 39 L which are elongated in the vertical direction are perforated at the upper section of vertical walls 39 a and 39 b . Slanting holes 39 v and 39 w are perforated at the middle section of vertical walls 39 a and 39 b . Round holes 39 x and 39 y are perforated at the lower section of vertical walls 39 a and 39 b. [0042] Rollers 36 L, 36 c and 36 r are located at pulleys 31 L, 31 c and 31 r . Also, rollers 37 L, 37 c and 37 r are located at pulleys 32 L, 32 c and 32 r . Rollers 36 L and 37 L are rotatable and attached at the upper and lower ends of leaf spring 38 L. Rollers 36 c and 37 c are rotatable and attached at the upper and lower ends of leaf spring 38 c which is the same shape as leaf spring 38 L. Rollers 36 r and 37 r are rotatable and attached at the upper and lower ends of leaf spring 38 r which is the same shape as leaf spring 38 L. [0043] Pin 17 goes through penetration holes 38 h at the middle of leaf springs 38 L, 38 c , and 38 r . The end of pin 17 passes through lying grooves 35 v and 35 w , fixed guide 35 and slanting-elongated holes 39 v and 39 w . Therefore, pin 17 can move in lying grooves 35 v and 35 w of fixed guide 35 because it is pushed up and down by slanting elongated holes 39 u and 39 L. Pin pu, which is fixed at first right hand wall 21 u , passes through elongated holes 39 u and 39 L of sliding piece 39 and round holes 35 x and 35 y of fixed guide 35 . The middle of pin pL, which is fixed at first right hand side wall 21 u , is inserted into round holes 39 x and 39 y and is fixed. Also, the end of pin pL is inserted at elongated holes 35 u and 35 L of fixed guide 35 . Therefore, sliding piece 39 can move up and down by elongated holes 39 u , 39 L, 35 u , 35 L and pin pL. [0044] Sliding piece 39 is pulled upwards by spring 19 which is hooked to hole 39 h and pin pu. Therefore, if sliding piece 39 moves into the bill storing space 22 by driving frame 41 f , the sliding piece 39 is pushed in bill storing space 22 as shown in FIG. 8. Also, pin 17 moves toward the right by contact with slanting elongated holes 39 v and 39 w as shown in FIG. 8. At this point, rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r , 37 L, 37 c and 37 r have contact with belts 33 L, 33 c , and 33 r . If the bill is inserted into the opening of the vending machine, the bill is drawn in by rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r and belts 33 L, 33 c , 33 r . If driving flame 41 f moves to the left as shown in FIG. 8 and sliding piece 39 moves upwards, pin 17 moves towards the right by slanting elongated holes 39 v and 39 w . Therefore, rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r , 37 l , 37 c , and 37 c are pushed to the left from belts 33 L, 33 c , and 33 r or they are slightly pushed by belts 33 L, 33 c , and 33 r . In this case, the bill can be drawn between rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r , 37 L, 37 c , 37 r and belts 33 L, 33 c , 33 r. [0045] Bill transporting device 30 u has the function of transporting the bills towards a predetermined direction and when the bills are drawn in the bill storing space 22 , the bills are released from rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r , 37 L, 37 c , 37 r and belts 33 L, 33 c , 33 r . Therefore, bill transporting device 30 u could also be changed to rollers from belts. Also, the bill transporting device, which is the same structure for bill transporting device 30 u , can be located at second right hand wall 21 L. Bill transporting device 30 u and second right hand side wall 21 L are covered by rectangle-shaped lid 60 which is detachable from the outside case 10 . [0046] Next, driving device 40 is explained by referring to FIGS. 3 and 4. Driving device 40 comprises driving frame 41 f , first cam groove 42 u , second cam groove 42 L, first slide base 45 u , second slide base 45 L, slide base 46 , first lever 47 u , second lever 47 L and T-shaped guiding groove 80 of safe 11 . As shown in FIG. 3, safe 11 is covered by driving frame 41 f which is channel-like in shape at holding space 12 . Roller 41 fa , 41 fb , 41 fc , and 41 fd are rotatable and attached at both sides of the lower section of driving frame 41 f . Rollers 41 fa and 41 fb roll on first guide 12 f . Rollers 41 fc and 41 fd roll on second guide 12 b . Rollers 41 fe , 41 fg , 41 fh , and 41 fi are rotatable and are attached at the upper sections of driving frame 41 f . Rollers 41 fe , 41 fg , 41 fh , and 41 fi are guided by the inner surface of outside case 10 . Driven pin 41 is fixed at the middle of driving frame 41 f The driving frame 41 f reciprocates towards the side direction by driving piece 15 on the outside of safe 11 . Pins 94 u and 94 L are fixed at the upper section and at the lower section of the inner surface of driving frame 41 f . Pins 95 u and 95 L are fixed at the upper section and at the lower section of the inner surface of driving frame 41 f as shown in FIG. 6. Pins 96 u and 96 L are fixed at front wall 20 f and pins 97 u and 97 L are fixed at back wall 20 b as shown in FIG. 6. [0047] Spring 98 a is hooked between pin 94 u and pin 96 u , spring 98 b is hooked between pin 94 L and pin 96 L, spring 98 c is hooked between pin 95 u and pin 97 u and spring 98 d is hooked between pin 95 L and pin 97 L. Driving frame 41 f is pulled towards the right (shown in FIG. 3) by the springs. Driving frame 41 f is stopped by the inner wall of outside case 10 and is located at a predetermined position. Also, first cam groove 42 u and second cam groove 42 L are located at driving frame 41 f . First cam groove 42 u consist of first level section 43 u which is located at the middle of safe 11 and which is extended towards the moving direction of driving frame 41 f , and first slant section 44 u which slants towards the upper wall of safe 11 . Second cam groove 42 L consists of second level section 43 L, which is parallel to first level section 43 u , and first slant section 44 u , which slants towards the upper wall of safe 11 . [0048] As shown in FIG. 4, first slide base 45 u and second slide base 45 L, which make up a pair, pins 46 u and 46 L, which penetrate from slide bases 45 u or 45 L, first lever 47 u and second lever 47 L are pivoted by pins 46 u and 46 L between safe 11 and driving frame 41 f (not shown) and slide base 46 which can slide levelly outside of slide base 45 u and 46 L. Guiding grooves 48 L and 48 r , which correspond to first sliding base 45 u are located at front wall 20 f of safe 11 and are moveable in the vertical direction and are parallel as shown in FIG. 5. Also, guiding grooves 59 L and 59 r , which correspond to second sliding base 45 L are located at front wall 20 f of safe 11 and are movable in the vertical direction at front wall 20 f. [0049] The respective levers 47 u and 47 L have contact bars 12 u and 12 L that can contact an intermediate portion of a bill b at an initial storage or load position and can translate the bill to a storage location. During translation of the bill, the bars 12 u and 12 L can provide a moving contact to fold the bill and to move towards opposite ends of the bill to straighten the bill for storage in an array of bills. [0050] Guiding rollers 50 u and 50 l , which are rotatable and attached at first sliding base 45 u , are movable within guiding groove 48 L. Therefore, the guiding grooves (not shown) are located at the surface of guiding rollers 50 u and 50 L. Guiding rollers 50 u and 50 L are movable and are inserted at guiding groove 48 L because the width which is the small diameter of guiding groove is more narrow than guiding groove 48 L and the width which is the large diameter of guiding groove is wider than guiding grooves 48 L. Guiding rollers 51 u and 51 L which are rotatable and attached at first sliding base 45 u are inserted at guiding groove 48 r . Also, guiding rollers 52 u and 52 L, which are attached at second sliding base 45 L are inserted at guiding groove 59 L and guiding rollers 53 u and 53 L which are attached at second sliding base 45 L are inserted at guiding grooves 59 r . These rollers 51 u , 51 L, 52 u , 52 L, 53 u , 53 L are the same shape as guiding rollers 50 u and 501 . [0051] First holding bar 12 u is fixed at the end of first lever 47 u . Second holding bar 12 L is fixed at the end of second lever 47 L. First holding bar 12 u and second holding bar 12 L are located parallel and are across from safe 11 and are extended near back wall 20 b . The left hand section of first lever 47 u is sector-like in shape. First arc groove 55 u , which is centered at first pin 46 u , is formed at the left hand section of first lever 47 u . First stopper 56 u , which is pin-like in shape and which protrudes from first-sliding base 45 u , is inserted at first arc groove 55 u . First lever 47 u is urged in the counterclockwise direction by springs (not shown) as shown in FIG. 4 and is kept at the predetermined position, because first stopper 56 u has contact with the end of first arc groove 56 u . Therefore, first holding bar 12 u corresponds to a bill receiving mouth 23 over a bill temporarily storing section 66 as shown in FIG. 10. [0052] Second arc groove 55 L is located at the left hand section of second lever 47 L. Second stopper 56 L, which protrudes from second sliding base 45 L is inserted at second arc groove 55 L. First lever 47 L is urged in the counterclockwise direction by springs (not shown) as shown in FIG. 4 and is kept at the predetermined position, because second stopper 56 L has contact with the end of second arc groove 55 L. Therefore, second holding bar 12 L corresponds to bill receiving mouth 23 . Also, bill temporarily storing section 66 is located between second holding bar 12 L and bill receiving mouth 23 . First pin 49 u is fixed at first sliding base 45 u and is inserted at first cam groove 45 u . Second pin 49 L is fixed at sliding base 45 L and is inserted at second cam groove 42 L. First pin 48 u and second pin 48 L 2 , which protrude from the inner surface of driving frame 41 f , are inserted at first elongated hole 67 u and second elongated hole 67 L, which are parallel at the upper and lower end section. First pin 48 u and second pin 48 L 2 consist of two pins which are cylinder-like in shape and which are parallel, because sliding base 46 and 46 p are parallel. The pins can be changed to a rectangle board. [0053] Springs 72 u and 72 L are hooked between arms 70 u and 70 L which are fixed at sliding base 46 and pins 71 u and 71 L which are fixed at the inner surface of driving frame 41 f Sliding base 46 is normally pulled towards the left (shown in FIG. 4) and is located at a stationary position because first pin 48 u and second pin 48 L 2 are stopped by the ends of first elongated hole 67 u and second elongated hole 67 L. Also, second sliding base 46 p , which has the same structure as sliding base 46 is located at back wall 20 b side. The explanation of second sliding base 46 p is omitted, but the same parts are attached to the same number. [0054] Holding bar or contact member 75 is fixed at sliding base 46 and second sliding base 46 p . Holding bar 75 is located between first storing bar 12 u and second storing bar 12 L and is extended horizontally. Holding bar 75 is usually structured by two bars. However, the holding bar 75 can be made up of only one bar. Sliding base 46 and second sliding base 46 p are not guided. Therefore, first pin 48 u , second pin 48 L 2 and holding bar 75 are flat because the position of sliding base 46 and second sliding base 46 p are controlled. Forcing piece 76 is the right hand end of sliding base 46 , which is bent in a L-shape. If forcing piece 76 moves, it has contact with first lever 47 u and second lever 47 L. T-shape guiding groove 80 , which is the lying T character shape, is located at front wall 20 f of safe 11 . T-shaped guiding groove 80 consist of straight section 81 s and bill guiding section 81 e . Straight section 81 s is extended between guiding groove 48 L and 48 r , and between guiding groove 59 L and 59 r . Bill guiding section 81 e continues to bill receiving mouth 23 . A restraining elongated hole 87 , in which holding bar 75 can move, is located at back wall 20 b . Restraining elongated hole 87 is level and is extended over the most carry forward position, as shown in FIG. 6 (pusher 24 can move to the right until it has contact with first bill holder 90 u and second bill holder 90 L). [0055] First bill holder 90 u is rotatable and attached to shaft 91 u which is fixed at front wall 20 f and back wall 20 b , as shown in FIG. 6. First bill holder 90 u is ski board-like in shape and is extended towards safe 11 . Second bill holder 90 L is rotatable and attached to shaft 91 L which is fixed at front wall 20 f and back wall 20 b . The shape of second bill holder 90 L is the same as first bill holder 90 u . The space which is located between the end of first bill holder 90 u and the end of second bill holder 90 L is the same distance from bill receiving mouth 23 . The end of first bill holder 90 u is located near first right hand wall 21 u . Therefore, it forms a slant surface which, with the lower section of first right hand wall 21 u is semicircle-like in shape. The end of second bill holder 90 L is located near the second right hand wall 21 L. It has a slanted surface which is near the upper section of second right hand wall 21 L which is semicircle-like in shape. Bill storing space 99 is surrounded by pusher 24 , first bill holder 90 u , and second bill holder 90 L. [0056] The operation of the first embodiment is explained by referring to FIGS. 10, 11, 12 , 13 , and 14 . The bills are not stored in safe 11 at the initial stage. First, a standby situation is explained by referring to FIG. 10. Driving frame 41 f moves towards the right by springs 98 a , 98 b , 98 c , and 98 d , and the right end has contact with the inner surface of outer case 10 (not shown). As a result, it is located at a stationary position. In this situation, first pin 49 u is located at the left end section of first level section 43 u of first cam groove 42 u . Second pin 49 L is located at the left end section of second level section 43 L of second cam groove 42 L. Therefore, first sliding base 45 u is located at the most lower position. Second sliding base 45 L is located at the most upper position. Also, sliding base 46 moves towards the right by springs 72 u and 72 L. However, first pins 48 u and 48 L 2 , which protrude from driving frame 41 f , have contact with the left ends of first elongated hole 67 u and second elongated hole 67 L. As a result, it comes to a rest. [0057] Forcing piece 76 is situated away from first lever 47 u and second lever 47 L. Therefore, first lever 47 u pivots in the counterclockwise direction. As a result, first arc groove 55 u has contact with first stopper 56 u and is in the standby state. Second lever 47 L pivots in the clockwise direction. As a result, second groove 55 L has contact with second stopper 56 L and is also in the standby state. In the positions of first lever 47 u and second lever 47 L, first holding bar 12 u and second holding bar 12 L are located across the counter bill storing section 22 side. Pusher 24 moves towards the right by springs 26 u and 26 L as shown in FIG. 10 and pushes towards first bill holder 90 u and second bill holder 90 L with the predetermined force. Sliding piece 39 is pushed towards the bill storing section 22 by driving frame 41 f . Therefore, pin 17 moves towards the left by slanting elongated holes 39 v and 39 w . Therefore, rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r , 37 L, 37 c , and 37 r have contact with belts 33 L, 33 c , and 33 r by leaf-springs 38 L, 38 c , and 38 r. [0058] Next, bill b is inserted into accepting device 2 and if the bill b is distinguished as genuine money, then bill b is transported to bill storing device 3 by transporting device 4 . Bill b is received from receiving opening 13 to transporting device 3 and is transported to bill temporary storing section 66 by bill transporting device 30 u which is synchronized with transporting device 4 to provide an initial storage position for the received bill. In other words, shaft 30 a is pivoted in the counterclockwise direction as shown in FIG. 6. As a result, bill b is drawn between belts 33 L, 33 c and 33 r and rollers 36 L, 36 C and 36 r and moves downward. The lower section of bill b passes through at the side of bill receiving opening 23 and is located at the side of second right wall 21 L. Bill b is guided to a bill temporary storing section 66 which is located at the right of second right hand wall 21 L, because second right hand wall 21 L is shifted from first right hand wall 21 u , and the upper section of second right hand wall 21 L is semicircle-like in shape. When sensor s 1 , which is located in front of receiving opening 13 , detects bill b, it outputs a stop signal. Bill accepting device 2 stops at this location based on this stop signal. As a result, transporting device 4 and bill transporting device 30 u are also stopped. Therefore, as shown in FIG. 10, bill b is temporarily stored at bill storing section 66 wherein the upper section of the bill is located and held at bill transporting device 30 u. [0059] Next, crank 17 pivots by one rotation in the clockwise direction at rotating shaft 19 by a motor (not shown). Pin 18 slides into elongated hole 16 towards the left by the front semi-rotation of crank 17 , and pushes driving piece 15 towards the left shown in FIG. 2. Therefore, driving piece 15 moves toward the left at slow speed. Driven pin 41 also moves in the same direction. Driving frame 41 f moves towards the left with driven pin 41 . Sliding base 46 also moves in the same direction as driving frame 41 f . As this process occurs, first lever 47 u and second lever 47 L are pivoted by forcing piece 76 . As a result, first lever 47 u is pivoted in the clockwise direction and second lever 47 L is pivoted in the counterclockwise direction. [0060] As shown in FIG. 11, holding bar 75 , which moves with forcing piece 76 , has contact with bill b, which is located at the bill temporarily storing section 66 . Next, first lever 47 u and second lever 47 L, which pivot, have contact with bill b. In this situation, first pin 49 u and second pin 49 L are located at level section 43 u and 43 L. As a result, first sliding base 45 u and second sliding base 45 L are located at the position. As shown in FIG. 12, driving frame 41 f moves towards the left. Therefore, holding bar 75 , first storing bar 12 u , and second storing bar 12 L come together at the temporarily storing section 66 and receiving opening 23 goes towards bill storing section 22 . As this process occurs, first lever 47 u does not pivot, because the end of first elongated hole 55 u has contact with first stopper 56 u . Also, second lever 47 L does not pivot, because the end of second elongated hole 55 L has contact with second stopper 56 L. Holding bar 75 stops because it has contact with the left hand end of elongated hole 87 . As a result, sliding base 46 does not move towards the left. In this state, holding bar 75 pushes bill b towards the spring biased pusher 24 . Therefore, the middle of bill b, which is located at the bill temporarily section 66 , is pushed from bill receiving opening into bill storing section 22 by holding bar 75 , first storing bar 12 u , and second storing bar 12 L, wherein the bill is bent into a u-shape. Holding bar 75 , first storing bar 12 u , and second storing bar 12 L, move from bill receiving opening 23 to straight section 81 s of T-shaped guiding groove 80 through bill receiving section 81 e . In this situation, first pin 49 u and second pin 49 L are located at the starting section of first slanting section 44 u and second slanting section 44 L. Therefore, first sliding base 45 u and second sliding base 45 L are located at the before position. Driving frame 41 f slightly slides off from sliding piece 39 . As a result, sliding piece 39 is pulled upwards. Therefore, pin 17 moves towards the left by slanting elongated holes 39 v and 39 w , as shown in FIG. 8. As a result, rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r , 37 L, 37 c , and 37 r are slightly away from belts 33 L, 33 c , and 33 r . Also, driving frame 41 f moves towards the left as shown in FIG. 13. First pin 49 u is located at first slanting section 44 u of first cam groove 42 u . Second pin 49 L is located at second slanting section 44 L of second cam groove 42 L. Therefore, first pin 49 u is pushed up towards the upper section and second pin 49 L is pushed down towards the lower section with the accompaniment of driving frame 41 f moves towards the left. First sliding base 45 u is guided by guiding grooves 48 L and 48 r , and moves upwards. Also, second sliding base 45 L is guided by guiding grooves 59 L and 59 r , and moves downwards. [0061] Therefore, first storing bar 12 u passes through and between the left hand edge of straight section 81 s and first bill holding or retaining member 90 u , and it moves to the lower section of straight section 81 s . Second storing bar 12 L passes through between the left-hand edge of straight section 81 s and second bill holder 90 L and moves to the end section of straight section 81 s . In this process of movement bill b is extended into a flat configuration and stands upright for storage as an array of bills and the bill is pushed towards pusher 24 by the first storing bar 12 u and the second storing bar 12 L to be located at bill storing section 99 . In this process of movement, first lever 47 u moves into an upper position and stops pivoting in the counterclockwise direction by first bill holder 90 u . As a result, when first storing bar 12 u is moved away from the upper section of first bill holder 90 u , first lever 47 u pivots in the counterclockwise direction and first storing bar 12 u has contact with the right hand edge of straight section 81 s of T-shaped guiding groove 80 . Also, second lever 47 L moves into a lower position and stops pivoting in the clockwise direction by second bill holder 90 L. When second storing bar 12 L is moved away from the lower section of second bill holder 90 L, second lever 47 L pivots in the clockwise direction, and second storing bar 12 L has contact with the right-hand edge of straight section 81 s of T-shaped guiding groove 80 . [0062] Next, the further semi-rotation of crank 17 is explained. Driving piece 15 moves towards the right by the rotation of crank 17 . Therefore, driving frame 41 f moves towards the right by springs 98 a , 98 b , 98 c , and 98 d . Together, driven pin 41 has contact with driving piece 15 . As shown in FIG. 14, when driving frame 41 f moves towards the right, first slanting section 44 u pushes down on first pin 49 u . Therefore, first sliding base 45 u moves downwards. First, storing bar 12 u is guided by the right-hand section of T-shaped guiding groove 80 and moves downwards because first sliding base 45 u moves downwards. Afterwards, first storing bar 12 u is pivoted in the counterclockwise direction until it is stopped by piece 76 . [0063] In this process of movement, first bill holder 90 u slightly pivots by first storing bar 12 u and first storing bar 12 u passes through and between first bill holder 90 u and first right hand wall 21 u . Also, second slanting section 44 L pushes up on second pin 49 L, and second sliding base 45 L moves towards the same direction. Second storing bar 12 L moves upwards by the upwards movement of second sliding base 45 L and is guided by the right-hand section of T-shaped guiding groove 80 . Afterwards, second lever 47 L pivots in the counterclockwise direction along entry section 81 e until it is stopped by pushing piece 76 of sliding base 46 . In this process of movement, second bill holder 90 L slightly pivots by second storing bar 12 L and second storing bar 12 L passes through and between first bill holder 90 L and first right hand wall 21 L. Afterwards, driving frame 41 f moves towards the right. Therefore, first lever 47 u pivots in the counterclockwise direction and also moves towards the right side and is stopped by first stopper 56 u . Second lever 47 L pivots in the clockwise direction and is stopped by second stopper 56 L. As a result, it goes to the standby state. In this process of movement, driving frame 41 f has contact with slanting surface 39 c , 39 d , and they are pushed downwards. Pin 17 moves towards the right through slanting elongated hole 39 v and 39 w , based on that sliding piece 39 moves downwards. [0064] As a result, rollers 36 L, 36 c , 36 r , 37 L, 37 c , and 37 r are pushed to belts 33 L, 33 c , and 33 r again. First storing bar 12 u and second storing bar 12 L move along straight section 81 s of T-shape guiding groove 80 in bill storing section 22 . As a result they move in an oblong shape. As a result of the configuration and arrangement of operative parts, the bill storing device 3 is compact in design. [0065] The structure of a second embodiment of a receiving storing device 201 of the present invention is explained by referring to FIG. 15. Bill receiving storing device 201 comprises a bill acceptor 202 which distinguishes valid or genuine bills, a bill storing device 203 , and a transporting device 204 . In other words, bill b, which is accepted from bill receiving slot 202 e , is distinguished by bill acceptor 202 . The valid bills are transported to bill storing device 203 by belt 204 b of transporting device 204 and is stored in bill storing box 230 . [0066] Bill storing device 203 is detachable at storing section 201 a which is rectangle-like in shape and which is located below transporting device 204 , and is locked by locking device 205 . Locking device 205 comprises pin 201 Rs which is fixed at the right hand side cover 201 R, pin 201 Ls which is fixed at the left hand side cover 201 L and locking lever 206 which is channel-like in shape and which pivots at shafts 203 Ls, 203 Rs which are fixed at both sides of the outside cover 203 c of bill storing device 203 . Lock device 5 comprises of pin 1 Rs which is fixed at the left hand side cover 201 r , pin 201 Ls, which is fixed at the right hand side cover 201 L and the locking lever which is channel-like in shape and which pivots at shafts 203 Ls and 203 rs which are fixed at the outside cover 203 c . Slanting guide section 206 L s and 206 Rs and u-shaped grooves 206 Lu and 206 Ru are formed at hooking section 206 L and 206 R are located at both sides of outside cover 203 c . Locking lever 206 pivots in the clockwise direction by spring (not shown) in FIG. 16, and is stopped by outside cover 203 c . When bill storing device 203 is located at storing section 201 a , u-grooves 206 Lu and 206 Ru are engaged with pins 201 Ls and 201 Rs, and bill storing device 203 is kept at the predetermined position. [0067] In this state, receiving slot 213 of bill storing device 203 is located opposite to the exit of transporting device 204 shown in FIG. 18. Handle 203 h , which is channel like in shape of bill storing device 203 is fixed at the side of bill receiving slot 2 e of bill storing device 203 . Bill storing device 203 is attached or detached by operating handle 203 h . Operating piece 206 p is located at the space which is enclosed by handle 203 h and outside cover 203 c . In this structure, if somebody grips the handle 203 h , it can move upwards, and operating piece 206 p can be pushed up by the root of an index finger, and u grooves 206 Ls, 206 Rs are unengaged from pins 201 Ls and 201 Rs, and locking device 205 is unlocked. Bill receiving storing device 201 can be built into a vending machine. [0068] Outside cover 203 c , which is box-like in shape comprises outside case 210 which has an opening at the bottom and at the back, take out door 210 d and lid 210 f . The bottom opening of outside case 20 is closed by bill taking door 210 d which pivots on shaft 210 P. Bill taking door 210 d is locked by locking device 210 k to the outside case (shown in FIGS. 21 and 22). Lid 210 f is attachable or detachable to the outside case 210 wherein pin 201 fp which is fixed at lid 201 f is engaged at L-shaped groove 210 c of left-hand cover wall 210 L. The left hand structure has the same structure. Slot 213 , which is slit-like in shape receives the bills from transportation and is located at the upper cover wall 210 u of outside case 210 . The elongated hole 214 L is perforated at left hand cover wall 210 L of outside case 210 . The elongated hole 214 R is perforated at right hand cover wall 210 R of outside case 210 . Driven pins 271 L and 271 R of storing driving device 270 protrude over the left hand cover wall 210 L and right hand cover wall 210 R which pass through elongated hole 214 L and 214 R. [0069] Next, driving device 220 of bill storing device 203 is explained (refer to FIGS. 16 and 17). Electric motor 221 has a reducer assembly. The reducer assembly has rotating shaft 222 which rotates by an electric motor 221 which is located in the triangular space and is surrounded by bill acceptor 202 , transporting device 204 and storing section 201 a . Cranks 223 L and 223 R, which are disk-like in shape, are fixed at the end of rotating shaft 222 . Driving pin 224 L and 224 R are fixed at cranks 223 L and 223 R, which can rotate. [0070] In the following explanation, each device is located at both sides of bill storing device 203 . Therefore, only the right hand device is explained. “L” are attached to left hand parts with same number. Operating piece 225 is fixed at rotating shaft 222 . Sensor 226 is fixed at bill receiving storing device 201 . Operating piece 225 and sensor 226 make up device 227 (shown in FIG. 16). Fixed shaft 228 R is fixed at the inner surface of right hand side cover 210 R of storing section 201 a . Driving lever 229 R, which is boomerang-like in shape is attached to fixed shaft 228 R. Driving pin 224 R is inserted to elongated hole 229 Rh at the upper section of driving lever 229 R. The lower section of driving lever 229 R has contact with driven pin 271 R. Driving lever 229 R is guided by the elongated hole which is perforated at guide 230 R and 231 R which are fixed at the inner surface of right hand side cover 201 R and it oscillates at the elongated hole. Driving lever 229 R moves in a reciprocal motion with one crank of crank 223 R. As a result, driven lever 271 R pivots in the clockwise direction, and in the reverse the counterclockwise direction by driving lever 229 R in FIG. 17. [0071] Next, the structure of inside of outside cover 203 c is explained (referring to FIGS. 19, 20, 21 , and 22 ). Bill storing box 230 , bill transporting device 235 , storing driving device 270 , storing device 250 , and bill holding device 255 are located inside of outside cover 203 c . Bill storing box 230 comprises left hand wall 230 L, right hand wall 230 R, upper wall 230 U and back wall 230 B, and is box-like in shape and can be opened at either the left hand side or the right hand side. The under surface is located opposite to lid 210 d , and the left hand surface is located opposite to lid 210 f. [0072] Next, bill storing box 230 is explained. Bill storing box 230 is located outside of case 210 and back wall 230 B which is fixed at the bottom of outside case 201 , and left hand space 231 L, right hand space 231 R, and upper space 231 U are located between left hand wall 230 L, right hand wall 230 R, upper wall 230 U and outside case 210 . Storing driving device 270 is located at left hand space 231 L, right hand space 231 R and upper space 231 U. Storing section 232 is the space which is surrounded by left hand wall 230 L, right hand wall 230 R, upper wall 230 U and back wall 230 B. Pusher 234 is attached at the end of springs 233 a and 233 b which are fixed at back wall 230 B. [0073] Next, storing transporting device 235 is explained. Storing transporting device 235 includes first guide 236 and belts 239 a , 239 b , and 239 c . First guide 236 is a plain board and is fixed at bill storing box 230 so that it extends towards the vertical direction below receiving slot 213 . Lower ends 236 e of first guide 236 is bent towards back wall 230 B and is semicircle-like in shape. Roller 236 r is located right above first guide 236 . Tooth pulleys 237 a , 237 b , and 237 c are fixed at shaft 237 which is parallel to roller 236 r and has a predetermined space. Tooth pulleys 238 a , 238 b , and 238 c are fixed at shaft 238 which is located below shaft 237 and has a predetermined space. Belt 239 a is positioned around and between pulleys 237 a and 238 a . Also, belt 239 b is positioned around and between pulleys 237 b and 238 b and belt 239 c is positioned around and between pulleys 237 c and 238 c . Roller 236 r has contact with belts 239 a , 239 b , and 239 c . First guide 236 has contact with belts 239 a , 239 b , and 239 c . However, bill b, which is located between first guide 236 and belts 239 a , 239 b , and 239 c , can be pulled without damage. Shaft 237 rotates and interlocks with transporting device 204 for receiving bill b which is sent from transporting device 204 . Storing transporting device 235 can be changed from first guide 236 to a belt or to a roller. In its essence, storing transporting device 235 has a function to transport the bills. [0074] Next, transporting guide device 240 is explained. Left hand guide piece 241 L and right hand guide piece 241 R which are L-like in shape are fixed at the left wall 230 r and the right wall 230 L. In other words, right hand guiding piece 241 L and left hand guiding piece 241 R are located at a predetermined position. Right hand control surface 242 R of right hand supporting piece 241 R is parallel to first guide 236 , and left hand control surface 242 L of left hand supporting piece 241 L is also parallel. Right hand control surface 242 R and left hand control surface 242 L are located away from the pushing board 234 and are located at the other side of an extending line EL. [0075] If the bill oscillates and the lower end of the bill does not have contact with the pushing board 234 , the bill moves towards the predetermined direction. Bill receiving passage 245 is the bill passage of storing transporting device 235 and the space which is between transporting guide device 240 and holding board 256 . Bill b is stored at the space which is surrounded by pushing board 234 , end 236 e , right hand control surface 242 R and left hand control surface 242 L. [0076] Next, storing device 250 is explained. Shaft 251 is located above end 236 e and is rotatable and is supported at right wall 230 R and at left wall 230 L. Arm 252 R is fixed at the end of shaft 251 which protrudes from right wall 230 R. Arm 252 L is fixed at the end of shaft 251 which protrudes from left wall 230 L. Arm 252 R and 252 L are in the same phase. Storing member 253 is fixed at the end of arm 252 L and arm 252 R. Storing member 253 is a bar which is round-like in shape. However, it could alternatively be a roller which is desirable, because it would not damage the bills and it does not fold the bills. Storing member 253 passes through an arc groove 245 R of right wall 230 R and an arc groove 254 L of left wall 230 L. Storing member 253 waits at the standby position on the right side of extending line EL, and also below pulleys 238 a , 238 b , 238 c . When storing member 253 stores a bill b, it pivots on shaft 251 , and is moved across from the extending line EL, and it moves along an arc shaped lower end 236 e . Afterwards, it returns to its standby position (see FIGS. 22, 24 and 25 ). [0077] Next, bill holding device 255 is explained. Holding board 256 comprises plane section 256 m which is located parallel to pushing board 234 and slanting section 256 u which extends from the plane section 256 m . Slanting section 256 u is the upper section of plane section 256 m which edges away from extending line EL so that it can guide the bill b smoothly as it is moved towards the pushing board 234 . [0078] Holding board 256 is supported by a parallel moving device 257 which has a parallel linkage. First bar 256 a and second bar 256 b , which are aligned in rows sideways are fixed at a bracket 256 c and are channel-like in shape are also fixed at a holding board 256 . First bar 256 a and second bar 256 b pass through arc-shaped elongated hole 230 Rh of right wall 230 R and arc-shaped elongated hole 230 Lh of left wall 230 L. First fixed pin 258 a and second fixed pin 258 b are fixed at right wall 230 R and they are parallel in the lateral direction. First rod 259 a links first bar 256 a and first fixed pin 258 a . Second rod 259 b links second bar 256 b and second fixed pin 258 b . Third fixed pin 258 c and fourth fixed pin 258 d are fixed at left wall 230 L and they are paralleled in the lateral direction. Third rod 259 c links first bar 256 a and third fixed pin 258 c . Fourth rod 259 d links second bar 256 b and fourth fixed pin 258 d . Pin 260 R is fixed at the side of first rod 259 a . Pin 260 L is fixed at the side of third rid 259 c with opposite pin 260 R. Holder board 256 moves parallel in both the left and right direction by parallel linkage (shown in FIG. 22). Fixed pins 258 a and 258 d are located at the center of the swing angle of first rod 259 a and fourth rod 259 d . The movement distance is limited and is permitted and only is an up and down direction. As a result, holder board 256 does not move bills b. [0079] Spring 2 sp 1 R is hooked up between pin 259 ap which is fixed at first rod 259 a and engaging piece 230 p R which is fixed at side wall 230 R Spring 2 sp 1 L is hooked up between pin 259 cp which is fixed at third rod 259 c and engaging piece 230 p L which is fixed at side wall 230 L. Holder board 256 is forced towards pushing board 234 by springs 2 sp 1 R and 2 sp 1 L. The standby position of holder board 256 is located at the opposite side of pushing board 234 from extending line EL. When holder board 256 holds bill b, it crosses extending line EL, and it passes through between first surface 242 L and second surface 242 R, and it pushes pushing board 234 to receive a new bill b. Bill holding device 255 comprises holding board 256 and pushing board 234 . Transporting guide device 240 is made up of guiding piece 241 L, 241 R and holding board 256 . Receiving slot 261 is located at storing transporting device 235 and bill holding device 255 . In other words, it is between the arc-shaped lower end 236 e and the upper end of holding board 256 . [0080] Next, storing driving device 270 is explained. Lever 273 R can pivot shaft 272 R which is fixed at right wall 230 R. lever 273 L can pivot shaft 272 R which is fixed at left wall 230 L. Levers 273 R and 273 L are a part of lever 73 which is channel-like in shape. Lever 273 R moves at right hand space 231 R and lever 273 L moves at left hand space 231 L. Driven pin 271 R is fixed to the middle of lever 273 R. Driven pin 271 L is fixed to the middle of lever 273 L. Second spring 2 sp 2 R is hooked up between pin 273 p R which is the middle of lever 273 R and engaging piece 230 R p side wall 230 R. Third spring 2 sp 2 L is hooked up between pin 273 pl which is the middle of lever 273 L and engaging piece 230 L p on side wall 230 L. Lever 273 pivots in the counterclockwise direction by springs 2 sp 2 R and 2 sp 2 L. The force of springs 2 sp 2 R and 2 sp 2 L are larger than the force of springs 2 sp 1 R and 2 sp 1 L. The force of springs 2 sp 1 R and 2 sp 1 L are larger than the force of springs 233 a and 233 b. [0081] Next, parallel driving device 262 of parallel moving device 257 is explained. Elongated hole 274 R which is elongated in the vertical direction is located at the lower section of lever 273 R. Passage 275 R which is towards the right and is horn-like in shape continues to the upper section of elongated hole 274 R. Guiding groove 276 R comprises elongated hole 274 R and passage 275 R. Pin 260 R is located in guiding groove 276 R and can slide. When lever 243 R pivots in the clockwise direction, pin 260 R passes through passage 275 R and is away from guiding groove 276 R. Also, when lever 243 R pivots in the counterclockwise direction, pin 260 moves into guiding groove 276 R through passage 275 R (shown in FIG. 19). Elongated hole 274 L and passage 275 L are located at lever 276 L and opposed guiding groove 276 R. Pin 260 L is located at guiding groove 276 L and can slide. When lever 273 L pivots in the clockwise direction, pin 260 L passes through passage 275 L and moves away from guiding groove 276 L. Also, when lever 273 L pivots in the counterclockwise direction, pin 260 L moves into guiding groove 276 L and passes through passage 275 L. Therefore, when pins 260 R and 260 L are located at guiding grooves 276 R and 276 L, lever 273 R and pin 260 R make a pair. The same goes for lever 273 L and pin 260 L. In the standby situation, second bar 256 b is located at the standby position which is located at the end section of arc-shaped elongated hole 230 Rh and 230 Lh. [0082] Next, storing member driving device 280 of storing member 253 is explained. Shaft 281 is mounted at right wall 230 R and left wall 230 L of the upper section of bill storing box 230 , and rotates. Gear 282 is fixed at the end of shaft 281 which protrudes from right wall 230 R. Rod 285 links between pin 283 which is fixed at the side of gear 282 and pin 284 which is fixed near shaft 282 R at the side of lever 273 R. Gear 282 engages to gear 286 which is fixed at shaft 251 (shown in FIG. 22). When levers 273 R and 273 L are located at the standby position, the engaged-position and the gear ratio are installed so that storing member 253 is located at the standby position which is below shaft 238 . [0083] The operation of this second embodiment of the invention is explained by referring to FIGS. 22, 24 and 25 . In the initial situation, bill b is not stored in bill storing box 230 . First, an operator uses handle 203 h for installing the bill storing device 203 , and it is inserted into storing section 201 a . As a result, bill storing device is mounted in bill receiving storing device 201 . When bill storing device 203 moves into storing section 201 a , slanting surface 206 Rs and 206 Ls have contact with pins 201 Rs and 201 Ls. As a result, lock lever 206 pivots at shaft 3 Rs and 3 Ls. When u grooves 206 Rs and 206 Ls come face to face with pins 201 Rs and 201 Ls, locking lever 206 pivots by a spring (not shown). As a result, hooks 206 R and 206 L connects with pins 201 Rs and 201 Ls. In this situation, the exit of transporting device 204 comes face to face with the contact section which is between roller 236 r and belts 239 a , 239 b , and 239 c. [0084] Next, the standby situation is explained (referring to FIGS. 16 and 17). Driving pins 224 R and 224 L are located near to accepting device 202 . Driving levers 229 R and 229 L pivot in the counterclockwise direction (shown in FIG. 17). Driving pins 271 R and 271 L are slightly situated away from driving lever 229 R and 229 L. [0085] The standby state of bill storing device 203 is explained by referring to FIG. 20. Levers 273 R and 273 L pivot in the counterclockwise direction by spring 2 sp 2 R s and 2 sp 2 L. Pins 260 R and 260 L of parallel moving device 257 are pushed to the right. As a result, levers 259 a , 259 b , 259 c , and 259 d pivot in the clockwise direction. Second bar 256 b is stopped by the end of arc elongated hole 230 Rh and 230 Lh. Holding board 256 is located at the opposite side of pushing board 234 to extending line EL. Shaft 251 pivots in the counterclockwise direction through pin 284 , rod 285 , pin 283 , gear 282 and 286 . As a result, storing member 253 is located away from pushing board 234 and is located at the other side of extending line EL. [0086] When bill b is inserted into bill receiving slot 202 e , it is sensed by a sensor (not shown) and accepting device 202 is operated. Therefore, accepting device 202 accepts a bill which is transported by the transporting device which moves in a direction towards transporting device 204 . Accepting device 202 drives transporting device 204 . Therefore, belt 204 b drives and transports bill b to bill storing device 203 . Shaft 237 is driven by transporting device 204 and rotates in the counterclockwise direction (shown in FIG. 22). Belts 239 a , 239 b , and 239 c are circled by shaft 237 in the same direction. Roller 236 , which are contacted with belts 239 a , 239 b , and 239 c are rotated in the counterclockwise direction. As a result, bill storing transporting device 235 can pull bill b. If bill b is not distinguished as genuine money by accepting device 202 , transporting device 204 is rotated towards the opposite direction and it is returned to bill receiving slot 202 e . If bill b is distinguished as genuine money, it is transported from transporting device 204 to storing transporting device 235 . In storing transporting device 235 , bill b is sent downwards by belts 239 a , 239 b , 239 c and roller 236 . Also, bill b is sent downwards by first guide 236 and belts 239 a , 239 b , 349 c . The lower end of bill b passes through the hold tight section which is between first guide 236 and belts 239 a , 239 b , 239 c . Afterwards, it moves downwards along extending line EL to bill receiving passage 245 . If the lower end strings sideways, it is guided by slanting section 256 u of holding board 256 , left hand control surface 242 L and right hand control surface 242 R and it moves downwards. When bill b reaches midway of bill receiving passage 245 , it is either directly or indirectly detected by a sensor (not shown). As a result, storing transporting device 235 is stopped. In other words, bill b is stopped in the state that the upper section of bill b is held tight between first guide 236 and belts 239 a , 239 b , 239 c . As a result, bill b hangs from between first guide 236 and belts 239 a , 239 b , 239 c at bill receiving passage 245 (shown in FIG. 22). [0087] When motor 221 rotates, cranks 223 R, 223 L, go into a 360 degree movement. Therefore, cranks 223 R, 223 L are rotated until the projection of operating piece 225 is fixed at rotating shaft 222 is re-detected by sensor 226 . Driving levers 229 R, 229 L are swung once by driving pings 224 R, 224 L. Therefore, driving levers 229 R and 229 L pivot in the clockwise direction and afterwards they pivot in the counterclockwise direction. [0088] Next, when driving levers 229 R and 229 L pivot in the clockwise direction from the position which is shown in FIG. 22. The operation of storing member 253 and bill holding device 255 is explained. Driven pins 271 R and 271 L are pushed towards the left in FIG. 22 by levers 273 R and 273 L. Levers 273 R and 273 L pivot in the clockwise direction. Pins 260 R and 260 L are pushed towards the left by levers 273 R and 273 L and move in the same direction. First rod 259 a and third rod 259 c pivot in the counterclockwise direction. Second rod 259 b and fourth rod 259 d pivot through bracket 256 c . Therefore, holding board 256 stays in the vertical position and moves toward the left. As a result, holding board 256 passes through right hand control surface 242 R and left hand control surface 242 L and has contact with pushing board 234 and pushes pushing board 244 towards the left. The end of bill b is bent into a u shape and passes through the end of right guiding piece 241 R and the end of left guiding piece 241 L and is transferred from bill receiving passage 245 to bill storing section 232 . In this process, levers 273 R and 273 L, pins 260 R and 260 L pass through passage 275 R and 275 L and move away from guiding grooves 276 R and 276 L. First rod 259 a and third link 239 c which move away from levers 273 R and 273 L pivot in the counterclockwise direction by first spring 2 sp 1 R and 2 sp 1 L, and are transferred until that first bar 256 a is stopped by the ends of arc shaped elongated hole 230 R h and 230 L h . Therefore, pushing board 234 is pushed towards the left by the holding board 256 which is forced by first spring 2 sp 1 R and 2 sp 1 L. The upper end of pushing board 234 is located at the back of the storing section 232 and has no contact with storing member 253 . At the same time, gear 282 rotates in the counterclockwise direction through pin 284 , rod 285 , and pin 283 by the rotation in the clockwise direction of levers 273 R and 273 L. The rotation of gear 82 is synchronized with the swing of levers 273 R and 273 L. [0089] Bill b is pushed to pushing board 234 by holding board 256 immediately after storing member 253 has contact with bill b (shown in FIG. 24). Shaft 251 goes into a 360 degree roll in the clockwise direction through gear 286 by gear 282 . Storing member 253 moves through arms 252 R and 252 L by the pivot motion of shaft 251 . In this situation, storing member 253 moves across extending line EL below shaft 238 and moves around arc shaped lower end 236 e and goes towards storing section 246 and continues to move upwards (shown in FIG. 25). Storing member 253 moves from receiving slot 261 to bill storing section 246 . Therefore, bill b is pushed by storing member 253 and becomes u shaped and moves into storing section 246 along arc shaped lower end 236 e. [0090] The upper section of bill b is extended by the uphill movement of storing member 253 and is stored flat at storing section 246 . Bill b becomes flat by self-frigidity after it passes through pushing board 234 and arc shaped lower end 236 e . As a result, the uphill movement is minimal. [0091] The operation of storing member 253 and of bill holding device 256 is explained, when driving levers 229 R and 229 L pivot in the counterclockwise direction away from the position (shown in FIG. 23). Driving levers 229 R and 229 L also pivot in the counterclockwise direction. At the same time, levers 273 R and 273 L pivot in the same direction by second springs 2 sp 2 R and 2 sp 2 L. Therefore, gear 282 rotates in the clockwise direction and shaft 251 rotates in the counterclockwise direction through gear 286 . Storing member 253 moves downwards, and moves along arc shaped lower end 236 e , and goes across extending line EL, and returns to the standby position. When storing member 253 moves downwards, it has contact with bill b which is stored. However, it does not pull down bill b because pushing board 234 has enough space between storing member 253 . As a result, the friction force between pushing board 234 and storing member 253 is minimal. When lever 273 R and 273 L pivot in the counterclockwise direction, pins 260 R and 260 L move to passages 275 R and 275 L and move along elongated holes 274 R and 274 L. Holding board 256 moves towards the right and passes through between right hand control surface 274 R and left hand control surface 242 L, and moves across extending line EL, and is returned to the standby position. At the same time, pushing board 234 moves towards the right by springs 233 a and 233 b . Therefore, bill b, which is stored is held by holding board 256 and pushing board 234 , and moves towards the right. However, pushing board 234 is stopped by right hand controller 242 R and left hand controller 242 L. Received bill b is held by pushing board 234 , right hand controller 242 R and left hand controller 242 L. [0092] In this second embodiment, bill storing device 203 is adjustable and can lie level to acceptance device 202 . In this case, right hand controller 242 R and left hand controller 242 L are located near or to storing transporting device 235 . As a result, the end of bill b does not escape from the route. [0093] It should be understood that terms such as “up”, “down”, “left”, and “right” are used to help provide an understanding of this invention and are not necessary to practice the invention. Therefore, the alignment of the bill storing device is not limited. For example, if the bill is equally extended, the holding bar is not used. [0094] Those skilled in the art will appreciate that various adaptations and modifications of the just described preferred embodiments can be configured without department from the scope and spirit of the invention. Therefore, it is to be understood that, within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced other than as specifically described herein.

An automatic bill storage device for storing bills of different widths or sizes, includes a bill loading device for receiving a bill and positioning it at an initial storage position. A bill contact device can then engage the bill at the initial storage position and translate the bill to other side of a restraining device to a storage location that is biased by a movable plate. A contact member can contact an intermediate portion of the bill and translate the bill by a moving contact that extends from the intermediate portion of the bill towards one end of the bill as the bill is moved towards the storage location. This looping movement of contact can accommodate bills of different width in a compact configuration and can permit an initial bending of the bills from the initial storage position to aligning the bills so that they are straightened so that they can be stored in a stacked array in an efficient and compact manner.

TECHNICAL FIELD [0001] This invention relates to a magnetic tape. BACKGROUND [0002] A magnetic tape is generally used to store multiple tracks of data using a magnetic tape recording system. The data is written to and read from a recording or magnetic layer on the magnetic tape. A backcoat layer disposed on a side of the magnetic tape opposite the recording layer typically provides certain mechanical properties to the magnetic tape, such as stability as the tape runs past reading and recording heads. The backcoat layer often contains a binder resin and an inorganic pigment, such as carbon black. SUMMARY [0003] In an aspect, the invention features a tape including a recording layer bonded to a first side of a substrate layer, and a multi-layer backcoat layer bonded to a second side of the substrate, the backcoat layer including an inner magnetic layer containing a magnetic servo track pattern and an outer non-magnetic layer. [0004] In a preferred embodiment, a thickness of the outer non-magnetic layer is in the range of about 0.1 micrometers (μm) to 0.50 μm. A resistance of the outer non-magnetic layer is in the range of about 8.0×10 4 ohms (Ω) to 2.0×10 6 Ω. An arithmetic average roughness (R a ) of the outer non-magnetic layer is about 6.0 nanometers (nm) to 12.0 nm. [0005] The outer non-magnetic layer may include inorganic particles contained within a binder. The inorganic particles may be about 30% to 50% by weight of the binder. [0006] In embodiments, the inorganic particles may be carbon black, metallic powders, or metallic sulfides. The binder may be a thermoplastic resin or a reactive resin. [0007] In a preferred embodiment, a thickness of the inner magnetic layer is in the range of about 0.10 μm to 0.50 82 m. A coercivity of the inner magnetic layer is in the range of about 900 to 1900 Oe. A recording frequency of the inner magnetic layer is in the range of about 1 KHz to 6 MHz. [0008] In embodiments, the inner magnetic layer includes magnetic particles contained within a binder. [0009] In a preferred embodiment, a particle size of the magnetic particles is in the range of about 0.10 μm to 0.30 μm. The magnetic particles may be ferromagnetic hexagonal ferrite powder, ferromagnetic metallic powder, or ferromagnetic iron oxide powder. The binder may be a reactive resin or a thermoplastic resin. [0010] The magnetic servo track pattern may include a longitudinal magnetic recording of different frequency ranges. [0011] In another aspect, the invention features a magnetic tape including a substrate having disposed on opposite sides thereof a magnetic-layered recording surface and a non-recording surface containing a magnetic servo tracking pattern, the non-recording surface including two layers, an outer layer containing inorganic particles and an inner layer containing magnetic particles. [0012] In a preferred embodiment, a size of the inorganic particles is in the range of about 0.02 μm to 0.035 μm. The inorganic particles may be contained in a binder. The inorganic particles may be about 30% to 50% by weight of the binder. The inorganic particles may be carbon black, metallic powders, or metallic sulfides. [0013] In a preferred embodiment, a size of the magnetic particles is in the range of about 0.10 μm to 0.30 μm. The magnetic particles may be contained in a binder. The binder may be about 10 to 40 parts by weight per 100 parts by weight of the magnetic particles. [0014] In embodiments, the magnetic particles may be ferromagnetic hexagonal ferrite powder, ferromagnetic metallic powder, or ferromagnetic iron oxide powder. [0015] The magnetic servo track pattern may include a longitudinal magnetic recording of different frequency ranges. [0016] In another aspect, the invention features a tape including a recording layer bonded to a first side of a substrate layer, and a multi-layer backcoat layer bonded to a second side of the substrate, the backcoat layer including an inner magnetic layer containing a magnetic servo track pattern. [0017] In embodiments, the backcoat layer may include an outer magnetic layer. The inner magnetic layer may include magnetic particles having a particle size in the range of about 0.10 μm to 0.30 μm contained in a binder. The outer magnetic layer may include magnetic particles having a particle size in the range of about 0.02 μm to 0.035 μm contained in a binder. [0018] Embodiments of the invention may have one or more of the following advantages. [0019] A multilayered backcoat on a magnetic tape furnishes both magnetic servo information and appropriate mechanical properties. [0020] An outer layer of the backcoat provides runnability and conductivity properties while an inner layer of the backcoat provides a magnetic layer than can be recorded with low frequency signals to be used as magnetic servo tracks. [0021] The multilayered backcoat provides superior mechanical properties and permits quality magnetic servo recording. [0022] Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0023] [0023]FIG. 1 is a cross section of a magnetic tape. [0024] [0024]FIG. 2 is an exemplary magnetic servo signal writer system. [0025] [0025]FIG. 3 is an exemplary magnetic recording system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0026] Referring to FIG. 1, a magnetic tape 10 includes a top layer 12 and a multilayered backcoat 14 , both bonded to a substrate 16 . The top layer 12 includes an intermediate layer 18 and a recording layer 20 . The backcoat layer 14 includes an inner magnetic layer 22 and an outer non-magnetic layer 24 . [0027] The magnetic tape 10 is utilized for recording and reading data. More specifically, a magnetic tape recording system (not shown) records to and reads from a group of data tracks arranged in parallel with a tape running direction on the recording layer 20 with magnetic read/write heads. The recording and reading of data in tracks on the magnetic tape 10 requires precise positioning of the read/write heads to corresponding data tracks. The read/write heads must be quickly moved to, and maintained centered over, particular data tracks as recording and reading of data takes place. [0028] Magnetic recording systems that read and record data on magnetic media, such as magnetic tape 10 , may use magnetic servo control systems to properly position the read/write heads over data tracks. The magnetic servo control system derives a position signal from a servo magnetic head that reads magnetic servo control information recorded in magnetic servo tracks on the tape 10 . In one example, magnetic servo information includes a longitudinal magnetic recording of different frequency ranges. In another example, magnetic servo information may include two parallel but dissimilar patterns. Recording dissimilar frequency ranges in parallel tracks may generate the patterns. The magnetic servo head can follow a boundary between the two dissimilar magnetic servo patterns, which are recorded in alignment with the data tracks. When the magnetic servo head is centered relative to the boundary between the magnetic servo patterns, the associated read/write head is centered relative to the data track. [0029] The inner magnetic layer 22 of the backcoat layer 14 includes magnetic powder (or particles) dispersed in a binder and capable of magnetic servo recording. The binder is used in an amount of about 10 to 40 parts by weight per 100 parts by weight of the magnetic powder. Example magnetic powders that may be used include ferromagnetic hexagonal ferrite powder, ferromagnetic metallic powder and ferromagnetic iron oxide powder. Preferably, the size of the magnetic powder particles in the inner magnetic layer 22 is in the range of about 0.10 micrometers (μm) to 0.30 μm. The magnetic powder is selected so that the resultant inner magnetic layer 22 has a coercivity (H c ) in the range of about 900 to 1900 Oe, a magnetic resonance (M r ) in the range of about 1000 G to 2500 G, a squareness in the range of about 0.55 to 0.90, and a recording frequency in the range of about 1 KHz to 6 MHz. The thickness of the inner magnetic layer 22 is in the range of about 0.10 μm to 0.50 μm. [0030] The outer non-magnetic layer 24 includes inorganic particles contained within a binder to improve, for example, running properties and durability of the magnetic tape 10 . The weight percentage of the inorganic particles to the binder, which is subject to variation according to the size and type of particles, is preferably about 30% to 50%. In another example, the outer layer contains magnetic particles. [0031] The outer non-magnetic layer 24 includes a moderate to high surface roughness. The outer non-magnetic layer 24 has an arithmetic average roughness (R a ) in the range of about 9.0 nanometers (nm) to 12.0 nm, a ten-point height parameter (R z ) in the range of about 80.0 nm to 120.0 nm, and an arithmetic mean roughness (R q ) in the range of about 11.0 nm to 14.0 nm. The outer non-magnetic layer also exhibits a resistance in the range of about 8.0×10 4 ohms (Ω) to 2.0×10 6 Ω. The size of the inorganic particles in the outer non-magnetic layer 24 is in the range of about 0.02 μm to 0.035 μm. [0032] The thickness of the outer non-magnetic layer 24 is in the range of about 0.1 μm to 0.50 μm and contains inorganic powders such as carbon black, metallic powders, metallic oxides, metallic sulfides or mixtures thereof. Example inorganic particles are TiO, TiO 2 , α-Fe 2 O 3 , BaCO 3 , BaSO 4 , Fe 3 O 4 , α-Al 2 O 3 , y-Al 3 O 3 , CaCO 3 , Cr 2 O 3 , ZnO, ZnSO 4 , α-FeOOH, Mn—Zn ferrite, ZnS, tin oxide, antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO), indium-doped tin oxide (ITO), indium oxide, carbon black, graphite carbon, SiO2, and silicone resins having a three-dimensional network structure made up of siloxane bonds with a methyl group bonded to the silicon atom. Carbon black is preferred. [0033] Binders used in both the inner magnetic layer 22 and outer non-magnetic layer 24 may include thermoplastic resins, reactive resins, and mixtures thereof. For example, the binder may be vinyl chloride copolymers or modified vinyl chloride copolymers, copolymers including acrylic acids, methacrylic acids or esters thereof, polyvinyl alcohol copolymers, acrylonitrile copolymers (rubbery resins), polyester resins, polyurethane resins, epoxy resins, cellulosic resins (e.g., nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, and cellulose acetate propionate), polyvinyl butyral resins, and polyamide resins. These binders, for example, have a number average molecular weight of approximately 2,000 to approximately 200,000. The binder resin may have a polarizing function group (i.e., polar group), such as a hydroxyl group, carboxyl group or salt thereof, a sulfoxyl group or salt thereof, a phosphor group or salt thereof, a nitro group, a nitric ester group, an acetyl group, a sulfuric ester group or salt thereof, an epoxy group a nitrite group, a carbonyl group, an amino group, an alkylamino group, an alkylammonium salt group, a sulobetaine structure, a carbobetaine structure, and the like, to have improved dispersing properties for particulate additives that may be incorporated into the inner magnetic layer 22 and the outer non-magnetic layer 24 . [0034] Referring to FIG. 2, a system 50 for recording magnetic servo signals on the inner magnetic layer 22 of the back coat layer 14 of the magnetic tape 10 includes a feed reel 52 , a take-up reel 54 , and a magnetic servo signal recording apparatus 56 . The magnetic servo signal recording apparatus 56 includes a magnetic servo signal recording head 58 . The magnetic tape 10 is fed through the system 50 at a predetermined speed and led into the magnetic servo signal recording apparatus 56 , where magnetic servo signals are recorded on the inner magnetic layer 22 of the back coat layer 14 by the magnetic servo signal recording head 58 . While only one magnetic servo signal recording head 58 is shown as an example, it is common to have multiple magnetic servo signal recording heads. Magnetic servo signals are recorded as magnetic servo tracks on portions of the inner magnetic layer 22 of the backcoat layer 14 in parallel with a longitudinal direction (i.e., running direction) of the magnetic tape 10 over the whole length of the magnetic tape 10 . For example, a magnetic servo track may be the result of a longitudinal magnetic recording of different frequency ranges. [0035] Referring to FIG. 3, an exemplary magnetic recording system 70 includes magnetic head unit 72 , a pair of guide rolls 74 and 76 , a forward magentic servo signal reading head 78 , and a backward magnetic servo signal reading head 80 . The magnetic head unit 72 includes three magnetic heads linearly arranged side by side along a tape running direction. A recording head 82 is in the middle, and a forward reproduction head 84 and a backward reproduction head 86 are on each side thereof. [0036] In reading/writing to the magnetic tape 10 with the system 70 , the top layer 12 is brought into contact with each head of the magnetic head unit 72 , while the backcoat layer 14 is brought into contact with each magnetic servo signal reading head 78 and 80 . When the magnetic tape 10 runs, for example, forward (in the direction indicated by arrow F), the magnetic servo signals recorded on the servo tracks of the inner magnetic layer 22 of the backcoat layer 14 are first read by the forward magnetic servo signal reading head 78 . The detected magnetic servo signals provide positional information. The positional information is processed by a magnetic servo tracking processor 88 fitted to the system 70 to make a determination on whether or not the magnetic head unit 72 or the forward reproduction head 84 are on the correct positions of data tracks located on the top layer 12 of the magnetic tape 10 . This determination is fed back to the respective drives (not shown) of the recording head 82 and/or the positioning guide rolls 74 and 76 to carry out magnetic servo tracking. As a result, the magnetic heads 82 , 84 86 and the forward reproduction head 84 are positioned on the correct data track of the top layer 12 so data are recorded by the recording head 82 or the data recorded on that data track is read by the forward reproduction head 84 . [0037] Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

A magnetic tape includes a substrate having disposed on opposite sides thereof a magnetic-layered recording surface and a non-recording surface containing a magnetic servo tracking pattern, the non-recording surface including two layers, an outer layer containing inorganic particles and an inner layer containing magnetic particles.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] (i) Field of The Invention [0002] This invention pertains to a method for shutting off or reducing the unwanted production of water from wells in a gas and oil-bearing formation due to flow through paths of least resistance. [0003] (ii) Description of the Related Art [0004] In the operation of wells used in the recovery of gases and associated liquids from subterranean formations unwanted passage of water can severely disrupt or in fact terminate the desired operation of a well. Frequently, a hydrocarbon reservoir contains water, either due to indigenous water or injected water. In oil wells, water bypassing is often observed since the mobility of the water is usually high and therefore, when a pressure gradient is imposed, water tends to flow more readily than the oil. In gas wells, mobile water migrates to the well bore. and is either produced and/or accumulates. If it accumulates, it will reduce the permeability to gas (aqueous phase trap) thereby reducing or shutting off production. In addition, this water can kill the gas flow in the well when the hydrostatic pressure of the water column is greater than the reservoir pressure. The effects of water production are deleterious, as the water must be separated from saleable hydrocarbon products and disposed of in an environmentally safe manner. This can result in the well being shut in because of the adverse economics of increased separation and disposal costs of water compared to the declining hydrocarbons as water flow increases. Artificial lifting costs to handle the water can add substantially to the cost of production. [0005] These problems are not unique and the solutions have traditionally involved apparatus, methods, and compositions adapted to cover, seal or otherwise plug the openings thereby shutting off or reducing the passage of water. A barrier often is considered for unwanted liquid and gas production mitigation. There are a number of articles and patents describing various techniques which have been used to reduce water production due to coning or bottom water flow. Examples of these are Karp. et al., Horizontal Barrier for Controlling Water Coning, Journal of Petroleum Technology, Vol. XX, pp. 783-790, 1962, Canadian Patent No. 1,277,936 to Costerton et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 5,062,483 issued to Kisman and Russell. These patents and the article discuss specific methods for isolation of bottom water flow. Polymers and resins, such as polyacrylamide and polyphenolic resins, have been used in the past to enter the water conduits in the reservoir, and at a predefined time, setup or solidify to block or substantially impede water flow in the conduits. Since these solutions are aqueous they have a preference for the water conduits because of the low interfacial tension between two aqueous fluids. This can result in the aqueous solution mixing with the large volumes of water and becoming unduly diluted. [0006] These treatments have been successfully used for plugging high water flow regions but, due to their density, many times these treatments are gravimetrically unstable and are therefore less effective for bottom water control. Some of these previous applications are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,949; U.S. Pat. No. 5,358,043; U.S. Pat. No. 5,418,217; U.S. Pat. No. 4,744,418; U.S. Pat. No. 5,338,465; U.S. Pat. No. 4,844,168 and U.S. Pat. No. 3,884,861. [0007] Another technique disclosed in U.K. Patent GB 2,062,070A proposed a viscosified polymer which would be emulsified in oil and injected into a gas-producing formation to control bottom water production. This, however, was not successful due to the fact that the inherently high viscosity precluded the polymer from entering into many of the zones in which the water was flowing. Also, polymer gel emulsified in oil and stabilized with surfactants often suffer from phase separation in porous media. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] It is a principal object of the present invention to placing a novel water-blocking agent on top of or near the top of an oil-water or gas-water interface in a reservoir where the hydrocarbon phase (oil and/or gas) is underlain by a bottom water zone. [0009] It is another object of the invention to condition a well-bore and to control injection parameters during placement of a water-blocking agent whereby the water-blocking agent can be effectively placed in the conduits (fractures, wormholes, high permeability streaks, near well-bore deficiencies, etc.) to prevent water to migrate to the well-bore from aquifers above, below and from the edge of a production zone. [0010] It is an objective of this invention to provide ease of injection into production or injection wells and therefore the water-blocking agent must be controlled as a liquid phase, thus a further object of the invention is the provision for low viscosity of the chemical during placement and, upon appropriate placement and setup time, high-viscosity to reduce water flow, particularly to block water flow vertically or through thief zones. [0011] And it is another object of the invention to selectively choose wells having desirable production characteristics for optimum economic returns. [0012] The invention has advantages whereby, in using available water and crude oil or any designated liquid hydrocarbon phase of a specific density, the overall density of the chemical treatment can be adjusted so that the treatment floats on water and has a modified or unmodified viscosity as well. Another advantage of the invention is that by controlling the differential pressure to inject the water-blocking agent, capillary forces in both the oil- and water-bearing portions of the rock are overcome so that the block can be selective in the water conduits of the hydrocarbon reservoir. When these blocks set up or solidify, the unwanted water production is shut off or reduced. [0013] The challenge thus is to selectively place these treatments without adversely affecting the relative permeability of the reservoir for gas or oil production and without invading the hydrocarbon zones. This can be accomplished in one embodiment of the invention for gas wells with or without oil by the injection of water and a gas such as nitrogen gas before the polymer is injected downhole, and in some cases utilization of a liquid solvent such as methanol and/or water, or by injection of a gas such as nitrogen gas before and after the polymer is injected downhole. By following the protocol as will be described, not only is water production reduced or shut off but also any risk associated with blocking off or restricting the flow of gas or oil is minimized. This can be accomplished in another embodiment of the invention by placing an emulsion (with a density intermediate the oil phase and water phase so it floats) of the interface between the oil production zone and the underlying aquifer. This will stop or reduce the water from coming up from below. These embodiments will optimize the post treatment production by ensuring the gas and oil permeability is maintained and potentially improved while minimizing or blocking waterflow. [0014] We have found that selection of a well having an initial production history of oil and/or gas, with sizable remaining reserves, and a subsequent concurrent decrease of gas or oil production and increase of water production, offers optimum prospects of successful treatment. [0015] The injection rate of the water-blocking agent and its injection pressure are critical for successful treatment of a well. The injection of the water-blocking agent at a rate above 200 litres/minute (L/min), regardless of production rates, at an injection pressure differential (ΔP) between the injection pressure at targeted formation and the reservoir pressure (ambient pressure) of 2 to a maximum of 5 mega pascals (MPa), ensures that the water-blocking agent selectively fills and blocks water-filled passageways without blocking oil or gas permeability. [0016] An aqueous solution of a polymer such as phenoformaldehyde sold under the trade-mark DIREXIT™, containing 1-2 weight % of at least one of sodium bisulphite, sodium metabisulphite and mixtures thereof additionally containing 10 weight % anhydrous sodium sulphate, has a low initial viscosity with gelation over a predetermined time interval can be injected into the formation, particularly fractured carbonate and sandstone formations. A polymer gel-in-oil emulsion of this polymer, which is lighter than water, floats on the water and provides an effective water barrier at the water-hydrocarbon interface to control water coning in oil wells producing from partially consolidated or unconsolidated sandstones. [0017] Another polymer gel having a relatively low initial viscosity with gelation over a predetermined period of time is polyacrylamide sold under the trade-mark ALOFLOOD 2545®, which can be injected into the formation as a polymer gel-in-oil emulsion lighter than water. [0018] A further polymer gel-in-oil emulsion comprises a polymer formed from a 1,2-substituted ethene compound such as a substituted styrlpyridinium compound sold under the trade-mark HYDRAGEL™ and described in published U.K. Patent Application Serial No. 96 194 19.6, preferably injected into the formation as a gel-in-oil emulsion. [0019] In its broad aspect, the method of the invention for placing an aqueous polymer in the water conduits of the production zone of a gas or oil reservoir to form a barrier to shut off or reduce unwanted production of water, through a well-bore tubing and/or annulus in communication with the production zone of the gas or oil reservoir, comprises injecting water into the production zone to establish an injection rate into the production zone of at least 200 L/sec., and injecting the aqueous polymer into the production zone at said injection rate, the preferred aqueous polymer being phenoformaldehyde containing 1-2 weight % of at least one of sodium bisulphite, sodium metabisulphite, and mixtures thereof additionally containing 10 weight % anhydrous sodium sulphate. The aqueous polymer can also be injected as an aqueous oil-in-water polymer emulsion. [0020] In accordance with another aspect of the invention, the method for placing an aqueous polymer gel in the water conduits of the production zone of a gas or oil reservoir to form a barrier to shut off or reduce unwanted production of water, through a well-bore tubing and/or annulus in communication with the production zone of the gas or oil reservoir, comprises injecting water into the production zone to establish an injection rate into the production zone of at least 200 L/min, injecting N 2 or CO 2 gas into the formation in a first gas injection to displace the water or flush the water to surface with N 2 or CO 2 in an amount sufficient to displace the water, injecting the aqueous polymer gel into the production zone at said injection rate, at a pressure in the range of 2 to 5 MPa above the formation ambient pressure, and injecting N 2 or CO 2 gas in a second gas injection to optimize gas permeability in the production zone. The method preferably comprises ascertaining the N 2 or CO 2 first gas injection rate while injecting gas into the formation to displace the water, monitoring the N 2 or CO 2 second gas injection rate, comparing the N 2 or CO 2 gas first injection rate with the N 2 or CO 2 second injection rate, and increasing the N 2 or CO 2 gas second injection rate to match the N 2 or CO 2 first injection rate to re-establish and optimize the gas permeability in the production zone. [0021] The aqueous polymer gel can be emulsified with up to 50 weight % oil and stabilized with a surfactant. [0022] In accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention, a well is selected in which the wells oil or gas production decreased concurrent with an increase in water production, said well having indicated sizable reserves of oil or gas. [0023] In accordance with another embodiment, by incorporating at least a two-stage sequential treatment, larger conduits of water flow may be blocked upon injection of a first horizontal stage whereas a second stage will serve to impede undesirable fluid flow (water or gas) from the secondary flow conduits. Moreover the second stage of the treatment has a lower vertical limit provided by a generally horizontal barrier down through which the second stage will not pass. This would have specific application to treatments where the second stage has a specific gravity higher than 1.0 but this layered approach would also be very effective for systems where the second or subsequent stages are less or more dense than water. [0024] The invention describes novel composition which is gravimetrically stable with respect to the oil-water or gas-water contact and will form a first stage of a water impermeable solid or gel phase, preferably followed by a second stage which will be largely independent of specific gravity considerations and which will complement the first stage. By designing the viscosity and density of the treatment, vertical flow of undesirable phases can be reduced and flow from thief zones can also be targeted. [0025] It has been found that hydrophilic clays present in sand stone production zones can block injection of aqueous polymers to swelling of hydrophilic clays upon contact with water. A further embodiment of the invention includes adding a clay stabilizer, typified by cholin chloride or potassium chloride, to the treatment and injecting to obviate swelling of clays and thereby maintaining zone permeability. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0026] The method of the invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawing, in which: [0027] FIG. 1 is a graph showing a production profile of a suitable candidate well for application of the process of the invention; [0028] FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating relative permeability to liquid saturation in a gas-bearing reservoir; and [0029] FIG. 3 is a graph, of Case 1, showing daily gas and water production after application of the method of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0030] A basic requirement of the process of the present invention for the successful remediation of a gas or oil well is a production history that shows a time during which the well primarily produced oil or gas, such as typified in the production history shown in FIG. 1 . In order to significantly impact a well's production performance, a correlation must exist of increased water production concurrent with decreased oil or gas production. This will indicate that the reason for current production difficulties originates with and is tied to a marked increase in water production, and not to depletion of hydrocarbon reserves. [0031] A requirement of the present invention, pertaining to shutting off or reducing water production where water is coning up to the production perforations, through partially consolidated or unconsolidated sands, is that the density of the aqueous polymer phase must be greater than that of the hydrocarbon, i.e. oil or liquified gas, and less than that of the formation water. By injecting this intermediate-density phase into the reservoir, it will necessary settle due to gravity to the point where it sits on top of the water. By appropriate design of the properties of the aqueous polymer (density and control of viscosity) the treatment can also be specifically placed in high permeability layers or zones. Once in place, the setup time mechanism must be such that it gels or becomes a solid phase and thereby offers significant resistance to unwanted gas or water (or any other undesirable phase) production in the region of the near well-bore or where the coning response exists. The aqueous polymer phase must have the properties that it has adequate setup time, adequate rigidity and that the viscosity is such that it will flow easily into various types of rock. The treatment is possible to be placed both from the current production perforations as well as perforations which may be newly created. [0032] The aqueous component of the invention would include a polymer which has been designed at a specific concentration for setup time which is consistent with the physical situation. The composition of the aqueous polymer phase of the emulsion can be those of a polyacrylamide and cross-linking nature such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,693,949, No. 5,358,043 or No. 5,418,217 and the compositions of the phenol formaldehyde as exemplified in the U.S. Pat. No. 3,884,861 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,091,868 or Canadian Patent No. 1,187,404. The oil component can be a refined oil including diesel, mineral oil, benzene, kerosene or the like. Crude oils can also be used but preferably a refined oil products with lower densities should be used from a density perspective. A small amount of surfactant usually is required to stabilize emulsions. [0033] A preferred polymer is phenolformaldehyde sold under the trade-mark DIREXIT™, containing 1-2 weight % of at least one of sodium bisulphite, sodium metabisulphite and mixtures thereof additionally containing 10 weight % anhydrous sodium sulphate. The presence of the sodium bisulphate, sodium metabisulphite and mixtures thereof additionally containing 10 weight % anhydrous sodium sulphate has been found to be critical for delay of viscosity set up for an adequate time to enable flow of the aqueous polymer to the desired site. [0034] There are many challenges to overcome in properly placing an aqueous solution in a reservoir to shut off or reduce water migration to the production perforations in a producing well, such as a producing gas well with or without oil production. Before proceeding with an application of the aqueous solution, an injection rate for water should be established first to ascertain whether the polymer or resin could be safely injected into the subterranean formation under pressure and time limitations. The well may have to be stimulated in order to increase the injection rate. The problem with this injection test is that the water saturation in the near well bore region can increase due to the water injection and, as a consequence, reduce the relative permeability of gas. As a result the gas flow can be reduced, or in fact, shut off. FIG. 2 illustrates how the increase in water saturation affects the relative permeability of gas. To overcome these problems, gas (N 2 or CO 2 ) should be injection into formation, after the injection test with water is complete, to displace the water and to re-establish the gas saturation and the conduits to the gas zone. [0035] Another possible problem is that the water used in the injection test can charge up the reservoir, i.e. fill with large voids so more pressure is required to inject the subsequent polymer and/or resin into the reservoir. The increase in pressure can force the polymer into the gas zone if the increase in differential pressure (ΔP) overcomes the capillary pressure keeping the aqueous solution out of the gas zone. To overcome this problem, the water used for the injection test can be flushed to surface using gas (N 2 or CO 2 ). The gas is injected down the casing annulus and the water is flushed back through the tubing, or vice-versa. This water can also be swabbed back to surface. If a permanent packer to isolate the tubing from the casing is in place, coil tubing can be used to perform this task. If coil tubing or swabbing is not an option, after the feed rate with water is performed wait at least 48 hours to allow the pressure in the reservoir to reach the equilibrium before doing the application. Once the water is displaced, a feed rate for gas should then be established. A gas such as nitrogen gas (N 2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), or the like gas is then injected. The volume of gas, e.g. N 2 , will be calculated to flush all the fluids out of the tubing and/or annulus and to establish gas saturation and to ensure permeability in the near well bore matrix. [0036] The presence of fine clays in proximity to the well bore due to migration of the clay fines during production towards the bore may plug permeability and impede the flow of the water-blocking agent. A pressure increase during injection of the N 2 or CO 2 gas in excess of 2-5 MPa, for example a pressure increase in the range of 6 to 10 MPa, indicates plugged permeability by the clay fines. Permeability often can be restored by injecting 1-10 cubic meters (cubes) of hydrofloric acid followed by flushing with N 2 gas. [0037] This same type of problem can occur in carbonate wells where the injection test for water is <200 liters per minute at differential pressure ΔP at surface of 6 to 10 MPa. This can be the result of the natural low permeability of the formation or the buildup of scale. Permeability can be increased and/or be restored by injecting one to ten cubic meters (cubes) of hydrochoric acid followed by one cube of water and displaced into the formation with N 2 . [0038] With the permeability assured, the subsequent aqueous treatment will then benefit from capillary pressure selectivity in addition to permeability contrasts to drive the aqueous phase treatment into the region where the water is flowing. Once the treatment is injected, a gas such as N 2 is injected to ensure gas permeability is maintained in order to optimize post treatment gas production. [0039] A description of an exemplary field test of the method of the invention is as follows. Field Test Summary for Shutting Off or Reducing Water Production in Gas Well [0000] 1. Connect the aqueous polymer mixing and pumping unit along with a gas (e.g. N 2 or CO 2 ) pumping unit to well head. 2. Ascertain the injection rate m 3 /minute for an aqueous solution such as phenolformaldehyde by first injecting reservoir compatible water into the formation to ensure there is adequate flow rate and time (including a margin of safety) to inject the volume of resin and/or polymer before it sets up. The reservoir may need to be stimulated to achieve a fluid injection rate of at least 200 L/min. at a ΔP of 5-10 MPa. 3. The water used in the injection test in Step 2 can be flushed or swabbed back to surface or forced into the reservoir using gas (e.g. N 2 or CO 2 ). 4. Ascertain the injection rate (m 3 /minute) of gas (e.g. N 2 or CO 2 ) at STP to ensure all liquids are cleared from well-bore and to establish gas conduits into the reservoir formation. This rate can be compared to the injection rate of the gas after the polymer has been displaced to help determine if gas permeability has been reduced. 5. Mix the programmed volume and concentration of aqueous polymer. 6. Precede the polymer in step 5 with the programmed volume of water, usually 1 cubic meter, to ensure the aqueous polymer does not plug off the gas permeability. In many cases the injection pressure increases when the aqueous fluid first enters the formation and this can force the liquid into the gas zone until the conduits to the aquifer are established. It is much preferred this liquid is water rather than the polymer which once set will reduced the post treatment permeability to gas. 7. Follow the water with injection of the mixed aqueous polyer solution, ensuring that the rates are as low as possible and are still able to safely place/displace solution into the formation before it sets. (Ensure surface pumping pressure added to the hydrostatic pressure does not exceed the fracture pressure of the reservoir). 8. Follow the aqueous polymer with about 1 m 3 of water and the programmed volume of N 2 or CO 2 to ensure the perforations are clear of the displaced aqueous polymer to access the gas zone of the reservoir. 9. Follow Step 8, with the programmed volume of gas to not only ensure the aqueous polymer is displaced from the well-bore but also confirm communication is established to the gas zone. (This can be monitored by surface pressure since the downhole pressure and temperature are known). This gas can be continuously injected until the polymer has set to ensure gas permeability is maintained. 10. If the initial post treatment injection rate for gas has been reduced significantly by comparison with the rate achieved in Step 4, the injection rate of the gas (e.g. N 2 or CO 2 ) can be increased to help re-establish the gas permeability and/or an acid treatment can be performed in the hydrocarbon zone. 11. Shut in the well for 12 hours or until it can be assured that the aqueous polymer is set. Step by Step Field Test Summary for Shutting Off or Reducing Water Production in an Oil Well [0000] 1(a) If displacing the polymer through existing perforations, set a packer (retainer) above the production perforations and ascertain an injection rate (m 3 /minute) with water through these perforations into the formation to ensure there is adequate time (including a margin of safety) to inject the designed volume of polymer before it sets up. The reservoir may need to be stimulated to achieve the desired rate. 1(b) If displacing the polymer at, or just above the oil water contact, then perforate this interval; set a packer (retainer) above these perforations and ascertain the injection rate (m 3 /minute) with reservoir compatible water through these perforations into the formation to ensure there is adequate time (including a margin of safety) to inject the designed volume of polymer before it sets up. The reservoir may need to be stimulated to achieve the desired rate. If the well has been completed and there are perforations above the packer (retainer) in the oil production zone then trickle oil into these production perforations through the annulus to ensure the fluids injected through the bottom perforations do not migrate upwardly above the water/oil interface. 2. Connect the aqueous polymer mixing and pumping unit along with the oil pumping unit if require (Step 1(b) above) to the well head. 3. Mix the programmed volume and concentration of an aqueous polymer of the invention. 4. Place the polymer to the bottom of the tubing, 1(a) activate the retainer and shut in the annulus, then displace the aqueous polymer into the reservoir formation, ensuring the surface pressure added to the hydrostatic pressure of the column of fluids does not exceed the reservoir fracture pressure. Under displace the polymer, deactivate the retainer and backwash the under displaced polymer to surface. 1(b) fill the well with crude oil, then place the polymer to the bottom of the well-bore tubing, activate the packer (retainer) and displace the aqueous polymer into the formation while keeping positive pressure on the annulus so as to trickle oil through the production perforations. Under displace the aqueous polymer, deactivate the retainer and backwash the aqueous polymer to surface. 5. Shut in the well for along enough period to ensure the polymer has set (usually 12 hours). [0057] The method of the invention will now be described with reference to the following non-limitative example, in which the aqueous polymer is phenolformaldehyde (DIREXIT™), containing about 1.5 weight % of a mixture consisting of about 45% sodium bisulphite, about 45% sodium metabisulphite, and about 10% anhydrous sodium sulphate. Case 1: Water Shut Off-Gas (FIG. 3) [0058] [0000] Volume of Treatment 2.04 m3 Formation Type Sandstone Work-over Report Pumped 2.1 m3 at a rate of 200 l/min with pumping pressure of 1,200 kPa to block water production from induced fractures. Result As soon as these tight sandstone wells are fractured to induce gas production, water overwhelms the well and it is unable to produce gas or water. Following the Direxit treatment, the water production rate was cut in half, and the well has been on full time production since the treatment. [0059] The present invention provides a number of important advantages. By using phenoformaldehyde containing 1-2 weight % sodium bisulphite/sodium metabisulphite as an aqueous polymer, a barrier is formed which, once set or gelled, effectively blocks water flow from coning up into the production perforations of the well. Also, by controlling the differential pressure (ΔP) to inject the polymer, capillary forces in the oil, gas and water-bearing portions of the rock are overcome while maintaining permeability so that the block can be total. [0060] It will be understood, of course, that modifications can be made in the embodiment of the invention illustrated and described herein without departing from the scope and purview of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

This invention relates to a method of reducing the deleterious effects of water production in a subterranean formation by placing an aqueous phase polymer and/or resin, which at a designated set up time, solidifies and blocks water conduits. This invention pertains specifically to a method of conditioning well bores and placing the polymer and displacing the polymer and/or resin to establish post treatment gas and oil permeability. Novel polymers and/or resins for use as a water barrier are disclosed, typified by phenoformaldehyde containing 1-2 weight % of at least one of sodium bisulphite, sodium metabisulphite or mixtures thereof. The method includes selecting a well having sizable hydrocarbon reserves with a production history of decrease of oil or gas production with concurrent increase of water production.

This application claims priority from provisional application Ser. No. 60/342,540 filed Dec. 20, 2001, the entire content of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The subject invention is directed to a minimally invasive surgical procedure, and more particularly, to an endoscopic surgical procedure for treating gastroesophageal reflux disease, and apparatus for performing the procedure. 2. Background of the Related Art Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is one of the most common upper-gastrointestinal disorders in the western world, with a prevalence of approximately 360 cases per 100,000 population per year. Approximately 25 will eventually have recurrent, progressive disease and are candidates to undergo anti-reflux surgical procedures for effective long term therapy. GERD is a condition in which acids surge upward from the stomach into the esophagus. Backflow of acid into the esophagus makes it raw, red and inflamed, producing the condition known as esophagitis; it also causes the painful, burning sensation behind the breastbone known as heartburn. Backflow or reflux of acid can occur when the sphincter or band muscle at the lower end of the esophagus fails to stay closed. This sphincter is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES acts as a valve to the stomach, remaining closed until the action of swallowing forces the valve open to allow food to pass from the esophagus to the stomach. Normally the valve closes immediately after swallowing to prevent stomach contents from surging upward. When the LES fails to provide that closure, stomach acids reflux back into the esophagus, causing heartburn. The general approach for corrective surgery involves creating a new valve or tightening the existing valve. This procedure is known as “fundoplication” and is used to prevent the back flow of stomach acids into the esophagus. Various fundoplication procedures have been developed to correct GERD and are known as Nissen fundoplication, Belsey Mark IV repair, Hill repair and Dor repair. Each surgical procedure has its own unique attributes; however, each requires an invasive surgical procedure, whereby the individual must endure trauma to the thoracic cavity. The individual remains hospitalized after the procedure for about six to ten days. The Nissen fundoplication technique involves enveloping the lower esophagus with the gastric fundus by suturing the anterior and posterior fundal folds about the esophagus. Modifications of this procedure include narrowing of the esophageal hiatus posterior to the esophagus, anchoring of the fundoplication to the preaortic fascia and surgical division of the vegus nerve. The degree of the fundal wrap can be modified to incompletely encircle the esophageal tube to avoid gas float syndrome and has also been modified to include a loose wrap. Similarly, the Belsey Mark IV repair, Hill repair and Dor repair are directed to modifications for encirclement of the esophageal tube by fascia. Complications of these fundoplication procedures include the inability to belch or vomit, dysphagia, gastric ulcer, impaired gastric emptying and slippage of the repair that may foil the best surgical results. Therefore, the fundoplication procedures have been modified to adjust the length and tension of the wrap, include or exclude esophageal muscle in the sutures and leaving the vagus nerves in or out of the encirclement. A relatively new fundoplication technique is known as Nissen fundoplication laparoscopy. In contrast to the traditional Nissen fundoplication procedure, which requires a 6 to 10 inch incision and a 6 to 10 day hospital stay with up to 8 weeks of recovery at home, the laparoscopy technique is performed through small openings about the abdominal cavity and most patients tend to leave the hospital in two days and can return to work and other activities within a week or two. Despite the benefits of less invasive laparoscopic fundoplication procedures, there is still a need for a minimally invasive corrective treatment for GERD that can be performed on an out-patient basis. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The subject invention is directed to a new and useful minimally invasive surgical procedure for treating Gastroesophageal reflux disease by reducing the diameter of the esophagus proximate to the lower esophageal sphincter, and to an endoscopic surgical apparatus for performing the procedure. The method includes the steps of forming a fold of esophageal tissue proximate to the lower esophageal sphincter, and extending at least one needle through the fold of esophageal tissue. Each of the needles has an interior lumen containing a tissue fastener. The method further includes the steps of ejecting a distal portion of the tissue fastener from the interior lumen of each needle such that the distal portion of each tissue fastener is disposed against a distal surface of the fold of esophageal tissue, and retracting each needle from the fold of esophageal tissue such that a proximal portion of each tissue fastener is deployed from the interior lumen of each needle and is disposed against a proximal surface of the fold of esophageal tissue. The method further comprises the step of providing an endoscopic device having a an interior lumen for supporting the needles in a manner that permits the reciprocal movement thereof, and a tissue reception cavity for receiving the fold of esophageal tissue. The method includes guiding the endoscopic device through the esophagus to a location wherein the tissue reception cavity is disposed proximate to the lower esophageal sphincter. Thus, the step of forming the fold of esophageal tissue includes the step of drawing esophageal tissue into the tissue reception cavity of the endoscopic device. This may be accomplished using suction or with a tissue grasping device. Preferably, a tissue fastener of shape memory alloy or a similar bio-compatible material having memory characteristics is provided within the interior lumen of each needle in a generally elongate orientation. The step of ejecting a tissue fastener from the interior lumen of a needle includes permitting the distal portion of the tissue fastener to move to a normally unstressed condition (at body temperature) wherein the distal portion of the tissue fastener is in a curved or coiled orientation. The step of retracing the needle from the fold of esophageal tissue includes permitting the proximal portion of the tissue fastener to move to a normally unstressed condition (at body temperature) wherein the proximal portion of the tissue fastener is in a curved or coiled orientation. It is envisioned that the needles may be extended through the fold of esophageal tissue simultaneously or in seriatim. Similarly, the tissue fasteners may be ejected from the needles simultaneously or in seriatim. After the fasteners have been ejected from the needles, the fold of esophageal tissue is released from the tissue reception cavity, and the endoscopic device is withdrawn from the esophagus. The subject invention is further directed to an endoscopic surgical apparatus for performing the method summarized above. The apparatus includes an elongated tubular body having opposed proximal and distal end portions and an interior lumen extending therethrough. An endoscope may be housed within the interior lumen of the tubular body. Preferably, one or more needles are disposed within the elongated tubular body and are mounted for reciprocal movement therein between a retracted position and a protracted position. Depending upon the configuration and orientation of the needles within the tubular body, it is envisioned that the reciprocal movement thereof may be either longitudinal, rotational or helical. Each of the needles has an interior lumen extending therethrough. A tissue fastener is disposed within the interior lumen of each needle. The fasteners are configured for movement between an initially straight position within the interior lumen of a needle and a subsequently coiled or curved position ejected from the interior lumen of a needle. A mechanism is provided for effectuating reciprocal movement of the needle within the interior bore of the elongated tubular body, and a mechanism if provided for ejecting the tissue fasteners from the interior lumen of the needles. Preferably, a tissue receiving window is formed within the distal end portion of the elongated tubular body for receiving a fold of esophageal tissue. Thus, the retracted position of the needle is proximal to or, in some instances lateral to the tissue receiving window and the protracted position of the needle is distal of the tissue receiving window. These and other aspects of the subject invention and the method of using the same will become more readily apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art from the following detailed description of the invention taken in conjunction with the drawings described hereinbelow. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS So that those having ordinary skill in the art to which the subject invention appertains will more readily understand how to make and use the surgical apparatus disclosed herein, preferred embodiments thereof will be described in detail hereinbelow with reference to the drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a surgical apparatus constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the subject invention; FIG. 1 a is an enlarged localized perspective view, in partial cross-section, of the distal portion of the surgical apparatus of FIG. 1 , with parts separated for ease of illustration, wherein the apparatus includes a plurality of elongated needles mounted for reciprocal longitudinal movement relative to the longitudinal axis of the apparatus; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of another surgical apparatus constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the subject invention; FIG. 2 a is an enlarged localized perspective view of the distal portion of the surgical apparatus of FIG. 2 , with parts separated for ease of illustration, wherein the apparatus includes a plurality of curved needles mounted for reciprocal rotational movement relative to the longitudinal axis of the apparatus; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of another surgical apparatus constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the subject invention; FIG. 3 a is an enlarged localized perspective view of the distal portion of the surgical apparatus of FIG. 3 , with parts separated for ease of illustration, wherein the apparatus includes a plurality of partially helical needles mounted for reciprocal helical movement relative to the longitudinal axis of the apparatus; FIG. 4 is a side elevational view of the distal portion of the surgical apparatus of FIG. 1 illustrating the formation of a fold of esophageal tissue proximate to the lower esophageal sphincter during a treatment procedure; FIG. 5 is a side elevational view the distal portion of the surgical apparatus of FIG. 1 illustrating the extension of a needle through the fold of esophageal tissue, wherein the interior lumen of the needle contains a tissue fastener; FIG. 6 is a side elevational view the distal portion of the surgical apparatus of FIG. 1 illustrating the ejection of a distal portion of the tissue fastener from the interior lumen of the needle such that the distal portion of the tissue fastener is disposed against a distal surface of the fold of esophageal tissue; FIG. 6 a is an enlarged localized view of the needle shown in FIG. 6 illustrating the ejection of the fastener from the interior lumen of the needle by the needle pusher; FIG. 7 is a side elevational view of the distal portion of the surgical apparatus of FIG. 1 illustrating the retraction of the needle from the fold of esophageal tissue such that a proximal portion of tissue fastener is deployed from the interior lumen of the needle and is disposed against a proximal surface of the fold of esophageal tissue; and FIG. 7 a is an enlarged localized view of the needle shown in FIG. 7 illustrating the retraction of the needle from the fold of tissue. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings wherein like reference numerals identify similar structural features of the apparatus disclosed herein, there is illustrated in FIG. 1 an endoscopic surgical apparatus constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the subject invention and designated generally by reference numeral 10 . Referring to FIG. 1 in conjunction with FIG. 1 a , endoscopic surgical apparatus 10 includes an elongated flexible tubular body 12 having opposed proximal and distal end portions 14 , 16 and an interior lumen 18 extending therethrough. Elongated flexible needles 20 with tapered leading edges are disposed within the elongated tubular body 12 and are mounted for reciprocal longitudinal movement therein between a retracted position and a protracted position. More particularly, the elongated needles 20 are supported in circumferentially spaced relationship within tubular body 12 by a needle block 25 . Needle block 25 is mounted at the distal end of a tubular drive shaft 27 which is adapted for reciprocal axial movement within tubular body 12 . Each elongated needle 20 has an interior lumen 22 extending therethrough. A tissue fastener 24 formed of a shape memory metal alloy, such as a nickel-titanium alloy, is disposed within the interior lumen of each needle 20 . The tissue fastener 24 is configured for movement between an initially straight position within the interior lumen of the elongated needle and a subsequently coiled position ejected from the interior lumen of the elongated needle. In the straight position, and in the coiled position, opposed end portions 24 a , 24 b of the fastener 24 have a generally curved configuration. In FIG. 2 a , the end portion 24 a of fastener 24 is shown in the coiled position, while the opposed end portion 24 b is shown in a transitional state between the initially straight position and the subsequently coiled or curved position. An elongated push rod 26 extends through the interior lumen 22 of each elongated needle 20 for ejecting at least a portion of the tissue fastener 24 from the interior lumen 22 of the elongated needle 20 . Each push rod 26 is supported in circumferentially spaced relationship by a push rod block 30 . Push rod block 30 is mounted at the distal end of a tubular drive shaft 29 which is mounted coaxial with drive shaft 27 . Drive shaft 29 is adapted and configured for reciprocal axial motion within tubular body 12 . As best seen in FIG. 1 , surgical apparatus 10 further includes an actuation mechanism 35 operatively associated with a proximal portion 14 of the elongate body 12 . Actuation mechanism 35 is adapted and configured to effectuate reciprocal longitudinal movement of the drive shaft 27 associated with needle block 25 and the drive shaft 29 associated with push rod block 30 . It is envisioned that actuation mechanism 35 can take the form of a mechanical actuator, a pneumatic actuator, a hydraulic actuator or an electrical actuator which transmits force to the drive shafts 27 , 29 through conventional mechanisms, such as cooperative linkages, gear trains or combinations thereof. It is also envisioned that the fasteners can be fired in a proximal direction. Surgical apparatus 10 further includes a generally U-shaped or concave tissue receiving window 32 formed within the distal end portion of the elongated tubular body 12 . In the retracted position, the elongated needles 20 are proximal of the tissue receiving window 32 and in the protracted position, the elongated needles 22 travel to a position that is distal to the tissue receiving window 32 . As illustrated in FIG. 1 a , as an option, the surgical apparatus 10 of the subject invention could be provided with an angioplasty balloon 40 that would be accommodated within an elongated lateral lumen 42 . It is envisioned that angioplasty balloon 40 could be extended from the distal end of tubular body 12 and used as a dilator to increase the esophageal diameter prior to placement of the fasteners 24 . Referring to FIGS. 2 and 2 a , there is illustrated another surgical apparatus 110 constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the subject invention that includes an elongated body 112 having opposed proximal and distal end portions 114 and 116 , and an interior lumen 118 extending therethrough. The distal end portion 116 has a tissue receiving window 132 formed therein and the proximal portion 114 has an actuator handle 135 operatively associated therewith. As best seen in FIG. 2 a , surgical apparatus 110 includes a plurality of curved needles 120 each supporting a surgical fasteners 124 in the interior lumen 122 thereof. The curved needles 120 are supported in axially spaced relationship on a needle block 125 that is mounted for reciprocal rotational movement within body portion 112 . A plurality of curved push rods 126 are supported on a push rod block 130 adjacent needle block 125 . Each push rod 126 is configured to eject at least a portion of a tissue fastener 124 from the interior lumen 122 of a needle 120 upon actuation of handle 135 . Those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that conventional mechanisms such as drive screws or drive shafts may be employed to transmit rotational motion from actuation handle 135 to needle block 125 and push rod block 130 . Referring to FIGS. 3 and 3 a , there is illustrated another surgical apparatus 210 constructed in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the subject invention that includes an elongated body 212 having opposed proximal and distal end portions 214 and 216 , and an interior lumen 218 . A tissue receiving window 232 is formed in the distal end portion 216 and an actuator handle 235 is operatively associated with the proximal potion 214 . As best seen in FIG. 3 a , surgical apparatus 210 differs from surgical apparatus 110 in that it includes a plurality of partially helical needles 220 that are mounted for reciprocal helical movement within body portion 212 relative to the longitudinal axis of body portion 212 . While not shown in FIG. 3 a , a surgical fastener formed from shape memory alloy is supported with the interior lumen 222 of each needle 220 and is configured for deployment in the manner described above with respect to apparatus 110 . Those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that conventional mechanisms such as drive screws or drive shafts may be employed to transmit helical motion from actuation handle 235 to the needle block and push rod block operatively associated with curved needles 220 . The subject invention is also directed to a method of treating gastroesophageal reflux disease using a surgical apparatus constructed in accordance a preferred embodiment of the subject invention, such as, for example, surgical apparatus 10 . Initially, during a surgical procedure, the elongated body 12 of surgical apparatus 10 is extended through the esophagus such that tissue receiving window 32 is positioned in a location that is proximate to the esophageal sphincter. Next, as shown in FIG. 4 , a fold of esophageal tissue is drawn into the tissue receiving window 32 . This is preferably done under visual observation using the flexible endoscope 50 extended through the interior lumen 18 of body 12 , and is preferably accomplished by suction or using a tissue grasping device such as tissue grasper 45 . Thereafter, one or more needles 20 are extended through the fold of esophageal tissue, as shown in FIG. 5 . At such a time, the distal portion 24 a of the tissue fastener 24 in each needle 20 is ejected from the interior lumen 22 of each needle 20 by push rod 26 such that the distal portion 24 a of each tissue fastener 24 is disposed against a distal surface of the fold of esophageal tissue in a curved condition, as shown in FIGS. 6 and 6 a . Then, as shown in FIGS. 7 and 7 a , needles 20 are retracted from the fold of esophageal tissue such that the proximal portion 24 b of each tissue fastener 24 is deployed from the interior lumen 22 of needle 20 and is disposed against a proximal surface of the fold of esophageal tissue. In instances wherein more than one needle is employed, the needles may be extended through the fold of esophageal tissue either simultaneously or in seriatim by staging the needles at different positions relative to one another. Similarly, the tissue fasteners may be ejected from the needles simultaneously or in seriatim by staging the push rods at different positions relative to one another. After the needles have been retracted, the fold of esophageal tissue is released from the tissue reception cavity. Once the fasteners 24 have been deployed, the fold of tissue with which they are associated will undergo repetitive movement during peristalsis. Since the ends of the fasteners are curved and flexible, they will advantageously comply with the fold of tissue as it moves. This flexibility also accommodates belching and vomiting. Furthermore, the flexible configuration of the fasteners facilitates the easy removal thereof from the fold of tissue should it become necessary to reverse the procedure. This may be done with a grasping device, such as that which is illustrated in FIG. 4 . Preferably, the steps of the subject invention are performed under vision using an endoscope which may be provided integral with surgical device 10 . Alternatively, the treatment method of the subject invention may be performed using either ultrasound, fluoroscopy or magnetic resonance imaging. It is also envisioned and well within the scope of the subject invention that the surgical apparatus 10 and the method of using the same can be employed to reduce the volume of a patients stomach. In such a procedure, gastric tissue would be fastened using the apparatus of the subject invention. Since the ends of the fasteners utilized in this procedure are curved and flexible, they will comply or unfurl with the fold of tissue as the stomach expands with the intake of food. Although the apparatus and method of the subject invention have been described with respect to preferred embodiments, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.

A minimally invasive surgical procedure is disclosed which includes the steps forming a fold of tissue, extending one or more needles through the fold of tissue, deploying a tissue fastener from an interior lumen of each of the needles, and retracting each of the needles from the fold of tissue such that the tissue fasteners remain deployed in the fold of tissue.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a liquid crystal composition and, more particularly, to a liquid crystal composition suitably used in a liquid crystal device controlled by two-frequency addressing scheme. 2. Description of the Prior Art Liquid crystal devices have been used in a variety of applications for television sets, computer terminals, and office equipment. A display device in such equipment is constituted by a liquid crystal display device having a large number of pixels. These pixels are arranged in a matrix form and multiplexing driven. However, when the number of pixels is increased in such a liquid crystal device, the number of scanning lines and hence the number of time-divisional operations are increased. As a result, sufficiently high contrast of the ON and OFF pixels cannot be obtained by a cross effect phenomenon or the like. A conventional liquid crystal device of this type can also be used in a printer having small optical shutters for controlling light transmission and shielding of liquid crystal elements. In this case, these optical shutters are arranged in a line or a few lines to control light transmission, and characters and images are formed by a large number of small light spots. The size of the optical shutter is very small in such a liquid crystal device (e.g., 0.1 mm 2 or less). Characters and images of one page are constituted by a very large number of points. The optical shutters must be driven at very high speed in order to achieve a practical printing speed for printing a 10-page (A4 size) document per minute. However, the conventional driving method cannot sufficiently satisfy such requirements. Two-frequency addressing scheme utilizing a dielectric dispersion phenomenon is known to solve the above problem. According to this driving technique, a high-frequency (e.g., 100 kHz) signal voltage is applied to a liquid crystal to orient the axes of liquid crystal molecules in a direction perpendicular to an electric field, and a low-frequency (e.g., 200 Hz) signal voltage is applied to the liquid crystal to orient the axes in a direction parallel thereto. According to the two-frequency addressing scheme, both light-transmitting and light-shielding behaviors of liquid crystal molecules of the liquid crystal device are controlled by the different electric fields, and therefore, the liquid crystal device can be operated at high speed. A typical example of a display device driven by the two-frequency addressing scheme is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,236,155. Liquid crystal material compositions used in such display devices are disclosed in Japanese Patent Disclosure (Kokai) No. 58-118886 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,550,981. According to the two-frequency addressing scheme, the liquid crystal device is operated at a relatively high speed, and the cross effect phenomenon can be restricted to improve contrast. However, the liquid crystal composition used in this display device does not have properties which satisfy a high-speed response in the printer. The liquid crystal shutters in the printers driven by the two-frequency addressing scheme and liquid crystal compositions used in these liquid crystal shutters are disclosed in Japanese Patent Disclosure (Kokai) Nos. 57-83577 and 57-5780 and U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,559,161 and 4,609,256. When the liquid crystal shutters are driven by the two-frequency addressing scheme, they can be operated at a relatively high speed. Liquid crystal compositions to be applied in liquid crystal devices driven by the two-frequency addressing scheme are disclosed in Japanese Patent Disclosure (Kokai) No. 57-5782, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,566,759, 4,460,770, and 4,387,038, and GB Patent No. 2085910. These liquid crystal compositions, however, contain two or three benzene rings and/or cyclohexane rings as their major constituents. These liquid crystal materials have small absolute values of dielectric anisotropy and high cross-over frequency fc for "0" dielectric anisotropy Δε. Therefore, the absolute value of dielectric anisotropy is small and/or the cross-over frequency is high Response characteristics of the liquid crystal composition used in the liquid crystal device depend mainly on a value of dielectric anisotropy Δε, a viscosity, and an elastic constant of the composition. More specifically, the larger the absolute value of dielectric anisotropy Δεbecomes, the quicker the liquid crystal molecules respond. In addition, since the liquid crystal molecules can react in a weak electric field, a low drive voltage can be used. The lower the viscosity becomes, the shorter the response time becomes. The smaller the elastic constant becomes, the shorter the response time becomes. An RF current can be made small at a low cross-over frequency. For this reason, power consumption can be reduced, and at the same time, dielectric heat generation due to capacitance and Joule heat generation due to resistance in the device can be prevented. In addition, the arrangement of the display driver can be made simple. However, no existing single liquid crystal compounds satisfy all the conditions described above. A desired liquid crystal material is prepared by mixing different liquid crystal compounds, each having at least one of the desired properties. Various liquid crystal compositions prepared in this manner have the following disadvantages. Even if some compositions have low cross-over frequencies, they have small absolute values of dielectric anisotropy. Even if some compositions have large absolute values of dielectric anisotropy, they have high cross-over frequencies. Even if some liquid crystal compositions have large absolute values of dielectric anisotropy, low cross-over frequencies, and low apparent viscosities, they have large elastic ratios associated with high-speed response. As a result, they are not suitable for high-speed operation. In order to solve the above problem, the present applicant proposed a liquid crystal composition obtained by mixing a compound having an ester bond and two or three benzene rings and/or cyclohexane rings with a four-ring compound having an ester bond, four benzene rings and/or cyclohexane rings, and a cyano group at the terminal, as described in U.S. Ser. No. 762,615. This liquid crystal composition exhibited a typical dielectric dispersion phenomenon. At the same time, the composition has a large absolute value of dielectric anisotropy, a low viscosity, and a low elastic constant. Therefore, the resultant liquid crystal composition is suitable for a high-speed liquid crystal device. However, the composition has a high cross-over frequency. A liquid crystal used in a printer or the like has a period of 2 msec or less given to control a light-transmitting state (ON) and a light-shielding state (OFF) of one liquid crystal optical shutter in order to perform printing at a practical speed (e.g., about 10 A4 size sheets per minute). Such an optical shutter must be driven by using an RF electric field having a relatively high frequency, e.g., 100 kHz or more, and preferably 150 kHz or more. The cross-over frequency changes depending on temperatures. In order to stably operate the liquid crystal optical shutter, the frequency of the RF electric field applied thereto must be sufficiently higher than the cross-over frequency. The liquid crystal composition of the prior U.S. patent application requires a higher frequency of the RF electric field applied to the liquid crystal composition since the cross-over frequency is still high. When the frequency of the RF electric field is high, a large amount of RF current flows between opposite electrodes of the liquid crystal device through an equivalent capacitor. For this reason, much dielectric heat is generated. Further, Joule heat is generated by the resistances of the electrodes and the lead wires connected to these electrodes to apply the RF voltage thereto. When heated, the operating characteristics of the liquid crystal device are degraded. In addition, since a large amount of RF current flows, power consumption is undesirably increased. A complicated electronic circuit is required to generate a drive signal for applying the RF electric field. In this manner, a liquid crystal composition used in the liquid crystal device driven by the two-frequency addressing scheme must exhibit a typical dielectric dispersion phenomenon, respond at high speed at a relatively low voltage, and have a low crossover frequency. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a liquid crystal composition which can be driven by a two-frequency addressing scheme and which responds at high speed at a relatively low voltage and has a low cross-over frequency. In order to achieve the above object of the present invention, a liquid crystal composition of the present invention has as its base a liquid crystal compound having a low viscosity and a high compatibility with other liquid crystal compounds and is prepared by mixing therewith a specific liquid crystal material containing at least one four-ring compound having four benzene rings and/or cyclohexane rings. The liquid crystal composition according to the present invention contains a first liquid crystal material consisting of at least one compound selected from those represented by general formula (I): ##STR4## (wherein each of R 1 and R 2 is independently an alkyl group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms), and a second liquid crystal material consisting of at least one compound selected from those represented by general formula (II) to (VII) and including at least a compound represented by general formula (VII): ##STR5## (wherein each of R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 is independently an alkyl group having 2 to 7 carbon atoms). The liquid crystal composition contains 45 to 70% by weight of the first liquid crystal material and 30 to 55% by weight of the second liquid crystal material containing 5 to 15% by weight of the compound represented by general formula (VII). The dielectric anisotropy of the resultant liquid crystal composition is positive in a low-frequency (e.g., 4 to 5 kHz) electric field and negative in an RF frequency (e.g., 100 to 300 kHz) electric field. The liquid crystal composition prepared by mixing the specific compounds at the specific mixing ratio contains the four-ring compound having four benzene rings and/or cyclohexane rings. In particular, since the liquid crystal composition contains the compound represented by general formula (VII), it exhibits a typical dielectric dispersion phenomenon. The resultant composition has a large absolute value of dielectric anisotropy, a low viscosity, and a small elastic constant. Therefore, the composition has good response characteristics. In addition, the cross-over frequency is low. A liquid crystal device using this liquid crystal composition can be ON and/or OFF controlled at high speed. As described above, since the cross-over frequency is low, the frequency of the RF electric field can be reduced to 200 kHz or less (e.g., 150 kHz). The RF current is reduced to generate less heat. Therefore, the liquid crystal is not heated, and power consumption can be reduced. Because the RF electric field frequency is reduced, the arrangement of the electric circuit for driving the liquid crystal device can be simplified. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present inventor made extensive studies to find a liquid crystal composition suitable for use in a liquid crystal device whose light transmission and shielding can be controlled, the liquid crystal composition having good response characteristics and a low cross-over frequency. The present inventor found that the prescribed object could be achieved by mixing a second liquid crystal material of at least a four-ring compound having an ester bond with a first liquid crystal material having a low viscosity and a high compatibility with other liquid crystal compounds. The four-ring compound has four benzene rings and/or cyclohexane rings, and an ester bond. In particular, an ester compound containing fluorobiphenyl is most preferred. More specifically, the first liquid crystal material is a liquid crystal compound having a low viscosity (10 to 20 cP at 25° C.), good compatibility with other liquid crystal compounds, and a low Δε(-1.0 to -1.5). Such a liquid crystal compound is represented by general formula (I): ##STR6## (wherein each of R 1 and R 2 is independently an alkyl group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms). One or more of the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formula (I) is used to provide the first liquid crystal material. The second liquid crystal material of a liquid crystal compound exhibiting a dielectric dispersion property and having a large Δε (+5 to +40) at a low frequency (fL) and a small Δε (-0.5 to -2) at an RF frequency (fH) is mixed with the first liquid crystal material as the base. The second liquid crystal material imparts the dielectric dispersion property to the liquid crystal composition. The liquid crystal compound is a three-ring or four-ring compound having an ester bond and three or four benzene rings and/or cyclohexane rings. Such liquid crystal compounds can be represented by the general formulas below: ##STR7## (wherein each of R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 is independently an alkyl group having 2 to 7 carbon atoms). Among the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (II) to (VII), the four-ring compounds represented by general formulas (V), (VI), and (VII) are effective for reducing the cross frequencies of the liquid crystal compositions. In particular, the four-ring liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII) exhibits a typical effect for reducing the cross-over frequency. The liquid crystal composition according to the present invention includes at least one liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII). Preferably, the second liquid crystal material includes at least one four-ring liquid crystal compound represented by general formulas (V) and (VI) and/or at least one liquid crystal compound represented by general formulas (II) to (IV), in addition to the liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII). In particular, the second liquid crystal material preferably contains one or both of the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (V) and (VI), in addition to the compound of formula (VII). The liquid crystal composition according to the present invention contains 45 to 70% by weight of the first liquid crystal material and 30 to 55% by weight of the second liquid crystal material with respect to the total content of the resultant liquid crystal composition. In this case, the liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII) is preferably contained in an amount of 5 to 15% by weight. In order to obtain better characteristics, a third liquid crystal material is mixed to reduce the dielectric anisotropy of the liquid crystal composition in the negative direction and, at the same time, to reduce the cross-over frequency. In order to increase the absolute value of Δε in the RF electric field, a liquid crystal compound having a large negative Δε (about -20) is used. This compound can be represented by the following general formula: ##STR8## (wherein each of R 9 and R 10 is independently an alkyl group having 2 to 5 carbon atoms). The content of the third liquid crystal material falls within the range of 15% by weight or less, as needed, and preferably 2 to 15% by weight. The liquid crystal composition constituted by the above liquid crystal materials preferably contains the following amount of the second liquid crystal material. If the second liquid crystal material contains at least one liquid crystal compound represented by general formulas (V) and (VI), an optimal total content of such a compound and the compound represented by general formula (VII) is preferably 5 to 40% by weight. In particular, the content of at least one liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (V) is preferably 2 to 20% by weight, and the content of at least one liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VI) is preferably 2 to 15% by weight. If the second liquid crystal material contains both the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (V) and (VI), respectively, a total content of the compounds represented by general formulas (V), (VI) and (VII) are preferably 30 to 40% by weight. The second liquid crystal material preferably contains at least one liquid crystal compound represented by general formulas (V) and (VI) or both liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (II) and (III), respectively, in addition to the liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII). If the second liquid crystal material contains at least one of the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (V) and (VI), a total content of the liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (V) and/or (VI) is preferably 5 to 35% by weight. If the second liquid crystal material contains the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (II) and (III), the contents of the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (II) and (III) are preferably 5 to 20% by weight and 5 to 15% by weight, respectively. In addition, a liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (IV) is preferably contained in an amount of 2 to 15% by weight. Furthermore, the second liquid crystal material preferably contains both liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (II) and (III), respectively, and one of the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (V) and (VI), in addition to the liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII). In this case, the contents of the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (II), (III), (V), and (VI) are preferably 5 to 20% by weight, 5 to 15% by weight, 2 to 20% by weight, and 5 to 15% by weight, respectively. The contents of the second liquid crystal material should be selected such that a total content thereof falls within the range of 30 to 55% by weight of the resultant liquid crystal composition, as noted above. In the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (I) to (VIII), R 1 in general formula (I) is preferably a propyl, butyl, or penthyl group, R 2 is preferably a methyl, ethyl, or butyl group; R 3 in general formula (II) is preferably an ethyl or pentyl group; R 4 in general formula (III) is preferably a pentyl or heptyl group; R 5 in general formula (IV) is preferably a propyl group; R 6 in general formula (V) is preferably a propyl or pentyl group; R 7 in general formula (VI) is preferably a propyl or pentyl group; R 8 in general formula (VII) is preferably a propyl or pentyl group; and each of R 9 and R 10 in general formula (VIII) is independently an ethyl, propyl, or butyl group. The present invention will be described in detail by way of examples. EXAMPLES Liquid crystal compounds in Tables 1 and 2 were mixed in the indicated mixing ratios to prepare seven liquid crystal compositions. Using these liquid crystal compositions, liquid crystal cells were prepared and driven at the two different frequencies of 200 Hz and 100 kHz and at a voltage of 25 V. The values of dielectric anisotropy Δε and cross-over frequencies fc of these compositions were measured and summarized in Table 3. Viscosities (at a measuring temperature of 25° C.) of the liquid crystal compositions are also shown in Table 3. The rise and fall times of the liquid crystal compositions were 0.5 msec or less. None of these compositions were frozen in a 0° C. freezer after they were left therein for 4 days (C-N point of 0° C. or less). TABLE 1__________________________________________________________________________ Example (% by weight)Liquid Crystal Compound 1 2 3__________________________________________________________________________First Liquid Crystal Material 1 ##STR9## 7 7.3 9.1 2 ##STR10## 8 8.3 10.4 3 ##STR11## 7 7.3 9.1 4 ##STR12## 8 8.3 10.4 5 ##STR13## 7 7.3 9.1 6 ##STR14## 8 8.3 10.4 7 ##STR15## 5 5.2 6.5Second Liquid Crystal Material 8 ##STR16## 8 8 9 ##STR17## 7 710 ##STR18## 5 511 ##STR19## 5 512 ##STR20## 713 ##STR21## 814 ##STR22## 715 ##STR23## 3 516 ##STR24## 2 517 ##STR25## 5 5 518 ##STR26## 5 5 5Third Liquid Crystal Material19 ##STR27## 2 220 ##STR28## 3 321 ##STR29## 3 3__________________________________________________________________________ TABLE 2__________________________________________________________________________ Example (% by weight)Liquid Crystal Compound 4 5 6 7__________________________________________________________________________First Liquid Crystal Material 1 ##STR30## 7 6.7 7.3 7.7 2 ##STR31## 8 7.7 8.3 8.8 3 ##STR32## 7 6.7 7.3 7.7 4 ##STR33## 8 7.7 8.3 8.8 5 ##STR34## 7 6.7 7.3 7.7 6 ##STR35## 8 7.7 8.3 8.8 7 ##STR36## 5 4.8 5.2 5.5Second Liquid Crystal Material 8 ##STR37## 8 8 5 9 ##STR38## 7 7 15 510 ##STR39## 5 7 3 611 ##STR40## 5 3 7 612 ##STR41##13 ##STR42## 4 314 ##STR43## 3 5 515 ##STR44## 316 ##STR45## 217 ##STR46## 5 5 3 518 ##STR47## 5 5 7 5Third Liquid Crystal Material19 ##STR48## 2 3 2 220 ##STR49## 3 3 3 321 ##STR50## 3 3 3 3__________________________________________________________________________ TABLE 3__________________________________________________________________________Physical ExampleProperty 1 2 3 4 5 6 7__________________________________________________________________________Δε (200 Hz) 6.7 6.7 4.2 6.9 6.6 5.9 5.8Δε (100 kHz) -3.4 -3.3 -1.5 -3.3 -3.5 -3.4 -3.1fc 10.2 kHz 10.0 kHz 0.9 kHz 7.2 kHz 6.0 kHz 6.6 kHz 9.2 kHz (25° C.) (25° C.) (25° C.) (23° C.) (23° C.) (24° C.) (23° C.)Viscosity 96 cp 96 cp 44 cp 110 cp 85 cp 100 cp 87 cp(25° C.) (30° C.)__________________________________________________________________________ In the composition of Example 1, the second liquid crystal material was prepared by mixing three-ring liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (II), (III), and (IV), in addition to the four-ring liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII). The cross-over frequency of the resultant liquid crystal composition can be reduced by mixing the four-ring liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII). In the compositions of Examples 2 and 7, the second liquid crystal materials were prepared by mixing the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formulas (VI) and (VII) with the four-ring compounds, respectively. Since the contents of four-ring compounds are increased, the cross-over frequencies of the resultant compositions are further reduced as compared with the composition of Example 1. In the composition of Example 3, the second liquid crystal material was prepared by only the four-ring crystal compounds represented by general formulas (V), (VI), and (VII). In this manner, since the contents of the four-ring compounds are increased, the cross-over frequency of the resultant composition can be very low. In the compositions of Examples 4, 5, and 6, the second liquid crystal materials were prepared by mixing the liquid crystal compounds represented by general formula (V) in addition to the liquid crystal compound represented by general formula (VII). Therefore, the cross-over frequency of each resultant composition can be reduced. The liquid crystal compositions of Examples 1 to 7 exhibit a typical dielectric dispersion phenomenon. The absolute values of dielectric anisotropy of these compositions are large, and elastic constants thereof are small. These compositions are suitable for high-speed response. In addition, the use of four-ring compounds causes a reduction of cross-over frequencies, thus reducing the frequency of the RF electric field applied according to two-frequency addressing scheme. Therefore, heat generation of the liquid crystal device can be prevented, and power consumption can be reduced. Liquid crystal devices using the above liquid crystal compositions are arranged in the following manner. In each device, a pair of substrates having electrodes are spaced apart from each other by about 4.5 to 5.5 μm such that the electrode surfaces oppose each other, and the liquid crystal composition is sealed therebetween. A low-frequency (4 to 5 kHz) electric field and an RF (200 kHz) electric field are selectively applied to the liquid crystal device to control the light-transmitting and light-shielding states. Since the liquid crystal device using the liquid crystal composition of the present invention has a low cross-over frequency, the device can be driven by an electric field having a relatively low frequency of 320 kHz and preferably 200 kHz or less. In addition, the absolute value of dielectric anisotropy is large, the viscosity is low, and the elastic constant is small. Therefore, the light-transmitting and light-shielding states can be controlled at high speed.

A liquid crystal composition contains at a predetermined mixing ratio: a first liquid crystal material of at least one compound represented by general formula (I): ##STR1## (wherein each of R 1 and R 2 is independently an alkyl group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms) and a second liquid crystal material of at least a compound represented by general formula (VII) among compounds represented by general formulas (II) to (VII): ##STR2## (wherein each of R 3 , R 4 , R 5 , R 6 , R 7 , and R 8 is independently an alkyl group having 2 to 7 carbon atoms). The liquid crystal composition may optionally contain at least one compound represented by the following general formula: ##STR3## (wherein each of R 9 and R 10 is independently an alkyl group having 2 to 5 carbon atoms).

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is the U.S. national stage of International Patent Application No. PCT/CN2009/072096, filed on Jun. 2, 2009 and entitled “Method of Extracting Te and Bismuth Oxide and Recovering Byproducts,” which claims the benefit of priority from Chinese Patent Application No. 200810044496.7, filed Jun. 2, 2008. The disclosures of the foregoing applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to smelting processes for scattered elements, rare metals and noble metals, and more specifically, to processes of extracting highly pure tellurium directly from various raw materials containing tellurium by hydrometallurgical methods, extracting highly pure bismuth trioxide when the raw material comprises bismuth and collectively recovering other byproducts, which falls within the field of hydrometallurgy; while it substantially achieves no Three Wastes (waste gas, waste water and industrial residue) and zero emission, which falls within the field of environmental protection. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Tellurium is an essential elemental in modern science and belongs to scattered elements. At present, the extraction and recovery of tellurium is primarily achieved by collectively recovering from byproducts during nonferrous metal smelting processes, for example, recovering from anode slimes of copper and lead etc., or extracting from primary tellurium ores. Tellurium may be incorporated into steels to increase ductility, and serve as brightener in electroplating solution, catalyst in petroleum cracking, coloring material for glass, and also may be added into lead to increase its strength and corrosion resistance. Highly pure tellurium may be used as an alloy component for thermoelectric materials; bismuth telluride is a good refrigeration material; semi-conducting compound As 32 Te 48 Si 2 O is a material for manufacturing storage devices of computer; ultrapure single crystal tellurium is a novel infrared material. Highly pure tellurium plays important roles although little is used. Tellurium is also one of the best primary materials for solar cell, which has the largest conversion coefficient, relatively low cost and best benefit. Cost is essential for popularization of solar energy, the eternal energy source, and it is thus critical to obtain advancement in the process technology of tellurium extraction, minimize the cost, and achieve substantially no Three Wastes, zero emission and best product quality in practical production. There have been various reports and patents concerning extracting tellurium from tetradymites or other Te-containing raw materials with wet process, and lots of works have been done by the experts. For example, Chinese patent application No. 99111440.X entitled “Process of Extracting Fine Tellurium from Tellurium Polymetallic Ores” discloses a process of extracting tellurium with wet process, in which hydrochloric acid is used for leaching, the leach solution is reduced by sulfur dioxide gas and then precipitated to give crude tellurium powders which subsequently react with oxidants in the hydrochloric acid solution to yield an intermediate product, TeO 2 , and fine tellurium product is finally collected upon electrolysis. Although fine tellurium with 99.99% purity can be obtained after electrolysis employing the hydrometallurgical method disclosed by this application, the whole process has relatively high production cost, high energy consumption, low recovery rate and low yields, wherein serious environmental problems such as large amount of waste gases and waste water occurs and other byproducts are not comprehensively utilized. In another case, Chinese patent application No. 93115389.1 entitled “A Production Process of Extracting Fine Tellurium from Primary Tellurium Ores by Wet Process” discloses a method of producing fine tellurium from primary tellurium ores, which comprises leaching tellurium and bismuth by high temperature oxidation in hydrochloric acid medium, reducing by sulfur dioxide to give crude tellurium powder, and obtaining fine tellurium through chemical purification and electrolytic purification, and further obtaining an intermediate bismuth-containing product upon hydrolysis of the neutralized bismuth-containing reduction solution. This method requires external heating to 80° C. or more, which doubtlessly increases cost, and employs an electrolysis process leading to issues such as high energy consumption. In addition, the waste solution and waste residues are not comprehensively utilized during the production process whereby serious environmental problems and resource wasting issues emerges. In bismuth recovery from tetradymites by hydrometallurgical methods, in general, iron is added into the acidic solution after recovering tellurium for reduction, yielding primary spongy bismuth product of low purity. The spongy bismuth produced by this method has low values, high cost and poor economical benefits. It has not been reported to directly produce 99.99% Bi 2 O 3 from tetradymites. With regards to the Three Wastes concerning environmental protection, less waste gases and residues are produced in hydrometallurgical methods than in pyrometallurgy methods, whilst much more waste water is produced, which is a serious environmental issue for hydrometallurgy. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to certain drawbacks and problems present in hydrometallurgy of the existing technologies, such as low leach rate, low recovery rate, relatively high production cost, high energy consumption, low product quality; serious environmental problems such as large amount of waste gases and waste water, as well as disadvantages as inability to achieve comprehensive exploitation of waste residues; and the electrolysis employed during isolation and purification which causes issues like high energy consumption, low yield and high cost etc. The present invention proposes a new method with high recovery rate, low cost, low energy consumption, high quality, collective recovery and substantially no Three Wastes and zero emission. The method employed in the present invention to recycle the waste water and recover in closed circuit is the first successful practice, hence a milestone, in the history of environment protection in hydrometallurgy. Referring to the illustration in FIG. 1 , a method for direct extraction of highly pure tellurium from raw materials by wet process is proposed in the present invention. More particularly, the hydrometallurgical method of extracting tellurium according to the present invention comprises steps of material selecting, leaching the selected material, and reducing and purifying the leach solution. In this method, the material selecting step includes: selecting raw material, usually mineral raw material, with tellurium content ≧1.8%, e.g., fine mineral powder with tellurium content ≧1.8% and 80 mesh or above, or anode slime with tellurium content ≧1.8%, and/or other raw materials with tellurium content ≧1.8%, and placing the selected raw material into a leaching trough; the leaching system comprises H 2 SO 4 , Cl − , Br − , NH 4 + and NaClO 3 . The detailed leaching step includes to the leaching trough in this order: (1) adding a solution and/or solid containing Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + at a ratio of Cl − ≧115 kg, Br≧16 kg and NH 4 + ≧62 kg per ton of the raw material, with the liquid-solid ratio between the liquid and raw material in the leaching trough ≧1.5, and leaching at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours, (2) then adding concentrated H 2 SO 4 in an amount of 500 to 1000 kg per ton of raw material and leaching for 1 to 3 hours, wherein the leaching temperature may rise spontaneously to 45-65° C. due to the heat released by concentrated sulfuric acid, and the residual acidity of the solution after leaching upon addition of concentrated H 2 SO 4 is required to be 0.5 to 1.5 N, (3) further adding NaClO 3 in an amount of 25 to 50 kg of NaClO 3 per ton of raw material, leaching under stirring for 2 hours or more, wherein oxidation reaction occurs upon addition of NaClO 3 while heat is released, which leads to an spontaneous increase of temperature up to 75-95° C.; filtering and washing, and then collecting leach solution. Using the method of the present invention, the washing residue (leaching residue) has a content of Te≦0.035% and can be used as raw material for cement or cement bricks; the collected leach solution is reduced and purified with existing techniques so as to give tellurium with purity of 99.99% or more. The collected leach solution mentioned above may also be used to produce highly pure product with the following method: impurity separation by precipitation process: the leach solution is adjusted to pH 2.7 to 3.1 with bases, filtered and washed to obtain waste solution A and a precipitate, wherein the waste solution A comprises H + , SO 4 2− , NH 4 + , Cl − , Br − and other ions leached out from the raw material, and Te remains in the precipitate; the precipitate with hydrochloric acid, filter and collect filtrate which is reduced and purified with existing technologies to yield tellurium with purity of 99.99% or more. In the present invention, in addition to employ the existing reduction and purification method for the filtrate, the following method may be used for reduction and purification to obtain tellurium with purity of 99.99% or more: reduction: sulfite or SO 2 gas is introduced into the collected filtrate for reduction until Te≦0.03 g/l, tellurium is precipitated, filtered and washed to obtain a tellurium-containing precipitate and filtrate B; purification: concentrated HCl is added at a liquid-solid ratio ≧1:1 into the above tellurium-containing precipitate for washing, wherein other impurities in the washed tellurium precipitate may be leached by concentrated HCl since tellurium is not soluble in HCl, a tellurium precipitate and waste solution C are obtained by filtering and washing, the tellurium precipitate is washed with pure water until pH>3, filtered to obtain tellurium precipitate and waste solution D, and the tellurium precipitate is baked to yield fine tellurium powder with purity of 99.99% or more which is sintered at 400 to 500° C. to give block tellurium product with purity of 99.99% or more. According to the preferred specific embodiment of the present invention, in the leaching step, the solution and/or solid containing Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + is a solution and/or solid of NH 4 Br and NH 4 Cl, and Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + are complexing and catalytic leaching agents; the leach solution in the impurity separation step of the precipitation process is adjusted to pH 2.9 with bases; said bases are NaOH and/or NH 3 ; the sulfite in the reduction step is Na 2 SO 3 . The waste solution A, waste solution C and/or waste solution D produced in the above steps are returned to the step (1) of the leaching step for leaching, and it will not be necessary to add further solution and/or solid containing Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + which can be completely replaced by the waste solutions for leaching when the amount of Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + in the waste solutions satisfies that Cl − ≧115 kg, Br − ≧16 kg and NH 4 + ≧62 kg for each ton of raw material. In addition, the concentration of Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + in the waste solutions increases as they are returned for leaching for more and more times, that is, the complexing and catalytic leaching effect is getting better, leading to a continuous decrease of leaching time and continuous increase in leach rate, and the tellurium content in the leached residue may be less than 0.02% after leaching with the waste solution for multiple times. When the bismuth content is ≧2% in the raw material, filtrate B is collected in the above reduction step, and existing method can be used to extract Bi 2 O 3 , for example: the filtrate B is adjusted with base added to pH 8-9 and heated to 80-90° C. so as to convert the precipitate to a yellow Bi 2 O 3 precipitate, which is filtered and washed to obtain Bi 2 O 3 precipitate, said precipitate is then baked to yield Bi 2 O 3 with purity of 99.99% or more. In addition, a new method is employed in the present invention for extraction of Bi 2 O 3 : firstly the filtrate B is adjusted with bases to pH 2.7-3.1, preferably pH 2.9, while bismuth is precipitated in the forms of BiO(OH), Bi(OH) 3 and BiOCl, filtered and washed to obtain bismuth-containing precipitate and waste solution E which contains impurities; the bismuth-containing precipitate is transferred into an agitator with a pure water:solid ratio ≧1:1 and blended with bases added therein under stirring to adjust pH to 8-9, heated to 80-90° C. so as to convert the precipitate to a yellow Bi 2 O 3 precipitate, which is filtered and washed to obtain waste solution F and Bi 2 O 3 precipitate, the precipitate is then baked to yield Bi 2 O 3 with purity of 99.99% or more; other conventional methods may also be used to convert bismuth-containing precipitate for Bi 2 O 3 purification. Waste solution E may be returned to the step (1) of the leaching step of tellurium extraction for use. When the bismuth content is <2% in the raw material, filtrate B can be used the same as waste solution A, waste solution C, waste solution D and waste solution E to return to the step (1) of the leaching step for leaching. Said bases are NaOH and/or NH 3 ; waste solution F is basic, which may be used as a base in the process for Bi 2 O 3 purification to adjust pH to 2.7-3.1, or may be returned to the process of tellurium extraction to adjust pH to 2.7-3.1, preferably pH 2.9. The present invention also provides a method for collective recovery of byproducts, wherein, as the waste solution being returned and used for leaching for multiple cycles, the concentration of the metals with trivial amount in the leach solution keeps increasing until reaching the recovery condition, and then the metals are recovered. More specifically, the method of collective recovery of byproducts according to the present invention includes treatment of the waste solutions from the hydrometallurgical process for tellurium extraction and/or from the hydrometallurgical process for bismuth trioxide extraction. In the present invention, as the returned waste solutions, partially or fully replacing the solution and/or solid containing Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + , are used for leaching for multiple cycles, the concentration of other scarce noble metals such as Au, Ag, Pt, Rh, Pd, Co, Ni, Sn, Cu, Se included in the raw material continuously increases, and recovery may be carried out by conventional methods when the collective recovery condition is arrived; further, when the bismuth content in the raw material is <2%, bismuth is collectively recovered together with these scarce noble metals after leaching for multiple cycles. In addition, Na 2 SO 4 .10H 2 O or (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 crystals will precipitate from the waste water (waste solution) during recycling and may be recovered as byproducts. Namely, the present invention also provides a method for collective recovery of byproducts, wherein the Na 2 SO 4 .10H 2 O or (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 crystals precipitated from waste solution during recycling are recovered. Specifically, the waste solution is the waste solution produced during the hydrometallurgical process for tellurium extraction and/or during the hydrometallurgical process for bismuth trioxide extraction of the present invention. The present method may be used for production and recovery for all tellurium-containing raw materials to give products in the form of fine tellurium powders or elementary block products with purity of 99.99% or more; when Bi in the raw material is ≧2%, it may be used for production and recovery of Bi 2 O 3 products with purity of 99.99% or more; and it may also be used for collective recovery of other products or crude products. Since elementary substances or compounds of scattered, rare elements like tellurium and bismuth are all substantially soluble in the H 2 SO 4 +Cl − +Br − +NH 4 + +NaClO 3 system, the present invention employs a leaching system containing H 2 SO 4 , Cl − , Br − , NH 4 + and NaClO 3 , and integrates acidic oxidation leaching, complexation leaching and catalytic leaching into a comprehensive leaching method. In the first leaching process, after adding the solution and/or solid containing Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + , waste solution can be recycled in the subsequent production to partially or fully replacing the solution and/or solid containing Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + for leaching, which saves the cost and is beneficial for environment protection as almost no waste solution is discharged; furthermore, the concentration of Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + in the waste solution increases as the times of leaching increase, and the complexing leaching effect and catalytic leaching effect of these ions causes the leaching time with waste solution to decreases and leach rate to increases, while the leach rate of other metals increases as well. It has been demonstrated in experiments that the leach rate of tellurium and bismuth may be up to 99.5% and above and the leach rate of other scarce noble metals may be up to 99% after multiple recycling of waste solution, such high leach rate has never been reported previously. Concentrated sulfuric acid is added into the leaching system and spontaneously releases heat, thus allowing the temperature during the leaching process to rise to the desired temperature without heating; further, sodium chlorate is used for oxidative leaching after concentrated sulfuric acid leaching, and leaching temperature further increases and can achieve the desired temperature without heating due to the participation of sodium chlorate in the exothermic oxidation reaction, thereby the higher leaching rate can be achieved without too higher temperature, which saves the cost and shortens the process. Fine tellurium powder with purity of 99.99% or more can be obtained after baking, or block-shaped tellurium may be produced after sintering at 400-500° C. Abandoning expensive electrolysis method and simplifying the hydrometallurgical procedure for tellurium, the present method is more convenient, effective and energy-saving while improving the quality of the product. In the present invention, the leach solution is adjusted during the process of tellurium purification to pH 2.7-3.1, which step is sufficiently utilized so that many impurities, such as Fe, Cu, Se, Mg, Al, Si, Co, Ni, Cl − , SO 4 2− , NH 4 + , may be separated and precipitated as BiO(OH), Bi(OH) 3 , BiOCl and H 2 TeO 3 , Te(OH) 4 , the precipitates are then dissolved by concentrated HCl and the isolated tellurium is reduced by sulfite or SO 2 , the resulting acidic solution, as a bismuth-containing solution, is subjected to pH adjustment, and then filtered and washed followed by baking to give Bi 2 O 3 with purity of 99.99% or more. Such method produces high quality Bi 2 O 3 product with high quality, and such method has low cost, good operability and short procedure, and is an economic and efficient hydrometallurgical method for Bi 2 O 3 recovery. Some scarce noble metals, such as Au, Ag, Pt, Rh, Pd, Co, Ni, Sn, Cu, have low leach rate in HCl+NaClO 3 medium, generally at about 60%. However, it has been demonstrated in experiments that up to 99% of leaching may be achieved during the waste water recycling employed in the present process. Although the content of these metals is low, the concentration thereof continue to increase as the waste solution in which they present are recycling for multiple times, and the metals can be recovered using existing recovery method when the condition for collective recovery is achieved; washed residue may be used as raw material for cement or cement bricks etc. after it is washed and passes the test; Na 2 SO 4 .10H 2 O or (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 crystals that may precipitate during the recycling of waste water may be recovered and used as other chemical raw materials. As seen, the process method provided by the present invention has simple procedure, low cost, high quality, strong adaptability, recover in closed circuit, and also achieves substantially no Three Wastes and zero emission in the hydrometallurgical process, and is beneficial for environment protection. Based on the idea and practice of hydrometallurgy with no Three Wastes and zero emission proposed in the present invention, no emission of exhaust gases is essentially achieved after the small amount of exhaust gas produced during the production procedure and that from the factory building are absorbed by bases and acids; waste residues may be used as raw material for cement bricks or cement production after multiple washes and reaching the standard; waste water is recycled in closed circuit, the increased amount of water during the production process is entrained in waste residues and crystallizing water for the byproduct Na 2 SO 4 .10H 2 O, while the entrained water in the product may also be recycled during the baking process. Hence, it is practically proved that material balance can be essentially achieved. With regards to Three Wastes that are concerned in environmental protection, hydrometallurgy process generates less waste gas and waste residues than pyrometallurgy, but large amount of waste water is produced, which is the major environmental problem present in hydrometallurgy. One of the successes of the present invention is in that waste water is recycled and recovered in closed circuit, which is the first successful practice, hence a milestone, in the history of environment protection in hydrometallurgy. It has been discovered in the present invention that the concentrations of complex ions like Cl − , Br − and NH 4 + in the waste water keep increasing as recycling times increase, which results into a more prominent effect of complexing leaching and catalytic leaching. A theory for waste water recycling is proposed in the invention as follows: many ions and compounds with functions of complexation, catalysis and oxidation-reduction exist in the waste water in the hydrometallurgical process, and they can be repeatedly used for leaching, while reinforcing the leaching effect, improving leach rate, shortening leach time, and saving the amount of leaching agents used. This is the theory for waster water returning and recycling, such theory needs to be further testified in more hydrometallurgical projects, so as to determine whether it is adaptable for all hydrometallurgical systems and whether it can become a principle in hydrometallurgy. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 is a flowchart of the hydrometallurgical process for extracting tellurium and bismuth trioxide. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention is described below in more details in connection with Examples. In the following six examples, although the leaching conditions are different from each other, a leach rate of 99.5% Te and 99.5% Bi is reached after leaching completely with waste water in all examples, which clearly demonstrate the advantage of leaching integrating acidic oxidation leaching, complexing leaching and catalytic leaching in the present invention; the recycled waste water is substantially balanced. The concentration of Cl − in the waste water increase with the increase of recycling times, and excellent leaching effect has been demonstrated by data of multiple leaching examples. When the concentration of Cl − increases to the saturated concentrations of its compounds such as NaCl and FeCl 2 , they will precipitate and may subsequently enter the collective recovery procedure; whereas, the amount of NH 4 + and Br − will be somehow consumed, and needs to be supplemented when the data of NH 4 +and Br analyzed and controlled in production drops. The content of individual components in the raw material is in percent by weight. In the present invention, the liquid-solid ratio is based on the convention in industrial production in the art, wherein the dimension for liquid is volume in m 3 , and the dimension for solid is weight in T. EXAMPLE 1 3 tons of tetradymites are crushed to 80 meshes, and the content of major elements in the raw material is shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca S Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se content % 5.8 9.12 1.8 15.5 0.019 17.4 4.11 4.08 7.44 0.0059 0.0038 0.0052 Liquid-solid ratio is 2, and leaching condition and results are shown in the table below: Amount Amount Amount of of Concentrated H 2 SO 4 NaClO 3 Te Bi of liquid NH 4 Cl NH 4 Br Leach Amount Leach Leach Amount Leach Leach Residual leach leach added added added time added time temp. added time temp. acidity rate rate 6 m 3 525 kg 60 kg 3 h 3 T 3 h 65° C. 150 kg 5 h 95° C. 1.5 N 98.3% 98.6% H 2 O As shown in the above table, during leaching, adding 6m 3 of H 2 O into 3 tons of raw material followed by adding 525 kg NH 4 Cl and 60 kg NH 4 Br, leaching for 3 h at ambient temperature; then adding 3 tons of concentrated H 2 SO 4 and leaching for another 3 h with the temperature spontaneously rising to 65° C.; then adding 150 kg NaClO 3 and leaching for 5 h under stirring with the temperature spontaneously rising to 95° C.; filtering, washing and collecting filtrate, and it was found upon examination that the leach rate of Te in the leach solution is 98.3% and that of Bi is 98.6%, the residual acidity is 1.5 N. Full analysis data of the leach solution and leach residue are shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca Mg Ag Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se Leach solution g/l 29.1 44.1 9.52 12.5 0.002 0.27 4.84 0.011 11 1.58 0.02 0.2 0.11 Leach residue % 0.035 0.029 0.035 14.61 0.0011 16.28 3.12 0.0001 3.52 3.4 0.0007 0.0005 0.015 The full analysis data of the leach solution and leach residue suggest that Te, Bi and other scarce noble metals can all be leached with this acidic oxidative, complexing, catalytic leaching system. The leach rate of Ca and Pb is rather low since H 2 SO 4 is used for leaching, which is beneficial for separation in the purification process. Suitable condition for crude tellurium powder reduction is an acidity of 0.5 to 1.5N, and since the residual acidity of the leach solution in this example is 1.5N, it is suitable for tellurium preparation with conventional methods. The leach solution is added with SO 2 gas for reduction until the content of Te in the solution is 0.008 g/l, and filtered and washed, and 99.9916% Te is obtained after electrolysis of the precipitate. Waste solution separated by filtering and washing is preserved for use in the next production. EXAMPLE 2 3 tons of tetradymites are crushed to 100 meshes, and the content of major elements in the raw material is shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca S Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se content % 6.61 9.63 2.03 16.2 0.0177 16.8 3.92 4.51 7.54 0.0054 0.0045 0.005 Liquid-solid ratio is 2, and leaching condition and results are shown in the table below: Amount Amount Amount of of Concentrated H 2 SO 4 NaClO 3 Te Bi of liquid NH 4 Cl NH 4 Br Leach Amount Leach Leach Amount Leach Leach Residual leach leach added added added time added time temp. added time temp. acidity rate rate 6 m 3 230 kg 48 kg 2 h 2.9 T 2.5 h 60° C. 150 kg 4 h 90° C. 1.4 N 99.1% 99.2% waste solution As shown in the above table, adding 6m 3 of waste solution separated from Example 1 into 3 tons of raw material followed by adding 230 kg NH 4 Cl and 48 kg NH 4 Br, leaching for 2 h at ambient temperature; then adding 2.9 tons of concentrated H 2 SO 4 and leaching for another 2.5 h with the temperature spontaneously rising to 60° C.; then adding 150 kg NaClO 3 and leaching for 4h under stirring while the temperature spontaneously rising to 90° C.; filtering, washing and collecting filtrate, and it was found upon examination that the leach rate of Te in the leach solution is 99.1% and that of Bi is 99.2%, the residual acidity is 1.4N. Full analysis data of the leach solution and leach residue are shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca Mg Ag Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se Leach solution g/l 31.1 44.2 18.5 20.3 0.003 0.21 5.02 0.02 15 1.5 0.03 0.35 0.18 Leach residue % 0.031 0.027 0.14 15.1 0.0025 16.2 3.4 0.0015 4.18 3.8 0.0005 0.0075 0.016 The leach solution is adjusted with NaOH solution to pH 2.7 to afford a mixture of tellurium and bismuth precipitates, the precipitates are then filtered and washed, and the resulting waste solution are to be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production. The above-mentioned precipitates after washing are dissolved by concentrated HCl and then filtered, and SO 2 gas is added into the leach solution for reduction until the content of Te in the solution is 0.01 g/l. After filtering and washing, the precipitate is a tellurium precipitate, the filtrate is a bismuth-containing solution, and the results of full analysis are shown in the following table: Name Te Bi Fe Cu Ca Mg Pb Al SiO 2 Ag Co Ni pH Filtrate 0.01 200.08 1.15 0.05 0.01 0.31 0.001 1.01 0.005 N/A N/A N/A <0.5 g/l Te precipitate % 99.68 0.06 0.04 0.11 0.13 0.003 0.001 0.05 0.003 N/A N/A N/A The Te precipitate is filtered, washed and then electrolyzed to give 99.992% Te. Bi 2 O 3 purification: adjusting pH with NaOH to 8-9, heating at 84° C. for 3.5 h under stirring to produce yellow Bi 2 O 3 , filtering and washing to obtain Bi 2 O 3 precipitate and basic filtrate; baking the precipitate to prepare a 99.991% Bi 2 O 3 product, and the basic filtrate may be maintained for use for pH adjustment in the next Bi 2 O 3 extraction. EXAMPLE 3 3 tons of tetradymites are crushed to 100 meshes, and the content of major elements in the raw material is shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca S Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se Content % 6.9 9.82 2.3 15.4 0.018 16.3 4.32 4.75 7.71 0.004 0.0051 0.0043 The waste solution separated from example 2 is added at a liquid-solid ratio of 2, and leaching condition and results are shown in the table below: Amount Amount Amount of of of Concentrated H 2 SO 4 NaClO 3 Te Bi liquid NH 4 Cl NH 4 Br Leach Amount Leach Leach Amount Leach Leach Residual leach leach added added added time added time temp. added time temp. acidity rate rate 6 m 3 225 kg 60 kg 2 h 2.86 T 1 h 45° C. 150 kg 4 h 95° C. 1.2 N 99.7% 99.6% waste solution Detailed description for procedures which are the same as Example 2 is omitted herein. Full analysis data of the leach solution and leach residue are shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca Mg Ag Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se Leach solution g/l 31.85 44.9 27.1 25.1 0.0035 0.18 6.03 0.03 16.3 1.6 0.041 0.45 0.25 Leach residue % 0.023 0.021 0.11 15.5 0.0016 16.3 3.5 0.0018 4.25 3.83 0.0001 0.0011 0.017 The leach solution is adjusted with NaOH solution to pH 2.9 to afford a mixture of tellurium and bismuth precipitates, the precipitates are then filtered and washed, and the resulting waste solution are to be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production. The above-mentioned precipitates after washing are dissolved by concentrated HCl and then filtered, and Na 2 SO 3 is added into the leach solution for reduction until the content of Te in the solution is 0.02 g/l. After filtering and washing, the precipitate is a tellurium precipitate, the filtrate is a bismuth-containing solution, and the results of full analysis are shown in the following table: Name Te Bi Fe Cu Ca Mg Pb Al SiO 2 Ag Co Ni pH Filtrate 0.02 200.07 1.12 0.06 0.013 0.25 0.0012 1.08 0.005 trace trace trace <0.5 g/l Te 99.49 0.12 0.04 0.15 0.16 0.004 0.0009 0.03 0.003 trace trace trace precipitate % The Te precipitate above is washed with concentrated HCl added at a liquid-solid ratio of 1:1 to dissolve other impurities, filtered. The precipitate is washed with pure water to pH 4 and then filtered, waste solution is to be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production, and Te precipitate is baked to give fine tellurium powder with purity of 99.9925%. Examination results of the product are shown in the following table: Name Mg Pb Se Ni Ag Sb Bi Cu Mn ppm 0.0912 0.6 0.75 0.64 0.81 0.469 10 10 0.129 Name Co Zn Ca Fe As Al Sn S Na ppm 0.587 0.31 0.43 10 0.3 0.4 0.23 0.11 0.5 Bi 2 O 3 purification: the above bismuth-containing filtrate is adjusted with the basic filtrate from Bi 2 O 3 extraction in Example 2 and NaOH to pH 2.7, filtered and washed, resultant precipitate is a mixture of BiO(OH), Bi(OH) 3 and BiOCl and resultant filtrate can be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production (waste solutions to be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production that is produced in individual steps of this Example 3 may be discharged together into a waste solution pool). The analysis data of the filtrate and precipitate is shown in the following table: Name Te Bi Fe Cu Ca Mg Al SiO 2 Ag Co Ni Filtrate g/l 0.02 0.35 1.05 0.01 0.01 0.31 0.98 0.003 trace trace trace Precipitate % 0.001 99.8 0.003 0.001 0.0005 0.0003 0.0008 0.003 trace trace trace The aforementioned bismuth-containing precipitate mixture is transferred into a blender, and blended with pure water added at a liquid-solid ratio of 1.5, and then adjusted with NaOH to pH 8-9, heated under stirring for 3 h at 80° C. to produce yellow Bi 2 O 3 . After filtering and washing, Bi 2 O 3 precipitate and basic filtrate are obtained, the precipitate is baked to prepare a 99.993% Bi 2 O 3 product, and the basic filtrate can be maintained for use for pH adjustment in the next Bi 2 O 3 extraction. EXAMPLE 4 12 tons of tetradymites are crushed to 80 meshes, and the content of major elements in the raw material is shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca S Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se content % 2.01 2.89 0.01 8.29 0.001 13.1 28.56 9.2 16.47 0.005 0.003 0.017 Leaching is carried out in three portions with 4 tons each portion, with a liquid-solid ratio of 1.5, using the waste solution produced in Example 3. Leaching data is shown in the table below: Amount of Adding NH 4 Br Adding conc. H 2 SO 4 Adding NaClO 3 Te Bi liquid Amount Leach Amount Leach Leach Amount Leach Leach Residual leach leach Name added added time added time temp. added time temp. acidity rate rate 1 st 6 m 3 20 kg 1 h 2.18T 3 h 53° C. 140 kg 4.5 h   75° C. 0.6N 99.5% 99.7% portion waste solution 2 nd 6 m 3 N/A 2 h 2.16T 2.5 h   54° C. 140 kg 4 h 86° C. 0.7N 99.58%  99.8% portion waste solution 3 rd 6 m 3 N/A 2 h 2.15T 2 h 54° C. 140 kg 4 h 86.5° C.    0.75N 99.6% 99.82%  portion waste solution Detailed description for procedures which are the same as Example 3 is omitted, with the exception that 20 kg NH 4 Br is only added in the first portion of raw material with no NH 4 Br added in the other two portions, and no NH 4 Cl is added in all three portions. Full analysis data of the leach solution and leach residue are shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca Mg Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se 1 st Leach 12.3 18.1 0.1 10.3 0.001 0.37 4.5 13.1 1.7 0.025 0.021 0.02 portion solution g/l Leach 0.018 0.019 0.003 8.0 0.0008 19.3 3.5 9.1 16.1 0.0003 0.0005 0.005 residue % 2 nd Leach 13.1 19.1 0.12 10.1 0.001 0.28 3.8 13.8 1.5 0.021 0.025 0.021 portion solution g/l Leach 0.019 0.02 0.002 7.5 0.0009 19.5 3.2 8.7 15.9 0.0005 0.0003 0.008 residue % 3 rd Leach 12.8 18.9 0.08 11.3 0.0008 0.21 4.1 13.5 1.6 0.0022 0.028 0.025 portion solution g/l Leach 0.017 0.017 0.001 7.8 0.0007 19.1 3.1 8.6 15.8 0.0004 0.0004 0.007 residue % Due to the use of waste water, the concentration of Cl − , Br − , NH 4 + , Fe 2+ , Al 3+ keeps increasing, and the leach rate of Fe 2+ , Al 3+ keeps decreasing until saturation, which is advantageous for the purification requirement of the subsequent process. Since Cl − , Br − , NH 4+ have strong complexing effects, the leach rate of scarce noble metals like Cu 2+ , Co 2+ , Ni 2+ , Ag + continuously increase to 99% and above, and the objective of collective recovery is achieved. The three portions of leach solution is adjusted with NH 3 to pH 2.7, 2.9 and 3.1 respectively, the resulting Te—Bi precipitates are combined and dissolved by concentrated HCl added, and then filtered. Na 2 SO 3 is added into the filtrate for reduction until the content of Te in the solution is 0.03 g/l, which is filtered and washed to obtain a precipitate of tellurium as the precipitate and a bismuth-containing solution as the filtrate. Concentrated HCl is added into the tellurium precipitate in a liquid-solid ratio of 1:1 for washing so as to dissolve other impurities, which is filtered and then washed with pure water until pH reaches 3.5, and the Te precipitate is then baked to yield fine Te powder with purity of 99.9952%. The resultant waste solution is to be used as leach solution for Te extraction in the next production. The examination results of the product are shown in the following table: Name Mg Pb Se Ni Ag Sb Bi Cu Mn ppm 0.3 0.78 0.5 0.72 0.65 0.11 10 10 0.2 Name Co Zn Ca Fe As Al Sn S Na ppm 0.1 0.3 0.24 10 0.1 0.42 0.21 0.5 0.8 Bi 2 O 3 purification: the above bismuth-containing filtrate is adjusted with the basic filtrate produced in Bi 2 O 3 purification in Example 3 and NaOH to pH 3.1, filtered and washed. The resulting precipitate is a mixture of BiO(OH), Bi(OH) 3 and BiOCl, and a resulting filtrate can be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production. The precipitate mixture is transferred into a blender, and blended with pure water added at a liquid-solid ratio of 1:1, and then adjusted with NaOH to pH 8-9, stirred under heating for 2.5 h, with the temperature raised to 90° C., to produce yellow Bi 2 O 3 , which is filtered and washed to obtain a Bi 2 O 3 precipitate and a basic filtrate; the precipitate is baked to prepare a 99.992% Bi 2 O 3 product, and the basic filtrate can be maintained for use for pH adjustment in the next Bi 2 O 3 extraction. EXAMPLE 5 12 tons of the raw materials were crushed to 120 meshes, and the content of each element in the raw material is shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca S Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se content % 1.98 2.63 2.05 20.5 0.013 3.01 5.03 15.2 6.0 0.008 0.01 0.02 Leaching is carried out in three portions with 4 tons each portion, with a liquid-solid ratio of 1.5, using the waste solution produced in Example 4. Leaching data is shown in the table below: Amount Adding conc. H 2 SO 4 Adding NaClO 3 Te Bi of liquid Leach Amount Leach Leach Amount Leach Leach Residual leach leach Name added time added time temp. added time temp. acidity rate rate 1 st 6 m 3 2 h 2T   2.5 h   54° C. 100 kg 2.5 h 86° C. 0.5N  99.5% 99.62% portion waste solution 2 nd 6 m 3 2 h 2.14T 2 h 53° C. 100 kg 2.5 h 85.5° C.   0.5N 99.56% 99.65% portion waste solution 3 rd 6 m 3 2 h 2.13T 2 h 54° C. 100 kg   2 h 89° C. 0.6N 99.61% 99.73% portion waste solution Detailed description for procedures which are the same as Example 4 is omitted, with the exception that all leaching is carried out using waste solution with no NH 4 Br added. Full analysis data of the leach solution and leach residue are shown in the table below: Name Te Bi Cu Fe Pb Ca Mg Al SiO 2 Co Ni Se 1 st Leach 12.1 18.1 9.8 18.7 0.008 0.21 4.5 17.1 0.83 0.035 0.041 0.022 portion solution g/l Leach 0.017 0.018 0.11 18.3 0.005 2.9 2.8 13.3 2.85 0.006 0.0008 0.018 residue % 2 nd Leach 12.8 17.8 10.1 19.3 0.009 0.18 4.2 18.1 0.78 0.037 0.039 0.021 portion solution g/l Leach 0.015 0.017 0.09 19.1 0.003 2.8 2.7 13.8 2.78 0.0005 0.0006 0.017 residue % 3 rd Leach 12.5 17.5 10.5 19.5 0.007 0.17 4.1 17.5 0.85 0.041 0.038 0.025 portion solution g/l Leach 0.016 0.018 0.1 19.0 0.006 2.75 2.9 13.6 2.91 0.0007 0.0007 0.015 residue % The three portions of leach solution is adjusted with NaOH to pH 2.7, 2.9 and 3.1 respectively, the resulting Te—Bi precipitates are combined and dissolved by concentrated HCl added, and then filtered. Na 2 SO 3 is added into the filtrate for reduction until the content of Te in the solution is 0.014 g/l, which is filtered and washed to obtain a precipitate of tellurium as the precipitate and a bismuth-containing solution as the filtrate. Concentrated HCl is added into the tellurium precipitate thus obtained in a liquid-solid ratio of 1:1 for washing so as to dissolve other impurities, which is filtered and washed with pure water until pH reaches 4.2, and the precipitate is then baked to yield fine Te powder with purity of 99.9955%. The resultant waste solution is to be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production. The examination results of the product are shown in the following table: Name Mg Pb Se Ni Ag Sb Bi Cu Mn ppm 0.25 0.13 0.3 0.2 0.35 0.31 8 8.5 0.3 Name Co Zn Ca Fe As Al Sn S Na ppm 0.25 0.15 0.34 9.3 0.2 0.52 0.13 0.6 0.54 Bi 2 O 3 purification: the above bismuth-containing filtrate is adjusted with the basic filtrate produced in Bi 2 O 3 purification in Example 4 and NH 3 to pH 2.9, filtered and washed. A resulting precipitate is a mixture of BiO(OH), Bi(OH) 3 and BiOCl, and a resulting filtrate can be used as leach solution for tellurium extraction in the next production. The precipitate is transferred into a blender, and blended with pure water added at a liquid-solid ratio of 1:1, and then adjusted with NH 3 to pH 8-9, stirred under heating for 3 h, with the temperature raised to 88° C., to produce yellow Bi 2 O 3 , which is filtered and washed to obtain a Bi 2 O 3 precipitate and a basic filtrate; the precipitate is baked to prepare a 99.99% Bi 2 O 3 product, and the basic filtrate can be maintained for use for pH adjustment in the next Bi 2 O 3 extraction. Byproducts recovery: the following byproducts are extracted from waste water: Amount of Name byproduct Na 2 SO 4 •10H 2 O 11.25T Spongy copper  45 kg AgNO 3 5.3 kg EXAMPLE 6 300 g of anode slime is used, and the content of individual components in the raw material is shown in the table below: Name Te Au Ag Cu Fe Pb Sb Se Ca Mg H 2 O Content % 6.23 0.093 1.96 20.3 3.15 6.12 2.51 1.3 0.13 2.5 35.1 The raw material is divided into three portions with 100 g each portion and leached, with a liquid-solid ratio of 2, using the waste water produced in Example 5. Leaching data is shown in the table below: Amount of waste Adding conc. H 2 SO 4 Adding NaClO 3 liquid Leach Amount Leach Leach Amount Leach Leach Residual Te leach Name added time added time temp. added time temp. acidity rate 1 st 200 ml 1.5 h 60 g 2 h 51° C. 3 g 3 h 83° C. 1.0N  99.9% portion 2 nd 200 ml 1.5 h 60 g 2 h 51.5° C.   3 g 3 h 83.5° C.   1.1N 99.93% portion 3 rd 200 ml 1.5 h 60 g 2 h 52° C. 3 g 3 h 84° C. 1.1N 99.95% portion Detailed description for procedures which are the same as the five preceding examples is omitted, with the exception that the anode slime from the smelting plant is used as the raw material. All leaching is carried out using waste solution with extremely high leach rate and little amount of residues, mostly being PbSO 4 and small amount of Ag, Cu, Sb compounds. Full analysis data of the leach solution and leach residue are shown in the table below: Name Te Fe Cu Se Pb Sb Ca Mg Au Ag 1 st portion Leach solution g/l 20.01 10.1 64.9 4.2 0.31 5.8 0.11 8.01 Trace Trace Leach residue % 0.009 0.01 0.08 0.005 6.2 0.5 0.15 0.001 0.21 4.13 2 nd portion Leach solution g/l 20.03 10.2 65.1 4.1 0.29 6.1 0.12 8.03 Trace Trace Leach residue % 0.008 0.013 0.07 0.003 6.3 0.8 0.13 0.003 0.23 4.25 3 rd portion Leach solution g/l 20.02 10.3 64.8 4.3 0.32 6.2 0.11 8.02 Trace Trace Leach residue % 0.005 0.02 0.09 0.007 6.15 0.3 0.12 0.002 0.25 4.17 The three portions of leach solution are adjusted with NaOH to pH 2.7, 2.9 and 3.1 respectively, filtered and washed. The resulting Te precipitates are combined, dissolved by concentrated HCl, and then filtered. The filtrate is added with Na 2 SO 3 for reduction until the content of Te in the solution is 0.01 g/l, filtered and washed to obtain a precipitate of tellurium. The resulting tellurium precipitate is added with concentrated HCl at a liquid-solid ratio of 1:1 for washing so as to dissolve other impurities, filtered and washed with pure water until pH reaches 4. Cu, Se, Fe, Pb and Sb in the solution are separated with conventional methods to give corresponding byproducts, and the tellurium precipitate is baked to yield fine Te powder with purity of 99.9947%. The examination results of the products are shown in the following table: Name Mg Pb Se Ni Ag Sb Bi Cu Mn ppm 0.31 0.25 1.1 0.1 0.58 0.63 0.2 6.3 0.15 Name Co Zn Ca Fe As Al Sn S Na ppm 0.13 0.15 0.15 1.2 0.51 0.21 0.09 0.3 0.58 This result demonstrates that, when the qualified leaching solution is adjusted with NaOH to pH 2.7 to 3.1, Te exists in the precipitate, while Se in solution, so that the object of separating Te from Se effectively can be achieved.

A method of extracting Te and bismuth oxide and recovering byproduct comprises: leaching raw materials with a Te content of ≧1.8% by utilizing a leaching system containing H 2 SO 4 , Cl − , Br − , NH 4 + and NaClO 3 , reducing leach solution with SO 2 gas by precipitation method after separating impurities from it, washing with concentrated hydrochloric acid to obtain tellurium precipitation (18), purifying to obtain Te with a purity of higher than 99.99%. The filtrate produced is used for extracting Bi 2 O 3 with a purity of higher than 99.99% when Bi content in the raw material is ≧2%. Acidic waste solution produced during the process could be returned to the leaching step for recycle.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates generally to medical position tracking systems, and particularly to methods and devices for sensing a magnetic field in a magnetic position tracking system. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Various methods and systems are known in the art for tracking the coordinates of objects involved in medical procedures. Some of these systems use magnetic field measurements. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,391,199 and 5,443,489, whose disclosures are incorporated herein by reference, describe systems in which the coordinates of an intrabody probe are determined using one or more field transducers. Such systems are used for generating location information regarding a medical probe, such as a catheter. A position sensor is placed in the probe and generates signals in response to externally-applied magnetic fields. The magnetic fields are generated by magnetic field generators, such as radiator coils, fixed to an external reference frame in known, mutually-spaced locations. [0003] Additional methods and systems that relate to magnetic position tracking are described, for example, in PCT Patent Publication WO 96/05768, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,849,692, 4,945,305, 5,453,686, 6,239,724, 6,332,089, 6,618,612 and 6,690,963 and U.S. Patent Application Publications 2002/0065455 A1, 2003/0120150 A1, 2004/0068178 A1 and 2004/0147920 A1, whose disclosures are all incorporated herein by reference. These publications describe methods and systems that track the position of intrabody objects such as cardiac catheters, orthopedic implants and medical tools used in different medical procedures. [0004] Some position tracking systems, including some of the systems described in the above-mentioned references, use alternating-current (AC) magnetic fields. Other position tracking systems, such as the systems described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,849,692, 4,945,305 and 5,453,686 cited above use direct-current (DC) fields. [0005] Several position sensors and sensor assemblies for sensing magnetic fields are known in the art. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,536,123, whose disclosure is incorporated herein by reference, describes a hybrid three-axis magnetic sensor for calculating the direction of the earth magnetism. The sensor includes a flux gate type magnetic sensor which is so formed that a base serves as a main member and detects two axis components of a magnetic vector defined by a plane parallel to the base. A Hall element detects another component of the magnetic vector orthogonal to the base. A tilt sensor detects a tilt angle of the base. The flux gate type magnetic sensor and the Hall element are integrally structured together as a hybrid IC. The detected three-dimensional magnetic vector is corrected in light of the inclination of the base. [0006] As another example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,278,271, whose disclosure is incorporated herein by reference, describes a magnetic field sensor for measurement of the three components of a magnetic field. The sensor comprises a Hall-effect element and an electronic circuit. The Hall-effect element comprises an active area, which is contacted with voltage and current contacts. Four voltage contacts are connected to inputs of the electronic circuit. By means of summation or differential formation of the electrical potentials present at the voltage contacts, the electronic circuit derives three signals proportional to the three components of the magnetic field. [0007] U.S. Pat. No. 6,184,680, whose disclosure is incorporated herein by reference, describes a magnetic field sensor in which a magnetic film or films having a magneto-resistance effect for detecting a magnetic field and a conductor electrode film for applying a current to the magnetic film are deposited on a flexible substrate. [0008] Magnetic field sensors sometimes comprise magneto-resistive sensors. For example, several magnetic field sensors and modules based on magneto-resistive elements are produced by Honeywell International Inc. (Morristown, N.J.). [0009] Information regarding these products can be found at www.ssec.honeywell.com/magnetic/products.html. Philips Electronics (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) also produces magneto-resistive field sensors. Details regarding these products can be found at www.semiconductors.philips.com. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] In many medical position tracking applications, it is desirable that the position sensor fitted in the probe measure all three orthogonal components of the externally-applied magnetic field. However, many conventional magnetic field sensors can only measure one or two of these components. In particular, it is difficult to manufacture triple-axis magnetic field sensors using surface-mount technology (SMT). On the other hand, single-axis and dual-axis SMT field sensors are often attractive candidates for use in sensor assemblies, because of their low cost, small size and profile, and their suitability for conventional high-volume manufacturing processes. [0011] Embodiments of the present invention thus provide magnetic sensor assemblies, position sensors and methods for producing such assemblies and sensors, that combine two or more single- or dual-axis field sensors to measure all three magnetic field components. [0012] In some embodiments, the field sensors comprise magneto-resistive elements able to measure DC magnetic fields. Advantageously, DC sensors are less susceptible to measurement errors caused by disturbances from metallic objects than are AC field sensors. [0013] In some embodiments, the field sensors are mounted on a substrate assembly, which orients the sensors in different, respective geometrical planes, so as to enable them to jointly measure the magnetic field and produce position signals indicative of all three components of the field. In some embodiments, the substrate assembly comprises a flexible PCB, which is bent into a suitable three-dimensional shape. In alternative embodiments, the substrate assembly comprises two or more slotted substrate sections that are interlocked with one another, so as to position the field sensors on different geometrical planes. [0014] Typically, the substrate assembly comprises conventional printed circuit board (PCB) material, and the sensor assembly can be produced using conventional PCB fabrication and assembly processes. [0015] There is therefore provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a sensor assembly, including: [0016] a first magneto-resistive field sensor in a first surface-mountable package, which is arranged to measure first and second components of a magnetic field projected onto respective different first and second axes with respect to a spatial orientation of the first field sensor and to produce first position signals indicative of the measured first and second components; [0017] a second magneto-resistive field sensor in a second surface-mountable package, which is arranged to measure at least a third component of the magnetic field projected onto at least a third axis with respect to the spatial orientation of the second field sensor, and to produce second position signals indicative of the measured third component; and [0018] a substrate assembly having the first and second field sensors surface-mounted thereon, which is coupled to orient the first field sensor in a first spatial orientation and to orient the second field sensor in a second spatial orientation so that the third axis is oriented out of a plane containing the first and second axes. [0019] In an embodiment, the substrate assembly includes a flexible substrate material bent so as to orient the first and second field sensors. The flexible substrate material may include one or more slots so as to enable bending the substrate assembly. [0020] In another embodiment, the substrate assembly includes two or more sections interlocked into one another so as to orient the first and second field sensors. The two or more sections may include at least one slot so as to enable interlocking the sections into one another. [0021] In yet another embodiment, the substrate assembly includes a printed circuit board (PCB) material. In some embodiments, electrical conductors are disposed on the PCB material so as to provide electrical interconnection for at least one of the first and second field sensors. [0022] In still another embodiment, the sensor assembly has a size smaller than 2 by 2 by 4 mm. [0023] There is also provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a position sensing apparatus, including: [0024] one or more field generators, which are arranged to generate a magnetic field; [0025] a sensor assembly, including: [0026] a first magneto-resistive field sensor in a first surface-mountable package, which is arranged to measure first and second components of the magnetic field projected onto respective different first and second axes with respect to a spatial orientation of the first field sensor and to produce first position signals indicative of the measured first and second components; [0027] a second magneto-resistive field sensor in a second surface-mountable package, which is arranged to measure at least a third component of the magnetic field projected onto at least a third axis with respect to the spatial orientation of the second field sensor, and to produce second position signals indicative of the measured third component; and [0028] a substrate assembly having the first and second field sensors surface-mounted thereon, which is coupled to orient the first field sensor in a first spatial orientation and to orient the second field sensor in a second spatial orientation, so that the third axis is oriented out of a plane containing the first and second axes; and [0029] a control module, which is arranged to receive the first and second position signals and to calculate a spatial position of the sensor assembly with respect to the one or more field generators responsively to the position signals. [0030] In an embodiment, the magnetic field includes a direct current (DC) magnetic field. [0031] In another embodiment, the position sensor is adapted to be coupled to an object inserted into a body of a patient, and the control module is arranged to determine position coordinates of the object inside the body. [0032] There is additionally provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a method for producing a sensor assembly, including: [0033] providing a first magneto-resistive field sensor in a first surface-mountable package, which is arranged to measure first and second components of a magnetic field projected onto respective different first and second axes with respect to a spatial orientation of the first field sensor and to produce first position signals indicative of the measured first and second components; [0034] providing a second magneto-resistive field sensor in a second surface-mountable package, which is arranged to measure at least a third component of the magnetic field projected onto at least a third axis with respect to the spatial orientation of the second field sensor, and to produce second position signals indicative of the measured third component; [0035] surface-mounting the first and second field sensors on a substrate assembly so as to orient the first field sensor in a first spatial orientation and to orient the second field sensor in a second spatial orientation, so that the third axis is oriented out of a plane containing the first and second axes. [0036] The present invention will be more fully understood from the following detailed description of the embodiments thereof, taken together with the drawings in which: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0037] FIG. 1 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of a probe in a magnetic position-tracking system, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0038] FIG. 2 is a schematic top view showing elements of a sensor assembly, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0039] FIG. 3 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of the sensor assembly of FIG. 2 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; [0040] FIG. 4 is a schematic top view showing elements of a sensor assembly, in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; and [0041] FIG. 5 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of the sensor assembly of FIG. 4 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS [0000] System Description [0042] FIG. 1 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of a probe 10 used in a medical 2 5 magnetic position tracking system, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 1 , probe 10 comprises a cardiac catheter inserted into a patient's heart for performing cardiac electrical mapping, imaging, therapy and/or other invasive procedures. The catheter is part of a magnetic position tracking system, which generally comprises one or more field generators 13 positioned at known spatial coordinates. The field generators generate magnetic fields in a predetermined working volume comprising the probe. [0043] A position sensor 11 is coupled to probe 10 in order to measure the position coordinates of the probe responsively to the magnetic field in its vicinity. In the present example, the position sensor is fitted in the distal end of the catheter. Position sensor 11 comprises a sensor assembly 12 that senses the magnetic field and produces position signals indicative of the sensed field. Sensor assembly 12 typically comprises two or more compact magnetic field sensors, each capable of measuring components of a magnetic field along one or two axes. The sensors are arranged in a spatial configuration that enables them to measure all three orthogonal components of the externally-applied magnetic field. Exemplary sensor assembly configurations are shown and explained in FIGS. 2-5 below. [0044] In addition to position sensor 11 , probe 10 may comprise additional components, such as electrodes 14 , as well as additional sensors and/or therapeutic elements (not shown). In some embodiments, position sensor 11 comprises a control module 16 that accepts the position signals and/or other signals produced by probe 10 and sends them via a cable 18 to an external processing unit (not shown). The external processing unit calculates and displays the position of the probe with respect to field generators 13 . The calculated position may comprise up to six-dimensional coordinate information, including both position and angular orientation of the probe. [0045] The present patent application is mainly concerned with the structure of position sensor 11 and in particular sensor assembly 12 . The specific operation of probe 10 and of the magnetic position tracking system is considered to be outside the scope of this patent application. The cardiac applications described above are mentioned purely by the way of example. The methods and devices described herein can be used in a variety of position-tracking systems and applications, such as systems for diagnosis and treatment of the respiratory, digestive and urinary tracts and systems for tracking orthopedic implants and medical tools, as well as in non-medical applications. Depending on the application, position sensor 11 and/or sensor assembly 12 can be coupled to a catheter, an endoscope, a orthopedic implant, a medical or surgical tool, or to any other suitable tracked object. Some exemplary systems that can use the methods and devices described herein are described in the above-cited publications. [0000] Magnetic Sensor Assembly [0046] In many applications, it is desirable for position sensor 11 to measure all three orthogonal components of the externally-applied magnetic field in order to enable position calculation. For this purpose, in some embodiments, sensor assembly 12 comprises two or more low-profile electronic magnetic field sensors. Such magnetic field sensors may be based on magneto-resistive elements, as are known in the art. The use of magneto-resistive elements is desirable in many cases, since they are able to measure DC magnetic fields, which are less susceptible to measurement errors caused by disturbances from metallic objects than AC fields. Some exemplary magnetic field sensors that can be used in sensor assembly 12 are the Honeywell HMC 1002, HMC 1022, HMC 1052 dual-axis sensors. Further details regarding these devices can be found on the Honeywell web-site cited above. [0047] Typically, conventional magnetic field sensors, such as the Honeywell and Philips devices cited above, comprise one or two miniaturized magneto-resistive elements. These elements measure one, or at most two orthogonal components of the magnetic field projected on a plane parallel to the surface of the device. Most of these devices are small, flat, surface-mount devices (SMD). In principle, measuring all three orthogonal field components implies using three magneto-resistive elements, one of which should be oriented in a plane perpendicular to the surface of the device. Such a configuration is typically difficult to implement in a planar configuration of a small surface-mount device. [0048] Therefore, in some embodiments, sensor assembly 12 comprises a three-dimensional substrate assembly, on which the field sensors are mounted. The substrate assembly positions the field sensors with respect to one another in a spatial orientation that enables them to measure all three components of the externally-applied field. [0049] In some embodiments, the substrate assembly comprises a printed circuit board (PCB). In these embodiments, the substrate assembly may comprise conducting traces for routing the position signals produced by the field sensors. Additionally or alternatively, control module 16 and/or any other electronic circuitry of probe 10 can be fabricated on the substrate of sensor assembly 12 . [0050] FIG. 2 is a schematic top view showing elements of an exemplary sensor assembly 20 , which can be used as sensor assembly 12 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment, a substrate assembly 24 comprises a flexible substrate, such as a flexible PCB. FIG. 2 shows substrate assembly 24 in its initial flat shape, before it is bent into the proper three-dimensional shape in which it is used in sensor assembly 20 . The flexible substrate can be fabricated using any suitable PCB manufacturing process. [0051] Two magnetic field sensors 28 A and 28 B are mounted on the flexible substrate. Typically, sensors 28 A and 28 B comprise SMDs mounted on the substrate using a conventional PCB assembly process, such as a reflow process. Only elements essential to the explanation are shown in the figure, with elements such as optional additional circuitry omitted for simplicity. In some embodiments, PCB conductors 29 provide supply voltages and/or route signals from sensors 28 A and 28 B to an output port 30 of the sensor assembly. Slots 32 are cut through the flexible PCB in order to allow it to be bent into the desired three-dimensional shape. [0052] FIG. 3 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of sensor assembly 20 , in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The figure shows flexible substrate assembly 24 of FIG. 2 above, after it is bent into its final, three-dimensional shape. It can be seen that field sensors 28 A and 28 B are now positioned on two orthogonal planes. In some embodiments, each of sensors 28 A and 28 B is a dual-axis sensor measuring two orthogonal components of the magnetic field. Thus, when used together, the two sensors provide four position signals indicative of all three orthogonal field components. One of the four position signals may be considered redundant, as it relates to a field component measured by both sensors. In an alternative embodiment, one of sensors 28 A and 28 B comprises a dual-axis sensor, and the other sensor comprises a single-axis sensor measuring only the third orthogonal field component. [0053] In an alternative embodiment (not shown in the figures), the configuration of flexible substrate assembly 24 can be generalized in a straightforward manner to orient three single-axis field sensors in a mutually-orthogonal configuration. [0054] In a further alternative embodiment, flexible substrate assembly 24 positions sensors 28 A and 28 B in different, but non-orthogonal planes. Because the planes are not orthogonal, some or all of the position signals may contain projections of more than one magnetic field component. Since the mutual angular orientation of the field sensors is constant and known a-priori, a suitable calculation can extract the three orthogonal field components from the position signals. Such a calculation can be carried out either by control module 16 or by the external processing unit. [0055] The particular shape of substrate assembly 24 in FIGS. 2 and 3 is shown purely as a clarifying example. In alternative embodiments, the flexible substrate can be fabricated and bent into any other suitable shape that orients the magnetic field sensors so as to enable them to measure all three components of the magnetic field. The shape of the flexible substrate can be with or without slots. [0056] After bending assembly 24 into the three-dimensional configuration, the flexible substrate assembly can be held in place to maintain its shape using any suitable method. For example, the entire sensor assembly can be cast in suitable potting or fixed using a suitable mechanical fixture to position sensor 11 or to probe 10 . [0057] Using the configuration of FIG. 3 , an extremely small-size sensor assembly 20 can be achieved, making it suitable for use in catheters, endoscopes, implants and other medical probes and instruments. A sensor assembly can typically be fitted into a 2 by 2 by 4 mm cube or into a cylinder approximately 4 mm high and 2 mm in diameter. [0058] FIG. 4 is a schematic top view showing elements of a sensor assembly 30 , which can be used as sensor assembly 12 , in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment, the substrate assembly comprises two substrate sections 34 A and 34 B, typically comprising a suitable rigid PCB material. One of field sensors 28 A and 28 B is mounted on each substrate section. A slot 42 is cut into one side of each section. Sections 34 A and 34 B can be manufactured and assembled using any suitable PCB fabrication and assembly methods. [0059] FIG. 5 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of sensor assembly 30 of FIG. 4 above, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. To form the three-dimensional substrate assembly, sections 34 A and 34 B are inserted into one another in an orthogonal configuration, using slots 42 . Similarly to the configuration of FIG. 3 above, in sensor assembly 30 , field sensors 28 A and 28 B are positioned on two orthogonal planes. When sensors 28 A and 28 B are dual-axis sensors, the two sensors jointly provide four position signals indicative of the three orthogonal field components, with one component being redundant. Alternatively, one of sensors 28 A and 28 B may comprise a single-axis sensor. [0060] In some embodiments, PCB conductors 29 connect sensors 28 A and 28 B with output port 30 . Signals may be routed between sections 34 A and 34 B by having conductors 29 reach slots 42 , as shown in FIG. 4 . After interlocking sections 34 A and 34 B, as shown in FIG. 5 , the conductors can be soldered or wire-bonded together at slots 42 to provide electrical conductivity. [0061] Alternatively, sections 34 A and 34 B can be fabricated and attached to one another in any other suitable configuration that enables the field sensors to produce signals indicative of the three magnetic field components. In particular, non-orthogonal configurations may also be used in conjunction with a suitable calculation process. Sensor assembly 30 can be mounted in position sensor 11 or in probe 10 using any suitable mounting method. [0062] Although the methods and devices described hereinabove mainly address sensor assemblies based on magneto-resistive devices, the principles of the present invention can also be used to produce sensor assemblies based on other sensor technologies for sensing DC and/or AC magnetic fields. For example, alternative field sensors may comprise Hall-effect devices or field sensing coils. The sensors may comprise packaged or unpackaged low-profile elements. Additionally, the principles of the present invention can also be used to produce sensor assemblies for sensing other types of fields, such as electric fields as well as for measuring acceleration or other directional properties. [0063] It will thus be appreciated that the embodiments described above are cited by way of example, and that the present invention is not limited to what has been particularly shown and described hereinabove. Rather, the scope of the present invention includes both combinations and sub-combinations of the various features described hereinabove, as well as variations and modifications thereof which would occur to persons skilled in the art upon reading the foregoing description and which are not disclosed in the prior art.

A sensor assembly includes a first magneto-resistive field sensor in a first surface-mountable package, which measures first and second components of a magnetic field projected onto respective different first and second axes with respect to a spatial orientation of the sensor and to produce first position signals indicative of the measured first and second components. A second magneto-resistive field sensor in a second surface-mountable package measures at least a third component of the magnetic field projected onto at least a third axis with respect to the spatial orientation of the sensor, and to produce second position signals indicative of the measured third component. A substrate assembly orients the first field sensor in a first spatial orientation and to orient the second field sensor in a second spatial orientation so that the third axis is oriented out of a plane containing the first and second axes.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/376,867 filed Mar. 16, 2006 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,308,990, which is a divisional application of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/418,761 filed Apr. 18, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,021,494. STATEMENT OF FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not applicable. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to sprayers that are designed to automatically clean enclosures. It appears to be especially well suited for automatically cleaning shower/bathing enclosures of the type typically found in homes. The walls and doors of shower/bathing enclosures can become mildewed, coated with soap build up or hard water and mineral deposits, or become otherwise soiled, during typical use. Removing these deposits and stains normally requires one to scrub the walls and doors by hand, which is an undesirable task. To assist in this task, cleaning chemicals may be sprayed, squirted, or otherwise applied on the surfaces to be cleaned. After allowing the active ingredients some time to “work”, the walls are then wiped with a cloth, brush, or scrubbing pad, and then rinsed with water. In some cases these cleaners are so effective that the amount of scrubbing can be somewhat reduced (particularly if the cleaners are used on a daily basis). See generally, WO 96/22346 and WO 98/02511. However, for these “no scrub” cleaners to work well they preferably should be applied immediately after the shower has been used. This requires a consumer to keep a pump spray bottle of the cleanser in or near the shower enclosure (further cluttering the shower area), that the consumer remember to do the spraying (which may be problematic if the consumer has just woken up), and that the consumer be willing to spend the time to spray the enclosure (for example they may be running late in the morning). An alternative approach is to provide an automated cleaning system for a shower. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,872,225 discloses a sprayer and conduit system for a bath and shower enclosure. The unit is associated with the showerhead. Supply water can be diverted to the sprayer for cleaning the enclosure. A container of cleanser is mounted in the shower enclosure for introducing cleanser (through an injector assembly) for spraying cleanser on the walls. A drawback with this system is that the user must manually turn on the supply water (if not already on), adjust the diverter, squeeze cleanser into the sprayer and shut off the water after the walls have been washed. There is also some risk that the consumer will be sprayed with the cleanser. Other automated enclosure cleaning systems are more elaborate, such as that disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,383,341, which includes multiple pop-out spray nozzles connected by a manifold to a mixing valve where cleaning concentrate is mixed with water. Thus, it is not something that a consumer can easily and inexpensively retrofit to their shower enclosure. U.S. Pat. No. 5,452,485 discloses an automatic cleaning device for a tub and shower having large, powered tub and shower “gliders” that move in tracks around the tub and shower stall, respectively. The gliders are coupled to the water supply, which is mixed with a cleanser. The gliders have spray heads for spraying the cleaning solution on the tub and shower walls. The gliders also have brushes for scrubbing the walls. A user operates the gliders and cleanser mixing by a central controller. Again, this system is not suitable for easy and inexpensive retrofitting. It seems particularly desirable to develop a relatively small automated dispenser that can be hung from a showerhead, shower enclosure wall, or the like, yet dispense cleanser without the need for drawing water from the building supply. It would also be desirable for such a system to accept inverted bottles of cleaning fluid. However, the use inverted bottles in such a dispenser can present problems. For example, negative pressure (i.e., vacuum) effects in the bottle may hinder the flow of fluid from the bottle. While air vents have been proposed to overcome these negative pressure problems, the location of such air venting systems need to be optimized in order to provide for improved fluid flow from the bottle. For instance, too much air flow into the bottle can cause frothing or foaming of the liquid in the bottle, whereas inadequate air flow into the bottle fails to overcome the negative pressure effects. Additionally, mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow must be controlled as certain levels of mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow may prevent appropriate dispensing of the liquid. The present invention addresses the need for an automated dispenser that can accept inverted bottles of cleaning fluid and can deliver the fluid from the bottle with improved fluid flow characteristics. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect the invention provides an automated sprayer for spraying an enclosure with a liquid cleanser (for example a cleanser such as that described in WO 96/22346). The sprayer includes a bottle suitable to contain a liquid cleanser, a reservoir tray having an upwardly extending well for supporting the bottle in an inverted orientation, a spray head in fluid communication with the well and having an outlet orifice through which cleanser from the bottle can be expelled if there is such liquid cleanser in the bottle, and a piercing post extending from the reservoir tray into the bottle. The piercing post includes a cleanser conduit in fluid communication with the well for delivering cleanser to the well, and an air vent path separate from the cleanser conduit for venting the bottle. In one configuration of the sprayer, the air vent path is in fluid communication with a vent outlet of the well. In another configuration of the sprayer, the air vent path is in communication with an air passage between the bottle and an inner surface of the well. In one form, the cleanser conduit terminates at an opening of the piercing post, and the air vent path terminates at another opening of the piercing post such that the opening of the air vent path is at a position further into the bottle than the opening of the cleanser conduit when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. A wall may also extend outward from the piercing post between the opening of the air vent path and the opening of the cleanser conduit. Optionally, a gasket may be used to seal against the piercing post and limit leakage around the piercing post when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. In one embodiment, the well has a spring-loaded outlet valve that permits outflow of cleanser from the well when a portion of a cap of the bottle abuts against the outlet valve when cleanser is in the bottle. The outlet valve may include a valve stem that moves toward the bottle to permit outflow of cleanser, and the portion of the cap that abuts against the outlet valve may be a section of the cap that projects axially from the cap. In one form, the bottle has a cap having axially projecting segmented ridges, and the well has a spring-loaded outlet valve that permits outflow of cleanser from the well when a portion of at least one of the segmented ridges of the cap of the bottle abuts against the outlet valve. The well may include a chamber for holding cleanser delivered to the well and a valve for controlling outflow of cleanser from an outlet of the chamber. The valve may include a valve stem that is spring-biased in a normally closed seated position that seals the outlet of the chamber and the valve includes an actuator that unseats the valve stem from the outlet of the chamber when a portion of a cap of the bottle abuts against the actuator of the valve. The actuator may include a plunger in contact with a rocker that unseats the valve stem. In another aspect, the invention provides a cap for a bottle for an automated sprayer including a reservoir tray having an upwardly extending well for supporting the bottle in an inverted orientation, a spray head in fluid communication with the well and having an outlet orifice through which cleanser from the bottle can be expelled if there is such liquid cleanser in the bottle and a spring-loaded outlet valve that permits outflow of cleanser from the spray head when the bottle is inserted in the tray and cleanser is in the bottle. The cap includes a side wall and a transverse wall extending inwardly from the side wall. The transverse wall has a central piercable surface, and a plurality of segmented ridges project axially from the transverse wall. Preferably, the ridges project to a plane spaced from the side wall, and the ridges are arcuate. In yet another aspect, the invention provides a closure for an opening of a bottle for an automated sprayer of the type that includes (i) a reservoir tray having an upwardly extending well suitable for supporting the bottle in an inverted orientation when the bottle is inserted in the tray and having a piercing post extending from the reservoir tray into the bottle when the bottle is inserted in the tray, (ii) a spray head having an outlet orifice through which cleanser from the bottle can be expelled if there is such liquid cleanser in the bottle, and (iii) a spring-loaded outlet valve that permits outflow of cleanser from the spray head when the bottle is inserted in the tray and cleanser is in the bottle. The closure includes a cap, and a gasket. The gasket is configured to seal against the piercing post when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. In one version of the closure, the gasket is arranged between the cap and the opening of the bottle. In another version of the closure, the cap has a piercable area that is punctured by the piercing post when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. In still another version of the closure, the cap has a central hole through which the piercing post passes when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. In yet another version of the closure, at least a portion of an inner surface of the central hole of the cap is sloped. In still another version of the closure, the gasket has a central hole through which the piercing post passes when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. At least a portion of an inner surface of the central hole of the gasket may be sloped. In yet another version of the closure, the gasket is sealed over the opening of the bottle and is punctured when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. In still another aspect, the invention provides a closure for an opening of a bottle for an automated sprayer of the type that includes (i) a reservoir tray having an upwardly extending well suitable for supporting the bottle in an inverted orientation when the bottle is inserted in the tray and having a piercing post extending from the reservoir tray into the bottle when the bottle is inserted in the tray, (ii) a spray head having an outlet orifice through which cleanser from the bottle can be expelled if there is such liquid cleanser in the bottle, and (iii) a spring-loaded outlet valve that permits outflow of cleanser from the spray head when the bottle is inserted in the tray and cleanser is in the bottle. The closure includes a cap including a side wall, a transverse wall extending inwardly from the side wall, and a central wall extending outwardly from the transverse wall and defining an outlet for the cap. The central wall of the cap has a central piercable surface that seals the outlet for the cap before the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray and is punctured when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. Preferably, the central wall extends a distance outwardly from the transverse wall such that any portion of the central piercable surface that remains attached to the central wall when the central piercable surface is punctured does not extend inward beyond the transverse wall. The closure may further include a gasket, wherein the gasket is configured to seal against the piercing post when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. The gasket may be arranged between the cap and opening of the bottle. Optionally, the gasket has a central hole through which the piercing post passes when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray, and at least a portion of an inner surface of the central hole of the gasket may be sloped. Alternatively, the gasket is sealed over the opening of the bottle and is punctured when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. The invention facilitates the flow of fluid from the bottle (for example by overcoming any negative pressure effect in the bottle), and does so in a manner that avoids excessive air being added in a way that causes frothing or foaming in the fluid in the bottle. Thus, the problem of negative pressure build-up in the bottle, or uncontrolled air venting, is addressed by the present invention. The invention also provides for improved control of cleaning fluid delivery from the dispenser, by way of, among other things, the cleanser conduit in the piercing post and the valve. Additionally, uncontrolled mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow is avoided, thereby improving dispensing of the cleaning fluid. These and other advantages of the invention will be apparent from the detailed description which follows and the drawings. It should be appreciated that what follows is merely a description of preferred embodiments. That description is not meant as a limitation of the full scope of the claims. Rather, the claims should be looked to in order to judge the full scope of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a partially exploded perspective view of an automated sprayer with a cleanser bottle shown inverted prior to being set into the sprayer, the sprayer being an earlier prototype of the automated sprayer according to the invention shown in FIGS. 17-22 and 30 ; FIGS. 2A and 2B are exploded perspective views of the sprayer of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 2C is an exploded perspective view of one possible pump used in the sprayer; FIG. 3 is a side cross-sectional view of the sprayer taken along line 3 - 3 of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 4 is a partial cross-sectional view taken along line 4 - 4 of FIG. 3 showing the pump and drive mechanism with the pump and a drive motor shown in full; FIG. 5 is a front cross-sectional view taken along line 5 - 5 of FIG. 3 showing the spray head drive and junction with the dispenser tube; FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view taken along line 6 - 6 of FIG. 3 showing the gear train for the spray head drive; FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram showing the control circuit and cleanser flow path; FIG. 8 is a partial reverse perspective view of the cleanser bottle with its bottle cap; FIG. 9 is an enlarged view of the bottle-tray interface with the bottle seating in the tray and a discharge valve open; FIG. 10 is a view similar to FIG. 9 although with the bottle unseated from the tray and the discharge valve closed; FIG. 11 is a top view of the tray with the bottle removed; FIG. 12 is an enlarged partial top view showing the discharge valve and piercing post; FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view taken along line 13 - 13 of FIG. 10 ; FIG. 14 is a partial reverse perspective view of the cleanser bottle with an alternative embodiment of a bottle cap with an adapter that can be used with the dispenser of FIGS. 1-13 ; FIG. 15 is an enlarged view of the bottle-tray interface with the bottle seating in the tray and a discharge valve open, the bottle having the embodiment of the bottle cap with the adapter as shown in FIG. 14 ; FIG. 16 is a view similar to FIG. 15 , although with the bottle and adapter unseated from the tray and the discharge valve closed; FIG. 17 is a view similar to FIG. 15 , showing the bottle-tray interface of a first embodiment of a dispenser according to the invention; FIG. 18 is a view similar to FIG. 17 although with the bottle unseated from the tray and the discharge valve closed; FIG. 19 is a view similar to FIG. 8 , but of an embodiment of a bottle and bottle cap for use with the embodiment of the dispenser of the present invention shown in FIGS. 17-18 ; FIG. 20 is a view similar to FIG. 14 , but of the FIG. 19 embodiment where the cap has been split into a main cap and another adapter; FIG. 21 is a view similar to FIG. 17 , but with the FIG. 20 adapter; FIG. 22 is a view similar to FIG. 21 although with the bottle and adapter unseated from the tray and the discharge valve closed; FIG. 23 is a view similar to FIG. 16 although with a bottle having an alternative cap and a cap liner; FIG. 24 is a view similar to FIG. 22 although with a bottle having an alternative cap and a cap liner; FIG. 25 is a view similar to FIG. 16 although with a bottle having a removable cap and a closure seal; FIG. 26 is a view similar to FIG. 22 although with a bottle having a removable cap and a closure seal; FIG. 27 is a view similar to FIG. 14 , but of another adapter that may be used with the present invention; FIG. 28 is a view similar to FIG. 23 with the adapter of FIG. 27 ; FIG. 29 is a view similar to FIG. 25 with the adapter of FIG. 27 ; FIG. 30 is a view similar to FIG. 17 , showing the bottle-tray interface of another embodiment of a dispenser according to the invention; FIG. 31 is a view similar to FIG. 10 , showing the bottle-tray interface and a cap that may be used with the dispenser of FIG. 30 ; FIG. 32 is a view similar to FIG. 10 , showing another bottle cap for use with the invention; FIG. 33 is a view similar to FIG. 32 , showing yet another bottle cap for use with the invention; FIG. 34A is a perspective view of an alternative valve plate suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 ; FIG. 34B is a perspective view of another alternative valve plate suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 ; FIG. 34C is a perspective view of yet another alternative valve plate suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 ; FIG. 34D is a perspective view of still another alternative valve plate suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 ; and FIG. 34E is a perspective view of yet another alternative valve plate suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION As background, we describe an earlier prototype of an automated sprayer generally referred to in the figures by reference number 20 . With particular reference to FIGS. 1-2B , the sprayer 20 includes as main components a bottle 22 , a housing 24 with an adjustable hanger 26 , a pump 28 , a drive mechanism 30 , a spray head 32 and a control circuit 34 . The sprayer is typically suspended via the hanger from a shower spout or the like and then activated via a button 35 at the front of the sprayer to rotate a spray head and pump cleanser from the bottle out of the spray head during a spray cycle of a prescribed time period, after which dispensing is automatically terminated. The exterior of the sprayer is defined by the housing 24 , which can be molded from, for example, plastic by any suitable technique and consists primarily of two pieces, a receptacle 36 and a hanger tower 38 that easily snaps into a pocket in the receptacle. This allows the sprayer to be shipped and stored in a compact package with minimal assembly by the consumer. The hanger tower 38 is an upright member defining a cavity in which the elongated body of the hanger 26 fits through an opening 40 at its upper end. The upper end of the hanger tower 38 has two oval openings 42 vertically spaced apart. A deflectable tab 44 formed in the lower end of the hanger can snap into one of the openings to lock the hanger at either of two extended positions. The hanger is extended and locked in the lower opening by simply pulling it away from the hanger tower. In this position, the sprayer 20 will hang from standard shower spouts at an appropriate height for spraying down the shower walls. The height can be adjusted by depressing the tab inwardly and sliding the hanger up or down. The hanger itself has two ears 46 at its upper end for mounting a rubber strap 48 . The ears can be tapered to ease connection of the strap, which can have a series of holes at one end for adjustment purposes so that the strap fits tightly around a shower spout or the like. The back side of the hanger tower is closed by a back plate 50 . The hanger tower connects to the receptacle at its lower end, which fits into a pocket 52 and has two latches 54 (one shown) that snap into two slots in the back of the receptacle. The receptacle defines an upwardly opening bottle tray 56 above a compartment 58 (see FIG. 4 ) containing the pump and drive mechanism which is closed at the bottom by a cover 60 . The cover has a circular skirted opening 62 for the spray head and a wall stand-off 64 extending backward the distance of the pocket to brace the lower end of the receptacle against the wall and keep it plumb. The back side of the receptacle defines a battery compartment 66 with a lid 68 and the front side has an oval switch opening 70 for the control button 35 . The tray 56 is formed to mate with a specially contoured upper end of the bottle. The bottle and tray are generally oval and have mating seating surfaces 72 and 74 and sloped shoulders 76 and 78 with complementary V-shaped features 80 and 82 , respectively. These features and the contour of the shoulders fix the orientation of the bottle in the tray and make conventional cleanser bottles incompatible with proper operation of the sprayer. Referring next to FIGS. 9-12 , the tray defines a circular well 84 at the center of the seating surface 74 accommodating a special cap 86 screwed onto the mouth of the bottle. The well is formed with a shoulder portion 88 , a vent nipple 90 and a recess 92 with a discharge nipple 94 . The well supports a valve plate 96 (see FIG. 2A ) fastened thereto by two screws 97 (see FIG. 3 ). The valve plate has a piercing post 98 projecting up from the valve plate. The post has a slanted top end defining a sharp point and defines a vent passageway 100 and three radial ribs 102 . The vent passageway extends into a recess 104 at the underside of the valve plate accommodating a small o-ring 106 surrounding the vent passageway and the opening in the vent nipple 94 . The valve plate also defines a valve recess 108 with a discharge passageway 110 through which a valve stem 112 extends. The upper end of the valve stem has a cross-shaped plunger 114 that is biased away from the well by a coil spring 116 fit into the valve recess. The lower end of the valve stem mounts a disc-shaped rubber gasket 118 retained by an enlarged end 120 of the valve stem. As shown in FIG. 10 , the plunger is biased upward by the spring so that the gasket seals against the underside of the valve plate so as to close off the discharge orifice when the sprayer is not being used. The valve plate also defines arcuate stand-offs 124 spaced in slightly from its periphery. The valve plate and the well are designed to cooperate with the specially designed bottle cap (described below) to discourage use of unaffiliated cleanser and thereby promote proper operation of the sprayer. Referring next to FIGS. 8-11 , the cap is generally circular with a serrated periphery 126 and a tapered sealing flange (or web) 128 that seals against the tray well above its shoulder. The top of the cap has an outer surface 130 with a recessed thinned area 132 at its center around which is a raised ring surface 134 extending to a plane spaced from surface 130 . The thinned area 132 is located so that as the bottle is seated in the tray the piercing post will puncture the cap in this area to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The raised ring is located to contact the plunger of the valve and push the valve downward to unseat the gasket from the plate and open the discharge orifice. The flat surface 130 of the cap rests on the stand-offs 124 to space the punctured area from the floor of the well. This arrangement thus provides a no-mess means of opening and inserting the bottle, but also further inhibits uses of improper cleanser containers. It does this for several reasons. First, if a conventional bottle and cap were inserted into the tray, the piercing post would not puncture a conventional cap lacking the weakened area. Even if the cap was removed so that the mouth was opened, the sprayer still would not operate because the valve is located radially inward of the place where a conventional thin-walled bottle mouth would normally extend so that the valve would not be opened. Another feature that serves this purpose is the conforming sloping of the bottle shape and receiving well. A bottle not having a complementary shape would not be received sufficiently low to activate the outlet valve. Also, while the cap has conventional internal threads 136 at its upper end that mate with threads 138 on the mouth of the bottle, and it also has a ring of one-way ratchet teeth 140 that engage corresponding ratchet teeth 142 on the bottle (see FIG. 13 ). The ratchets allow the cap to be turned in a tightening direction but resist untightening rotation to prevent non-destructive removal of the cap and thus refilling of the bottle. FIGS. 2B-6 show the pump, controller, and drive mechanism contained inside the receptacle compartment beneath the bottle tray. These components will now be described working from the bottle-tray interface to the spray head. A short vent tube 144 couples to the vent nipple 90 defining the vent orifice in the tray well. A small check valve 148 fits into the end of the vent tube. The check valve is normally closed so that cleanser does not leak out via that path. The valve opens by negative pressure that develops as cleanser is withdrawn from the bottle. The opened check valve aspirates the air to the bottle to allow the cleanser to flow from the bottle in a consistent manner, without introducing air in a manner that would cause foaming or gurgling. The check valve remains open until the pressure in the bottle has equalized sufficiently to alleviate the negative pressure and then it closes. From the discharge nipple defining the discharge orifice of the tray well a first tube 152 of a dispenser line 154 extends to an inlet barb 156 of the pump 28 , which snaps into a support 158 mounted to the underside of the bottle tray. The pump can be any conventional pump, such as a diaphragm pump, a piston pump, a peristaltic pump, or even a gear pump as shown. The inlet defines a passageway leading between intermeshing drive gear 160 and idler gear 162 (see FIG. 2C ). The drive gear is connected to an upper shaft 164 (surrounded by o-ring 165 ) of a direct current motor 166 mounted through an opening in a gear plate 167 mounted to the lower cover of the receptacle. Operation of the motor rotates the drive gear which meshes with and turns the idler gear as conventional to draw cleanser from the bottle and through to an outlet barb 168 . A second tube 170 connects the outlet barb to a filter 172 . The filter accumulates cleanser within its housing and aids in priming the pump. A short tube 174 of the dispenser line connects the filter 172 to another check valve 176 which is connected by another short tube 178 continuing a spring 179 for support to an inlet barb 180 of a shaft junction 182 . Referring to FIGS. 2B and 5 , the stationary portion of the junction 182 is a chamber formed in part by the gear plate at a circular wall 184 having an inner shoulder 185 and covered at one end by a cap 186 . The cap includes the inlet barb 180 and a raised annular ring 188 extending downwardly within the circular wall to press an o-ring 190 against the shoulder. The o-ring seals against the upper end of a rotating spray head drive shaft 192 , which forms the rotating portion of the function. The drive shaft is an inverted Y-shaped structure with a cylindrical stem 194 defining a passageway 198 and a forked end 196 extending down through an opening in the receptacle cover and defining a gap 200 accommodating a spray nozzle 202 . The forked end has lateral mounting posts 204 onto which snaps a dome-shaped cover 206 concealing the spray nozzle 202 . The spray nozzle is preferably a fluidic oscillator providing oscillating spray (in this case up and down), however, any other suitable nozzle could be used. See e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 4,562,867 which shows examples of known fluidic oscillators. Such a fluid oscillator can be any suitably sized oscillator including a housing 208 with an inlet 210 and an outlet 212 on opposite sides. A barrier member (not shown) in the interior of the housing defines a passage between the inlet and the outlet so that cleanser entering the inlet passes through and around the barrier member to the outlet. The fluidic oscillator operates, as known in the art, by creating areas of low pressure at alternate sides of the passage through the barrier member to convert the straight flow entering the housing to an oscillating pattern. The nozzle is coupled to an outlet barb 214 extending from the stem by another tube 216 . The nozzle is mounted so that its outlet end extends through the opening in the cover pointed downwardly at approximately a 30 degree angle. A drive gear 220 is press fit onto the stem of the drive shaft and meshes with a first reducer gear 222 which is rotated by another smaller diameter reducer gear 224 driven by a pinion 226 at the end of lower motor shaft 228 . The gear train couples to the motor to the spray head at a reduced revolution per minute rate than the motor shaft. This arrangement provides a revolving, oscillating spray pattern. Also mounted to the support within the receptacle compartment is the control circuitry 34 which is electrically coupled to a direct current power supply via battery terminals 230 (see FIGS. 2A and 7 ) in the battery compartment and to the push-button switch 35 , which is mounted through the opening 70 in the front of the receptacle through a lighted watertight, flexible membrane 232 . The circuitry includes timing circuitry 234 and a speaker 236 that functions as described below. The electrical arrangement as well as the dispensing line and bottle venting flow paths are shown in FIG. 7 and the sprayer is operated as follows. When a bottle is loaded into the sprayer (that is, the bottle is inverted and set into the receptacle tray), the thinned area of the bottle cap is punctured by the piercing post, the cap sealing flange seals against the tray well and the annular ring contacts and depresses the plunger of the discharge valve to open the valve. Cleanser pours out of the bottle between and around the ribs of the piercing post and is replaced by an equal volume of air through the vent tube. Because air is lighter than the cleanser, it is displaced to the top of the bottle where it is trapped. Cleanser pours out of the bottle and drains through the valve plate and into the dispenser line, through the pump, past the filter until it reaches valve 176 . Until the sprayer is operated, the sprayer remains in this state of equilibrium in which no cleanser flows from the bottle. When a user wishes to spray the enclosure walls with cleanser, he or she simply depresses the switch at the front of the sprayer. This signals timing circuitry to begin a countdown delaying spraying for a predetermined time, such as 20 seconds. This affords the user time to exit the shower enclosure and close the doors or curtains. It also may provide the user time to abort the spray cycle by depressing the switch a second time. Initially depressing the switch may also send a pulsed tone to the speaker and flashes the lighted ring around the switch for warning the user of the impending operation of the sprayer. Unless cancelled by the user, the spray cycle begins automatically at the expiration of the countdown. The motor is then energized which simultaneously rotates the drive gear of the pump and turns the gear train to rotate the drive shaft and the spray head. At the same time, the pump draws cleanser from the bottle through the dispenser line and opens valve 176 so that cleanser can flow through the junction and be expelled through the nozzle as the spray head is rotated, thereby providing a circular, oscillating spray pattern. This reduces the level of cleanser in the bottle, creating a negative pressure in the bottle, which opens the check valve in the vent tube to aspirate the bottle and allow more cleanser to be drawn from the bottle during the spray cycle. The motor continues to be energized until the expiration of a second countdown performed by the timing circuit, preferably another 20 second interval, automatically initiated by the timer. At that point the motor is deenergized which shuts down the pump causing valve 176 to close. Closing the valve prevents cleanser from leaking out of the dispenser line and also keeps the cleanser in the line upstream from the valve so that the pump remains primed. The sprayer thus returns to stand-by mode without further intervention from the user, ready for another spray cycle at the demand of the user. FIGS. 14-16 depict a modified bottle cap and an adapter suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 1-13 . A flat top cap 86 a is provided with a bottle 22 . An adapter 300 is employed between the bottle cap and tray 56 to bridge the action of loading the bottle into the tray and the opening of the discharge orifice. In FIG. 14 , bottle cap 86 a has a generally flat transverse outer surface 130 a with a recessed thinned area 132 a at its center. Adapter 300 has a flat ring 302 with an opening in the middle and a ring 134 a protruding from the ring 302 but with a smaller outer circle. The ring 302 of the adapter 300 may have the same serrated periphery 306 as the bottle cap 86 a , and the outer circles of the ring 302 and the bottle cap 86 a , including the serrated peripheries, typically have the same diameter. When the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 , piercing post 98 will go through the opening in the middle of the adapter 300 and puncture the cap 86 a in the thinned area 132 a to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. Meanwhile, the bottle cap 86 a presses against the ring 302 of the adapter 300 so that the ring 134 a of the adapter, which is located to contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. The ring 302 of the adapter 300 rests on the stand-offs 124 to space the punctured area from the floor of the well 84 . What has been described thus far with respect to FIGS. 1-16 provides context for the use of the present invention claimed herein. Turning now to FIGS. 17-19 , there are shown embodiments of a cap and the bottle-tray interface according to the invention that may used to deliver cleanser from the bottle 22 to the tube 152 of the dispenser line 154 that extends to the inlet barb 156 of the pump 28 as described above. In FIGS. 17-19 , the cap 86 b is as described above with references to FIGS. 8-11 except that the cap 86 b has four equally spaced segmented ridges 134 b extending to a plane spaced from the surface 130 . The segmented ridges 134 b are separated by slots 434 . The segmented ridges 134 b are located to contact a valve actuator to deliver cleanser from the bottle 22 to the first tube 152 of the dispenser line 154 that extends to the inlet barb 156 of the pump 28 as described below. Referring now to FIG. 18 , the embodiment of a bottle-tray interface is shown just before the bottle 22 is placed in the reservoir tray. The reservoir tray has a well 480 including a circular upper section 484 with a floor 485 and a circular lower chamber 490 extending downwardly from a portion of the floor 485 . A spout 491 extends downwardly from the lower chamber 490 and defines an outlet orifice 492 . A circular piercing post 420 extends upwardly from the floor 485 of the circular upper section 484 of the well 480 . The piercing post 420 has an outer wall 421 , and an inner wall 427 that defines an air vent path 425 and a cleanser conduit 428 in the piercing post 420 . The cleanser conduit 428 provides a fluid flow path to the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 . An air hole 426 passes through the outer wall 421 into the air vent path 425 , and an opening 429 passes through the outer wall 421 into the cleanser conduit 428 . The piercing post terminates in an obliquely truncated upper end 422 to facilitate puncturing the cap 86 a in the thinned area 132 a to permit discharge of the cleanser. The lower chamber 490 of the well 480 contains a valve 438 that controls cleanser flow from the bottle 22 as will be described below. The valve 438 includes a valve actuator 440 and a valve stem 448 . The valve actuator 440 includes a plunger 441 , a valve cover 443 and a rocker 444 . The plunger 441 is biased in the upward direction against the valve cover 443 by a spring 442 as shown in FIG. 18 . The rocker 444 includes a pivot pin 446 , an upper arm 445 and a lower forked arm 447 . The forked arm 447 is seated in a groove 450 in the valve stem 448 . A spring 449 biases the valve stem 448 against the entry to the outlet orifice 492 as shown by the arrow in FIG. 18 . By spring-biasing the valve stem 448 into a normally closed seated position that seals the outlet orifice 492 of the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 , any downward pressure exerted on the valve stem 448 (such as sucking by the pump, downward fluid pressure, or gravity) merely keeps the valve stem 448 seated (absent downward movement of the plunger 441 as described below). Turning now to FIG. 17 , the embodiment of a bottle-tray interface is shown after the bottle 22 has been placed in the reservoir tray. When the bottle 22 is placed in the tray, at least a portion of one or more of the segmented ridges 134 b of the cap 86 b contacts the valve cover 433 thereby moving the plunger 441 downward in the direction shown in FIG. 17 . The slots 434 between the segmented ridges 134 b of the cap 86 b have a width smaller than the diameter of the plunger 441 to insure movement of the plunger 441 . When the plunger 441 moves downward, the upper arm 445 of the rocker 444 pivots the lower forked arm 447 in an upward direction thereby moving the valve stem 448 in the upward direction shown in FIG. 17 . This unseats the valve stem 448 from the entry to the outlet orifice 492 as shown in FIG. 17 . A cleanser flow path is then created from the bottle 22 , through the cleanser conduit 428 of the piercing post 420 , into the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 , through the outlet orifice 492 , and into the first tube 152 of the dispenser line 154 that extends to the inlet barb 156 of the pump 28 as described above. Delivery of the cleanser from the spray nozzle 202 then occurs using the mechanisms, circuits, and processes described above. Still referring to FIG. 17 , when the bottle 22 is placed in the tray, an air passage 460 is created between the bottle 22 and an inner surface 482 of the well 480 . An air flow path is thereby created from the air passage 460 , through the slots 434 (best shown in FIG. 19 ) between the segmented ridges 134 b of the cap 86 b , through the air hole 426 in the outer wall 421 of the piecing post 420 , through the air vent path 425 of the piercing post 420 , and into the bottle 22 . The arrangement of FIGS. 17-19 also provides a no-mess means of opening and inserting the bottle and also further inhibits uses of improper cleanser containers. It does this for several reasons. First, if a conventional bottle and cap were inserted into the tray, the piercing post 420 would not puncture a conventional cap lacking the weakened area. Even if the cap was removed so that the mouth was opened, the sprayer still would not operate because the valve actuator 440 is located radially inward of the place where a conventional thin-walled bottle mouth would normally extend so that the valve would not be opened. In addition, the floor 485 of the well may also include arcuate upwardly extending ribs (such as arcuate stand-offs 124 in FIG. 11 ) of a thickness or spaced inward sufficiently such that bottles with a narrower neck cannot contact the valve while a cap with narrow segmented ridges can contact the valve by way of thin, high segmented ridges. Also, while the cap 86 b has conventional internal threads 136 at its upper end that mate with threads 138 on the mouth of the bottle, and it also has a ring of one-way ratchet teeth 140 that engage corresponding ratchet teeth 142 on the bottle as in FIG. 13 . The ratchets allow the cap to be turned in a tightening direction but resist untightening rotation to prevent non-destructive removal of the cap and thus refilling of the bottle. FIGS. 20-22 depict an embodiment of a modified cap and adapter that may be used with the present invention. A flat top cap 86 c is provided for the bottle 22 and an adapter 500 is employed between the bottle cap 86 c and tray 56 to bridge the action of loading the bottle into the tray and the opening of the discharge orifice. Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 17-19 above. In this embodiment, bottle cap 86 c has a generally flat transverse outer surface 130 c with a recessed thinned area 132 c at its center. Adapter 500 has a flat ring 502 with an opening in the middle and four segmented annular ridges 134 c protruding from the ring 502 . The ring 502 of the adapter 500 may have the same serrated periphery 506 as the bottle cap 86 c and the outer circles of the adapter ring and the bottle cap, including the serrated peripheries, typically have the same diameter. When the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 , piercing post 420 will go through the opening in the middle of the adapter 500 and puncture the cap 86 c in the thinned area 132 c to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. Meanwhile, the bottle cap 86 c presses against the ring 502 of the adapter 500 so that at least a portion of one of the segmented ridges 134 c , which is located to contact valve cover 443 , pushes the valve actuator 440 downward to unseat valve stem 448 from outlet orifice 492 and open the outlet orifice 492 . FIG. 23 depicts a modified bottle cap and an adapter suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 1-13 . A flat top cap 86 d and a cap liner or gasket 333 are provided with a bottle 22 . Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 1-16 above. In this embodiment, bottle cap 86 d has a generally flat transverse outer surface 130 d with a central hole 132 d at its center. The cap liner 333 , which may be any piercable material such as a soft closed cell polyethylene foam or foil, seals the opening of the bottle 22 and also seals the central hole 132 d of the bottle cap 86 d . In one version of the invention, the cap liner 333 is sealed to the bottle 22 by way of conventional methods such as ultrasonic welding, radio frequency welding or heat sealing. In another version of the invention, the cap liner 333 is positioned between the bottle 22 and the bottle cap 86 d but is not attached to the bottle 22 or the bottle cap 86 d. Still referring to FIG. 23 , when the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘D’, piercing post 98 will go through the opening in the middle of the adapter 300 , through the central hole 132 d of the bottle cap 86 d , and puncture the cap liner 333 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap liner 333 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 98 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 98 . Meanwhile, the bottle cap 86 d presses against the ring 302 of the adapter 300 so that the ring 134 a of the adapter 300 , which is located to contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. FIG. 24 depicts a modified bottle cap and an adapter suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 17-22 . A flat top cap 86 d and a cap liner or gasket 333 are provided with a bottle 22 as described in FIG. 23 above. Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 17-22 above. In this embodiment, when the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘E’, the piercing post 420 will go through the opening in the middle of the adapter 500 , through the central hole 132 d of the bottle cap 86 d , and puncture the cap liner 333 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap liner 333 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 420 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 420 . Meanwhile, the bottle cap 86 d presses against the ring 502 of the adapter 500 so that at least a portion of one of the segmented ridges 134 c , which is located to contact valve cover 443 , pushes the valve actuator 440 downward to unseat valve stem 448 from outlet orifice 492 and open the outlet orifice 492 . FIG. 25 depicts another modified bottle cap and an adapter suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 1-13 . A cap closure 833 is provided with a bottle 22 . Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 1-16 above. The cap closure 833 , which may be any piercable material such as a closed cell polyethylene foam or foil, seals the opening of the bottle 22 . The cap closure 833 may be sealed to the bottle 22 by way of conventional methods such as ultrasonic welding, radio frequency welding or heat sealing. Optionally, the bottle 22 may be provided with a removable cap (similar to cap 86 d with no central hole 132 d ) for shipping purposes. When the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘F’, piercing post 98 will puncture the cap closure 833 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap closure 833 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 98 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 98 . Meanwhile, the cap closure 833 presses against the ring 302 of the adapter 300 so that the ring 134 a of the adapter 300 , which is located to contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. FIG. 26 depicts a modified bottle cap and an adapter suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 17-22 . A cap closure 833 provided with a bottle 22 as described in FIG. 25 above. Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 17-22 above. The cap closure 833 , which may be any piercable material such as a closed cell polyethylene foam or foil, seals the opening of the bottle 22 . Optionally, the bottle 22 may be provided with a removable cap (similar to cap 86 d with no central hole 132 d ) for shipping purposes. In this embodiment, when the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘G’, the piercing post 420 will puncture the cap closure 833 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap closure 833 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 420 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 420 . Meanwhile, the cap closure 833 presses against the ring 502 of the adapter 500 so that at least a portion of one of the segmented ridges 134 c , which is located to contact valve cover 443 , pushes the valve actuator 440 downward to unseat valve stem 448 from outlet orifice 492 and open the outlet orifice 492 . What has been described with respect to FIGS. 1-13 also provides context for the use of another modified cap and adapter that may be used with the present invention as depicted in FIGS. 27 and 28 . A flat top cap 86 d is provided with a bottle 22 . An adapter 800 is employed between the bottle cap and tray 56 to bridge the action of loading the bottle into the tray and the opening of the discharge orifice. Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 1-13 and 23 above. In this FIG. 27 embodiment, bottle cap 86 d has a generally flat transverse outer surface 130 d with a hole 132 d at its center. Adapter 800 is a flat annular ring with an opening in the middle and has a square or rectangular vertical cross-section. When the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘I’, piercing post 98 will go through the opening in the middle of the adapter 800 , through the central hole 132 d of the bottle cap 86 d , and puncture the cap liner 333 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap liner 333 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 98 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 98 . Meanwhile, the bottle cap 86 d presses against the adapter 800 so that the adapter 800 , which is located to contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. The adapter 800 rests on the floor of the well inward of the stand-offs 124 . The vertical height of the adapter 800 is preferably greater than the height of the stand-offs 124 above the floor of the well 84 . However, the vertical height of the adapter 800 must not be so great as to prevent the piercing post 98 from puncturing the cap liner 333 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. What has been described with respect to FIGS. 1-13 also provides context for the use of another modified cap and adapter that may be used with the present invention as depicted in FIGS. 27 and 29 . A cap closure 833 is provided with a bottle 22 . An adapter 800 is employed between the bottle cap and tray 56 to bridge the action of loading the bottle into the tray and the opening of the discharge orifice. Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 1-13 and 25 above. The cap closure 833 , which may be any piercable material such as a closed cell polyethylene foam or foil, seals the opening of the bottle 22 . Optionally, the bottle 22 may be provided with a removable cap (similar to cap 86 d with no central hole 132 d ) for shipping purposes. When the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘J’, piercing post 98 will puncture the cap closure 833 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap closure 833 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 98 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 98 . Meanwhile, the cap closure 833 presses against the adapter 800 so that the adapter 800 , which is located to contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. The adapter 800 rests on the floor of the well inward of the stand-offs 124 . The vertical height of the adapter 800 is preferably greater than the height of the stand-offs 124 above the floor of the well 84 . However, the vertical height of the adapter 800 must not be so great as to prevent the piercing post 98 from puncturing the cap closure 833 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. What has been described with respect to FIGS. 17-19 provides context for the use of another embodiment the present invention claimed herein. Turning now to FIG. 30 , there is shown another bottle-tray interface according to the invention that may used to deliver cleanser from the bottle 22 to the tube 152 of the dispenser line 154 that extends to the inlet barb 156 of the pump 28 as described above. In FIG. 30 , the cap 86 is as described above with references to FIGS. 8-11 . Referring still to FIG. 30 , the embodiment of a bottle-tray interface is shown after the bottle 22 has been placed in the reservoir tray. The reservoir tray has a well 480 including a circular upper section 484 with a floor 485 and a circular lower chamber 490 extending downwardly from a portion of the floor 485 . The circular upper section 484 of the well 480 has a downwardly extending vent nipple 90 a . A spout 491 extends downwardly from the lower chamber 490 and defines an outlet orifice 492 . A circular piercing post 420 a , which is formed as part of a valve plate 496 , extends upwardly from the floor 485 of the circular upper section 484 of the well 480 . Valve plate 496 is secured to the well 480 with screws as described above with reference to valve plate 96 . The piercing post 420 a has an outer wall 421 a , and an inner wall 427 a that defines an air vent path 425 a and a cleanser conduit 428 a in the piercing post 420 a . The air vent path 425 a extends from the top end of the piercing post 420 a to the vent nipple 90 a . The cleanser conduit 428 a provides a fluid flow path to the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 . Optionally, an air hole may pass through the outer wall 421 a into the air vent path 425 a , and an opening may pass through the outer wall 421 a into the cleanser conduit 428 a . The piercing post 420 a terminates in an obliquely truncated upper end to facilitate puncturing the cap 86 in the thinned area 132 to permit discharge of the cleanser. The lower chamber 490 of the well 480 contains a valve 438 that controls cleanser flow from the bottle 22 as will be described below. The valve 438 includes a valve actuator 440 and a valve stem 448 . The valve actuator 440 includes a plunger 441 , a valve cover 443 and a rocker 444 . The plunger 441 is biased in the upward direction against the valve cover 443 by a spring 442 as shown in FIG. 18 . The rocker 444 includes a pivot pin 446 , an upper arm 445 and a lower forked arm 447 . The forked arm 447 is seated in a groove 450 in the valve stem 448 . A spring 449 biases the valve stem 448 against the entry to the outlet orifice 492 as shown by the arrow in FIG. 18 . By spring-biasing the valve stem 448 into a normally closed seated position that seals the outlet orifice 492 of the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 , any downward pressure exerted on the valve stem 448 (such as sucking by the pump, downward fluid pressure, or gravity) merely keeps the valve stem 448 seated (absent downward movement of the plunger 441 as described below). Still referring to FIG. 30 , the bottle-tray interface is shown after the bottle 22 has been placed in the reservoir tray. When the bottle 22 is placed in the tray, circular gasket 577 (which may be formed from suitable conventional gasket materials) provides a seal between the piercing post 420 a and the surface 130 of the cap 86 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 420 a . Also, when the bottle 22 is placed in the tray, raised ring surface 134 of the cap 86 contacts the valve cover 433 thereby moving the plunger 441 downward in the direction shown in FIG. 30 . When the plunger 441 moves downward, the upper arm 445 of the rocker 444 pivots the lower forked arm 447 in an upward direction thereby moving the valve stem 448 in the upward direction shown in FIG. 30 . This unseats the valve stem 448 from the entry to the outlet orifice 492 as shown in FIG. 30 . A cleanser flow path is then created from the bottle 22 , through the cleanser conduit 428 a of the piercing post 420 a , into the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 , through the outlet orifice 492 , and into the first tube 152 of the dispenser line 154 that extends to the inlet barb 156 of the pump 28 as described above. Delivery of the cleanser from the spray nozzle 202 then occurs using the mechanisms, circuits, and processes described above. Still referring to FIG. 30 , the short vent tube 144 described above with reference to FIGS. 2B-6 couples to the vent nipple 90 a defining the vent orifice in the tray well. A small check valve 148 fits into the end of the vent tube 144 as described above. The check valve 148 is normally closed so that cleanser does not leak out via the air vent path 425 a , the vent nipple 90 a and the vent tube 144 . The check valve 148 opens by negative pressure that develops as cleanser is withdrawn from the bottle via cleanser conduit 428 a . The opened check valve 148 aspirates the air to the bottle through the vent tube 144 , the vent nipple 90 a and the air vent path 425 a to allow the cleanser to flow from the bottle in a consistent manner, without introducing air in a manner that would cause foaming or gurgling. The check valve 148 remains open until the pressure in the bottle has equalized sufficiently to alleviate the negative pressure and then it closes. FIG. 31 depicts a modified bottle cap 86 e suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 1-13 and 30 . A bottle cap 86 e and a cap liner or gasket 333 are provided with a bottle 22 . Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 1-16 above. The top of the bottle cap 86 e has an outer surface 130 e with a central hole 132 e at its center around which is a raised ring surface 134 e extending to a plane spaced from surface 130 e . The central hole 132 e is located so that as the bottle is seated in the tray the piercing post will go through this area to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The raised ring 134 e is located to contact the plunger of the valve and push the valve downward to unseat the gasket from the plate and open the discharge orifice. Still referring to FIG. 31 , the flat surface 130 e of the cap rests on the stand-offs 124 to space the punctured area from the floor of the well. The cap liner 333 , which may be any piercable material such as a closed cell polyethylene foam or foil, seals the opening of the bottle 22 and also seals the central hole 132 e of the bottle cap 86 e . In one version of the invention, the cap liner 333 is sealed to the bottle 22 by way of conventional methods such as ultrasonic welding, radio frequency welding or heat sealing. In another version of the invention, the cap liner 333 is positioned between the bottle 22 and the bottle cap 86 e but is not attached to the bottle 22 or the bottle cap 86 e. Still referring to FIG. 31 , when the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘R’, piercing post 98 will go through the central hole 132 e of the bottle cap 86 e , and puncture the cap liner 333 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap liner 333 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 98 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 98 . Meanwhile, the raised ring 134 e of the bottle cap 86 e presses the contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. In order to facilitate movement of the piercing post 98 through the central hole 132 e of the bottle cap 86 e , the central hole 132 e has a chamfered inner surface 133 . In this configuration, the central hole 132 e is frustoconical with a larger diameter near the surface 130 e of the bottle cap 86 e as shown in FIG. 31 . Accordingly, the central hole 132 e has a smaller diameter near the cap liner 333 . The larger diameter near the surface 130 e of the bottle cap 86 e provides a guide means for ensuring that the piercing post 98 will go through the central hole 132 e of the bottle cap 86 e in the event that the piercing post 98 is off center with respect to the central hole 132 e when the bottle 22 is being placed in the tray. This central hole configuration may be used with any bottle cap described herein. FIG. 32 depicts another modified bottle cap 86 f suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 1-13 and 30 . A bottle cap 86 f and a cap liner or gasket 333 are provided with a bottle 22 . Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 1-16 above. The bottle cap 86 f has a raised cylindrical inlet conduit 133 f having a piercable area 132 f at its center around which is a raised ring surface 134 f extending to a plane spaced from surface 130 f . The piercable area 132 f is located so that as the bottle is seated in the tray the piercing post 98 will puncture the cap 96 f in this area to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The raised ring 134 f is located to contact the plunger of the valve and push the valve downward to unseat the gasket from the plate and open the discharge orifice. Still referring to FIG. 32 , the flat surface 130 f of the cap rests on the stand-offs 124 to space the punctured area from the floor of the well. The cap liner 333 , which may be any piercable material such as a closed cell polyethylene foam or foil, seals the opening of the bottle 22 and also seals the cylindrical inlet conduit 133 f of the bottle cap 86 f . In one version of the invention, the cap liner 333 is sealed to the bottle 22 by way of conventional methods such as ultrasonic welding, radio frequency welding or heat sealing. In another version of the invention, the cap liner 333 is positioned between the bottle 22 and the bottle cap 86 e but is not attached to the bottle 22 or the bottle cap 86 f. Still referring to FIG. 32 , when the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘S’, piercing post 98 will puncture the piercable area 132 f of the bottle cap 86 f , and puncture the cap liner 333 to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap liner 333 can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 98 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 98 . The cylindrical inlet conduit 133 f is configured in a raised arrangement from the bottle cap surface 130 f as described above in order to provide clearance for the chad 299 (drawn in phantom in FIG. 32 ) that may remain attached to the cylindrical inlet conduit 133 f after puncturing the piercable area 132 f . Meanwhile, the raised ring 134 f of the bottle cap 86 f presses the contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. FIG. 33 depicts another modified bottle cap 86 g suitable for use with the dispenser of FIGS. 1-13 and 30 . A bottle cap 86 g and a cap liner or gasket 333 a are provided with a bottle 22 . Other aspects of this embodiment are the same as those described in FIGS. 1-16 above. The bottle cap 86 g has a raised cylindrical inlet conduit 133 g having a piercable area 132 g at its center around which is a raised ring surface 134 g extending to a plane spaced from surface 130 g . The piercable area 132 g is located so that as the bottle is seated in the tray the piercing post 98 will puncture the cap 96 g in this area to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The raised ring 134 g is located to contact the plunger of the valve and push the valve downward to unseat the gasket from the plate and open the discharge orifice. The flat surface 130 g of the cap rests on the stand-offs 124 to space the punctured area from the floor of the well. Still referring to FIG. 33 , the cap liner 333 a , which may be any piercable material such as a closed cell polyethylene foam or foil, includes a central opening 399 spaced away from the cap liner surface 599 by frustoconical wall 499 . In one version of the invention, the cap liner 333 a is sealed to the bottle 22 by way of conventional methods such as ultrasonic welding, radio frequency welding or heat sealing. In another version of the invention, the cap liner 333 a is positioned between the bottle 22 and the bottle cap 86 g but is not attached to the bottle 22 or the bottle cap 86 g. Still referring to FIG. 33 , when the bottle 22 is seated in the tray 56 by movement in direction ‘T’, piercing post 98 will puncture the piercable area 132 g of the bottle cap 86 g , and go through the central opening 399 of the cap liner 333 a to permit discharge of the cleanser and venting of the bottle. The cap liner 333 a can provide a compliant seal around the piercing post 98 . This prevents leakage down the sides of the piercing post 98 . The cylindrical inlet conduit 133 g is configured in a raised arrangement from the bottle cap surface 130 g as described above in order to provide clearance for the chad 299 a (drawn in phantom in FIG. 33 ) that may remain attached to the cylindrical inlet conduit 133 g after puncturing the piercable area 132 g . Meanwhile, the raised ring 134 g of the bottle cap 86 g presses the contact plunger 114 , pushes the valve downward to unseat gasket 118 from valve plate 96 and open the discharge orifice. Turning now to FIG. 34A , there is shown an alternative valve plate 496 a suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 . The valve plate 496 a includes a circular piercing post 511 a (which extends upwardly from the floor 485 of the circular upper section 484 of the well 480 when installed in the well 480 in the manner shown in FIG. 30 ). The valve plate 496 a is secured to the well 480 with screws as described above with reference to valve plate 96 . In particular, mounting holes 515 a are provided to accept screws that attach the valve plate 496 a to the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 and described above with reference to screws 97 in FIG. 3 . Access hole 517 a is also provided to accept plunger 441 and valve cover 443 as shown in FIG. 30 . The piercing post 511 a has an outer wall 521 a , and an inner wall 527 a that defines an air vent path 525 a and a cleanser conduit 528 a in the piercing post 511 a . The air vent path 525 a extends from the top end of the piercing post 511 a to the vent nipple 90 a which is shown in FIG. 30 . The cleanser conduit 528 a provides a fluid flow path to the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 . Still referring to FIG. 34A , the cleanser conduit 528 a terminates at an opening 541 a of the piercing post 511 a , and the air vent path 525 a terminates at another opening 543 a of the piercing post 511 a . The opening 543 a of the air vent path 525 a is at a position above the opening 541 a of the cleanser conduit 528 a . In particular, the outer wall 521 a of the piercing post 511 a is lower at the side of the piercing post 511 a nearest the cleanser conduit 528 a . Because of this arrangement, the opening 543 a of the air vent path 525 a is at a position further into the bottle than the opening 541 a of the cleanser conduit 528 a when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. As a result, the mixing of the air flow from the air vent path 525 a into the liquid cleanser flow in the cleanser conduit 528 a is controlled to avoid levels of mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow that prevents appropriate dispensing of the liquid cleanser. In other words, the short circuiting of vent air into the liquid flow is reduced. Turning now to FIG. 34B , there is shown an alternative valve plate 496 b suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 . The valve plate 496 b includes a circular piercing post 511 b (which extends upwardly from the floor 485 of the circular upper section 484 of the well 480 when installed in the well 480 in the manner shown in FIG. 30 ). The valve plate 496 b is secured to the well 480 with screws as described above with reference to valve plate 96 . In particular, mounting holes 515 b are provided to accept screws that attach the valve plate 496 b to the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 and described above with reference to screws 97 in FIG. 3 . Access hole 517 b is also provided to accept plunger 441 and valve cover 443 as shown in FIG. 30 . The piercing post 511 b has an outer wall 521 b , and an inner wall 527 b that defines an air vent path 525 b and a cleanser conduit 528 b in the piercing post 511 b . The air vent path 525 b extends from the top end of the piercing post 511 b to the vent nipple 90 a which is shown in FIG. 30 . The cleanser conduit 528 b provides a fluid flow path to the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 . Referring still to FIG. 34B , the cleanser conduit 528 b terminates at an opening 541 b of the piercing post 511 b , and the air vent path 525 b terminates at another opening 543 b of the piercing post 511 b . The opening 543 b of the air vent path 525 b is at a position above the opening 541 b of the cleanser conduit 528 b . Also, the opening 541 b of the cleanser conduit 528 b extends into the outer wall 521 b of the piercing post 511 b at the side of the piercing post 511 b nearest the cleanser conduit 528 b . Because of this arrangement, the opening 543 b of the air vent path 525 b is at a position further into the bottle than the opening 541 b of the cleanser conduit 528 b when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. As a result, the mixing of the air flow from the air vent path 525 b into the liquid cleanser flow in the cleanser conduit 528 b is controlled to avoid levels of mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow that prevents appropriate dispensing of the liquid cleanser. In other words, the short circuiting of vent air into the liquid flow is reduced. Turning now to FIG. 34C , there is shown an alternative valve plate 496 c suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 . The valve plate 496 c includes a circular piercing post 511 c (which extends upwardly from the floor 485 of the circular upper section 484 of the well 480 when installed in the well 480 in the manner shown in FIG. 30 ). The valve plate 496 c is secured to the well 480 with screws as described above with reference to valve plate 96 . In particular, mounting holes 515 c are provided to accept screws that attach the valve plate 496 c to the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 and described above with reference to screws 97 in FIG. 3 . Access hole 517 c is also provided to accept plunger 441 and valve cover 443 as shown in FIG. 30 . The piercing post 511 c has an outer wall 521 c , and an inner wall 527 c that defines an air vent path 525 c and a cleanser conduit 528 c in the piercing post 511 c . The air vent path 525 c extends from the top end of the piercing post 511 c to the vent nipple 90 a which is shown in FIG. 30 . The cleanser conduit 528 c provides a fluid flow path to the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 . Still referring to FIG. 34C , the cleanser conduit 528 c terminates at an opening 541 c of the piercing post 511 c , and the air vent path 525 c terminates at another opening 543 c of the piercing post 511 c . The opening 543 c of the air vent path 525 c is at a position above the opening 541 c of the cleanser conduit 528 c . Also, the opening 541 c of the cleanser conduit 528 c extends into the outer wall 521 c of the piercing post 511 c at the side of the piercing post 511 c nearest the cleanser conduit 528 c . Furthermore, the inner wall 527 c in the piercing post 511 c extends outward from the piercing post 511 c between the opening 543 c of the air vent path 525 c and the opening 541 c of the cleanser conduit 528 c . Because of this arrangement, the opening 543 c of the air vent path 525 c is at a position further into the bottle than the opening 541 c of the cleanser conduit 528 c when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. As a result, the mixing of the air flow from the air vent path 525 c into the liquid cleanser flow in the cleanser conduit 528 c is controlled to avoid levels of mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow that prevents appropriate dispensing of the liquid cleanser. Also, the extended inner wall 527 c in the piercing post 511 c between the opening 543 c of the air vent path 525 c and the opening 541 c of the cleanser conduit 528 c further serves to block the mixing of the air flow into the liquid cleanser flow. In other words, the short circuiting of vent air into the liquid flow is reduced. Turning now to FIG. 34D , there is shown an alternative valve plate 496 d suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 . The valve plate 496 d includes a circular piercing post 511 d (which extends upwardly from the floor 485 of the circular upper section 484 of the well 480 when installed in the well 480 in the manner shown in FIG. 30 ). The valve plate 496 d is secured to the well 480 with screws as described above with reference to valve plate 96 . In particular, mounting holes 515 d are provided to accept screws that attach the valve plate 496 d to the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 and described above with reference to screws 97 in FIG. 3 . Access hole 517 d is also provided to accept plunger 441 and valve cover 443 as shown in FIG. 30 . The piercing post 511 d has an outer wall 521 d , and an inner wall 527 d that defines an air vent path 525 d and a cleanser conduit 528 d in the piercing post 511 d . The air vent path 525 d extends from the top end of the piercing post 511 d to the vent nipple 90 a which is shown in FIG. 30 . The cleanser conduit 528 d provides a fluid flow path to the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 . Referring still to FIG. 34D , the cleanser conduit 528 d terminates at an opening 541 d of the piercing post 511 d , and the air vent path 525 d terminates at another opening 543 d of the piercing post 511 d . The opening 543 d of the air vent path 525 d is at a position above the opening 541 d of the cleanser conduit 528 d when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray as described above. Also, the opening 541 d of the cleanser conduit 528 d extends into the outer wall 521 d of the piercing post 511 d at the side of the piercing post 511 d nearest the cleanser conduit 528 d . Because of this arrangement, the opening 543 d of the air vent path 525 d is at a position further into the bottle than the opening 541 d of the cleanser conduit 528 d when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. As a result, the mixing of the air flow from the air vent path 525 d into the liquid cleanser flow in the cleanser conduit 528 d is controlled to avoid levels of mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow that prevents appropriate dispensing of the liquid cleanser. In other words, the short circuiting of vent air into the liquid flow is reduced. Turning now to FIG. 34E , there is shown an alternative valve plate 496 e suitable for use with the invention of FIG. 30 . The valve plate 496 e includes a circular piercing post 51 e (which extends upwardly from the floor 485 of the circular upper section 484 of the well 480 when installed in the well 480 in the manner shown in FIG. 30 ). The valve plate 496 e is secured to the well 480 with screws as described above with reference to valve plate 96 . In particular, mounting holes 515 e are provided to accept screws that attach the valve plate 496 e to the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 and described above with reference to screws 97 in FIG. 3 . Access hole 517 e is also provided to accept plunger 441 and valve cover 443 as shown in FIG. 30 . The piercing post 511 e has an outer wall 521 e , and an inner wall 527 e that defines an air vent path 525 e and a cleanser conduit 528 e in the piercing post 511 e . The air vent path 525 e extends from the top end of the piercing post 511 e to the vent nipple 90 a which is shown in FIG. 30 . The cleanser conduit 528 e provides a fluid flow path to the lower chamber 490 of the well 480 as shown in FIG. 30 . Still referring to FIG. 34E , the cleanser conduit 528 e terminates at an opening 541 e of the piercing post 511 e , and the air vent path 525 e terminates at another opening 543 e of the piercing post 511 e . The opening 543 e of the air vent path 525 e is at a position above the opening 541 e of the cleanser conduit 528 e . Also, the opening 541 e of the cleanser conduit 528 e extends into the outer wall 521 e of the piercing post 511 e at the side of the piercing post 511 e nearest the cleanser conduit 528 e . Furthermore, the inner wall 527 e in the piercing post 511 e extends outward from the piercing post 511 e between the opening 543 e of the air vent path 525 e and the opening 541 e of the cleanser conduit 528 e . The inner wall 527 e terminates in a curved chisel top. Because of this arrangement, the opening 543 e of the air vent path 525 e is at a position further into the bottle than the opening 541 e of the cleanser conduit 528 e when the bottle is installed in the inverted orientation in the tray. As a result, the mixing of the air flow from the air vent path 525 e into the liquid cleanser flow in the cleanser conduit 528 e is controlled to avoid levels of mixing of the air flow into the liquid flow that prevents appropriate dispensing of the liquid cleanser. Also, the extended inner wall 527 e in the piercing post 511 e between the opening 543 e of the air vent path 525 e and the opening 541 e of the cleanser conduit 528 e further serves to block the mixing of the air flow into the liquid cleanser flow. In other words, the short circuiting of vent air into the liquid flow is reduced. The invention thus provides an automated dispenser that can accept inverted bottles of cleaning fluid and can deliver the fluid from the bottle with improved fluid flow characteristics. In particular, the invention provides for improved air venting of the inverted bottle (by way of, among other things, the air vent path in the piercing post, the slots in the segmented ridges of the cap, and the air passage created between the bottle and an inner surface of the well) and provides for improved control of delivery of cleaning fluid from the dispenser (by way of, among other things, the cleanser conduit in the piercing post and the valve). It should also be noted that the inventive aspects of the invention could be used to dispense a cleaning or disinfecting solution in applications other than a tub/shower surround. In this regard, U.S. Pat. No. 4,183,105 depicts how one type of automated cleansing equipment could be installed to clean the bowl. The inventors envision an embodiment of their invention designed to mount to the underside of a toilet bowl cover with the supply cleaning fluid being delivered from a reservoir near the tank, and the chemical being sprayed in the bowl. Such a structure should be considered to be an “enclosure” for purposes of this application. Preferred embodiments of the invention have been described in considerable detail above. Many modifications and variations to the preferred embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art, which will be within the spirit and scope of the invention. Therefore, the invention should not be limited to the described embodiments. To ascertain the full scope of the invention, reference should be made to the following claims. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The invention provides a sprayer for automatically spraying the walls of bath and shower enclosures and the like.

An automated sprayer for spraying the walls of a shower enclosure with a liquid cleanser dispenses the cleanser using a pump and rotatable spray head. A motor drives the pump and rotates the spray head. The sprayer has a showerhead mountable housing with a hanger. The housing supports a bottle of cleanser in an inverted fashion. Cleanser is delivered from the bottle through a cleanser conduit in the piercing post into a well of the housing. The bottle is vented from the well through an air vent path in the piercing post or from a well vent outlet through the air vent path in the piercing post. An outlet valve in the well permits outflow of cleanser from the well. Various bottle caps and bottle closures are also provided to improve venting and/or limit cleanser leakage from the bottle when the bottle is installed in the housing.

PRIORITY INFORMATION [0001] The present invention claims priority to Provisional Application No. 61/026,019 filed Feb. 4, 2008. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to sealing systems, and particularly to viscous sealant type sealing systems for sealing between the aperture of a machine housing and a shaft protruding through the aperture, such as are used for rotary machines and the like. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Many types of heavy machinery, such as pumps, compressors, turbines and the like, have drive shafts protruding from a working fluid enclosed within a working chamber. Although the clearance between the shaft and the machine housing aperture is relatively small, there is a tendency for the working fluid to leak through such apertures and a sealing system is generally used to prevent or at least to minimize such leakages. [0004] Numerous types of sealing systems are known. One known type that is generally appropriate for low speed rotary machines, uses spring loaded gaskets, such as O-rings. For high speed rotary machines, one widely used sealing system type includes mechanical seals, which consist of radial planar surfaces normal to the shaft axis, both being machined to low surface roughness. One surface is gasketed to the housing while a second surface is driven by the shaft and sealed thereon by a secondary seal such as a bellows, for example. Such mechanical seal systems are generally expensive and the seals tend to rupture catastrophically without warning. Furthermore, the repair of a faulty mechanical seal is costly and time consuming, necessitating extensive machine downtime. [0005] Another type of sealing system appropriate for high speed rotary machines includes compression braided packing seals. This type of seal abrades the shaft surface during tightening and adjustment procedures. Although the braided packing slowly loosens, providing early indication of leakage, the packing material is eroded relatively quickly, and needs frequent replacement, which is typically time consuming. Such seals operate by controlled leaking to keep the compression rope wet. Consequently this type of sealing system is unsuitable for applications wherein spillage of the working materials must be avoided, such as for pumping hazardous substances, for example. [0006] One improved type of sealing system uses a high-viscosity sealant within a stuffing box. The high-viscosity sealant is typically made of a blend of synthetic fibers, lubricants, and binding agents, and has the properties of a non-Newtonian fluid. [0007] Sealant materials are commercially available from several manufacturers, such as U-PAK® manufactured by UTEX Industries, Inc., the Sealital® series by Unique Polymer Systems, and Liquilon® available from Oil Center Research. [0008] Generally, such a sealant is injected into the stuffing box via an inlet port. Following injection of the sealant into the stuffing box, the inlet port is plugged and pressure is applied, causing the sealant to be pressed against the shaft, thereby promoting its adhesion therewith, sealing the space between the shaft and the perimeter of the aperture. To prevent leakage of the working fluid, the pressure within the stuffing box must be maintained at a high enough level. Since frictional forces between the shaft and the sealant abrade the sealant, additional sealant must be added from time to time. [0009] Too much sealant results in excess work being required to turn the shaft, and this work causes heat to build up within the sealing system. [0010] Copending WO 2007/099535 to the applicants of this application, titled “Apparatus for delivering sealant at a predetermined pressure to a stuffing box of a shaft”, which is incorporated by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein, discloses a low cost and low maintenance apparatus for delivering viscous sealant to a stuffing box and maintaining it at a predetermined pressure. By delivering the sealant at the predetermined pressure, the apparatus described reduces or prevents sealant overheating at low machine velocities. [0011] When it is desired to operate rotating machinery at high torques, the sealant pressure is typically increased. However, the lost work, i.e. the work expended as a result of the frictional forces between the rotating shaft and the sealant, correspondingly increases. The lost work is directly proportional to the product of the shaft diameter, rotational speed of the shaft, and the frictional forces between the shaft and the sealant that adheres to the wall of the corresponding shaft aperture. The lost work is dissipated as heat, causing the temperature of the sealant to increase. When the sealant temperature exceeds its operating temperature, risk of loss of sealing ability and even of flammability may exist. In addition, the operability of the machine may be compromised as a result of heat transfer from the sealant to the working fluid. Although the lost work could be decreased by changing the operating conditions of the rotary machine, such as working fluid pressure or shaft speed, such lowering may undesirably reduce the amount of work that the machine does and the range of applications for which such viscous, non-Newtonian sealants can be used, and it is an aim of the invention to minimize such heat build up, thereby increasing the working range of such sealing systems. [0012] To prevent overheating with both mechanical seals and compression braided packing seals, water cooled stuffing boxes have been used. In some systems, water cooled sleeves are used, and in others water cooled pipes are deployed within the stuffing boxes. [0013] U.S. Pat. No. 5,125,792 describes a heat exchange device for a pump stuffing box, in which cooling liquid enters the stuffing box, cools it and then enters the seal chamber as a lubricant. Although this system is appropriate for braided seals, it is inappropriate for high-viscosity, injectable sealants. [0014] Japanese Patent Publication No. 63214576A2 relates to a shaft seal device with a stuffing box which is cooled by water flowing through a water jacket. [0015] Japanese Patent Publication No. JP11082754A2 relates to a cooling device for a mechanical seal wherein the cooling chamber is a cooling tube inside the stuffing box, and the cooling water is circulated around a rotary shaft. [0016] In Japanese Patent Publication No. JP10274158A2, cooling is effected in a plunger pump by arranging cooling liquid passages which are extended in an axial direction of a plunger along a seal member for cooling the seal member by means of a cooling liquid supplied from a cooling liquid supplying means. [0017] In Japanese Patent Publication No. JP11230685A2, a heat exchanger is provided to protect a mechanical seal at a bearing of a pump. The heat exchanger includes a heat transfer tube singly wound into a coil and piped around a cylindrical shell. [0018] U.S. Pat. No. 3,477,729 describes a method and apparatus for cooling a rotating shaft seal, wherein the stuffing box is connected to a coil within a heat exchanger with a primary coolant and the heat exchanger is supplied with a second coolant whereby heat is transferred from the primary coolant to the secondary coolant. [0019] None of the above cooling systems apply to viscous sealants within stuffing boxes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0020] It is an aim of embodiments of the present invention to increase the operating range of sealing systems of the type that includes viscous sealants within stuffing boxes. [0021] One aspect of the invention is directed to providing a conduit for a cooling liquid, said conduit for substantially contacting a viscous fluid type sealant within a stuffing box, proximal to the shaft, thereby conducting heat away from said sealant within said stuffing box by flowing said cooling liquid though said conduit. [0022] A second aspect is directed to providing a sealing system for sealing between an aperture of a machine housing and a rotating shaft of the machine protruding through the aperture, said sealing system comprising: [0023] i) a stuffing box for encasing a segment of said shaft and the aperture of the machine housing; [0024] ii) a sealant injector for injecting a viscous fluid type sealant into the stuffing box; [0025] iii) at least one conduit as described hereinabove, for passage of a cooling fluid therethrough to cool the sealant thereby. [0026] Optionally the conduit extends substantially through the viscous sealant within said stuffing box. [0027] Alternatively, the conduit extends substantially around the inside of the stuffing box. [0028] Optionally, the conduit in the sealant system comprises at least one coolant pipe within the stuffing box. [0029] Optionally, at least one section of said at least one coolant pipe is coiled. [0030] Optionally, the sealing system further comprises an extension coupled to the stuffing box, distal to the aperture of said machine housing, for retrofitting to conventional stuffing box, wherein said pipe is coupled to the extension. [0031] Optionally, the pipe and the extension are retrofittable to the stuffing box, the extension having inlet and outlet holes bored therethrough for coupling the pipe to a coolant fluid supply. [0032] Optionally, the pipes, the extension and the sealant injector are retrofittable to the stuffing box, said extension having holes bored therethrough for injecting the sealant into the stuffing box thereby, and at least one inlet and one outlet for coupling the coolant pipe to a source of cooling liquid. [0033] The conduit extending substantially around the inside of the stuffing box in the sealing system may comprise an inner cooling sleeve for lining at least part of the stuffing box, wherein said conduit is defined by an inner surface of the stuffing box and an outer surface of the cooling sleeve. [0034] In some embodiments, the conduit is further defined by at least one baffle between the inner surface of said stuffing box and the outer surface of the cooling sleeve, said baffle for directing cooling fluid flow around the conduit. [0035] The sealing system may further comprise an extension coupled to the stuffing box, distal to the aperture of said machine housing, for retrofitting to conventional stuffing box, wherein the inner cooling sleeve is coupled to said extension, and said conduit is defined by inner surfaces of the stuffing box and the extension, and an outer surface of the cooling sleeve. [0036] Optionally, the inner cooling sleeve and the extension are retrofittable to the stuffing box, the extension having inlet and outlet holes bored therethrough for coupling the conduit to a coolant source. [0037] Optionally, the sealant injector is retrofittable to the stuffing box, the extension further having a hole bored therethrough for serving a sealant inlet port. [0038] Optionally, inlet of the conduit is connectable to a source of cooling fluid and an outlet of the conduit is connectable to a drain. [0039] Alternatively, the conduit is connectable via a pump to a reservoir of cooling fluid for recirculating the cooling fluid therearound. [0040] Another aspect is directed to a method of cooling a viscous fluid type sealant within a stuffing box of a system comprising a sealant injector, a stuffing box and a shaft of a machine, the method comprising flowing a cooling liquid within a conduit in contact with said sealant, thereby conducting heat away from said sealant. [0041] As referred to herein, the following terms have the respective following meanings: [0042] “Sealant” or “viscous fluid type sealant”: a high-viscosity non-Newtonian liquid, i.e. a liquid whose viscosity varies as a function of the shear stress applied thereto. [0043] “Shaft”: either a rotary shaft or a linearly displaceable shaft, such as a shaft that reciprocates with respect to a machine housing. [0044] “Shaft aperture”: an aperture in a machine housing, through which a shaft extends. [0045] “stuffing box” an enclosure around a shaft and the aperture of a machine housing for filling with sealing material to minimize leakages of working fluid from within the machine housing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0046] For a better understanding of the invention and to show how it may be carried into effect, reference will now be made, purely by way of example, to the accompanying drawings. [0047] With specific reference now to the drawings in detail, it is stressed that the particulars shown are by way of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of the preferred embodiments of the present invention only, and are presented in the cause of providing what is believed to be the most useful and readily understood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of the invention. In this regard, no attempt is made to show structural details of the invention in more detail than is necessary for a fundamental understanding of the invention; the description taken with the drawings making apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of the invention may be embodied in practice. In the accompanying drawings: [0048] FIG. 1 is a vertical cross section of a prior art stuffing box including a sealant injection system, as disclosed in copending PCT application WO 2007/099535; [0049] FIG. 2 a is a vertical cross section through an embodiment of an improved sealing system, comprising a coiled coolant pipe surrounding a drive shaft, having coolant inlet and outlet extending through the walls of the stuffing box; [0050] FIG. 2 b is an embodiment of another improved sealing system comprising a coolant pipe, the system further comprising an extension for retrofitting a cooling system to a conventional stuffing box; [0051] FIGS. 3 a and 3 b show a specific embodiment of an improved sealing system including conduits with pipes that extend through the sealant within the stuffing box, and particularly showing how forced cooling conduits can be introduced via a sealing flange into a stuffing box, to cool the sealant; FIG. 3 a is a cross section through the system, FIG. 3 b is a plan section of the system with just the pipes, flange and sealing rings shown for clarity. [0052] FIG. 4 a is a vertical section through a preferred embodiment, wherein the conduit for cooling fluid is defined by an inner surface of a countersunk stuffing box and an outer surface of a cooling sleeve inserted into the stuffing box, around the shaft, for cooling the sealant between sleeve and shaft, by extracting heat through the sleeve. The sealant supply inlet and the coolant inlet and outlet ports are in an extension that is attached to the stuffing box. [0053] FIG. 4 b is a cutaway isometric projection of another embodiment of the sealing system with a conduit for cooling fluid defined by an inner surface of a stuffing box and an outer surface of a cooling sleeve, wherein the sealant supply inlet and coolant outlet and outlet ports extend through the walls of the stuffing box. [0054] FIG. 5 a is a cutaway isometric projection from above, showing a further embodiment of an improved sealing system with a cooling sleeve that is designed for fitting into a counter-sunk stuffing box, the conduit for cooling fluid being defined by an inner surface of the stuffing box and an outer surface of the cooling sleeve, the conduit being further defined by a series of baffles that span between the inner surface of the stuffing box and the outer surface of the cooling sleeve; [0055] FIG. 5 b is a cutaway isometric projection of the system shown FIG. 5 a, shown from below with the shaft removed, and FIG. 5 c is a view of the outer surface of the opened out and flattened sleeve. [0056] FIG. 6 is an isometric projection of an improved sealing system, the system including a conduit for a cooling liquid having a coolant inlet and a coolant outlet. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0057] One improved type of sealing system for preventing or minimizing leaks of working fluid through apertures of working chambers in many types of heavy machinery includes a high viscosity, injectable sealant within the stuffing box. The sealant is typically a highly viscous organic based composite material with the consistency of modeling clay. Consequently, when deployed in stuffing boxes around drive shafts, movement of the drive shaft results in work being offset by friction, and the generation of heat. Such sealants typically have poor heat conduction and as the machine operates, the temperature thereof is apt to rise. [0058] When the temperature of such sealants is allowed to rise beyond a safe working temperature, their properties change and they may decompose or even catch fire. In addition, the operability of the process machine might be compromised as a result of heat transfer from the sealant to the working fluid. Consequently, previous sealing systems using such sealants have been limited in their application to systems with low tangential speeds, typically 3-5 m/s. Embodiments of the present invention are directed to increasing the effective working range of viscous sealant type sealing systems by at least partly removing the heat generated and thus controlling the temperature of the sealant at an acceptable level. [0059] Embodiments of the present invention address the problem of over-heating the viscous sealant of viscous sealant type sealing systems by actively removing heat therefrom via forced water cooling. [0060] Although not previously used with viscous sealant type seals, water cooling has been extensively used with both mechanical seals and compression braided packing seals, and its effectiveness is known. [0061] Since mechanical and compressed packing seals are solid, cooling of such seals may be carried out by passing the coolant directly over surfaces of the seals. Such direct cooling is unsuitable for viscous sealant type seals because the coolant mingles with the sealant and ruins it. [0062] The water cooling of mechanical seals and compression rope packing seals requires careful positioning of water cooling conduits with respect to the solid packing materials. Therefore, such sealing systems have to be specially designed, and it is not generally feasible to convert existing mechanical seals to extend their range by retrofitting liquid cooling systems thereto. Furthermore, rebuilding or replacing the stuffing boxes of conventional sealing systems typically results in downtime of the machines. [0063] According to embodiments of the present invention, a liquid conduit is used for cooling the viscous sealant within the stuffing box of a sealing system. One advantage of viscous sealing systems with such conduits is that it is surprisingly simple and straightforward to retrofit coolant conduits to stuffing boxes of conventional sealing systems, for example, by removing a mechanical or packing seal from a machine's conventional stuffing box, then inserting a conduit into the same stuffing box, the conduit being coupled to an extension flange with holes therethrough for inlets and outlets for the coolant conduit and for a viscous sealant injection port. Such an extension flange may have the holes preformed and the conduit already connected to the extension flange for quick retrofitting. The extension flange provides a convenient means of adding sealant or adding and removing cooling fluids to the respective parts of the stuffing box. Indeed, if, with time, there should no longer be a need for cooling the sealant, perhaps due to sealants having a wider range of operating temperatures becoming available, or the machine being operated intermittently or at lower tangential speeds so less heat is generated, the cooling system may be removed. In some instances, rotating machines incorporating such systems may be operated continuously whilst effecting the retrofitting or removal of cooling systems to and from the stuffing boxes thereof. [0064] The present invention is directed to sealing systems including a viscous sealant that include systems for cooling the viscous sealant thereof, and including a means for delivering viscous sealant at a predetermined pressure to a stuffing box of a rotary machine such as a pump, compressor, or turbine, which transmits work by means of a shaft. In preferred embodiments, the heat removal system is retrofittable to preexisting stuffing boxes and may also be easily removed from the stuffing box. Fluid coolant is pumped through conduits that contact the sealant and conduct heat away from the sealant. However, it is noted that the coolant itself does not contact the sealant. [0065] The following descriptions relate to the cooling of a sealant surrounding a rotary shaft, but it will be appreciated that in some instances embodiments of the invention can be implemented with cool viscous sealants surrounding linearly displaceable shafts. [0066] FIG. 1 shows a vertical cross section through a prior art stuffing box 10 of sealing system 12 , for sealing between an aperture 14 of a machine housing 16 and a rotating shaft 18 protruding through the aperture 14 . The system 12 includes: (i) a stuffing box 10 for encasing a segment 20 of the shaft 18 and the aperture 14 of the machine housing 16 ; [0067] (ii) a sealant delivery unit 22 for delivering a viscous fluid type sealant 24 into the stuffing box 10 , and (iii) an extension 29 for extending the stuffing box, that includes a sealant delivery port 26 . The machine housing 16 is attached to one end of the stuffing box 10 , and the extension 29 is attached to the other end. By virtue of such an extension 29 , a conventional prior art sealing system without viscous sealant may be converted into a system that includes a viscous sealant injector. Other sealing systems may simply consist of a stuffing box and a sealant delivery unit such as described in WO2007/099535 incorporated herein by reference that may for example replace a stuffing box without viscous fluid sealant. [0068] The viscous fluid type sealant 24 is a high-viscosity, non-Newtonian liquid that is typically a blend of synthetic fibers, lubricants, and binding agents (such as commercially available under trade name [0069] U-PAK® manufactured by UTEX Industries, Inc, the Sealital® series by Unique Polymer Systems, and Liquilon® from Oil Center Research, for example) that is introduced from sealant delivery unit 22 via sealant inlet port 26 . The combined effect of the sealant 24 pressure within stuffing box 10 and the surface tension between the sealant 24 and shaft 18 is sufficient to prevent the passage of the working fluid 28 from working chamber 30 into stuffing box 10 . [0070] There is an effective upper limit to the operability of machines with sealing systems including viscous sealants within stuffing boxes, due to overheating of the sealants at high speeds of rotation, large shaft diameter, and/or high pressure or combinations of these factors. To increase the effective range of such machines, the invention described hereinbelow provides an improved sealing system which includes conduits for cooling liquid, which are effective in cooling the sealant. [0071] With reference to FIG. 2 a, a section through an improved sealing system 312 a is shown. In this specific embodiment, a conduit including a coiled pipe 338 extends through the sealant cavity 332 a around the shaft 18 . A cooling liquid enters the cooling box 310 a via inlet 334 , flows in pipe 338 encircling shaft 18 and exits the stuffing box 310 a via outlet 336 . [0072] As shown in FIG. 2 b, the improved sealing system 312 b may include an extension 329 which includes holes for the sealant inlet port 326 and for inlet 334 and outlet 336 for the cooling conduit 338 . The extension may be retrofittable to a conventional sealing system with stuffing box 310 b that does not include an sealant injection aperture. Alternatively, an extension including holes for inlet and outlet for the cooling conduit but without a hole for a sealant inlet port may be retrofittable to a conventional sealing system with a stuffing box already including a sealant inlet port (not shown). [0073] The conduit contacts the viscous sealant within-the stuffing boxes 310 a, 310 b and extracts heat therefrom, thereby preventing overheating of the sealant and increasing the range in which the systems 312 a, 312 b can operate. [0074] It is to be appreciated that the transfer of heat from the sealant to the cooling liquid is generally improved by close proximity of the conduit to the shaft 18 . On the other hand, the farther the conduit is from the shaft 18 , and thus closer to the external wall of the stuffing boxes 310 a, 310 b, the generally larger is the surface, that may extract heat from the sealant. Also, vibrations of the shaft 18 during operation of the machine may necessitate distancing the conduit from the shaft 18 to prevent friction therebetween during operation of the machine. [0075] In FIGS. 3 a and 3 b a specific embodiment of an improved sealing system 412 is shown, wherein the conduits for cooling fluid include a series of pipes 439 a, b which are coupled to a flange-type extension 442 and sealed thereto with O-rings 444 appended to a gasket plate 443 . FIG. 3 a shows a vertical cross section through the improved sealing system 412 , showing two of the coolant pipes 439 a, and 439 b. The system is ideal for retrofitting to a conventional stuffing box 410 to add a cooling system for cooling the sealant 24 . FIG. 3 b shows the extension with the sealant delivery unit 22 , the stuffing box 410 and the shaft 18 removed for clarity, and illustrates how the pipes 439 a - d and extension 442 are retrofittable to a stuffing box 410 of a sealing system already equipped with a viscous sealant delivery unit 22 coupled to the stuffing box 410 , around a shaft 18 therethrough. [0076] In some embodiments of the invention, the cooling system includes a conduit that extends substantially through the viscous sealant within the stuffing box. In other embodiments of the invention, the system includes a conduit that extends substantially around the inside of the stuffing box. This increases the contact area between the conduit and the sealant in the stuffing box and makes maintenance easy. [0077] With reference to FIG. 4 a, a further embodiment of the improved sealing system 512 a is shown in vertical cross section. The improved sealing system 512 a includes a conduit 532 a defined on the outer side by the inner surface 511 a of a stuffing box 510 a and the inner surface 531 of an extension 529 and on the inner side by the outer surface 545 a of a cooling sleeve 544 a. In this embodiment, the extension 529 and the cooling sleeve 544 a of the improved sealing system 512 a may be retrofitted to the stuffing box 510 a of a machine with a conventional seal. [0078] FIG. 4 b shows another embodiment of a cooling system 512 b with the shaft and the sealant injector removed for clarity. The stuffing box 510 b has holes bored through it for the sealant inlet port 526 b and for the inlet 534 b and outlet (not shown) of the cooling conduit 532 b, respectively. [0079] It is necessary to connect the viscous sealant injector to the space between the shaft and the inner surface 547 b of cooling sleeve 544 b. This may be achieved in a number of ways. In one embodiment, a feed-through 548 connects the sealant inlet port 526 b and the sleeve 544 b. The feed-through 548 may be flexible, by consisting of a pliant material such as rubber, PTFE, EVA, polyester, polyurethane, polyether, polyamide, polyacrylate, polyester-b-polyurethane block copolymer, polyether-b-polyurethane block copolymer, or polyether-b-polyamide block copolymer, for example. Flexibility of the feed-through may facilitate quick connection and removal of the sealant delivery unit to the stuffing box 510 b for easily servicing the sealing system or the machine, such as for routine maintenance of the sealant delivery unit 522 , for example, replacement or replenishment of the sealant 24 in the sealant delivery unit 522 , or servicing the stuffing box 510 b. [0080] FIG. 5 a shows a cutaway isometric view of an improved sealant system 612 in accordance with yet another embodiment, including a conduit defined by the inner surfaces of the stuffing box 610 and of the extension 642 respectively, and the outer surface of the cooling sleeve 644 . Sealant feed-through tube 648 and sealant opening 652 through which the sealant may enter the stuffing box 610 into the space between the sheath 619 and the cooling sleeve 644 are also shown, but the sealant delivery unit itself has been removed from the figure for clarity. In this embodiment, the coolant conduit is further defined by a series of baffles 650 a - c between the inner surfaces of the stuffing box 610 and extension 642 , and the outer surface of the cooling sleeve 644 . The improved sealing system 612 shown may be retrofitted to a machine with a stuffing box 610 of a conventional sealing system. The baffles 650 a - c direct the flow of the cooling fluid around the stuffing box 610 , to improve the extraction of heat from the sealant therewith. [0081] FIG. 5 b shows a cutaway isometric view of improved sealant system 612 from a different perspective, showing inlet 634 and outlet 636 for cooling fluid, but not showing the shaft. [0082] FIG. 5 c is a panoramic view showing the outer surface 645 of cooling sleeve 644 as if opened out and flattened, i.e. a 360° view therearound. Five such baffles 650 a - e are shown spaced around the cooling sleeve 644 in a staggered arrangement, designed to slow the flow of coolant around the sleeve 644 . Also shown are coolant inlet 634 and outlet 636 . The direction of coolant flow around the baffles 650 is shown with arrows. [0083] It will be appreciated that the conduit may vary considerably. The shape, contours and size of the conduit, as well as the materials from which it is constructed, may be specified in accordance with the machine's load, the working fluid, the sealant, the environment surrounding the machine, and other parameters which one skilled in the art may consider relevant. However, an assembled improved sealing system may merely have the coolant inlet and outlet visible, the conduit itself being invisible. [0084] For example, with reference to FIG. 6 , one embodiment of an improved sealing system 712 for sealing between a machine housing 16 and a machine's rotating shaft 18 , protruding from machine housing 16 is shown. The improved system 712 consists of a stuffing box 710 and a sealant delivery unit 22 and also includes a conduit within the stuffing extension 729 through which a coolant can be supplied to conduct heat away from the sealant. The coolant inlet 734 and coolant outlet 736 are shown. [0085] The sealant pressure within the stuffing boxes of injected viscous sealant systems is sufficient to prevent the passage of the working fluid from the working chamber into the stuffing box. However, as a result of the sealant pressure, the sealant itself may leak through the aperture of the machine housing into the working chamber. To reduce such leakage, the inner wall of the stuffing box may be provided with a lip 446 (shown in FIG. 3 a ) proximal to the aperture, thus reducing the gap between the shaft and the walls of the stuffing box and thereby reducing the leakage. Alternatively, the cooling system feature may be combined with a sheath 519 ( FIGS. 4 a, 4 b ) affixed around the shaft 518 to rotate therewith, wherein the sheath 519 is provided with a lip 548 ( FIG. 4 b ) radially extending from the shaft 518 , proximal to the aperture 14 of the machine housing 16 , which assists in retaining the sealant 24 and in holding seal 541 a in place within the stuffing box 510 . In sealing systems which include such a sheath 519 , the seals 541 rotate with the shaft 518 , and the sealant 24 in proximity to the lip 548 is forced outwards by centrifugal force. Although in such systems 512 there is an increased area for the sealant to leak out of stuffing box 512 compared to the surface area available for leakage in other sealant systems, such as where the lip is on the stuffing box, radially extending towards the shaft, for example, it has surprisingly been found that the sheath 519 with a lip 548 extending from the shaft usefully provides improved leakage-prevention. [0086] As the shaft 518 rotates within the sealing system 512 , friction with the viscous sealant 24 generates heat. Unlike conventional rope seals which continuously leak, thereby wetting and cooling the seal, the sealing system 512 of the present invention is essentially a leak-free solution. Consequently, since friction would otherwise limit the sealing system 512 being operated at faster speeds of rotation, cooling the sealant 24 is particularly important when the sealing system 512 includes the sheath 519 with lip 548 . [0087] Features shown with some specific embodiments may be incorporated with other embodiments. Thus the scope of the present invention is defined by the appended claims and includes both combinations and sub combinations of the various features described hereinabove as well as variations and modifications thereof, which would occur to persons skilled in the art upon reading the foregoing description. [0088] In the claims, the word “comprise”, and variations thereof such as “comprises”, “comprising” and the like indicate that the components listed are included, but not generally to the exclusion of other components.

A conduit for a cooling liquid, said conduit for substantially contacting a viscous fluid type sealant within a stuffing box, thereby conducting heat away from said sealant within said stuffing box by flowing said cooling liquid though said conduit.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the priority benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/839,740, filed on Aug. 23, 2006. All disclosure of the U.S. provisional application is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention relates to an aerial-image display system. More particularly, the present invention relates to an optimized aerial-image display system having a low-cost spherical mirror applied to consumers' displays. [0004] 2. Description of Related Art [0005] Aerial-image displays in which an image of an object appears in space are intriguing whenever seen. Examples of aerial images may be found in the following environments: Example 1: theme parks having a haunted mansion with dancing skeletons; Example 2: magical stage acts with apparent floating heads; Example 3: motion picture illusions depicting ghostly figures. [0006] Typically, these images are beyond reach of the observer and recognized to be an illusion and transitory so as not to be carefully examined by the observer. Such images have seldom been produced with such precision and detail that they convince the observer that they are the actual objects displayed. Likewise, these images, if ever, are seldom displayed within reach of the observer who can try to touch them only to be surprised upon realizing that the three-dimensional image hangs in mid air. Likewise, it is not possible to one's knowledge to produce an aerial image of an object in which the observer, standing in one position, is able to see the object rotate before his eyes and examine it in detail without having the actual object in reach. [0007] Examples of aerial systems are disclosed in the following patents: U.S. Pat. No. 5,944,403 D. Krause Aug. 31, 1999 U.S. Pat. No. 4,348,187 M. Dotsko Sep. 7, 1982 [0008] In the case of displaying retail merchandise, a perennial problem typically in the jewelry trade is to allow a prospective customer to visually examine the merchandise, such as jewelry, from all sides without touching the jewelry. Keep in mind that in the sales effort, touching the jewelry has heretofore been necessary in most cases. [0009] Employing an aerial image of fine jewelry can eliminate the need to touch the jewelry by casual shoppers and also provides for security of the actual jewelry, while allowing the casual observer and potential customer to view it as completely as if they had the jewelry in their hands. [0010] Likewise in the jewelry field, most retailers must remove fine jewelry from their display cases or windows at night and thereby forego the opportunity to display the fine jewelry through a show window or showcase while the jewelry is in a secure or remote location. [0011] In the entertainment field, the aerial image display can be used to provide a totally real image of a natural object in space, within reach of an observer, again without contact by the observer. The effect of the image appearing to be the actual object, but without the tactile feel when attempted to be touched, is a marvelous attention getter. [0012] At trade shows, objects can be displayed and rapidly changed at the same location and the viewer sees the aerial image and not the actual object in close proximity as would be the case if the actual object were on display. [0013] In the field of video games, a reasonably high degree of reality can be portrayed on a video screen, but by the very nature of the screen's presence, the player is intensely aware that the entire scene is on a video screen. Attempts have been made to enhance or disguise directly viewed video displays (usually CRTs) with unexciting results. [0014] In the field of transportation, particularly aircraft and automobiles, the use of “heads up” displays are becoming popular. They involve complex optics, which display the instruments on the canopy of aircraft or windshields of automobiles. In accordance with this invention, such aerial images may be displayed between the eyes of the pilot or driver and the canopy or windshield. [0015] These are just a few examples of the application of this invention and are by no means all of the applications to which this invention may be applied. [0016] In any situation where an accurate display of an object for a number of observers is needed, the aerial-image display of this invention is applicable. Other examples include various levels of education from elementary through graduate schools. In scientific and medical institutions, aerial-image displays, in accordance with this invention, may be an ideal teaching tool to present details to a number of students simultaneously with any of them being able to point to an area of the aerial image corresponding to the area of the object displayed in full view of the other observers. [0017] In accordance with this invention, the optics is extremely precise when producing real images but not so complex that the aerial-image display of this invention may not be incorporated in day-to-day objects around the home, primarily for personal use. An example is a bedroom clock, which displays the clock face in nearby space but without any interference with the observer should he enter the image space. [0018] On the other hand, glass has been the conventional material of choice for use as a spherical mirror. One of the most important reasons is because plastics technologies were not as developed as they are today. In other words, the tools and materials were not available as they are today. Metal mold tolerances and the resulting parts can be specified and held in the tens of thousandths of an inch. Materials used today are more sophisticated; the plastics are able to emulate the thermal stability and durability similar to that of glass, and to endure the type of operating conditions in the past that only glass could have tolerated. [0019] Glass spherical mirrors are expensive because of the secondary operations needed to prepare the mirror surface after it is heat formed or slumped to shape. These secondary operations include annealing, grinding and polishing. The annealing process is used to strengthen the glass so that it is strong enough to undergo the grinding and polishing operation, as well as adding the additional strength needed to resist breakage during usage. The grinding and polishing stages are necessary because of the limits of the tolerance capabilities of glass forming molds and the physical nature of glass. [0020] Unfortunately, the grinding and polishing stages require a considerable amount of manual processing for producing a finished product; therefore, they are often considered semi-automated processes. [0021] In addition, glass also has the serious drawbacks of breakage, weight, and expensive shipping costs. To endeavor to overcome the limitations and drawbacks of glass, a low-cost glass forming was developed. However, the low-cost glass forming did not provide an acceptable surface finish, and the resulting cost reductions were not comparable to that of plastic. Clearly, what is needed is a method and system for manufacturing a plastic parts to reduce the weight of a spherical mirror to approximately one-third that of glass, and for making a low-cost plastic spherical mirror of comparable performance to glass spherical mirror. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0022] The present invention is directed to an aerial-image display system with a plastic mirror. The optics of the system is extremely precise when producing real images but not so complex that the aerial-image display of this invention may not be incorporated in day-to-day objects around the home, primarily for personal use. An example is a bedroom clock, which displays the clock face in nearby space but without any interference with the observer should he enter the image space. [0023] The present invention is further directed to an aerial-image display system with a plastic mirror. A method and a system for manufacturing a low-cost plastic spherical mirror of comparable performance as that of a glass spherical mirror are applied to the system. According to the present invention, a plastic injection molding method is used for manufacturing a plastic parts of a low-cost plastic spherical mirror. The plastic injection molding method is able to yield higher tolerance, improved process control, and higher repeatability. [0024] In an embodiment of the present invention, the plastic injection molding method is used for manufacturing the plastic parts of the low-cost plastic spherical mirror. The plastic injection molding method is able to yield higher tolerance, improved process control, and higher repeatability. [0025] A metal mold used for the injection molding method is able to hold a tight tolerance for a general envelope dimension for a mirror (not the mirror surface). The spherical radius tolerance is also able to be held at the tight tolerance. The aforementioned tolerances are comparable to that of a glass spherical mirror. The metal mold used for the injection molding method may be able to be held at the tight tolerance. [0026] A plurality of plastic material formulations has been developed in which a plurality of performance criteria relating to material strength, thermal stability, water absorption, mold shrinkage, material flow into the mold, UL recognition, manufacturing considerations, surface density, lubricant content, and scratch resistance are satisfied. The selection of the plastic material formulation may be based on the metal mold and part testing results. [0027] Vacuum metallization or vacuum deposition may be used for depositing a reflective mirror coating serving as the mirror surface of the spherical mirror. The metal deposited on the plastic surface is preferably at a thickness of several microns. A metallization phase is performed following by a protective overcoat being sprayed on the metalized surface. The metalized parts undergoing the vacuum metallization then has a sufficient quality because of improved quality control of the surface of the plastic material that is being coated by means of the ability to minimize the amounts of flaws on the plastic surface resulting from the molding process. [0028] The method according to an embodiment of the present invention for producing the plastic parts of the plastic spherical mirror includes the following steps: [0029] a) designing a plastic parts, such that a mirror surface is supported to avoid aberration or distortion; [0030] b) accurately positioning plastic injection gates, so as to ensure the elimination of remnants or knit lines created by plastic resin flow; [0031] c) selecting a preferred physical size of the plastic parts, so as to meet a plurality of optical performance requirements and physical design requirements; [0032] d) forming a plurality of support walls at strategical positions in the plastic part; [0033] e) selecting the plastic material formulation, so as to be specially designed to resist deformation; [0034] f) fabricating tools with a preferred grade of steel having a preferred polished surface; [0035] g) heating and/or cooling the metal mold to form an optimal curvature on the mirror surface; [0036] h) depositing a thin layer of a reflective metal coating onto the mirror surface of the plastic parts; and [0037] i) forming a protective overcoat on the metallized mirror surface. [0038] A plastic spherical mirror fabricated through conducting the aforesaid method includes a plastic parts with a preferred size and a mirror surface supported by a plurality of wall structures, a plastic material formulation, a superior optical grade finish formed by polishing the mirror surface of a metal mold, an optimal curvature on the mirror surface formed by heating and chilling the metal mold so as to form the optimal curvature on the mirror surface, a thin layer of a reflective metal coating deposited onto the mirror surface of the plastic parts, and a protective overcoat formed on the metalized mirror surface. [0039] In addition, according to a second embodiment, the plastic spherical mirror further includes a plurality of strategically-placed injection gates and the plastic parts having the preferred physical size. Moreover, a plurality of support walls is placed in the plastic parts, such that a final design dimension of the plastic parts matches that of a glass counterpart. [0040] In order to make the aforementioned and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention comprehensible, several embodiments accompanied with figures are described in detail below. [0041] It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary, and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0042] The accompanying drawings are included to provide a further understanding of the invention, and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification. The drawings illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. [0043] FIG. 1 is an isometric view of an aerial-display device in accordance with this invention in the form similar to the popular video game housings. [0044] FIG. 2 is a rear three-quarter partly exploded isometric view of the housing of FIG. 1 . [0045] FIG. 3 is a vertical sectional view through the housing of FIG. 1 showing the relative positions of the optical elements of the invention when the source of the image to be displayed is a video screen showing the field rays defining the full field in dotted lines and the image rays in dashed lines. [0046] FIG. 4 is a vertical sectional view of the embodiment of FIG. 1 designed to produce aerial images of a physical object in either a fixed position or rotatable on a turntable. [0047] FIG. 5 is a vertical sectional detail of the partially silvered beamsplitter and circular polarizer of this invention shown attached to their respective mounting boards. [0048] FIG. 6 is an isometric view of the concave mirror mounting board and mirror. [0049] FIG. 7 is a detailed view in section of the mounting arrangement for the concave mirror on its supporting board. [0050] FIG. 8 is a front elevational view of the object turntable of FIG. 4 . [0051] FIG. 9 is a sectional view through a portion of the concave mirror used in this invention. [0052] FIG. 10 is a front elevational view of the display device of FIG. 4 with the lower front housing partly broken away to illustrate the position of the internal lamps relative to the turntable and object to be displayed. [0053] FIG. 11 is an isometric view of an alternative embodiment of this invention designed for aerial display without an image shelf. [0054] FIG. 12 is an isometric view of a tabletop clock radio incorporating this invention. [0055] FIG. 13 is a vertical sectional view through a clock radio of FIG. 12 . [0056] FIG. 14 is an isometric view of a tabletop TV, which includes an aerial image of the TV screen display utilizing this invention. [0057] FIG. 15 is a vertical sectional view through the tabletop TV of FIG. 14 . [0058] FIG. 16 is a vertical sectional view through the housing of FIG. 1 showing a downward-facing concave mirror as a part of another embodiment. [0059] FIG. 17 is a vertical sectional drawing through the housing of FIG. 1 showing two concave mirrors for improved brightness of this invention. [0060] FIG. 18 is a vertical sectional view through a video display in which a video camera is incorporated to photograph small objects. [0061] FIG. 19 is a vertical sectional view through a display showing a talking head projecting an image from a VCR or streaming media from, as an example, dedicated web site on the internet. [0062] FIG. 20 is an alternate mirror configuration where the concave mirror is a flexible, metallized film mirror. [0063] FIG. 21 is an alternate mirror configuration using a molded plastic concave mirror. [0064] FIG. 22 shows a glass-topped display case or housing for use in retail stores. [0065] FIG. 23 is an isometric (perspective) view of the glass-topped display case of FIG. 22 . [0066] FIG. 24 illustrates an embodiment of a method in accordance with the present invention for fabricating a plastic spherical mirror. [0067] FIG. 25 illustrates an embodiment of a trimmed plastic parts for use for a plastic spherical mirror in accordance with the present invention. [0068] FIG. 26 illustrates another embodiment of a method in accordance with the present invention for fabricating a plastic spherical mirror. and [0069] FIG. 27 illustrates another embodiment of a plastic parts directly after injection molding in accordance with the present invention DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS [0070] The present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodiments of the invention are shown. The invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as being limited to the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the concept of the invention to those skilled in the art. [0071] For the sake of convenience of understanding, some key terms and phrases are presented first. [0072] A “plastic material formulation” may comprise homopolymer, thermoplastic, copolymer, polymer blend, thermosetting resin, polymer blend, any one of the above materials containing performance additives, fillers, or fibers, or any other similar types of polymer material formulations. [0073] A “depositing of a reflective metal coating onto the mirror surface of the plastic parts” may be accomplished by vacuum deposition, spin coating, spraying, vacuum metallization, sputtering, or any other similar system capable of depositing the reflective metal coating on the order of several microns. [0074] “Low-cost” may be defined as a favorable cost differential as compared to glass of the same dimensional configuration serving as the spherical mirror. [0075] A “glass counterpart” is defined as a glass spherical mirror of the same dimensional configuration and possesses equivalent functionalities as that of the plastic spherical mirror. [0076] As used herein, the words “may” and “may be” are to be interpreted in an open-ended, non-restrictive manner. At minimum, “may” and “may be” are to be interpreted as definitively including structure or acts recited. [0077] In order to understand this invention, reference is now made to FIGS. 1 through 3 , which demonstrate the basic concept of the invention. FIG. 1 illustrates this invention as applied to an aerial-image display system, generally designated as 10 , in the form which may be used for displaying objects, in the order of 12 inches in diameter as a practical maximum for this type of use. [0078] The embodiment is contained within a housing, generally designated as 11 , having a window opening 12 in the front face and an image shelf 13 on a support arm 14 secured to the front lower panel 15 . The housing 11 is enclosed by a left panel 16 , a top panel 20 , two front panels 26 at the top, a lower panel 15 , two rear panels 21 and 22 , a right panel 23 , and a lower step panel 24 . Here, only the rear panel 21 appears in FIG. 1 . The housing 11 is closed at the bottom by a bottom panel 25 appearing in FIG. 2 . The window opening 12 is located in the upper front panel 26 . The panels mentioned so far, with the exception of the upper front panel 26 , are normally secured and not open during normal use or maintenance. The upper front panel 26 is hinged at its lower edge to allow it to be opened for possible cleaning of certain of the optics, if required. [0079] The image shelf 13 is used as a visual reference and as a support for props to enhance the illusion, such as a vase for flowers, which is normally expected to rest upon a support. The image shelf 13 and its support arm 14 are optional, and for many applications their presence is undesired and may be removed. Such an embodiment appears in FIG. 11 . [0080] In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-3 , each of the panels may be of plywood or particleboard, typically covered with plastic lamination having a suitable finish on the exterior as dictated by the environment. Most of the interior surfaces are finished in dull black to prevent unwanted reflections. [0081] Referring again to FIG. 1 , the stepped panel 24 includes a door 24 D, which provides access to an interior chamber designed to hold a VCR tape player providing the scene to be displayed on the video monitor of FIG. 3 described below. [0082] Referring now specifically to FIG. 2 , it may be seen that the interior of the housing 11 includes basically a lower chamber or a first region 30 in which the object to be displayed or the source of the image is located, and an upper chamber or a second region 31 , in which the image from the source is transformed into the aerial image, which appears outside of the window opening 12 . Within the lower chamber 30 , the support structure 32 is rested on the base 25 and defines an electrical outlet chamber 33 and the VCR enclosure 34 . An additional storage space 35 is also provided. [0083] The lower chamber 30 and the upper chamber 31 are separated by a platform 40 , including an image transfer opening 41 . The platform 40 provides a physical support for an apertured mirror support board 42 , which is shown exploded to the rear but is normally located at the rear of the upper chamber 31 and is supported by brackets 43 , which are secured to the side walls 16 and 23 , respectively. The mirror mounting board 42 has a large central, circular opening 44 dimensioned to receive a concave mirror 45 . [0084] The upper chamber 31 also encloses a frame 50 that is used to support a partially reflective-transmissive beamsplitter mirror 51 of FIG. 3 . The frame 50 is secured at a lower edge to a bracket 49 , which is attached to platform 40 and top panel 20 . The positioning of this frame 50 is better seen in FIG. 3 and in detail in FIG. 5 . [0085] For an understanding of the optics of this invention, which makes possible the aerial image outside of the housing 11 , reference is now made to FIG. 3 . In this embodiment of FIG. 3 , the source of the image to be displayed is a video monitor 60 that is supported by a frame 61 . The source of the aerial-image electronic signal is the video tape player shown in an enclosure 34 . The image from the video monitor 60 is directed upward toward partially silvered mirror 51 , i.e., partly reflective means which reflects a part of the video monitor image to the concave mirror 45 . The mirror 45 reflects the image through the partly silvered mirror 51 and through the window opening 12 outward and into focus at a position VI above the image shelf 13 and approximately 18 inches in front of the window opening 12 in this embodiment. The mirror 45 and partially silvered mirror 51 constitute means for generating and directing the aerial image out of window 12 . [0086] A viewer standing in front of the aerial-image display system 10 , within a horizontal audience angle of approximately 43 degrees, may see an aerial image appearing to be present above the image shelf 13 . The viewer looks at the window opening 12 and sees only a dark window 65 without any view of the mirror 45 , of any image within the housing or any reflected image of the observer. These are accomplished by the presence in the window 65 of an anti-reflective coating on a glass laminated optical circular-polarizing window 65 . A circular-polarizing layer CP window 65 causes any external light entering the housing 10 to be cancelled after reflection by the mirror 45 . [0087] Likewise, the observer sees no image of the mirror 45 or other interfering images, while only the floating aerial image is present in front of the housing 11 . It is, therefore, submitted that the combination of the image source, the concave mirror, and the circularly-polarized anti-reflection window cooperate to provide the aerial image without any disturbing unwanted images. The circular-polarizing layer CP prevents external ambient illumination from being used by the observer from viewing the internal optical device, including a directing means mirror 45 and a half-silvered mirror 51 . Although not mandatory, an anti-reflective coating AR prevents the observer from seeing his image reflected in the window 12 . [0088] Because of the confined nature of the housing, cooling air openings 70 in the baseboard 25 are present. An exhaust port 71 and an exhaust fan 72 at the top of chamber 30 are used to extract heat from the interior. In FIG. 3 , the system 10 is shown with caster wheels 73 for mobility and also to elevate the base 25 above the supporting floor to aid in air movement. [0089] Referring now to FIG. 4 , the same basic system of this invention may be used in displaying actual objects, including the feature of showing rotation of the objects in front of the observer with certain changes in the system. In each case where the identical component is used in FIG. 4 as in FIGS. 1 through 3 , the same reference numbers are used. [0090] In this case, no video monitor or any of its components are required. Instead, a bracket 111 and a turntable 112 are rotated by a motor 113 , which provides rotation at speeds such as 3 rpms. Any object DO located on a bracket 114 will form an aerial image VI shown above the image shelf 13 as clear and complete as the object itself presents. [0091] In this embodiment, a pair of lamps 115 and 116 appears in FIG. 10 and illuminates the display object DO, but only the lamp 115 appears in FIG. 4 . The lamps 115 and 116 are typically of the internal reflector type, MR16, of lamp of 115V, 35 watt rating to produce a bright view of the object DO with limited beam spreading. Since the display object DO is located on the turntable 112 , the lamps 115 and 116 are directed at successive sides of the object, and the image appears as in ordinary ambient conditions. With proper angular positioning of the two lamps 115 and 116 , the entire surface of the object visible to the observer is clearly illuminated. To view the opposite side, the observer only needs to wait until the object rotates. [0092] In FIG. 4 , similar to FIG. 3 , the image rays are designated by dashed lines from the object to the concave mirror 45 through the partially reflective mirror 51 or through a front window 65 with its circular polarized and anti-reflective coated glass 12 . [0093] Objects to be displayed can be placed on the turntable with the turntable motor inoperative to provide the static aerial image of the display object. [0094] One of the key elements of the optical system of this invention is the mirror 45 , which is simple and effective. The mirror 45 is made of glass with precise curvature and a reflective front surface coating to provide an accurate image. The mirror 45 is concave with the focal point at or near the image location VI. The mirror 45 is generally of rectangular shape when viewed from the front. The rectangular shape is defined by the shape available within a housing 11 to make it as large as possible and to provide a large, high-quality image. A highly reflective coating is used because of the inherent loss of light, due to inefficiency of the beamsplitter mirror 51 . A spherical shape is preferred, although other concave shapes may be used. [0095] The mounting details of the mirror 45 may be better seen in FIG. 9 where the mounting board 42 including the circular opening 44 and the mirror 45 , being concave and circular, rests in the opening 44 and is secured in place by a bead 80 of flexible adhesive, such as silicone cement, in which the mirror rests. There is a substantial surface contact behind the face of the mirror with the silicone adhesive in good contact between the inside surface of the board 42 and at the inside of the opening 44 . This also provides a degree of shock mounting of the mirror, while precisely holding the mirror in place. [0096] The turntable assembly of FIG. 4 may be best seen when viewed from the front side in FIG. 8 . It is mounted on the bracket 111 with the turntable 112 itself constituting a flat plate of a diameter that is determined by the weight of the objects to be carried. Lightweight objects, e.g. 10 lbs. or less, can be supported on a turntable broader than one shown in FIG. 8 , which is 11 inches in diameter. The bracket 111 is not seen by the observer, so it must be totally concealed below the display object DO. Likewise, the turntable 112 is not intended to be seen. Therefore, it is painted a dull black to blend in with the other background surfaces. [0097] Positioned directly below the turntable is a direct drive motor 113 . The motor 113 may be of variable speed or single speed. It has been found that the single speed of three revolutions per minute is most effective for displaying objects for close examination and for dramatic effects. The observer is likely to examine objects with a magnifying glass for remarkable realism. [0098] Reference is again made to FIGS. 4 and 5 showing details of the optical elements of the system 110 . The front window 65 , with its anti-reflective front layer AR and its circular-polarize CP, is viewed by the observer as dark glass in the front opening 12 of the upper panel 26 . Behind the front window 65 , the partially reflective mirror 51 is in its frame 50 , which is installed at approximately a 50-degree angle with respect to the horizontal axis CL of the mirror 45 . These angles are determined primarily with respect to the desire to minimize the depth of the housing 11 , and this does not affect the optical properties of the system when the system is kept within the angular limits of the field rays with respect to the axis CL. [0099] FIG. 4 also shows field rays FR which define the limits of field of the system 110 in which the image rays of the actual object must fall. The window 65 is a high-grade glass with an anti-reflective front surface AR and a laminated circular polarizer CP. The window 65 is secured by the brackets 49 to the front top panel 26 . As best seen in FIG. 5 , it should be noted that the panel 26 is hinged at its bottom edge to the remainder of the housing 11 at the frame member 49 . The angled frame 50 is also secured to the frame 49 at its lower end and at its upper edge (not shown in FIG. 5 ) to the underside of the top panel 20 of the housing 11 at the required angle. [0100] FIG. 10 illustrates clearly the lamps 115 and 116 directed at approximately 45-degree angles with their beams directed at the display object DO on the turntable 112 . When the power cords 115 PC and 116 PC from the lamps 115 and 116 are connected to outlet boxes, the lamps 115 and 116 may be energized. When the power cord PC from the turntable motor 113 as shown in FIGS. 4 and 10 is connected to one of a number of power outlet boxes contained within the housing 11 and energized, the turntable rotates under the light of the lamps 115 and 116 . These are all viewable in FIGS. 4 and 10 with the lower front panel 15 partly broken away. FIG. 4 also shows hinges indicated by dashed lines and the latch is for the top front panel 26 . [0101] FIG. 11 illustrates either of the embodiments of FIG. 3 or 4 without any image shelf 13 or support 14 . [0102] As is described above in the background of the invention, this invention may be applied to many fields. FIGS. 12 and 13 illustrate such an application for home appliances, a bedroom or a den clock radio, or for that matter usable in offices as well. The clock radio, generally designated as 120 , includes normal radio controls of an ON/OFF switch and a volume control 121 , a tuning knob 122 , and possibly a band selector switch on the near side. [0103] An internal loudspeaker is positioned behind a speaker grill 124 in the form of an array of holes in a case 125 . The only departure from conventional clock radios in the appearance is the fact that the normal bezel or cover for the hands is replaced by a window 126 . The window 126 is not apparently transparent but presents a dark appearance to the observer within the field of view of this invention. [0104] By incorporating this invention, the clock portion of the clock radio 120 appears as the aerial image VI of a clock face and hands in space in front of the window 126 . The aerial image VI will be spaced in front of the window and viewable by observers within the viewing angle of the window 126 . [0105] Referring now to FIG. 13 , it may be seen that the same optical elements found in the embodiments of FIGS. 3 and 4 are present in this clock radio only on a smaller scale. The window 126 exhibits an anti-reflective coating AR on the outer face and a glass laminated circular polarizer CP. This window 126 thereby prevents the viewer from seeing his own image reflected in the window, allows the aerial image to be transmitted and circularly polarizes any external light that enters the window and reaches the internal concave mirror surface 130 from being reflected back into the room. The mirror 130 is formed as a part of the case 125 and metallized after the molding process in accordance with an established metalizing practice. [0106] Similar to the beamsplitter 50 of FIGS. 3 and 4 , a partially silvered beamsplitter 131 is disposed within the case 120 . The lower half of the case includes the clock motor 132 with its face 133 and hands 134 . Power to the clock motor 132 is supplied via leads CL. [0107] One or more miniature lamps 140 are mounted on a rear wall 141 directed toward the clock face 133 to illuminate the clock face 133 and hands 134 . The circuit board and the components in the base of the case 125 represent the radio 150 , and the loud speaker 151 as shown is attached to the front wall of the case 125 behind the grill openings. [0108] Now for a disclosure of another embodiment of this invention, please refer to FIGS. 12 and 13 . FIG. 12 is an isometric view of a personal aerial-image display device, such as a tabletop clock radio 120 , incorporating the aerial-image optics used in other versions of this invention. An aerial image VI of the clock hands and hour markers 134 of FIG. 13 can be seen floating off the face of the housing or case 125 , formed by the light rays emerging through the window 126 . The radio contained within the housing is of conventional design, including the ON-OFF switch and the volume control 121 , the band selector switch (not shown in the drawing), the tuning knob 122 appearing in FIG. 12 , and a tuning indicator 123 appearing in FIG. 13 . [0109] FIG. 13 is a vertical sectional view through the personal aerial-image display device 120 of FIG. 12 . In FIG. 13 , the displayed object is the clock 132 with a face 133 and the hands 134 horizontally mounted and illuminated internally by the lamp 140 . [0110] Light travels vertically upward where it reflects off of a 45-degree beamsplitter horizontally rearward toward to a concave mirror 130 that is molded as a part of the housing 141 and is metallized. The light, which is focused by and reflects forward from the concave mirror 130 , is transmitted through the beamsplitter 131 and through the circular polarizing filter CP via the front window 126 to form the aerial image VI. [0111] Still another embodiment of this invention may be seen in FIGS. 14 and 15 . [0112] FIG. 14 is an isometric view of a personal aerial-image display device, such as a tabletop television 120 TV, incorporating the aerial-image optical devices used in other versions of this invention. The aerial image VI of the liquid crystal display (LCD) television screen of FIG. 15 can be seen in FIG. 14 floating off the face of the television set 120 TV, formed by the light rays emerging through window 126 . [0113] FIG. 15 is a vertical sectional view through the personal aerial-image display device of FIG. 14 . In FIG. 15 , the displayed object is the video display, which has built-in illumination. The light travels vertically upward where it reflects off of a 45-degree beamsplitter horizontally rearward toward to a concave mirror 130 which, similar to the radio embodiment of FIGS. 12 and 13 , is molded as part of the housing 141 and is metallized. The light which is focused by and reflects forward from the concave mirror 130 is transmitted through the beamsplitter 131 and through the circular polarizing filter CP via the front window 126 to form the aerial image VI. [0114] This display may be any type of video display, such as a cathode ray tube (CRT), a liquid crystal display (LCD), or such newer displays which become available, such as an organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display. [0115] In FIGS. 16 and 17 , versatility in design of this invention is represented. FIG. 16 is a vertical section drawing through the housing of FIG. 1 , indicating a video monitor 60 as an image source with one concave mirror facing downward rather than facing the window as is described in the previous embodiment. [0116] In a previous version, as illustrated in FIGS. 2-4 and 12 , only one concave mirror is used to form the image. In this system, the light traveling upward from the object 60 is transmitted through the 45-degree beamsplifter upward toward the concave mirror 45 which reflects it downward to be reflected off the 45-degree beamsplifter forward through the window or the opening 12 and the circular polarizing filter to form the floating image (the aerial image) VI. [0117] FIG. 16 illustrates that the concave mirror has at least two different candidate locations to accommodate different housing limitations, while maintaining the same optical properties as the embodiment of FIGS. 2-4 . [0118] Where image brightness is an important factor, the embodiment of the invention shown in FIG. 17 becomes one of the preferred embodiments. FIG. 17 is a vertical section drawing through the housing 125 of FIG. 1 , indicating a video monitor 60 as an image source, with two concave mirrors 45 a and 45 b to double the brightness of the display. In previous versions, as depicted in FIGS. 2-4 and 12 , only one concave mirror is used to form the image. However, FIG. 17 shows two mirrors in optically equivalent positions which cooperate to relay the image out in space. In the case of forward-facing mirrors 45 a, the light goes vertically upward from the object 60 and reflects off the 45-degree beamsplitter horizontally rearward toward concave mirror 45 a, which reflects it horizontally forward through the beamsplitter 51 , the window 12 , and the circular polarizing filter to form the floating image (the aerial image) VI. [0119] In the case of the concave mirror 45 b, the light goes vertically upward from the object 60 and is transmitted through the 45-degree beamsplifter 51 upward toward the concave mirror 45 b, which reflects it downward to be reflected off the 45-degree beamsplitter forward through the window 12 and the circular polarizing filter to form the floating image (the aerial image) VI. In the previously described designs of FIGS. 2-4 and 12 , the light would have been lost and absorbed in the black underside of the top 20 of the housing 110 . [0120] FIG. 18 solves the problem encountered by retailers who intend to display objects, including jewelry, which are physically too small to be seen effectively from a distance. FIG. 18 is a vertical section view through a video version of an aerial-image display 110 , in which there is a section where a small video camera VC is positioned to photograph the small objects DO on the miniature turntable 113 , and is illuminated by the light source 115 , all of which is light baffled in a separate chamber from the video display. [0121] In operation, the retailers remove the rear access door 22 , place the displayed object DO on the turntable 113 , and replace the door 22 . The video camera is pre-focused on the middle of the turntable 113 where the displayed object DO is placed. The video signal from the camera VC goes to the video monitor 61 that displays a large image, which is relayed to the position VI by the same optical device as is used in the embodiments of FIGS. 2-4 and 16 or 17 . [0122] In the case where a human illusion is desired, the embodiment of FIG. 19 is recommended. FIG. 19 is a vertical sectional view through an aerial-image display 110 , indicating an illusion to create a talking head at the aerial-image position VI. The optics of using the beamsplitter 51 , the concave mirror 45 a, and the circular polarizing filter CP is as described before. A molded head is the displayed object DO. This head can be translucent and back projected with a video image from the video projector VP as shown, or opaque and front projected by a video projector (not shown). In the preferred configuration as shown, the head DO is molded or vacuum formed by translucent plastic without much detail in the facial features. This makes the generic head more adaptable, so as to project a variety of people's faces onto the back side of the molded head which acts like a rear-projection screen. [0123] The video image may come from an internal VCR (shown in FIG. 3 ). Nevertheless, this video-projector version has the advantage of being able to project streaming video and audio from a dedicated internet web site. In a situation where a large chain store operation would have the displays in many chain stores or fast-food restaurants, the video image of a celebrity or a recognizable character ( FIG. 19A ) could be video projected onto the molded face, which would be relayed optically outside of the display. This permits sponsors the opportunity to change the video message, or the person, at any time from their headquarters. To enhance the illusion, a headless mannequin HM, appropriately garbed, can be placed in front of the aerial-image housing 110 to complete the human figure. If the head DO is of flexible material, including opening lips, the head may be synchronized with audio, which can make the human figure appear life-like while speaking. [0124] As an alternative, as illustrated in FIG. 19 , in combination with FIG. 19A , it is possible to employ a live actor in front of a video camera speaking the lines, which constitutes the audio channel that may communicate with the aerial display of FIG. 19 via a suitable communication channel which may be any of a number of dedicated channels or may be via the Internet as indicated by the “www.” indication on the TV cable of FIG. 19A . [0125] FIGS. 20 and 21 illustrate alternate forms of the concave mirrors that may be used in carrying out this invention. FIG. 20 is an alternate mirror construction where the concave mirror 45 is made from a thin membrane or a sheet 45 F of an aluminized film, such as the polyester material sold by the DuPont Co. under the trademark Mylar™. The Mylar™ mirror can be pulled into a concave curve, nominally of a partial spherical shape, by an exhaust fan 70 shown in an otherwise sealed chamber behind the film sheet 45 , or pushed into shape with a pressurizing fan (not shown), but otherwise located on the front (concave) side of the mirror 45 F. This film mirror 45 F has an advantage of being very lightweight and inexpensive, as compared with many mirrors of the size and quality required. [0126] FIG. 21 is an alternate mirror configuration where the concave mirror 45 M is a molded plastic that has been coated with aluminum or other bright metals to form a mirror surface. Plastic mirrors are lighter weight, for the same thickness, and less susceptible to be broken than glass mirrors. [0127] FIG. 22 shows a glass or otherwise a transparent-topped display case 200 used in retail stores (camera and jewelry stores, etc.). The displayed object DO is enclosed in a secure cabinet 210 and illuminated by the light source 215 located, for example, on a side wall and outside of the optical path from the displayed object DO to the optics of the system. [0128] The light reflected off of the displayed object DO reflects off the underside of the partially reflective and partially transparent beamsplitter 251 , and reflects down toward concave mirror 245 which focuses and reflects the light upward at a forward angle through the beamsplitter 251 through a circular polarizing filter 265 and then through the horizontal glass top to form the aerial image VI. The user unlocks and removes an access door 222 and places the product DO on a turntable 212 which is rotated by a motor 213 . Switches on the back turn power onto fans (not shown), the lamp(s) 215 , and the turntable motor 213 . The circular polarizing filter 265 virtually blocks all room illumination, including the observer's own image, from being reflected and visible in the concave mirror 245 . [0129] FIG. 23 is an isometric view of the glass-topped counter height, e.g. 30″-42″ height, display case 210 of FIG. 22 . Air entrance holes 270 , the product-access door 222 , the glass top, and the openings in the opaque horizontal top surface just under the glass are visible through which the light emerges to form the aerial image VI. Note that the beamsplitter or the partly silvered mirror 251 is now positioned generally parallel to the glass top which acts as the window. The approximately 45-degree angular relationships of the beamsplitter are maintained with the object DO and the mirror 245 . [0130] This embodiment is particularly suitable for the display of valuable items that may be damaged by excessive handling or of such value that security is of prime importance. The aerial image produced by this invention is so real that one is tempted to, and usually does, reach out in an attempt to touch it, only to their amazement witness their hand pass completely through the displayed object image. [0131] In the present invention, an aerial-image display system with a plastic mirror is further provided. In the system, a method and a system for manufacturing a low-cost plastic spherical mirror of comparable performance as that of a glass spherical mirror are applied to the system. According to the present invention, a plastic injection molding method is used for manufacturing the plastic parts of a low-cost plastic spherical mirror. The plastic injection molding method is able to yield higher tolerance, improved process control, and higher repeatability. The metal mold for injection molding is able to hold a tight tolerance for a general envelope dimension for a mirror (not the mirror surface). The spherical radius tolerance is also able to be held at a tight tolerance. The aforementioned tolerances are comparable to that of the glass spherical mirrors. A metal mold for injection molding is able to be held to the tight tolerance as that of a glass spherical mirror. A detailed description for producing the plastic spherical mirror is provided hereinafter. [0132] In an embodiment of the present invention, a plastic injection molding process is used for fabricating the plastic parts of a plastic spherical mirror. In the present embodiment of the present invention, the plastic injection molding process is capable of providing a dimensional tolerance of ±0.0001 inch for a parabolic plastic mirror that ranges from a diameter of from about five inches to about 36 inches, in certain embodiments of the present invention. Although the tooling for the plastic injection molding process is relatively expensive, the cost for each plastic parts manufactured is however very low. A plurality of complex geometries is reproducible using the plastic injection molding process according to an embodiment of the present invention and may be limited only by the manufacturability of a metal mold. [0133] Plastic technologies, the available tools and materials have advanced, such that high-quality and low-cost plastic spherical mirrors in accordance with the present invention are now possible by selective combination. Through selecting metal mold tolerances, it is possible that the resulting plastic parts is specified and held in the tens of thousandths of an inch or better by carefully selecting the appropriate materials that are able to emulate the thermal stability and durability of glass. Preferably, the materials endure the type of operating conditions that in the past only glass spherical mirrors could have tolerated. [0134] In an embodiment of the present invention, a metal mold's final finish may be implemented by means of machining and polishing or other similar finishing methods capable of producing an adequate finish quality, such as a superior grade or a grade that is considered as the finest finish available for a plastic parts. [0135] In the embodiment of the present invention, parabolic plastic parts from about five inches to about 40 inches in diameter may be produced using the plastic injection molding process. The procedures of the plastic injection molding process are well known in the art; and therefore, detail description thereof is omitted herein. [0136] In the present embodiment, a metal mold for plastic injection molding process must be machined to provide plus or minus 0.030 inch tolerance, or better, for a general envelope dimension and a spherical radius tolerance of plus or minus 0.05% for the plastic parts (not the mirror surface). The aforementioned tolerances are comparable to the glass spherical mirrors. The metal mold is capable of holding a tolerance of about ±0.0001 inch. [0137] In an embodiment of the present invention, a plurality of plastic material formulations 50 may be used for fabricating the plastic spherical mirror in which a plurality of performance criteria are satisfied, such as material strength, thermal stability, water absorption, mold shrinkage, material flow into the mold, UL recognition, manufacturing considerations, surface density, lubricant content, and scratch resistance. In one embodiment, the plastic material, once the molding operation is complete, has 80/50 scratch dig or better. [0138] In an embodiment of the present invention, the plastic material formulations may comprise one of the following: optical-grade polycarbonate, natural-grade polycarbonate, UV-grade polycarbonate, polyetherimide, glass-filled grade polyetherimide, PMMA (acrylic), and other comparable plastic materials having similar performance criteria. The selection of the plastic material formulation may be based on the degree of precision for the mold tooling as well as experimental results from part testing. In one embodiment, the plastic material has optical clarity and is substantially transparent. [0139] In an embodiment of the present invention, a metal layer may be coated over the mirror surface of the trimmed plastic parts by performing a vacuum metallization or a vacuum deposition process or the plastic spherical mirror treated with an evaporated metal vapor. The thickness of the metal deposited on the plastic surface is preferably about four to eight microns. The metallization phase is followed by a spray coating of a protective overcoat on the metalized mirror surface. The protective coating may be a resist material or a plasticized liquid that hardens to a solid film layer upon exposure to room temperature. [0140] The plastic parts that has been vacuum metalized may possess improved quality because of improved quality control of the surface of the plastic material that is being coated by means of the minimizing of the amount of flaws that are on the plastic surface resulting from the molding process. Furthermore, the metallization has excellent adhesion with respect to the mirror surface of the underlying plastic parts. Please refer to FIG. 24 which illustrates embodiment of the present invention, a method for producing the plastic parts of the plastic spherical mirror according to the present invention. FIG. 25 , on the other hand, illustrates an embodiment of a trimmed plastic parts for use for a plastic spherical mirror in accordance with the present invention, in which a plastic parts 280 and a surface thereof 282 are depicted. [0141] Referring to FIG. 24 , in the embodiment of the present invention, a method for producing the plastic spherical mirror, in which the plastic parts of relative thin thickness is to hold its form after it is heated and cooled, may include a plurality of the following steps. Parts Design [0142] a) A plastic parts is designed, such that the mirror surface is supported by a plurality of wall structures for preventing aberration and distortion thereof (S 100 ). The actual number of the wall structures varies according to the size of the mirror and may range from one for small mirrors to three or more for the larger mirrors. One skilled in the pertinent art will appreciate that the number of the wall structures is one of the engineering considerations and varies based on specific specifications. [0143] b) A plurality of injection gates is designed and placed precisely with the intent of ensuring the elimination of remnants or knit lines created by plastic resin flow (S 102 ). The actual number of the injection gates varies according to the size of the mirror and may range from one for small mirrors to one or more for the larger mirrors. One skilled in the pertinent art will appreciate that the number of such injection gates is one of the engineering considerations and varies based on the particular specifications. In one embodiment, at least one injection gate is aligned with each of the wall structures; [0144] c) A preferred physical size of the plastic parts is determined for satisfying a plurality of optical performance requirements and physical design requirements (S 104 ), including 80/50 scratch dig requirements and capability of maintaining the physical dimensions over time. [0145] d) A plurality of support walls is designed and placed in the plastic parts, so that a final design dimension of the plastic parts has rigidity that matches that of a glass mirror (S 106 ). Material Selection [0146] a) The plastic material formulation is selected and used according to an ability to resist deformation according to a plastic parts quality specification (S 108 ). The plastic material may be an optical-grade plastic, such as those commonly used for cosmetic mirrors or other transparent plastic material. Mold Tooling Processing [0147] a) A metal mold is fabricated, including a mold cavity for forming the plastic parts according to the parts design described above, wherein the mirror surface of the metal mold is polished to a superior optical-grade finish (S 110 ). Preferably, the metal mold is made of grade A tool steel; [0148] b) The m mold cavity is heated and/or cooled to form an optimal curvature on the mirror surface of the metal mold (S 112 ). Plastic Injection Molding [0149] a) The selected plastic material formulation is heated until a melt thereof is obtained, and a thin layer of a reflective metal coating is deposited onto the mirror surface of the plastic parts (S 114 ). [0150] b) The melt is injected or forced into the mold cavity, and the melt is cooled to obtain the plastic parts of a desired size and shape (S 116 ). It should be understood that the injection process requires monitoring the temperature and flow rate of the melted plastic to maximize flow rate at the same time minimize turbulence. [0151] c) The metal mold is opened to eject the plastic parts (S 118 ). [0152] d) At least one surface is polished and mechanical machined to minimize surface defects (S 120 ). Mirror Formation [0153] a) A thin layer of a reflective metal coating is deposited on the mirror surface of the plastic parts to form a metalized mirror surface (S 122 ). [0154] b) A protective overcoat is formed on the metalized mirror surface (S 124 ). The protective overcoat is a resist material or a plastic material that solidifies at room temperature to provide a protective barrier over the mirror prior to assembly. This protective overcoat is intended to be removed once the plastic spherical mirror is mounted in an aerial display unit. [0155] Referring to FIG. 26 , an embodiment of a modified plastic parts 25 used for the plastic spherical mirror in accordance with the present invention is illustrated. In FIG. 26 , a method for fabricating the plastic spherical mirror according to another embodiment of the present invention is provided, in which the plastic parts has a thickness sufficient to hold its form/shape after being heated and cooled. In one embodiment, the concave region of the mirror has a thickness of 1.0 cm or less while the periphery may have a thicker thickness. In general, the fabrication of the plastic parts may include a plurality of the following steps. Parts Design [0156] a) The plastic parts is designed, such that the frame of the plastic parts is supported by a plurality of ejector pins (e.g. 28 ejector pins) disposed around the edge of the plastic parts for preventing distortion or twisting thereof, wherein the pins are facilitating parts removal from the metal mold without distorting the surface geometry or damaging the mirror surface finish (S 200 ); [0157] b) A plurality of plastic injection gates is designed and placed accurately and evenly with the intent of ensuring the elimination of remnants or knit lines created by plastic resin flow (S 202 ); [0158] c) A preferred physical size of the plastic parts is determined for satisfying a plurality of optical performance requirements and physical design requirements (S 204 ); [0159] d) A plurality of support walls is designed and placed at strategical positions in the plastic parts (S 206 ); Material Selection [0160] a) Optical-grade polycarbonate, polyetherimide, or PMMA (acrylic) is selected as the plastic material formulation serving as the plastic spherical mirror (S 208 ). Mold Tooling Processing [0161] a) A metal mold is fabricated, including a mold cavity for forming the plastic parts according to the part design described above, wherein the mirror surface of the metal mold is fabricated using highly-graded steel to a superior finish (S 210 ). [0162] b) The mold cavity is heated and/or cooled to form an optimal curvature on the mirror surface of the metal mold (S 212 ). Plastic Injection Molding [0163] a) The selected plastic material formulation is heated until a melt thereof is obtained (S 214 ). [0164] b) The melt is injected or forced into the mold cavity, and the melt is cooled to obtain the plastic parts of the desired size and shape (S 216 ). [0165] c) The metal mold is opened eject the plastic parts (S 218 ). Mirror Formation [0166] a) A thin layer of a reflective metal coating is deposited on the mirror surface of the plastic parts through vacuum metallization or vacuum deposition with a thickness of, preferably, four to eight microns to obtain a metalized mirror surface (S 220 ). [0167] b) A protective overcoat is sprayed on the metalized mirror surface of the plastic parts (S 222 ). Finished Parts Inspection [0168] a) Sphericity on the mirror surface of the plastic spherical mirror is held at a tolerance of ±0.05% (S 224 ). [0169] Referring to FIG. 27 , a plastic parts formed by a plastic injection molding process in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention is illustrated, wherein a plurality of ejector pins are disposed around the edge of the plastic parts to facilitate parts removal from the metal mold without distorting the surface geometry or damaging the mirror surface. The actual number of ejector pins will vary depending on the size of the mirror and may range from three for small mirrors to four or more for the larger mirrors. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the number of such ejector pins are engineering considerations and will vary depending on the specific application. In one embodiment, the plastic parts includes a frame or a flange region that has a slightly thicker thickness than the central portion of the plastic parts. The flange is placed in contact with the ejector pins and is the only region where such ejector pins contact plastic parts. In another embodiment, a mold release agent is sprayed in to the mold prior to the molding process to facilitate removal of the plastic parts from the mold. [0170] It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made to the structure of the present invention without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention. In view of the foregoing, it is intended that the present invention cover modifications and variations of this invention provided they fall within the scope of the following claims and their equivalents.

An apparatus for producing aerial images is disclosed employing a combination of plastic spherical mirrors, beamsplitter polarizing filters, and light sources. An object to be displayed is illuminated, and its image is partially reflected by the beamsplitter to a focusing mirror and reflected to an aerial position. A polarizer prevents ambient lights or images from degrading or interfering with the aerial images. A clock radio, a personal television display counter, as well as animated mannequin versions are disclosed.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 103,322, filed Dec. 14, 1979, now abandoned, application Ser. No. 145,657, filed May 2, 1980, now abandoned, and application Ser. No. 210,923, filed Nov. 28, 1980 now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Iron may occur in water as an already-precipitated iron floc, in soluble form or in a colloidal state. Two or all three of the above types may coexist. For the purposes of this invention, the soluble as well as the insoluble forms of the iron are converted to colloidal dimensions. Where iron occurs as an insoluble floc, such water is commonly known as "red water." "Red water" is objectionable from an aesthetic point of view also deposits out to stain. When iron occurs as "red water", partial or even complete oxidation of the iron has already taken place. The insoluble ferric compounds responsible for the rust color can be removed by a filter, but any remaining soluble ferrous compounds will be subsequently oxidized to deposit downstream. Iron is present in soluble form in a large proportion of waters, and is one of the most troublesome components of domestic and industrial water supplies because it is extremely difficult to remove, particularly from well water. Iron commonly occurs in well water as the soluble ferrous bicarbonate. Well water is normally not exposed to air until it has been drawn from the well, and so is clear as drawn, but upon exposure to the air it slowly forms an adherent deposit of the insoluble hydrated ferric compounds. The compounds are dark-colored and, consequently, if they are deposited on bathroom or kitchen fixtures, clothes, and other surfaces, ugly stains result which are difficult to remove. It has been known for some time that the soluble ferrous iron present in water can be oxidized to insoluble hydrated ferric compounds upon contact with catalytic manganese oxides. The manganese higher oxides may be provided in a filter as an impregnant on a particulate carrier or as a ground manganese-containing ore. However, the oxidation of the ferrous iron by the manganese oxide results in reduction of the manganese oxide, which then has to be regenerated by treatment with a permanganate salt. This greatly increases the cost of the process and renders it impractical for ordinary household use. Correct dosage is difficult, which means that if there is excess permanganate present that can pass downstream of the filter, it can create as many problems as the iron which the filter is supposed to remove. The usual way for removing iron from domestic water supplies, such as for household use, is by passing the water through a bed of cation exchange resins. The resin has to be regenerated periodically by treatment with aqueous sodium chloride to restore its ion-removing capacity. Cation exchange resins used for water softening are not very efficient in the removal of iron. Iron collected in the bed is difficult to desorb during the brine regeneration step. Iron is not readily removed by sodium chloride treatment and requires the inclusion in the brine of an agent such as sodium hydrosulfite or a citrate. Moreover, iron in the water deposits on and plugs the conditioner controls, leading to frequent shutdowns and service calls. If "red water" is passed through the bed, fouling of the resin bed occurs, considerably shortening the onstream cycle. Soluble ferrous iron can also be oxidized to form filterable hydrated ferric compounds by treatment with agents such as chlorine, hypochlorite, and chlorine dioxide. In large water supply systems such as municipal or industrial plants, iron is removed in a soda-lime water softening process or in the aeration of water, followed by filtration. Aeration of the water is carried out by a variety of means described widely in the literature. Aeration equipment has as a design feature maximum surface exposure of the water to air to promote dissolution of the air in the water. For instance, the cascading of water over slats, the sprinkling of water through air, and the introduction of air into water by the use of spargers is widely practiced. All these methods do speed up the dissolving of the air in the water, but the process is relatively slow due to the surface tension barrier of the water. Equipment is large and its efficiency is poor, unless means is provided to raise the pH of the water. Reading from Water Supply, Treatment and Distribution by Walker, page 202: Simple aeration may be all that is required to precipitate the ferrous bicarbonate as ferric hydroxide in accordance with the following equations: Fe(HCO.sub.3).sub.2 aeration Fe(OH).sub.2+CO.sub.2 further aeration: ##STR1## In order that the reaction will go to completion and precipitate the ferric hydroxide, it is necessary that the pH be approximately 7 or higher. If possible, the pH should be raised to 7.5 to 8.0, but even so the reaction may take 15 minutes retention before it is complete, and in some cases as much as 1 hour retention has been necessary. It is postulated by the applicant that the surface tension lowering of the water at higher pH accelerates air dissolution in the water to complete the oxidation of the ferrous iron. Such a process is described by McLean in U.S. Pat. 3,649,532, wherein his aeration device purposely gives delayed and incomplete oxidation until the water enters an alkalizing mineral bed, raising the pH of the water to 7.0 to 7.5. A concern of the prior art practitioners was the tendency for a portion of the soluble ferrous iron to precipitate out of the water as a colloid. Because of the small dimensions of the colloidal particles, it was thought they could not be trapped in a conventional filter. Expensive precoagulation steps were thought necessary, and are routinely used before filtration to precipitate the iron hydrates. Reading from the Journal of the American Water Works Association, Volume 50, page 689 (1958): Aeration readily oxidizes ferrous bicarbonate from the soluble form to ferric hydrate, and the hydrate, though present even in the colloidal size, is readily adsorbed and absorbed by conventional flocs produced by the reaction of alum or any of the ferric coagulant. Reading from the Nalco Water Handbook, Nalco Chemical Co., pp. 10-15 (1979): A fourth aspect of the precipitation process is the zeta potential of the initial heavy metal colloidal precipitate. In many plants where heavy metals are being removed, one of the principal problems in reaching the desired effluent limits is the colloidal state of the precipitated materials--they have not been properly neutralized, coagulated and flocculated. The process of the present invention uses colloid formation to advantage. It purposely colloidalizes substantially all of the already-precipitated iron hydrate in the water while simultaneously introducing air therein to oxidize the soluble iron. High shear and zones of decompression/compression to which the water is subjected overcome surface tension phenomena and rapidly dissolve air in the water to accelerate its reactivity with the soluble iron to convert it to ferric hydrates, colloidally precipitated. Such colloidal particles inherently carry a surface charge; the very high dispersion factor of the so-formed colloidal system results in enhanced particle surface charge, which makes possible iron removal in a bed of particulate material containing at least localized sites of the opposite charge. The process of Lawlor et al. U.S. Pat. 2,237,882 typifies an aeration procedure of the prior art to remove iron from water. Lawlor et al. use a crock diffuser, air being supplied by an air compressor. The air passes through the pores of the diffuser into a stream of the iron-containing water in the form of "minute bubbles." Although some iron hydrate colloid may result from such treatment, this method of introducing the air is not conducive to the formation of a colloidal dispersion. The "minute bubbles" themselves carry a negative charge and serve to attract and coagulate any iron hydrate micelles on their surface. Particulate materials suitable for use in the applicant's filter are numerous. The activity of these materials to precipitate electrostatically-charged micelles depends on the creation on their surface or in their environment of an opposing charge. They are primarily selected on the basis of properties such as rough or porous surface, which increases surface area in the filter bed, and ion exchange capacity to take up such polyvalent ions as calcium and iron to provide localized sites of positive charge in an otherwise negatively-charged media. Particulate materials of choice thus carry both negatively and positively-charged sites to precipitate, respectively, positively and negatively-charged micelles. After the particulate media have exchanged the polyvalent ions, they remain electrostatically active but chemically inert. Applicant has no need to treat the media with an oxidizing chemical such as permanganate, or to use alkalizing materials in the filter to raise the pH to catalyze iron oxidation. So far as is known, any material capable of carrying a charge in contact with water and capable of being subdivided or compressed into a particulate form and provide a reasonably rough or porous surface, can serve as a filter bed. No continuing chemical interaction is involved so far as is presently known, and no catalytic effect has been detected. The aeration of the water under pressure and high shear is evidently sufficiently quantitative to convert the iron hydrates to colloidal dimensions. Phase boundary interaction between the variously charged micelles and the particulate material through which the water flows leads to a rapid and substantially complete precipitation and removal of the colloidal components. Because of the small size of the iron-containing micelles, they can penetrate through the upper layers of the filter bed and provide a depth filtration. Iron removal by the prior art, which involved flocculation and sedimentation, resulted in deposition of floc in the upper layers of the filter, causing plugging and necessitating frequent backwashing. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The apparatus of the present invention is adapted for continuous operation and is capable of removing iron in a single-pass, flow-through system, comprising the steps of: (1) colloidalization of the iron in water under conditions of high shear and decompression/compression to finely divide existing insoluble iron hydrates, and by dissolving therein air in sufficient amount to oxidize and form colloidally dispersed iron hydrates from the dissolved iron present, thereby providing substantially all the iron in the form of micelles having a surface charge; (2) maintaining the water under a pressure within the range of about 10 to 500 psig; (3) then passing the water under a pressure within said range through a mass of particulate material having a surface charge capable of attracting, removing, and collecting the dispersed iron hydrates; and (4) recovering water containing less iron than the starting water, and preferably less than 0.3 mg/liter of iron. The iron hydrates collected throughout the mass of particulate material are non-adherent and can be easily removed by backwashing. The term "iron hydrate" as used herein includes any insoluble compound of ferric iron containing water of hydration such as the iron oxides and the hydroxides. Such compounds usually contain ferric iron as cation, but may consist of ferro-ferric complexes. Ferric hydroxide, hydrous ferric oxides, hydrous ferric carbonates and silicates are representative of such compounds. The bed of particulate material should be held under pressure. It can be placed in a pressure vessel provided with controls for periodic backwash. Such procedure assists in holding the air in solution and completing its reaction with the ferrous iron. Pressure also reduces any tendency for the air to gas-out in the filter media to produce a barrier on the surface of the granules. The bed of particulate material should provide sufficient dwell time to destabilize the iron-containing micelles and precipitate them in the media. The necessary aeration of the water under the conditions of high shear can be accomplished by a variety of devices. Such device acts as a jet compressor, air being added in controlled amount into a zone of violent agitation. Distinguished from the prior art aerations, the air so added is rapidly solubilized in the water to serve without any additional agent to oxidize the soluble iron and form the colloidal iron hydrate micelles. Preferred devices that can be used are made up of three basic components: a nozzle, a diffuser, and a housing holding these parts in their relative positions to provide a mixing chamber for the air and the water. Usually, a suction tube terminates in such chamber for the introduction of the air. A device of this type comprises in combination: (1) a housing having an inlet for water, an inlet for air, and an outlet for aerated water; (2) a chamber in the housing for adding air to the water, mixing and dissolving it therein; (3) first, second, and third flow passages in the housing interconnecting the water inlet, the air inlet, and the aerated water outlet, respectively, with the chamber; (4) means in the first fluid flow passage for projecting a high velocity jet stream of water or air into the chamber across the inlet into the chamber of the second fluid flow passage in a manner to draw air or water from that passage into the chamber and into the high velocity jet stream and obtain violently turbulent mixing of the two components; (5) means for controlling the volume amount of at least one of the flows of water or air into the chamber to control the amount of air dissolved in the water; (6) diffuser means receiving the flow of the aerated water from the chamber and delivering it to the outlet of the housing; and (7) water retention means for maintaining the fluids throughout their passage through the housing under a pressure within the range of 10 to about 500 psig. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Preferred embodiments of the invention are shown in the drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a flow sheet showing the apparatus components of a domestic or household water system including the apparatus of the invention; FIG. 2 is a longitudinal section of the injector-mixer of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a flow sheet showing the apparatus components of a municipal or community water system including the apparatus of the invention; FIG. 4 is a longitudinal section of the injectormixer of FIG. 3; and FIG. 5 is a graph showing zeta potential, as determined on the Riddick Zetameter, against pH for hydrous ferric oxide floc, hydrous ferric silicate floc, and hydrous ferric oxide floc prepared in the presence of calcium ion. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A typical device according to one aspect of this invention is shown in FIG. 2, which illustrates the requirements for the process. Such device is called an injector-mixer. It consists of a water inlet 20 and a water outlet 21, interconnected by a flow passage 24 which contains a nozzle 28 terminating in a chamber 30. The chamber 30 has a suction inlet 31 and an outlet 32 which leads into a diffuser 29. The position of the chamber 30 is critical in relation to the nozzle 28, the diffuser 29, and the suction inlet 31 to create a proper suction and provide a zone for air-water mixing. The suction inlet 31 provides for air intake into the chamber 30. The air thus introduced mixes violently with the water ejected from the nozzle into the chamber. Control of the amount of air added is accomplished by the setting of a screw 35, which is housed adjacent to an inlet 36. An air flow passage 37 interconnecting the inlet 36 with the suction inlet 31 has a section 38 housing a ball check valve and defining an annular passage for air flow past a ball 39. When fluid flow through the nozzle ceases, as by shutdown of a pump, so does aspiration of the air. Fluid pressure in the system closes the ball check valve, the ball 39 seating against the sealing gasket 34. The device may also contain a bypass to divert from the nozzle a portion of the water being pumped. Such bypass may be enclosed in the same housing as the flow passage 24 (see FIG. 2) or it may be external to the body of the injector-mixer. In FIG. 2, the flow passage is divided into two sub-passages 23 and 24 by the wall 25. The amount of water passing through the bypass is controlled by positioning the screw 26, which can be moved between positions all the way across the passage to the wall 25, or fully withdrawn into the threaded socket 27. If the bypass is external to the housing, an auxiliary valve in this line controls the amount of water diverted from the nozzle. The bypass is a desirable feature, since the amount of air intake through the suction tube is proportional to the amount of water passing through the nozzle. The valving in the bypass to divert more or less water from the nozzle provides a complementary means of air dosage control. The by-pass also increases the amount of water which can be pumped through a given size injector-mixer without placing excessive back-pressure on the pump. In the suction chamber, the air and water are violently mixed, and the mixture escapes via the diffuser 29 to be turbulently blended into the bypass stream. The conditions of high shear and decompression/compression of the water lead to very rapid dissolution of the air in the water to react with the dissolved iron and form the colloidal system desired. The air is first drawn through the suction tube into the chamber, an area of decompression; then it is compressed again as it moves, mixed with the water, down the diffuser. Another type of injector-mixer that is particularly adapted for use in larger systems such as municipal supplies, where greater volumes of water are pumped and more air is involved, may take several forms. The device may consist of a succession of nozzles, followed by expansion chambers enclosed in a single housing and terminating in a single diffuser. Controlled amounts of air are introduced into at least one chamber by a suction tube equipped with a check valve and valve for controlling air intake. The additional shear and decompression/compression through the subsequent nozzle or nozzles for the air-water mixing lead to complete dissolution of the air in the water, and quantitative oxidation of the soluble iron to form the colloidal dispersion. Other municipal systems where the piping is large may find it more advantageous to use air as the motive force. An injector-mixer is immersed in a pressurized stream of pumped water and air from a compressor is injected through the nozzle to suck in water via orifices peripheral to the chamber. Such a device is shown in FIG. 3. Still another method of injecting controlled amounts of air into the water is by insertion of a snifter valve containing check means into a water system upstream of the mixer, such as on the suction side of a pump. The snifter valve will open to draw in air when the pump is running, but will close on pump shutoff. The amount of air added through the snifter valve must be carefully controlled by screw or other means to provide enough oxygen for iron oxidation but not enough to cause the pump to lose its prime. The air-water mixer inserted downstream of the snifter valve has no need to draw in air, but can take the form of a nozzle or series of nozzles with diffuser. While the aeration of the water clearly results in at least partial oxidation of the ferrous iron to a ferric state, and most such ferric compounds show a rusty hue in water, the aerated water downstream of the injector-mixer may nevertheless be clear to the naked eye. The iron hydrates contained therein probably exist in the form of an invisible sol. Retention of the iron hydrates in a colloidal state and avoidance of their coagulation are important features of the invention, so that a large surface area of highly charged micelles may be presented to the particulate media during the filtration step. It has been noted that particulate materials having a rough surface, such as a nodulous or porous surface, and therefore an appreciably larger surface area, tend to attract, collect, and remove the iron hydrate micelles more effectively. Porous, rough-surfaced materials such as pumice and diatomite are especially good examples of suitable materials. The materials can be rough, as naturally occurring after being subdivided to a convenient particle size, or as synthetically compacted or compressed into shapes or aggregates from smaller particles, such as extruded rods. Exemplary particulate materials are the siliceous rocks, such as silica sand and diatomaceous earths, the aluminum silicates including the milled-classified materials and extruded or compressed materials, e.g., the bentonites, kaolin, feldspar, the zeolites, perlite, pumice, and other forms of lava. Perlite and pumice are especially effective, and are preferred. Also satisfactory are the magnesium silicates, such as talc. Natural aluminas, such as bauxite and the purified bauxites (Al 2 O 3 ), and the hydrated aluminas can be used, as well as the dolomites, limestone, and magnesia, and the various mixed forms such as partially calcined dolomite, calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxycarbonate, and magnesium aluminum oxide (MgO.A1 2 O 3 ). The various forms of carbon such as coke, charcoal and activated carbon extrusions or compressed shapes are also suitable. Mixtures of two or more of these materials can be used. As is evident, the range of suitable filtering materials is large. The common requirement for such suitable materials is that they offer a charged surface in contact with the water. The particle size of the particulate material is such as would prevail in any filter. Finer materials tend to cake and block the flow, while the larger particles do not provide a sufficiently large surface area so that beds of impractical size have to be employed. The colloidal system which results from the aeration of the water passing through the injector-mixer is complex, and in fact may vary from water to water. It is known that pH plays an important role in determining the type of charge on the micelles. As shown in FIG. 5, hydrated ferric oxides in distilled water carry a positive charge below pH 6.5, above which point they carry an increasingly negative charge as the pH rises. The curves also show the effect of ionic calcium on the zeta potential of the hydrous ferric oxide dispersion, making it more positive in nature. Potable waters usually have a pH within the range of 5.5 to 9.5. The process of the invention successfully removes iron within this range, most proficiently within the range of about 6.5 to 7.5. When the water contains free acid, as is common in some parts of the country, dolomite, limestone, and their partially calcined counterparts or magnesia aggregates may be used in the filter. They serve to take up such acid and raise the pH to 5.5 or more, acting also to precipitate and collect the iron-containing micelles in the filter. Most well waters contain silica, and in this instance a colloidal hydrous ferric silicate is probably formed. By referring to FIG. 5, it is seen that the floc consisting of hydrous ferric silicate shows the expected negative charge, even at a pH as low as 5.5. Moreover, hydrous ferric oxides and hydroxides readily adsorb multivalent cations of the type of Ca++ and Fe+++ to increase their positive potential and act in the filter bed to remove negatively-charged micelles. FIG. 1 is a flow sheet showing the components of a domestic water system, including an apparatus embodying the invention. Such domestic water system receives water pumped from a well W via line 1, which is led into the injector-mixer 2 shown in detail in FIG. 2. The aerated water passes into line 4, which directly downstream of the mixer is tapped via line 5 and valve 6 for sampling the aerated water. Such sampling permits monitoring of the amount of oxygen in the water at this point. Most pressurized water systems include a water holding tank such as tank 7 equipped with a pressure switch. Either an air-blanketed tank or a diaphragm-containing tank may be used. However, even when water is pumped directly to the bed of particulate material held in tank 12, iron residuals are often reduced to acceptable levels in the effluent water, since the oxidation of the soluble iron compounds in the water proceeds rapidly in the injector-mixer. When used, water enters the pressure holding tank 7 via the line 8 at the bottom until the tank is under a predetermined maximum gauge pressure, say 40 psig, and then the pressure switch kicks off, shutting off the pump. Water is drawn from the tank whenever a faucet is opened, until the tank is drawn down to a predetermined minimum pressure, say 20 psig, whereupon the pressure switch kicks on, starting the pump to repressurize the tank to the 40 psig. Downstream of the switch, the water, containing iron hydrate micelles, passes via line 10 to the control valve 11, which directs the flow of water into the tank 12 and, alternatively, to the backwash line 13 or to the service line 14. The tank 12 is provided with a dip tube 15 extending from top to bottom of the tank, with screens 17 and 16 at the top and bottom ends. The top of the dip tube 15 is directly connected to the valve 11, which directs flow in either direction in the line between either the service line 14 or the backwash line 13. The tank 12 contains a bed 18 of particulate material such as pumice supported on a gravel layer 19, deep enough to cover the screen 16. The flow entering the tank 12 from the line 10 is directed by the valve 11 to the top of the bed 18, and passes down through the bed to and through the gravel layer 19 and then enters the dip tube 15 via screen 16, whence it re-enters the valve 11 and is directed into line 14 to service. When it is necessary to remove the collected iron hydrate sludge from the bed 18, the backwashing mode is adopted. The valve 11 is turned so that the influent flow is directed into the dip tube 15, out through the screen 16, and upwardly through the bed. This removes the collected iron hydrates, which pass through the screen 17 to be dumped by the backwash line 13. FIG. 3 is a flow sheet showing the components of a municipal water system including an apparatus embodying the invention. The municipal water system shown in FIG. 3 receives water pumped by pump P from a reservoir or well (not shown) via line 50, around and through the injector-mixer 51 (shown in detail in FIG. 4) into the pressure holding tank 52. The aerated water downstream of the mixer 51 passes into line 54, which can be tapped by a line and valve (not shown, but as in FIG. 1) for sampling the aerated water. Such sampling permits monitoring of the amount of oxygen in the water. The water enters the pressure holding tank 52 via the line 54 at one end until the tank is under a predetermined maximum gauge pressure, say 75 psig, whereupon the pressure switch 59 kicks off to shut down the pump P. Water escapes from the tank 52 whenever a withdrawal is made, until the gauge registers a pressure of say 50 psig, whereupon the pressure switch 59 kicks on to restart the pump. The water enters the valve 60 and is directed into the line 64 to service. When the bed 68 needs to have the collected iron hydrates removed from the particulate material 68, the backwashing mode is adopted, as in FIG. 1. The valve 60 is set so that the influent flow is directed in a reverse direction through the bed. This unloads the collected sludge, which is drawn through an upper screen (not shown) and thence dumped via the backwash line 63. The injector-mixer in this instance uses air as the motive force to mix the air in the water. The injector-mixer 51 is shown in detail in FIG. 4. It has an air inlet 70 fed by air under pressure from line 71, the air being supplied by the compressor 72. The line 71 is provided with a valve 73 which can be moved into selected positions according to the amount of air required for the aeration. The air inlet 70 communicates with an orifice 74, sized according to air flow so as to create a vacuum into which water is drawn through the openings 78 defined by the supports 76. In the chamber 79 the air violently mixes with the water. Continuous with the chamber a diffuser 75 is carried on the four supports 76 anchored to the orifice housing 77 of the mixer 51. The air-water mixture enters the diffuser 75, and after leaving the diffuser is turbulently blended with the main stream of the water in passage 80. In operation, water flow from line 50 is divided into main flow via passage 80 and flow drawn into the mixing chamber 79 via the openings defined by the supports 76. The air jet from the orifice 74 aspirates an amount of water controlled by the air velocity through the orifice, which in turn is controlled by the valve 73 and the air compressor 72, and also by the size of the orifice 74. A number of such injector-mixers may be inserted in the pipe 80 if the requirement exists and the pipe is sufficiently large. Theoretically, 1 mg/liter of dissolved oxygen will oxidize 7 mg/liter of ferrous iron to the ferric state. This minimum amount would be required to convert the ferrous iron to the hydrated ferric oxides. However, more than this can be used to facilitate the conversion process. Example 14 shows that three times the theoretical amount gives virtually quantitative iron removal. In a case of high iron content, such as 25 mg/liter soluble iron, the oxygen content need not exceed 10 mg/liter. It is to be understood that oxygen gas may be substituted for air in all examples cited. The following Examples, in the opinion of the inventor, represent preferred embodiments of the invention. EXAMPLES 1 to 12 In these Examples, the apparatus used for the test runs comprised a submerged pump, a Well-x-trol diaphragm pressure tank, and a filter bed. The Well-x-trol tank was provided with a pressure switch with a setting of 20 psig to initiate pump start, and a 40 psig setting for pump stop. Between these pressure limits, the pump had an average pumping rate of 19 gpm. The pressure tank had a total capacity of 10 gallons per pumping cycle. The particulate material used, as shown in Table I, was confined in a vertical tank 9 inches in diameter and 48 inches high. The tank was loaded to a depth of 26 inches with granular particulate material of the type indicated in the Table, such as, for instance in Example 1, pumice granules, and the particulate material held in place by a coarse gravel underlay 6 inches deep. The bed of particulate material acted to collect and remove the iron hydrate micelles present in the aerated water. The tank was provided with a manual control valve permitting the water to pass through the bed to service or by backwash to drain. The water as pumped from the well was analyzed, and found to contain 4.5 mg/liter of soluble iron. To prepare the system for service, the particulate bed was backwashed to remove excessive fines and orient the bed by particle size. With the filter control valve in the service position, water was then passed continuously through the bed, at the rate of 4 gpm/sq. ft., and samples were taken for iron analysis. First, the test runs were carried out omitting the injector-mixer from the system and leading the well water directly to the pressure tank. Little or no reduction in the iron content of the water occurred in this series, as may be seen in Table I. Next, the test runs were carried out with the injector-mixer. For aeration of the water, the injector-mixer was interposed between the pump and the pressure tank. The air intake through the suction tube was regulated to provide a dissolved oxygen content in the water of 1.2 mg/1. The treated water was then passed through the bed of particulate material, and again water samples were taken and analyzed for iron. The effectiveness of the injector-mixer in removing the iron is apparent from Table 1. The most effective particulate material listed was pumice, which reduced the iron content to less than 0.05 mg/l. Extruded bentonite and kaolin were also very effective. Least effective were anthracite and silica sand No. 1, which were not rough but had a smooth, glasslike surface. Silica sand No. 2 showed a rough nodulous surface under microscopic examination, confirming the effect of the rough surface on the removal efficiency of the material. TABLE I__________________________________________________________________________ Effluent water Aerated Non- 1.2 mg/l O.sub.2 aeratedExample No. Particulate Material Particle Size Surface Excoriates Fe-mg/l Fe-mg/l__________________________________________________________________________1 Pumice.sup.1 0.6 mm rough yes 0.05 4.2 porous2 Coke.sup.1 0.82 mm rough Slightly 1.5 4.3 porous3 Carbon.sup.2 1/16 inch rough yes 0.8 4.34 Anthracite.sup.1 0.8 mm smooth no 3.8 4.45 Sand No. 1.sup.1 0.7 mm smooth no 3.2 4.36 Sand No. 2.sup.1 1.0 mm rough no 1.75 4.47 Talc.sup.1 0.84 mm rough yes 0.5 4.38 Diatomaceous earth.sup.2 1/16 inch rough.sup.4 yes 0.5 4.39 Bentonite.sup.2 1/16 inch rough.sup.4 yes 0.3 4.410 Kaolin.sup.2 1/16 inch rough.sup.4 yes 0.3 4.411 Zeolite.sup.2 ion exchange 1/16 inch rough.sup.4 Slight 0.6 4.3 aluminum silicate12 Dolomite, partially 0.65 mm rough yes 0.07 4.3 calcined__________________________________________________________________________ .sup.1 media were screened to provide particle size as .sup.2 media were milled, wet extruded and .sup.3 water had a pH of 6.9 and contained 4.5 mg/liter of dissolved iron It was passed through the filter at a rate of 4 .sup.4 roughened by excoriation in use EXAMPLES 13 to 15 Using the same apparatus as Examples 1 to 12 with a pumice bed screened to provide pumice particles 0.6 mm in diameter, a series of runs were carried out at different flow rates, at different amounts of oxygen added through the injector-mixer, and at different pH's. In Example 13, the flow rate was varied. In Example 14, the amount of oxygen was varied, and in Example 15, the pH of the water was varied. The well water contained 4.5 mg/l of dissolved iron, and would require a theoretical dosage of 0.675 mg/l of dissolved oxygen to completely oxidize the contained ferrous iron. The results obtained are shown in Table II. TABLE II__________________________________________________________________________Example No. Particulate Material Flow rate (gpm/ft.sup.2) Aerated O.sub.2 (mg/l) pH of well water Fe-in effluent__________________________________________________________________________ (mg/l)13 Pumice- 2.8 1.4 6.9 0.02 ground and screened 3.7 1.4 6.9 0.05 0.06 mm 4.5 1.4 6.9 0.2 9.3 1.4 6.9 0.6 10.0 1.4 6.9 0.814 Pumice as above 4.5 0.7 6.9 0.2 4.5 1.0 6.9 0.2 4.5 1.2 6.9 0.1 4.5 1.6 6.9 0.04 4.5 2.0 6.9 0.0215 Pumice as above 4.5 1.2 6.25 1.2 4.5 1.2 6.4 0.8 4.5 1.2 6.6 0.6 4.5 1.2 6.8 0.2 4.5 1.2 7.1 0.05__________________________________________________________________________ The results for Example 13 show that a slower flow rate through the bed improves iron removal efficiency. A longer retention time in the bed promotes collection and removal of the iron hydrates and also prevents a breakthrough of iron-containing floc through the bed. The results for Example 14 show that more than the theoretical amount of oxygen, about 0.7 mg/l, is beneficial in improving iron removal efficiency Best results are obtained at three times the theoretical amount. The results for Example 15 show that pH should exceed 6.4 for optimum iron removal efficiency. Best results are obtained at a pH of 6.8 and above. EXAMPLE 16 Using the apparatus of Examples 1 to 12, a run was carried out using pumice with water containing 25 mg/liter of soluble iron, the maximum amount usually found in a water supply. The results obtained are shown in Table III. TABLE III______________________________________ AeratedGrain Size 5.2 mg/l O.sub.2(mm) Surface Excoriates Fe-mg/l______________________________________pumice 0.6 rough yes 0.17 porous______________________________________ EXAMPLE 17 In this Example, the community water system shown in FIG. 3 was used, with a pump, a 4300-gallon pressure tank, and a 36"×6' bed of particulate material provided with the necessary 6" piping and controls for backwashing. A pressure range of 50 to 75 psig was maintained in the system. The particulate material used in the bed consisted of expanded perlite having an average particle size of 0.8 mm. Water containing 3.2 mg/l of iron was pumped to the pressure tank at a rate of 80 gpm and was aerated in 6" piping by using two small injector-mixers inserted as shown. The compressor was set to deliver air through the injectors to provide an O 2 content in the water of 1.2 mg/l. The system was well backwashed and allowed to come to equilibrium by water withdrawal over a two-day period. At the end of this time, the pH was found to be 7.0 and iron reduced to 0.12 mg/l. Water withdrawal rates continued at about 3000 gallons per day; backwashing to remove the collected iron-containing sludge was carried out once weekly. EXAMPLE 18 Using the same apparatus as in Examples 1 to 12, a suction pump was substituted for the submersible pump. The suction pump was fitted with a snifter valve provided with a spring-loaded check valve at the suction connection of the pump. A screw protruding into the air stream controlled flow rate of air into the water. An injector-mixer was inserted downstream of the pump, between the pump and the pressure tank. The suction inlet of the injector-mixer for air intake was eliminated. The analysis of the effluent water showed an iron content of 0.5 mg/1.

An apparatus is provided for removing impurities such as iron compounds from water, which comprises: (1) an injector-mixer for colloidalizing the iron compounds in water under conditions of high shear and decompression/compression to finely divide existing insoluble iron hydrates, and by dissolution in the water of air in sufficient amount to oxidize and form colloidally dispersed iron hydrates from the dissolved iron present, thereby providing substantially all of the iron in the form of micelles having a surface charge; (2) a pressurizer for maintaining the water under a pressure within the range from about 10 to 500 psig; (3) a bed of particulate material having a surface charge capable of attracting, removing, and collecting the dispersed iron hydrates; and (4) a backwash system for removing the impurities collected throughout the mass of particulate material.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application relates to the co-pending application Ser. No. 10/271048, filed on the same day, entitled “Method and Apparatus for a Jones Vector Based Heterodyne Optical Polarimeter” by Szafraniec owned by the assignee of this application and incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION Evaluation of transmission quality is an important aspect of fiber optic communications systems. Prior art evaluation of transmission quality is performed by electronic detection where the detected sequence of digital information is compared using a functional relationship to the actual value transmitted along with the information such as parity checks or error correction coding. However, the detection of errors does not provide an indication of the origin or cause of the transmission error. Many factors can produce transmission factors including limited received power, chromatic dispersion effects, poor optical signal-to-noise ratio, polarization mode dispersion (PMD) and nonlinear effects. The issue of PMD is of particular interest as it is expected that PMD will become the major source of error for optical networks transmitting information at data rates greater than 20 Gbits/s. Hence, it is important to measure PMD and determine the impact of PMD or PMD impairment on individual dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) channels. It is important to distinguish between PMD and PMD impairment. The PMD describes the birefringence of the optical link while the PMD impairment describes the effect of that birefringence on a DWDM channel or frequency band. Even large PMD may not cause PMD impairment if all optical frequencies comprising a frequency band propagate throughout the link in predominantly the same polarization state. PMD refers to the temporal pulse distortion that arises from different propagation speeds for light of differing polarization states through an optical medium such as a single mode optical fiber. PMD arises from the birefringence in an optical fiber that increases with fiber length. The larger the birefringence, the larger the PMD and the more rapidly the polarization state changes with wavelength and with fiber length. Hence, a typical method of determining PMD involves analyzing the evolution of the polarization state with wavelength. The PMD induced delay is defined as: τ = Δθ 2 ⁢ πΔ ⁢   ⁢ v ( 1 ) where Δθ is the rotation angle on a Poincare sphere and Δv is the optical frequency span that produced Δθ. To determine PMD in an operational network requires that the polarization state analysis be performed over the width of a single channel or frequency band of the DWDM system carrying data. Thus, spectral width is related to the frequency band spacing. The present International Telecommunications Union (ITU) grid is placed at 100 GHz or 0.8 nm with further reduction of frequency band spacing being planned. This requires that the polarization state measurements are performed with high spectral selectivity. Westbrook et al., in “Wavelength sensitive polarimeter for multichannel polarization and PMD monitoring,” OFC 2002, pp. 257-259, have disclosed a wavelength selective polarimeter that is based on fiber grating technology. The disadvantage of this approach is that the current grating technology is limited to a resolution of about 0.01 nm. Roudas et al., in “Coherent heterodyne frequency-selective polarimeter for error signal generation in higher-order PMD compensators,” OFC 2002, pp. 299-301, disclosed a heterodyne polarimeter based on Stokes vector measurements that requires sequential switching of the local oscillator (LO) polarization state. The heterodyne polarimeter potentially offers high resolution but the technique disclosed by Roudas et al. resembles that of classical intensity based polarimeters and does not take advantage of the phase information provided by the heterodyne signal. Therefore, sequential switching of the polarization state is required. This may lead to erroneous measurements in systems where the polarization state is time dependent. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Methods and systems in accordance with the invention provide an in situ determination of the magnitude of PMD in an optical network and provide an estimate of the PMD impairment in the transmitted signal even when PMD is time dependent. Estimates of PMD impairment aid in determining the quality of the data transmitted in the individual DWDM channels or frequency bands while also providing a feedback signal to PMD compensators used to minimize PMD effects. These methods are typically based on the polarization state evolution within a single DWDM frequency band or in an ensemble of frequency bands of a DWDM system. For the purposes of this application, the term “frequency band” is used to denote an arbitrary fraction (proper or improper fraction) of a DWDM channel. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a Poincare sphere with a coordinate system in accordance with the invention. FIG. 2 shows a polarization state tracing a length of arc on a Poincare sphere in accordance with the invention. FIG. 3 a shows that the probability of a random polarization state ρ(ζ) having a value ζ on the Poincare sphere, is equal to sin ζ within a multiplicative constant in accordance with the invention. FIG. 3 b shows an embodiment in accordance with the invention. FIG. 4 shows an embodiment in accordance with the invention. FIG. 5 shows an exemplary single stage PMD compensator. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the invention, a highly selective heterodyne polarimeter is typically used that employs direct phase measurement of the heterodyne beat term to estimate the polarization state. The heterodyne polarimeter used may be a phase sensitive optical heterodyne detector as described in detail in “Method and Apparatus for a Jones Vector Based Heterodyne Optical Polarimeter” referenced above and incorporated by reference. Alternatively, a heterodyne polarimeter as described by, for example, Roudas et al, in “Coherent heterodyne frequency-selective polarimeter for error signal generation in higher-order PMD compensators”, OFC 2002, WQ2, may also be used to determine the Stokes vector with sufficient frequency selectivity in accordance with the invention but requires sequential switching of the polarization state. Two parameters, α and ψ which describe the polarization state and are shown in FIG. 1 on Poincare sphere 100 are typically determined by the Jones vector based heterodyne polarimeter. The polarization state is described by a Jones vector: V = ( cos ⁢   ⁢ α ⅇ ⅈψ ⁢ sin ⁢   ⁢ α ) ( 2 ) The description of the polarization state may be rewritten in terms of a normalized Stokes vector P using the same parameters, α and ψ from the Jones vector based heterodyne optical polarimeter: P = ( cos ⁢   ⁢ 2 ⁢ α sin ⁢   ⁢ 2 ⁢ αcosψ sin ⁢   ⁢ 2 ⁢ αsinψ ) ( 3 ) Normalized Stokes vector P may be viewed as a position vector capable of locating any point on a unit radius Poincare sphere. Note that the fourth parameter of the Stokes vector that describes the degree of polarization is omitted. Eq. (3) defines the polarization state shown in FIG. 1 in Cartesian coordinates x, y, and z and is useful for describing a parameter which corresponds to the length of an arc on the unit Poincare sphere such as Poincare sphere 100 in FIG. 1 . Note that the normalized Stokes vector may also be obtained, for example, from a heterodyne polarimeter as described in Roudas et al. Over a comparatively narrow frequency range, as for example, the frequency band related to the ITU grid of 100 GHz, the polarization state can be viewed as tracing an arc on Poincare sphere 100 that has an axis of rotation defined by the principal states of polarization. This behavior of the polarization start is characteristic for wavelength independent PMD known also as first order PMD. As the PMD increases, the path traced on Poincare sphere 100 may become more complex because the axis of rotation as defined by the principle states of polarization becomes wavelength dependent and moves about Poincare sphere 100 . It is typically a good assumption to take the axis of rotation as nearly stationary over a single ITU grid of 100 GHz as is done here although it is possible to deal with a more complex evolution of the polarization state. This requires subdividing path 110 traced on Poincare sphere 100 into shorter arcs 115 , 116 , and 117 that each have a nearly stationary axis of rotation defined by the principle states of polarization. In practice, this may be achieved by determining the principle states of polarization from consecutive polarization measurements in accordance with Eq. (6). The angle of rotation Δθ provides a measure of PMD and the corresponding PMD induced delay is determined in accordance with the invention from Eq. (1). As noted above, Δv in Eq. (1) denotes the range of optical frequencies over which the measurement of the polarization state is performed. In accordance with the invention, it is possible to work with small optical signals because heterodyning offers high dynamic range. Small optical signals typically occur on the tails of the typical optical spectrum describing, for example, non-return to zero or return to zero modulation. Hence, Δ may be measured well below (20 to 40 dB) the peak of the spectrum. With reference to FIG. 2 , the length of arc 222 depends on the position of the polarization state with respect to axis of rotation 210 which is the birefringence axis. The length of arc 222 provides a measure of the PMD impairment. PMD impairment is the polarization dispersion observed in a particular optical channel having some polarization state. The length of arc 222 may be used as a feedback signal that controls a PMD compensator (see FIG. 5 ) to provide for birefringence compensation by adjusting the relative optical path length of the fast and slow polarization states. The length of arc 222 is not typically the distance between the endpoints P 1 and P N . The distance between P 1 and P N is given by the fractional length of the great circle that lies between them. Arc 222 is taken to contain the points P 1 , P 2 . . . , P N where each point P i =(x i , y i , z i ) is described in Cartesian coordinates according to Eq. (3). The angles α and ψ are typically output from the Jones vector based heterodyne optical polarimeter referenced above. The length of arc 222 is typically approximated by summing the distances between the individual points P 1 , P 2 . . . , P N forming arc 222 . Because the radius of Poincare sphere 100 is unity, a suitable selection criteria for choosing the points P 1 , P 2 . . . , P N is that the distance between the points be a small fraction of 1, for example in the range of 0.01 to 0.1. The distance from point P i to point P i+1 , where (x i , y i , z i ) and (x i+1 , y i+1 , z i+1 ) are the respective Cartesian coordinates, is approximated using the distance formula: d i = ( x i - x i + 1 ) 2 + ( y i - y i + 1 ) 2 + ( z i - z i + 1 ) 2 ( 4 ) The approximate length of arc 222 , L, which is a measure of the PMD impairment, is then given by: L ≈ ∑ i ⁢   ⁢ d i ( 5 ) To determine the rotation angle Δθ that subtends arc 222 it is necessary to find the axis of rotation determined by the principle polarization states. The vector axis of rotation or the axis of birefringence is orthogonal to the plane defined by any three distinct points that make up arc 222 , for example, points P 1 , P N/2 , P N which can be viewed as unit vectors from the origin to the respective coordinates on the surface of Poincare sphere 200 . Hence, the vector axis of rotation lying along the principle polarization state can be determined from the cross product: {right arrow over (X)} =( {circumflex over (P)} N/2 −{circumflex over (P)} 1 )×( {circumflex over (P)} N −{circumflex over (P)} N/2 )  (6) which after normalization becomes (note the hat indicates a unit vector): X ^ = X →  X →  ( 7 ) The angle Γ, as shown in FIG. 2 can be typically found from the cross product of {circumflex over (X)} with {circumflex over (P)} i for polarization states represented by points P 1 . . . P N that form arc 222 on Poincare sphere 200 with principle polarization state {circumflex over (X)}. Note the angle Γ is fixed for any point on arc 222 . This allows determination of the radius r corresponding to polarization evolution arc 222 : r =sin Γ=|{circumflex over (X)}×{circumflex over (P)} i |  (8) The rotation angle Δθ subtends arc 222 and may be found explicitly by constructing two vectors of length r that extend from {circumflex over (X)} to points P 1 and P N , respectively, and that lie in the plane of arc 222 . The two required vectors are given by {circumflex over (P)} n −({circumflex over (P)} i ·{circumflex over (X)}){circumflex over (X)} and {circumflex over (P)} 1 −({circumflex over (P)} i ·{circumflex over (X)}){circumflex over (X)}. The normalized dot product of the two vectors yields cos Δθ where Δθ is the angle between the two vectors by construction. The rotation angle Δθ is then given by: Δθ = cos - 1 ⁡ [ cos ⁢   ⁢ ΔΨ - cos 2 ⁢ Γ sin 2 ⁢ Γ ] ≈ L r ( 9 ) where cos Δψ={circumflex over (P)} 1 ·{circumflex over (P)} N , cos Γ={circumflex over (P)} i ·{circumflex over (X)} and sin Γ is given by Eq. (8) with PMD then being determined by Eq. (1). Another parameter other than the length of the arc that may be used as a feedback signal to a PMD compensator is the degree of polarization (DOP) as described by N. Kikuchi, “Analysis of signal degree of polarization degradation used to control signal for optical polarization mode dispersion compensation,” in Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 19, No. 4, 2001, pp.480-486. The DOP of an optical signal reflects the degree of waveform degradation caused by PMD and therefore the amount of DOP decrease corresponds to the amount of signal pulse distortion caused by PMD. If a specific channel is affected more by the PMD, the degree of polarization of the channel is less than that of a channel whose optical frequencies are predominately in a single polarization state which necessitates that DOP≈1. The DOP is closely related to the optical spectrum and the distribution of polarization states over that frequency band. Both the optical spectrum and distribution of polarization states over the spectrum are measured by the phase sensitive heterodyne polarimeter that uses a swept local oscillator and is described in “Method and Apparatus for a Jones Vector based Heterodyne Optical Polarimeter” and is incorporated by reference. The optical spectrum is described by power spectral density function ρ(v) while the distribution of polarization states may, for example, be represented on Poincare sphere 200 . The DOP may be defined by the centroid of arc 222 on the surface of Poincare sphere 200 and is equal to the distance of the centroid from the center of Poincare sphere 200 . If the centroid lies at the center of Poincare sphere 200 then arc 222 is a great circle and the DOP is zero. Similarly, if all frequencies in a spectrum of a single channel have the same polarization state, then, the centroid lies on the surface of Poincare sphere 200 and the DOP=1. For clarity, it has been assumed above that the power distribution is uniform. For cases of a non-uniform spectrum the determination of the centroid must include a power spectral density function ρ(v). Arc 222 on Poincare sphere 200 can be parameterized in terms of the frequency v where v=v 0 +γt. Hence, arc 222 can be described parametrically by functions x(v), y(v), z(v) that form the Stokes vector S of Eq. (3). The functions x(v), y(v), z(v) represent the normalized components of the Stokes vector for the 0° linear, 45° linear and the right circular polarized components. The centroid coordinates x 0 , y 0 , z 0 may be determined by calculating the individual Cartesian coordinates: x 0 = ∫ ρ ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ x ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ ⅆ v ∫ ρ ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ ⅆ v ( 10 ) y 0 = ∫ ρ ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ y ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ ⅆ v ∫ ρ ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ ⅆ v ( 11 ) z 0 = ∫ ρ ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ z ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ ⅆ v ∫ ρ ⁡ ( v ) ⁢ ⅆ v ( 12 ) where integration is performed over the spectral width of a DWDM channel. Hence, the DOP is given by: DOP=√{square root over (x 0 2 +y 0 2 +z 0 2 )}   (13) To obtain accurate determinations of PMD it is desirable to have a long arc to obtain reliable estimates of the angle of rotation Δθ. One embodiment in accordance with the invention controls the polarization of the signal in a given frequency band to ensure that the length of the arc is not near a minimum. The polarization of the signal in the frequency band is typically sequentially switched between states that are 90° with respect to each other in the reference frame of Poincare sphere 200 . Typically, multiple DWDM frequency bands transmitted through predominately the same optical network have uncorrelated and random polarization states. Because the polarization states are random, the length of the arcs for polarization evolution vary depending on how near the individual polarization states are to the corresponding principle polarization states. Knowing the expected length of the arc for the random polarization states allows determination of the rotation angle Δθ. With reference to FIG. 3 a , the probability of a random polarization state ρ(ζ) having a value ζ, is equal to sin ζ within a multiplicative constant and is equal to the radius of circle 310 on Poincare sphere 300 . Circle 310 is formed by all polarization states having the particular value of which is equal to 2α (see Eqs (2) and (3)). If the principle polarization states define axis 320 as shown in FIG. 3 a , the probability that a random polarization state is a principle polarization state approaches zero while the most probable polarization has ζ=π/2. The length of an arc on Poincare sphere 300 can also be expressed in terms of the angle ζ. The length of an arc L(ζ) on Poincare sphere 300 is proportional to the radius of circle 310 , sin ζ, and is equal to Δθ sin ζ where Δθ is the rotation angle around the axis of birefringence 320 . Given the probability density function ρ(ζ) and the function for the length of the arc L(ζ), the expected value of the length of the arc can be determined from: L _ = ∫ L ⁡ ( ζ ) ⁢ ρ ⁡ ( ζ ) ⁢ ⅆ ζ ∫ ρ ⁡ ( ζ ) ⁢ ⅆ ζ ( 14 ) where {overscore (L)} is the mean or expected value for the length of the arc. By substituting for L(ζ) and ρ(ζ): L _ = Δθ ⁢ ∫ 0 π ⁢ sin ⁢   ⁢ ζsinζ ⁢   ⁢ ⅆ ζ ∫ 0 π ⁢ sin ⁢   ⁢ ζ ⁢   ⁢ ⅆ ζ ( 15 ) that yields: L _ = Δθ ⁢ π 4 . ( 16 ) The mean length of the arc may also be calculated as an average of the length of the individual arcs. The length of an individual arc may determined using the method described above for a single DWDM frequency band. Hence an average length {overscore (L)} may be determined L _ = 1 M ⁢ ∑ j M ⁢ L j ( 17 ) where the average is calculated over M measured DWDM frequency bands. Combining Eqs.(16) and (17) gives for Δθ: Δ ⁢   ⁢ θ = 4 π ⁢   ⁢ M ⁢ ∑ j   ⁢ M ⁢ L j . ( 18 ) Eq.(18) approximates the rotation angle Δθ from the average length of the arcs and hence estimates PMD from an average PMD impairment. It is assumed that all the lengths L i are measured for the same spectral width Δv as described above. Then the PMD is determined using Eq. (1). In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, M measurements may be made on a single frequency band instead of measuring M frequency bands if the frequency of measurements is low enough to ensure that the measurements are uncorrelated. This assumes that some birefringence wander is always present in an optical network which results in polarization state wander. Typical sources for birefringence wander are environmental fluctuations such as temperature. FIG. 3 b shows an embodiment in accordance with the invention for determining the PMD and PMD impairments along an optical signal path. Note that PMD impairment typically varies from frequency band to frequency band and typically a different PMD impairment will be associated with each frequency band. In step 351 multiple frequency bands of optical signals are transmitted over the optical fiber. The multiple frequency bands may be generated sequentially using a tunable swept laser or by a number of different laser sources. A single frequency band may be created by intensity modulating a laser directly or typically externally by using an intensity modulator. In step 352 the polarization of each optical band is measured over its spectral width at a receiver location that is sufficiently far from the transmitter that birefringence and hence first order PMD is an important effect. From the measured polarization parameters, such as, for example, α and ψ, the associated polarization states are determined in step 353 . In step 354 , a parameter is computed to determine the PMD impairment along the optical fiber path for each measured frequency band. Then the PMD is calculated, using for example, Eqs. (18) and (1). FIG. 4 shows a simplified block diagram for a typical optical digital communication system which is typically affected by PMD in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. Tunable laser source 405 typically operating around 1.55 microns is coupled to modulator 415 which is driven by modulator driver 410 . Note that in typical implementations of an optical digital communication system there is typically more than one tunable laser source. The input pulses typically couple into both the slow and fast polarization modes which results in PMD distortion over longer transmission paths. The PMD impairment depends on the polarization state of laser 405 . Amplifiers 420 , 425 , 430 and 435 amplify the signal along optical fiber path 480 . Demultiplexer 440 routes the optical signal on a wavelength basis to receiver 445 that is typically one of many, which in turn relays the signal to a 1.3 micron intra-office link from which the signal proceeds to exchange 455 . Without correction, the optical signal at receiver 445 typically suffers from PMD due to birefringence associated with the optical fiber path. Optical heterodyne polarimeter 475 is optically coupled to optical path 480 to measure the polarization of signals traveling over optical fiber path 480 . Processor 490 is coupled to optical heterodyne polarimeter 475 . Processor 490 typically calculates the PMD impairment and PMD induced delay as discussed above. The PMD induced delay information is used to adjust PMD compensator 510 to remove the first order PMD impairment. Alternatively, the PMD impairment information may be used to assist with electronic-based methods for mitigation of the PMD. FIG. 5 shows an exemplary single stage PMD compensator 510 . Signal 505 enters polarizing beamsplitter 520 from polarization controller 507 . Polarizing beam splitter 520 separates the signal into faster polarized state 530 and slower polarized state 540 . The path length for polarized state 530 is adjustable using moveable corner cube mirror 565 . Polarized state 530 is recombined with polarized state 540 in beam splitter 525 and the combined signal is launched into fiber 506 . Moveable mirror 565 is used to adjust the path length for polarized state 530 so that it is delayed by the PMD induced delay τ determined in accordance with the invention as described above. Hence, PMD compensator 510 serves to remove the first order PMD impairment due to the birefringence of the optical fiber by delaying faster polarized state 530 with respect to slower polarized state 540 by the PMD induced delay T. Operationally, PMD compensator 510 may theoretically be inserted anywhere between modulator 415 and receiver 445 in the optical digital communication system of FIG. 4 when the communications system is sufficiently linear. Therefore, if the total PMD induced delay is τ, polarized state 530 may be predelayed by τ at modulator 415 so that both polarized states 530 and 540 are “in phase” at receiver 445 . Typically, PMD compensator 510 is inserted before receiver 445 . Alternatively, instead of using polarizing beam splitters and spatially separating optical waves in orthogonal polarization states one can use a birefringent element in the form of a wave plate or a section of polarization maintaining (PM) optical fiber. The use of multi-stage compensators allows for the compensation of first order and second order PMD. The advantages and disadvantages of typical PMD compensation techniques are, for example, described by H. Sunnerud et al in “A Comparison Between Different PMD Compensation Techniques,” Journal of Lightwave Technology , Vol. 30, No 3, March 2002, pp. 368-378. While the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments, it is evident to those skilled in the art that many alternatives, modifications, and variations will be apparent in light of the foregoing description. Accordingly, the invention is intended to embrace all other such alternatives, modifications, and variations that fall within the spirit and scope of the appended claims.

Methods and systems allow an in situ determination of the magnitude of PMD in an optical network and provide an estimate of the PMD impairment in the transmitted signal even when PMD is time dependent.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The invention provides, among other things, a system for producing transgenic proteins, compositions comprising transgenic proteins, transgenic organisms for making proteins, for modifying transgenic proteins ill vivo. Illustrative embodiments of the invention particularly provide transgenic animals that express an exogenous gene for vitamin K-dependent proteins, protease inhibitors, blood clotting proteins and mammalian relaxins. In a highly particular illustrative embodiment in this regard the invention provides transgenic female pigs that express these same proteins in their milk in a temporally controlled manner during lactation using a multi-gene inducible system. In this regard, the invention relates particularly to female pigs having stably incorporated in their genomes non-endogenous DNA comprising a region that encodes these same proteins operably linked to a multi-gene system containing at least two different promoters in separate DNA constructs, where one of these promoters is a non-mammary gland specific promoter. Further in this regard the invention relates to the milk containing these same proteins and corresponding compositions derived from the milk. And it also relates to, among other things, uses of these proteins in wellness and therapeutic applications. BACKGROUND [0002] The concept of producing important pharmaceutical and nutriceutical proteins in transgenic animals is now firmly established (Van Cott, K. E. and Velander, W. H., Exp. Opin. Invest. Drugs, 7(10): 1683-1690 (1998)), with three potential products, alpha-1 antitrypsin, antithrombin III and alpha glucosidase in the late stages of clinical trials. These proteins, and nearly all other transgenic polypeptides being developed commercially, were produced from a single DNA construct designed to produce a single polypeptide. In general terms, this “classical” design incorporates three distinct regions of DNA, which are all joined or operably linked in one contiguous strand. [0003] The first region of DNA is a tissue specific promoter, in the above mentioned examples a milk protein promoter, which directs expression of the gene to a target organ, the mammary gland, which is regulated by lactogenic hormones, growth factors, cell-cell and cell-substratum interactions. The second region of DNA is the coding region, which may consist of complimentary DNA (cDNA, containing no introns), genomic DNA (gDNA) or a combination of both in a format called a mini-gene. It is important to note that cDNAs, and perhaps also minigenes, have a silencing effect (failure to express or poor expression levels) on adjacent transgenes (Clark, A. J., et al., NAR, 25(5), 1009-1014, 1997). Therefore, a method of overcoming this silencing effect using non-genomic DNA sequences is highly desirable. The coding region contains the information needed to produce a specific protein, including any processing and secretory signals. The third region, the 3′ region, contains further regulatory sequences and may influence the quantity of polypeptide that is produced from that construct. Non-genomic DNA sequences are inherently smaller than gDNA sequences and are therefore, much easier to manipulate in classical transgene formats. [0004] Although this classical design has been successful in producing commercially viable quantities of certain proteins, there are two areas in which this system is not optimal. First, it is generally accepted that using cDNAs or minigenes in a classically designed construct, is less efficient for protein production than using a corresponding gDNA coding region. Indeed, this is such a problem that methods have been developed to address this issue (Clark, A. J. et al, Biotechnology 10, 1450-1454, 1992). Whilst these methods can improve the efficiency and level of expression of cDNAs and minigenes to some extent, they do not improve expression to the same level as is typically obtained using gDNA. A higher level would be ideal for commercial protein production. [0005] The second area in which the classical single gene DNA construct design is suboptimal is in the production of highly biologically active proteins in transgenic animals. Proteins with an extremely high biological activity can be detrimental to the transgenic animal, even if circulatory levels (or other systemic levels) are low (Castro, F. O., et al., Selection of Genes for Expression in Milk: The Case of the Human EPO Gene, in Mammary Gland Transgenesis. Therapeutic Protein Production. Castro and Janne (eds.) Springer-Verlag Berlin New York, 91-106, 1998). This can be due in large part to either ectopic expression (expression of the transgene in organs other than the targeted one) or leakage of the protein product into the blood from the target organ. If the protein product is highly biologically active, expression ideally must be strictly controlled so that the animal is exposed to the product for a short time only, thus reducing the chance of any lasting detrimental effects. This requires an expression system that can be turned on and off very rapidly and precisely. [0006] Regulation of Promoters [0007] The expression of many genes is controlled at the level of transcription, when the DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA, prior to being translated into protein (Latchnian, D. S., Eukaryotic Transcription Factors, Academic Press, 1998). The DNA sequence element that controls transcription is the promoter. This generally contains a small core region, which is capable of directing constitutive or basal levels of transcription, and upstream response elements that control spatial and temporal regulation of transcription. These DNA sequences include two types of elements, those which are involved in the basic process of transcription and are found in many genes exhibiting distinct patterns of regulation, and those found only in genes transcribed in a particular tissue or in response to a specific signal. The latter elements likely produce this specific expression pattern. They are binding sites for a wide range of different cellular proteins (transcription factors) whose levels fluctuate in response to stimuli from external or internal sources. Gene expression in a given tissue may be stimulated or inhibited depending on the type and amount of transcription factors that are present in that tissue at any time. Many transcription factors or other proteins that enable transcription factor pathways are largely uncharacterized from the perspective of an exact biochemical analysis, which details their conformationally-dependent interactions with DNA. Overall, the regulation of expression at the DNA level, is a function of which regulatory elements (binding sites) are present in the promoter and how the cell or tissue responds to its environment by changing the relative levels of the different DNA binding transcription factors in the cell. [0008] Another mechanism involved in the precise control of gene expression is transcriptional repression (Maldonado, E., et al, Cell, 99(5), 455-458, 1999). Transcriptional repressor proteins associate with their target genes either directly through a DNA-binding domain or indirectly by interacting with other DNA-bound proteins. The repressor protein can inhibit transcription by masking a transcriptional activation domain, blocking the interaction of an activator with other transcription components or by displacing an activator from the DNA. [0009] Milk protein genes are characterized by a strict tissue specific expression and regulation during the process of functional differentiation. They are coordinately expressed in response to various developmental signals, such as changing levels of lactogenic hormones (prolactin, insulin, glucocorticoids, progesterone), local levels of certain growth factors (EGF), cell-cell interactions and interactions with extra-cellular matrix (ECM) components (Rijnkels, M. and Pieper, F. R., Casein Gene-Based Mammary Gland-Specific Transgene Expression, in Mammary Gland Transgenesis. Therapeutic Protein Production. Castro and Janne (eds.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York, 41-64, 1998). [0010] Lactogenic hormones activate latent transcription factors in the cytoplasm of mammary epithelial cells. The steroid hormones progesterone, estrogen, and glucocorticoid regulate the transcription of target genes by binding to specific intracellular receptors. Some models purport that binding of the hormone with its receptor changes the receptor's conformation from a physiologically inactive form to a form which is active and capable of dimerization. The active receptors are then capable of binding specific DNA sites in the regulatory region of the target gene promoters, stimulating gene transcription and thus, protein synthesis. Steroid receptors belong to a superfamily of ligand-inducible transcription factors and it has been well documented that these are modular proteins organized into structurally and functionally defined domains. It has also been shown that these domains can be rearranged as independent cassettes within their own molecules or as hybrid molecules with domains from other regulatory peptides. Interestingly, the transactivation domains of the glucocorticoid receptor can be duplicated in tandem and show positional independence in a “super receptor” with 3-4 times the activity of the wild type protein. (Hollenberg, S. M. and Evans, R. M., Cell, 55, 899-906, 1988; Fuller, P. J., FASEB J., 5, 3092-3099, 1991; U.S. Pat. No. 5,364,791; U.S. Pat. No. 5,935,934; Whitfield, G. K., et al, J. Cell. Biochem., suppl. 32-33, 110-122, 1999; Braselmann, S., et al, PNAS, 90, 1657-1666, 1993). The structure and function of the steroid receptor superfamily is well conserved. Generally there are three main domains and several sub-domains or regions. The NH2-terminal domain is the least conserved in size and sequence and contains one of the two, transactivation sequences of the receptor. The central DNA binding domain of about 70 amino acids is highly conserved, as is the COOH-terminal ligand binding domain. This latter domain also contains sub-domains responsible for dimerization, heat shock protein (hsp) 90 binding, nuclear localization and transactivation. [0011] Prolactin plays the essential role in milk protein gene expression and exerts its effect through binding to the extracellular domain of the prolactin receptor and through receptor dimerization. This activates a protein tyrosine kinase (JAK2) which is non-covalently associated with the cytoplasmic domain of the prolactin receptor (Gouilleux, F., et al, EMBO J., 13(18), 4361-4369, 1994; Imada, K. and Leonard, W. J., Mol. Immunol., 37(1-2), 1-11, 2000). The activated JAK2 phosphorylates the signal transducer and transcription activator, Stat 5, causing it to dimerize and subsequently, translocate to the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, Stat5 specifically binds to sequence elements in the promoter regions of milk protein genes (Liu, X., et al, PNAS, 92, 8831-8835, 1995; Cella, N., et al, Mol. Cell. Biol., 18(4), 1783-1792, 1998; Mayr, S., et al, Eur. J. Biochem., 258(2), 784-793, 1998). In an analysis of 28 milk protein gene promoters (Malewski, T., BioSystems, 45, 29-44, 1998) there were 4 transcription factor binding sites that were present in every promoter, C/EBP, CTF/NF1, MAF and MGF (Stat 5). Although steroid hormone receptors and Stat factors comprise two distinct families of inducible transcription factors their basic structure is similar. Stat proteins are modular with an amino terminus that regulates nuclear translocation and mediates the interaction between Stat dimers (Callus, B. A. and Mathey-Prevot, B., J. Biol. Chem., 275(22), 16954-16962, 2000). There is a central DNA binding domain and a carboxy terminal region, which contains the phosphorylation site and a transactivation domain. [0012] Egg white genes seem to be regulated in a similarly complex manner. It is known that the progesterone-dependent activation of the egg white genes in the chicken oviduct is mediated through the progesterone receptor (Dobson, A. D. W., et al, J. Biol. Chem., 264(7), 4207-4211, 1989). In addition, the chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factor (COUP-TF) is a high affinity and specific DNA binding protein, which interacts as a dimer with the distal promoter sequence of the ovalbumin gene and promotes initiation of transcription of this gene by RNA polymerase (O'Malley, B. W. and Tsai, M-J., Biol. Reprod., 46, 163-167, 1992). COUP-TFs are orphan members (no binding ligand has as yet been determined for these receptors) of the nuclear receptor superfamily, and have been shown to play a key role in the regulation of organogenesis, neurogenesis, metabolic enzyme production and cellular differentiation during embryogenic development, via transcriptional repression and activation (Sugiyama, T., et al, J. Biol. Chem., 275(5), 3446-3454, 2000). [0013] A protein expression method based on the inducible Tet repressor system has been developed (Furth, P. A., et al, PNAS, 91, 9302-9306, 1994), but the levels of basal expression without induction are too high to be useful in transgenic animals (Soulier S. et al, Eur. J. Biochem. 260, 533-539, 1999). Another inducible system based on the use of the ecdysone receptor has been reported (No, D., et al, PNAS, 93, 3346-3351, 1996; PCT 97/38117, PCT 99/58155) and has recently given encouraging results in transgenic mice (Albanese, C., et al, FASEB J., 14, 877-884, 2000). However, this system required the delivery of an exogenous ligand to the mice for the full lactation period. Such a ligand would be costly and difficult to procure for regular administration in a production environment. [0014] A new multi-gene system for protein production in transgenic animals would improve commercial levels of production from cDNA constructs by amplifying specifically tailored transcription factors which need not naturally occur in the tissue targeted for expression, but would be transgenically expressed specifically in that tissue. Unlike classical gene expression formats for recombinant proteins, the tissue specific promoter would not be linked to the protein to be expressed, but would be used to drive expression of transcription factors which do not have a signal sequence and so are not secreted. In addition, the added control that a doubly inducible multi-gene system would provide, which is inexpensive and easily applied, could enable the production of highly biologically active proteins in transgenic animals in a pulsatile fashion so as to avoid longterm detrimental effects. [0015] Proteins for Transgenic Production [0016] A multi-gene system, as described below, can be used to direct expression of any protein, particularly any secreted protein, which can be expressed in a transgenic organism in useful quantities, either for research or commercial development. Particular proteins of interest with respect to production by multi-gene expression systems include relaxin and other hormones with cross-species activity such as growth factors, erythropoitin (EPO) and other blood cell growth stimulating factors. For these proteins, the expression may be problematic in terms of harming the host animal as is known to happen when EPO is expressed for an extended period of time. It is noted that tissue specific expression of transgenes is not an absolute phenomenon and promiscuous expression or systemic transport of the expressed recombinant protein within the animal almost always occurs with any expression system in any animal, albeit at very low levels. However, even at low levels of expression of EPO, when the EPO is expressed over an extended period of time, the hematocrit of the host animal can rise to a fatal level. Thus a temporal control which can enable pulse expression using an external inducer molecule could overcome the problems of continuous and extended expression (ie., as could occur if expression occurs over an entire lactation period). Pulse or truncated expression would be useful in preventing an adverse, systemic physiologic effect by recombinant molecules like EPO, which can cause these effects at very low levels. [0017] Relaxin is widely known as a hormone of pregnancy and parturition and typically circulates at less than 50 pg/ml in the blood of women. However, it is now emerging that the peptide has a far wider biological function than was at first thought. There are receptor sites for relaxin in striated muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, connective tissue, the autonomic and the central nervous systems. Human relaxin has been demonstrated to inhibit excessive connective tissue build-up and is in Phase II trials for the treatment of Scleroderma. Porcine relaxin was available commercially in the 1950-60s and was used extensively for such conditions as cervical ripening, scleroderma, premature labour, PMS, decubital ulcers and glaucoma. Relaxin is known to adversely affect the lactation of different mammalian species but does not seem to affect the pig in a similar manner. Therefore, the pig is perfectly suited for production of relaxin in milk. [0018] Other examples of proteins which it would be desirable to produce in transgenic organisms, are proteins that are protease inhibitors. Some examples of protease inhibitors are Alpha 1-antitrypsin, Alpha 2 Macroglobulin, and serum leukocyte protease inhibitor. These proteins are serine protease inhibitors that show antiviral, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and wound healing properties. These proteins are useful in veterinary, cosmetic and nutriceutical applications. [0019] Alpha 1-antitrypsin (AAT) is a naturally occurring glycoprotein produced by the liver. Improperly glycosylated recombinant AAT such as made by yeast, does not have a sufficient circulation half-life to be used as a parenterally administered therapeutic. Congenital deficiency results in the condition emphysema and in 1985 Bayer Pharmaceuticals began marketing a plasma derived AAT product, Prolastin. Unfortunately, due to shortages of Asafe@ plasma and frequent recalls, supplies of Prolastin are often very limited. AAT has also been used to treat psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, ear inflammation, cystic fibrosis and emphysema, and to assist in wound healing. It has been estimated that over 10 million people in the US alone may benefit from AAT therapies. [0020] Alpha 2 macroglobulin (A2M) is a very large, complex glycoprotein with a published cDNA sequence containing 1451 amino acids. The mature protein is a tetrameric molecule composed of four 180 kDa subunits and thus has a molecular weight which is over 720 kDa. Its complexity makes it most suited for production in mammalian systems but few mammalian systems will likely make A2M at commercially viable levels. A2M is indicated for treatment of asthma, bronchial inflammation and eczema and acts as a protease inhibitor to both endogenous and exogenous proteases that cause inflammation. A2M is necessarily more potent than alpha 1-antitrypsin due to its irreversible binding of target proteases. A2M is also useful in inhibiting proteases frequently found in (thermal) bum wounds from yeast and other infections. The high specific activity of these types of proteases allows for smaller doses during treatment. Thus, A2M=s complexity and specific activity make it ideally suited for production in transgenic pig mammary glands. [0021] Vitamin K-Dependent Proteins [0022] Vitamin K-dependent (VKD) proteins such as those proteins associated with haemostasis have complex functions which are largely directed by their primary amino acid structure. In particular, the post-translational modification of glutamic acids in the amino terminal portion of these molecules is essential for proper biological activity. This includes biological activity of both pro-coagulation and anti-coagulation. This particular domain found in VKD-proteins is called the “gla domain”. For example, the Gla domain is an essential recognition sequence in tissue factor (TF) mediated pro-coagulation pathways. The anti-coagulation of this pathway depends upon the lipoprotein-associated coagulation inhibitor, termed LACI, which is a non-VKD protein. LACI forms a complex with the Gla domain of factor Xa, factor VIIa, and TF. Specifically, the Gla domain of factor Xa (FXa) is needed for this procoagulation inhibitory activity. It has been shown that recombinant chimeric molecules having LACI inhibitor (Kunitz type) regions and the Gla domain of FXa can be inhibitory of the TF pathway. TABLE 1 VKD proteins. Protein C Factor X (FX) Bone Gla protein (Osteocalcin) Protein S Prothrombin Protein Z Factor VII Factor IX [0023] Gamma-carboxylation is required for calcium-dependent membrane binding. All of the proteins listed in Table 1 have multiple Gla-residues in a concentrated domain. The Gla-domains of these proteins mediate interaction and the formation of multi-protein coagulation protein complexes. Mammalian coagulation (here collectively meaning both pro-coagulation and anti-coagulation pathways and mechanisms) physiology requires that nearly complete-carboxylation of VKD-proteins occurs within the respective Gla domain for each of these proteins to be maximally functional. Notably, in the context of recombinant synthesis of any protein containing Gla-domains, the extent of gamma-carboxylation of VKD-proteins varies from one mammalian cell source to another, including differences between species and tissue within a species. [0024] VKD-proteins of interest with respect to production by single or multi gene expression systems include those in Table 1, particularly blood clotting factor IX, Protein C and chimeric hybrid vitamin K-dependent proteins. Factor IX is an essential blood clotting protein. Haemophilia B is a genetic disorder in which the production of active Factor LX is defective. It is an inherited disorder that primarily affects males, at the rate of approximately 1 in 30,000. The consequent inability to produce sufficient active Factor IX can lead to profuse bleeding, both internally and externally, either spontaneously or from relatively minor injuries. [0025] In spite of techniques available to amplify recombinant synthesis of VKD proteins such as Protein C and Factor IX, biologically functional recombinant versions of these proteins are difficult to produce and are made typically at levels less than about 0.1 grams per liter per 24 hours in recombinant cell culture media (Grinnell, B. W., et al, in Protein C and Related Anticoagulants. Bruley, D. F. and Drohan, W. N. (eds.), Houston, Tex.; Gulf Publishing Company, 29-63, 1990), or less than 0.22 gm per liter per hour in the milk of transgenic livestock (Van Cott, K. E., et al., Genetic Analysis: Biomolecular Eng., 1, 155-160, 1999). The expression of high levels of FIX using a cDNA construct is difficult. However, the gDNA of FIX, at 33 kbp, is rather large and difficult to manipulate, particularly when compared to the FIX cDNA, which is only 1.4 kbp. [0026] Most VKD-blood plasma proteins are also glycosylated. The extent and types of glycosylation observed is heterogeneous and varies considerably in all species and cell types within a species. Examples of the heterogeneity, structure function relationships of glycosylation are cited by Degen, Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis, 18(2), 230-242, 1992; Prothrombin and Other Vitamin K Proteins, Vols I and II, Seegers and Walz, Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1986. [0027] Glycosylation is a complex post translational modification that occurs on many therapeutic proteins. The process of glycosylation attaches polymeric sugar compounds to the backbone of a protein. These sugar-based structures impart not only an immunologically specific signature upon the protein, but also can change the specific level of activity that the protein has with relation to how long it can reside in the bloodstream of a patient, or how active the protein is in its basic function. All three of these facets can make or break the protein in its role as a therapeutic or wellness product. For example, genetically engineered yeast can impart glycosylation that results in an immunologically adverse signature, which can stimulate the body to make antibodies and essentially reject the protein. In fact, that is part of the reason why yeast vaccines are effective; they easily induce an immune response. The mammary gland of ruminants produces a substantial fraction of glycosylation on milk proteins which resemble the primitive sugars found in yeast. Thus, applications that result in the long term, repeated exposure of proteins containing yeast or yeast-like signatures, to human tissue are intensely scrutinized with respect to the potential of adverse immune reactions. This structure is also apt to cause dysfunction with respect to the protein=s natural activity and may also contribute to a shortened residence time in blood. In contrast, the mammary gland of pigs gives a glycosylation signature which more closely resembles that found in normal human blood proteins, helping to assure biochemical function and a long circulatory half-life. [0028] The complex post-translational modifications of therapeutic proteins, such as those discussed above that are necessary for physiological activities, pose a difficult obstacle to the production of active vitamin K dependent proteins in cells using cloned genes. Moreover, attempts to culture genetically altered cells to produce VKD polypeptides have produced uneconomically low yields and, generally, preparations of low specific activity. Apparently, the post-translational modification systems in the host cells could not keep pace with production of exogenously encoded protein, reducing specific activity. Therefore, cell culture production methods have not provided the hoped for advantages for producing highly complex proteins reliably and economically. [0029] An attractive alternative is to produce these complex proteins in transgenic organisms. However, it is likely that only mammals and perhaps birds will be able to carry out all the post-translational modifications necessary for their physiological function. It has not been possible, as yet, to produce commercially viable levels of certain complex polypeptides from a controlled source in a highly active form with a good yield, and there exists a need for better methods to produce such proteins. [0030] An interesting new class of proteins, which is likely to be difficult to produce in commercial quantities in cell culture are the genetically engineered fusion, chimeric and hybrid molecules, which are now being developed. These proteins are designed and produced by combining various domains or regions from different natural proteins, either wild type or mutated, which can confer the properties of each domain or region to the final hybrid molecule. An example of this is X LC LACI KI (Girard, T. J., et al., Science 248, 1421-1424, 1990) which is a hybrid protein made up of domains from factor X and lipoprotein-associated coagulation inhibitor (LACI). LACI appears to inhibit tissue factor (TF)-induced blood coagulation by forming a quaternary inhibitory complex containing FXa, LACI, FVIIa and TF. X LC LACI KI directly inhibits the activity of the factor VIIa-TF (tissue factor) catalytic complex, but is not dependent on FXa. Gamma-carboxylation of the FX portion of the hybrid protein is required for inhibitory activity. In order for efficient carboxylation to occur at high levels, it is likely that the pro-peptide of the recombinant VKD-protein must be properly matched to the endogenous carboxylase system (Stanley, T. B., et al, J. Biol. Chem., 274(24), 16940-16944, 1999). This is probably true for all VKD-polypeptides including chimeric ones such as -X LC LACI KI . It appears that the endogenous carboxylase systems of any given species or tissue within that species, most of which are not identified or characterized, will differ in their compatibility to any given pro-peptide sequence. Also it is frequently desirable to have the pro-peptide cleaved from the nascent VKD protein, such as a X LC LACI KI polypeptide, once gamma-carboxylation has been completed on the polypeptide's gla domain. It is therefore, also important to find a propeptide sequence that will be efficiently cleaved within the specific species and tissue in which it is being recombinantly produced. These factors render it problematic to find an expression system which can produce desirable amounts of biologically active VKD-proteins such as X LC LACI KI chimeric proteins. In spite of being known as a potent coagulation inhibitor since the early 1990s, X LC LACI KI chimeric molecules have not been made in large amounts in a commercially viable manner (ie., greater than 0.1 gm per liter per 24 hours) in recombinant mammalian cell culture. One way to improve expression of this protein in a transgenic system, particularly in transgenic pigs, may be to substitute the FIX propeptide sequence for the FX propeptide sequence, such a protein would be termed 9XKI. [0031] New therapeutic molecules are being designed to have increased activity, decreased inactivation, increased half-life or specific activity and reduced immunogenicity and/or immunoreactivity to existing circulating antibodies in patients' bloodstreams. This has been demonstrated in genetically engineered Factor VIII proteins (U.S. Pat. No. 5,364,771, U.S. Pat. No. 5,583,209, U.S. Pat. No. 5,888,974, U.S. Pat. No. 5,004,803, U.S. Pat. No. 5,422,260, U.S. Pat. No. 5,451,521, U.S. Pat. No. 5,563,045). Mutations include deletion of the B domain (Lind, P., et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 232, 19-27, 1995), domain substitution or deletion, covalent linkage of domains, site-specific replacement of amino acids and mutation of certain cleavage sites. In particular, a genetically engineered inactivation-resistant factor VIII (IR8) has been developed to help in the treatment of hemophilia A (Pipe, S. W. and Kaufman, R. J., PNAS 94, 11851-11856, 1997). The introduction of specific sequences from porcine factor VIII can also be useful in the formation of a recombinant FVIII which is used to treat hemophiliacs with improved properties as stated above. These molecules can also be designed for improved expression. It is widely known that FVIII has restrictions in intracellular trafficking which lead to low levels of secretion. Modification of the domains associated with intracellular interactions with immunoglobulin binding protein (Bip) or calnexin would be examples of modifications used to improve secretory processing efficiency (Kaufman, R. J., Abstract S1-8, 10 th Int. Biotech. Symp., Sydney, Australia, 25-30 th August, 1996). Factor VIII gDNA is another example of an extremely large and unwieldy DNA sequence (˜110 kbp), whereas the cDNA is only 7 kbp, making it much more manageable. [0032] Whey acidic protein (referred to as “WAP”) is a major whey protein in the milk of mice, rats, rabbits and camels. The regulatory elements of the mouse WAP gene are entered in GenBank (U38816) and cloned WAP gene DNAs are available from the ATCC. The WAP promoter has been used successfully to direct the expression of many different heterologous proteins in transgenic animals for a number a years (EP0264166, Bayna, E. M. and Rosen, J. M., NAR, 18(10), 2977-2985, 1990). Lubon et al (U.S. Pat. No. 5,831,141) have used a long mouse WAP promoter (up to 4.2 kbp) to produce Protein C in transgenic animals. However, the longest rat WAP promoter that has been used is 949 bp (Dale, T. C., et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 12(3), 905-914, 1992). SUMMARY [0033] The present invention is directed to producing transgenic proteins, compositions comprising transgenic proteins, transgenic organisms for making proteins, for modifying transgenic proteins in vivo, and to addressing the previously-discussed issues, e.g., as characterized in connection with the above-cited references each of which is incorporated by reference generally and more specifically as such teachings relate to methodology for related transgenic protein production and applications of such proteins. [0034] In various embodiments of the present invention there is a composition for treating hemophilia B comprising a milk derivative containing recombinant human factor IX derived from a bodily fluid produced in a transgenic organism as described below. [0035] In other more specific embodiments, the present invention is directed to a non-human transgenic mammal containing an exogenous DNA molecule stably integrated in its genome. The exogenous DNA molecule comprises: (a) a mammary gland-specific gene including a promoter; (b) a Factor IX-encoding DNA sequence that encodes the endogenous secretion-signal sequence, a Factor IX pro-sequence and a Factor IX sequence; (c) 3′ regulatory sequences from a mammary gland-specific gene, which sequences are operatively linked to said Factor IX-encoding DNA sequence; (d) the stably integrated exogenous DNA does not include a WAP milk protein gene for providing gene rescue to achieve expression of the Factor IX DNA; and (e) said Factor IX is secreted into the milk at least 220 micrograms Factor IX per milliliter of milk and is not activated by the milk-environment and therefore useable for Factor IX therapeutic applications. [0036] Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0037] The invention may be more completely understood in consideration of the detailed description of various embodiments of the invention in connection with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0038] [0038]FIG. 1 is assembly of the plasmid pWAPFIX, according to an example embodiment of the present invention; [0039] [0039]FIG. 2 is assembly of the plasmid pUCWAPFIX, according to another example embodiment of the present invention; and [0040] [0040]FIG. 3 is production of the modified plasmid pUCNotl, according to yet another example embodiment of the present invention. [0041] [0041]FIG. 4 is the production of pUCWAP6, according to yet another example embodiment of the present invention. [0042] While the invention is amenable to various modifications and alternative forms, specifics thereof have been shown by way of example in the drawings and will be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the intention is not necessarily to limit the invention to the particular embodiments described. On the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0043] As previously mentioned, the present invention is directed to products and approaches for regulating the expression of a protein in a transgenic organism, methods for obtaining polypeptides from transgenic organisms, compositions comprising transgenically produced polypeptides, and uses thereof. For example, one embodiment of the present invention is directed to a non-human transgenic mammal containing an exogenous DNA molecule that is stably integrated in its genome. The exogenous DNA molecule includes a mammary gland-specific gene, a Factor IX-encoding DNA sequence that performs encoding for applicable sequences, and 3′ regulatory sequences from a mammary gland-specific gene. Surprisingly, in connection with the present invention, it has been discovered that, with the 5′ and 3′ regulatory sequences that are operatively linked to the Factor IX-encoding DNA sequence with the stably integrated exogenous DNA not including a WAP milk protein gene for providing gene rescue to achieve expression of the Factor IX DNA, the Factor IX can be made and secreted into the milk, so that the Factor IX containing milk can be made suitable for Factor LX therapeutic applications. [0044] Methods for Making Transgenic Organisms [0045] Transgenic organisms may be produced in accordance with the invention as described herein using a wide variety of well-known techniques, such as those described in Perry, M. M. and Sang, H. M., Transgenic Res. 2, 125-133; Ho Hong, Y. et al., Transgenic Res. 7(4), 247-252, 1998; Genetic Engineering Of Animals, Ed. A. Puhler, VCH Publishers, New York (1993) and in more detail in Volume 18 in Methods in Molecular Biology: Transgenesis Techniques, Eds. D. Murphy and D. A. Calter, Humana Press, Totowa, N.J. (1993); all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties, particularly as to the foregoing in parts pertinent to methods for making transgenic organisms that express polypeptides. See also for instance Lubon et al., Transfusion Medicine Reviews X(2): 131-141 (1996) and Pursel, V. G., et al., 480 in the proceedings of 11 th International Congress on Animal Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Dublin, Ireland, 1988, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, particularly as to the foregoing in parts pertinent to methods for making transgenic organisms. [0046] In particular, transgenic mammals, such as mice and pigs, that express polypeptides in accordance with certain preferred embodiments of the invention, can be produced using methods described in among others Manipulating The Mouse Embryo, Hogan et al., Cold Spring Harbor Press (1986); Krimpenfort et al., Bio/Technology 9: 844 etseq. (1991); Palmiteret al., Cell 42: 343 et seq. (1985); Genetic Manipulation of the Early Mammalian Embryo, Kraemer et al., Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1985); Hammer et al., Nature 315: 680 et seq. (1985); U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,191 of Wagner et al. for Genetic Transformation of Zygotes, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,175,384 of Krimpenfort et al. for Transgenic Mice Depleted in Mature T-Cells and Methods for Making Transgenic Mice, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, particularly as to the foregoing in parts pertinent to producing transgenic mammals by introducing DNA or DNA:RNA constructs for polypeptide expression into cells or embryos. [0047] For example, transgenic organisms of the present invention can be produced by introducing into eggs, or developing embryos, one or more genetic constructs that engender expression of polypeptides as described herein. In certain preferred embodiments of the invention, DNAs that comprise cis-acting transcription controls for expressing a polypeptide operably linked to a region encoding the polypeptide are highly preferred. In other preferred embodiments a multi-gene system directing expression of a polypeptide and containing the DNA sequences coding for such a polypeptide, are highly preferred. Also highly preferred in this regard are single and or multi-gene constructs as described herein, that engender expression of genetically engineered genes for polypeptides. Constructs that comprise operable signal sequences that effectuate transport of the polypeptide product into a targeted compartment of an organism, such as a tissue or fluid, are further preferred in certain embodiments in this regard. Also especially preferred in this regard are constructs that are stably incorporated in the genome of germ line cells of the mature organism and inherited in normal, Mendelian fashion upon reproduction. One or more DNA or RNA:DNA hybrids or the like may be used alone or together to make transgenic organisms useful in the invention as described further below. [0048] Standard, as well as unusual and new techniques for making transgenic organisms generally can be used to make transgenic organisms in accordance with the invention. Useful techniques in this regard include, but are not limited to, those that introduce genetic constructs by injection, infection, transfection—such as calcium phosphate transfection, using cation reagents, using sperm or sperm heads or the like—lipofection, liposome fusion, electroporation, and ballistic bombardment. Useful techniques include both those that involve homologous recombination, which can be employed to achieve targeted integration, and those that do not, such as those disclosed below. [0049] Constructs can be introduced using these and other methods into differentiated cells, such as fibroblast cells, which are capable of being reprogrammed and then cloned, pluripotent cells, totipotent cells, germ line cells, eggs, embryos at the one cell stage, and embryos at several cell stages, among others, to make transgenic organisms of the invention. In these regards, among others, they may be introduced by such methods into pronuclear, nuclear, cytoplasmic or other cell compartments or into extracellular compartments of multicellular systems to make transgenic organisms of the invention. [0050] In a preferred method, developing embryos can be infected with retroviral vectors and transgenic animals can be formed from the infected embryos. In a particularly preferred method DNAs in accordance with the invention are injected into embryos, at the single-cell or several cell stage. In some particularly preferred embodiments in this regard, DNA is injected into the pronucleus of a one-cell embryo. In other preferred embodiments in this regard, DNA is injected into the cytoplasm of a one-cell embryo. In yet another particularly preferred embodiment in this regard, DNA is injected into an early stage embryo containing several cells. [0051] The following examples are provided merely to illustrate the invention, and are not to be interpreted as limiting the scope of the invention which is described in the specification and appended claims. [0052] It is important to note that recombinant human Factor IX (rhFIX) and “FIX” made by a transgenic animal” are here terms for the same species. The Short WAP-FIX-cDNA is a genetic construct described below and is a term for the genetic construction using the 2.5 kbp fragment of the mouse WAP promoter operably linked to the cDNA of FIX. The Long WAP-FLX-cDNA is a genetic construct described below and is a term for the genetic construction using the 4.1 kbp fragment of the mouse WAP promoter operably linked to the cDNA of FIX. EXAMPLE 1 Construction and Preparation of the 2.5 kbp WAP Driven FIX-cDNA (Short WAP-FIX-cDNA) Construct to be Used Without Gene Rescue from a Milk Protein Gene for Microinjection into Transgenic Animals: [0053] Generally, for achieving single gene expression systems for the transgenic animals described above, several parts of the entire murine WAP gene, which included the 2.5 kbp of 5′-untranslated promoter sequence and 3′ untranslated regions (3′-UTR) were used and cloned by standard methods. See Campbell et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 12:8685 (1984). A cDNA fragment encoding human Factor IX was obtained such that the 3′ untranslated region of the FIX cDNA was deleted. Using standard methods, an expression vector was constructed so that it contained a mouse WAP promoter, isolated as a 2.5 kbp EcoRI-KpnI fragment immediately 5′ to the WAP signal sequence (the “short WAP promoter”), the human Factor IX cDNA (FIX-cDNA) sequence lacking a 3′ untranslated region, and a 1.6 kbp fragment of the 3′ untranslated region of the WAP gene. Expression vectors were amplified by bacterial transformation and purified from bacterial cultures using standard methods. Routine recombinant DNA techniques can be found, for example, in Sambrook et al., MOLECULAR CLONING, A LABORATORY MANUAL, Vol. 1-3 (Cold Spring Harbor Press 1989. [0054] More specifically, a chimeric 2.5 kbp WAP 5′-promoter-Factor IX-3′ WAP UTR construct was prepared, as follows: [0055] Step 1: Production of pWAP4 “cassette vector” [0056] Regulatory 5′ and 3′ flanking sequences of the mouse WAP gene were used as a source of the mammary specific expression system (Vector containing WAP gene a gift from Lothar Hennighausen, NIH). Specifically, a cassette vector containing a mouse WAP promoter, defined as a 2.5 kbp EcoRI-KpnI fragment (known as the “short WAP” promoter) immediately 5′ to the WAP signal sequence and a 1.5 kbp fragment of the 3′-untranslated region of the WAP gene was prepared. These regulatory sequences do not include coding and intragenic untranslated sequences (introns) of the WAP gene. The vector designated pWAP4 was derived from pWAPPC3 (C. Russell, dissertation “Improvement of Expression of Recombinant Human Protein C in the Milk of Transgenic Mammal Using a Novel Transgenic Construct,” Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia (December 1993)) and was developed as follows: Using WAPPC3 as a template, PCR primers WAP3′S2 (which contains a 5′KpnI site and is homologous to endogenous WAP right after the stop signal) and WAP3′A1, were used to produce a segment with KpnI and BamHI sites on either end. This segment was digested with KpnI/BamHI and ligated with 68 bp containing the 5′ end of the WAP 3′ UTR KpnI/BamHI digested pWAPPC3 to remove the protein C coding region and insert an unique Kpn I cloning site. The ligation mixture was used to transform E. coli DH5α cells by electroportation with resultant colonies grown on LB ampicillin plates. Picked colonies were grown up in TB ampicillin broth, plasmids isolated and cut with KpnI, BamHI or both and subjected to gel electrophoresis. Sequencing was performed using WAP3′A1 primer and judged as being correct. [0057] Step 2: The FIX cDNA (containing Kpn I sites located immediately before the start sequence and after the stop sequence) was generated as a PCR fragment. Fragment production protocol is as follows: 100 μl total volume containing 200 μM dNTP's, 0.5 μM of each primer (humFIX5′KpnI and humFIX3′KpnI, 2.5 units Pfu polymerase and 30 ng of plasmid template (PMCDSFIX obtained from Prof. Darryl Stafford, Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA), reaction mixture was subjected to 30 cycles of denaturation at 95° C. for 20 sec, annealing at 50° C. for 1 min and elongation at 75° C. for 5 min 45 sec. After cycling, the reaction mixture was subjected to blunting with T4 DNA polymerase for 10 min, EDTA concentration brought up to 25 mM, heated to 65° C. for 15 min, and extracted with Phenol: Chloroform (1:1), precipitated with equal volumes of 95% ethanol, aspirated, and resuspended in H 2 O. [0058] Step 3: Ligation, Transformation and Sequencing [0059] The plasmid designated pUCFIX (See FIG. 1) containing the modified (Kpn I ends) FIX cDNA was produced by digestion of both pUC 18 and the modified cDNA with Kpn I (per manufacturers instructions, Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) purification of digestion products by CHCl 3 : Phenol (1:1) extraction, precipitation with equal volumes of 95% ethanol, aspiration and suspension in H 2 O. Ligation of plasmid and cDNA was per manufacturers instructions (Stratagene) using 125 ng of Kpn I digested pUCIS and 125 ng of Kpn I digested modified cDNA. E. coli JM109 was transformed by electroporation using ligation mixture and plated on LB ampicillin plates. Selected colonies were grown up in TB ampicillin broth. Plasmid preparations from these colonies were analyzed by restriction enzyme digestion (Kpn I) and gel electrophoresis. The entire sense strand of the cDNA was sequenced and found to be correct as compared with FIXA sequences located in Genebank. [0060] Step 4: Introduction of FIX cDNA into pWAP4 “cassette vector” to produce pWAPFIX [0061] Both pWAP4 and pUCFIX (FIG. 1) were digested with Kpn I in separate reactions, subjected to gel electrophoresis and the appropriate plasmid fragments removed from the gel and ligated. E. coli JM109 was transformed by electroportation using ligation mixture and plated on LB ampicillin plates. Selected colonies were grown up in TB ampicillin broth. Plasmid preparations from these colonies were analyzed by restriction enzyme digestion (Kpn I) then gel electrophoresis. Clones positive for the insert were subjected to PCR analysis using primers FIXS1 and WAP3′A1 to determine the correct orientation of the insert. The correct plasmid is identified as pWAPFIX. The insert WAPFIX was removed from pWAPFIX by endonuclease digestion with EcoRI, gel purified and ligated into EcoRI digested pUC 18 in order to switch the bacterial vector from pBS to pUC 18. The new plasmid was designated pUCWAPFIX (FIG. 2). [0062] Step 5: Preparation of short WAP FIX-cDNA for microinjection [0063] The short WAP-FIX-cDNA (WAPFIX) construct as described above that excised from pUCWAPFIX by EcoRI endonuclease digestion was purified for microinjection as follows. After cleaving the construct from its vector, the solution was brought to 10 mM magnesium, 20 mM EDTA and 0.1% SDS and then extracted with phenol/chloroform (1:1). DNA was precipitated from the aqueous layer with 2.5 volumes of ethanol in the presence of 0.3 M sodium acetate at −20° C. overnight. After centrifugation, the pellet was washed with 70% ethanol, dried, and resuspended in sterile distilled water. The extracted DNA was purified by standard NaCl gradient ultracentrigation. DNA concentrations were determined by agarose gel electrophoresis by staining with ethidium bromide and comparing the fluorescent intensity of an aliquot of the DNA with the intensity of standards. Samples were then adjusted to 10 μg/ml and stored at −20° C., prior to microinjection. Unlike the examples of Clark et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,714,345 and Van Cott et al., Genetic Analysis: Biomolecular Engineering 15 (1999)155-160, no co-injection of a milk gene is done with the FIX containing construct. Thus, no other milk protein gene that could be used to perform “gene rescue” on the WAP5FLX construct was used; in addition to the buffer components, the microinjection mixture contained only the Short WAP-FLXcDNA contruct DNA. EXAMPLE 2 Production of Transgenic Pigs that Express the Short FIX-cDNA without “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene [0064] Step 1: Pig embryos are recovered from the oviduct and placed into a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube containing approximately 0.5 ml embryo transfer media (Beltsville Embryo Culture Medium). Embryos are centrifuged for 12 minutes at 16,000×g RCF (13,450 RPM) in a microcentrifuge (Hermile, model Z231). The embryos are then removed from the microfuge tube with a drawn and polished Pasteur pipette and placed into a 35 mm petri dish for examination. Embryos are then placed into a microdrop of media (approximately 100 μl) in the center of the lid of a 100 mm petri dish, and silicone oil was used to cover the microdrop and fill the lid to prevent media from evaporating. The petri dish lid containing the embryos is set onto an inverted microscope (Carl Zeiss) equipped with both a heated stage and Hoffman Modulation Contrast optics (200× final magnification). A finely drawn (Kopf Vertical Pipette Puller, model 720) and polished (Narishige microforge, model MF-35) micropipette is used to stabilize the embryos while about 1-2 picoliters of purified DNA solution (10 μg/ml) containing only short WAP-FIX-cDNA genetic constructs without milk proteins for cDNA gene rescue was delivered to non-pronuclear one-cell or two-cell pig embryos using another finely drawn micropipette. Embryos surviving the microinjection process as judged by morphological observation are loaded into a polypropylene tube (2 mm ID) for transfer into the recipient pig. About 40-50 microinjected embryos are transferred into each hormonally synclronized surrogate mother recipient female pig. [0065] Step 2: Determination of transgenic piglets born from microinjection of 1-cell and two-cell pig embryos. [0066] The gestation time of recipient female pigs is about 114 days. About 4 to 11 piglets are born in each litter. To determine whether test animals carried the recombinant constructs, tissue samples were removed from transgenic animals and DNA isolated. DNA is isolated by digesting tissue in (50 mM Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 1 M Na 2 ClO 4 , 10 mM EDTA, 1% sodium dodecylsulfate, 1% 2-mercaptoethanol, 100 ug/ml proteinase K, pH 8.0). 750 ul of lysate was extracted with 250 ul chloroform/phenol (1:1) followed by precipitation with isopropanol 0.7 volumes, washed in 70% ethanol and dried. DNA is suspended in TE (10 mM Tris-HCl and 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0). Swine produced after embryo transfer of microinjected embryos were screened by Southern analysis. 10 μg of DNA isolated from tail tissue is digested with the endonuclease Pst I an subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis and transferred to a nylon membrane. The membrane is probed with a 32 P labeled DNA fragment of the WAP promoter consisting of the Not I to Pst I (˜2.0 kbp) 5′ fragment. Hybridization is carried out at 68° C. for 4 hours using Quick Hyb (Stratagene; LaJolla, Calif.). Following standard washing methods, the membrane is subjected to autoradiography (−70° C.) for a period of 24 hours. Observance of a 2.0 kbp band indicated the presence of the transgene. To confirm the presence of the Factor IX cDNA, 10 μg of DNA isolated from tail tissue is digested with the endonuclease BamHI an subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis and transferred to a nylon membrane. The membrane is probed with a 32 P labeled DNA fragment of the FIX cDNA consisting of the whole cDNA Kpn I to Kpn I (˜1.4 kbp). Hybridization is carried out at 68° C. for 4 hours using Quick Hyb (Stratagene; LaJolla, Calif.). Following standard washing methods, the membrane is subjected to autoradiography (−70° C.) for a period of 24 hours. Observance of a ˜5.5 kbp band indicates the presence of the short WAP-FIX-cDNA transgene. [0067] Step 3: Collection and storage of milk from transgenic pigs containing short WAP-FIX-CDNA without “Gene Rescue” from a milk protein gene. [0068] Lactating sows are injected intramuscularly with 30-60 IU of oxytocin (Vedco Inc., St. Joseph, Mo.) to stimulate milk let-down. Letdown occurs two to five minutes after injection. Pigs are milked by hand during the course of this study. Immediately after collection the milk is diluted 1:1 with 200 mM EDTA, pH 7.0 to solubilize the caseins and then frozen. Small aliquots (about one milliliter) of the milk/EDTA mixture are taken and centrifuged for approximately 30 minutes at 16000×g at 4° C. The fat layer is separated from the diluted whey fraction, and the diluted whey fraction is used for all further assays. [0069] Step 4: Detection of high levels of recombinant human FIX in milk of transgenic pigs containing short WAP-FIX-cDNA without the use of “gene rescue” from a milk protein gene. [0070] Data from milk samples that are processed to diluted whey samples are interpreted multiplied by a factor of 1.9 to account for dilution with EDTA and subsequent removal of milk fat. Amounts of Factor IX in milk are measured by polyclonal ELISA. Briefly, Irnmulon II microtiter plates (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh) are coated overnight with 100 μl/well of 1:1000 rabbit anti-human Factor IX (Dako) in 0.1 M NaHCO 3 , 0.1 M NaCl, pH 9.6 at 4° C. The wells are washed with TBS-Tween (TBST, 25 mM Tris, 50 mM NaCl, 0.2% Tween 20, pH 7.2), and then blocked for 30 minutes with TBS/0.1% BSA at room temperature. Samples and human Factor IX standard derived from plasma in the TBS-BSA dilution buffer are added in triplicate to the wells (100 μl/well) and incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. The wells are then washed and blocked for another 10 minutes at room temperature. Sheep anti-human Factor 1:1000 in TBS-BSA, is then incubated in the wells for 30 minutes at 37° C., followed by anti-sheep IgG/HRP (Sigma, St. Louis). Bound chromophore is detected with OPD substrate (Abbott, Chicago) at 490 nm using an EL308 Bio-Tek Microplate reader. Daily expression levels of FIX are about 100-500 μg/ml milk and this is maintained throughout 50-60 day lactation. [0071] Step 5: Western Analysis of the high level expression of recombinant human FIX in milk of transgenic pigs containing short WAP-FIX-cDNA without the use of “gene rescue” from a milk protein gene. [0072] Recombinant human Factor IX (rhFIX) also is examined using Western Blot Analysis. Daily samples of EDTA-diluted whey as prepared above and taken from transgenic short WAP-FIXcDNA pigs are electrophoresed on 8-16% SDS gels (Novex, San Diego). Approximately 125 ng of recombinant human Factor IX (as determined by polyclonal ELISA) and human Factor LX standard derived from plasma are loaded in each lane. A total of 25 μg of total protein from a pool of non-transgenic (NTG) whey is loaded on the gels. After electrophoresis, proteins are transferred overnight to PVDF membranes (Bio Rad). The membranes are washed for 30 minutes in TBST, blocked with TBS/0.05% Tween 20/0.5% Casein (TBST-Casein). The membranes are developed with rabbit anti-Factor LX (Dako) (1:1000 in TBST-Casein for 45 minutes at 37° C.), followed by anti-rabbit IgG/HRP (Sigma) (1:1000 in TBST-Casein for 45 minutes at 37° C.), and the DAB metal enhanced staining (Pierce). Molecular weight markers are purchased from Bio-Rad. The presence of about 100-500 ug/ml of rhFIX in the milk of transgenic pigs containing the short WAP-FIX-cDNA without benefit of the gene rescue by a milk protein gene is detected by the Western Blot Analysis. EXAMPLE 3 Purification of High Levels of Recombinant Human FIX (rhFIX) in Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Short WAP-FIX-cDNA having Achieved High Expression of rhFIX without the Use of “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene [0073] Recombinant human Factor IX is purified from whey derived from a pool consisting of milk taken from 50-60 days of the first lactation of a short WAP-FLX-cDNA transgenic pig. The first step consisted of ion exchange chromatography followed by metal-dependent immunoaffinity chromatography using a monoclonal antibody designated as MAb1H5. In these studies, all columns and buffers are kept at 4° C. A pool of daily EDTA-expanded whey samples is diluted to OD 280 nm of 5.0 with TBS, pH 7.2, then loaded at 1 cm/min on DEAE FF Sepharose. The column is washed with TBS, pH 7.2, and then eluted with 0.25 M NaCl in TBS. This fraction is diluted 1:1 with 40 mM MgCl 2 in TBS to a final concentration of 20 mM MgCl 2 and loaded on a 1H5 MAb column. The column is washed with TBS containing 20 mM MgCl 2 , and the product is eluted with 20 mM citrate, 0.15 M NaCl, pH 6.8. The product is dialyzed overnight against 10 mM imidazole, pH 7.2. EXAMPLE 4 Determination of the Biological Activity of Immunopurified Recombinant Human Factor IX (rhFIX) Processed from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Short WAP-FLX-cDNA having Achieved High Level Expression of rhFIX Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0074] The biological activity of the purified recombinant human Factor IX from a transgenic pig is measured using a one-stage activated partial thromboplastin clotting time assay (APTT) clotting assay following a protocol given by the American Red Cross Plasma Derivatives Laboratory (Procedure for Factor IX Coagulation Assay, March 1992). Briefly, each well of a plastic Coag-a-mate tray receives 90 μl of Factor IX-deficient plasma plus 10 μl of a Factor IX standard or sample, diluted with Tris/saline/BSA. The tray is then placed on an automated analyzer (APTT mode, 240 second activation). The run is started, which automatically performed the addition of 100 μl of APTT reagent and 100 μl of 0.025 M CaCl 2 . Data obtained using a standard Factor IX preparation are fitted to the equation y−ax+b where y=clotting time and x=Factor IX, which is then used to determine the amount of Factor IX in a sample. The Standards of normal plasma reference pool (Sigma) and human Factor IX derived from plasma are used in the assay. Duplicates of the immunopurified recombinant human Factor IX, human Factor IX, and normal plasma reference pool samples are run at each dilution. The immunopurified recombinant human Factor IX had a specific activity of about 200-350 U/mg, which is comparable to the immunopurified human Factor IX from plasma which had a specific activity of 200-230 U/mg, with the normal plasma reference pool activity being defined as 250 U/mg. EXAMPLE 5 A Milk Derivative of a Recombinant Human Factor LX (rhFIX) Processed from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Short WAP-FIX-cDNA having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Gene [0075] A milk derivative concentrate of recombinant human FIX (rhFIX) useful for oral delivery of rhFIX is made from the milk of a transgenic pig containing a transgene composed of the 2.5 kbp mouse whey acidic protein promoter (WAP), the cDNA encoding human FIX, and a 1.6 kbp fragment of the 3′UTR of WAP. The expression level is about 0.1-0.5 g/l of rhFIX. Greater than about 80% of the rhFIX is biologically active. The skim milk is treated with a chelating agent such as 100 mM EDTA pH 7.5 or 100 mM Sodium Citrate pH 6.5 to clarify the milk of casein micelles. The clarified whey is passed over a DEAE-Sepharose or DEAE-Cellulose chromatographic column and the rhFIX is adsorbed. This adsorbed rhFIX is selectively desorbed from the anion exchange column using 15 mM Ca 2+ Tris-buffered-saline 150 mM NaCl (TBS). This eluted fraction of rhFIX containing selected, highly biologically active fractions of rhFIX is useful for oral delivery of rhFIX for therapeutic treatment of hemophlia B patients is passed through a 0.2 micron filter top remove bacterial contamination and then lyophilized to a powder. The rhFIX in the DEAE-column eluate has a composition that is volume reduced and concentrated by 25 to 50-fold over that of starting skim milk. EXAMPLE 6 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Delivery of the Recombinant Human Factor IX (rhFIX) Using a Milk Derivative Made from the Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Short WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0076] The lyophilized powder of example 5 is reconstituted with aqueous containing ordinary bovine milk cream such as to restore the volume to 25 to 50-fold concentrate over that of the original whey. The mixture is fed to hemophilia type B mice shortly after their first meal post sleep where less than 1 ml is fed to each mouse. The bleeding time by measured tail incision is measured 12 hours later. The corrected bleeding time is 5-7 minutes as compared to 11 minutes for a control hemophiliac mouse who was not fed the rhFLX milk concentrate and 5 minutes for a normal mouse with normal hemostasis. EXAMPLE 7 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Immunotolerization of Recombinant Human Factor IX (rhFIX) Derived from Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells Using a Milk Derivative Containing rhFIX Made from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Short WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0077] Mice are fed the reconstituted mixture from example 6 everyday consecutively for one month and after this month, they are sensitized with complete Freund's adjuvant and recombinant human Factor IX. After 12 days, blood samples from these mice do not respond with the presence of anti-human FIX antibodies and also does not respond with T-cells which are activated by the presence of recombinant FIX derived from Chinese Hamster ovary cells. Control mice that have not been fed the mixture from example 12 are sensitized with the same adjuvant and human FIX mixture. After 12-14 days the blood of these human FIX sensitized control mice exhibit a strong immunological response consisting of both anti-human FIX antibodies and T-cells that are activated by the presence of human FIX. EXAMPLE 8 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Immunotolerization of Recombinant Human Factor IX (rhFIX) Using a Milk Derivative Having the Same rhFIX that is Made from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Short WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0078] Mice are fed the reconstituted mixture from example 6 everyday consecutively for one month and after this month, they are sensitized with complete Freund's adjuvant and recombinant human Factor IX. After 12 days, blood samples from these mice do not respond with the presence of anti-human FIX antibodies and also do not respond with T-cells which are activated by the presence of recombinant FIX derived from the milk of transgenic pigs. Control mice that have not been fed the mixture from example 12 are sensitized with the same adjuvant and human FIX mixture. After 12-14 days the blood of these human FIX sensitized control mice exhibit a strong immunological response consisting of both anti-human FIX antibodies and T-cells that are activated by the presence of human FIX. EXAMPLE 9 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Immunotolerization of Human Factor IX Derived from Plasma Using a Milk Derivative Containing rhFIX Made from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Short WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0079] Mice are fed the reconstituted mixture from example 6 everyday consecutively for one month and after this month, they are sensitized with complete Freund's adjuvant and recombinant human Factor IX. After 12 days, blood samples from these mice do not respond with the presence of anti-human FIX antibodies and also do not respond with T-cells which are activated by the presence of human FIX. Control mice that have not been fed the mixture from example 12 are sensitized with the saine adjuvant and human FIX mixture. After 12-14 days the blood of these human FIX sensitized control mice exhibit a strong immunological response consisting of both anti-human FIX antibodies and T-cells that are activated by the presence of human FIX. EXAMPLE 10 Construction and Preparation of the 4.1 kb WAP Driven FIX-cDNA (Long WAP-FIX-cDNA) Construct for Microinjection into Embryos to make Transgenic Animals Having High Level Expression of FIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Gene. [0080] Step 1: Generally, the entire murine WAP gene was cloned by standard methods, as described above in Example 1, and the regulatory 5′ and 3′ UTR-flanking sequences of the mouse WAP gene were used for mammary specific expression (Gift from Lothar Hennighausen NIH). Specifically, a cassette vector (pUCWAP6) containing a “long WAP” promoter, defined as a 4.1 kbp Not I-Kpn I fragment immediately 5′ to the WAP signal sequence and a 1.6 kbp fragment of the 3′ untranslated region of the WAP gene was prepared. These regulatory sequences do not include coding and intragenic untranslated sequences (introns) of the mWAP gene. The development of pUCWAP6 was as follows: The pUC18 vector (Invitrogen) was cut with the enzymes EcoRI and Hind III to remove the multiple cloning site of the vector, blunted with exonuclease and ligated with Not I linkers. The plasmid was then cut with Not I and ligated. Ligation mixture was used to transform E. coli DH5a cells on LB ampicillin plates, picked colonies were grown in TB ampicillin broth, plasmids were isolated and cut with Not I then subjected to gel electrophoresis. Plasmid was judged to be correct and designated as pUCNotI (See FIG. 3). The vector pWAP4 (described above) was digested with EcoRI and the fragment containing the WAP 5′-2.5 kbp promoter and 3′-UTR genetic elements were separated by gel electrophoresis and purified. The ends of the fragment were modified by blunting with exonuclease and Not I linkers were ligated on. The fragment was cut with Not I and ligated into the Not I restriction site of pUCNotI then used to transform E. coli DH5α cells on ampicillin plates. Picked colonies were grown in TB ampicillin broth. The Isolated plasmid was verified to be correct by Not I digestion with the plasmid being designated pUCWAP5. The pUC WAP5 plasmid was subjected to Kpn I digestion and a partial Not I digestion producing a fragment that contained the pUCNotI vector sequence flanked by the mWAP 3′-UTR. This fragment was ligated with the 4.1 kb 5′-WAP promoter produced from digestion of p227.6 (gift from American Red Cross) with NotI, KpnI and Hind III. The ligation mixture was then used to transform E. coli JM 109 cells that were grown on LB ampicillin plates picked colonies were grown in TB ampicillin broth, plasmids isolated were cut with Not I, and NotI/KpnI and judged to be correct. The plasmid was then designated pUCWAP6 (See FIG. 4). [0081] Step 2: Production of pUCWAP6FIX [0082] The plasmid pUCWAP6FIX was produced by digestion of pUCWAPFIX with Kpn I and isolating the FLX cDNA by gel electrophoresis. This fragment was purified using a gel extraction kit (Qiagen; Valencia, Calif.) and inserted into the KpnI site of pUCWAP6 after Kpn I digestion and both fragments were then subjected to ligation. The ligation mixture was then used to transform E. coli JM109 cells that were then plated on LB ampicillin plates. Picked colonies were grown in TB ampicillin broth and plasmids were isolated. Isolated plasmids were digested with Nsi I to verify orientation of the cDNA insert. Plasmids that contained the insert in the correct orientation were designated pUCWAP6FIX. After insert confirmation, large scale purification was undertaken, according to methods well known in the art. This is termed the “long WAP-FIX-cDNA”. [0083] Step 3: Preparation of long WAP-FIX-cDNA for microinjection [0084] The Long WAP-FIX-cDNA constructed as described in the above in steps was excised from pUCWAP6FIX by Not I endonuclease digestion and purified for microinjection as follows. After cleaving a WAP6FIX from its vector, DNA was purified by standard NaCl gradient ultracentrigation. DNA concentrations were determined by agarose gel electrophoresis by staining with ethidium bromide and comparing the fluorescent intensity of an aliquot of the DNA with the intensity of standards. Samples were then adjusted to 10 μg/ml and stored at −20° C., prior to microinjection. No other milk protein gene that could be used to perform gene rescue for this Long WAP-FIXcDNA construct was used; in addition to the buffer components, the microinjection mixture contained only the Long WAP-FIXcDNA contruct DNA. EXAMPLE 11 Production of Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Transgenic Mice Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Gene. [0085] Step 1: Transgenic mice were produced essentially as described by Hogan et al., Manipulating the Mouse Embryo , Cold Spring Harbor Press, (1986), which is hereby incorporated by reference. That is, glass needles for micro-injection were prepared using a micropipet puller and microforge. Injections were performed using a Nikon microscope having Hoffman Modulation Contrast optics, with Narashigi micromanipulators and a pico-injector driven by N2 (Narashigi). Fertilized mouse embryos were surgically removed from oviducts of superovulated female CD-1 mice and placed into M2 medium. Cumulus cells were removed from the embryos with hyaluronidase at 300 μg/ml. The embryos were then rinsed in new M2 medium, and stored at 37 degrees centigrade prior to injection. Stock solutions containing about 5 μg/ml of the above described DNA were prepared and microinjected into non-pronuclear mouse embryos. After injecting the DNA, embryos were implanted into avertin-anesthesized CD-1 recipient females made pseudo-pregnant by mating with vasectomized males. About 25-30 microinjected mouse embryos per recipient were transferred into pseudopregnant females. [0086] Step 2: DNA was isolated by digesting tissue in (50 mM Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 1 M Na 2 ClO 4 , 10 mM EDTA, 1% sodium dodecylsulfate, 1% 2-mercaptoethanol, 100 ug/ml proteinase K, pH 8.0). 750 ul of lysate was extracted with 250 ul chloroform/phenol (1:1) followed by precipitation with isopropanol 0.7 volumes, washed in 70% ethanol and dried. DNA was suspended in TE (10 mM Tris-HCl and 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0). Mice produced after embryo transfer of microinjected embryos were screened by Southern analysis. To confirm the presence of the Factor IX cDNA,. 10 μg of DNA isolated from tail tissue was digested with the endonuclease BamHI an subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis and transferred to a nylon membrane. The membrane was probed with a 32 P labeled DNA fragment of the FIX cDNA consisting of the whole cDNA Kpn I to Kpn I (˜1.4 kbp). Hybridization was carried out at 68° C. for 4 hours using Quick Hyb (Stratagene; LaJolla, Calif.). Following standard washing methods, the membrane was subjected to autoradiography (−70° C.) for a period of 24 hours. Observance of a ˜7.1 kbp band indicated the presence of the whole transgene. EXAMPLE 12 Western Analysis of high level expression of recombinant human FIX in milk of transgenic mice containing long WAP-FIX-cDNA achieved without using gene rescue from a milk protein gene. [0087] Recombinant human Factor IX from the milk of transgenic mice having the long WAP-FIX-cDNA (without gene rescue from a milk protein gene) was examined using Western analysis. Daily samples of EDTA-diluted whey as prepared above and taken from transgenic short WAP-FIXcDNA pigs were electrophoresed on 8-16% SDS gels (Novex, San Diego). Approximately 125 ng of recombinant human Factor IX (as determined by polyclonal ELISA) and human Factor IX standard derived from plasma were loaded in each lane. A total of 25 μg of total protein from a pool of non-transgenic (NTG) whey was loaded on the gels. After electrophoresis, proteins were transferred overnight to PVDF membranes (Bio Rad). The membranes were washed for 30 minutes in TBST, blocked with TBS/0.05% Tween 20/0.5% Casein (TBST-Casein). The membranes were developed with rabbit anti-Factor IX (Dako) (1:1000 in TBST-Casein for 45 minutes at 37° C.), followed by anti-rabbit IgG/HRP (Sigma) (1:1000 in TBST-Casein for 45 minutes at 37° C.), and the DAB metal enhanced staining (Pierce). Molecular weight markers were purchased from Bio Rad. Western analyses revealed the presence of three sub-populations of recombinant human Factor IX in transgenic mouse derived samples: the major population migrated at a Mr of about 60-65 kDa, which is a slightly lower Mr than human Factor IX, and minor sub-populations migrated at about 40-45 kDa, and at about 25 kDa. Plasma human Factor IX also possessed a subpopulation at about 45-50 kDa. The transgenic mouse milk samples were estimated to contain about 1 to 2 g/l of rhFIX. EXAMPLE 13 Production of Transgenic Pigs that Express the Long WAP-FIX-cDNA at Very High Levels Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0088] Step 1: Pig embryos were recovered from the oviduct, and were placed into a 1.5 ml microcentrifuge tube containing approximately 0.5 ml embryo transfer media (Beltsville Embryo Culture Medium). Embryos were centrifuged for 12 minutes at 16,000×g RCF (13,450 RPM) in a microcentrifige (Hermle, model Z231). The embryos were then removed from the microcentrifuge tube with a drawn and polished Pasteur pipette and placed into a 35 mm petri dish for examination. Embryos were then placed into a microdrop of media (approximately 100 μl) in the center of the lid of a 100 mm petri dish, and silicone oil was used to cover the microdrop and fill the lid to prevent media from evaporating. The petri dish lid containing the embryos was set onto an inverted microscope (Carl Zeiss) equipped with both a heated stage and Hoffman Modulation Contrast optics (200× final magnification). A finely drawn (Kopf Vertical Pipette Puller, model 720) and polished (Narishige microforge, model MF-35) micropipette was used to stabilize the embryos while about 1-2 picoliters of stock solution containing about 10 μg/ml of the above described DNA was microinjected into the non-pronuclear stage pig embryos using another finely drawn micropipette. Embryos surviving the microinjection process as judged by morphological observation were loaded into a polypropylene tube (2 mm ID) for transfer into the recipient pig. About 40-50 microinjected embryos were transferred into each hormonally synchronized surrogate mother recipient female pig. [0089] Step 2: Determination of transgenic piglets born from microinjection of pig embryos. [0090] DNA was isolated by digesting tissue in (50 mM Tris-HCl, 0.15 M NaCl, 1 M Na 2 ClO 4 , 10 mM EDTA, 1% sodium dodecylsulfate, 1% 2-mercaptoethanol, 100 ug/ml proteinase K, pH 8.0). 750 ul of lysate was extracted with 250 ul chloroform/phenol (1:1) followed by precipitation with isopropanol 0.7 volumes, washed in 70% ethanol and dried. DNA was suspended in TE (10 mM Tris-HCl and 1 mM EDTA pH 8.0). Pigs produced after embryo transfer of microinjected embryos were screened by Southern analysis. To confirm the presence of the Factor IX cDNA,. 10 μg DNA isolated from tail tissue was digested with the endonuclease BamHI an subjected to agarose gel electrophoresis and transferred to a nylon membrane. The membrane was probed with a 32 P labeled DNA fragment of the FIX cDNA consisting of the whole cDNA Kpn I to Kpn I (˜1.4 kbp). Hybridization was carried out at 68° C. for 4 hours using Quick Hyb (Stratagene; LaJolla, Calif.). Following standard washing methods, the membrane was subjected to autoradiography (−70° C.) for a period of 24 hours. Observance of a ˜7.1 kbp band indicated the presence of the entire long WAP-FIX-CDNA transgene. [0091] Step 3: Collection and storage of milk from transgenic pigs containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA without using “gene rescue” by a milk protein gene. [0092] Lactating sows were injected intramuscularly with 30-60 IU of oxytocin (Vedco Inc., St. Joseph, Mo.) to stimulate milk let-down. Letdown occurred two to five minutes after injection. Pigs were milked by hand during the course of this study. Immediately after collection the milk was diluted 1:1 with 200 mM EDTA, pH 7.0 to solubilize the caseins and then frozen. Small aliquots (about one milliliter) of the milk/EDTA mixture were taken and centrifuged for approximately 30 minutes at 16000×g at 4° C. The fat layer was separated from the diluted whey fraction, and the diluted whey fraction was used for all further assays. [0093] Step 4: Detection of recombinant human FIX in milk of transgenic pigs containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA without using “gene rescue” by a milk protein gene. [0094] Data from milk samples that were processed to diluted whey samples were adjusted by a factor of 1.9 to account for dilution with EDTA and subsequent removal of milk fat. Amounts of Factor IX in milk were measured by polyclonal ELISA. Briefly, Immulon II microtiter plates (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh) were coated overnight with 100 μl/well of 1:1000 rabbit anti-human Factor IX (Dako) in 0.1 M NaHCO 3 , 0.1 M NaCl, pH 9.6 at 4° C. The wells were washed with TBS-Tween (TBST, 25 mM Tris, 50 mM NaCl, 0.2% Tween 20, pH 7.2), and then blocked for 30 minutes with TBS/0.1% BSA at room temperature. Samples and human Factor IX standard derived from plasma in the TBS-BSA dilution buffer were added in triplicate to the wells (100 μl/well) and incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. The wells were then washed and blocked for another 10 minutes at room temperature. Sheep anti-human Factor IX 1:1000 in TBS-BSA, was then incubated in the wells for 30 minutes at 37° C., followed by anti-sheep IgG/HRP (Sigma, St. Louis). Bound chromophore was detected with OPD substrate (Abbott, Chicago) at 490 nm using an EL308 Bio-Tek Microplate reader. Daily expression levels of about 2000-5000 μg/ml milk were maintained throughout 50-60 day lactation. [0095] Step 5: Western Analysis of high level expression of recombinant human FIX (rhFIX) in milk of transgenic pigs containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA without using “gene rescue” by a milk protein gene. [0096] Recombinant human Factor IX also was examined using Western analysis. Daily samples of EDTA-diluted whey as prepared above and taken from transgenic Long WAP-FIX-cDNA pigs were electrophoresed on 8-16% SDS gels (Novex, San Diego). Approximately 125 ng of recombinant human Factor IX (as determined by polyclonal ELISA) and human Factor IX standard derived from plasma were loaded in each lane. A total of 25 μg of total protein from a pool of non-transgenic (NTG) whey was loaded on the gels. After electrophoresis, proteins were transferred overnight to PVDF membranes (Bio Rad). The membranes were washed for 30 minutes in TBST, blocked with TBS/0.05% Tween 20/0.5% Casein (TBST-Casein). The membranes were developed with rabbit anti-Factor IX (Dako) (1:1000 in TBST-Casein for 45 minutes at 37° C.), followed by anti-rabbit IgG/HRP (Sigma) (1:1000 in TBST-Casein for 45 minutes at 37° C.), and the DAB metal enhanced staining (Pierce). Molecular weight markers were purchased from Bio Rad. Western analyses revealed the presence of three sub-populations of recombinant human Factor IX: the major population migrated at a M r of about 60-65 kDa, which is a slightly lower M r than human Factor IX, and minor sub-populations migrated at about 40-45 kDa, and at about 25 kDa. Plasma human Factor IX also possessed a subpopulation at about 45-50 kDa. The concentration of rhFIX in milk was estimated to be about 2 g/l or more. EXAMPLE 14 Purification of Recombinant Human FIX in Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of FIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Gene. [0097] Recombinant human Factor IX (rhFIX) was purified from whey derived from a pool consisting of milk taken from 50-60 days of the first lactation of a Long WAP-FIX-cDNA transgenic pig. The first step consisted of DEAE exchange chromatography, followed by hydrophobic interaction chromatography, followed by chromatographic adsorption onto Q-Sepharose anion exchange matrix by Ca 2+ -specific elution. In these studies, all columns and buffers were kept at 4° C. A pool of daily EDTA-expanded whey samples was diluted to OD 280 nm of 5.0 with TBS, pH 7.2, then loaded at 1 cm/min on DEAE FF Sepharose. The column was washed with TBS, pH 7.2, and then eluted with 0.25 M NaCl in TBS. The rhFIX was eluted from the DEAE-Sepharose using 300 mM NaCl in TBS. This rhFIX containing eluate was dialyzed to TBS and loaded onto Q-Sepharose. The rhFIX was eluted from the Q-Sepharose column using 15 nM CaCl 2 (Ca 2+ ) in TBS. The rhFIX containing eluate from the Q-Sepharose eluate was rendered 1 M NaCl. The rhFIX passes through the Butyl-column unadsorbed. The unadsorbed material from the Butyl-Sepharose column containing the rhFIX is dialyzed against TBS to remove the majority of casein milk protein contaminants. The dialyzed rhFIX containing fraction in TBS is adsorbed to Q-Sephrose and eluted in a sequence of 5 mM Ca 2+ , 10 mM Ca 2+ , 15 mM Ca 2+ , and 2 M NaCl in TBS buffers. The chromatographic procedure isolated in these fractions contained rhFIX to about 80% or higher purity as judged by silver-stained SDS-PAGE. EXAMPLE 15 Determination of the Biological Activity of Purified rhFIX Processed from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of FIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0098] The biological activity of the recombinant human Factor LX purified from the milk of Long WAP-FIX-cDNA pigs described in Example 14 is measured using a one-stage activated partial thromboplastin clotting time assay (APTT) clotting assay following a protocol given by the American Red Cross Plasma Derivatives Laboratory (Procedure for Factor IX Coagulation Assay, March 1992). Briefly, each well of a plastic Coag-a-mate tray received 90 μl of Factor IX-deficient plasma plus 10 μl of a Factor IX standard or sample, diluted with Tris/saline/BSA. The tray was then placed on an automated analyzer (APTT mode, 240 second activation). The run is started, which automatically performed the addition of 100 μl of APTT reagent and 100 μl of 0.025 M CaCl 2 . Data obtained using a standard Factor IX preparation are fitted to the equation y−ax+b where y=clotting time and x=Factor IX, which is then used to determine the amount of Factor IX in a sample. Standards of normal plasma reference pool (Sigma) and human Factor IX derived from plasma are used in the assay. Duplicates of purified recombinant human Factor IX, human Factor IX, and normal plasma reference pool samples are run at each dilution. The rhFIX in the 5 mM Ca 2+ gives a specific activity of about 150-250 u/mg. The rhFIX in the 10 mM Ca 2+ gives a specific activity of about 100 u/mg or less. The FIX in the 15 mM Ca 2+ gives a specific activity of less than about 50 u/mg. The rhFIX in the 2 M NaCl gives a specific activity of less than 25 u/mg. The specific activity of the rhFIX of normal plasma reference pool is defined as 250 u/mg where the overall activity of the pool is 1 u/ml while containing 4 ug/ml of rhFIX. EXAMPLE 16 A Milk Derivative Containing Recombinant Human Factor IX Processed from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0099] A milk derivative concentrate of recombinant Human FIX useful for oral delivery of rhFIX is made from the milk of a transgenic pig containing a transgene composed of the 2.5 kbp mouse whey acidic protein promoter (WAP), the cDNA encoding human FIX, and a 1.6 kbp fragment of the 3′UTR of WAP. The expression level is about 0.1-0.5 g/l of rhFIX. Greater than about 80% of the rhFIX is biologically active. The skim milk is treated with a chelating agent such as 100 mM EDTA pH 7.5 or 100 mM Sodium Citrate pH 6.5 to clarify the milk of casein micelles. The clarified whey is passed over a DEAE-Sepharose or DEAE-Cellulose chromatographic column and the rhFIX is adsorbed. This adsorbed rhFIX is selectively desorbed from the anion exchange column using 5 mM Ca 2+ Tris-buffered-saline 150 mM NaCl (TBS). This eluted fraction of rhFIX containing selected, highly biologically active fractions of rhFIX is useful for oral delivery of rhFIX for therapeutic treatment of hemophlia B patients is pass through a 0.2 micron filter top remove bacterial contamination and then lyophilized to a powder. The rhFIX in the DEAE-column eluate has a composition that is volume reduced and concentrated by 25 to 50-fold over that of starting skim milk. EXAMPLE 17 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Delivery of the Recombinant Human Factor IX Using a Milk Derivative Made from the Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0100] The lyophilized powder of example 5 is reconstituted with aqueous containing ordinary bovine milk cream such as to restore the volume to 25 to 50-fold concentrate over that of the original whey. The mixture is fed to hemophilia type B mice shortly after their first meal post sleep where less than 1 ml is fed to each mouse. The bleeding time by measured tail incision is measured 12 hours later. The corrected bleeding time is 5-7 minutes as compared to 11 minutes for a control hemophiliac mouse who was not fed the rhFIX milk concentrate and 5 minutes for a normal mouse with normal hemostasis. EXAMPLE 18 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Immunotolerization of Recombinant Human Factor IX Derived from Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells Using a Milk Derivative Containing Recombinant FIX Made from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0101] Mice are fed the reconstituted mixture from example 16 for everyday consecutively for one month and after this month, they are sensitized with complete Freund's adjuvant and recombinant human Factor IX. After 12 days, blood samples from these mice do not respond with the presence of anti-human FIX antibodies and also does not respond with T-cells which are activated by the presence of recombinant FIX derived from Chinese Hamster ovary cells. Control mice that have not been fed the mixture from example 16 are sensitized with the same adjuvant and human FIX mixture. After 12-14 days the blood of these human FIX sensitized control mice exhibit a strong immunological response consisting of both anti-human FIX antibodies and T-cells that are activated by the presence of human FIX. EXAMPLE 19 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Immunotolerization of Recombinant Human Factor IX Derived from Cell Culture by Using a Milk Derivative Containing Recombinant FIX Made from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of FIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Gene. [0102] Mice are fed the reconstituted mixture from example 16 for everyday consecutively for one month and after this month, they are sensitized with complete Freund's adjuvant and recombinant human Factor IX derived from Chinese Hamster Ovary cells. After 12 days, blood samples from these mice do not respond with the presence of anti-human FIX antibodies and also does not respond with T-cells which are activated by the presence of recombinant FIX derived from the milk of transgenic pigs. Control mice that have not been fed the mixture from example 16 are sensitized with the same adjuvant and rhFIX mixture. After 12-14 days the blood of these human FIX sensitized control mice exhibit a strong immunological response consisting of both anti-human FIX antibodies and T-cells that are activated by the presence of rhFIX. EXAMPLE 20 A Therapeutic Application Achieving Oral Immunotolerization of Human Factor IX Derived from Plasma by Using a Milk Derivative Containing Recombinant FIX Made from Milk of Transgenic Pigs Containing Long WAP-FIX-cDNA Having High Level Expression of rhFIX Achieved Without Using “Gene Rescue” from a Milk Protein Gene. [0103] Mice are fed the reconstituted mixture from example 16 everyday consecutively for one month and after this month, they are sensitized with complete Freund's adjuvant and recombinant human Factor IX. After 12 days, blood samples from these mice do not respond with the presence of anti-human FIX antibodies and also does not respond with T-cells which are activated by the presence of recombinant or human FIX. Control mice that have not been fed the mixture from example 16 are sensitized with the same adjuvant and human FIX mixture. After 12-14 days the blood of these human FIX sensitized control mice exhibit a strong immunological response consisting of both anti-human FIX antibodies and T-cells that are activated by the presence of human FIX derived from plasma.

A non-human transgenic mammalian animal, as described above, contains an exogenous double stranded DNA sequence stably integrated into the genome of the animal, which comprises cis-acting regulatory units operably linked to a DNA sequence encoding human FIX protein without the benefit of the presence of a complete milk gene sequence for gene rescue, and a signal sequence is active in directing newly expressed Factor IX into the milk of the animal at levels in an unactivated form that is suitable for subsequent processing for therapeutic applications in treating Hemophilia B. The transgenic mammals are preferably pigs, cows, sheep, goats and rebbits. The application include milk derivatives for oral delivery and oral tolerization in the treatment of Hemophilia B.

PRIORITY This application is a Continuation Application of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/017,723 filed in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on Jan. 22, 2008 and claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(a) to an application filed in the Korean Intellectual Property Office on Jan. 22, 2007 and assigned Serial No. 10-2007-00006593, the content of each of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a flash translation layer, and more particularly to a flash memory for processing optional data and a method thereof. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, flash memories are storage devices, which maintain their data even during power-off. Specifically, the flash memories have low power consumption and therefore, retain their stored data, even when their power supplies are interrupted. That is, unlike Dynamic Random Access Memories (DRAMs) the flash memories are non-volatile memory devices and because the flash memories retain their stored data even when their power supplies are interrupted, they are widely used in electronic devices such as digital televisions, digital camcorders, hand-held sets (e.g., cellular phones), digital cameras, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), game machines, MP3 players and the like. However, when optional data are stored in a conventional flash memory, since original data are stored without any processing, a user can extract the data from the flash memory and simply recognize the meanings of the extracted data. In particular, when a code and a debug symbol table are stored in the flash memory, the user can perform reverse engineering by reading the data stored in the flash memory. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention has been made to solve the above-mentioned problems occurring in the prior art, and an aspect of the present invention is to provide a method for encrypting the optional stored data, such that even when the user extracts the optional stored data, the data is not easily interpreted. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for managing data associated with a flash memory in a flash translation layer, the method comprising searching at least one page of the flash memory when writing data to the flash memory, determining whether authority information corresponding to respective searched pages includes an encryption storage function, generating, corresponding to respective searched pages, a page key according to an encrypting function when the authority information includes the encryption storage function encrypting the data using the generated page key and storing the encrypted data in the respective searched pages, and storing the data in the respective searched pages without encryption when the authority information does not include the encryption storage function. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for managing data associated with a flash memory, comprising a flash memory, a controller, and a flash translation layer for searching at least one page of the flash memory for storing the data when a write of optional data is requested from the controller, determining whether authority information corresponding to respective searched pages includes an encryption storage function, generating, corresponding to respective searched pages, a page key according to an encrypting function when the authority information includes the encryption storage function, encrypting the data using the page key, storing the encrypted data in the respective searched pages, and storing the data in the respective searched pages without encryption when the authority information does not include the encryption storage function. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other aspects, features and advantages of the present invention will be more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a terminal according to the present invention; FIG. 2A shows data format of a flash memory unit according to the present invention; FIG. 2B is a data block of the flash memory according to the present invention; FIG. 2C shows a spare array included in a page of a flash memory according to the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flow chart of an operation where the terminal writes optimal data in the flash memory; and FIG. 4 is a flow chart of an operation where the terminal reads optimal data from the flash memory. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the following description, the same elements will be designated by the same reference numerals although they are shown in different drawings. Further, various specific definitions found in the following description, such as specific values of packet identifications, contents of displayed information, etc., are provided only to help general understanding of the present invention, and it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present invention can be implemented without such definitions. Further, in the following description of the present invention, a detailed description of known functions and configurations incorporated herein will be omitted when it may make the subject matter of the present invention rather unclear. Structural elements of the terminal will be described with reference to FIG. 1 . The terminal includes a controller 101 , a flash translation layer (FTL) 105 , and a flash memory 107 . FTL 105 is connected to controller 101 . Flash memory 107 is connected to FTL 105 . The Flash memory 107 can store optional data or load optional written data under the control of controller 101 . In particular, flash memory 107 may receive and store encrypted data under the control of controller 101 or load optional encrypted and stored data. Referring to FIG. 2A , flash memory 107 includes data blocks 201 and a Partition Information Table (PIT) 203 . Data blocks 201 include a plurality of blocks, and are an area for storing optional data when a write is requested from a user. Data blocks 201 may be divided into a plurality of partitions. Data blocks 201 may be authorized to have different functions according to partition regions. For example, when data blocks 201 is divided into two partitions, it is authorized to enable one partition region to have a read function, a write function, and an encryption storage function for storing optional encrypted data, and another partition region to have only the read function and the write function. PIT 203 includes information about flash memory 107 . In detail, PIT 203 includes physical address information and the partition number information of data blocks 201 , Logical Block Number (LBN) information and authority information of each partition. Authority information of each partition indicates authority that a corresponding partition region has. For example, when an optional partition region supports a read function R, a write function, and an encryption storage function C, authority information can be generated to include the fact that a corresponding partition region provides the aforementioned functions. Further, a terminal analyzes authority information of PIT 203 to confirm functions, which an optional partition region provides. Moreover, in a detailed construction of data blocks 201 as shown in FIG. 2B , an optional block 211 includes a plurality of pages 209 . Each of pages 209 is divided into a main array 205 and a spare array 207 . Main array 205 is an area for practically storing predetermined data, and spare array 207 is an area for storing Meta information with respect to main array 205 . The Meta information stored in spare array 207 will be explained with reference to FIG. 2C . The Meta information includes logical block number information 213 and the number information 215 (ECNT 0 -ECNT 3 ) of cancel times. The logical block number information 213 (LBN 0 -LBN 3 ) indicates a logical block number of a block including a current page. Number information 215 of cancel times indicates the number of cancel times of a block including a current page. Spare array 207 includes a Main array Error Checking and Correction (MECC) 217 and a Spare array Error Checking and Correction (SECC) 219 . MECC 217 is used to check and correct an error of a main array included in a current page. SECC 219 is used to check and correct an error of a spare array included in the current page. Spare array 207 includes bad Block Information (BI) 221 and Allocation Information AI 223 . BI 221 functions to indicate whether or not a block included in the current page is bad. The AI functions to indicate a state of the current page. Further, spare array 207 may include a reserved area RSV for storing additional information. Where storage areas of BI 221 and AI 223 have 1 byte, and when BI 221 is 0xFF, it is indicated that the block is normal. In contrast to this, when BI 221 is not 0xFF, it is indicated that the block is abnormal. Further, when the AI 223 is 0xFF, it may indicate that the current page is not used, and also, when the AI 223 is 0xFF, it may indicate that optional data are stored in the current page. When AI 223 is 0x00, it may indicate that storage of the optional data in the current page is terminated. The internal construction of flash memory 107 has been described with reference to FIG. 2A to FIG. 2C . FIG. 2A to FIG. 2C refer to one embodiment. An area in which information about flash memory 107 is disposed can be changed according to how flash memory 107 is constructed. Returning to FIG. 1 , flash translation layer 105 provides an interface to a file system and an application program so that flash memory 107 can be used as a block device such as a Hard Disk Drive (HDD) or a Random Access Memory (RAM). In other words, flash translation layer 105 causes controller 101 to recognize flash memory 107 as an HDD or RAM. That is, flash translation layer 105 causes controller 101 to access flash memory 107 in the same manner as that of the HDD or the RAM. Flash translation layer 105 has a logical address-physical address event information management function, a bad block management function, and a data wear leveling function. In particular, flash translation layer 105 according to the present invention includes an encryption/decryption unit 103 . When controller 101 requests a write command from flash translation layer 105 , flash translation layer 105 receives, encrypts, and stores optional data in flash memory 107 . Here, the write command is a command to store the optional data in flash memory 107 . When controller 101 request a read command from flash translation layer 105 , flash translation layer 105 loads, decodes, and outputs optional encrypted data from flash memory 107 to controller 101 . Here, the read command is a command to load the optional data previously stored in flash memory 107 . Encryption/decryption unit 103 of flash translation layer 105 provides an encrypting function to perform an encryption/decryption, and can encrypt or decode optional data using the encrypting function. Encryption/decryption unit 103 cannot encrypt the optional data by a root key, and input a root key and optional data in the encrypting function to generate a processed root key. Further, encryption/decryption unit 103 may encrypt the optional data by the processed root key, and decode optional encrypted data. For example, encryption/decryption unit 103 may provide a one-way hash function as the encrypting function. The one-way hash function indicates an equation in which a reverse operation is impossible. Specifically, the one-way hash function outputs a corresponding value to only one way as optional input value. Here, one way means that anyone can calculate a hash value for one way but cannot analogize an input value with respect to the hash value. In particular, flash translation layer 105 receives a write command from controller 101 ; it searches a page 209 in which optional data are stored among pages included in flash memory 107 . Further, flash translation layer 105 calculates a physical address corresponding to the searched page. Moreover, flash translation layer 105 analyzes spare array 107 included in searched page 209 to search logical block number information 213 and number information 215 of cancel times. Flash translation layer 105 calculates a logical block number corresponding to a current page and the number of cancel times of a block included in the current page. Flash translation layer 105 inputs a root key in the encrypting function together with the calculated physical address, logical block number, and the number of cancel times to generate a processed root key. The processed root key is referred to as the ‘page key’. For example, when a one-way hash function is used as the encrypting function, flash translation layer 105 inputs the calculated physical address, logical block number, the number of cancel times, and root key in the one-way hash function to generate a processed root key hash value. The hash value can be also referred to as the ‘page key’. Flash translation layer 105 encrypts optional data by the page key, and stores the optional encrypted data in searched page 209 . Further, when flash translation layer 105 receives a read command from controller 101 , it searches a page including data for which a read is requested among the pages included in flash memory 107 . Next, flash translation layer 105 calculates a physical address corresponding to searched page 209 . Also, flash translation layer 105 analyzes a spare array 207 included in searched page 209 to search logical number information 213 and number information 215 of cancel times in a current page. Then, flash translation layer 105 calculates a logical block number corresponding to the current page and the number of cancel times of a block including the current page using the searched logical number information 213 and number information 215 of cancel times. Subsequently, flash translation layer 105 inputs the calculated physical address, logical block number, and the number of cancel times in the encrypting function to generate a processed root key. Furthermore, flash translation layer 105 loads optical data included in searched page 201 , and decodes and outputs the optional loaded data by a page key to controller 101 . Controller 101 controls respective structural elements of a terminal so as to provide various functions of the terminal. In particular, controller 101 of the present invention controls flash translation layer 105 to encrypt and store optional data in flash memory 107 . Otherwise, controller 101 controls flash translation layer 105 to load and decode optional data encrypted and stored in flash memory 107 , and to receive, change, and output corresponding data. So far, the structural elements of the terminal according to the present invention have been explained with reference to FIG. 1 to FIG. 2C . Hereinafter, the following is a procedure of storing or loading data by the terminal according to the present invention. An operation of encrypting and storing optional data when storing the optional data in flash memory 107 will be now explained with reference to FIG. 3 . In order to simply explain the present invention, it is assumed that the size of optional data and the size of optional encrypted data are not greater than that of a page region, and there is an authority for performing a write function in a partition including a block having a page for storing the optional data. In step 301 , flash translation layer 105 confirms whether a write command is inputted from controller 101 . Here, the write command is a command to store optional data in flash memory 107 . When the write command is not input, step 301 is repeatedly performed until the write command is input. When the write command is inputted, the routine goes to step 303 . At step 303 , flash translation layer 105 searches a page in which optional data are stored among pages of flash memory 107 . Specifically, flash translation layer 105 receives a Logical Page Number (LPN) from controller 101 , which is a page number in which optional data are stored. Flash translation layer 105 searches a page 209 corresponding to the received logical page number, and receives data included in main array 205 and spare array 207 of searched page 209 . Next, flash translation layer 105 confirms a logical block number by logical block number information included in spare array 207 , and calculates a physical address of a current page in the confirmed logical block number. A method for calculating the physical address by flash translation layer 105 can be changed according to sizes of a block area and a page area in flash memory 107 . In step 305 , a decision is made to determine if the data will be encrypted. For example, flash translation layer 105 analyzes a partition information table 203 to confirm authority information of a partition including a current page. If the optional data should be stored without the encryption, the process goes to step 313 . When it is confirmed that encryption is necessary when storing optional data in a partition according to the authority information, flash translation layer 105 goes to step 307 . When the process goes to step 313 , flash translation layer 105 receives optional data from controller 101 , and stores the optional received data in a main array of a current page 209 . When the process goes to step 307 , flash translation layer 105 generates a page key for encrypting optional data. Specifically, flash translation layer 105 detects the number information of cancel times included in spare array 209 , and calculates the number of cancel times of a block including the current page 209 . Further, flash translation layer 105 inputs the physical address, logical block number, the number of cancel times calculated in step 303 , and a predetermined root key in the encrypting function to generate a page key, and the process goes to step 309 . Next, in step 309 , flash translation layer 105 receives optional data from the controller 101 , and encrypts the optional received data by the page key generated in step 307 , and the process goes to step 311 . Subsequently, in step 311 , flash translation layer 105 stores the optional data encrypted in step 309 in a page 201 of flash memory 107 searched in step 301 . Through the aforementioned operation, when the terminal stores optional data in flash memory 107 , it can encrypt and store the optional data. Referring to FIG. 4 , a description of an operation of detecting and decoding optional encrypted data when optional data are loaded from the flash memory 107 follows. In order to simply explain the present invention, it is assumed that the size of optional data and the size of optional encrypted data are not greater than that of a page region, and there is an authority for performing a write function in a partition including a block having a page for storing the optional data. In step 401 , flash translation layer 105 confirms whether a read command is inputted from controller 101 . Here, the read command is a command to load optional data stored in a flash memory 107 from controller 101 . When the read command is not input, the flash translation layer 105 repeats step 401 until the read command is input. When the read command is inputted, flash translation layer 105 goes to step 403 . In step 403 , flash translation layer 105 searches a page storing optional data for which a read is currently requested among pages of flash memory 107 . Specifically, flash translation layer 105 receives a Logical Page Number (LPN) from controller 101 . Here, the LPN is a page number in which optional data are stored. Next, flash translation layer 105 searches a page 209 corresponding to the received logical page number, and receives data included in a main array 205 and a spare array 207 of searched page 209 . Further, flash translation layer 105 confirms a logical block number as logical block number information included in spare array 207 , and calculates a physical address of a current page in the confirmed logical block number. A method for calculating the physical address by flash translation layer 105 can be changed according to a size of a block area and of a page area in flash memory 107 . Subsequently, in step 405 , flash translation layer 105 confirms whether the optional data are encrypted. When the optional data are not encrypted, flash translation layer 105 goes to step 413 . When the optional data are encrypted, flash translation layer 105 goes to step 407 . For example, flash translation layer 105 analyzes partition information table 203 to confirm authority information of a partition to which current page 209 belongs. When it is confirmed that the optional data stored in current page 209 are encrypted according to the authority information, flash translation layer 105 goes to step 407 . When the process goes to step 413 , flash translation layer 105 outputs optional data received from main array 205 of a corresponding page 209 to controller 101 . When the process goes to step 407 , flash translation layer 105 generates a page key for decoding the optional data. Specifically, flash translation layer 105 detects the number of cancel times included in spare array 209 , and calculates the number of cancel times of a block including a current page 209 according to the number information of cancel times detected. Next, flash translation layer 105 inputs the physical address, the logical block number, and the number of cancel times calculated in step 403 and a predetermined root key in the encrypting function to generate a page key, and goes to step 409 . Subsequently, in step 409 , the flash translation layer 105 decodes the optional data received from the main array 205 of a corresponding page 209 in step 401 by a page key generated in step 407 , and goes to step 411 . In step 411 , flash translation layer 105 outputs the optional data decoded in step 409 to controller 101 , so that controller 101 can perform a corresponding function. Through the aforementioned operation, the terminal can decode and load the optional data, which are encrypted and stored from flash memory 107 . For example, in the embodiment of the present invention, the flash memory included in the terminal can be attachable/detachable flash memory. As is clear from the foregoing description, the present invention prevents a user from interpreting information in optional data stored in a flash memory even when the user extracts the optional data. While the invention has been shown and described with reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as further defined by the appended claims.

A method and apparatus for preventing a user from interpreting optional stored data information even when the user extracts the optional stored data, by managing data associated with a flash memory in a flash translation layer, the method comprising searching at least one page of the flash memory when writing data to the flash memory, determining whether authority information corresponding to respective searched pages includes an encryption storage function, generating, corresponding to respective searched pages, a page key according to an encrypting function when the authority information includes the encryption storage function encrypting the data using the generated page key and storing the encrypted data in the respective searched pages, and storing the data in the respective searched pages without encryption when the authority information does not include the encryption storage function.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to agricultural combine unloaders. In particular, the present invention relates to a hinged unloader extension that can pivot between a discharge position and a closed position. An agricultural combine is a common and well-known machine for harvesting crop materials. Agricultural combines are available in various designs and models to perform the basic functions of reaping crop materials from a crop field, separating the grain from the non-grain crop materials, and discarding the non-grain crop materials back onto the crop field. A typical combine includes a crop harvesting apparatus, or header, which reaps ripened crop plants from the crop field and feeds the crop materials to a separating or threshing system. Several different types of threshing systems are available, such as rotary threshers and straw walkers. Regardless of the type of threshing system used, the thresher separates the course non-grain materials from the grain heads. The course non-grain material primarily consists of grain stalks and exits the thresher along its rear end. The grain heads, on the other hand, exit the thresher along the bottom side of the thresher and pass to a series of moving sieves. The sieves separate the grain from the unwanted fine materials, sometimes referred to as chaff. After separation, the grain is directed to a grain bin through an auger system, and the unwanted fine materials exit the sieves along the rear end. The grain bin serves as a temporary onboard storage location for the grain. Typically, the grain bin is positioned above the threshing system and can have a capacity of as much as 200 bushels for larger combines. As the combine harvests the crop field, the grain bin periodically becomes filled with grain and must be emptied to allow the combine to proceed. The grain is then transferred from the grain bin to a truck or a grain cart through an unloader tube. The unloader tube is a well-known device to those skilled in the art of combines. Most manufacturers of combines have adopted a similar configuration for the unloader tube. In the common configuration, the unloader tube is positioned along the upper side of the combine with the infeed section of the auger located adjacent to the grain bin. The infeed section is pivotally attached to the combine to allow rotation about a nearly vertical axis. A 90 degree elbow connects the infeed section to a long horizontal section. The horizontal section can then rotate in a generally horizontal plane around the infeed end. With this design the unloader tube can be rotated out to a 90 degree angle from the combine to allow unloading into a truck or grain cart. After unloading, the unloader tube is rotated back so that the horizontal section trails towards the rear of the combine with the exit end located near the combine's rear end. While this configuration for the unloader tube has been a convenient solution for the need to unload the combine's grain bin, the long length of such unloader tubes presents a number of problems for both the farmer and the manufacturer. These problems are exacerbated by the increasing production capacity of newer combines which require ever longer unloader tubes due to the increased header width of today's combines. In order to satisfy farmers' demands for more efficient harvesting equipment, manufacturers have regularly increased the width of the combine header. Currently, some combine headers are as wide as forty feet, and even larger widths are eventually possible. In addition, farmers are increasingly turning to the use of grain carts and unloading the combine's onboard grain bin into an adjacent travelling grain cart while the combine is still harvesting through the field. Frequently, the grain cart is towed by an agricultural tractor which has dual sets of tires installed on it. With this unloading arrangement, the unloading auger must extend over a substantial distance in order to reach the grain cart, including the width of the header, the safety clearance between the header and the tractor tires, and the width of the grain cart and tractor. Current unloader tubes also prevent farmers from implementing a technique known as controlled traffic patterning. In a controlled traffic pattern, the combine unloads grain into an adjacent travelling grain cart like previously described. However to avoid additional soil compaction, the tow tractor and grain cart travel along the combine's prior tire path which is located one swath away from the combine's current travel path. Thus, by reusing the same tire path that has already been created by the combine, more ground soil is left uncompacted, which allows better growing conditions for subsequent crops. Controlled traffic pattern harvesting, however, requires even longer unloader tubes than are generally available in order to span the entire distance between the combine's current and prior tire paths. Typically, prior art unloader tubes are lengthened by extending the length of the horizontal section and allowing an extended portion to extend beyond the rear end of the combine. This extended portion can raise the manufacturer's shipping costs for the combine significantly. Shipping costs are often calculated based on the volume of the shipped product. This is especially true when a combine is shipped overseas on a ship. In these cases, if the manufacturer chooses to install the unloader tube at the factory, the extended portion can require as much as 10% more shipping volume than would otherwise be required, substantially increasing the cost of shipping. On the other hand, the manufacturer may choose to ship the unloader tube separately to avoid this cost penalty. However, this alternative suffers from the problems of ensuring that the correct parts are shipped to the customer and that they are properly installed once received. The extended portion also requires additional storage space on the farm. Farmers typically store their agricultural equipment in large buildings when the equipment is not being used in order to minimize weather related deterioration. Hereto, the extended portion limits the amount of equipment that can be stored in the storage building because other equipment must be positioned behind the end of the unloader tube instead of directly behind the combine's rear end. Problems also occur when the farmer is operating the combine during harvesting operations. The long horizontal section of the unloader tube makes the overall length of the combine extra long and creates a collision hazard for the extended portion. Farmers operate their combines around a variety of different obstacles, which can be accidentally struck by the extended portion. Examples of these obstacles include trees, telephone poles, buildings, and other vehicles. The risk of rear end collisions is especially great with combines because the large size of the combine and the minimum amount of rearward visibility makes it difficult to see nearby obstacles. When a collision does occur with the unloader tube, the cost to the farmer can be quite high. Not only is the object struck damaged, but the unloader tube will likely be disabled. As a result, the farmer incurs repair costs, and the harvesting operation is delayed until the unloader tube can be fixed. To minimize the risk of rear end collisions, some countries have implemented transportation regulations that require a combine to be able to turn around within a specified radius without any portion of the combine passing outside the radius. This type of regulation requires that the combine be designed as compact as possible. Satisfying a regulation like this is especially difficult with an unloader tube that extends beyond the rear end of the combine. Moreover, the ever increasing length of unloader tubes means that more residual grain is left in them after unloading to a grain cart is completed, as it may take several grain charts to unload the combine. The residual grain in the unloader tube falls out, or dibbles out, of the unloader tube as the combine continues harvesting due to the movement of the combine across the field. This loss of residual grain results in a substantial waste of harvested grain and ultimately revenue for farmers. Therefore, there exits a need for a means to extend the unloader tube's reach for unloading grain in today's larger agricultural combines while minimizing waste associated with such larger unloader tubes. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides an agricultural combine unloader comprising: an unloader tube connected to the agricultural combine, the unloader tube including: an interior passageway, and an auger within the interior passageway for conveying crop material therethrough to a discharge end; an unloader extension that includes: an inlet end for receiving crop material from the discharge end of the unloader tube, and an outlet end for discharging the crop material; and a drive mechanism operatively connected to the discharge end of the unloader tube to position the unloader extension in at least a discharge position to discharge the crop material from the unloader tube and a closed position to cover the discharge end of the unloader tube, the drive mechanism including a turret, wherein the inlet end of the unloader extension is pivotably connected to the turret. The present invention provides an agricultural combine unloader comprising: an unloader tube connected to the agricultural combine, the unloader tube including: an interior passageway, and an auger within the interior passageway for conveying crop material therethrough to a discharge end having a downwardly facing planar opening; an unloader extension that includes: an inlet end for receiving crop material from the discharge end of the unloader tube, an outlet end for discharging the crop material, and a planar surface connecting the inlet end and outlet end; a drive mechanism that includes: a turret operatively connected to the discharge end of the unloader tube for rotation about a substantially vertical axis, and a pivot mechanism, wherein the inlet end of the unloader extension is pivotably connected to the turret and the pivot mechanism is operatively connected to the unloader extension to pivot the unloader extension relative to the axis of rotation of the turret; and wherein the pivot mechanism pivots the unloader extension between a closed position wherein the planar surface of the unloader extension covers the downwardly facing planar opening of the discharge end of the unloader tube and an open position wherein the planar surface of the unloader extension is at an angle with respect to horizontal to allow for the flow of crop material from the discharge end of the unloader tube to the outlet end of the unloader extension. The present invention solves the problems associated with longer unloader tubes and the impact such longer unloader tubes have on waste levels for harvested grain by engendering a unloader extension that can extend the reach of the unloader tube, yet can be retracted, and which can minimize waste of the harvested grain by sealing off the unloader tube when not in use. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of the invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there are shown in the drawings embodiments which are presently preferred. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities shown. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a side, elevational view of an agricultural combine with an unloader tube and unloader extension in a storage position in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a top plan view of the agricultural combine of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 3 is a top plan view of the agricultural combine of FIG. 1 with the unloader tube and unloader extension in a discharge position and a grain cart positioned to receive grain from the unloader tube and extension; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an unloader extension in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a side, elevational cross-sectional view of the unloader tube of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 6A is a top plan view of a drive mechanism for the unloader tube and unloader extension of FIG. 1 that includes a turret and a pivot mechanism; FIG. 6B is a side, elevational view of the drive mechanism of FIG. 6A ; FIG. 7 is an enlarged side elevational view of the unloader extension of FIG. 4 connected to the unloader tube of FIG. 5 in a discharge position; FIG. 7A is an enlarged side elevational view of the unloader extension of FIG. 4 connected to the unloader tube of FIG. 5 in a discharge position in accordance with another preferred aspect of the present invention; FIG. 8 is an enlarged side elevational view of the unloader extension of FIG. 4 connected to the unloader tube of FIG. 5 in a closed position; FIG. 9 is a front, cross-sectional view of an unloader extension having a half-piped configuration in accordance with another preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a front, cross-sectional view of an unloader extension having a open trapezoidal configuration in accordance with yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a side, elevational view of an unloader extension having a powered conveyor belt in accordance with another preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a side, elevational view of an unloader extension having a powered auger conveyor in accordance with yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 13 is a side, cross-sectional, elevational view of a turret in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to FIG. 1 , there is shown a self-propelled agricultural combine 10 . The combine 10 includes a body 12 supported by wheels 14 and an engine (not shown) for driving the wheels 14 to allow the combine 10 to move from place to place. An operator's station 16 is positioned towards the forward end of the combine body 12 and includes numerous controls to allow the operator to adjust the functions of the combine 10 . At the forward end of the combine 10 is a crop harvesting header 18 that severs and gathers the ripened crop materials from the crop field. After cutting the stems of the crop materials or collecting the crop materials from a prepared windrow, the crop materials are fed rearward through a feeder housing 20 to the combine's internal threshing systems (not shown). The threshing systems then separate the grain from the unwanted crop residue. Because the present invention is applicable to a variety of different threshing systems and because threshing systems are generally well-known to those skilled in the art, a detailed discussion of the structure, function and operation of such threshing systems is not necessary for a complete understanding of the present invention. After the threshing systems have separated the grain from the crop residue, the grain is transferred to an onboard storage bin 22 by a transfer system, such as an augering system, and the unwanted crop residue is discharged from the rear end of the combine 10 onto the harvested crop field. When the onboard storage bin 22 becomes full with grain, an unloader tube 24 empties the grain from the storage bin 22 into a truck or a grain cart 100 ( FIG. 3 ). Most manufacturers use a similar configuration for the unloader tube 24 that is well-known in the art. The unloader tube 24 includes an infeed section 26 that is positioned adjacent to the storage bin 22 and is oriented along a substantially vertical axis that leans rearward about 12 degrees. The input end (not shown) of the infeed section 26 is positioned within the storage bin 22 near its bottom side so that the grain will feed up into the infeed section 26 when the unloader tube 24 is turned on. The unloader tube 24 is part of the combine's unloader system (i.e., unloader). Such unloaders are well known in the art and a detailed description of their structure, function and operation is not necessary for a complete understanding of the present invention. An exemplary unloader is described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,452,180, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. The infeed section 26 is pivotally connected to the combine 10 around the infeed section's 26 vertical axis. The infeed section 26 can then be rotated about its vertical axis by a hydraulic cylinder (not shown) that is connected on one end to a lever (not shown) attached to the infeed section 26 . At the top end of the infeed section 26 , an elbow 28 connects the infeed section 26 to the horizontal outfeed section 30 of the unloader tube 24 . The horizontal outfeed section 30 is oriented 90 degrees from the infeed section 26 and lies along a substantially horizontal axis. Thus, when the infeed section 26 is pivoted, the horizontal outfeed section 30 rotates around the infeed section 26 in a generally horizontal plane with the outfeed section 30 rising slightly as it is rotated outwards. The combine operator controls the position of the unloader tube 24 with remote controls provided in the operator's station 16 . The unloader tube 24 rotates between a storage or closed position ( FIG. 2 ) and an unloading or discharge position ( FIG. 3 ). In the unloading position, the horizontal section 30 is rotated out so that it is substantially transverse to the longitudinal axis of the combine body 12 . A truck or grain cart 100 ( FIG. 3 ) is then positioned to receive the grain from the unloader tube 24 in order to unload the onboard storage bin 22 . When the unloader tube 24 is not being used, the horizontal section 30 is rotated back into the storage position so that it is generally parallel to the longitudinal axis of the combine body 12 . FIG. 4 illustrates a preferred embodiment of the unloader extension 32 that is pivotably and rotatably connected to the unloader tube 24 . The extension 32 is generally configured with three sides, a bottom portion 34 , and two side portions 36 and 38 . Preferably, the extension 32 is configured with a bottom portion 34 that is a substantially horizontal planar surface 34 . The extension 34 includes an inlet end 40 for receiving a flow of crop material from a discharge end 44 of the unloader tube 24 and an outlet end 42 for discharging the crop material from the extension 32 . The planar surface 34 connects the inlet end 40 and outlet end 42 . Extension 32 generally functions as chute for discharging crop material feed from the unloader tube 24 . The extension 32 can be configured with a length L that is sufficient for its intended use. For example, the length L can range from one feet to over twenty five (25) feet. The extension 32 can be formed from any rigid material suitable for its intended use, such as metal (e.g., stainless steel), plastics, composites, or the like. The extension 32 is operatively connected to the discharge end 44 of the unloader tube 24 . Referring to FIG. 5 , the unloader tube 24 is generally configured with a tubular housing 42 having an interior passageway 43 and a discharge end 44 . The tubular housing 42 houses an auger 46 for conveying the crop material through the unloader tube 24 . The unloader tube 24 is configured to extend generally horizontally from the combine 10 . The discharge end 44 is generally configured with a substantially planar and circular discharge opening 48 . The discharge opening 48 can be configured with any orientation relative to the unloader tube 24 , but is preferably configured with a downwardly facing planar opening 48 orientation, as shown in FIG. 5 . That is, the discharge end 44 is preferably configured with about a 90 degree elbow 50 , such that the discharge opening 48 is facing substantially downwardly. Referring to FIGS. 6A , 6 B and 7 the extension 32 is connected to the unloader tube 24 by a drive mechanism 52 that positions the extension 32 in a plurality of positions, such as a discharge position for unloading the grain and a closed position to close off and seal the discharge end 44 of the unloader tube 24 . The drive mechanism 52 is operatively connected to the extension 32 to selectively position the extension 32 in at least a discharge position ( FIG. 7 ) and a close position ( FIG. 8 ). The drive mechanism 52 can include a pivot mechanism 60 that is connected to a power supply 56 , such as the combine's general power supply (i.e., battery or alternator), for powering the pivot mechanism 60 . The drive mechanism 52 is preferably a remotely controlled drive mechanism 52 that can be controlled by a user in the operator's station 16 of the combine 10 . The drive mechanism 52 is also operatively connected to a motor 62 for driving rotation of the drive mechanism 52 . The drive mechanism 52 ( FIGS. 6A and 6B ) includes a turret 58 and at least one pivot mechanism 60 . The drive mechanism 52 ( FIG. 6A ) via turret 58 rotates about a substantially vertical central axis B ( FIG. 5 ) of the discharge end 44 so as to provide rotation of the extension 32 . The drive mechanism 52 is also configured to pivot via pivot mechanism 60 about central axis B ( FIG. 5 ). The turret 58 is configured to pivot about a pivot joint 59 ( FIG. 13 ) so as to rotate about axis B. The turret 58 can also include a motor 62 or actuator for providing rotational movement and securing the extension 32 in a fixed position. The pivot mechanism 60 provides for pivotal movement of the extension 32 relative to axis B i.e., the axis of rotation of turret 58 . The pivot mechanism 60 can be any an electro-mechanical actuator, a linear actuator, hydraulic cylinder, or the like. The turret 58 and pivot mechanism 60 can also be configured as manually operated mechanical mechanisms. The pivot mechanism 60 can be attached to one of the lateral sides 36 or 38 of the extension 32 , such that the extension 32 can be raised or lowered relative to its pivot end, as further described below. The pivot mechanism 60 can optionally be configured with two pivot mechanisms (only one shown in FIG. 6B ) for attachment with each of the lateral sides 36 , 38 . As shown in FIG. 7 , the extension 32 is pivotably connected to the unloader tube 24 about its inlet end 40 via turret 58 . Alternatively, the extension 32 can be pivotably connected to the unloader 24 about diametrically opposite sides of the turret 58 , as shown in FIG. 7A . The extension 32 can be pivotally attached by a nut and bolt configuration 64 , 64 ′. FIGS. 7 and 7A illustrate the extension 32 in the discharge position so as to allow for the flow of crop material from the discharge end 44 of the unloader 24 to the outlet end 42 of the extension 32 . FIG. 8 illustrates the extension 32 in the closed position. In addition to the benefits further described below, the drive mechanism 52 also allows for the extension 32 to be folded substantially parallel to the unloader tube 24 when in the closed position, such that the unloading system does not extend further out or rearward than on conventional combines. As shown in FIG. 8 , the discharge end 44 is correspondingly configured with the extension 32 to prevent crop material from discharging from the unloader tube 24 when the extension 32 is in the closed position. That is, the extension 32 includes a surface, such as the bottom portion 34 , that is configured to sealingly engage the discharge opening 48 of the unloader tube 24 when in the closed position. This advantageously prevents any residual crop material remaining in the unloader tube 24 , after the unloading operation has ceased, from dribbling or falling out while the combine 10 is thereafter used for further harvesting. The extension 32 can alternatively be configured with various configurations, such as a half pipe configuration 40 ′ ( FIG. 9 ), an open trapezoidal configuration 40 ″ ( FIG. 10 ) and the like. In yet another embodiment, the extension 32 can be configured as a powered extension 132 (see FIG. 11 ). The powered extension 132 can be configured with a powered drive conveyor 134 to further propel the grain during unloading into the grain cart 100 . The conveyor 134 can be a belt conveyor 134 , a screw auger 134 ′ ( FIG. 12 ), or the like. Preferably, the conveyor 134 is a belt conveyor 134 that includes an endless belt 136 that travels around a pair of rollers 138 , 140 at opposite ends of the powered extension 132 . The powered extension 132 can be driven by a motor 144 operatively connected to the rollers 138 , 140 for driving the belt conveyor 134 ( FIG. 11 ) or a motor 144 ′ operatively connected to the screw auger 134 ′ ( FIG. 12 ). The motor 144 , 144 ′ in turn can be connected to any power source, such an electrical battery or engine alternator (not shown) located on the combine 10 and remotely controlled by the operator. In operation, the unloader tube 24 is moved from its initial storage or closed position, as shown in FIG. 2 to its unloading or discharging position, as shown in FIG. 3 . That is, the unloader tube 24 is moved substantially outwardly to the combine's lateral side for unloading operations. For use with a grain cart 100 for example, the length of the horizontal section 30 of the unloader tube 24 and extension 32 extends from the unloader tube's infeed section 26 to the center of the grain cart 100 . This extension length of the unloader tube 24 and extension 32 includes one-half the width of the header 18 , the safety gap between the end 106 of the header 18 and the tractor's tires 104 , and half of the width of the tractor 102 . In sum, the unloader tube 24 and extension 32 extend beyond the ends of the header 18 . Referring back to FIGS. 6A and 6B , the drive mechanism 52 is activated to move the extension 32 from the closed/storage position, to the discharge position, as shown in FIGS. 3 and 7 . The turret 58 rotates the extension 32 to extend further outwardly such that the outlet end 42 substantially reaches the grain cart 100 . The pivot mechanism 60 pivots the extension 32 to allow the passage of crop material to flow out of the unloader tube 24 and thereafter pass through the extension 32 . Preferably, the extension 32 is pivoted and angled downwardly from the discharge end 44 such that the flow of crop material travels downhill. If the extension is a powered extension 132 ( FIG. 11 ), then the powered extension 132 can be turned on to further facilitate the flow of crop material through the powered extension 132 . In operation with the powered extension 132 , in addition to being angled downwards, the powered extension 132 can also be angled upwards to project the crop material about an arc into the grain cart 100 . When angled upwards the turret 58 is configured to lower the powered extension 132 sufficiently to allow for clearance of the crop material between the discharge end 142 and the powered extension 132 . Once the combine's onboard storage bin 22 has been emptied or the grain cart 100 has been filled, the previously explained steps can be reversed to place the powered extension 132 in the closed position to prevent dribbling waste of the grain and the unloader tube 24 back in the storage position. The unloader tube 24 can also be used to fill a grain cart 100 that is towed behind the combine 10 instead of an adjacent truck or grain cart 100 . In this alternative, the extension 32 would be rotated rearward so that it is basically coaxial with the unloader tube 24 . However, the fully extended unloader tube 24 and extension 32 would not be rotated out into the previously described laterally extending position. Instead, the unloader tube 24 and extension 32 would be left to extend rearwardly beyond the rear end of the combine 10 so that the extension 32 can access a grain cart 100 being towed behind the combine 10 . It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes could be made to the embodiments described above without departing from the broad inventive concept thereof. It is understood, therefore, that this invention is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed, but it is intended to cover modifications within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.

An agricultural combine unloader extension is provided that can be used to extend the reach of conventional unloader tubes and for preventing the loss of crop material residing within the unloader tube from falling out and becoming waste. The unloader extension is hingedly connected to the unloader tube, wherein a drive mechanism is configured to rotate the unloader extension about a vertical axis from a discharging position to a closed or storage position.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a U.S. National Phase application of International Application No. PCT/KR2012/003582, filed May 8, 2012, and claims priority to Korean Patent Application No. 10-2011-0061273, filed Jun. 23, 2011, the disclosures of each of these applications being incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to an artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same, and more particularly to an artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same in which a silicone shell has a uniform thickness, a patch adhesion portion has the same thickness and physical properties as those of the silicone shell and is provided with a step portion and an uneven groove so that a patch is closely adhered to an inner surface of the silicone shell, and thus, after the artificial breast prosthesis is inserted into the human body, concentration of stress applied thereto is minimized and thus resistance to fatigue rupture is maximized whereby overall durability of the artificial breast prosthesis is enhanced, the patch adhesion portion has high adhesion strength against pressure applied to the prosthesis and thus has maximized adhesion durability, and the patch adhesion portion has a small thickness and a beautiful exterior appearance and thus the prosthesis has excellent overall feel and has increased appearance beauty whereby safety and efficacy of the artificial breast prosthesis may be maximized. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] In general, artificial breast prostheses are used in reconstructive plastic surgery for a breast when breast loss occurs due to diseases or accidents and in cosmetic surgery for a malformed breast. In terms of anatomy, artificial breast prostheses are also used for the substitution of organs or tissues. [0004] Artificial breast prostheses are products in which a filling material, such as saline, hydro-gel, and silicone gel, is filled in an envelope formed of silicone that is implantable to an organ (hereinafter referred to as a “shell”). These artificial breast prostheses may be classified into round type products and water drop shaped products (anatomical type) according to the shape of a product, and may be classified into smooth products and textured products according to the surface conditions of a product. More particularly, the artificial breast prostheses will be described in brief as follows. [0005] A saline filled artificial breast prosthesis is configured such that saline is injected or is injectable into a shell formed of silicone (more particularly, the shell being formed of polyorganosiloxane). The saline filled artificial breast prosthesis has a structure consisting of a silicone shell and a valve. [0006] Although the saline filled artificial breast prosthesis ensures safety even if the filling material leaks into the human body after rupture of the shell as a result of using sterile saline as the filling material, and is easy to change the volume of a breast by adjusting the injection amount of saline, the saline filled artificial breast prosthesis is significantly deteriorated to the touch after surgery as compared to other artificial breast prostheses and the shell thereof has inferior durability. [0007] A hydro-gel filled artificial breast prosthesis is configured such that hydro-gel composed of monosaccharide and polysaccharides is filled within the shell as in the above-described saline filled artificial breast prosthesis. The hydro-gel filled artificial breast prosthesis was developed based on the principle that the filling material can be absorbed into and excreted from the human body even if the filling material leaks due to rupture of the prosthesis. [0008] A hydro-gel filled artificial breast prosthesis is configured such that hydro-gel composed of monosaccharide and polysaccharides is filled within the shell as in the above-described saline filled artificial breast prosthesis. The hydro-gel filled artificial breast prosthesis was developed based on the principle that the filling material can be absorbed into and excreted from the human body even if the filling material leaks due to rupture of the prosthesis. [0009] However, in the case of the hydro-gel filled artificial breast prosthesis, long-term safety has not been established, volume change over time and occurrence of wrinkles may increase after the artificial breast prosthesis is implanted, and feeling is unnatural as compared to a silicone artificial breast prosthesis. Accordingly, the hydro-gel filled artificial breast prosthesis has not been distributed in the market since 2000 as safety thereof has yet to be proven. [0010] A silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis is configured such that a shell is filled with a silicone gel having an appropriate viscosity. The silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis has superior product durability and a more pleasant texture than the saline filled artificial breast prosthesis and thus achieves a dominant position in the market. Although the Food and Drug Administration of the United States of America (FDA) has imposed limitations on use of silicone gel filled artificial breast prostheses due to safety issues, the use of silicone gel filled artificial breast prostheses was again allowed officially in 2006. [0011] The silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis has been developed in the order of a first generation prosthesis, a second generation prosthesis, and a third generation prosthesis. This development history will be described in detail as follows. [0012] The first generation silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis is a product sold from the middle of the 1960s to the middle of the 1970s, and was initially developed in 1961 by Cronin and Gerow. The first generation silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis can be represented in brief by the use of a thick shell, a smooth surface, and a high viscosity silicone gel. This prosthesis suffers from gel bleed and capsular contracture, but a rupture speed thereof is relatively low due to the use of the thick shell. [0013] The second generation silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis is a product sold from the middle of the 1970s to the middle of the 1980s, and includes a thin shell and a silicone gel filling material of a low viscosity, for the sake of smoother texture. This prosthesis is characterized by a similar gel bleed rate, higher rupture occurrence, and lower capsular contracture as compared to the first generation prosthesis. [0014] The third generation silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis is a product sold from the middle of the 1980s to the present, and includes a gel bleed barrier layer to prevent gel bleed. The third generation silicone gel filled artificial breast prosthesis includes a thicker shell and silicone gel of a higher viscosity as compared to the second generation prosthesis. In addition, a product having a rough surface has been developed, in order to reduce capsular contracture. [0015] Such artificial breast prostheses commonly include a shell, a filling material, and a bonding portion (hereinafter referred to as a “patch bonding portion,” which is a common term in the art to describe a portion in which a hole generated during a process of detaching a shell from a mold is closed). [0016] Shells are mostly manufactured via dipping and thus have limited durability (particularly, fatigue rupture is a risk). Basically, the shell produced via dipping has a thickness difference in upper and lower portions of the shell due to gravity, and this thickness difference causes a portion of the shell to be relatively weak to stress. [0017] To increase shell durability in consideration of fatigue rupture, absolute strength of a shell can be increased to some extent by increasing an overall thickness of the shell. This also has limitations in that a lower end of the shell is very thick while increasing the overall thickness of the shell and thus flexibility of the breast prosthesis is deteriorated. For example, in the case of a shell having an average thickness of 1 mm or less, the thickness of a lower end portion thereof increases by about 1 mm as the thickness of an upper end portion thereof increases by 0.3 mm, which results in a greater thickness difference. [0018] In addition, processing of a patch bonding portion is performed using a patch (a patch bonding material) and an adhesive material. In conventional fabrication of artificial breast prostheses, a patch used as a bonding material in the patch bonding portion has the same thickness and physical properties as those of the shell. [0019] In this regard, to prevent deterioration of patch strength, the patch has to have a multilayer sheet structure including a leakage prevention layer formed of low molecular weight silicone inside the patch. However, it is very difficult to industrially and technically fabricate a patch in the form of a thin film including the leakage prevention layer therein and having a smaller thickness than the shell. Thus, a portion taken by cutting a shell is commonly used as the patch in the art. [0020] That is, as illustrated in FIG. 1( a ), a conventional breast prosthesis uses a patch 6 having the same thickness as that of the thickness (an average thickness of 0.5 to 1 mm) of a silicone shell (portions 5 and 7 ) and thus the thickness of patch bonding portions 8 a and 8 b , in which portions of the patch 6 and the silicone shell overlap each other, significantly increases and elongation characteristics of the patch bonding portions are very poor. In addition, in the case of a conventional breast prosthesis illustrated in FIG. 1( b ), a central portion of a patch bonding portion is thinner than peripheral portions thereof and thus stress concentration occurs due to differences in physical properties at a boundary portion between the portion 7 of the silicon shell and each of the patch bonding portions 8 a and 8 b and, accordingly, problems in terms of resistance to fatigue of the patch 6 occur. Due to this, clinical studies have shown that rupture around a patch of an artificial breast prosthesis very frequently occurs. [0021] U.S. Pat. No. 6,074,421 as the related art for such patch bonding portions discloses a patch bonding portion of a seamless artificial breast prosthesis. The present application relates to patch bonding technology for a patch bonding portion having the structure illustrated in FIG. 1( b ) and discloses an artificial breast prosthesis in which a shell 7 has inclined edges at a hole thereof in an adhesion region between the patch 6 and the shell 7 and thus there is no seam-line formed between the patch 6 and the shell 7 , whereby the artificial breast prosthesis has beautiful exterior appearance. [0022] However, the above-described related art focuses only on improvement in terms of exterior appearance of the artificial breast prosthesis and does not consider improvement in overall performance, including durability, of the artificial breast prosthesis. Thus, the artificial breast prosthesis has a beautiful overall exterior appearance, while it uses a patch having the same thickness as that of the shell and thus the patch bonding portion is partially very thick and a central portion thereof is thin and, accordingly, there are differences in elongation and tension properties between each of the patch bonding portions and the silicone shell and stress concentration occurs due to differences in physical properties at a boundary portion between the shell and each of the patch bonding portions, resulting in deteriorated resistance to fatigue, which is the same problem as that of other existing artificial breast prosthesis fabrication technologies. [0023] In addition, EP 0872221A1 as another related art similar to the above-described related art discloses patch bonding portions of a seamless artificial breast prosthesis and basically discloses the technical feature illustrated in FIG. 1( b ) and further discloses an artificial breast prosthesis patch bonding technology characterized by a feature illustrated in FIG. 2( a ). The present related art discloses an artificial breast prosthesis manufactured by forming a layer as illustrated in FIG. 2 at an outer side of a shell 7 in the vicinity of a hole to be closed by a patch 6 and bonding the patch 6 thereto and thus there are no seam-lines at bonding portions of the shell 7 and the patch 6 , whereby the artificial breast prosthesis has a beautiful exterior appearance. [0024] In this regard, although the patch bonding portions as illustrated in FIG. 1 , i.e., overlapping portions 8 a and 8 b between the shell 7 and the patch 6 , are not formed at an outside of the shell 7 , as illustrated in FIG. 2( a ), a central portion of the patch 6 has a smaller thickness than that of the patch bonding portions as in the aforementioned related art and thus stress concentration occurs at boundary portions of the patch bonding portions due to difference in physical properties between each patch bonding portion and the silicone shell, resulting in deteriorated resistance to fatigue, which is the same problem as that of other existing artificial breast prosthesis fabrication technologies. [0025] In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 2( a ), there is a hole with a tilted cross-section formed at an outer side of the shell 7 and bonding between the shell 7 and the patch 6 is not satisfactorily formed due to the hole and thus, in fact, seam-lines between the shell 7 and the patch 6 are formed, which makes it difficult for the present related art to achieve technical goals thereof. [0026] In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 2( b ), directions of pressure applied to a patch adhesion portion disposed at a rear surface of an artificial breast prosthesis in accordance with main pressure applied to the artificial breast prosthesis by motion or movement of a user after insertion into the human body are represented by arrows illustrated in FIGS. 2( a ) and 2 ( b ). [0027] The above-described adhesion structure has a structure in which a hole of a shell is closed from the outside and, as illustrated in FIG. 2 , when compared to an artificial breast prosthesis, a hole of which is closed from inside, in terms of pressure applied to the prosthesis, the patch adhesion structure is easily detached mechanically. In addition, in the above-described adhesion structure, pressure applied to the artificial breast prosthesis according to movement of a user after surgical implantation is concentrated in a narrower area than pressure applied to the patch adhesion portion, and thus, the adhesion structure has poor durability when compared to a patch adhesion structure that disperses pressure over a wider area, such as a structure in which a hole of a shell is closed from the inside. Thus, it is obvious that a structure in which a layer or a step is disposed at the inside of the shell and a patch is adhered thereto has mechanical and physical resistance to pressure applied to the artificial breast prosthesis after surgical implantation and excellent adhesion durability. [0028] However, it is very difficult to adhere a patch to a shell provided thereat with a layer or a step with no gap therebetween from technical and industrial perspectives. This is because technology for forming a layer or a step at the inside of the shell and adhering a patch to the shell with no gap therebetween is incomparably difficult in terms of degree of difficulty, when compared to the above-described technology for forming a layer or a step at the outside of a shell and adhering a patch to the shell with no gap therebetween. [0029] In addition, the aforementioned related arts are limited only in terms of exterior appearance improvement of products, not considering technical solutions in terms of physical characteristics and durability of a product and each element thereof. Thus, the above-described related arts do not technically consider pressure applied to the adhesion structures according to movement of a user after surgical implantation, adhesion durability against pressure, and overall durability of the artificial breast prostheses. [0030] In addition, conventionally, as in the enlarged region illustrated in FIG. 2( a ), a gap or crack 12 is generated at an adhesion boundary point 13 of the adhesion portion between the shell 7 and the patch 6 . [0031] This is because, in the related art or currently-used technologies, liquid silicone rubber (LSR) or silicone gum with little fluidity and having a very high viscosity has to be used as a bonding material 11 used in a process of adhering an already-hardened silicone shell to an already-hardened patch with a certain thickness. In other words, in a process of completely adhering the patch to a layer or step with angled edges formed at the silicone shell, a bonding material or adhesive 11 , such as LSR or silicone gum having high viscosity, is not coated on side surfaces of the patch and only a lower end portion thereof is coated such that side surfaces of the shell and the patch are not adhered to each other. [0032] It is obvious that such gap or crack deteriorates durability of an artificial breast prosthesis which is subjected to substantial stress and fatigue over time after surgical implantation. [0033] The adhesion structures of the aforementioned related arts focus only on exterior appearance improvement of artificial breast prostheses and do not consider improvement in physical properties including adhesion durability and overall durability of the prostheses. [0034] In addition, a filling material is injected into the inner space of a shell using a needle of a separate syringe device, and the needle is removed after injection of the filling material is completed. In this regard, a fine hole (hereinafter referred to as an “inlet”) is formed after removal of the needle. Conventionally, as illustrated in FIG. 3( a ), leakage of a filling material is prevented by sealing a lower portion of a patch 6 at which an inlet 3 is formed using silicone 4 for sealing, such as a silicone solution, silicone gum, or the like so as to prevent the filling material from leaking via the inlet 3 formed after injection of the filling material, or, as illustrated in FIG. 3( b ), first, a frame 2 having a ring shape is prepared, a central portion thereof is perforated using a needle so as to allow the filling material to be injected therethrough, the inlet 3 is sealed by silicone 4 for sealing, such as a silicone solution, silicone gum, or the like after injection of the filling material to prevent the filling material injected into the shell from leaking to the outside. [0035] However, when a conventional structure and fabrication method for sealing the inlet 3 is used, the silicone 4 for sealing applied to seal the inlet 3 and edges thereof are exposed to the outside and thus provide poor exterior appearance, and the silicone 4 and the edges thereof rub against the outside and thus may be easily detached. [0036] Such phenomenon frequently occurs when a filling material used for injection sticks in a region to be coated with the silicone 4 or to which the silicone 4 is to be applied. Such phenomenon almost inevitably occurs in filling and hardening processes in manufacture of an artificial breast prosthesis, which is addressed using a method of sealing the inlet 3 after wiping leaked filling material off of the inlet 3 . However, the inlet 3 is sealed with the filling material leaked due to operator carelessness such as incomplete wiping and thus the silicone 4 for sealing the inlet 3 may be easily detached. [0037] As such, the filling material injected into the shell may leak to the outside and, accordingly, product quality and safety is significantly reduced. [0038] To address these problems, Korean Patent Application Publication No. 10-2011-0041990 discloses prevention of leakage of a filling material by, as illustrated in FIG. 4( a ), forming a filling material injection groove 9 having a concave shape, which is a space through which the filling material is injected into an inner space of a silicone shell using a needle, at a central portion of a lower surface of a patch part 6 and then sealing the filling material injection groove 9 using silicone 9 a , such as a silicone solution, silicone gum, or the like after injection of the filling material. Due to such configuration, the silicone 9 a used to seal an inlet and edges thereof are not exposed to the outside, whereby detachment of the silicone 9 a due to external rubbing may be prevented as much as possible. [0039] However, as described above, problems in terms of weak adhesive strength of an inlet sealing portion due to leakage of a filling material remain to be solved. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0040] Therefore, the present invention has been made in view of the above problems, and it is an object of the present invention to provide a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same in which a silicone shell has a uniform thickness and a patch adhesion portion has the same thickness as that of the silicone shell and the same or similar physical properties (expansibility, strength, elasticity, and the like) as the silicone shell, and thus, stress concentration occurring due to differences in physical properties between the silicone shell and the patch adhesion portion is minimized and resistance to fatigue rupture is maximized and, accordingly, rupture of the silicone artificial breast prosthesis, which is the most dangerous complication, is significantly reduced, whereby safety and efficacy of the artificial breast prosthesis may be enhanced. [0041] It is another object of the present invention to provide a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same in which the patch adhesion portion, which is disposed at an inner side of the silicone shell, includes a step portion and an uneven groove and has an adhesion structure having high mechanical and physical resistance to pressure applied to the silicone artificial breast prosthesis in which a patch is adhered to an inner surface of the silicone shell, and the patch adhesion portion adhered to the silicone shell has increased adhesion area and adhesive strength and thus has excellent adhesion durability. [0042] It is another object of the present invention to provide a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same in which neither a gap nor a crack is formed at an adhesive boundary point between the silicone shell and a silicone shell and a patch and thus a patch adhesion portion has excellent adhesion durability. [0043] It is another object of the present invention to provide a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same in which a silicone shell including a patch adhesion portion has a uniform overall thickness and thus the silicone artificial breast prosthesis has superior overall feel, whereby product efficacy and quality are increased. [0044] It is further object of the present invention to provide a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same in which an inlet is formed through injection of a filling material and silicone is used as a sealant to close the inlet and a sealing process is doubly performed so as to prevent exposure of edges of the sealant to the outside, and thus, an inlet sealing portion has beautiful exterior appearance and enhanced quality, and the inlet sealing portion has enhanced adhesive strength and high resistance to fatigue rupture and thus there is no risk of detachment of the sealant from the inlet sealing portion, whereby safety and efficacy of the silicone artificial breast prosthesis may be maximized. [0045] In accordance with an aspect of the present invention, the above and other objects can be accomplished by the provision of a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration including a silicone shell forming an outer wall thereof and a patch adhesion portion for closing a hole formed in a lower surface of the silicone shell from the outside, wherein the silicone shell has a uniform overall thickness, the patch adhesion portion has a patch hole through which a patch is adhered as an adhesive to an inner lower end of the silicone shell, and the patch adhesion portion in which the patch is adhered to the patch hole has the same thickness as that of the silicone shell and the same or similar physical properties as the silicone shell. [0046] The patch hole may have at least one step portion having a step and formed at an inner surface of a portion of the silicone shell contacting the patch. [0047] The patch hole may have a slope such that the patch hole increases in diameter towards the step portion from a bottom of the patch hole to an upper side thereof. The patch hole may be configured such that a diameter of the patch hole on an inner side of the silicone shell is greater than that of the patch hole on an outer side of the silicone shell. [0048] The patch hole may have a slope such that the patch hole increases in diameter towards the step portion from a bottom of the patch hole to an upper side thereof. [0049] The patch hole may have a rounded concave curved surface formed along an outer circumference of the step portion. [0050] The patch adhesion portion may have at least one uneven groove at a surface of the patch adhesion portion contacting the patch so that an adhesion area between the patch adhesion portion and the patch increases and adhesion durability therebetween is enhanced so as to prevent the patch from detaching from the patch adhesion portion. [0051] The uneven groove may have a V-letter shape, the uneven groove may have a U-letter shape, and the uneven groove may have a shape. [0052] The patch may include a leakage prevention layer of low molecular weight silicone and at least one thin film patch formed thin. [0053] The patch adhesion portion may include a bonding material or an adhesive disposed between the silicone shell and the patch so as to enable smooth adhesion therebetween. [0054] The patch adhesion portion may be completely adhered such that an inner surface of the silicone shell and an inner surface of the patch form the same horizontal plane to prevent occurrence of a gap or a crack at an adhesion boundary point between the silicone shell and the patch. [0055] The patch adhesion portion may include an inlet formed above a lower surface thereof so that a filling material is injected into an inner space of the silicone shell and a filling material injection groove disposed below the inlet, having a multilayered structure comprising at least two layers to a small depth, and concavely formed. [0056] The filling material injection groove may include a first sealing portion formed by primarily sealing a space at a lower side of the inlet so as to close the inner space of the silicone shell from the outside and a second sealing portion formed by secondarily sealing a space at a lower side of the first sealing portion to be finishing-processed so as to prevent the filling material injected into the inner space of the silicone shell from leaking to the outside. [0057] When stress is applied to the adhesion boundary point at which the silicone shell and the patch are adhered to each other, the stress may be dispersed in at least two axial directions such that stress applied in accordance with left and right tensile forces and stress applied according to tensile force in an inclination angle direction of a cross-section of the step portion or uneven groove and in an inclination angle direction of a cut cross-section of the patch hole are simultaneously applied to the patch adhesion portion. [0058] In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a method of manufacturing a silicone artificial breast prosthesis includes a silicone solution dipping step of dipping a breast shaped mold into a silicone solution to obtain a silicone shell, a drying and hardening step of drying and hardening the silicone shell attached to the mold using a drier to obtain a silicone shell, an artificial breast shell obtaining step of perforating a hole in a lower end of the silicone shell attached to the mold and detaching and obtaining the silicone shell from the mold, a patch hole formation step of forming a patch hole comprising a step portion and an uneven groove so as to adhere a patch to an inner surface portion of the silicone shell, corresponding to a hole of the silicone shell, the patch hole being formed through which the patch is adhered to the hole of the silicone shell, a patch structure molding step of molding the patch comprising a thin film patch and an adhesive in accordance with shapes of a step of the step portion and the uneven groove in addition to a circumference and thickness corresponding to the patch hole so that the patch is completely adhered to the patch hole with no gap therebetween, a patch adhesion step of adhering the molded patch structure comprising the thin film patch and the adhesive to the patch hole of the silicone shell, a filling material injection groove processing step of forming a filling material injection groove having a concave, multilayered structure at a lower surface of the patch, through which a filling material is injected into the inner space of the silicone shell, a filling step of filling the inner space of the silicone shell through injection of the filling material through an inlet below which the filling material injection groove is formed, and a finishing step of forming a first sealing portion and a second sealing portion in this order by doubly sealing the filling material injection groove using a sealant so as to prevent the filling material filling the inner space of the silicone shell from leaking to the outside via the inlet, the inlet being a fine hole formed by a syringe needle when injecting the filling material. [0059] According to a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same, according to embodiments of the present invention, a silicone shell has a uniform thickness and a patch adhesion portion has the same thickness as that of the silicone shell and the same or similar physical properties (expansibility, strength, elasticity, and the like) to the silicone shell, and thus, stress concentration occurring due to differences in physical properties between the silicone shell and the patch adhesion portion is minimized and resistance to fatigue rupture is maximized and, accordingly, rupture of the artificial breast prosthesis, which is the most dangerous complication, is significantly reduced, whereby safety and efficacy of the artificial breast prosthesis may be maximized. [0060] In addition, the patch adhesion portion includes a step portion and an uneven groove and has an adhesion structure having high mechanical and physical resistance to pressure applied to the artificial breast prosthesis in which a patch is adhered to an inner surface of the silicone shell. In this regard, the adhesion structure increases an adhesion area and allows stress to be dispersed in at least two axial directions, and thus, adhesive strength is mechanically and physically increased and adhesion durability of the patch adhesion portion is enhanced, which results in enhanced overall safety of the artificial breast prosthesis. [0061] In addition, the patch adhesion portion has a structure in which neither a gap nor a crack is formed at an adhesion boundary point between the silicone shell and the patch and thus may have enhanced adhesion durability. [0062] In addition, the silicone shell, including the patch and the patch adhesion portion, has a uniform overall thickness and thus the artificial breast prosthesis has excellent overall feel and, accordingly, may have high efficacy and quality. [0063] In addition, a finishing process is performed through double sealing so that an inlet formed through injection of a filling material and a silicone sealant for closing the inlet or edge portions thereof are not exposed to the outside, and thus, beautiful appearance of the sealing portion of the inlet may be achieved. [0064] Moreover, sealing portions of a filling material injection groove have an increased adhesion area due to a multilayered structure thereof and a sealable silicone used in sealing of the inlet and edge portions thereof do not rub against the outside, and thus, an inlet sealing portion has increased adhesive strength and enhanced resistance to fatigue rupture and, accordingly, there is no risk of detachment of the sealable silicone from the inlet sealing portion, which results in increased protection against leakage of the filling material. [0065] Furthermore, the filling material injection groove has a multilayered structure and doubly seals the inlet, and thus, deterioration of adhesive strength of the sealing portion of the inlet due to leakage of the filling material via the inlet occurring in the filling process may be prevented and problems occurring due to operator error may also be addressed, and thus, protection against leakage of the filling material may be maximized. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0066] The above and other objects, features and other advantages of the present invention will be more clearly understood from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: [0067] FIGS. 1( a ) and 1 ( b ) are views illustrating examples of a silicone shell and a patch adhesion portion of a conventional artificial breast prosthesis; [0068] FIGS. 2( a ) and 2 ( b ) are views illustrating other examples of a silicone shell and a patch adhesion portion of a conventional artificial breast prosthesis; [0069] FIGS. 3( a ) and 3 ( b ) are views illustrating examples of finishing processes of a patch adhesion portion of a conventional artificial breast prosthesis; [0070] FIGS. 4( a ) and 4 ( b ) are views illustrating other examples of finishing processes of a patch adhesion portion of a conventional artificial breast prosthesis; [0071] FIG. 5 is a sectional view of an artificial breast prosthesis according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0072] FIG. 6 is an enlarged sectional view of a patch adhesion portion, according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0073] FIG. 7 is an enlarged sectional view of a patch adhesion portion, according to another embodiment of the present invention; [0074] FIGS. 8( a ) and 8 ( b ) are enlarged sectional views illustrating an uneven groove of the patch adhesion portion, according to embodiments of the present invention; [0075] FIG. 9 is an enlarged sectional view illustrating a state in which a finishing step for sealing a filling material injection groove using a sealant according to a patch has yet been performed, according to an embodiment of the present invention; [0076] FIGS. 10( a ) and 10 ( b ) are enlarged sectional views illustrating states in which a finishing step for sealing a filling material injection groove using a sealant according to a patch has been completed, according to an embodiment of the present invention; and [0077] FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating an artificial breast prosthesis fabrication method according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0078] According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration including a silicone shell forming an outer wall thereof and a patch adhesion portion for closing a hole formed in a lower surface of the silicone shell from the outside, in which the silicone shell has a uniform overall thickness, the patch adhesion portion has a patch hole through which a patch is adhered as an adhesive material to an inner lower end of the silicone shell, and the patch adhesion portion in which the patch is adhered to the patch hole has the same thickness as that of the silicone shell and the same or similar physical properties as the silicone shell. [0079] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the patch hole has at least one step portion having a step and formed at an inner surface of a portion of the silicone shell contacting the patch. [0080] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the patch hole is configured such that the diameter of the patch hole on the inner side of the silicone shell is greater than that of the patch hole on the outer side of the silicone shell. [0081] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the patch hole has a slope such that the patch hole increases in diameter towards the step portion from the bottom of the patch hole to an upper side thereof. [0082] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the patch hole has a rounded concave curved surface formed along an outer circumference of the step portion. [0083] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the step portion of the patch hole has at least one uneven groove at a surface of the step portion contacting the patch so that an adhesion area between the step portion and the patch increases and adhesion durability therebetween is enhanced so as to prevent the patch from detaching from the patch adhesion portion. [0084] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the patch adhesion portion includes at least one thin film patch completely adhered and formed thin so as to form the same horizontal plane as an inner lower surface of the silicone shell at an upper portion of the patch, to prevent occurrence of a gap or a crack at an adhesion boundary point between the silicone shell and the patch. [0085] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the patch adhesion portion includes an inlet formed above a lower surface thereof so as to inject a filling material into an inner space of the silicone shell and a filling material injection groove disposed below the inlet, having a multilayered structure including at least two layers to a certain depth, and concavely formed. [0086] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that the filling material injection groove includes a first sealing portion for primarily sealing a space on a lower side of the inlet so as to close an inner space of the silicone shell from the outside and a second sealing portion for secondarily sealing a space on a lower side of the first sealing portion to be finishing-processed so as to prevent the filling material injected into the inner space of the silicone shell from leaking to the outside. [0087] In addition, the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration is characterized in that, when stress is applied to an adhesion boundary point at which the silicone shell and the patch are adhered to each other, the stress is dispersed in at least two axial directions such that stress applied in accordance with left and right tensile forces and stress applied according to tensile force in an inclination angle direction of a cross-section of the step portion or uneven groove and in an inclination angle direction of a cut cross-section of the patch hole are simultaneously applied to the patch adhesion portion. [0088] According to another embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method of manufacturing the silicone artificial breast prosthesis including: a silicone solution dipping step of dipping a breast shaped mold into a silicone solution to obtain a silicone shell; a drying and hardening step of drying and hardening the silicone shell attached to the mold using a drier to obtain a silicone shell; an artificial breast shell obtaining step of perforating a hole in a lower end of the silicone shell attached to the mold and detaching the silicone shell from the mold; a patch hole formation step of forming a patch hole including a step portion and an uneven groove so as to adhere a patch to an inner surface portion of the silicone shell corresponding to a hole of the silicone shell; a patch structure molding step of molding the patch including a thin film patch and an adhesive material in accordance with the shapes of the step and the uneven groove in addition to a circumference and thickness corresponding to the patch hole so that the patch is completely adhered to the patch hole with no gap therebetween; a patch adhesion step of adhering the molded patch structure including the thin film patch and the adhesive material to the patch hole of the silicone shell; a filling material injection groove processing step of forming a filling material injection groove having a concave, multilayered structure at a lower surface of the patch, through which a filling material is injected into an inner space of the silicone shell; a filling step of filling an inner space of the silicone shell through injection of the filling material through an inlet below which the filling material injection groove is formed; and a finishing step of forming a first sealing portion and a second sealing portion in this order by doubly sealing the filling material injection groove using a sealant so as to prevent the filling material filling the inner space of the silicone shell from leaking to the outside from the inlet, which is a fine hole through which the filling material is injected using a syringe needle. [0089] Hereinafter, a silicon artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same, according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention, will be described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. [0090] However, the present invention may be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as being limited to embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art, and shapes of elements illustrated in the drawings are provided for illustrative purposes and clarity only. [0091] First, according to an embodiment of the present invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 5 to 10 , a silicon artificial breast prosthesis I includes a silicone shell 10 forming an outer wall thereof and a patch adhesion portion P for closing a hole formed in a lower surface of the silicone shell 10 from the outside, in which the patch adhesion portion P includes a patch 20 and a patch hole 11 . [0092] The silicone shell 10 having a uniform thickness is prepared by shaping the silicone shell 10 using a mold (not shown), forming, in a lower surface of the silicone shell 10 , a hole through which the silicone shell 10 is taken out of the mold, and forming the patch hole 11 through which the patch 20 adheres to the silicone shell 10 . [0093] The silicone shell 10 has a uniform overall thickness. [0094] The thickness of the silicone shell 10 may be variously adjusted, but may be between 0.5 and 2 mm in consideration of safety and efficiency. [0095] The patch adhesion portion P is configured to close the inside of the silicone shell 10 from the outside and to close the patch hole 11 from the outside such that the inside of the silicone shell 10 remains filled with a filling material. [0096] The patch hole 11 defines a frame of the patch adhesion portion P and is a portion to which the patch 20 adheres, and may be formed by adhering the patch 20 to a lower end portion of the silicone shell 10 using an adhesive. [0097] As illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6 , the patch hole 11 has at least one step portion 12 having a step and formed at an inner surface of a portion of the silicone shell 10 contacting the patch 20 . [0098] Due to formation of the step portion 12 , the patch hole 11 is formed such that the diameter of an upper portion of the patch hole 11 is greater than that of a lower portion of the patch hole 11 . [0099] The height of the step portion 12 may be variously adjusted. The step portion 12 preferably has a height of 0.25 mm to 1.5 mm in consideration of the fact that the overall thickness of the silicone shell 10 is between 0.5 and 2 mm. [0100] The patch hole 11 has a slope 16 inclined such that the patch hole 11 has a diameter that increases towards the step portion 12 from the bottom of the patch hole 11 to an upper side thereof. That is, as illustrated in FIG. 6 , the slope 16 has an inclination angle of 45° or less with respect to a horizontal line of the lower surface of the silicone shell 10 . [0101] The patch hole 11 has a rounded concave curved surface 15 formed along an outer circumference of the step portion 12 . That is, the curved surface 15 is formed at a position extending from an outer end of the step portion 12 to an inner surface of the silicone shell. [0102] In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 7 , the step portion 12 of the patch hole 11 may have a structure including a plurality of layers, i.e., a multilayered structure. In particular, the step portion 12 may have several steps that extend from an end of the slope 16 to an end of the curved surface 15 , have a small size, and have a uniform height. [0103] As illustrated in FIG. 6 , uneven grooves 13 are formed to a fine depth at a surface of the step portion 12 of the patch hole 11 , contacting the patch 20 . [0104] The uneven grooves 13 may be formed at a constant interval and the number thereof may be one or more. In particular, the grooves 13 may be formed at the step portion 12 to have an interval decreasing towards the curved surface 15 from the slope 16 . [0105] The uneven groove 13 may be in the form of a groove with a predetermined depth and have a downwardly sharp shape, i.e., a V-letter shape. In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 8( a ), the uneven groove 13 may have a smoothly downwardly curved shape, i.e., a U-letter shape. [0106] In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 8( b ), the uneven groove 13 may be formed at the curved surface 15 , which is an end portion of the step portion 12 , to a shape so that the patch 20 can more closely adheres to the lower end portion of the silicone shell 10 . [0107] As described above, by forming the uneven groove 13 at the step portion 12 of the patch hole 11 , an adhesion area between the silicone shell 10 and the patch 20 is increased and adhesion durability therebetween is improved, and thus, separation of the patch 20 from the patch adhesion portion P may be prevented. [0108] The patch adhesion portion P in which the patch 20 is adhered to the patch hole 11 has the same thickness as that of the silicone shell 10 and has the same or similar physical properties as those of the silicone shell 10 . [0109] The patch 20 is adhered to the patch hole 11 to correspond to the thickness and size of the patch hole 11 and includes a leakage prevention layer (not shown) of low molecular weight silicone so as to prevent physical properties of the patch 20 from being deteriorated by a filling material (not shown). [0110] The patch adhesion portion P, i.e., an adhesion structure between the silicone shell 10 and the patch 20 , has no gap or crack at an adhesion boundary point therebetween. [0111] The patch adhesion portion P includes a bonding material or an adhesive disposed between the silicone shell 10 and the patch 20 so as to enable smooth adhesion therebetween. [0112] The patch adhesion portion P includes at least one thin film patch 28 completely adhered and formed thin so as to form the same horizontal plane as an inner lower surface of the silicone shell 10 at an upper portion of the patch 20 , to prevent occurrence of a gap or a crack at the adhesion boundary point between the silicone shell 10 and the patch 20 and to form a patch adhesion portion P having strong mechanical and physical resistance to pressure applied to the silicone artificial breast prosthesis I. [0113] The thin film patch 28 may have a fine thickness and the thickness thereof may be variously adjusted. Preferably, the thin film patch 28 has a thickness of 200 μm or less based on the fact that preferred thicknesses of the silicone shell 10 and the patch adhesion portion P are between 0.5 and 2 mm. [0114] In the present invention, the overall configuration uses the following materials. [0115] Basically, polyorganosiloxane, having silane as a main chain and an organo group, such as a methyl group, linked to the main chain, is used. The most representative example of the polyorganosiloxane is polydimethylsiloxane having a methyl group linked to a main chain. A methyl group of dimethylsiloxane, which is a monomer of polydimethylsiloxane, may be substituted with an organo group such as an alkyl group, a phenyl group, a vinyl group, or the like. [0116] For example, a polymer obtained by polymerization of a monomer obtained by substituting dimethylsiloxane with methyl hydrogen siloxane, methyl phenyl siloxane, diphenyl siloxane, dimethyl vinyl siloxane, tri-fluoro propyl siloxane, or the like may be used. In addition, copolymers using oligomers consisting of these monomers may be used. [0117] In particular, the thin film patch 28 uses silicone polymers that have molecular orientation, are highly dense, and have high binding affinity therebetween and thus are structurally stable, and a barrier film formed of a silicone elastomer through which low molecular weight silicone oil molecules (a filling material) have difficulty passing physically and chemically, is disposed as an intermediate layer between silicone polymer layers. In addition, the thickness of the barrier film may be variously adjusted in order to achieve blocking effects, but the barrier film may have a thickness of 10 to 80 μm in consideration of safety and efficiency. [0118] For example, when the thin film patch 28 is formed of a polymer obtained through polymerization of diphenylpolysiloxane and dimethylpolysiloxane, the barrier film formed as the intermediate layer of the thin film patch 28 may be formed of a silicone elastomer obtained through polymerization of dimethylpolysiloxane and methyl 3,3,3-trifluoropropylpolysiloxane or diphenylpolysiloxane. [0119] As illustrated in FIG. 9 , the patch adhesion portion P includes an inlet 21 formed above a lower surface thereof so that a filling material can be injected into an inner space of the silicone shell 10 and a filling material injection groove 25 disposed below the inlet 21 , having a multilayered structure including at least two layers to a small depth, and concavely formed. More specifically, the filling material injection groove 25 , formed at a lower surface of the patch 20 to a certain depth, having a multilayered structure, and concavely formed, is first formed, and then the inlet 21 , having a structure connected to the inner space of the silicone shell 10 and thus being formed by injection when injecting the filling material using a separate syringe device, is formed above the filling material injection groove 25 . [0120] The depth of the filling material injection groove 25 may be variously adjusted, but the filling material injection groove 25 may have a depth of 0.3 to 1.5 mm in consideration of efficiency. [0121] As illustrated in FIG. 10 , the filling material injection groove 25 serves to prevent the filling material from leaking to the outside by closing the inlet 21 that has been opened after injecting the filling material into the silicone shell 10 and includes first and second sealing portions 36 and 37 formed of a sealant. [0122] The first sealing portion 36 of the filling material injection groove 25 is formed by primarily sealing a space at a lower side of the inlet 21 so as to close the inner space of the silicone shell 10 from the outside. That is, the first sealing portion 36 prevents obstruction of the sealing process due to leakage of the filling material through the inlet 21 by the pressure applied to the silicone artificial breast prosthesis I in a process of sealing the filling material injection groove 25 after filling the inside of the silicone shell 10 with the filling material and prevents the sealing process from being unsatisfactorily performed due to operator error, such as incomplete wiping of the filling material off of the inlet 21 after filling with the filling material. [0123] The sealant constituting the first sealing portion 36 may be a liquid silicone rubber (LSR) having a viscosity that enables sealing even though pressure is not applied to the filling material injection groove 25 , i.e., a relatively low viscosity. In particular, the first sealing portion 36 may have a viscosity of 100 to 2,000 cps in consideration of safety and efficiency. [0124] The second sealing portion 37 is formed by secondarily sealing a space at a lower side of the first sealing portion 36 to be finishing-processed so as to prevent the filling material injected into the inner space of the silicone shell from leaking to the outside. That is, the second sealing portion 37 is configured to more rigidly and doubly seal the filling material injection groove 25 that has been sealed by the first sealing portion 36 and may be smoothly molded and adhered by again applying pressure to the filling material injection groove 25 since the filling material is not leaked to the outside via the inlet 21 due to pressure applied to the silicone artificial breast prosthesis I by the first sealing portion 36 . [0125] The sealant constituting the second sealing portion 37 may be silicone in the form of silicone gum or LSR that can be molded and adhered through pressurization on the filling material injection groove 25 , preferably, a sealant in the form of silicone gum. [0126] In this regard, the silicone shell 10 and the patch adhesion portion P are formed of the above-described silicone polymer so as to have the same thickness and the same physical properties. In another embodiment, however, the thin film patch 28 and the patch 20 including an adhesive may be formed of a silicone material that has different physical properties from those of the silicone shell 10 . This causes physical properties of the adhesion structure consisting of the thin film patch 28 and the patch 20 including an adhesive to be the same as those of the silicone shell 10 and is attributed to differences between the thicknesses of a barrier film included in the silicone shell 10 and the barrier film of the thin film patch 28 and differences in physical properties between the adhesion structures. [0127] The adhesive for adhering the thin film patch 28 to the patch 20 or for adhering the patch 20 to the silicone shell 10 to form the patch adhesion portion P may be one selected from the above-described silicone raw materials, and examples thereof include a gum-type silicone adhesive and LSR adhesive. [0128] When stress is applied to the adhesion boundary point at which the silicone shell 10 and the patch 20 are adhered to each other, the stress is dispersed in at least two axial directions such that stress applied in accordance with left and right tensile forces and stress applied according to tensile force in an inclination angle direction of a cross-section of the step portion 12 or uneven groove 13 and in an inclination angle direction of a cut cross-section of the patch hole are simultaneously applied to the patch adhesion portion P. More specifically, as stress applied to the adhesion structure between the elements of the patch adhesion portion P, i.e., stress at the adhesion boundary point therebetween, stress applied in a horizontal direction according to left and right tensile forces (horizontal direction stress), stress applied according to tensile force in a slope direction of a cross-section inclination angle of the patch hole 11 formed in the silicone shell 10 (slope direction stress), stress applied according to tensile force in an inclination angle direction of a cross-section of the step portion 12 or the uneven groove 13 formed at the patch hole 11 (slope direction stress), and stress applied according to tensile force in a vertical direction of a cross-section of the step portion 12 (vertical direction stress) are simultaneously applied to the patch adhesion portion P and dispersed in at least two axial directions. Thus, the patch adhesion structure exhibits the same effects as those of a structure consisting of the silicone shell 10 and has strong stress resistance. [0129] Hereinafter, a method of manufacturing the above-described silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration will be described. [0130] First, as illustrated in FIG. 11 , a method of manufacturing the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration, according to an embodiment of the present invention, includes a silicone solution dipping step S 10 , a drying and hardening step S 20 , an artificial breast shell obtaining step S 30 , a patch hole formation step S 40 , a patch structure molding step S 50 , a patch adhesion step S 60 , a filling material injection groove processing step S 70 , a filling step S 80 , and a finishing step S 90 . [0131] In the silicone solution dipping step S 10 , a breast-shaped mold is dipped into a container containing a silicone solution to coat an overall surface of the mold with the silicone solution, to obtain an initial silicone shell 10 of the artificial breast prosthesis. [0132] In the drying and hardening step S 20 , the mold dipped into the silicone solution is dried and hardened to obtain the silicone shell 10 constituting the artificial breast prosthesis I. That is, to obtain the silicone shell 10 , the mold is placed inside a drying device and then the silicone shell 10 attached to the mold is dried and hardened. [0133] In the artificial breast shell obtaining step S 30 , a hole is perforated in a lower end of the silicone shell 10 attached to the mold and the silicone shell 10 is detached from the mold and obtained. [0134] In the patch hole formation step S 40 , the patch hole 11 to which the patch 20 is adhered is formed at an inner side of the hole formed in the lower end of the silicone shell 10 . That is, the step portion 12 having a step is formed at the inner side of the hole in the lower end of the silicone shell 10 so as to allow the patch 20 to be adhered thereto, and the uneven grooves 13 are formed at the step portion 12 . [0135] To form the step portion 12 and the uneven grooves 13 at the silicone shell 10 , first, the silicone shell 10 is turned inside out using the patch hole 11 formed at the silicone shell 10 so that an inner surface of the silicone shell 10 is turned outside, the silicone shell 10 is mounted on a separate jig to perform processing of the step portion 12 thereon, and the uneven grooves 13 are processed at the step portion 12 . [0136] In the patch hole formation step S 40 , the step portion 12 and the uneven grooves 13 , to which the patch 20 may be adhered, may be formed at the lower surface of the silicone shell 10 through mechanical etching. [0137] In addition, in the patch hole formation step S 40 , the step portion 12 and the uneven grooves 13 , to which the patch 20 may be adhered, may be formed at the lower surface of the silicone shell 10 through chemical etching or laser processing. [0138] In the patch structure molding step S 50 , a patch structure, i.e., the thin film patch 28 and the patch 20 including an adhesive, is molded to correspond to shapes of the step of the step portion 12 and the patch hole 11 including the uneven grooves 13 as well as circumference and thickness of the patch hole 11 so that the patch 20 including the thin film patch 28 is completely adhered to the patch hole 11 of the silicone shell 10 with no gap therebetween. [0139] In the patch structure molding step S 50 , the patch structure is processed through press compression molding after placing the thin film patch 28 and the patch 20 including an adhesive in a molding frame having shape, circumference and thickness corresponding to those of the step portion 12 and the uneven grooves 13 of the patch hole 11 . [0140] In the patch adhesion step S 60 , the patch structure is adhered to the patch hole 11 of the silicone shell 10 . [0141] To adhere the patch structure obtained through the patch structure molding step S 50 to the patch hole 11 of the silicone shell 10 , the step portion 12 and the uneven grooves 13 of the patch hole 11 are turned so as to be placed at an inner side of the silicone shell 10 , and the patch structure is accurately aligned with the patch hole 11 at the inner side of the silicone shell 10 and then adhered thereto through press compression processing and heating. [0142] When forming the patch adhesion portion P at the patch hole 11 of the silicone shell 10 , a silicone bonding device such as a pressing device, or the like is generally used. In this regard, configuration and operating principle of silicone bonding devices can be easily understood by those skilled in the art, and thus, a detailed description thereof will be omitted herein. [0143] In this regard, the patch adhesion portion P formed through the patch adhesion step S 60 has the same thickness as that of the silicone shell 10 and mechanically has the same physical properties as the silicone shell 10 , and thus, stress concentration occurring due to differences in physical properties between the silicone shell 10 and the patch adhesion portion P is minimized, whereby overall fatigue resistance of the artificial breast prosthesis I is enhanced. In addition, the patch adhesion structure of the patch adhesion portion P is a structure in which neither a gap nor a crack is formed at an adhesion boundary point between the silicone shell 10 and the patch 20 and includes the step portion 12 and the uneven grooves 13 that increase an adhesion area between the silicone shell 10 and the patch 20 . In addition, the patch adhesion structure has a structure in which the patch 20 including the thin film patch 28 is adhered to an inner surface of the silicone shell 10 and thus stress applied to the artificial breast prosthesis I is more satisfactorily dispersed and has mechanically and physically strong resistance to the pressure applied to the artificial breast prosthesis I and thus provides enhanced adhesion durability of the patch adhesion portion P. [0144] By contrast, in a conventional patch adhesion structure, as illustrated in FIGS. 1( a ) and 1 ( b ), the silicone shell 7 has an average thickness of 0.5 to 1 mm, while the patch adhesion portions 8 a and 8 b have a thickness of 1.3 to 3 mm and a central portion thereof has a thickness of 0.3 to 0.8 mm. Thus, differences in physical properties between the silicone shell 7 and the patch adhesion portions 8 a and 8 b are so significant that substantial stress is concentrated at a boundary therebetween and thus the conventional patch adhesion structure exhibits poor fatigue resistance. In addition, conventionally, as illustrated in FIG. 2( a ), the silicone shell 7 has an average thickness of 0.5 to 1 mm while a central portion of the adhesion portion has a thickness of 0.3 to 0.8 mm, and thus, differences in physical properties between the silicone shell 7 and the patch adhesion portions 8 a and 8 b are so significant that substantial stress is concentrated at a boundary therebetween and, accordingly, the conventional patch adhesion structure exhibits poor fatigue resistance. In addition, as illustrated in FIGS. 2( a ) and 2 ( b ), a conventional patch adhesion structure has gaps or cracks 12 at the adhesion boundary point 13 between the silicone shell 7 and the patch adhesion portion 6 or has deteriorated adhesion durability due to weakness to pressure applied to an artificial breast prosthesis since a patch is adhered to an outer surface of the silicone shell 7 . [0145] However, the patch adhesion portion P according to the present invention has the same thickness and physical properties as the silicone shell 10 and thus exhibits very high stress resistance. Accordingly, while having a small thickness, the patch adhesion portion P rather has strong adhesion strength and exhibits high stress resistance and thus has high durability and enhances overall durability of the silicone artificial breast prosthesis I. [0146] In the filling material injection groove processing step S 70 , the filling material injection groove 25 having a concave shape and a multilayered structure is formed at a lower surface of the patch 20 , as a portion through which a filling material is injected into an inner space of the silicone shell 10 using a separate syringe device. [0147] The filling material injection groove 25 may be formed through compression molding by pressing a central portion of the lower surface of the patch using a mold (not shown) having a molding part that has a convex shape corresponding to the shape of the filling material injection groove 25 and protrudes outwards. [0148] In addition, in the filling material injection groove processing step S 70 , the filling material injection groove 25 may be formed through laser processing, mechanical etching, or chemical etching so as to have a concave shape. [0149] As examples of formation of the filling material injection groove 25 through laser processing, the filling material injection groove 25 having a multilayered structure may be formed by emitting laser beams, as a high intensity heat source, to a lower surface of the patch 20 , or the filling material injection groove 25 may be formed by performing laser sanding on a lower surface of the patch 20 . [0150] In the filling step S 80 , the inner space of the silicone shell 10 is filled with a filling material through injection via the inlet 21 from the patch provided thereat with the filling material injection groove 25 . [0151] The inlet 21 may be formed in a process of forming the filling material injection groove 25 in the filling material injection groove processing step S 70 , or the inlet 21 may be naturally formed in a process of injecting a filling material using a syringe device in the filling step S 80 . [0152] In the finishing step S 90 , the filling material injection groove 25 is sealed by a sealant so that leakage of the filling material included in the silicone shell 10 to the outside via the inlet 21 , which is a fine hole formed by a syringe needle when injecting the filling material, is prevented. [0153] In sealing of the filling material injection groove 25 to close the inlet 21 , the filling material injection groove 25 is completely and doubly sealed by primarily forming the first sealing portion 36 using a sealant having a low viscosity and secondarily forming the second sealing portion 37 thereon in the remaining space of the filling material injection groove 25 . [0154] Thus, the first and second sealing portions 36 and 37 formed through the finishing step S 90 have an increased adhesion area due to the multilayered structure thereof. In addition, sealable silicone used in sealing treatment of the inlet 21 and edge portions thereof do not rub against the outside and thus the sealing portion of the inlet has high adhesion and high resistance to fatigue rupture and, accordingly, there is no risk of detachment of the sealable silicone from the sealing portion of the inlet 21 , which results in increased protection against leakage of the filling material. In addition, since the inlet 21 is doubly sealed using the filling material injection groove 25 having a multilayered structure, deterioration of adhesive strength of the sealing portion of the inlet 21 due to leakage of the filling material via the inlet 21 occurring in the filling process may be prevented and problems occurring due to operator error may also be addressed, and thus, protection against leakage of the filling material may be increased. [0155] That is, according to the silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration according to the present invention and the manufacturing method thereof, a silicone shell has a uniform thickness and a patch adhesion portion has the same thickness as that of the silicone shell and the same or similar physical properties (expansibility, strength, elasticity, and the like) to the silicone shell, and thus, stress concentration occurring due to differences in physical properties between the silicone shell and the patch adhesion portion is minimized and resistance to fatigue rupture is maximized and, accordingly, rupture of the artificial breast prosthesis, which is the most dangerous complication, is significantly reduced, whereby safety and efficacy of the artificial breast prosthesis may be enhanced. [0156] In addition, the patch adhesion portion includes a step portion and an uneven groove and has an adhesion structure having high mechanical and physical resistance to pressure applied to the artificial breast prosthesis in which a patch is adhered to an inner surface of the silicone shell. In this regard, the adhesion structure increases an adhesion area and allows stress to be dispersed in at least two axial directions, and thus, adhesive strength is mechanically and physically increased and adhesion durability of the patch adhesion portion is enhanced, which results in enhanced overall safety of the artificial breast prosthesis. [0157] In addition, the patch adhesion portion has a structure in which neither a gap nor a crack is formed at an adhesion boundary point between the silicone shell and the patch and thus may have enhanced adhesion durability. [0158] In addition, the silicone shell including the patch and the patch adhesion portion has a uniform overall thickness and thus the artificial breast prosthesis has excellent overall feel and, accordingly, may have high efficacy and quality. [0159] In addition, a finishing process is performed through double sealing so that an inlet formed through injection of a filling material and a silicone sealant for closing the inlet or edge portions thereof are not exposed to the outside, and thus, beautiful appearance of the sealing portion of the inlet may be achieved. [0160] Moreover, sealing portions of a filling material injection groove have an increased adhesion area due to a multilayered structure thereof and a sealable silicone used in sealing of the inlet and edge portions thereof do not rub against the outside, and thus, an inlet sealing portion has increased adhesive strength and enhanced resistance to fatigue rupture and, accordingly, there is no risk of detachment of the sealable silicone from the inlet sealing portion, which results in increased protection against leakage of the filling material. [0161] Furthermore, the filling material injection groove has a multilayered structure and doubly seals the inlet, and thus, deterioration of adhesive strength of the sealing portion of the inlet due to leakage of the filling material via the inlet occurring in the filling process may be prevented and problems occurring due to operator error may also be addressed, and thus, protection against leakage of the filling material may be maximized. [0162] Although the preferred embodiments of a silicone artificial breast prosthesis with minimized stress concentration and a method of manufacturing the same have been disclosed for illustrative purposes, those skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications, additions and substitutions are possible, without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as disclosed in the accompanying claims. [0000] Description of Reference Numerals 10: Silicone shell 11: Patch hole 12: Step portion 13: Uneven groove 15: Curved surface 16: Slope 20: Patch 21: Inlet 25: Filling material injection groove 28: Thin film patch 36: First sealing portion 37: Second sealing portion I: Prosthesis P: Patch adhesion portion.

The present invention relates to a silicon breast implant which minimizes stress concentration applied thereto after being inserted into the human body to maximize the resistance of same to fatigue-induced rupture, thereby improving the durability of the implant. The breast implant may include an elegant patch-adhesion portion having a thin thickness so as to provide superior overall feel and improve the appearance of the product. Further, the breast implant has a silicon shell defining an outer wall thereof and the patch adhesion portion for closing, from the outside, a hole formed in a bottom surface of the silicon shell so that the patch adhesion portion is increased in strength to maximize adhesion durability, safety of use, and effectiveness. The silicon shell has a uniform overall thickness, and the patch adhesion portion comprises a patch hole through which a patch adheres to a lower end of the silicon shell using an adhesive material.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to new 6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines, which have the general formula (I) ##STR2## and to a method for producing them. R 1 is lower alkyl, phenyl, phenyl-lower alkyl or cyclo-lower alkyl. R 2 is hydrogen, lower alkyl or phenyl. R 3 is lower alkoxy or a cyclic or acyclic amino group. R 4 is hydrogen, halogen, hydroxy, lower alkoxy or amino. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION My prior application Ser. No. 467,048, filed May 5, 1974, together with Ernst Schulze, includes a group of 1-substituted 6-phenyl-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines which are produced by the reaction of 1-substituted-5-amino-pyrazoles with a benzoylacetic acid ester. The same reaction of a benzoylacetic acid ester with 2-substituted 5-aminopyrazoles unexpectedly yields 5-phenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]-pyrimidin-7(1H)ones. In order to obtain the 2-substituted 6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines of this invention, rearrangement of the pyrazolopyridine is required. Thus the method of ring formation of 2H-pyrazolopyridines is different from the method of producing the 1H series. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The symbols have the following meanings in formula I and throughout this specification: R 1 is lower alkyl, phenyl, phenyl-lower alkyl or cyclo-lower alkyl. The lower alkyl groups are straight or branched chain hydrocarbon groups having up to seven carbon atoms like methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, t-butyl, pentyl and the like. The C 1 -C 4 lower alkyl groups and especially C 1 -C 2 groups are preferred. The phenyl-lower alkyl groups include a phenyl group attached to a lower alkyl group such as those defined. Phenylmethyl and phenylethyl are representative and preferred. The cyclo-lower alkyl groups include the C 4 -C 7 cycloaliphatics cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl and cycloheptyl, the C 5 -C 6 members being preferred. R 2 is hydrogen, lower alkyl or phenyl. The lower alkyl groups are the same as those defined above and the same members are preferred. R 3 is lower alkoxy or an acyclic or cyclic amino group. The lower alkoxy group include such lower alkyl groups attached to an oxygen. They include, for example, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, isopropoxy and the like. The C 1 -C 4 lower alkoxy groups and especially C 1 -C 2 groups are preferred. The amine group represented by R 3 is the group ##STR3## wherein R 5 is hydrogen or lower alkyl and R 6 is lower alkyl or together R 5 and R 6 join to complete an unsubstituted or substituted 5- or 6-membered heterocyclic of the group pyrrolidine, piperidine, piperazine or the substituted members (lower alkyl)piperidine, (lower alkyl)piperazine or (hydroxy-lower alkyl)piperazine. The acyclic amine groups include, for example, lower alkylamino groups such as methylamino, ethylamino, propylamino, isopropylamino, butylamino, isobutylamino, t-butylamino and the like, di(lower alkyl)amines such as dimethylamino, diethylamino, methylethylamino, dipropylamino, dibutylamino, methylpropylamino and the like. The heterocyclic ##STR4## groups, in addition to the unsubstituted heterocycles include, for example, 2-, 3- or 4-methylpiperidino, 2-,3- or 4-ethylpiperidino, 2-, 3- or 4-methylpiperazino, 2-,3- or 4-ethylpiperazino, 4-(hydroxyethyl)-piperazino and the like. 4-substitution on the heterocycle is preferred. The phenyl group in the 6-position is preferably unsubstituted but it can also be substituted, preferably in the 4-position. R 4 in formula I can then represent hydrogen, halogen, hydroxy, lower alkoxy or amino. The lower alkoxy groups are the same kind as described above. The halogens are the four common halogens, chlorine and bromine being preferred in that order. Especially preferred compounds of formula I are those wherein R 1 is lower alkyl, especially methyl, or phenyl; R 2 is hydrogen; R 3 is lower alkoxy, lower alkyl-amino, di(lower alkyl)amino or piperidino; and R 4 is hydrogen or halogen, especially hydrogen or chloro; and acid addition salts thereof, especially the hydrochloride. The new compounds of formula I are formed by the following series of reactions. The symbols in the structural formulas have the same meaning as previously described. A 5-aminopyrazole of the formula ##STR5## [produced analogous to the procedure described in Angew. Chem. 86, 237 (1974); Farmaco Ed. sci 16, 557-570 (1961); Brit. Pat 743 505] is made to react with a benzoylacetic acid ester of the formula (III) ##STR6## by heating at about 120°-140° C. in the presence of a phosphoric acid like polyphosphoric acid producing a compound of the formula (IV) ##STR7## Rearrangement of the 5-phenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one of formula IV is effected by heating the compound of formula IV at about 250°-300° C with or without a solvent, yielding the 4-hydroxy-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine of the formula (V) The solvents in which the rearrangement can be effected are inert high boiling organic solvents like diphenyl ether, halogenated diphenyl ethers, polychlorinated biphenyls or the like. This 4-hydroxy derivative is refluxed for several hours with a phosphorous halide like phosphorous oxychloride to give the compound of the formula (VI) ##STR8## wherein X is halogen, preferably chlorine. Reaction of the compound of formula VI with a metal alcoholate R-O-Met wherein R is lower alkyl and Met is a metal, e.g., an alkali metal like sodium or potassium yields the product of formula I wherein R 3 is lower alkoxy. An alcohol corresponding to the alkoxide used is preferably employed as solvent or reaction medium. When an amine ##STR9## is used to react with the halogenated intermediate of formula VI the product is a compound wherein R 3 is an amino group corresponding to the amine VII used in the reaction. An excess of the amine reactant, when the amine is a liquid, alcohol or an organic hydrocarbon solvent like benzene, toluene or the like can be used as the reaction medium. The compounds of formula I form salts which are also part of this invention. The salts include acid addition salts, particularly the non-toxic, physiologically acceptable members. The bases of formula I form salts by reaction with a variety of inorganic and organic acids providing acid addition salts including, for example, hydrohalides (especially hydrochloride and hydrobromide), sulfate, nitrate, borate, phosphate, fumarate, oxalate, tartrate, maleate, citrate, acetate, ascorbate, succinate, benzenesulfonate, methanesulfonate, cyclohexanesulfamate and toluenesulfonate. The acid addition salts frequently provide a convenient means for isolating the product, e.g., by forming and precipitating the salt in an appropriate medium in which the salt is insoluble, then after separation of the salt, neutralizing with a base such as barium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, to obtain the free base of formula I. Other salts may then be formed from the free base by reaction with an equivalent of acid. The new compounds of this invention have antiinflammatory properties and are useful as antiinflammatory agents, for example, to reduce local inflammatory conditions such as those of an edematous nature or resulting from proliferation of connective tissue in various mammalian species such as rats, dogs and the like when given orally in dosages of about 5 to 100 mg/kg/day, preferably 10 to 50 mg/kg/day, in single or 2 to 4 divided doses, as indicated by the carrageenan edema assay in rats. The active substance may be utilized in compositions such as tablets, capsules, solutions or suspensions containing up to about 500 mg per unit of dosage of a compound or mixture of compounds of formula I or a physiologically acceptable acid addition salt thereof. They may be compounded in conventional manner with a physiologically acceptable vehicle or carrier, excipient, binder, preservative, stabilizer, flavor, etc. as called for by accepted pharmaceutical practice. Topical preparations containing about 0.01 to 2 percent by weight of active substance in a lotion, salve or cream may also be used. The following examples are illustrative of the invention and constitute preferred embodiments. They serve as models, also, for other members of the group which are produced by suitable variation of the substituents in the reactants. All temperatures are in degrees celsius. EXAMPLE 1 2-Methyl-6-phenyl-2-H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol a. 1-Methyl-5-phenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one 192.2 g. of benzoylacetic ethyl ester (1 mol.) are added dropwise to a stirred mixture of 97.1 g. of 5-amino-2-methylpyrazole (1 mol.) and 500 g. of polyphosphoric acid and heated to 120°-130°. Reaction time is maintained for 1.5 hours. After the mixture has cooled to room temperature, 2.2 liters of water are added and stirring is continued until the compound becomes crystalline. The 1-methyl-5-phenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]-pyrimidin-7-(1H)-one phosphate is washed with water and dried at 80°, yield 242 g. The phosphate is converted to the free base by dissolving 242 g. of the compound in 900 ml. of boiling water. After the turbid solution is treated with charcoal and filtered, concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to the filtrate. The resulting oily 1-methyl-5-phenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one is stirred until it becomes crystalline. The collected material is washed with water and dried at 70°; m.p. 147°-148°; yield 61 g. Recrystallization of a sample from alcohol does not elevate the melting point. b. 2-Methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol 152 g. of 1-methyl-5-phenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7-(1H)-one (0.67 mol.) in 500 ml. of diphenyl ether are heated at 250°, while stirring, for 90 minutes. After standing overnight, the crystallized 2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol is filtered off, washed with ether and dried at 70°, yield: 146.6 g. (96%); m.p. 241°-243°. A sample recrystallized from acetonitrile melts at 242°-244°. EXAMPLE 2 4-Chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-pyridine 39 g. of 2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol (0.17 mol.) are refluxed in 195 ml. of phosphorus oxychloride for 90 minutes. The excess phosphorus oxychloride is removed in vacuo and the residue is poured onto ice. Concentrated aqueous ammonia is added under external cooling to adjust the mixture to pH 8-9. Stirring is continued for one additional hour. The collected 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine is washed with water and dried at 70°, yield: 41 g. (100%); m.p. 177°-179°. Recrystallization from ethyl acetate gives a melting point of 189°-190°. EXAMPLE 3 N,2-Dimethyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine, hydrochloride (1:1) 17 g. of 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (0.07 mol.) and 60 ml. of alcoholic methylamine (270 g/l) are heated at 150°-160° in an autoclave for four hours. After cooling to room temperature, the solution is evaporated in vacuo and the residue is extracted with chloroform. To the chloroform extract is added ethereal hydrochloric acid to give the crude hydrochloride of N,2-dimethyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine which, after treatment with ether, becomes crystalline. For purification, the hydrochloride is dissolved in water, and to the clear solution diluted aqueous ammonia is added, yielding 14.2 g. (85%) of the free N,2-dimethyl-6-phenyl-2-H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine; m.p. 217°-219° (acetonitrile). Alcohol is added dropwise to 12.65 g. of N,2-dimethyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine (0.053 mol.) suspended in 400 ml. of chloroform until the compound is dissolved. Then 0.064 mol. of ethereal hydrochloric acid is added. Addition of more ether precipitates the hydrochloride which contains half a mole of water in its molecule, yield: 11.2 g. (74%); m.p. 291°-292° (dec.). EXAMPLE 4 N-Butyl-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine 12.2 g. of 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H -pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (0.05 mol.) and 100 ml. of butylamine are heated at 150° in an autoclave for three hours. Then the reaction mixture is evaporated in vacuo and the residue is treated with water. Filtering off, washing with water and drying gives 12.8 g. (91%) of N-butyl-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine; m.p. 160°-161° (ethylacetate). EXAMPLE 5 2-Methyl-N-(1-methylpropyl)-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]-pyridin-4-amine 14.6 g. of 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo-[3,4-b]pyridine (0.06 mol.) and a solution of 100 ml. of methylpropylamine in 150 ml. of benzene are heated at 220° in an autoclave for 20 hours. After cooling, the mixture is evaporated in vacuo, and to the residue 100 ml. of water and 100 ml. of chloroform are added. After agitation, the chloroform extract is separated and dried with Na 2 SO 4 . Evaporation yields an oily product which, after treatment with ether, becomes solid. 14.3 g. of 2-methyl-N-(1-methylpropyl)-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine, (m.p. 148°-151°), are recrystallized from ethyl acetate giving a pure product of the melting point 156°-157°. EXAMPLE 6 N,N-Diethyl-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine, hydrochloride (2:3), hydrate 17.1 g. of 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo-[3,4-b]pyridine (0.07 mol.) are added to 100 ml. of diethylamine and 150 ml. of benzene. The reaction mixture is heated at 220° for 18 hours in an autoclave. After cooling to room temperature, the precipitated diethylamine hydrochloride is filtered off and the filtrate is evaporated in vacuo to give 18.9 g. (96%) of N,N-diethyl-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine; m.p. 144°-146° (benzene). To 9.8 g. of the amine (0.035 mol.), dissolved in 100 ml. of chloroform, 0.07 mol. (7.7 ml. 330 g. HCl/l) of ethereal hydrochloic acid are added. The precipitated hydrochloride is filtered off, washed with alcohol, recrystallized from acetonitrile containing several drops of alcoholic hydrochloric acid, and dried for four hours at 40° in vacuo, yield: 11.5 g. (82%); m.p. 166°-168° (dec.). EXAMPLE 7 2-Methyl-6-phenyl-4-(1-piperidinyl)-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine, hydrochloride (1:2), dihydrate 17.1 g. of 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (0.07 mol.) and 130 ml. of piperidine are heated at 180° in an autoclave for 3 hours. The product is worked up as in Example 5. 2-Methyl-6-phenyl-4-(1-piperidinyl)-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine is recrystallized from acetonitrile, yield: 15.5 g. (76%); m.p. 163°-166°. The hydrochloride is prepared by the procedure of Example 6 and is recrystallized from acetonitrile/ethyl acetate (1:2), yield: 86%; m.p. 121°-122° (dec.). EXAMPLE 8 2-Methyl-4-(3-methylbutoxy)-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]-pyridine maleinate (2:3) To a solution of 1.61 g. of sodium (0.07 mol.) in 200 ml. of 3-methyl butanol, 17.1 g. of 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (0.07 mol.) are added and the mixture is refluxed for six hours while stirring. The cooled solution is agitated with water, the organic layer dried and then evaporated in vacuo to give 20 g. (97% of oil. To 18.5 g. of the oil (0.063 mol.), dissolved in 50 ml. of ether, a solution of 14.6 g. of maleic acid (0.126 mol.) in 500 ml. of ether is added. The precipitated maleinate of 2-methyl-4-(3-methylbutoxy)-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine, at first oily, crystallizes on standing overnight, yield: 24.6 g. (83%); m.p. 114°-116°. Recrystallization from ethyl acetate gives a product which melts at 119°-120°. EXAMPLE 9 4-Ethoxy-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine 8.5 g. of 4-chloro-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (0.035 mol.) are added to a solution of 0.9 g. of sodium (0.038 mol.) in 100 ml. of absolute ethanol. The mixture is heated at 150° in an autoclave for five hours. After cooling, the crystallized 4-ethoxy-2-methyl-6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine is filtered off, washed with alcohol and then with water, yield: 6.2 g.; m.p. 170°-171°. An additional crop of 2.4 g. is obtained by evaporation of the mother liquid, total yield: 8.6 g. (97%). Recrystallization from ethanol gives a product of the melting point 171°-172°. EXAMPLE 10 6-(4-Chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol a. 1-Methyl-5-(p-chlorophenyl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one Treatment of 5-amino-2-methylpyrazole with p-chlorobenzoylacetic ethyl ester in polyphosphoric acid according to the procedure of Example 1a yields 1-methyl-5-(p-chlorophenyl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one, yield: 68%; m.p. 215°-216°. b. 6-(4-Chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-pyridin-4-ol A mixture of 40.5 g. of 1-methyl-5-(p-chlorophenyl)-pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)one (0.156 ml.) and 120 ml. of diphenyl ether is heated with stirring at 250° for 90 minutes and then allowed to stand overnight. The crystallized 6-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol is filtered off, washed with acetonitrile and dried at 80°, yield: 37.3 g. (90%); m.p. 302°-305°. A sample, recrystallized from ethanol, melts at 305°-307°. EXAMPLE 11 4-Chloro-6-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine Following the procedure of Example 2, 37.8 g. of 6-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol (0.146 mol.) and 165 ml. of phosphorus oxychloride yield 35.1 g. (86%) of 4-chloro-6-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine, recrystallized from ethanol; m.p. 177°-179°. EXAMPLE 12 6-(4-Chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-N-(1-methylpropyl)-2H-pyrazolo-[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine 7.9 g. of 4-chloro-6-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (0.028 mol.) and 80 ml. of 1-methylpropylamine are heated at 200° in an autoclave for 18 hours. The product is worked up according to the procedure of Example 4 to obtain 7.4 g. (84% of 6-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-N-(1-methylpropyl)-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine; m.p. 208°-209° (ethyl acetate). EXAMPLE 13 6-(4-Chlorophenyl)-N,N-diethyl-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]-pyridin-4-amine, hydrochloride (1:1) 13 g. of 4-chloro-6-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine (0.047 mol.) and 130 ml. of diethylamine are heated at 200° in an autoclave for 16 hours. The product is worked up according to the procedure of Example 4 to obtain 12.5 g. of 6-(4-chlorophenyl)-N,N-diethyl-2-methyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine; m.p. 211°-212° (ethyl acetate). By dissolving the amine in absolute ethanol and adding ethereal hydrochloric acid then ether precipitates the hydrochloride, yield 86%; m.p. 191°-193° (dec.) acetonitrile). EXAMPLE 14 6-(4-Chlorophenyl)-N,2-dimethyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine, hydrochloride (1:1) By substituting methylamine for the diethylamine in the procedure of Example 13 and heating at 160° for four hours, 6-(4-chlorophenyl)-N,2-dimethyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine-4-amine is obtained, yield : 77%, m.p. 182°-184° (acetonitrile). The hydrochloride is prepared by the procedure of Example 13, m.p. 202°-204° (abs. ethanol); yield: 87%. EXAMPLE 15 2,6-Diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol a. 1,5-Diphenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one A mixture of 10 g. of 5-amino-2-phenylpyrazole (0.063 mol.), 12.1 g. of benzoylacetic acid ethyl ester (0.063 mol.) and 50 g. of polyphosphoric acid is heated at 110°-120° with stirring for 90 minutes. After cooling, 200 ml. of water and then concentrated aqueous ammonia is added under external cooling to adjust the mixture to pH 9. The collected 1,5-diphenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one is washed with water and dried at 70°, yield: 17 g. (94%); m.p. 194°-200°. A sample, recrystallized from absolute ethanol, melts at 205°-207°. b. 2,6-Diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol 6.5 g. of 1,5-diphenylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-7(1H)-one (0.0226 mol.) and 18 g. of diphenyl ether are heated at 250°-260° for 90 minutes. After standing overnight, the crystallized 2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol is filtered off, washed with ethanol and dried at 80°, yield: 6.1 g. (94%); m.p. 280°-281°. EXAMPLE 16 4-Chloro-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine 5.5 g. of 2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-ol (0.019 mol.) and 27.5 ml. of phosphorus oxychloride are refluxed with stirring for 90 minutes. The colled mixture is poured onto crushed ice, then made alkaline with concentrated aqueous ammonia while adding ice. The collected 4-chloro-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine is washed with water and dried at 80°; m.p. 175°-177°. A sample, recrystallized from ethanol, melts at 176°-178°; yield: 5 g. (86%). EXAMPLE 17 N-Methyl-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine, hydrochloride (1:1) 14 g. of chloro-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]-pyridine (0.046 mol.) and 112 ml. of methylamine in benzene (0.046 mol.) are heated at 200° in an autoclave for 18 hours. The product, N-methyl-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]-pyridine-4-amine is worked up according to the procedure of Example 4, yield: 13.1 g. (95%); m.p. 210°-212° (acetonitrile). To 10 g. of N-methyl-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]-pyridin-4-amine (0.033 mol.), dissolved in a mixture of 250 ml. of chloroform and 150 ml. of absolute ethanol, 7.3 ml. of ethereal hydrochloric acid (330 g/l) (0.066 mol.) are added. The clear solution is evaporated in vacuo, the residue is treated with ether and dried at 70° to give 11.0 g. (96%) of N-methyl-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine, hydrochloride (1:1), hydrate (2:1); m.p. 205°-210° (dec.). EXAMPLE 18 N,N-Diethyl-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine, hydrochloride (1:1) By substituting diethylamine for methylamine in the procedure of Example 17, N,N-diethyl-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine is obtained; yield 81%; m.p. 148°-149° (ethyl acetate/hexane 1:3). To 11.3 g. of the amine (0.033 mol.) dissolved in 70 ml. of chloroform, 7.3 ml. of ethereal hydrochloric acid (330 g/l) (0.066 mol.) and 30 ml. of ether are added. After standing overnight, the hydrochloride of N,N-diethyl-2,6-diphenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridin-4-amine is filtered off, washed with ether and dried at 40°, yield: 13.5 g. (74%); m.p. 120°-126° (dec.). The following additional products are produced by the procedure of the Example indicated: ##STR10## __________________________________________________________________________ Procedure ofExampleR.sup.1 R.sup.2 R.sup.3 R.sup.4 Example__________________________________________________________________________29 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 H ##STR11## 3-Br 730 ##STR12## CH.sub.3 OCH.sub.3 H 931 ##STR13## H NH(C.sub.3 H.sub.7) NH.sub.2 432 ##STR14## CH.sub.3 ##STR15## OH 733 ##STR16## H N(C.sub.2 H.sub.5).sub.2 H 1334 CH.sub.3 ##STR17## OC.sub.2 H.sub.5 4-Cl 935 C.sub. 2 H.sub.5 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 NHCH.sub.3 4-CH.sub.3 O 336 ##STR18## H N(CH.sub.3).sub.2 H 637 C.sub.4 H.sub.9 CH.sub.3 OC.sub.4 H.sub.9 H 838 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 H ##STR19## 4-OH 739 CH.sub.3 CH.sub.3 ##STR20## H 740 CH.sub.3 H ##STR21## 3-NH.sub.2 741 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 CH.sub.3 ##STR22## H 742 ##STR23## H ##STR24## H 743 C.sub.2 H.sub.5 ##STR25## ##STR26## OH 744 CH.sub.3 ##STR27## OC.sub.4 H.sub.9 H 845 CH.sub.3 ##STR28## ##STR29## CH.sub.3 O 7__________________________________________________________________________

New 6-phenyl-2H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines have the general formula ##STR1## The new compounds and salts thereof are useful as anti-inflammatory agents.

RELATED APPLICATION INFORMATION [0001] This application is a divisional of patent application Ser. No. 09/821,552 filed Mar. 29, 2001, entitled “PRONE POSITIONING THERAPEUTIC BED.” This application also claims priority for commonly disclosed subject matter to patent application Ser. No. 09/884,749 filed Jun. 19, 2001, similarly entitled “PRONE POSITIONING THERAPEUTIC BED,” which is a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 09/821,552. This application also claims priority for commonly disclosed subject matter to PCT/IE02/00085, filed Jun. 26, 2002, entitled “BED WITH POSITION CHANGE FACILITY,” which claims priority to Ireland Application No. S2001/0589, filed Jun. 26, 2001. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] This invention relates generally to therapeutic beds, and more particularly to beds with a patient support platform operable to rotate about a longitudinal axis of the platform. [0004] 2. Description of the Related Art [0005] One of the problems in the art of prone positioning therapeutic beds is to provide data and power connections to the bed for both the power and controller equipment that moves the bed and for the patient monitoring systems on the bed. To allow unrestricted rotation of the bed of WO 99/62454, for example, electrical power has been provided by wire brushes at the interface between the rotating part of the bed and the nonrotating part of the bed. However, due to vibration and other abrupt movements, such wire brushes cause problems of electrical intermittence, which can be detrimental to the therapy of the patient. A direct power or data carrier would be preferable to eliminate such intermittence, provided that the wired connection is capable of articulation during movement of the rotating part of the bed into the prone position, and provided that a mechanism is provided to prevent excessive rotation in any one direction. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0006] In U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/821,552 filed Mar. 29, 2001, and Ser. No. 09/884,749 filed Jun. 19, 2001, the first of which is herein incorporated by reference, a prone positioning bed is disclosed that encompasses several distinct innovations. This divisional application is directed to a mechanism to provide a direct, wired connection to the patient support platform. [0007] A therapeutic bed in accordance with the present invention is provided comprising a base frame, a patient support platform rotatably mounted on the base frame for rotational movement about a longitudinal rotational axis of the patient support platform, and a drive system for rotating the patient support platform on the base frame. A direct, wired connection is provided to the patient support platform that allows for a complete rotation of the patient support platform in either direction. The necessary electrical wires are housed within a chain-like cable carrier that is disposed within an annular channel attached to the patient support platform. An annular cover is installed adjacent the annular channel to retain the cable carrier within the annular channel, but the annular cover is not attached to the annular channel. Rather, the annular cover is attached to the nonrotating part of the bed. One end of the cable carrier is attached to the annular channel, and the other end is attached to the annular cover. The length of the cable carrier is sufficient to allow a full 360 degree rotation of the patient support platform in either direction from 0 degrees supine flat while maintaining a direct electrical connection. [0008] More preferably, the direct, wired electrical connection to the patient support platform may be provided with a flat ribbon cable or flexible printed circuit board (PCB) cable in lieu of a chain-like cable carrier. The cable resides within an annular channel attached to the patient support platform, and an annular cover is fastened to a flange of the annular channel such that a gap exists between the annular channel and the annular cover around the outer periphery. One end of the cable is attached to the annular channel, which provides power and electrical signals to the rotating part of the bed, and the other end of the cable passes through the gap between the annular channel and the annular cover and is connected to the electrical apparatus on the nonrotating part of the bed. Like the cable carrier mentioned above, the cable has a length sufficient to allow a full rotation of the patient support platform in either direction while maintaining a direct electrical connection between the nonrotating and rotating parts of the bed. To ensure that the wired electrical connection is not articulated beyond its physical limit as a result of manually rotating the bed in the emergency backup mode, a mechanical stop is provided to limit rotation of the patient support platform to about 365 degrees. Sensors are provided to detect activation of the mechanical stop. [0009] It is an object of this invention to provide a prone positioning therapeutic bed having a direct, wired electrical connection between the rotating part of the bed and the nonrotating part of the bed. [0010] It is another object of this invention to mechanically limit rotation of the bed in either direction to one full 360 degree turn plus about 5 degrees, and to electrically detect when one full turn has been reached. [0011] Further objects and advantages of the present invention will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the annexed sheets of drawings, which illustrate a preferred embodiment of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0012] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a therapeutic bed in accordance with the present invention. [0013] FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the head portion of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 looking toward the foot of the bed. [0014] FIG. 2A is a perspective view of an alternative head restraint for the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 . [0015] FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the head portion of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 looking toward the head of the bed. [0016] FIG. 3A is an exploded perspective view of the clamping mechanism for the head restraints of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 . [0017] FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a side rail of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 . [0018] FIG. 4A is a perspective view of the detent for the side rail of FIG. 4 . [0019] FIG. 5 is a side elevational view of a strap connector for the side rail of FIG. 4 . [0020] FIG. 6 is a rear elevational view of the strap connector of FIG. 5 . [0021] FIG. 7 is a perspective view of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 showing symmetric lateral support pads and leg adductors/abductors. [0022] FIG. 8 is a perspective view of the foot portion of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 looking toward the foot of the bed. [0023] FIG. 9 is a front elevational view of a portion of FIG. 8 . [0024] FIG. 10 is a front elevational view of the rotation limiter of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 shown in a position of maximum negative rotation. [0025] FIG. 11 is a front elevational view of the rotation limiter of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 shown in a position of maximum positive rotation. [0026] FIG. 12 is a perspective view of the foot portion of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 looking toward the head of the bed. [0027] FIG. 13 is a rear elevational view of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 . [0028] FIG. 14 is a perspective view of the quick release mechanism for the drive system of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 . [0029] FIG. 15 is a perspective view looking up at a side rail folded under the patient support platform of the therapeutic bed of FIG. 1 . [0030] FIG. 16 is a side elevational view of a side rail and cooperating tape switch on a therapeutic bed in accordance with the present invention. [0031] FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view of the tape switch of FIG. 16 . [0032] FIG. 18 is a rear elevational view of a flexible cable disposed within an annular channel of a therapeutic bed in accordance with the present invention. [0033] FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view of the flexible cable and annular channel of FIG. 18 . [0034] FIG. 20 is an enlarged cross-sectional view of the flexible cable of FIG. 18 . [0035] FIG. 21 is a top view of a locking pin assembly for a therapeutic bed in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0036] Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2 , a therapeutic bed 10 in accordance with the present invention preferably comprises a ground engaging chassis 12 mounted on wheels 14 . A base frame 16 is mounted on chassis 12 with pivot linkages 18 . Rams 15 , 17 housed within base frame 16 cooperate with pivot linkages 18 to form a lift system to raise and lower base frame 16 on chassis 12 . A patient support platform 20 having upright end rings 22 , 24 is rotatably mounted on base frame 16 with rollers 26 such that patient support platform 20 may rotate about a longitudinal axis between a supine position and a prone position. Side support bars 28 , 30 extend between end rings 22 , 24 . At the head of bed 10 , a guide body 32 having a plurality of slots 34 for routing patient care lines (not shown) is slidably mounted on rails 36 with support rod 31 . Similarly, at the foot of bed 10 , a central opening 118 is provided for receiving a removable patient care line holder (not shown) having a plurality of circumferential slots for routing patient care lines. Central opening 118 is preferably of sufficient size to allow passing of patient connected devices, such as foley bags (not shown), through the central opening 118 without disconnecting such devices from the patient. For such purposes, central opening 118 is preferably as large as possible, provided that strength and configuration requirements of the bed are maintained. The foregoing basic structure and function of bed 10 is disclosed in greater detail in international application number PCT/IE99/00049 filed Jun. 3, 1999, which is incorporated herein by reference. [0037] Still referring to FIG. 1 , bed 10 preferably comprises one or more folding side rails 62 pivotally mounted to patient support platform 20 to assist in securing a patient to support platform 20 before rotation into the prone position. As further described below in connection with FIG. 15 , side rails 62 fold underneath platform 20 for easy access to a patient lying atop cushions 21 a , 21 b , 21 c in the supine position. Bed 10 also preferably has a head rest 50 and a pair of head restraints 48 , which are described in more detail below in connection with FIG. 3 . [0038] As shown in FIG. 2 , end ring 22 at the head of bed 10 is split into two sections for improved access to a patient lying on bed 10 . Upper section 22 a is removable from lower section 22 b . Upper section 22 a has a pair of shafts 40 that are inserted into vertical stabilizer tubes 38 in the closed position. Likewise, tabs 46 on upper section 22 a mate with tubular openings on lower section 22 b . Latches 44 secure upper section 22 a to lower section 22 b in the closed position. When latches 44 are unlatched, upper section 22 a may be raised, pivoted about the vertical axis of one of the shafts 40 , and left in an open position supported by one of the shafts 40 in corresponding stabilizer tube 38 . Alternatively, upper section 22 a may be removed entirely. In either case, upper section 22 a may be moved out of the way for unobstructed access to the patient and manipulation of patient care lines. As an alternative to a split end ring, patient support platform 20 could be cantilevered from the base frame at one end of the bed, but such a configuration would be extremely heavy. [0039] Referring now to FIGS. 3 and 3 A, head restraints 48 are slidably mounted to transverse support rails 58 , 60 on guides 54 with mounting arms 52 . For the sake of clarity, only one head restraint 48 is shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 . Each guide 54 has a clamp 56 that is manually operable by a handle 56 a and serves to secure each guide 54 in a desired lateral position as further described below. Mounting arms 52 are slidably mounted in holes 56 h of bosses 56 b to provide vertical positioning of head restraints 48 . Handle 56 a is attached to a drum 56 f that is rotationally mounted to flanges 54 a of guide 54 by shaft 56 g which is disposed within hole 56 d of drum 56 f . Drum 56 f has a ramp 56 c for engaging one of the flanges 54 a , and hole 56 d is offset from the central axis of drum 56 f to form a cam 56 e . Movement of handle 56 a in the appropriate direction causes ramp 56 c to engage one of the flanges 54 a and thereby spread flanges 54 a apart slightly, which causes one of the flanges 54 a to frictionally engage mounting arm 52 and thereby fix the vertical position of head restraint 48 . Simultaneously, such rotation of handle 56 a causes cam 56 e to frictionally engage one of the transverse support rails 58 , 60 and thereby fix the lateral position of head restraint 48 . Thus, clamps 56 simultaneously provide both lateral and vertical positioning of head restraints 48 , which have pads 48 a for comfortably engaging the front and sides of the head of a patient whose head is resting on head rest 50 . Head rest 50 may be mounted to transverse support rails 58 , 60 or to pad 21 a . Head restraints 48 thereby provide increased stability and comfort for a patient when bed 10 is rotated to the prone position. [0040] If a particular patient requires only partial rotation for therapy such that patient support platform 20 need not be rotated beyond about, for example, 30 degrees in either direction, alternative head restraints 248 as shown in FIG. 2A may be mounted in clamps 56 using mounting arms 252 in like manner as head restraints 48 . Alternative head restraint 248 is designed to provide lateral support for the patient's head in instances when the patient will not be rotated into the prone position such that vertical restraint of the head is not required. [0041] FIGS. 4 and 15 illustrate a preferred structure and operation of folding side rails 62 . Preferably, four independently operable side rails 62 are pivotally mounted on each side of bed 10 . For each side rail 62 , main rail 66 is slidably mounted on shaft 80 with mounting cylinders 82 . Shaft 80 has a slot 80 a for receiving guides such as set screws 83 installed in holes 82 a of mounting cylinders 82 . Preferably, set screws 83 are not tightened against slot 80 a but simply protrude into slot 80 a to prevent side rail 62 from rotating with respect to shaft 80 . In that regard, set screws 83 could be replaced with unthreaded pins. When set screws 83 are loosened, side rail 62 is free to slide longitudinally along shaft 80 for proper positioning with respect to the patient. When set screws 83 are tightened, side rail 62 is fixed with respect to shaft 80 . Shaft 80 is rotatably mounted to side support bar 28 , 30 with rail mounts 78 . Pivot link 68 is hinged to main rail 66 with hinge 72 , and cushion 64 is hinged to pivot link 68 with hinge 70 , which has a hinge plate 70 a for attaching cushion 64 . Side rails 62 are thus capable of folding under patient support platform 20 as shown in FIG. 15 , which is a view looking up from beneath patient support platform 20 . A strap 174 with one end secured around shaft 80 may be provided to retain cushion 64 in the folded under position with mating portions of a snap respectively provided on cushion 64 and strap 174 . A pair of straps 74 and an adjustable buckle 76 are provided to fasten each opposing pair of side rails 62 securely over the patient. One end of strap 74 is secured to side support bar 28 with a strap connector 88 , which is 15 slidably mounted in slot 28 a of side support bar 28 . When strap 74 is properly secured with the appropriate tension using buckle 76 , tabs 160 on strap connector 88 are sandwiched between main rail 66 and side support bar 28 , which further helps to prevent longitudinal movement of side rail 62 . Side rails 62 thus serve to hold the patient securely in place as bed 10 is rotated into the prone position, and side rails 62 fold neatly out of the way for easy access to the patient in the supine position. [0042] As best illustrated in FIG. 4A , an indexed disc 86 is preferably provided on one end of shaft 80 for cooperation with a pull knob 84 to form a detent that holds side rail 62 in one or more predetermined rotational positions. To that end, disc 86 preferably has one or more recesses 228 for receiving a pin 84 a which is manually operated by pull knob 84 . Pull knob 84 is fixedly mounted to rail mount 78 with boss 230 . Preferably, pin 84 a is biased into engagement with disc 86 . By engaging one of the recesses 228 , pin 84 a prevents rotation of shaft 80 and thereby functions as a detent to hold side rail 62 in a predetermined rotational position. Side rail 62 may be moved to a different predetermined rotational position by pulling knob 84 sufficiently to disengage pin 84 a from the given recess 228 so that shaft 80 is free to rotate. Preferably, one of the predetermined rotational positions of side rail 62 corresponds to the folded under position. [0043] Referring now to FIGS. 5 and 6 , each strap connector 88 comprises a tension-sensitive mechanism that provides both visual and electrical indications of whether strap 74 is properly secured over the patient. The following description describes the attachment of a strap connector 88 to side support bar 28 . It will be understood that strap connectors 88 may be similarly attached to side support bar 30 . Each strap connector 88 comprises a tension plate 90 that partially resides within a housing 96 . A cover plate 176 is attached to housing 96 by fasteners 182 inserted into holes 96 a . Tabs 160 extend from housing 96 , and studs 178 protrude from tabs 160 as shown. Discs 180 are mounted to studs 178 with screws 183 . Slots 28 b on the inner side of support bar 28 provide access for installation of screws 183 . Studs 178 are adapted to slide in slots 28 a of side support bar 28 , and discs 180 serve to retain strap connector 88 on side support bar 28 . Tension plate 90 has a slot 92 to which strap 74 is attached and a central cut-out 93 that forms a land 100 . Inverted U-shaped channels 102 protrude from the back of housing 96 into central cut-out 93 of tension plate 90 . Land 100 of tension plate 90 cooperates with channels 102 of housing 96 to capture springs 98 which tend to force tension plate 90 downward toward lower edge 95 of housing 96 such that switch 104 is disengaged when strap 74 is slack. Switch 104 is connected to an electrical monitoring and control system (not shown) in a customary manner. When strap 74 is buckled and tightened sufficiently, the tension in strap 74 overcomes the biasing force of springs 98 , and tension plate 90 moves upward to engage switch 104 , which sends a signal to the electrical monitoring and control system indicating that strap 74 is properly tensioned. Preferably, the electrical monitoring and control system is programmed such that bed 10 cannot rotate until each strap 74 is properly tensioned to ensure that the patient will be safely secured in bed 10 as it rotates to the prone position. Additionally, tension plate 90 preferably has a tension indicator line 94 that becomes visible outside housing 96 when strap 74 is properly tensioned. [0044] More preferably, as illustrated in FIG. 16 , instead of utilizing tension-sensitive strap connectors 88 , a pressure-sensitive tape switch 234 may be installed to side support bars 28 , 30 adjacent each side rail 62 . Tape switch 234 is preferably of the type commonly available from the Tape Switch company. Strap 74 is attached to a crossbar 240 that spans main rails 66 . When strap 74 is properly tensioned, main rails 66 depress tape switch 234 , which sends a signal through electrical leads 238 to the monitoring and control system indicating that side rail 62 is properly secured over the patient. Preferably, the monitoring and control system s programmed such that the patient support platform 20 is not allowed to rotate into the prone position unless all side rails 62 have been properly secured as indicated by tape switches 234 . To help calibrate each tape switch 234 , a pad 236 may be attached to side support bars 28 , 30 below the tape switch 234 adjacent each side rail 62 . Pads 236 are made of a compressible material, such as rubber, having a suitable hardness and thickness so that, as strap 74 is buckled, main rails 66 will first compress pads 236 and then depress tape switch 234 when strap 74 is buckled to the appropriate tension. [0045] FIG. 17 illustrates a preferred embodiment of tape switch 234 . A mounting bracket 242 , which is preferably made of extruded aluminum, houses two conductive strips 250 and 246 that are separated at their upper and lower edges by insulator strips 248 . Conductive strip 250 is a planar conductor oriented in a vertical plane as shown. Conductive strip 246 is installed under a preload such that it is bowed away from conductive strip 250 in its undisturbed position. Conductive strips 250 , 246 and insulator strips 248 are enclosed within a plastic shroud 244 . When main rails 66 engage tape switch 234 with sufficient pressure, conductive strip 246 is displaced to the position shown at 246 a , which completes the circuit with conductive strip 250 and sends a signal through leads 238 indicating that the strap 74 is properly secured. [0046] As shown in FIG. 7 , bed 10 preferably comprises a pair of lateral support pads 116 for holding a patient in place laterally. Lateral support pads 116 are connected to mounts 108 , which are slidably mounted on transverse support rails 106 that span the gap between side support bars 28 , 30 . Mounts 108 are also threadably engaged with a threaded rod 112 , the ends of which are mounted in side support bars 28 , 30 with bearings 110 . Mounts 108 are symmetrically spaced from the longitudinal centerline of bed 10 . Preferably, another bearing 111 supports the 15 middle portion of rod 112 , and a manually operable handle 114 is provided on at least one end of rod 112 . With respect to element 114 , the term “handle” as used herein is intended to mean any manually graspable item that may be used to impart rotation to rod 112 . Alternatively, rod 112 may be motor driven. One side 112 a of rod 112 has right-hand threads, and the other side 112 b has left-hand threads. By rotating handle 114 in the appropriate direction, lateral support pads 116 are symmetrically moved toward or away from the patient, as desired. Due to the symmetrical spacing of mounts 108 and the mirror image threading 112 a , 112 b of rod 112 , lateral support pads 116 provide for automatic centering of the patient on bed 10 , which enhances rotational stability. Similarly, leg adductors/abductors 184 having straps 186 for securing a patient's legs may be mounted to mounts 108 in like manner as lateral support pads 116 . The term “patient support accessory” is used herein to mean any such auxiliary equipment, including but not limited to lateral support pads and leg adductors/abductors, that is attachable to mounts 108 for the purpose of providing symmetric lateral support to a patient on bed 10 . [0047] FIGS. 8 through 13 illustrate an apparatus at the foot of bed 10 for supplying a direct electrical connection between non-rotating base frame 16 and rotating patient support platform 20 . As best shown in FIGS. 8 and 13 , end ring 24 , which is fastened to rotating patient support platform 20 , is also connected to an annular channel 126 that serves as a housing for a cable carrier 148 . Cable carrier 148 carries an electrical cable (not shown) comprising power, ground, and signal wires as is customary in the art. Channel 126 , which preferably has a C-shaped cross-section, may be attached to end ring 24 by way of support bars 192 . Because channel 126 is attached to end ring 24 , channel 126 rotates with patient support platform 20 . As shown in FIGS. 12 and 13 , an annular cover 198 is connected to upright foot frame 144 , which extends upward from base frame 16 . Cover 198 is preferably mounted on a ring 196 with fasteners 200 , and ring 196 is preferably mounted to support bars 194 that extend from stiffeners 144 a of foot frame 144 . Cover 198 , which is preferably made of metal to shield cable carrier 148 from radio frequency signals external of bed 10 , is positioned longitudinally adjacent channel 126 to retain cable carrier 148 within channel 126 , but cover 198 is not connected to channel 126 . Thus, channel 126 is free to rotate with end ring 24 , but cover 198 is stationary. One end 150 of cable carrier 148 is attached to channel 126 , and the other end 152 of cable carrier 148 is attached to cover 198 . The length of cable carrier 148 is preferably sufficient to allow patient support platform 20 to rotate a little more than 360 degrees in either direction. This arrangement provides a direct, wire-based electrical connection to the rotating part of bed 10 while still allowing a complete rotation of patient support platform 20 in either direction. [0048] More preferably, as shown in FIG. 18 , instead of cable carrier 148 , a flexible cable 252 may be used to supply a direct electrical connection between non-rotating base frame 16 and rotating patient support platform 20 . FIG. 18 is a view of a preferred embodiment in the same direction as FIG. 13 , but FIG. 18 shows only flexible cable 252 and its channel 260 and cover 264 for the sake of clarity. Like channel 126 described above, channel 260 is basically C-shaped in cross-section as shown in FIG. 19 . However, channel 260 has an inner flange 258 to which cover 264 is attached, preferably with fasteners 262 . Flexible cable 252 resides generally within channel 260 . A gap 266 exists between channel 260 and cover 264 through which one end of flexible cable 252 may pass for attachment to non-rotating base frame 16 (not shown) at connection 256 . The other end 254 of flexible cable 252 is attached to channel 260 , which is attached to rotating patient support platform 20 . Like cover 198 above, cover 264 is preferably made of metal to shield flexible cable 252 from radio frequency signals external of bed 10 . As shown in FIG. 20 , flexible cable 252 comprises a plurality of flexible conductive strips 268 surrounded by a flexible insulator 270 . Conductive strips 268 carry signals or ground connections, as desired, and multiple flexible cables 252 may be used if necessary, depending on the number of signals required. Like cable carrier 148 above, flexible cable 252 is preferably long enough to allow patient support platform 20 to rotate a little more than 360 degrees in either direction. [0049] To prevent excessive rotation of patient support platform 20 and the attendant damage that excessive rotation would cause to cable carrier 148 or flexible cable 252 and its enclosed electrical wires, a rotation limiter 128 is provided on the inner surface of upright foot frame 144 as shown in FIGS. 8, 10 , and 11 . Rotation limiter 128 is pivotally mounted on frame 144 at point 162 and comprises contact nubs 128 a and 128 b for engaging a boss 134 that protrudes from frame 144 . Thus, rotation limiter 128 may pivot about point 162 between the two extreme positions illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11 . Rotation limiter 128 preferably has a pair of tabs 130 , 132 that cooperate with sensors 140 and 142 , respectively, which are mounted in frame 144 . Sensors 140 , 142 are preferably micro switches but may be any type of sensor that is suitable for detecting the presence of tabs 130 , 132 . By respectively detecting the presence of tabs 130 and 132 , sensors 140 and 142 provide an indication of the direction in which patient support platform 20 has been rotated. A spring 136 is attached to rotation limiter 128 at over-center point 164 and to boss 134 at point 166 . Spring 136 keeps rotation limiter 128 in either of the two extreme positions until rotation limiter 128 is forced in the opposite direction by a stop pin 146 , as discussed below. [0050] Still referring to FIGS. 8, 10 , and 11 , rotation limiter 128 has fillets 128 c , 128 d and flats 128 e , 128 f for engaging stop pin 146 , which is rigidly attached to crossbar 168 . When patient support platform 20 is in its initial supine position (i.e., the position corresponding to zero degrees of rotation and referred to herein as the “neutral supine position”), stop pin 146 is located at the top of its circuit between flats 128 e and 128 f . As used herein to describe the rotation of end ring 24 and, necessarily, patient support platform 20 , “positive” rotation means rotation in the direction of arrow 170 as shown in FIG. 8 , and “negative” rotation means rotation in the direction of arrow 172 . As end ring 24 is rotated in the positive direction, stop pin 146 engages flat 128 f and forces rotation limiter 128 into the extreme position shown in FIG. 11 under the action of spring 136 . End ring 24 may be rotated slightly more than 360 degrees in the positive direction until stop pin 146 engages fillet 128 c , at which point rotation limiter 128 prevents further positive rotation. End ring 24 may then be rotated in the negative direction to return to the neutral supine position. As end ring 24 approaches the neutral supine position, stop pin 146 will engage flat 128 e . Further rotation in the negative direction beyond the neutral supine position will force rotation limiter 128 into the extreme position shown in FIG. 10 under the action of spring 136 . End ring 24 may be rotated slightly more than 360 degrees in the negative direction until stop pin 146 engages fillet 128 d , at which point rotation limiter 128 prevents further negative rotation. In this manner, stop pin 146 and rotation limiter 128 cooperate to limit the rotation of platform 20 so that the electrical wires in cable carrier 148 will not be ripped out of their mountings and the direct electrical connection will be preserved. [0051] Referring to FIGS. 8, 9 , 12 , and 13 , the foot of bed 10 preferably has a positioning ring 122 with a central opening 118 through which patient care lines may pass as discussed above. Positioning ring 122 , which is preferably fastened to support bars 192 , preferably has a plurality of circumferential holes 124 for cooperation with a longitudinal lock pin 120 to lock patient support platform 20 in one of several predetermined rotational positions. Lock pin 120 , which is mounted in upright frame 144 , is capable of limited longitudinal movement along its central axis to engage or disengage a hole 124 of positioning ring 122 , as desired. Preferably, lock pin 120 and positioning ring 122 include a twistable locking mechanism for preventing accidental disengagement of lock pin 120 from positioning ring 122 . For example, lock pin 120 may be provided with a protrusion such as nub 120 a that fits through slot 124 a of hole 124 . After pin 120 is pushed through hole 124 sufficiently for nub 120 a to clear positioning ring 122 , handle 120 b may be used to twist lock pin 120 such that nub 120 a prevents retraction of pin 120 . Alternatively, lock pin 120 and positioning ring 122 may be respectively provided with cooperating parts of a conventional quarter-turn fastener or the like. Any such suitable device for preventing disengagement of lock pin 120 from positioning ring 122 by twisting lock pin 120 about its central axis is referred to herein as a twist lock. [0052] More preferably, as illustrated in FIG. 21 , a lock pin 274 with a spring-loaded detent 278 and proximity switches 288 , 290 may be mounted to frame 144 with a bracket 272 . Lock pin 274 has a central boss 292 with a peripheral groove 280 for cooperation with ball 282 of detent 278 in the neutral position shown in FIG. 21 . In the neutral position, pin 274 is disengaged from hole 124 of locking ring 122 , and proximity switches 288 , 290 preferably send “neutral” signals to the control system to electrically prevent rotation of patient support platform 20 . If handle 276 is used to push pin 274 into engagement with a hole 124 of locking ring 122 , ball 282 of detent 278 engages edge 284 of boss 292 , and proximity switch 288 senses edge 286 of boss 292 and sends a “locked” signal to the control system to electrically prevent rotation of patient support platform 20 in addition to the mechanical locking of pin 274 in locking ring 122 . If manual rotation of patient support platform 20 is desired, handle 276 may be used to pull pin 274 to its fully retracted position in which ball 282 of detent 278 engages edge 286 of boss 292 , and proximity switch 290 senses edge 284 of boss 292 and sends an “unlocked” signal to the control system to allow rotation of patient support platform 20 . [0053] As discussed in international application number PCT/IE99/00049, bed 10 preferably has a drive system essentially comprising a belt drive between patient support platform 20 and an associated electric motor 152 at the foot end of base frame 16 . The drive system may be of the type described in Patent Specification No. WO97/22323, which is incorporated herein by reference. As illustrated in FIG. 14 , bed 10 preferably includes a quick release mechanism 156 installed on foot frame 144 to provide a means to quickly disengage patient support platform 20 from the belt drive system. Quick release 156 may be conveniently made from a tool and jig lever available from WDS Standard Parts, Richardshaw Road, Grangefield Industry Estate, Pudsey, Leeds, England LS286LE. Quick release 156 comprises a mounting tube 210 secured to foot frame 144 . A lever 222 is pinned to tube 210 at point 220 . A tab 218 extends from lever 222 , and a linkage 214 is pinned to tab 218 at point 216 . Linkage 214 is also pinned at point 212 to a shaft 208 that is slidably disposed within tube 210 . Shaft 208 extends through foot frame 144 toward belt 204 which is engaged with pulley 202 of the drive system. A roller 206 is attached to shaft 208 for engaging belt 204 . By rotating lever 222 in the direction of arrow 224 , roller 206 is forced into engagement with belt 204 , which provides sufficient tension in belt 204 to engage patient support platform 20 with the drive system. By rotating lever 222 in the direction of arrow 226 , roller 206 is retracted from belt 204 , which disengages patient support platform 20 from the drive system thereby allowing manual rotation of patient support platform 20 . This capability of quick disengagement of the drive system to allow manual rotation of patient support platform 20 is very useful in emergency situations, such as when a patient occupying bed 10 suddenly needs CPR. In such a circumstance, if patient support platform 20 is not in a supine position, a caregiver may quickly and easily disengage the drive system using quick release 156 , manually rotate patient support platform 20 to a supine position, and begin administering CPR or other emergency medical care. [0054] As disclosed in international application number PCT/IE99/00049, the rotational position of patient support platform 20 , which is governed by motor 152 of the aforementioned drive system, may be controlled through the use of a rotary opto encoder. Alternatively, the rotational position of patient support platform 20 may be controlled through the use of an angle sensor 232 (shown schematically in FIG. 13 ) of the type disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,611,096, which is incorporated herein by reference. As disclosed in the '096 patent, angle sensor 232 comprises a first inclinometer (not shown) that is sensitive to its position with respect to the direction of gravity. By mounting angle sensor 232 to patient support platform 20 in the proper orientation, the output signal from angle sensor 232 may be calibrated to control the rotational position of patient support platform 20 in cooperation with motor 152 . Likewise, angle sensor 232 may include another properly oriented inclinometer (not shown) that may be used in association with rams 15 and 17 (see FIG. 1 ) to control the Trendelenburg position of patient support platform 20 . [0055] Although the foregoing specific details describe a preferred embodiment of this invention, persons reasonably skilled in the art will recognize that various changes may be made in the details of the method and apparatus of this invention without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims. Therefore, it should be understood that this invention is not to be limited to the specific details shown and described herein.

A direct data and power interface is provided to the patient support platform of a therapeutic bed that allows for a complete rotation of the patient support platform in either direction. In one embodiment, a data and/or power cable is housed within a chain-like cable carrier that is disposed within an annular channel attached to the patient support platform. In another embodiment, a flexible ribbon cable is disposed within the annular channel. The cable carrier or ribbon cable is long enough to allow a full 360 degrees of rotation of the patient support platform in either direction from 0 degrees supine flat while maintaining a direct data or power connection. To ensure that data and power connection is not articulated beyond its physical limit as a result of manually rotating the bed in the emergency backup mode, a mechanical stop is provided to limit rotation of the patient support platform to about 730 degrees. Sensors are provided to detect activation of the mechanical stop.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a Continuation-in-Part of and claims priority to US. Continuation-in-Part patent application No. 13/891,830, filed May 10, 2013, which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/567,850, filed Aug. 6, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/515,855, filed Aug. 6, 2011; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/515,967, filed Aug. 7, 2011; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/521,653, filed Aug. 9, 2011; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/525,760, filed Aug. 20, 2011. BACKGROUND [0002] Appropriate mixing during biological water, wastewater, and waste treatment can disperse microorganisms within the reactor and make the entire reactor volume active. Existing mixing methods for anaerobic and anoxic biological reactors include mechanical mixers and conventional air (or gas) mixers. Mechanical mixers have mechanical energy loss, and need more maintenance because it uses a motor to drive the impeller or propeller. In case of anaerobic digesters that need completely sealed tanks for the reaction, using a mechanical mixer is troublesome because the motor has to be outside of the tank, and there is a leaking potential at the mixer entry point. In some cases, mechanical mixing method could shear the highly active granular sludge or other added media that is used to aid the reaction. Conventional air (or gas) mixers use air or gas to mix the tank, and air or gas is continuously released to the tank. Air mixing is relatively mild. In addition, conventional air mixers can not be used to mix anaerobic or anoxic reactors for biological nutrient removal processes because a sufficient amount of oxygen can be transferred to the liquid to inhibit the reaction. [0003] As a result, a preferred method to mix biological reactors needs to (a) effectively prevent particle accumulation at the bottom and/or on the top of the reactor; (b) not adversely impact the reaction by damaging the granular sludge or added media through shearing or by introducing inhibiting components, etc.; and (c) be simple to use. [0004] Mechanical mixers inevitably have mechanical energy loss and also need regular maintenance. It may also negatively impact the reaction process by shearing or breaking the granular sludge or added media that is used to enhance the performance. On the other hand, regular air or gas mixing, although simple to use, does not have enough strength to prevent particle accumulation in a tank. If air is used, it may introduce oxygen to the tank, to inhibit anaerobic or anoxic biological reactions if these reactions are conducted within the tank. A new type of hydraulic mixing that is induced by gas (including air or biogas, or other gases), as long as it can provide a strong hydraulic force to prevent particle accumulation within the tank, will be a preferred method for mixing during the treatment of water, wastewater, organic waste, and in other biological processes. [0005] FIG. 1 shows a conventional bioreactor. A mechanical mixer is used to mix the reactor contents. Under anaerobic condition, biogas may be produced. In this case, the tank is normally sealed and the biogas is collected as an energy source. However, for biological phosphorus removal process, the anaerobic reactor is used to cultivate phosphorus accumulating organisms (PAOs). In this case, the fermentation ends before the biogas production, and the tank is normally open to air. Under anoxic condition, the reactor is used to reduce nitrate and nitrite to form nitrogen gas, to remove nitrogen nutrient. The anoxic bioreactor is normally open to air. Nevertheless, conventional air mixing is not used for anaerobic or anoxic reactors, because oxygen in the air can transfer to the liquid in an amount that inhibits the anaerobic or anoxic reactions. In addition, conventional air mixing is too mild to mix the tank content. [0006] FIG. 2 shows a conventional pre-anoxic process for biological nutrient removal. It has a continuously mixed anoxic zone for denitrification followed by a continuously aerated aerobic zone for organic matter degradation and nitrification. Mixed liquor in the aerobic zone is returned to the anoxic zone to provide nitrate, which is reduced to nitrogen gas within the anoxic zone. The effluent from the aerobic zone flows to a secondary clarifier for solids-liquid separation, and settled sludge in the secondary clarifier is returned to the anoxic zone to provide biomass needed for biological functions. The anoxic zone is normally continuously mixed using mechanical mixing devices. [0007] FIG. 3 shows an airlift pump such as that disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,162,020. It is driven by air, and can provide a strong, periodic lifting force to transfer water. During operation, the air is injected to the air chamber, and the air-water interface within the air chamber is pushed down gradually. Once the air-water interface reaches the elbow that connects the riser tube, the entire air volume within the air chamber is drown to the riser tube, creating an air plug within the riser tube. This air plug provides a strong force to lift water within the riser tube. This lifting action repeats, resulting periodic pumping action. Apparently this device can also be used to mix liquid if the outlet of the pump is submerged within the tank content. Compared to conventional airlift pumps, this device provides a significantly stronger hydraulic lifting and mixing intensity. Compared to the mechanical mixers, this mixer employs no mechanical moving parts, therefore is more energy efficient. However, the elbow that connects the air chamber and the riser tube could be easily clogged by debris contained in the wastewater during operation. Once clogged, cleaning the tube is very difficult because the top of the elbow is hidden within the air chamber, which is not readily accessible. SUMMARY [0008] The claimed technology is set forth in the claims below, and the following is not in any way to limit, define or otherwise establish the scope of legal protection. [0009] One embodiment of the disclosed invention is a bioreactor apparatus and method that comprises one or more mixers that is driven by air or gas, providing a strong and periodic lifting force to mix or lift the reactor content. For convenience, this type of hydraulic mixing device is termed as surge lifting device or surge mixer herein. Optionally the disclosed bioreactor can be a section or a zone within a larger tank, or can be a separate tank. Baffles can be integrated into the bioreactor to create a static zone on the upper portion of the tank, to facilitate sludge settling and retention. [0010] The disclosed bioreactor can optionally be operated under aerobic condition (with an additional aeration device) to perform organic matter degradation and nitrification, and the surge mixer is used to supplement the mixing of the aeration device if needed. For example, it can optionally be used to mix membrane bioreactor to reduce particle accumulation or fouling on the membrane surface. It can also be optionally used to mix other bioreactors packed with fixed media or moving media to remove the biofilm grown on the surface of the media. The disclosed bioreactor can optionally be operated under anoxic condition to perform denitrification. The anoxic bioreactor can optionally be placed before an aerobic zone or tank in a pre-anoxic process, and receive both influent and return mixed liquor from an aerobic zone or tank. The anoxic bioreactor can also be optionally placed after an aerobic zone or tank in a post-anoxic process. Optionally, multiple anoxic bioreactors can also be optionally placed before and after the aerobic zone or tank, to achieve more complete denitrification. [0011] One example of the disclosed bioreactor can also be optionally operated under an anaerobic condition, used in conjunction with a down-stream aerobic zone, to culture PAOs for biological phosphorus removal. Optionally the disclosed anaerobic bioreactor can also be optionally used in conjunction with down-stream anoxic and aerobic bioreactors, to biologically remove organic pollutants, nitrogen and phosphorus. [0012] In another example the disclosed anaerobic bioreactor can be used independently, to digest organic pollutants and solids. For example, it can be used to digest organic sludge and food waste to produce low molecular weight organic acids (acid-production step). This low molecular weight organic acids can be a carbon source for other biological reactions, such as, to enhance denitrification and biological phosphorus removal. It can also be used to complete the entire anaerobic process and produce methane gas. The methane gas produced within the anaerobic bioreactor can be collected as an energy source, and the entire bioreactor should be sealed. A biogas outlet may be installed at the top of the tank or in some other suitable locations. The biogas generated under the surge mixer within the bioreactor could drive the mixer automatically in another example. If this mixing frequency if not sufficient, the produced biogas can be recycled from the top of the tank back to the surge mixer to enhance mixing. [0013] In other examples the disclosed bioreactors can also be modified by adding means to increase the sludge retention. For example, baffles can optionally be added on the upper portion of the reactor, to create a static zone before the tank content flows out of the tank. In this case, the content in the lower portion of the tank is recycled and mixed, while the upper portion of the tank serves as a sludge blanket filter or a clarifier. [0014] The designs as the aforementioned bioreactors can be used for other applications, and different media can optionally be added to the reactor to enhance treatment. For example, plastic media or activated carbon (granular or powdered) can be added to the reactor, serving as the carrier of microorganisms. Membrane filter can also be used to retain biomass within the reactor. The hydraulic mixing from the surge mixer does not shear the added media but can also provide enough mixing and prevent sludge or particle accumulation. Similarly, other media such as zero valent ion, and coagulants can be added to the reactor to perform desired physical-chemical reactions. Multiple media can also be used (for example, powered activated carbon+coagulants) to enhance the reactor performance. Through baffle installation, a clarification zone is integrated to the reactor, to perform reaction and clarification within the same tank. [0015] Yet another embodiment of the disclosed invention is a surge lifting device. It is an apparatus to create large diameter gas bubbles within a riser tube to provide high lifting potential periodically. It includes a gas collection chamber and a means to transfer gas to the riser. The gas collection chamber collects gas to a certain volume before periodically discharging them into the riser tube. As a result, a large gas plug forms within the riser, forcing the liquid within the riser to move upward via the buoyant force. This surge lifting device can be used for mixing tank content (surge mixer) and transferring liquid or liquid-solid mixture (surge pump). It can also be used to dredge sediments in rivers or lakes, and for other pumping applications. [0016] Further objects, embodiments, forms, benefits, aspects, features and advantages of the claimed technology may be obtained from the description, drawings, and claims provided herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0017] FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of a conventional anaerobic or anoxic bioreactor. [0018] FIG. 2 is a flow diagram of a conventional pro-anoxic process. [0019] FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view of an airlift pump from U.S. Pat. No. 6,162,020. [0020] FIG. 4 is a cross sectional view of a bioreactor according to one embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0021] FIG. 5 is a cross sectional view of a bioreactor according to one embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0022] FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view of a bioreactor according to still another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0023] FIG. 7 is a cross sectional view of a bioreactor according to yet another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0024] FIG. 8 is a cross sectional view of a biological treatment method according to one embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0025] FIG. 9 is a cross sectional view of a biological treatment method according to one embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0026] FIG. 10 is a cross sectional view of a bioreactor according to another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0027] FIG. 11 is a cross sectional view of a biological treatment method according to another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0028] FIG. 12 is a cross sectional view of a reactor and lift device according to one embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0029] FIG. 13 is a cross sectional view of a reactor and lift device according to one embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0030] FIG. 14 is a cross sectional view of a reactor and lift device according to another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0031] FIG. 15 is a cross sectional view of a liquid lift device according to an embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0032] FIG. 16 is a cross sectional view of a liquid lift device according to another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0033] FIG. 17 is a cross sectional view of a liquid lift device according to yet another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0034] FIG. 18 is a cross sectional view of a liquid lift device according to still another embodiment of the disclosed invention. [0035] FIG. 19 is a cross sectional view of a liquid lift device according to a further embodiment of the disclosed invention. DESCRIPTION [0036] For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the claimed technology and presenting its currently understood best mode of operation, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the claimed technology is thereby intended, with such alterations and further modifications in the illustrated device and such further applications of the principles of the claimed technology as illustrated therein being contemplated as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the claimed technology relates. [0037] Appropriate mixing is extremely important for biological treatment of water, wastewater, and waste. Conventional mixing methods, including mechanical mixing devices or air mixing devices, are continuously operated. Mechanical mixing devices need regular maintenance and could shear particulate matter that is formed or added during the treatment, and continuous-flow air mixing devices provide only mild local mixing. Instead, a hydraulic surge mixing device that is driven by air or gas can provide a periodic strong lifting action appropriate for mixing biological and some physical-chemical reactors. In one embodiment the disclosed device is nearly maintenance-free (like the regular airlift pumps), and can provide sufficient mixing, and is energy efficient (no mechanical energy wasting). The disclosed devices reduce shearing of particulate matter added or formed within the reactor, and optionally do not add meaningful amounts of oxygen to the reactor to inhibit anaerobic and anoxic reactions during application. Use of a hydraulic surge mixing device according to the disclosed invention benefits the existing treatment processes for water, wastewater, and organic wastes by reducing energy use, reducing maintenance requirements, and improving treatment performance. [0038] FIG. 4 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of one embodiment of the disclosed invention. This example can be used for physical, chemical, and/or biological reactions. If used for biological reactions, the reactor is normally called bioreactor. The bioreactor of this example includes a tank ( 10 ) that contains one or more hydraulic surge mixers ( 20 ). The hydraulic surge mixers can optionally be driven by air or other gases. It can optionally be operated under aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic conditions, depending on the needs. For example, the bioreactor can be operated under aerobic condition (with an additional aeration device), and the surge mixer provides supplemental mixing to the reactor. When membrane or other media is used to increase the biomass concentration and improve the reactor performance, this supplemental mixing can help to reduce particulate or biofilm accumulation. It can also be used before an aerobic reactor to perform denitrification under anoxic condition (pre-anoxic process). In this case the mixed liquor from the aerobic reactor should be returned to the anoxic bioreactor. It can also be used after an aerobic reactor, to perform denitrification under anoxic condition (post-anoxic process), with or without external carbon addition. Air is an example gas to drive the surge mixer, which has negligible adverse effect to the denitrification reaction because of the limited oxygen transfer within the surge mixer. A bioreactor according to the disclosed invention can also be used before and after an aerobic reactor to perform more complete denitrification. In addition, it can also be used independently to perform denitrification reaction as long as the influent has nitrate, and there is a carbon source in the influent or added externally. It can also be placed ahead of an aerobic or anoxic reactor in a biological phosphorus removal process, to culture PAOs under anaerobic condition. In this case air is also a gas used to drive the surge mixer without noticeable adverse effect on the bioreactor performance. Likewise, other gas can also be use. If the influent is rich in organic matter (high strength organic wastewater, algae, organic sludge such as in wastewater sludge, kitchen waste, human and animal waste, etc.), the reactor can be operated as an anaerobic digester to produce low molecular weight organic matter such as fatty acids (before methane formation step) which can be used as a carbon source for biological nutrient removal processes to remove nitrate and phosphorus. It can also be used to produce biogas (to complete the methane formation step), and serve as a biogas generator. For biogas production, it is preferred that the tank ( 10 ) should be sealed from the atmosphere, with one or more gas collection ports installed on top of the tank to collect the biogas. The biogas produced directly under the surge mixer is naturally collected by the surge mixer. Once the collected biogas within the surge mixer's gas chamber reaches a certain volume, the biogas drives the mixer, resulting a spontaneous and periodic mixing process without any external energy input. If more frequent mixing is needed, the produced biogas can be recycled back to the gas chamber of the surge mixer using a gas recycle pump. [0039] Because the surge mixer reduces shearing of granular particles, the granular sludge may be formed within the reactor during the operation. This granular sludge is a concentrated form of highly active microorganisms. It also has high density. As a result, extremely high concentration of the highly active biomass can be maintained within the reactor, to significantly improve the bioreactor performance. Water and wastewater treatment media such as plastic media and other porous media (granular or powered activated carbon, for example) that can retain microorganisms (through attachment growth) can optionally be added to the reactor to enhance the biodegradation. The added media can be dispersed within the tank, and the surge mixer can effectively mix the media. The media can also be optionally packed above the surge mixer. In this case the surge flow can turn over the bed and mix the media, while reducing mechanical break up the media. Membrane filter(s) can also be used to retain microorganisms within the reactor, and the surge mixer can effectively remove the accumulated microorganisms on the membrane surface through strong surge action. The same or similar design in FIG. 4 can also be used for other purposes or in other industry. For example, it can be used in brewery industry to replace the existing reactors that use mechanical mixers. It can also be used in non-biological processes for water and wastewater treatment, by dispersing particulate reactants such as adsorbents (GAC, iron oxide, aluminum (hydr)oxide, etc.), oxidizing or reducing agents (such as zero valent ion), chemicals (such as alum), catalyzers (such as TiO 2 ), and the like within the tank. A combination of different media can also be used. For example, the coagulant and powered activated carbon combination can be used in some cases, to enhance the retention and biodegradation of some organic compounds that could be difficult to be removed otherwise. [0040] FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of an alternative embodiment of the disclosed invention. Compared to FIG. 4 design, a baffle ( 18 ) is installed in the upper portion of the tank ( 16 ). When tank content is pumped out of the surge mixer ( 17 ) from the bottom of the reactor, it is re-directed back to the lower portion of the tank ( 16 ). Therefore, the upper portion of the tank ( 16 ), between the tank wall and the baffle, is under relatively static conditions. This static condition serves as a clarification zone for settling particles or thickening zone for sludge, which reduces the amount of sludge being washed out of the reactor, therefore retains more sludge within the reactor for needed reaction. In addition to the similar functions the FIG. 4 design can achieve, it can also be used as a solids-contact clarifier in some applications, to perform reaction and clarification within one tank. In addition, it can be used as an up-flow sludge blanket bed or filter to perform biodegradation and/or filtration, with improved influent distribution at the lower portion of the tank. For example, it can replace the primary clarifier in a biological nutrient removal process, to digest settled particles from the influent and produce low molecular weight soluble organic matter that is used as a carbon source needed for denitrification and/or biological phosphorus removal. This reactor can also be used to treat water or wastewater by adding activated carbon and/or other media, which forms a media blanket. The surge mixer improves the distribution of the water during its filtration through the media. This media blanket can retain both pollutants and microorganisms on the surface of the media, therefore enhances pollutant removal through adsorption, biodegradation, and other mechanisms. [0041] FIG. 6 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of an alternative embodiment of the disclosed invention. Compared to FIG. 4 design, multiple 3-way conduits ( 23 ) are installed on top of the surge mixer ( 22 ), to redirect the flow from the top of the surge mixer ( 22 ) back to the lower portion of the tank ( 21 ). These conduits ( 23 ) function like the baffle ( 18 ) in FIG. 5 design. Other baffle design can be used, as long as it can maintain part of the tank static. [0042] FIG. 7 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment of the disclosed invention. The bioreactor of this invention has a mixing zone ( 123 ) that is mixed using one or more serge mixers ( 117 ), followed by an aeration zone ( 124 ), then by a static zone ( 125 ). The mixing zone ( 123 ), the aeration zone ( 124 ), and the static zone ( 125 ) can optionally be located in separate tanks. For mixing zone ( 123 ) shown in FIG. 7 , a baffle is installed to re-direct the surged liquid back to the lower portion of the mixing zone ( 123 ), and maintain a static condition at the upper portion of the mixing zone ( 123 ). This is used to retain as much biomass as possible for reaction, while making the lower portion of the mixing zone mixed. Highly active granular sludge may be formed in the mixing zone to further improve its performance. Other methods to retain biomass may be used (such as using three way pipes to maintain a static zone, and/or adding different types of media to improve solids retention). Influent flows into the lower portion of the mixing zone ( 123 ) where it mixes with established biomass within the mixing zone and/or that returned from the aeration zone ( 124 ) or static zone ( 125 ), to perform denitrification if the mixing zone is under an anoxic condition. If the mixing zone ( 123 ) is under partial or full anaerobic conditions, PAOs can also be cultured to uptake phosphorus in the following aeration zone ( 124 ). [0043] The mixed liquor leaves the mixing zone ( 123 ) and enters the aeration zone ( 124 ) where organic matter is degraded and nitrification is performed if an appropriate sludge age is maintained. An aeration device ( 121 ) is used to impart oxygen to the aeration zone ( 124 ) for aerobic reactions. The aeration may optionally be controlled by the capacity of the aeration device, aerobic zone DO, ammonia concentration, or a combination thereof. If the aeration zone ( 124 ) is operated under a low DO, simultaneous nitrification and denitrification could occur within the aeration zone, to facilitate total nitrogen removal and oxygen recovery. In addition, the low DO and low nitrate in the return mixed liquor to the mixing zone ( 123 ) further enhances the denitrification performance of the mixing zone and may also make the mixing zone partially anaerobic, to cultivate phosphorus accumulating organisms (PAOs), therefore add biological phosphorus removal capability. As a result, low DO aeration results in less aeration energy use, and also improves nitrogen and phosphorus removal at the same time. An optional aerobic zone that is operated under a higher DO (>1 mg/L) can be added between the low-DO aeration zone ( 124 ) and static zone ( 125 ), to polish the low-DO mixed liquor by recharging oxygen before entering the static zone ( 125 ). This will facilitate the sludge settling within the static zone, and also further oxidize ammonia and improve biological phosphorus uptake. If this optional higher-DO aerobic zone is used, the sludge from the static zone ( 125 ) still return back to aeration zone ( 124 ) and/or mixing zone ( 123 ). If the sludge from the static zone ( 125 ) is directly returned to the mixing zone ( 123 ), the internal return of mixed liquor from the aeration zone ( 124 ) to the mixing zone ( 123 ) may be eliminated. No matter if the mixed liquor in the low-DO aeration zone ( 124 ) is returned to the mixing zone ( 123 ), this process has a no DO mixing stage, a low DO aeration stage, and high DO aeration stage, therefore can be termed as a 3-stage process. [0044] The mixed liquor then flows to the static zone ( 125 ) through a conduit formed by a baffle group ( 119 ), or other conduits (such as pipes) that connect the aeration zone ( 124 ) and the static zone ( 125 ). The static zone ( 125 ) is used to settle biomass, and the settled biomass is returned back to aeration zone ( 124 ) or directly to the mixing zone ( 123 ) using mechanical or airlift pumps, shown as an airlift pump ( 120 ) in this particular embodiment due to its low head requirement. In particular, if a surge lifting device that could result in a pulsation action at the lower portion of the static zone ( 125 ) is used to return the settled sludge from the static zone ( 125 ), it could improve the sludge thickening within the static zone ( 125 ). If the sludge from the bottom of the static zone ( 125 ) is directly returned to the mixing zone ( 123 ), the mixed liquor return device ( 122 ) may be eliminated. If the bottom of the static zone ( 125 ) is open to the aeration zone ( 124 ) (in case both zones are in the same tank), settled sludge at the bottom of the static zone ( 125 ) can be automatically returned to the aeration zone ( 124 ) as a result of the air lifting force in the aeration zone ( 124 ), which creates a continuous return flow in the conduit connecting the aeration zone ( 124 ) to the lower portion of the static zone ( 125 ), to carry the settled biomass back to the aeration zone ( 124 ). In this case the sludge return device ( 120 ) may be eliminated. Sludge may be wasted from any zone. [0045] A polishing clarifier can optionally be added after the static zone ( 125 ), to further remove solids carried out of the static zone ( 125 ). Normally, the solids carried out of the static zone ( 125 ) to the polishing clarifier have lower settling velocity. If part or all these lower-settling solids (e.g. lighter-weight solids) collected in the polishing clarifier are wasted, the static zone ( 125 ) and polishing clarifier combination can serve as a selector, to automatically retain heavier solid particles, including the granular sludge, within the bioreactor, and improve the reactor performance. Another aerobic zone can also be optionally added between the static zone ( 125 ) and the polishing clarifier, to recharge oxygen to the static zone effluent. This optional aerobic zone also breaks up any floating sludge carried out of the static zone ( 125 ), and facilitate sludge settling in the polishing clarifier. This aerobic zone may also facilitate biological phosphorus uptake and oxidation of residue ammonia if biomass is present. This optional aerobic zone can also be used to mix chemicals if chemicals are used to treat the static zone effluent. The settled solids from the polishing clarifier can also be optionally returned back to the mixing zone ( 123 ) and/or aeration zone ( 124 ). [0046] If the static zone ( 125 ) is located in a separate tank, it is normally called a secondary clarifier. A sludge return device ( 120 ) should be used, to return settled sludge from the bottom of the static zone ( 125 ) to either the mixing zone ( 123 ) or the aeration zone ( 124 ). If the sludge is returned to the aeration zone ( 124 ), an internal mixed liquor return device ( 122 ) should not be eliminated. In this case the aeration zone ( 124 ) can also be called the aeration tank. The aeration zone ( 124 ) can be operated under a low DO, to improve energy efficiency and nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) removal. If low DO is maintained within the aeration zone ( 124 ), an aeration tank or zone that is operated under a higher DO (>1 mg/L) can optionally be added between the aeration zone ( 124 ) and the static zone ( 125 ), to polish the effluent from the aeration zone ( 124 ). The addition of this higher DO aeration tank or zone can facilitate secondary clarifier performance, ammonia oxidation, and phosphorus removal. No matter if this optional higher DO aeration tank or zone is used, the settled sludge from the static zone ( 125 ) should be returned back to the aeration zone ( 124 ) and/or mixing zone ( 123 ), using a pump device. Sludge may be wasted from any zones. [0047] If the sludge from the static zone ( 125 ) is directly returned to the mixing zone ( 123 ), the internal return of mixed liquor from the aeration zone ( 124 ) to the mixing zone ( 123 ) may be eliminated. No matter if the mixed liquor in the low-DO aeration zone ( 124 ) is returned to the mixing zone ( 123 ), this process has a no DO mixing stage, a low DO aeration stage, and high DO aeration stage, therefore can be termed as a 3-stage process. [0048] A polishing clarifier can optionally be added after the static zone ( 125 ), to further remove solids carried out of the static zone ( 125 ). Normally, the solids carried out of the static zone ( 125 ) to the polishing clarifier have lower settling velocity. If part or all these lower-settling solids (e.g. lighter-weight solids) collected in the polishing clarifier are wasted, the static zone ( 125 ) and polishing clarifier combination can serve as a selector, to automatically retain heavier solid particles, including the granular sludge, within the bioreactor, and improve the reactor performance. Another aerobic zone can also be optionally added between the static zone ( 125 ) and the polishing clarifier, to recharge oxygen to the static zone effluent. This optional aerobic zone also break up any floating sludge carried out of the static zone ( 125 ), and facilitate sludge settling in the polishing clarifier. This aerobic zone also facilitates biological phosphorus uptake and oxidation of residue ammonia. This optional aerobic zone can also be used to mix chemicals if chemicals are used to treat the static zone effluent. The settled solids from the polishing clarifier can also be optionally returned back to the mixing zone ( 123 ) and/or aeration zone ( 124 ). [0049] Compared to other processes, bioreactors according to the disclosed invention use an energy-efficient surge mixer, driven by air and without any moving parts, to create periodic surge lifting action to mix the content within the mixing zone, therefore reduces the energy use and maintenance needs. It also create a condition that may form highly effective granular sludge to facilitate processes function. Moreover, if the optional baffle on the upper portion of the mixing zone is used, the baffle improves sludge retention within the mixing zone, therefore improves the anaerobic or anoxic reaction rate. [0050] An additional mixing zone can optionally be placed ahead of the pre-anoxic mixing zone ( 123 ) to serve as an anaerobic mixing zone, and sludge from the static zone can be returned to either mixing zones or aerobic zone. Sludge return from the pre-anoxic mixing zone and from the aerobic zone may be needed, to allow the three reaction zones to be under anaerobic-anoxic-oxic conditions in series, and achieve both nitrogen removal and phosphorus removal. All mixings may be air-driven and can optionally perform surge lifting action. All return devices may also be air driven to simplify operation. [0051] FIG. 8 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment of the disclosed technology. Compared to FIG. 7 design, it adds mixing devices in the aerobic zone. Instead of maintaining continuous aerobic condition, the aeration device in zone ( 144 ) operates in a cycling on and off pattern, to create an alternating anoxic-oxic condition. Therefore, zone ( 144 ) is now called alternating aeration on/off zone. Influent enters the reactor mixing zone ( 143 ), and mixes with the content within the mixing zone and the return mixed liquor from the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) or static zone ( 145 ) by a surge mixer ( 137 ), which optionally uses 3-way conduits to maintain the upper portion of the mixing zone ( 143 ) static. Instead of using 3-way conduits, baffles can also be optionally used to maintain the upper portion of the mixing zone static. Other particular media may also be used to retain biomass within the mixing zone. The purpose of this front mixing zone is to enhance biological phosphorous removal and denitrification, and is operated under anaerobic and anoxic conditions, depending on the operation cycle of the aeration device ( 141 ). The tank content leaves the mixing zone ( 143 ) and enters the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ), which is separated by a baffle ( 138 ). The mixing zone ( 143 ), alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ), and the static zone ( 145 ) could also be located in separate tanks for large flow applications. [0052] The aeration device ( 141 ) in the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) is operated in a cycling on and off pattern for organic matter removal and nitrification when the aeration device is on, and for denitrification when the aeration device is off. The aeration can optionally be controlled by the capacity of the aeration device, DO and/or ammonia concentration within the aerobic zone. The mixing device ( 146 ) in the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) is operated at least during the aeration-off period to provide mixing. The mixing device ( 146 ) within the alternating aeration on/off zone shown in this design is a surge lifting device, but it can also be other types of mixing devices. When the alternating aeration on/off zone is under aerobic condition (the aeration device is on), the mixing zone ( 143 ) is likely under anoxic condition. When the alternating aeration on/off zone is operated in the anoxic condition (without aeration but with mixing), the mixing zone ( 143 ) may be under anaerobic condition because there is no dissolved oxygen in the return mixed liquor, and the nitrate concentration is also low due to the additional denitrification within the aeration on/off zone during the aeration off period. Therefore, this mixing zone ( 143 ) is operated under alternating anaerobic-anoxic condition, corresponding to the anoxic-oxic condition of the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ). Through the mixing zone and the alternating aeration on/off zone combination, the reactor can achieve comprehensive nitrogen and phosphorus removal. The mixed liquor leaves the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) and enters the static zone ( 145 ). Sludge may be wasted from the alternating aeration on/off zone right before the aeration is stopped, to ensure the maximum phosphorus uptake by the sludge. An aerobic zone or tank that is continuously aerated can optionally be added between the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) and the static zone ( 145 ), to further improve the reactor performance. This aerobic zone can recharge oxygen to the mixed liquor exiting the alternating aeration on/off zone. This will help to improve the sludge settling characteristics within the static zone ( 145 ). In addition, some ammonia or organic nitrogen entering the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) during the aeration off period is not oxidized, therefore the added continuously aerated zone should be used to oxidize this fraction of ammonia or organic nitrogen before solid-liquid separation if low ammonia discharge limit is required. Moreover, during aeration off period, some phosphorus will release from the sludge. This continuously aerated zone is used to re-uptake the released phosphorus during the aeration off period. Sludge may be wasted from this continuous aeration zone, to ensure the maximum phosphorus uptake by the sludge. [0053] Sludge solids settled to the bottom of the static zone ( 145 ) are returned to the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) through a pump ( 140 ), shown is an air lift pump (although other types of pumps may also be used). The sludge can also be optionally directly returned to the mixing zone ( 143 ). If the settled sludge in static zone ( 145 ) is directly returned to the mixing zone ( 143 ), the mixed liquor return device ( 142 ) may be limited. The sludge return pump ( 140 ) can also be a mechanical pump or a surge lift pump. Supernatant in the static zone ( 145 ) leaves the reactor as effluent, and an optional polishing clarifier can be used to treat the effluent from the static zone ( 145 ), to further remove solids carried out of the bioreactor. Normally, the solids carried out of the static zone ( 145 ) to the polishing clarifier have lower settling velocity. If part of all these lower-settling solids (e.g. lighter-weight solids) collected in the polishing clarifier are wasted, the static zone ( 145 ) and the polishing clarifier combination can serve as a selector, to automatically retain heavier solid particles, including the granular sludge, within the bioreactor, and improve the reactor performance. Another aerobic zone can also be optionally added between the static zone ( 145 ) and the polishing clarifier, to recharge oxygen to the static zone effluent. This optional aerobic zone can also break up any floating sludge carried out of the static zone ( 145 ), and facilitate sludge settling in the polishing clarifier. This optional aerobic zone also facilitates biological phosphorus uptake and oxidation of residue ammonia. This optional aerobic zone can also be used to mix chemicals if chemicals are used to treat the static zone effluent. The settled solids from the polishing clarifier can also be optionally wasted or returned back to the mixing zone or ( 143 ) and/or the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ). [0054] The mixing zone ( 143 ), alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ), and static zone ( 145 ) can also be optionally located in different tanks. A continuously aerated tank or zone can optionally be added between the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) and static zone ( 145 ), to facilitate sludge settling, ammonia and organic nitrogen oxidation, and phosphorus removal. Another polishing clarifier can optionally be added after the static zone ( 145 ) to further removal sludge, and sludge in this polishing clarifier can optionally be wasted, or be returned back to the mixing zone and/or alternating aeration on/off zone. An aerobic tank or zone can also be optionally added before this polishing clarifier, to improve the sludge settling performance within the polishing clarifier. This aerobic tank or zone also facilitates biological phosphorus uptake and oxidation of residue ammonia. This optional aerobic zone can also be used to mix chemicals if chemicals are used to treat the static zone effluent. [0055] Compared to the embodiment shown in FIG. 7 , FIG. 8 has a cycling aeration on and off operation pattern in the alternating aeration on/off zone. The nitrate/nitrite in the alternating aeration on/off zone can be denitrified within the same zone during the aeration-off period. In addition, the preceding mixing zone ( 143 ) can be more easily maintained at an anaerobic condition during the aeration off period, as a result of the more complete denitrification of the mixed liquor within the alternating aeration on/off zone. Compared to conventional anaerobic-anoxic-oxic (A 2 O) process or the University of Cape Town (UCT) process that have three zones or tanks in the bioreactor, the present invention only has two zones or tanks and less return streams. Therefore, the present invention is easier to construct and operate. In addition, during the aeration-off period the entire alternating aeration on/off zone is under anoxic condition, therefore the nitrate/nitrite species can be completely denitrified, the final effluent should have a lower total nitrogen concentration than that from A 2 O and UCT processes. Ammonia and/or nitrate within the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 144 ) can optionally be used as an indicator to control the operation of the aeration device ( 141 ). Maintaining a low DO during the aeration period can save energy and promote sustainability for wastewater treatment. [0056] FIG. 9 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment in accordance with the disclosed technology. Compared to the FIG. 8 embodiment, it adds a continuously aerated aerobic zone ( 165 ) at the end of the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 164 ), to recharge oxygen to the mixed liquor, facilitating solid-liquid separation, complete nitrification, and biological phosphorus uptake. Sludge may be wasted from the aerobic zone ( 165 ). In addition, the solid-liquid separation is performed in a different tank, or a secondary clarifier ( 168 ). The settled sludge in the secondary clarifier is optionally returned to the mixing zone ( 163 ) through a sludge return pump ( 160 ), which could be any pump device including mechanical pump or airlift pump. In this case the mixed liquor return device ( 162 ) may be eliminated. The settled sludge can also be optionally returned to the alternating aeration on/off zone ( 164 ). Excess sludge can optionally be removed from the secondary clarifier ( 168 ) as shown in FIG. 9 . [0057] An optional polishing clarifier can be added to further treat the effluent from the secondary clarifier ( 168 ). In this case the secondary clarifier ( 168 ) is used to maintain sludge mass in the reaction tank, and the polishing clarifier is used to collect light-weight solids, which are optionally wasted out of the process. This two clarifier combination will serve as a selector, to keep heavier particles, including the granular sludge, within the process, to improve the treatment performance. An aerobic tank or zone can also be optionally added between the secondary clarifier ( 168 ) and the polishing clarifier, to improve sludge removal, phosphorus removal, and ammonia removal. It can also be used to mix chemicals if chemicals are used to treat the effluent from the secondary clarifier ( 168 ). [0058] FIG. 10 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment in accordance with the disclosed technology. It comprises a sealed tank ( 191 ) and a surge mixer ( 193 ) that is designed to collect biogas under it. It also has an optional means to return biogas ( 192 ) from the top of the reactor vessel ( 191 ) to somewhere under the collar of the surge mixer ( 193 ), to increase the surge mixing frequency of the surge mixer ( 193 ). Side baffle(s) can also be optionally installed below the gas chamber of the surge mixer ( 193 ) to increase gas collection and improve the mixing. Baffle(s) can also be optionally installed on the upper portion of the tank, similar to that disclosed in FIG. 5 , to create a static zone and facilitate solids retention. In some cases the gas collection chamber of the surge mixer (also refers as gas collar of the surge mixer) is near the bottom of the reactor vessel ( 191 ), and the amount of gas automatically collected from the tank space below it is very minimal. Therefore, gas will should be returned from the top of the reactor vessel, to initiate the surge action for tank mixing. [0059] FIG. 11 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of yet another embodiment in accordance with the disclosed technology. In addition to the components shown in FIG. 10 , FIG. 11 shows the side baffle ( 103 ) which is used to collect most gas generated bellow the gas collection collar. In addition, the surge mixer ( 102 ) is connected to the tank through a spring mechanism ( 104 ). This spring mechanism can also be optionally installed on the top of the surge mixer and against the top of the tank. Moreover, a force mitigation plate ( 105 ) is installed above the outlet of the surge lifting device ( 102 ), to reduce the impact of surge to the top of the reaction vessel ( 101 ). When the surge flow hit the mitigation plate ( 105 ), it will provide an impact to the entire surge mixer ( 102 ) and make it vibrate, enhancing the mixing. [0060] FIG. 12 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment in accordance with the disclosed technology. This particular embodiment shows an automatic surge mixing device ( 272 ) with a different design. Feed is introduced into the reactor via inlet ( 264 ). There it mixes with, and is consumed by, anaerobic bacteria which produce biogas. As gas bubbles generated under the gas collection collar they float upward, and are captured by the gas collection collar ( 268 ). The gas expands in volume until it reaches the bottom of the upper riser ( 272 ). At this point the gas flows through the gas conduit ( 274 ) created by the lower riser ( 276 ) extending over the upper riser ( 272 ), and into the upper riser ( 272 ). As the gas travels through the upper riser ( 272 ) it pulls solids from the bottom of the reactor and deposits them at the top, recycling the tank content therefore effectively mixing the reactor. Accumulated gas leaves the reactor via gas outlet ( 280 ). Effluent from the reactor leaves through the outlet ( 282 ), and the reactor can be drained through the drain ( 284 ). All of the optional components described in the discussion of FIGS. 10-11 may be included in this embodiment as well. [0061] FIG. 13 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of one embodiment of an air- or gas-lift device to lift liquid and liquid mixtures (sludge, mud, oil, sediment, or particles in liquid). This embodiment collects and stores gas (could be air, biogas, or other gases) in the gas collection chamber ( 301 ) to a certain volume, then releases it through the T-shaped conduit ( 302 ) to the riser tube ( 300 ) at once, to form a large gas plug inside the riser tube ( 300 ) and create a strong lifting motion, pulling liquid content from the bottom to the top of the riser tube ( 300 ). If the gas is continuously supplied, this lifting motion repeats periodically. Therefore, this device is termed surge lifting device herein to differentiate it with conventional continuous flow airlift devices. It can also be called surge mixer if used for mixing, or surge pump if used for liquid transfer. Gas enters the gas collection chamber ( 301 ) through either an optional gas supply line ( 303 ) as shown or by rising from a source below the device (not shown). In some applications the housing of the gas collection chamber ( 301 ) or the bottom of the riser tube ( 300 ) can be further extended to other locations, to draw liquid from different places. [0062] During operation, the gas is initially collected by and stored in the gas collection chamber ( 301 ). The volume of the gas expands and the gas-liquid interface moves downward. At some point the gas leaks to the riser tube through the conduit ( 302 ), shown as a T-shaped tube, causing an initial lift within the riser tube ( 300 ). This initial lift further pulls the entire volume of the gas within the gas collection chamber ( 301 ) into the riser tube ( 300 ) at once, creating a gas plug within the riser tube therefore a significant lifting action, e.g. surge lifting action. This surge lifting action pulls the tank content from the bottom of the riser tube and releases it to anywhere above the top. Therefore, this surge lifting device can optionally be used to transport liquid, liquid mixtures, sludge, particles in liquid, etc. from one location to another, and can also be used to perform tank mixing, or to simply generate large gas bubbles if desired. [0063] Compared to a disclosed device shown in FIG. 3 , the embodiment shown in FIG. 13 employs a 3-way conduit rather than an elbow. This improvement significantly reduces the chance of clogging when it is used to mix or transport liquid that has debris. In case of clogging, FIG. 13 design is very easy to clean, because the top of the 3-way conduit is easily accessible. FIG. 14 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of an alternative embodiment of an air- or gas-lift type device to lift liquid and liquid mixtures (sludge, mud, oil, or particles in liquid). It has the same function as the FIG. 13 embodiment, but it has two 3-way conduits, which make it even less likely to be clogged. In case one of the conduit is clogged, the pump is still functional using the second 3-way conduit. Overtime, the clogged conduit will be gradually un-plugged either from the top or from the bottom of the clogged 3-way conduit through repeatedly pulling and pushing actions during the surge. [0064] FIG. 15 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of an alternative embodiment of an air- or gas-lift type device to lift liquid and liquid mixtures (sludge, mud, oil, or particles in liquid). Compared to FIG. 14 embodiment, it uses baffles ( 332 ) to replace the 3-way conduits to achieve the same function. This design reduces the overall size of the device, and is easier to build. The low edge of the housing of the gas chamber ( 331 ) can be extended to other locations, to draw liquid from other places. The bottom of the riser tube ( 330 ) can also be extended to other locations. [0065] FIG. 16 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of an alternative embodiment of an air- or gas-lift type device to lift liquid and liquid mixtures. Compared to FIG. 15 embodiment, a T-shaped pipe ( 344 ) is connected to the bottom of the riser tube. It is an example to extend the bottom of the riser tube, and can be used to increase the impact area when mixing function is used. [0066] FIG. 17 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment of an air- or gas-lift type device to lift liquid and liquid mixtures. Different from the early art disclosed in FIG. 3 , the riser tube in FIG. 17 design ( 350 ) has a closed bottom. It is actually connecting the riser tube with a U-shaped conduit at the bottom, therefore it is easy to build. [0067] FIG. 18 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment of an air- or gas-lift type device to lift liquid and liquid mixtures. It has the similar function as the embodiment shown in FIG. 17 . However, the housing of the air chamber ( 361 ) extends to a different direction. This is an example for how the housing can be extended to other places for all the surge lifting devices. [0068] FIG. 19 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of another embodiment of an air- or gas-lift type device to lift liquid and liquid mixtures. It has the similar function as the embodiment shown in FIG. 13-18 . However, it uses a 3-way conduit ( 372 ) to transfer gas to the riser that has a closed bottom ( 370 ). [0069] While the claimed technology has been illustrated and described in detail in the drawings and foregoing description, the same is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character. It is understood that the embodiments have been shown and described in the foregoing specification in satisfaction of the best mode and enablement requirements. It is understood that one of ordinary skill in the art could readily make a nigh-infinite number of insubstantial changes and modifications to the above-described embodiments and that it would be impractical to attempt to describe all such embodiment variations in the present specification. Accordingly, it is understood that all changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the claimed technology are desired to be protected.

Described herein are methods and devices for treating water, wastewater, and organic wastes. The methods and devices are mixed by using hydraulic surge mixers. This surge mixer is driven by gas and can provide occasional surges of water using large bubbles which are able to move great volume of liquid while minimizing dissolved oxygen transfer to the surrounding liquid. Use of the devices and processes herein provides a simple, eloquent approach to water and wastewater treatment with less operation and maintenance costs than conventional devices and/or processes. The same surge lifting device can also be installed in other reactors to mix the tank content and enhance reaction with reduced energy use and maintenance needs.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/093,898, filed Jul. 20, 1993, now abandoned which is, in turn, a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/788,761, filed May 27, 1992, now abandoned. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to semiconductor devices, and more particularly to a tunable laser diode that has a branched optical cavity for realizing a large shift of laser oscillation. In the optical telecommunication systems that use the wavelength multiplexing technique, a tunable laser diode that can change the wavelength of the output optical beam for a wide wavelength range is indispensable. Such a tunable laser diode is used for example for an optical local oscillator of optical heterodyne detectors. In the optical heterodyne detectors, a non-linear mixing of two optical beams is achieved at a photodetector, wherein one of the optical beams carries information while the other is a local optical beam that is produced by the optical local oscillator. Thereby, the information carried on the optical beam is converted to an intermediate electrical signal having an intermediate frequency. It should be noted that the intermediate electrical signal contains the information content that has been modulated on the optical beam by any of amplitude modulation, frequency modulation or phase modulation. By changing the wavelength of the optical local oscillator in accordance with the wavelength of the incident optical beam, one can obtain the intermediate frequency signal with a substantially constant frequency. It should be noted that such an optical heterodyne detection is particularly suitable for extracting a desired signal from a number of signals that are multiplexed on the optical beam. In order to realize the optical local oscillator, it will be understood that the development of the tunable laser diode that has the capability of extensive wavelength tuning is essential. Conventionally, a so-called DBR laser diode is proposed for a tunable laser diode (Kotaki et al., Electronics Letters, Vol. 24, No. 8, 1988, 503-505; Broberg et al., Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 52, No. 16, 1988, pp. 1285-1287). In the DBR laser diode, a Bragg reflector consisting of a corrugation is provided in the optical cavity of the laser diode adjacent to, and in alignment with the active layer so that the corrugation causes a Bragg reflection of the optical beam. There, the optical beam is amplified by the stimulated emission in the active layer as it is reflected back and forth by the corrugation. The shift of the wavelength of the optical beam is achieved by injecting carriers into the Bragg reflector. It should be noted that such an injection of the carries induces a change of the refractive index in the material that forms the corrugation by the plasma effect, and such a change of the refractive index in turn causes a change of the effective pitch of the corrugation. Thereby, the wavelength of the optical beam that establishes the Bragg reflection is changed. Unfortunately, the magnitude of the wavelength change that is achieved by the DBR laser diode of this prior art is relatively limited. For example, Kotaki et al. op. cit. describes a change of the laser oscillation of only 6.2 nm in the 1.53 μm band, while Broberg et al. op. cit. describes a change of 11.6 nm in the 1.55 μm band. The reason of this unsatisfactory result is attributed to the very fundamental principle of the wavelength shifting that the laser diode of this prior art relies upon. For example, in the case of the DBR laser diode reported by Broberg et al. op. cit., the laser oscillation may be interrupted when the injection of the carriers into the corrugation is reduced for changing the refractive index of the Bragg reflector. Since the active layer extends to the region of the Bragg reflector, the reduction of the carrier injection to the Bragg reflector inevitably results in the reduction of the optical gain. The attempt to compensate for such a decreased carrier injection by increasing the carrier injection in the active layer is generally limited because of the problem of excessive heating and hence the reliability of operation of the laser diode. Once the laser oscillation is established, on the other hand, there is a tendency for the carrier density to be clamped at a constant level. This effect also acts to reduce the range of the wavelength tuning. In the DBR laser diode reported by Kotaki et al., op. cit., the tuning range is determined by the maximum injection current to the DBR region, which in turn is limited by the heating effect. As a tunable laser diode, a DFB laser diode having segmented electrodes has also been proposed (Kotaki et al., Electronic Letters, Vol. 25, No. 15, 1989, pp. 990-992). This prior art laser diode has an active layer extending throughout the optical cavity, and there is provided a corrugation in the optical cavity extending from a first end to a second, opposite end of the laser diode, as is usual in the DFB laser diode. In the corrugation, there is provided a λ/4-shift point where the phase of the corrugation is shifted by a quarter (1/4) of the pitch or wavelength of the corrugation. Thereby, there occurs a strong concentration of optical radiation in the optical cavity in correspondence to the λ/4-shift point. This in turn causes a strong depletion of carriers in correspondence to the λ/4-shift point due to the facilitated stimulated emission. In this prior art DFB laser diode, the electrodes that form the segmented electrodes are provided in alignment with the optical axis with a physical separation from each other, wherein one of the electrodes is provided in correspondence to this λ/4-shift point. By controlling the injection current to the electrode that is located immediately above the λ/4-shift point and further by controlling the injection current to the rest of the electrodes independently, the profile of the carrier distribution and hence the intensity distribution of the optical radiation is modified as desired. For example, by decreasing the carrier injection to the electrodes that are offset from the λ/4-shift point, the non-uniform distribution of the carriers in the optical cavity is enhanced. Thereby, the overall refractive index of the optical cavity is decreased by the plasma effect, which in turn results in a decreased Bragg wavelength. Such a decrease of the Bragg wavelength results in a decrease of the oscillation wavelength of the laser diode. When increasing the oscillation wavelength, on the other hand, the injection current at the electrode above the λ/4-shift point is increased such that carrier distribution in the optical cavity becomes more uniform. With such a change of the carrier distribution profile, the refractive index of the optical cavity is increased as a whole, which in turn results in an increase of effective cavity length of the laser diode. Thereby, the oscillation wavelength of the laser diode increases. This prior art device also has a drawback in that the magnitude of the wavelength shift is not sufficient for the optical local oscillator mentioned previously. This problem becomes particularly conspicuous when increasing the oscillation wavelength. As already noted, the increase of the oscillation wavelength is achieved by decreasing the carrier injection to the electrodes located at opposite sides of the λ/4-shift point. However, the magnitude of the decrease of the carrier injection is limited by the constraint that the laser oscillation has to be sustained. Further, the increase of the carrier injection to the λ/4-shift point is limited, as an excessive increase of the carrier injection tends to cause a decrease of the oscillation wavelength by the adversary plasma effect, which acts oppositely to the desired effect. Generally, the DFB laser diode of this type provides a range of wavelength shift that is even smaller than that of the first type device mentioned previously. For example, Kotaki et al. op. cit. reports a wavelength shift of 2.2 nm. In order to realize a much larger shift of oscillation wavelength, a third type tunable laser diode that uses a split optical cavity has been proposed (Schilling et. al., Electronics Letters, Vol. 26, No. 4, 1990, pp. 243-244; Schilling et al., IEEE J. Quantum Electronics, Vol. 27, No. 6, 1991, 1616-1624; Hildebrand et al., 17th ECOC'91/IOOC'91, 1991, Paper #Tu.A5.1; Idler et. al., Electronics Letters, Vol. 27, No. 24, 1991, pp. 2268-2270). In this type of tunable laser diode, there is provided a Y-shaped, branched optical cavity that divides the optical beam into two beams. The two optical beams thus produced cause an interference in correspondence to the part where the two branches merge with each other. By controlling the refractive index of one or both of the branches so that there occurs a constructive interference between the two optical beams, one can achieve a laser oscillation at a desired oscillation wavelength. Next, the principle of this type of tunable laser diode will be explained in more detail with reference to FIG. 1, which shows the structure of a conventional tunable laser diode 10. Referring to FIG. 1 showing the laser diode 10 in a plan view, the device includes two optical cavities B 1 and B 2 that merge with each other in correspondence to a gain region 10a. In other words, the gain region 10a is common to the optical cavities B 1 and B 2 . In correspondence to the gain region 10a, there is provided an active part of the laser diode that amplifies the optical beam passing therethrough by stimulated emission. Further, in correspondence to the part where the cavities B 1 and B 2 are branched from each other, regions 10b and 10c are formed respectively for modifying the refractive index thereof. The optical cavities B 1 and B 2 have respective optical lengths L 1 and L 2 , wherein the optical length L 1 of the cavity B 1 is set different from the optical length L 2 of the cavity B 2 . In the illustrated example, the optical length L 2 is set larger than the optical length L 1 . FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B) show the standing waves that are formed in the optical cavities B 1 and B 2 by the optical beam produced by the gain region 10a. There, it will be noted that the phase of the optical beam in the optical cavity B 1 and the phase of the optical beam in the optical cavity B 2 coincide with each other, indicating that there is established a constructive interference of the two optical beams in the gain region 10a. In other words, FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B) show the case wherein the laser diode produces a strong coherent optical beam. FIG. 3 shows various longitudinal modes of laser oscillation that correspond to various standing waves formed in an optical cavity. As is well known in the art, a laser diode having an optical cavity oscillates at discrete wavelengths in correspondence to the standing waves that are established in the optical cavity. Thereby, each mode is separated from the adjacent mode by a frequency Δν that is given as Δν=c/2nL, (1) where c represents the speed of light in the vacuum, n represents the refractive index of the medium that forms the optical cavity, and L represents the axial length of the optical cavity. The foregoing relationship can be rewritten in terms of the wavelength λ of the optical beam such that: Δλ=λ.sup.2 /2nL, (2) where Δλ represents the wavelength separation between the adjacent modes. Eq. (2) indicates that the wavelength separation Δλ is determined by the wavelength λ of the optical beam, the refractive index n and the length L of the optical cavity. It should be noted that the refractive index n is included in the denominator of Eq. (2). On the other hand, the oscillation wavelength of each longitudinal mode is given as: λ.sub.m =2nL/M (3) where m represents the order of the mode. Eq. (3) indicates that the wavelength λ m is proportional to the refractive index n of the optical cavity. In other words, the wavelength λ m changes linearly with the change of the refractive index n while maintaining a generally constant wavelength separation Δλ from the adjacent modes. This feature will he noted in the explanation given below concerning the interference of two optical beams in the branched optical cavity. Referring to FIG. 3 again, a curve g represents the gain spectrum of the laser diode. Further, FIG. 3 shows also a cavity loss for each mode. Thus, it will be understood that each longitudinal mode has an optical gain and a cavity loss that are pertinent thereto. When the laser diode is biased to a level below the oscillation threshold, each optical mode has an optical gain that is proportional to the gain spectrum g. With increasing injection current, the optical gain increases. Thus, once the gain of one mode has exceeded the cavity loss, the laser oscillation starts at this mode. There, the gain spectrum is fixed at the state where the laser oscillation started first, and the optical amplification for the other mode is suppressed. Thus, the laser oscillation occurs selectively at the mode that initially started the oscillation, even when the injection of the carriers is increased thereafter. Next, the interference of two optical beams produced in the laser diode of FIG. 1 in correspondence to the optical cavities B 1 and B 2 respectively will be examined with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. Referring to FIG. 4, the spectrum of the first optical cavity B 1 includes the modes m1, m1±1, m1±2, . . . , and the spectrum is superposed on the spectrum of the second optical cavity B 2 that includes the modes m2, m2±1, m2±2, . . . There, each mode of the first optical cavity B 1 is separated from each other such mode by a wavelength separation Δλ 1 , while each mode of the second optical cavity B 2 is separated from each other such mode by a wavelength separation Δλ 2 . It should be noted that the wavelength of the m1-th mode of the first optical cavity B 1 and the wavelength of the m2-th mode of the second optical cavity B 2 coincide with each other at a wavelength λ 0 (λ m1 =λ m2 =λ 0 ). Further, in correspondence to Eq. (2), the wavelength separation between the adjacent modes in the first optical cavity B 1 is represented as Δλ.sub.1 =λ.sub.0.sup.2 /2n.sub.1 L.sub.1 where n 1 and L 1 represent respectively the refractive index and the effective length of the optical cavity B 1 , while the wavelength separation in the second optical cavity B 2 is represented as: Δλ.sub.2 =λ.sub.0.sup.2 /2n.sub.2 L.sub.2 where n 2 and L 2 represent respectively the refractive index and the effective length of the optical cavity B 2 . FIG. 5 shows the wavelength of the various modes formed in the first and second optical cavities B 1 and B 2 of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 1 while changing the refractive index n 2 of the optical cavity B 2 with respect to the refractive index n 1 of the optical cavity B 1 . There, the refractive index n 1 is held constant. It should be noted that the relationships of FIG. 5 are obtained for the tunable laser diode that has a length L 1 of 343 μm for the optical cavity B 1 and a length L 2 of 347 μm for the optical cavity B 2 , with the length of the part 10a set to 200 μm, the length of the part 10b set to 143 μm, the length of the part 10c set to 147 μm. Referring to FIG. 5, it will be noted that the wavelength λ 2m ±i of the mode 2m±i (i=1, 2, 3 . . . ) changes linearly with the change of the refractive index n 2 represented as Δn 2 . On the other hand, the wavelength λ 1m ±i of the mode 1m±i (i=1, 2, 3, . . . ) does not change as represented by the vertical lines. Further, it should he noted that the wavelength separation Δλ 2 in the cavity B 2 is set slightly smaller than the wavelength separation Δλ 1 in the cavity B 1 (Δλ 1 -Δλ 2 =0.01 nm). Thereby, there appear a number of intersections as represented by the solid circles wherein the phase of the optical beam in the optical cavity B 1 coincides with the phase of the optical beam in the optical cavity B 2 . In other words, the solid circles represent the wavelengths of the optical beam that the tunable laser diode of FIG. 1 produces. By changing the refractive index n 2 , the actual oscillation wavelength of the laser diode changes along the lines such as a line C shown in FIG. 5 that connects the solid circles. There, the line C connects the solid circles E, M, O and J, wherein the solid circle E corresponds to the wavelength λ 0 . In FIG. 5, it should be noted that there are actually one hundred λ m1 modes included between the wavelength of 1.55 μm that corresponds to λ 0 and the wavelength of 1.65 μm, and between the wavelength of 1.45 μm to the wavelength of 1.55 μm. The illustration of all these modes is not attempted, as such an illustration would excessively complicate the drawing. The relationship of FIG. 5 indicates that one can achieve a change of the wavelength of the optical beam produced by the laser diode of FIG. 1 of as much as 100 μm by merely changing the refractive index n 2 by about 0.15%. It should be noted that a change of the refractive index of this magnitude is caused in response to a very small change of the wavelength λ 2m ±i, of only 0.99 nm, in the second optical cavity B 2 . By combining with the first optical cavity B 1 and by using the interference of the optical beams in the first and second cavities B 1 and B 2 , the range of the wavelength shift is significantly expanded. In FIG. 5, it will be noted that there exist a plurality of oscillation modes for each given refractive index n 2 . For example, when the refractive index change Δn 2 is zero, the laser oscillation can occur at the wavelengths corresponding to the points A, E and I. When the parameter Δn 2 is set to 0.15%, the laser oscillation can occur at the points B, F and J. In the actual device of FIG. 1, the laser oscillation occurs only at one point for a given Δn 2 , because of the gain spectrum as will be described below. FIG. 6 shows a typical gain spectrum of the laser diode of FIG. 1. It should be noted that the gain spectrum itself is related to the material that forms the active layer of the laser diode, not to the structure of the optical cavity. Referring to FIG. 6 again, it will be noted that the oscillation can occur at any of the points A, E and I when the parameter Δn 2 is set to zero as already mentioned. On the other hand, the gain spectrum (a) of FIG. 6 indicates that the points A and E have a gain that is smaller than the gain at the point I. Thus, the laser oscillation occurs actually at the single point I, with the wavelength of 1.65 μm. When the injection current is set in correspondence to the gain spectrum (d), the laser oscillation occurs preferentially at the point E where the optical gain is the largest. In other words, as a result of the combination with the gain spectrum of FIG. 6, the laser diode of FIG. 1 having the characteristic of FIG. 5 operates substantially as a single mode tunable laser diode. In this conventional laser diode, it should be noted that a wavelength change that exceeds 100 nm cannot be achieved. For example, when the parameter Δn 2 is increased from zero, the oscillation wavelength of the laser diode increases along the line E-J of FIG. 5 until it reaches a wavelength value corresponding to the point N. Here, the gain spectrum (d) of FIG. 6 is assumed. When the wavelength has exceeded the point N and reached the point O, it will be understood from the gain spectrum (d) of FIG. 6 that the gain of the point P located at the shorter wavelength side of the point E exceeds the gain of the point O. There, the oscillation wavelength jumps from the point O to the point P. Thereby, the wavelength decreases by about 100 nm. In other words, the wavelength change that is achieved by the device of FIG. 1 is limited in the range changes between the point P and point M and cannot exceed 100 nm even when the refractive index n 2 of the second optical cavity B 2 is changed by 0.15% or more. It will be noted from FIG. 5 that a similar jump of the oscillation wavelength would be repeated between other lines such as the line A-K and the line B-L. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is a general object of the present invention to provide a novel and useful tunable laser diode, wherein the foregoing problems are eliminated. Another and more specific object of the present invention is to provide a tunable laser diode having a branched optical cavity, wherein a large shift of oscillation wavelength is achieved as a result of interference of optical beams in the branched optical cavity. Another object of the present invention is to provide tunable laser diode, comprising: first reflection means for reflecting an optical beam; second reflection means for reflecting an optical beam; optical cavity means extending between said first reflection means and said second reflection means for establishing an optical resonance by transmitting an optical beam therethrough, said optical cavity means comprising a first waveguide part having a first end connected to said first reflection means and a second, opposite end and exchanging an optical beam with said first reflection means, a second waveguide part having a first end connected to said second reflection means and a second, opposite end and exchanging an optical beam with said second reflection means, a third waveguide part connecting said second end of said first waveguide part and said second end of said second waveguide part with each other for passing a first optical beam between said first and second reflection means, and a fourth waveguide part connecting said first end of said first waveguide part and said second end of said second waveguide part separately from said third waveguide part for passing a second optical beam between said first and second reflection means, said third and fourth waveguide parts merging with each other at said second end of said first waveguide part, said third and fourth waveguide parts merging with each other at said second end of said second waveguide part, said first waveguide part, said second waveguide part and said third waveguide part forming a first optical path having a first optical path length between said first and second reflection means, said first waveguide part, said second waveguide part and said fourth waveguide part forming a second optical path having a second optical path length that is different from said first optical path length between said first and second reflection means; optical amplification means provided at least on one of said first and second waveguide parts of said optical cavity means for amplifying an optical beam that passes therethrough; and refractive index modulation means provided on said third and fourth waveguide parts of said optical cavity means for changing a refractive index of said third waveguide part and a refractive index of said fourth waveguide part relative to each other. According to the present invention, the phase of the optical beams become equal in the first and second waveguide parts of the optical cavity means. In other words, the first optical beam in the first optical path and the second optical beam in the second optical path have the same phase throughout the optical cavity means. When the first optical beam has a phase different from the phase of the second optical beam in any of the first and second waveguide parts of the optical cavity means (see FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B)), the optical beams are inevitably canceled out. In the prior art device of FIG. 1, these optical beams are not canceled out because of the Y-shaped or branched construction of the optical cavity. As the optical beams that have an asynchronous phase relationship in the first and second optical paths are canceled out in the device of the present invention, the modes shown in FIG. 5, for example by the lines E-J or B-L are eliminated. In other words, the wavelength separation between the modes is double the wavelength separation in FIG. 5. Thereby, the range in which the tunable laser diode can change the oscillation wavelength is doubled. Other objects and further features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the attached drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing the structure of a conventional tunable laser diode in a plan view; FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B) are diagrams showing the resonance of optical beams in the device of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a diagram showing the spectrum of various oscillation modes that are established in the device of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing the interference of optical beams caused in the device of FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a diagram showing the principle of wavelength tuning in the laser diode of FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing the gain spectrum of the device of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 is a diagram showing the structure of a tunable laser diode according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 8(A) and 8(B) are diagrams showing the resonance of the optical beams in the device of FIG. 7; FIG. 9 is a diagram showing the operational principle of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 7; FIG. 10 is a diagram showing the cross section of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 7 taken along a line 10-10' of FIG. 7; FIG. 11 is a diagram showing the longitudinal cross section of the optical cavity used in the laser diode of FIG. 7; FIG. 12 is a diagram showing the transversal cross section of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 7 along a line 12-12'; FIG. 13 is a diagram showing the biasing of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 7; FIG. 14 is a diagram showing the operation of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 7; FIG. 15 is a diagram corresponding to FIG. 7 showing a tunable laser diode according to a second embodiment in a plan view; FIG. 16 is a diagram corresponding to FIG. 10 showing the cross section of the tunable laser diode according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 17 is a diagram similar to FIG. 16 showing the cross section of the tunable laser diode according to a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a diagram similar to FIG. 17 showing the cross section of the tunable laser diode according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 is a diagram similar to FIG. 18 showing the cross section of the tunable laser diode according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 20 is a diagram similar to FIG. 19 showing the cross section of the tunable laser diode according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT FIG. 7 shows a tunable laser diode 20, that corresponds to a first embodiment of the present invention, in a plan view. Referring to FIG. 7, the laser diode 20 is constructed based upon a layered semiconductor body 200 to be described in detail later, wherein the semiconductor body 200 has a rectangular shape defined by a pair of opposing cleaved surfaces 200a and 200b acting as the mirrors of the optical cavity. In the semiconductor body 200, there is provided a first optical waveguide region 31 extending in the longitudinal direction of the semiconductor body from the cleaved surface 200a toward the opposite cleaved surface 200b. Similarly, a second optical waveguide region 32 is provided so as to extend in the longitudinal direction from the cleaved surface 200b toward the opposite cleaved surface 200a. There, the first optical waveguide 31 is branched into a first branch and a second branch, while the second optical waveguide 32 is also branched into a first branch and a second branch. Further, there are provided a third optical waveguide 33 connecting the first branch of the first waveguide 34 and the first branch of the second waveguide 31, and a fourth optical waveguide 34 connecting the second branch of the second optical waveguide 32 and the second branch of the first optical waveguide 31. Thereby, there are formed two optical beam paths, one passing through the optical waveguide 33 and the other passing through the optical waveguide 34. In each optical path, the optical beam is reflected back and forth between the cleaved surfaces 200a and 200b, and establishes a resonance as will be described later. In the present embodiment, the first and second waveguides 31-32 extend for a length of 100 μm, while the third and fourth optical waveguides 33 and extends for a length of 147 μm. In correspondence to the first optical waveguide 31, a gain region of the laser diode is formed as represented in FIG. 7 by an electrode 61. Similarly, another gain region is formed in correspondence to the second optical waveguide 32 as represented by an electrode 64. Thereby, these gain regions are injected with carriers and amplify the optical beam by the stimulated emission as the optical beam is reflected back and forth between the mirror surfaces 200a and 200b. Further, in correspondence to the third and fourth optical waveguides 33 and 34, there are provided electrodes 62 and 63 for injecting carriers. In response to the injection of the carriers, the refractive indices of the optical waveguides 33 and 34 changes. FIGS. 8(A) and 8(B) show the resonance occurring in the first and second optical paths. As already noted, the first optical path includes the optical waveguides 31, 32 and 33, while the second optical path includes the optical waveguides 31, 32 and 34. It will be noted that the phase of the optical beam in the first optical path and the phase of the optical beam in the second optical path coincide with each other particularly in the first and second optical waveguides 31 and 32, as these parts are provided commonly. When the two optical beams have respective phases that are inverted with respect to each other in the optical waveguide region 31, as in the case of FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B), the optical beams would cancel each other, in the waveguide region 31, and the laser diode would not oscillate. In other words, the laser diode of FIG. 7 eliminates the oscillation mode as shown in FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B). It should be noted that, in the prior art device of FIG. 1, the branches 10b and 10c are separated. Thus, even when the phase of the optical beam is inverted in the branch 10b and in the branch 10c, the optical beams can establish a constructive interference in the gain region 10a and the laser diode oscillates. By changing the refractive index of the branch 10b or branch 10c, the effective optical length L 1 or L 2 defined in FIGS. 2(A) and 2(B) is changed, and the phase relationship of the optical beam between the branch 10b and the branch 10c is inverted each time the resonant wavelength in the optical cavity B 2 changes by 0.01 nm. In the device 20 of FIG. 7, such an inversion of the phase of the optical beams does not occur because of the use of the common optical waveguides 31 and 32 as well as the common mirrors 200a and 200b. Thereby, the separation between the modes that cause the laser oscillation is increased to be two times as large as the prior art device of FIG. 1. FIG. 9 shows the principle of the wavelength tuning of the device of FIG. 7. Referring to FIG. 9, the diagram is substantially identical with FIG. 5 except that the vertical and oblique lines, representing respectively the resonance mode in the first optical path and in the second optical path, are represented by an alternate repetition of a continuous line land a broken line. There, the mode represented by the continuous line and the mode represented by the broken line have mutually inverted phases of the optical beams. Thus, when a vertical line represented by the continuous line and an oblique line represented by the continuous line intersect with each other, there occurs a constructive interference as represented by a solid circle, and the laser diode oscillates. Similarly, when a vertical line represented by the broken line and an oblique line represented by the broken line intersect with each other, there occurs a constructive interference as represented by a shaded circle and the laser diode oscillates. On the other hand, when a vertical line represented by the continuous line and an oblique line represented by the broken line intersect with each other, there occurs a destructive interference as represented by an open circle, and the laser oscillation does not occur. Further, when a vertical line represented by the broken line and an oblique line represented by the continuous line intersect with each other, there occurs also a destructive interference as represented by an open circle. In FIG. 9, it will be noted that there are defined lines such as a line A-F-K or a line C-H that represent the laser oscillation. It should be noted that the line A-F-K of FIG. 9 corresponds to the line A-F-K of FIG. 5, the line C-H of FIG. 9 corresponds to the line C-H of FIG. 5. On the other hand, FIG. 9 indicates a line B-G-L or a line E-J as the line corresponding to the operational point where the laser oscillation does not occur. In FIG. 5, on the contrary, the line B-G-L or the line E-J represent the operational point where the laser oscillation occurs. From FIG. 9 it will he noted that the wavelength separation between the adjacent modes of laser oscillation is doubled as compared with the device of FIG. 1. For example, the point K on the line A-F-K and the point C on the line C-H are separated by a wavelength of 200 nm. Between the points C and K, no laser oscillation mode exists. Thereby, the maximum range of the wavelength tuning that can he achieved by the device of FIG. 7 is doubled as compared with the prior art device of FIG. 1. In FIG. 9, it will he noted that the wavelength shift of 200 nm is achieved by a refractive index change Δn 2 of only 0.3%. Next, the structure of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 7 will be described in more detail with reference to various cross sections taken along the layered body 200 that forms the device 20. FIG. 10 shows the transverse cross section of the device 20 taken along a line 10-10' shown in FIG. 7. It will be noted from FIG. 7 that the cross section of FIG. 10 shows the second optical waveguide 32. The first optical waveguide 31 has substantially the same structure. Referring to FIG. 10, the layered body 200 includes a substrate 21 of single crystal InP doped to the n-type with the impurity concentration level of 2×10 18 cm -3 . The substrate 21 has a thickness of 100 μm and extends in the longitudinal direction from the surface 200a to the surface 200b with a length of 300 μm. The substrate 200 is formed further, with a mesa structure in correspondence to the central part of the upper major surface such that the mesa structure extends in the longitudinal direction with a length of 100 μm in correspondence to the length of the optical waveguide 32. On the mesa structure, there is provided a first clad layer 22 of InP doped to the n-type with the impurity concentration level of 5×10 17 cm -3 . The first clad layer 22 is grown on the substrate 21 epitaxially with a thickness of 1.5 μm. In correspondence to the mesa structure, the first clad layer 22 extends in the longitudinal direction of the substrate 21 with a length of 100 μm. On the clad layer 22, there is provided an active layer 23 of undoped InGaAsP with a thickness of 0.2 μm. The active layer 23 is grown epitaxially on the clad layer 22 and extends in the longitudinal direction of the substrate 21 in correspondence to the clad layer 22, with a length of 100 μm. The composition of the active layer 23 is such that the layer 23 has a band gap energy of 0.8 eV or a band gap wavelength λ g of 1.55 μm. It should be noted that one can use also GaAlAs for the material of the active layer 23. On the active layer 23, there is provided a second clad layer 24 of InP doped to the p-type with an impurity concentration level of 5×10 17 cm -3 . The second clad layer 24 is provided, in contact with the exposed upper major surface of the substrate 21 with a thickness of 1.5 μm, to bury the mesa structure, including the clad layer 22 and the active layer 23, underneath. Further, there is provided a carrier blocking layer 15 of InP doped to the n-type with an impurity concentration level of 5×10 17 cm -3 such that the carrier blocking layer 15 protrudes laterally from opposite sides at a level above the active layer 23. The layer 15 is provided such that there is formed a passage for the carriers, in correspondence to the active layer 23. It should be noted that the n-type carrier blocking layer 15 forms a depletion region in correspondence to the p-n junction that is formed between the layer 15 and the n-type clad layer 24. Thus, the layer 15 prevents the carriers injected into the clad layer 24 from flowing directly to the substrate 21. On the upper major surface of the clad layer 24, there is provided a contact layer of p-type InP having a thickness of 0.5 μm and an impurity concentration level of 2×10 18 cm -3 , and the ohmic electrode 64 shown in FIG. 7 is formed on the contact layer 25. Further, another ohmic electrode 27 is provided on the lower major surface of the substrate 21. It should be noted that the electrode 64 is patterned in correspondence to the pattern of the active layer 23, while the electrode 27 covers the entire lower major surface of the substrate 21. In operation, holes are injected to the clad layer 24 via the contact layer 25 upon application of a positive bias voltage to the electrode 64. Simultaneously, electrons are injected to the substrate 21 by applying a negative bias voltage to the electrode 27. Thereby, the holes are concentrated in the region corresponding to the passage that is formed by the blocking layer 15 as they flow toward the opposing electrode 27, and are injected into the active layer 23 efficiently. There, the holes cause recombination in the active layer 23 with the electrons that are injected to the layer 23 from the substrate 21 via the clad layer 22. Such a recombination of carriers releases the optical radiation, and the optical radiation is amplified by the stimulated emission as it is reflected back and forth in the optical cavity of the laser diode. It should be noted that the optical waveguide 31 has a structure substantially identical with the structure of FIG. 10. Thus, the description thereof will he omitted. Next, the structure of the optical cavity will be described with reference to FIG. 11 that shows the cross section of the third and fourth optical waveguides 33 and 34. As will be noted in FIG. 7, the optical waveguide 31 or 32 is branched into the optical waveguides 33 and 34 formed in correspondence to the region located between the optical waveguide 31 and the optical waveguide 32. FIG. 11 shows, in the left-half part of the diagram, the structure of the optical waveguide 33. On the other hand, the right-half part of FIG. 11 shows the structure of the optical waveguide 34. Referring to FIG. 11, the optical waveguide 33 has a branched mesa structure 21 1 in the substrate 21 as one of the branches of the mesa structure of FIG. 10, and there is provided a branched clad layer 22 1 on the branched mesa structure 21 1 as a branch of the clad layer 22. Thus the clad layer 22 1 has a thickness and composition identical with the clad layer 21 of FIG. 10. On the branched clad layer 22 1 , there is provided a branched active layer 23 1 as a branch of the active layer 23, with the composition and thickness identical with those of the active layer 23. Further, there is provided a branched contact layer 24 1 on the branched active layer 23 1 as a branch of the contact layer 24. There, the layer 24 1 has a composition and thickness identical with those of the layer 24. The layers 21 1 -24 1 are supported laterally by an n-type InP buried layer 17, and the surface of the layer 17 is covered by the current blocking layer 15. It should be noted that the current blocking layer 15 is provided only on the upper major surface of the buried layer 17 and has an upper major surface that is flush with the upper major surface of the clad layer 24 1 . On the upper major surface of the clad layer 24 1 , there is provided a branched contact layer 25 1 as a branch of the contact layer 25, and the ohmic electrode 62 is provided on the contact layer 25 as shown in the plan view of FIG. 7. Further, the lower major surface of the substrate 200 is covered by the ohmic electrode 27 described previously with reference to FIG. 10. In the present embodiment, the construction of the other optical waveguide 34 is made exactly identical with the optical waveguide 33 in terms of the cross section. Only the physical length is changed such that the optical waveguide 34 is longer than the optical waveguide 33 by 4 μm. Thus, the description about the construction of the optical waveguide 34 with reference to the cross sectional diagram of FIG. 11 will be omitted. In the present embodiment, the refractive index of the optical waveguides 33 and 34 can be changed by applying a bias voltage across the electrode 62 and the electrode 27 or across the electrode 63 and the electrode 27. When a negative voltage is applied to the electrode 27 and a positive voltage is applied to the electrodes 62 and 63 simultaneously, the p-i-n junctions formed by the layers 24 1 , 24 2 , 23 1 , 23 2 and 22 1 , 22 3 are biased in the forward direction and the carriers are injected to the active layers 23 1 and 23 2 . Thereby, the refractive index of the active layer is changed by the plasma effect. By controlling the bias voltages to the electrodes 62 and 63 independently, one can change the refractive index of the active layer 23 2 with respect to the active layer 23 1 according to the relationship shown in FIG. 9. Thereby, an extensive wavelength shift of as much as 200 nm can be obtained as already explained. FIG. 12 shows the longitudinal cross section of the layered body 200 that forms the optical waveguide 33. As shown in FIG. 12, the optical waveguide 33 is formed on the mesa structure 21 1 of the InP substrate 21, and has the layered structure as illustrated. Each of the layers are of course grown epitaxially on the substrate 21. As the process for growing epitaxial layers and the process for forming the structure of FIG. 11 from the structure of FIG. 12 are well known in the art of laser diode, the description of the fabrication process of the device of FIG. 7 will be omitted. It should be noted that the optical waveguide 34 also has the longitudinal cross section substantially identical with the optical waveguide 33. FIG. 13 shows the longitudinal cross section of the tunable laser diode of FIG. 7 taken along the optical path represented by a one-dotted chain line, together with various voltage sources for driving as well as controlling the laser diode. Referring to FIG. 13, there is provided a d.c. voltage source 601 connected across the electrode 64 and the electrode 27 as well as across the electrode 61 and the electrode 27, for supplying a forward bias voltage to the electrodes 61 and 64 for sustaining the laser oscillation. Further, there is provided a voltage source 602 connected across the electrodes 62 and 27 for injecting a current I 1 into the optical waveguide 33. Similarly, there is provided a voltage source 603 connected across the electrodes 61 and the electrode 27 for injecting a current I 2 into the optical waveguide 34. By controlling the current I 1 and the current I 2 independently, one can control the refractive index of the optical waveguides 33 and 34. For example, the refractive index n 2 that corresponds to the refractive index of the optical waveguide 34 can be changed by controlling the injection current I 2 . By holding constant the refractive index n 1 of the optical waveguide 33 during this process by holding the injection current I 1 constant, one can realize the tuning operation of the laser diode as explained with reference to FIG. 9. It should be noted that the voltage sources 602 and 603 may apply a reverse bias voltage to the electrodes 62 and 63. In this case, the desired refractive index change of the optical waveguides 33 and 34 can be achieved by the Franz-Keldysh effect. In this case, too, the voltages applied to the electrodes 62 and 63 are controlled independently by the voltage sources 602 and 603. FIG. 14 shows the operational chart similar to FIG. 9 for the case where the refractive index n 2 of the optical waveguide 34 is fixed and the refractive index n 1 of the optical waveguide 33 is varied. In this case, the oscillation wavelength of the laser diode changes along the oblique lines E-A and the lines parallel to it, that have a negative slope. As the operational principle corresponding to FIG. 14 is obvious from FIG. 9 and the related explanation, further description thereof will be omitted. FIG. 15 shows a tunable laser diode 30 according to a second embodiment of the present invention in the plan view. In the present embodiment, it will be noted that the optical waveguide 33 and the optical waveguide 34 have the same length of 343 μm in the present embodiment. In other words, the optical waveguide 33 and the optical waveguide 34 are formed symmetrically. FIG. 16 shows the transversal cross section of the device 30. Referring to FIG. 16, it will be noted that the device 30 has a cross section substantially identical with the device 20 of FIG. 7. On the other hand, the composition of the active layer 23 1 of the optical waveguide 33 is changed with respect to the composition of the active layer 23 2 of the optical waveguide 34 in the device 30 of the present embodiment. For example, the composition of the active layer 23 1 is set such that the active layer 23 1 has a band gap that is larger than the band gap of the active layer 23 2 . Thereby, the active layer 23 1 has a refractive index smaller than the refractive index of the active layer 23 2 . When there is a difference in the refractive index in the optical waveguide 33 and in the optical waveguide 34 in the state that there is no bias voltage applied to the electrodes 62 and 63, there still appears a difference in the effective optical length between the optical waveguide 33 and the optical waveguide 34, and the laser diode has an optical cavity substantially identical with the laser diode of FIG. 7, even when the optical waveguides 33 and 34 are formed with the same physical length. It should be noted that the refractive index of InGaAsP that forms the active layers 23 1 and 23 2 increases with decreasing content of P. When GaAlAs is used for the active layers 23 1 and 23 2 , on the other hand, the refractive index increases with decreasing content of Al. In a typical example, the composition of the active layer 23 1 is set to In 0 .625 Ga 0 .375 As 0 .83 P 0 .17 while the composition of the active layer 23 2 is set to In 0 .619 Ga 0 .381 As 0 .84 P 0 .16. Of course, the refractive index of these layers can be changed by injecting the carriers or applying a reverse bias voltage as explained with reference to FIG. 13, and the device 30 of the present embodiment provides a wavelength shift according to the chart explained with reference to FIG. 9 or FIG. 14. FIG. 17 shows a tunable laser diode 40 according to a third embodiment of the present invention in the transversal cross sectional view. The device may have a plan view represented in any of FIG. 7 or FIG. 15 and the description of the plan view will be omitted. Referring to FIG. 17, the device of the present embodiment has the active layer of which thickness is changed in the optical waveguide 33 and the optical waveguide 34. In the illustrated example, the active layer 23 1 of the optical waveguide 33 has a reduced thickness as compared with the active layer 23 2 of the optical waveguide 34. In correspondence to the reduced thickness of the active layer 23 1 , the thickness of the clad layer 22 1 is increased. On the other hand, the thickness of the clad layer 22 2 of the optical waveguide 34 is reduced in correspondence to the increased thickness of the active layer 23 2 . By reducing the thickness of the active layer, it is known that the averaged refractive index of the optical waveguide is reduced. Similarly, the increase of the thickness of the active layer results in an increase of the averaged refractive index of the optical waveguide. Thereby, the optical waveguide 33 and the optical waveguide 34 have different optical path lengths even when they have the same physical length, and the tunable laser diode 40 operates similarly to the preceding tunable laser diodes 20 and 30. In a typical example, the thickness of the active layer 23 1 is set to 0.20 μm while the thickness of the active layer 23 2 is set to 0.22 μm. It should be noted that the active layers 23 1 and 23 2 can be grown simultaneously with different thicknesses by the epitaxial process such as MOCVD. See, for example, EP 0 411 145 corresponding to U.S. Ser. No. 07/950,776 filed Sep. 24, 1992, in turn a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 07/582,209 filed Feb. 1, 1990, incorporated herein as reference. FIG. 18 shows a tunable laser diode 50 according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention in the cross sectional view. As the device 50 has the plan view similar to FIG. 7 or FIG. 15, the description of the plan view will be omitted. In the cross sectional view of FIG. 18, it will be noted that the height of the mesa structure is changed in the optical waveguide 33 and in the optical waveguide 34. Further there is provided a waveguide layer 16 1 of InGaAsP between the mesa structure 21 1 and the active layer 23 1 . Similarly, a similar waveguide layer 16 2 is provided between the mesa structure 21 2 and 23 2 . There, the active layer 23 1 and the active layer 23 2 have the same thickness while the thickness of the clad layer 16 1 is changed with respect to the thickness of the clad layer 16 2 for compensating for the difference in the height of the mesa structures 21 1 and 21 2 . There, the waveguide layer 16 1 has a refractive index smaller than the active layer 23 1 but larger than the substrate 21. Similarly, the waveguide layer 16 2 has a refractive index smaller than the active layer 23 2 but larger than the substrate 21. Thereby, the optical beam is guided along the waveguide layers 16 1 and 16 2 as is well known in the art. By changing the thickness of the waveguide layer 16 1 with respect to the waveguide layer 16 2 , it is possible to change the refractive index between the waveguide layer 16 1 and the waveguide layer 16 2 . Thereby, the effective optical length of the optical waveguide 33 is changed with respect to the optical waveguide 34 and the device 50 of the present embodiment acts similar to the device of FIG. 7. As already noted, the technique for growing two epitaxial layers simultaneously on a substrate with different thicknesses is already known. FIG. 19 shows a tunable laser diode 60 according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention. As the device 60 has a plan view similar to the previous devices, only the cross sectional view will be described. In the device of the present embodiment, it will be noted that the lateral width of the mesa structure and hence the active layer is changed in the optical waveguide 33 and in the optical waveguide 34. Thus, the optical waveguides 33 and 34 have respective lateral widths W 1 and W 2 , wherein the width W 1 is set smaller than the width W 2 . By changing the lateral width, it is possible to change the refractive index in the first and second optical waveguides 33 and 34. As the rest of the feature is substantially identical with the devices described previously, further description will be omitted. FIG. 20 shows a tunable laser diode 70 according to a sixth embodiment. In this embodiment, too, only the cross sectional diagram will be described. Referring to FIG. 20, the optical waveguide 33 has the structure similar to the optical waveguide 33 of the device 20 whereas the optical waveguide 34 has a mesa structure in the clad layer 24 2 . In correspondence to this, the mesa structure 21 2 is eliminated from the optical waveguide 34. In other words, the optical waveguide 34 uses a ridge structure corresponding to the mesa structure of the clad layer 24 2 . In such a structure, the refractive index of the optical waveguide 34 becomes generally higher than the refractive index of the optical waveguide 33. Thereby, the effective optical path length is changed in the optical waveguide 33 and in the optical waveguide 34. By controlling the refractive index of the respective waveguides by the injection of the carriers or by applying a reverse bias voltage, it is possible to control the interference of the optical beams in the optical waveguides 33 and 34, it is possible to change the oscillation wavelength for a wide range according to the principle shown in FIG. 9 or FIG. 14. Further, the present invention is not limited to the embodiments described heretofore, but various variations and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention.

A tunable laser diode comprises a first reflector, a second reflector, an optical cavity extending between the first reflector and the second reflector for establishing an optical resonance by transmitting an optical beam therethrough, and a gain region for amplifying the optical beam. The optical cavity comprises a first waveguide part connected to the first reflector and extending toward the second reflector, a second waveguide part connected to the second reflector and extending toward the first reflector, a third waveguide part connecting the first waveguide part and the second waveguide part with each other for passing a first optical beam between the first and second reflectors, and a fourth waveguide part connecting the first waveguide part and the second waveguide part for passing a second optical beam between the first and second reflectors, wherein the first waveguide part, the second waveguide part and the third waveguide part form a first optical path having a first optical path length while the first waveguide part, the second waveguide part and the fourth waveguide part form a second optical path having a second optical path length that is different from said first optical path length. In correspondence to the third and fourth waveguide parts, a refractive index modulator is provided for changing a refractive index of the third waveguide part and the fourth waveguide part relatively with each other.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] Not applicable. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH [0002] Not applicable. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] The present invention is related to cut protection gloves made of a textile material with a cut resistant fibre. [0004] Such cut protection gloves can protect the user against cutting injuries of all kinds, for instance when working with sharp-edged objects, tools, knives or other blades. The protection effect against cuttings is achieved in that special cut resistant fibres are contained in the material from which the glove is made. [0005] Different materials are used as the cut resistant fibres, which have enhanced cut resistance compared with other frequently processed fibres, those from cotton, polyamide or polyester for instance. Fibres of glass, aramides, high density polyethylene, high density polymers or metals are frequently used. A multiplicity of such cut resistant fibres is known from the European Patent Document EP 0 435 889 B2, the entire contents of which is incorporated herein by reference, among others. [0006] In order to provide effective cutting protection, the cut resistant fibres and the textile materials made there from have a series of properties, which adversely affect a high wearing comfort of cut protection gloves made from these materials. Among these, there is a high stiffness in particular, which can limit the perfect fit, the dexterity and the tactility, and also a humidity take-up ability which is significantly reduced with respect to other textile materials, which can lead to increased sweating and to an unfavourable microclimate in the gloves. When using filament yarns in particular, the skin's sensorial ability is also deteriorated, because textile materials made from such yarns have a relatively smooth and closed surface structure, which sits closer to the skin than other textiles with a more open structure with small fibres sticking out. Thus, such cut protection gloves might stick more to skin which is wetted by sweat. [0007] In the context of the generation of sweat taking place more severely with gloves from synthetic fibres, problems through bacterial contamination and the generation of disagreeable odour's might also occur. [0008] Just with cut protection gloves for the professional field, which have frequently to be worn over longer periods of time, a high wearing comfort is very important. Insufficient comfort properties may even lead to safety risks in the practical use, because in this case, the users tend to do off the cut protection gloves for a while. [0009] In order to increase the wearing comfort of cut protection gloves, it is known to combine the textile material having the cut resistant fibres with an additional textile material. The additional textile material is comprised of fibres with better comfort properties, of cotton for instance, and is processed to a liner or to an inside cladding. This liner is glued or sewed together with the cut protection material, so that the inner sides of such a glove are formed by the material with the better comfort properties. Various realisations of an inner cladding for gloves are known from the German utility document 20 2005 008 041 U1, the entire contents of which is incorporated herein by reference. [0010] Based on this, it is the objective of the present invention to provide a cut protection glove made of a textile material having a cut resistant fibre, which can be manufactured in a simple way and which has improved comfort properties. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0011] The cut protection glove of the present invention made from a textile material with a cut resistant fibre is characterised in that the textile material incorporates a bamboo fibre. The textile material can be an arbitrary material made up of fibres, a knitted fabric, a woven fabric or a tissue for instance, also designated with the general expression cloth in the common language. The textile material incorporates a cut resistant fibre, i.e. a fibre with an enhanced cut resistance compared to ordinary fibre materials. In this, the textile material and the cut resistant fibre are processed into one single textile material. Different cut resistant fibres can also be combined in the textile material. The content of the cut resistant fibre in the textile material is as high that even the textile material has an increased cut resistance. In addition, the textile material has a bamboo fibre. Thus, the cut resistant fibre and the bamboo fibre are processed into one single textile material. The material can also have further fibres. It is also possible that the cut protection glove has a further textile material, in the form of a reinforcement or a cushion, for instance. [0012] Bamboo fibres are cellulose fibres which are obtained from the bamboo plant. The bamboo fibres are known as bast fibres and also as regenerated bamboo fibres. A regenerated bamboo fibre is preferably used. These fibres are very soft and have particularly good grip properties, which are comparable to those of viscose or silk. The fibres have a gloss giving the appearance of high value, and they are particularly long-living and wear-resistant. In addition, the fibres are particularly lightweight. Furthermore, the bamboo fibres have a particularly high take-up ability for humidity through their particular micro-structure, and they can release the once taken-up humidity particularly quickly again. Through the combination of the bamboo fibres with the cut resistant fibres into one single textile material, even a cut protection glove made from this material has substantially improved comfort properties. Through the take-up ability for humidity, the glove does not feel wet to the touch even at relatively strong sweating. At the same time, a pleasant cooling effect is achieved by the quick release of the humidity ingested by the textile material, which counter-acts excessive sweating. Due to the natural anti-bacterial properties of the bamboo plants, the same are normally cultivated without using pesticides, and a chemical antibacterial finish can be omitted. The danger of allergic reactions or skin irritations is substantially reduced by this. These favourable antibacterial properties remain conserved even after washing several times. [0013] A further advantage of the combination of a cut resistant fibre with a bamboo fibre into one single textile material is that the production of the gloves made from this material is greatly simplified, because gluing or sewing together of different layer's of material is not necessary. [0014] In a particularly preferred embodiment, the textile material has a cut resistant yarn with the cut resistant fibre and a bamboo yarn with the bamboo fibre. Thus, the cut resistant fibres and the bamboo fibres are each processed into one separate yarn, from which the textile material is produced by machine-knitting, weaving or entangling. The use of different yarns permits a particularly simple and targeted combination of the two fibres by conventional processing methods, like knitting machines, for instance. In doing so, the composition of the textile material can be influenced by corresponding processing of the two yarns, so that the content of cut resistant fibres is increased in the particularly stressed portions of the cut protection glove with respect to less stressed portions, for instance. [0015] In a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the inner side of the cut protection glove is formed by the bamboo yarn. Thus, it is provided to process the two yarns with each other to the textile material such that the material facing the skin is essentially the bamboo yarn. The advantageous comfort properties of the bamboo yarn, the pleasant skin feeling in particular, take optimally advantage by doing so. Preferably, the outer side of the cut protection glove is substantially formed by the cut resistant yarn, or it has an increased content of this yarn. [0016] According to a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the bamboo yarn and the cut resistant yarn form a two-layer knitted fabric. In this it is provided that an inner layer of the knitted fabric is formed by the bamboo yarn and an outer layer by the cut resistant yarn. Both yarns are combined with each other in the manufacture of the knitted fabric and are intricated into each other. By a suitable knitting method, one single textile material with the advantageous two-layer structure is produced in doing so, the so-called “double-face-structure”. [0017] In a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the bamboo yarn forms a cladding. The cladding is located on the inner side of the cut protection glove. [0018] In a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the cut resistant fibre is processed in a core-sheath-yarn. By doing so, the properties of the cut resistant yarn formed by the core-sheath-yarn can be improved themselves. [0019] According to a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the core of the core-sheath-yarn is comprised of metal or a glass fibre. In this case, the core of the core-sheath-yarn contributes in particular to the enhanced cut resistance. [0020] In a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the sheath of the core-sheath-yarn is comprised of polyester, polyamide, high-density polyethylene, aramide or cellulose yarn. Thus, depending on the selection of the material, the sheath of the core-sheath-yarn can contribute to the enhanced cut resistance, when using aramide for instance, or the sheath can improve the comfort properties of the cut resistant yarn, by a wrapping with cellulose yarns for instance. [0021] According to a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the sheath of the core-sheath-yam is comprised of the bamboo fibre. In this case, the advantageous properties of the bamboo fibre can be integrated into the cut resistant yarn. Thus, it is possible to produce the textile fabric from one single yarn, which contains the cut resistant fibre as well as the bamboo fibre. However, it is also possible to process further bamboo fibres or a bamboo yarn made from the same to the textile material, in addition to a core-sheath-yam with the bamboo fibre which has an increased cut resistance. Thus, there are a manifold of possibilities to adapt the properties of the textile material to the respective requirements, the compromise between optimum wearing comfort and optimum cut protection properties in particular. [0022] In a further preferred embodiment of the present invention, the textile material has a coating on the outer side. Preferably, the coating is comprised of nitrile, chloroprene or polyurethane. By means of the coating, additional protection properties can be imparted to the cut protection glove, tightness against liquids and resistance against chemicals for instance. The nitrile coating is liquid-tight and it may cover the cut protection glove completely or partially. Preferably, only the inner hand, the fingers and the thumb are provided with the coating, whereas the back of the hand remains uncoated. By doing so, the breathing activity of the cut protection glove is maintained at least partially. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS [0023] In the following, the present invention is explained in more detail by means of an example of its realisation depicted in three figures. [0024] FIG. 1 shows a cut protection glove of the present invention; [0025] FIG. 2 shows a cut-out of the textile material of the cut protection glove of FIG. 1 , in a cross-section. [0026] FIG. 3 shows a core-sheath-yarn which is used as a cut resistant yarn in the textile material according to FIG. 2 , in a cross-section. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0027] While this invention may be embodied in many different forms, there are described in detail herein a specific preferred embodiment of the invention. This description is an exemplification of the principles of the invention and is not intended to limit the invention to the particular embodiment illustrated [0028] FIG. 1 shows a cut protection glove of the present invention, which has been knitted completely on a special glove knitting machine. The meshwork produced by the knitting machine has a “single-Jersey”-bonding. The subdivision of the knitting machine is thirteen gauge, i.e. thirteen needles per inch. Such knitting machines can process or knit together, respectively, different yarns from different yarn rolls at the same time. The structure depicted in FIG. 2 can be achieved by a special yarn guiding in this. [0029] The material of the knitted glove depicted in a cross-section in FIG. 2 is comprised of three layers. The middle layer 14 has a cut resistant yarn on the side facing the hand, and it is knitted together with a further material layer 16 comprised of the bamboo yarn. The two layers 14 and 16 form a double-layer knitted fabric produced by the knitting machine. By means of a dipping method, the outer side of the glove is provided with a nitrile coating 18 after the knitting process. The inner side 17 of the double-layer knitted fabric facing the skin is formed exclusively by the bamboo yarn processed to the inner layer 16 . The bamboo yarn has a metric number of Nm 50/1. During the knitting process, the bamboo yarn is entangled with the cut resistant yarn of the outer material layer 14 of the knitted fabric. [0030] In FIG. 3 , the structure of the core-sheath-yarn 20 is sketched out, which serves as a cut resistant yarn for the outer material layer 14 of the knitted fabric. The core-sheath-yarn 20 has a core 22 , which is comprised of a glass-fibre multifilament with a degree of fineness of 110 dtex. This glass fibre multifilament core is enveloped by a sheathing 24 of polyester yarn, two polyester yarns of fineness degree 110 dtex being used for this. [0031] The above disclosure is intended to be illustrative and not exhaustive. This description will suggest many variations and alternatives to one of ordinary skill in this art. All these alternatives and variations are intended to be included within the scope of the claims where the term “comprising” means “including, but not limited to”. Those familiar with the art may recognize other equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein which equivalents are also intended to be encompassed by the claims. [0032] Further, the particular features presented in the dependent claims can be combined with each other in other manners within the scope of the invention such that the invention should be recognized as also specifically directed to other embodiments having any other possible combination of the features of the dependent claims. For instance, for purposes of claim publication, any dependent claim which follows should be taken as alternatively written in a multiple dependent form from all prior claims which possess all antecedents referenced in such dependent claim if such multiple dependent format is an accepted format within the jurisdiction (e.g., each claim depending directly from claim 1 should be alternatively taken as depending from all previous claims). In jurisdictions where multiple dependent claim formats are restricted, the following dependent claims should each be also taken as alternatively written in each singly dependent claim format which creates a dependency from a prior antecedent-possessing claim other than the specific claim listed in such dependent claim below. [0033] This completes the description of the preferred and alternate embodiments of the invention. Those skilled in the art may recognize other equivalents to the specific embodiment described herein which equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the claims attached hereto.

A cut protection glove, made of a textile material having a cut resistant fibre, characterised in that the textile material has a bamboo fibre.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/737,441, filed Dec. 14, 2012, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. BACKGROUND [0002] The process of transmitting sounds from the initial capture to consumption can be summarised by four stages: 1. Capture. Acoustic signals are captured and converted into voltage representations and are stored on a (typically) digital media as digital audio signals, typically via a microphone. 2. Production. Digital audio signals are combined, and processed using a range of tools to produce a final “mix” that fulfils a range of functional and aesthetic objectives, e.g. a musical project with involved combining audio signals recorded from multiple instruments and the final mix is stored as a stereo audio signal, and the sound production stages of a film project would involve combining the dialogue, sound effects and sound track as a 5.1 audio signal. This process is undertaken in a dedicated production studio, key components of which are a sound treated room and high quality loudspeakers. 3. Transmission. The final mix (i.e. the audio signal) is transmitted to the consumer, as a broadcast signal (e.g. television), as physical media (e.g. compact disk), or as digital media (e.g. mp3 download). 4. Consumption. Consumers listen to the transmission by playing back the audio signal on a suitable reproduction system, e.g. home stereo, personal mp3 player, or cinema. [0007] Live transmissions—which includes telecommunication—follow an equivalent process, however the production process and transmission stages occur in real-time alongside the capture. [0008] Techniques to improve audio transmission have generally focussed on preserving the fidelity of the audio signal through the transmission process. An early example of this was the use of digital encoding and processing of trans-Atlantic telephone communication, which dramatically reduced the inevitable noise introduced on long distance lines. Focus in more recent years has been on ways to compress the data transmission rate, whilst allowing for “loss-less” reconstruction of the original audio signal. Manufacturers of sound systems strive to produce amplifiers and loudspeakers that produce acoustic signals that are true representations of the transmitted audio signal (i.e. linearly scaled versions). In addition, others have developed a means to automatically equalise the audio signal to mitigate the effect that the sound system may have on the frequency spectrum of the reproduced sound. There is therefore always room for improving different parts of the process of capturing, producing, transmitting and consuming sounds. None of these parts have yet been perfected and the attempts to improve these different parts of the process usually result in some compromise, particularly when it comes to the final sound quality at the sound consumption stage. SUMMARY [0009] In accordance with an aspect of the invention there is provided a method for obtaining an audio signal and information relating to the recording conditions of the audio signal. The method comprises obtaining an audio signal, wherein the audio signal is a voltage signal representation of sound, the voltage signal having been converted from a pressure signal, obtaining information indicative of at least one objective feature and/or at least one perceptual feature associated with the conversion of the pressure signal into the audio signal in the form of a voltage signal representation, and storing the audio signal, the information indicative of objective features and/or perceptual features, and information identifying a relationship between the audio signal and the information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0010] The information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature may comprise the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0011] The information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature may comprise a transfer function. [0012] The at least one objective feature may be extracted from absolute pressure signals of the audio signal. [0013] The at least one objective feature may be obtained from the RMS or peak intensity of the pressure signal or from the peak sound pressure level of the pressure signal. [0014] The at least one perceptual feature may be determined using one or more auditory models. The one or more auditory models may use psychoacoustic techniques. [0015] Each objective and/or perceptual feature may have an associated weighting. [0016] Obtaining the audio signal may comprise converting a pressure signal to a voltage signal. [0017] The storing of the audio signal, the information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature, and information identifying a relationship between the audio signal and the information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature may comprise creating an audio file comprising the audio signal and the information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. The method may further comprise transmitting the audio file. [0018] The audio file may comprise a plurality of associated audio signals, each audio signal corresponding to an associated audio track, wherein each audio track has associated information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0019] The method may further comprise providing error bounds defining a maximum and minimum allowable error in reproduction of the audio signal. [0020] According to another aspect of the invention there is provided apparatus for obtaining an audio signal and information relating to the recording conditions of the audio signal. The apparatus comprises a processor arranged to perform the method described above. The apparatus also comprises a memory in which the audio signal, the information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature, and information identifying a relationship between the audio signal and the information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature are stored. [0021] According to yet another aspect of the invention a computer readable medium comprising computer readable code operable, in use, to instruct a computer system to perform the method described above is provided. [0022] According to a further aspect of the invention there is provided a file for providing a data representation of recorded sound, the file comprising an audio signal, wherein the audio signal is a voltage signal representation of sound, the voltage signal having been converted from a pressure signal, and information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0023] The information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature may comprise the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0024] Information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature may comprise a transfer function. [0025] The at least one objective feature may be extracted from absolute pressure signals of the audio signal. [0026] The at least one objective feature may be obtained from the RMS peak intensity of the pressure signal or from the peak sound pressure level of the pressure signal. [0027] The at least one objective feature may be a function of a scaled pressure signal. [0028] The at least one perceptual feature may be determined using one or more auditory models. The one or more auditory models may use psychoacoustic techniques. [0029] Each objective and/or perceptual feature may have an associated weighting. [0030] Obtaining the audio signal may comprise converting a pressure signal to a voltage signal. [0031] The obtained information indicative of the at least one objective error and/or the at least one perceptual error may comprise error bounds defining a maximum and a minimum allowable error. [0032] The file may comprise a plurality of associated audio signals, each audio signal corresponding to an associated audio track, wherein each audio track has associated information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0033] According to another aspect of the invention a method for processing an audio signal for playing is provided, the method comprising obtaining an audio signal, wherein the audio signal is a voltage signal representation of sound, the voltage signal having been converted from a pressure signal, obtaining first information indicative of at least one objective feature and/or at least one perceptual feature associated with the conversion of the pressure signal into the audio signal in the form of a voltage signal representation, obtaining second information indicative of at least one objective feature and/or at least one perceptual features associated with the conversion of the audio signal in the form of a voltage signal representation into a pressure signal, determining an error adjustment for adjusting the audio signal based on the obtained information, and applying the error adjustment to the audio signal to create an error-adjusted audio signal. [0034] The method may further comprise playing the error-adjusted audio signal. [0035] The method may further comprise detecting a sound that could result in hearing impairment of a listener of the error-adjusted audio signal, and varying the error adjustment to compensate for the potential hearing impairment of the listener. [0036] The error adjustment may be determined by comparing the first information with the second information. [0037] One or more of the first information, the second information, or an error adjustment may be graphically represented to a user. [0038] The first information may comprise the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0039] The first information may comprise a transfer function. [0040] The at least one objective feature of the first information may be extracted from absolute pressure signals of the audio signal. [0041] The at least one objective feature of the first information may be obtained from the RMS or peak intensity of the pressure signal or from the peak sound pressure level. [0042] The at least one objective feature of the first information may be a function of a scaled pressure signal. [0043] The at least one perceptual feature of the first information may be determined using one or more auditory models. The one or more auditory models may use psychoacoustic techniques. [0044] Each objective and/or perceptual error may have an associated weighting. [0045] The first information may comprise error bounds defining a maximum and minimum allowable error in the conversion of the audio signal to a pressure signal. [0046] The method may further comprise determining if the error adjustment results in the signal being within the error bounds, if the signal is not within the error bounds then the method further comprises providing a warning. [0047] The method may further comprise receiving a file comprising the audio signal and the first information. [0048] The file may comprise a plurality of associated audio signals, each audio signal corresponding to an associated audio track, wherein each audio track has associated information indicative of the at least one objective feature and/or the at least one perceptual feature. [0049] Obtaining the second information may comprise determining characteristics of one or more of: a system arranged to play the audio; an environment in which the system is arranged to play the audio; and a listener. The characteristics of the environment may include background noise. [0050] According to yet a further aspect of the invention there is provided apparatus for processing an audio signal for playing, the apparatus comprising a processor arranged to perform the method described above, and a memory arranged to store the error-adjusted audio signal created according to the method. [0051] According another aspect of the invention there is provided a computer readable medium comprising computer readable code operable, in use, to instruct a computer system to perform the method described above. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0052] Exemplary embodiments of the invention shall now be described with reference to the drawings in which: [0053] FIG. 1 provides a flow diagram of how features of the audio format are obtained; [0054] FIG. 2 illustrates the process of evaluating signal error in a simple mobile telecommunication system; and [0055] FIG. 3 shows a system in which the audio format is used for transmitting information between a number of networked devices. [0056] Throughout the description and the drawings, like reference numerals refer to like parts. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0057] In communication theory a signal is transmitted from a source to a receiver. The difference between the source and receiver signals is the transmission error. When dealing with sounds the signals are in the pressure domain so the transmission error must be evaluated based on the difference between the source and receiver pressure signals. The acoustic pressure fluctuations of a sound deflect the ear drum. The deflection of the ear drum causes the middle ear ossicles (bones) to amplify and transmit this deflection to the inner ear (cochlea) via the oval window, which imposes a changing pressure on the internal fluid of the cochlea. The pressure variation inside the fluid of the cochlea causes localised resonance on the basilar membrane. Hair cells located on the basilar membrane transduce this resonant excitation, via shearing of the hair cells, into variation in receptor potential, which is then further transduced by neurons connected to the hair cells. The neurons fire spontaneously at a nominal, low rate when inactive, and increase their firing rate as a function of the basilar membrane excitation. Thus the signal is transformed into frequency selective energy signals which are available for the central nervous system to process. These signals are decoded by the brain, and form the basis of our perception of the sound. In summary, the auditory system is essentially a pressure transducer, with a specific sensitivity function, which is non-linear with respect to the amplitude and frequency of the pressure signal. [0058] The audio format disclosed herein is based on the principle and assumption that the sounds transmitted using an audio format are intended to be perceived. Therefore, when considering the error of a sound transmission system, it is important to understand the perceptual errors of the sound transmissions system as well as the objective errors, which are functions of a scaled pressure signal. In state of the art systems for sound transmission, transducers which convert the source pressure to voltage before transmission are used, in addition to voltage to pressure for reproduction (typically using a microphone and loudspeaker). Each transducer has a specific sensitivity given by, [0000] V s =k s p s ,  (1) [0000] p r =k r V r .  (2) [0059] In general, ks and kr are not stored, transmitted or even known, so evaluating the transmission error in the pressure domain is impossible. It is worth noting that ks and kr may be functions rather than simple scalar constants. [0060] Since ks and kr are unknown in state of the art systems, sound is represented as an un-scaled signal in the voltage domain. This precludes the estimation of meaningful perceptual features. [0061] The system is based on the principle that a sound can be described in terms of objective and perceptual features. Objective features are calculated directly from the pressure signal e.g. the RMS intensity or the peak sound pressure level (SPL). Perceptual features are estimated based on the output of an auditory model. The auditory models used for the estimation of the derived perceptual features take inspiration from techniques developed in the field of psychoacoustics. For example, there are various perceptual models that are well-known. Loudness is the most widely researched perceptual feature and is defined as the perceived intensity of a sound. This is quite different to its actual intensity, which is an objective feature and is a measure its power. For sounds presented simultaneously the psychoacoustic concepts of masking and partial loudness become important. Masking describes the phenomena by which the perceived loudness of a sound is reduced when heard in the presence of other sounds. Partial loudness is the perceived intensity of a sound when heard in the presence of other sounds, but which are perceptually separable. Psychoacoustics provides several other perceptual features that may be estimated according to the output from an auditory model, for example intelligibility, timbre, pitch, etc. [0062] The system disclosed herein measures, stores and transmits the transducer parameters along with the sound signals. This enable both objective and perceptual transmission errors to be measured and estimated reliably, from the scaled pressure signal. This novel audio format and system shall now be discussed in detail with reference to FIG. 1 , which shows a flow diagram of how the features of the format are obtained. [0063] The system works by estimating the objective and perceptual errors that are introduced by a sound transmission system by comparing sound features of the source and receiver signals. The approach involves i) the use of the absolute pressure signals 1 (as opposed to un-scaled voltage signals) from which objective sound features 2 can be extracted, and ii) the use of auditory models 3 to estimate an arbitrary number of perceptual sound features 4 , as shown in FIG. 1 . From this we will evaluate the objective and perceptual quality of the sound transmission system. [0064] An objectively perfect transmission is one where the exact pressure signal of the source is recreated at the receiver location. A perceptually perfect transmission is one where the intended perceptual features are exactly those perceived at the receiver location. The sets of objective and perceptual errors in a transmission are denoted by E(p) and E(ξ) respectively. [0065] The evaluation of error is illustrated using a simple mobile telecommunication example illustrated in FIG. 2 . The error in the transmission, caused by the transducers, the data compression and the different forms of noise, is evaluated by comparing objective and perceptual features of source pressure ps and receiver pressure pr. If the functions used to calculate the objective features and estimate the perceptual features are given by f(p) and g(p) respectively then, [0000] E ( p )= f ( p s )− f ( p r ),  (3) [0000] and [0000] E (ξ)= g ( p s )− g ( p r ).  (4) [0066] For the case of a mobile phone, an objective feature calculated using f(p) might be the RMS SPL, and a perceptual feature estimated using g(p) might be the intelligibility of the speech. The total error in the transmission would be described in terms of an arbitrarily weighted combination of all objective and perceptual feature errors. In FIG. 2 , these errors are first ambient noise 10 , first electrical noise 11 , second electrical noise 12 , and second ambient noise 13 . [0067] In practice, the audio format system disclosed herein works as will now be described with reference to FIG. 3 . Firstly, an audio signal is obtained. In this case microphone 201 records a sound from sound source 101 . A recording system 300 then receives the signal from the microphone at its hardware processor 301 and stores this signal in memory 302 . In this case the author of the sound signal to be transmitted (i.e. the recently recorded sound) specifies the permitted errors in E(p) and E(ξ) that define the bounds within which the reproduced signal is considered acceptable. In alternative arrangements the manufacturer of a sound transmission system may pre-specify these values. This allows the author or manufacturer to make an informed decision as to the importance of transmission errors. These tolerances are stored in memory 302 . The processor 301 then packages the recorded audio with the tolerance information, which can then also be stored in memory 302 , transmitted via network 400 to be stored in server 500 , the server being remotely accessible by a number of users, or transmitted via network 400 to a specific user system 600 . [0068] When the user system 600 receives the audio package comprising the sound signal and the tolerance information through its communications unit 601 , the hardware processor 602 can then store this package in memory 603 . The tolerance information transmitted with the sound signal is then available to the user system 600 and will be available to validate the reproduction, i.e. if, [0000] E ( p )< E ( p ) Tol ,  (5) [0000] and, [0000] E (ξ)< E (ξ) Tol ,  (6) [0000] then the reproduction is valid, where E(p) Tol and E(ξ) Tol are the allowable tolerances in objective and perceptual features respectively. This forms the basis of a proprietary format for sound transmission. Where multi-plex (simultaneous, bi-directional) transmission is applicable, (i.e., where each source is also a receiver), the objective and perceptual error signals shall be transmitted back to each source. Thus both parties are aware of the transmission errors from either end. This is particularly beneficial in communication system so that the transmitter knows the errors in the received signal. [0069] At the user system 600 , which is not only the system being used to play the sound, but also the room or environment in which the sound is played, pre-processing is carried out by the processor 602 prior to playing the audio in order to minimise objective and perceptual errors. In particular, optimisation algorithms are employed, which minimise the objective and perceptual errors at the receiver location by adjusting an arbitrary number of control parameters of the reproduction system such as gain, equalisation and dynamics. [0070] The objective of this pre-processing is to reduce the errors to within the predefined tolerances. The system not only uses the tolerance values received as part of the received audio package, but also uses tolerances associated with its own system for reproduction of the sound that are stored in memory 603 . In particular, a comparison of these parameters is carried out. In some systems the “correct” sound cannot be reproduced, i.e. one cannot provide a sound that is within the predefined tolerances provided at the transmitter end. As such the system playing the sound can instead evaluate its own tolerances for a given transmission. This provides a way to rate a system by its own tolerance that can be compared to that intended by the author. In other words, the combined tolerance of the playing system can be compared to the allowable tolerance for a “correct” recording that accompanies the transmission. [0071] For example, the tolerances of the user system 600 may include characteristics of the speaker 700 that is used for reproducing the sound, as well as the environment in which the speaker 700 and listener 800 are located. [0072] The audio format shall now be considered in the context of music production. [0073] People listen to music in a number of different environments, from expensive loudspeakers in a quiet room to low quality headphones on a noisy underground train line. It is likely that the music will have been produced in a professional recording studio. Due to the disparity with the end user listening conditions, it will be impossible to recreate objective features of the sounds, i.e. the objective error is inevitably large. [0074] Music signals are generally a mixture of simultaneous sounds and a key perceptual feature is the balance between these sounds. The balance, between an arbitrary number of perceptual features, may be extracted (estimated) from the finished production and transmitted along with a multitrack version of the music (or speech). Perceptual error correction can be used to reconstitute the mix from the multitrack components at the receiver location so that the perceptual balance is preserved. This is particularly important for changes in listening level and for masking effect of background noise. [0075] An example is now presented where a mix is described of a multi-track recording of an unsigned band using the relative loudness of each instrument (loudness ratios). [0076] A studio mix is produced using a digital audio workstation. By monitoring the listening level, the perceptual features that describe the mix are estimated. The studio mix is then reproduced at different listening levels and in different virtual environments. The listening conditions are: (i) living room; low level, room impulse response (RIR) applied representative of a small room, slight reduction in low frequency response to represent television loudspeakers, (ii) large venue; high level, RIR applied representative of a large, reverberant space, (iii) car; medium level, RIR applied representative of a typical in-car environment, road noise added. [0000] TABLE 1 Loudness ratios of the mix of components at different listening levels and in different virtual environments Gui- Hi- Peak Voice tar Bass Kick Snare Hats Cymbal Con- Intensity (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB dition (dB SPL) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) Studio 94 6.7 −1.8 −7.7 −8.4 0.3 2.6 8.3 Living 88 9.2 4.8 −7.1 −11.2 4.0 −3.6 3.9 Room Large 106 4.1 −2.3 −5.3 4.7 −5.7 0.8 3.7 Venue Car 100 8.3 −1.1 −9.7 −16.2 2.7 5.5 10.7 (with noise) [0077] Table 1 shows the estimated loudness ratios of the component instruments of the mix for each listening condition. The perceptual error, as defined by our format, is the difference between the studio features and the features for each condition, i.e. the studio features are held in g(ps), the features for the other conditions in g(pr), and the error is calculates using Eqn. 4. The errors (E(ξ)) are shown in Table 2. [0000] TABLE 2 Loudness ratio errors with respect to the studio mix, at different listening levels and in different virtual environments. Gui- Hi- Peak Voice tar Bass Kick Snare Hats Cymbal Con- Intensity (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB dition (dB SPL) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) Living 88 2.5 6.6 0.6 −2.7 3.7 −6.2 −4.4 Room Large 106 −2.6 −0.5 2.3 13.2 −6.0 −1.9 −4.6 Venue Car 100 1.6 0.7 −2.1 −7.8 2.4 2.9 2.4 (with noise) [0078] Using the novel audio formatting system disclosed herein, an optimization algorithm is used to minimize the transmission errors introduced when the studio mix is reproduced at different levels, and in different virtual environments. The parameters in the optimization algorithm are signal gain controls applied to each instrument in the mix. The gain controls that minimize the errors are shown in Table 3. [0000] TABLE 3 Channel gain required to preserve the loudness ratios, estimated from the studio recording, at different listening levels and in different virtual environments. Gui- Hi- Peak Voice tar Bass Kick Snare Hats Cymbal Con- Intensity (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB (dB dition (dB SPL) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) sone) Living 88 −1.6 −4.1 0.9 5.9 −2.0 9.0 9.0 Room Large 106 3.0 0.4 −1.9 −7.8 4.0 3.4 6.7 Venue Car 100 −0.4 0.5 3.0 8.1 −0.7 −2.4 −1.8 (with noise) [0079] In all cases the residual perceptual errors are less than 0.01 dB sone. Inclusion of a maximum allowable error corresponds with the tolerances described by Equation 6. [0080] There are many other applications in which the novel audio format disclosed herein could be used. These applications shall now discussed. Hereinafter reference is made to objective error (OE), perceptual error (PE), objective error correction (OEP) and perceptual error correction (PEC). Civilian Telecommunication [0081] A trans-Atlantic phone call is received regarding an important business deal. The recipient cannot afford to miss a word but the conversation occurs while he is travelling in a taxi and the signal breaks down intermittently. Since both parties are transmitting and receiving, both receive a warning that both source and receiver PE is very high, thus they agree to reschedule the call over a land line (which they know has a lower PE than the international mobile network). [0082] Later that day the recipient listens to an answer phone message. Halfway through the message, a noisy train passes nearby. The microphone built into his phone picks up the acoustic interference (noise) and alerts him to it whilst automatically correcting for the PE. The recipient hardly notices the PE light and misses none of the message. On a subsequent occasion the background noise, and the resultant PE, is too high to correct, so the system automatically alerts the recipient that part of the message may have been missed and offers a repeat playback. Hence, the system is able to correct the signal when possible, but if correction is not possible the system is able to provide a warning of the possible error to a user. Military Communication [0083] A soldier on the battlefield needs to communicate with the commanding officer who is in a jeep five miles away. The enemy is hidden close at hand so the soldier must speak quietly. While he is transmitting he is provided with feedback on the PE at the receiver end. The commander is in a noisy jeep as he receives the whispered message. His PEC engages and corrects for the masking of the whispered message by the road noise. His error system shows no PE and this signal is relayed to the whispering soldier so both parties have confidence that their messages have been received and understood. [0084] Furthermore, after the soldier has engaged the enemy, firing several rounds, his hearing system undergoes a temporary threshold shift i.e. he is temporarily hearing-impaired. The gunshots are noted by his system and the auditory model is adapted to simulate short term hearing loss. PEC corrects for this and he has no issues in understanding subsequent communication. The system is therefore able to detect noises that could result in short term hearing loss. Then, the system is able to compensate for this determination. Broadcast Sound [0085] A journalist on location is doing the voiceover for some footage for a documentary about war. He is shouting because the noise level is high and he is talking over the background music. This is live broadcast so he can't fix it in the mix later. He is the mixing engineer, as is so often the case for location reporting, so he sets the mixer level for the voice relative to the background music by looking at the PE meter on the voice channel. A thousand miles away at home, a million TV sets show PE warning lights and the PEC seamlessly corrects the error so that the voice-over signal is clearly audible. No complaints are received by the broadcaster. The system of the present invention is therefore able to provide a visual representation of error levels. Consequently, a user of the system can manually adjust levels based on the representation of error levels. Audiophile Orchestral Music Reproduction [0086] A group of world-leading musicians assembles in a far-flung temple, famous for its incredible acoustics. They have brought several million dollars' worth of period instruments and collectively they hold around a hundred years of musical experience. The sound they make is very important to them. In performance, the music has been carefully tailored to suit the acoustics and the atmosphere, so the reproduction cannot be an abstract representation of the sound, but must be the actual, absolute pressure signal. For this reason PEC correction is not permitted by the authors, but OEC must be used to recreate the true SPL. In other words, the audio format of the present invention allows for improved accuracy of sound reproduction. Music Performance [0087] The conductor of an orchestra controls the performance and balance of each musician to get the perfect sound at his location. There is a section in the piece where complex interactions between instruments and the room cause undesirable masking affects at some audience locations, but not for the conductor. When this occurs it triggers a PE warning, alerting the conductor to the problem, who is then able to adapt the performance to minimise its affect. Music Production [0088] a) Robustness with Listening Conditions [0089] A music producer is aware that PEs are introduced when a recording is reproduced on different sound systems, and, before deciding on a final mix, he would like an estimate of the magnitude of these potential effects. Using a set of loudspeaker, room and environmental models, a perceptual robustness meter (PRM) gives him a measure of how robust the mix is to changes in the listening conditions i.e. if the RMS playback level is greater than 100 dB SPL the perceived loudness of the vocals will increase by 20% compared to the rest of the instruments in the mix, or if the noise level is greater than 50 dB SPL the perceived loudness of the guitar will drop by 50% etc. The producer can then make an informed decision whether to modify the mix for robustness. [0090] A system that uses the PE and PEC modules to automatically make mixes more robust is also proposed. The producer can define, for a given mix, a set of PEs that can be introduced by the automatic robustness system (smaller tolerances restrict the changes that can be made). The system then searches the parameter space, using the loudspeaker, room and environmental models discussed above, to make changes to the mix such that robustness is increased. This system can also be used to automatically produce a range of mixes with different robustness characteristics for different reproduction situations. For example, a reproduction on a high quality sound system will likely require a less robust mix than a reproduction on a small kitchen radio. b) Perceptual Production Controls [0091] When producing a piece of music, the individual sounds interact on a perceptual level. For example, if a vocal signal is set at a specific level it has a certain objective intensity and perceptual loudness. If another signal is added, for example a guitar, the objective intensity of the vocal will be unchanged, but its perceived loudness will decrease due to masking. Balancing such interactions is part of the production process. PE and PEC can be integrated into production tools to accommodate these effects for an arbitrary number of perceptual features. For example, the vocal signal is set at a certain SPL and some perceptual features are locked, for example its loudness, within an allowable PE range. When the guitar signal is added there are two options: 1) PEC is inactive and the guitar is prevented from being added unless it is modified in some way to reduce masking interaction so that vocal loudness is preserved, 2) PEC is active and my mixing desk automatically modifies properties of either the guitar signal, the vocal signal or both signals to preserve the perceptual loudness of the vocals (current tools exist which make the vocal signal ride the rest of the mix by a given dB amount but this is an objective metric in the voltage domain). Hearing Impairment [0092] In all cases described above the standard auditory model may be substituted for a hearing-impaired auditory model. In this case the hearing-impaired user may be informed of PE, or if PEC is activated this may be applied to correct the error. Any uncorrectable error will be displayed. Furthermore, a hearing-impaired music producer may engage PEC (in his monitoring system) so that the features of his work, ultimately perceived by a non-impaired listener, will be consistent with his intentions and not limited by his impairment. The PE estimated by his monitoring system will then inform him if his impairment is affecting his work in a manner that is not correctable (i.e. the PE warning informs him that he risks making inadvertent or unintentional changes to the sound quality of the signal which he cannot perceive due to his hearing impairment). Hence, the auditory model may comprise a sub-model of the recording engineer's hearing impairment. For example, an audiogram of the engineer may be utilised within the auditory model. Sound System Certification [0093] Sound systems used for reproduction include cinema theatres, live music venues, production studios, home theatres and automotive audio. These systems introduce OEs and PEs due to sound system and room acoustic properties e.g. loudspeaker response and reverberation. Presently the THX system provides an objective certification of sound reproduction quality e.g. cinema and home theatre. This system is replaced according to the format and error estimation system described above i.e. one that uses PEs and well as OEs. [0094] It will be appreciated that in alternative arrangements a system may pre-produce audio signals for specific systems. For example, a system may be provided that takes the original recording and then produces a “pre-corrected” mix for a specific system. For example, a mix could be provided for being played on headphones thereby predicting the expected listening conditions. Other mixes could be provided, for example, for use on a home-stereo or disco. [0095] The various methods described above may be implemented by a computer program. The computer program may include computer code arranged to instruct a computer to perform the functions of one or more of the various methods described above. The computer program and/or the code for performing such methods may be provided to an apparatus, such as a computer, on a computer readable medium or computer program product. The computer readable medium could be, for example, an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system, or a propagation medium for data transmission, for example for downloading the code over the Internet. Alternatively, the computer readable medium could take the form of a physical computer readable medium such as semiconductor or solid state memory, magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disc, and an optical disk, such as a CD-ROM, CD-R/W or DVD. [0096] An apparatus such as a computer may be configured in accordance with such code to perform one or more processes in accordance with the various methods discussed herein. Such an apparatus may take the form of a data processing system. Such a data processing system may be a distributed system. For example, such a data processing system may be distributed across a network. [0097] In some embodiments, any suitable computer readable media can be used for storing instructions for performing the functions and/or processes described herein. For example, in some embodiments, computer readable media can be transitory or non-transitory. For example, non-transitory computer readable media can include media such as magnetic media (such as hard disks, floppy disks, etc.), optical media (such as compact discs, digital video discs, Blu-ray discs, etc.), semiconductor media (such as flash memory, electrically programmable read only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM), etc.), any suitable media that is not fleeting or devoid of any semblance of permanence during transmission, and/or any suitable tangible media. As another example, transitory computer readable media can include signals on networks, in wires, conductors, optical fibers, circuits, any suitable media that is fleeting and devoid of any semblance of permanence during transmission, and/or any suitable intangible media. [0098] Although the invention has been described and illustrated in the foregoing illustrative embodiments, it is understood that the present disclosure has been made only by way of example, and that numerous changes in the details of implementation of the invention can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, which is limited only by the claims that follow. Features of the disclosed embodiments can be combined and rearranged in various ways.

Mechanisms for obtaining an audio signal and information relating to the recording conditions of the audio signal are provided, the method comprising: obtaining an audio signal, wherein the audio signal is a voltage signal representation of sound, the voltage signal having been converted from a pressure signal; obtaining first information indicative of at least one objective feature and/or at least one perceptual feature associated with the conversion of the pressure signal into the audio signal in the form of a voltage signal representation; storing the audio signal, the first information, and second information identifying a relationship between the audio signal and the first information; determining an error adjustment for adjusting the audio signal based on the obtained information; applying the error adjustment to the audio signal to create an error-adjusted audio signal; and obtaining an audio signal and information relating to the recording conditions of the audio signal.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to systems and methods for seismological sounding with acoustic signals. More particularly, aspects of the present invention relate to systems and methods for performing geophysical surveys using spread spectrum acoustic waves generated by non-impulsive sources. [0003] 2. Description of the Background [0004] The conventional practice of reflection seismology makes use of an energy impulse to inject acoustic waves into the earth. Common methods of creating this impulse include explosions, air guns, dropped weights, and vibrating plates. The seismic waves resulting from these impulse sources then propagate through the earth, undergoing reflection and refraction due to discontinuities or gradations in density in the earth. Such discontinuities delineate boundaries between features such as water tables, rock layers, caves, faults, or man-made structures such as tunnels. A signal composed of the sum of the reflected waves reaches the surface of the earth and is measured by sensors. The standard practice is to calculate the time-domain signal amplitudes from all sensors, and to further process the data if and as required. [0005] The standard practice has a number of inherent challenges and drawbacks. First, impulse stimulation sources require large energy inputs in order to overcome signal attenuation within the earth. This attenuation may be caused by several sources, e.g., scattering caused by inhomogeneous earth layers, the impedance of the earth, the natural low-pass filtering of the medium through which the impulse stimulation passes, etc. Generating the necessary large energy pulses can be expensive and invasive, requiring large equipment that is not convenient to transport to a sounding location without specialized vehicles. This limitation can make sounding with impulse stimulation sources particularly difficult in remote or difficult to access locations. [0006] Second, the detected impulse signals are not easily distinguishable from sources of interference, such as amplifier noise, road traffic, mining, or natural seismic events. This limits the ability to perform accurate soundings in areas of high ambient seismic noise. [0007] Third, most impulse sources contain consumable elements (e.g., explosives) and are therefore not suitable for permanent or semi-permanent emplacement (e.g. to continuously monitor for tunneling activity across a border or into a secure site). Those impulse sources that contain few or no consumable resources (e.g., sources utilizing gas compressed on-site) in general produce impulses with much lower energy densities. As a result, they suffer significantly from the attenuation and interference effects described above, [0008] Fourth, impulse sources provide very little control over the parameters of the emitted signal, such as spectral distribution. Particular frequencies or frequency bands may be differentially absorbed or reflected by various features of the medium under study. In some cases, it would be desirable to either focus the energy of the signals in these frequencies or frequency bands or distribute the energy of the signals to avoid these frequencies or frequency bands. For example, resolving specific features, identifying soil types, penetrating groundwater, etc. can be dependent on spectral distribution of the signal and the received acoustic data. Using impulse based signal sources, such selectivity is generally unavailable. [0009] Fifth, sounding methods using impulse sources are easy for third parties to detect and thus are relatively ineffective for surreptitious applications. For example, impulse sources would be inadequate to monitor for tunnel construction across a border or into a secure area without notifying the builders or users of the tunnel to the monitoring. Relatedly, because of their sensitivity to interference, impulse based soundings may be subject to jamming efforts (e.g., tunnel users may thwart detection of the tunnel by creating additional seismic noise in the area). [0010] Sixth, in many circumstances, impulse sources are too intrusive or destructive. For example, impulse sources may be a nuisance or hazard in heavily populated or crowded areas, urban environments, wildlife refuges, cave systems and other protected spaces, potentially fragile environments such as unstable mineshafts, etc. Furthermore, impulse sources are typically too obtrusive to be run continuously for monitoring secure locations such as power plants, military sites, bank vaults, etc. [0011] Seventh, it is generally not possible to distinguish between separate impulses. Thus, multiple simultaneous impulses appear as interference. Requiring impulses to be generated and received separately can greatly extend the amount of time required for a survey. [0012] It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an improved system and method for seismological sounding that overcomes the aforementioned challenges and drawbacks. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] In some aspects, the present invention provides a system and method for seismological sounding by generating a continuous spread spectrum signal; coupling the signal to a medium that is to be sounded for propagation of an acoustic wave through the medium; receiving one or more return signals from the medium generated by interaction between the acoustic wave and the medium, i.e. the structural features thereof; and processing the return signals to obtain seismic sounding data describing the structural features of the medium. The method and apparatus are applicable to both scientific research and to commercial application. By way of example only, this could include petroleum and mineral surveys, civil surveys, detection of tunnels, shafts and caverns, and subsurface imaging techniques. [0014] The present invention makes use of spread-spectrum linear modulation of a transmitter in place of a mechanism that generates impulses, thus moving some of the burden of increasing signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) from the power of the transmitter to signal processing in the receiver, allowing much lower energy densities to be utilized. This allows one to use substantially less powerful energy sources that are less cumbersome to transport, require less consumable elements, are less detectable by third parties, and are less intrusive than the conventionally used explosives or very large machinery, all while being more robust against interference or jamming. [0015] Further, in some aspects, the present invention provides a system and method for seismological sounding that enables control over many of the signal parameters, such as the spectral distribution of energy. This permits more detailed data collection. Further, interference from ambient seismic noise may be reduced by selecting appropriate spectral distributions of the sounding signal. [0016] In some aspects of the present invention, the transmitted spread spectrum signal can extend in time for as long as deemed necessary; the longer the transmitted sequence, the more total energy is transmitted into the earth or medium, and the more total energy is returned to the receiver. Aspects of the present invention therefore allow for the transmission of a smaller amount of energy per unit of time, while allowing an equivalent amount of total energy to be applied to features of interest. Advantageously, this allows soundings to be performed in protected spaces, potentially fragile environments, and areas where soundings are run continuously but must remain unobtrusive. One may perform soundings according to aspects of the invention through human-built infrastructure (e.g. building foundations, bridges, roads, etc.) without damage. Provision for soundings (e.g. transmit and receive attachment points) may be built into the structure of secure sites, border crossings, etc. Longer sequences also result in a reduction of the amplitude of some kinds of interference, thus allowing weaker signals of interest to be detected. [0017] According to an aspect of the invention, a method is provided for performing seismological sounding. The method may include steps of: generating a continuous spread spectrum signal; generating in a target medium an acoustic wave corresponding to the spread spectrum signal; receiving one or more return signals from the target medium generated by interaction between said acoustic wave and the target medium; and processing the return signals to obtain seismic sounding data describing the target medium. [0018] According to an aspect of the invention, a system is provided for effecting seismological sounding in a medium. The system may include a spreading sequence generator, a transmit transducer, a receive transducer, and a signal processor. The spreading sequence generator may be configured to generate a continuous spread spectrum signal. The transmit transducer may be configured to receive the continuous spread spectrum signal, mechanically couple the continuous spread spectrum signal to a target medium, and generate in the target medium an acoustic wave corresponding to the spread spectrum signal. The receive transducer may be configured to receive one or more acoustic return signals from the target medium generated by interaction between said acoustic wave and the target medium and convert the acoustic return signals to electronic return signals. The signal processor may be configured to receive the electronic return signals and process the electronic return signals to obtain seismic sounding data describing the medium [0019] According to an aspect of the invention, a computer program product is provided for seismological sounding. The computer program product may include digital storage media and a set of machine readable instructions stored on said digital storage media. The machine readable instructions may include instructions executable by a computer to: generate a continuous spread spectrum signal; transmit the continuous spread spectrum signal to a transmit transducer mechanically coupled to a target medium; receive one or more return signals from a receive transducer mechanically coupled to a target medium; and process the return signals to obtain seismic sounding data describing the target medium. [0020] The above and other aspects and features of the present invention, as well as the structure and application of various embodiments of the present invention, are described below with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0021] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form part of the specification, illustrate various embodiments of the present invention and, together with the description, further serve to explain the principles of the invention and to enable a person skilled in the pertinent art to make and use the invention. In the drawings, like reference numbers indicate identical or functionally similar elements. [0022] A more complete appreciation of the invention and the attendant advantages thereof will be readily obtained as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered with the accompanying drawings wherein: [0023] FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram of a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the present invention. [0024] FIG. 2 is a functional block diagram of a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the present invention. [0025] FIG. 3 is a functional block diagram of a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the present invention. [0026] FIG. 4A is a flow chart illustrating a process for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the invention. [0027] FIG. 4B is a flow chart illustrating a process for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the invention. [0028] FIG. 5 is a functional block diagram of a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the present invention. [0029] FIG. 6 is a functional block diagram of a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the present invention. [0030] FIG. 7 is a functional block diagram of a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the present invention. [0031] FIG. 8 is a functional block diagram of a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to aspects of the present invention. [0032] FIG. 9 is an illustrative output of seismic data generated by a system for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0033] FIG. 1 illustrates a system 100 for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal according to some aspects of the invention. As illustrated in FIG. 1 , the system 100 may include a transmitter 110 and a receiver 120 . The transmitter 110 may include a spreading sequence generator 111 , a signal processing unit 112 for generating a spread spectrum signal based upon the spreading sequence, an amplifier 113 for increasing the power of the spread spectrum signal, a transducer 114 for converting the spread spectrum signal to mechanical motion, and a coupling mechanism 115 for coupling the mechanical motion to the target medium 116 (e.g., the ground). [0034] In some aspects of the invention, the spreading sequence generator 111 may generate a pseudorandom noise (PRN) sequence, which can be implemented as a pseudorandom sequence of binary digits. In some embodiments, the spreading sequence generator 111 may be an application specific integrated circuit (“ASIC”), field-programmable gate array (“FPGA”), a digital signal processor (“DSP”), an assembly of discrete logical elements (e.g., NAND gates, XOR gates, etc.), or a general purpose microprocessor configured to execute software instructions stored in a computer readable memory. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercially available personal computer (e.g., a Dell Latitude D620) programmed with software (e.g., commercially available software such as MathWorks™ MATLAB®, Parametric Technology Corporation (“PTC®”) Mathcad®, etc.) to generate a suitable PRN sequence may be used to generate the spreading sequence. [0035] In some preferred embodiments, the PRN may be chosen to have several properties, which can be summarized as: (a) its autocorrelation is very low, i.e., no part of the PRN signal closely resembles any other part; (b) its bandwidth is high compared to that of a data signal; and (c) if other signals are to be used within the same receiver range, the cross correlation between the PRN sequences must be low to prevent interference. Pursuant to one embodiment of the present invention, a software-based XOR-feedback shift register may be used to provide maximum-length sequences, e.g., of length on the order of 10 12 bits. Other sequence types could include Kasami codes, Gold codes, chaotic sequences generated by means known to those of skill in the art, and natural noise such as that from thermal sources. In some embodiments, Gold codes may be expedient for multiple-station concurrent studies due to their low and well specified cross correlation and ease of generation. Pursuant to a further embodiment, the spreading signal may be a recorded signal, seismic or otherwise, from natural or man-made sources, including thermal shot noise, atmospheric, tectonic, ambient seismic, traffic, mining, excavating, drilling, littoral, river, or animal noise. [0036] The signal processing unit 112 may be configured to receive a PRN binary sequence and generate a continuous spread spectrum signal based upon the PRN sequence. In some embodiments, the signal processing unit 112 may be an ASIC, an FPGA, a DSP, an assembly of discrete logical elements, or a general purpose microprocessor configured to execute software instructions stored in a computer readable memory. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercially available personal computer (e.g., a Dell Latitude D620) programmed with conventional signal processing software (e.g., commercially available software such as MathWorks™ MATLAB®, PTC® Mathcad®, etc.) may be used to generate the spreading sequence. [0037] In one embodiment of the present invention, the signal processing unit 112 may be configured to perform direct-sequence spread-spectrum modulation (DSSS). In DSSS, a carrier frequency may be modulated by both a data signal and a pseudorandom noise (PRN) or other bandwidth-spreading signal. As used herein, modulation may comprise any form of modulation that is suitable for transmission through the target medium 116 (e.g., amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, phase modulation, etc.) The use of DSSS and related signals provides geologic sounding that is less detectable by third parties (e.g., eavesdroppers, those engaged in illicit activity, etc.) and also less susceptible to jamming. [0038] In some implementations of the present invention, both the DSSS carrier signal and the DSSS data signal can be treated as having zero frequency, and are modulated by the pseudorandom noise sequence. Thus, the output waveform is based only on the PRN sequence. This waveform may be filtered as desired; for example, it can be bandpass-filtered to match the capabilities of transmitter and receiver. In some embodiments where the target medium 116 is, for example, the ground, the continuous spread spectrum signal may be filtered to have a bandwidth range between at least 0.1 Hz to 1,000 Hz. [0039] The amplifier 113 may be configured to receive an input signal (e.g., from the signal processing unit 112 ) and output a corresponding amplified signal sufficient to drive the transducer 114 . Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercial amplifier (e.g., an AudioSource Amp5.3, a commercially available amplifier capable of delivering 250 W into 4Ω over a range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz) may be used. In other embodiments, other amplifiers having sufficient bandwidth characteristics and electrical properties suitable to drive the transducer according to the continuous spread spectrum signal may be used. In some embodiments where the target medium 116 is, for example, the ground, amplifiers having bandwidth range between at least 0.1 Hz to 1,000 Hz may be used. [0040] The transducer 114 can be any device that converts the spread spectrum signal to mechanical motion. In some embodiments, the transducer 114 may use electromagnetic, magnetofluidic, hydraulic, piezoelectric, pneumatic, torsional, or other mechanisms actuated by an electrical signal. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercial electromagnetic solenoid (e.g., a Clark Synthesis TST429 Platinum Transducer) is utilized that uses magnetic coils to react the mass of a permanent magnet against the coupling mechanism. In some embodiments where the target medium 116 is, for example, the ground, transducers having a bandwidth range between at least 0.1 Hz to 1,000 Hz may be used. In other embodiments, any transducer suitable for coupling with the target medium 116 and delivering a signal with sufficient power for detection may be used. [0041] In other embodiments, the transmit transducer 114 may be a pneumatic transducer that converts the sounding signal into air pressure, which can be used to move the coupling mechanism 115 with a force corresponding to the signal for transmission. Pursuant to another embodiment, the transmit transducer 114 can be a hydraulic transducer that converts the sounding signal into fluid pressure, which can then be used to move the coupling mechanism 115 with a force corresponding to the signal for transmission. In yet another embodiment, the transmit transducer 114 can be a piezoelectric transducer that converts the sounding signal to mechanical force, which can then be used to move the coupling mechanism 115 with the force corresponding to the signal for transmission. In yet another embodiment, the transmit transducer 114 can be a magnetofluidic transducer that converts the sounding signal into fluid pressure, which can then be coupled to the medium 116 by the coupling mechanism 115 to provide a force that corresponds to the signal for transmission. [0042] The coupling mechanism 115 may be implemented in a number of different ways, such as embedding the transducer 114 in the target medium 116 , attaching the transducer 114 to buried or exposed rock formations, buried spikes, bolts, or other penetrative coupling means, or the use of a weight to provide a coupling bias. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, the transducer 114 is attached to the top of a steel spike, the other end of which is driven into the target medium 116 to provide coupling via friction between the spike and the target medium 116 . Where the target medium 116 is water or another liquid, coupling can occur from a ship or a towed device, or from some other device that is floating in the liquid. [0043] Coupling of the transducer 115 to the target medium 116 results in the launching of an acoustic wave into the target medium 116 . Signals returning to the surface of the target medium 116 may be comprised of surface- and subsurface-propagated acoustic signals that have undergone reflection and refraction, air-propagated signals, and environmental and system noise. Signals of interest returning to the receiver 120 consist of time-shifted versions of the transmitted DSSS signal, whereby the time shift is dependent on the reflection and refraction caused by subsurface features. [0044] After the thus introduced acoustic wave undergoes changes during propagation through the medium 116 , the signal is received by the receiver 120 . As illustrated in FIG. 1 , in some embodiments the receiver 120 may comprise a receive transducer 124 that is coupled to the medium 116 by a coupling mechanism 125 . The receiver 120 may also include a power amplifier 123 for amplifying the received signal, a signal processing unit 122 for demodulating the received signal, and a spreading sequence generator 121 for generating a spreading sequence that is matched to the transmit sequence generated in the transmitter 110 . The output from the signal processing unit 122 is the seismic sounding data, which is indicated by the reference numeral 130 , and which describes the medium 116 , such as the structural features thereof. [0045] The receive transducer 124 can be any device that converts the received signal to a corresponding electrical signal. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercially-available geophone (e.g., a GeoSpace GS-100 high-frequency geophone mounted in a GeoSpace PC-21 Land Case) may be used. The geophone may be comprised of a coil of wires suspended on a spring around a permanent magnet fixed to the housing. The housing is attached to a spike that is driven into the ground. As the ground moves in response to the seismic signals, the coil generates an electrical signal. Other transducers include piezoelectric materials, micromachined solid-state accelerometers, laser motion detectors, and other position, velocity or acceleration sensors. [0046] The amplifier 123 may be may be configured to receive an input signal (e.g., from the receive transducer 124 ) and output a corresponding amplified signal sufficient for the signal processing unit 122 to produce reliable data. In some embodiments, the amplifier 123 may be any amplifier suitable to receive transmitted continuous spread spectrum signal without aliasing. In other embodiments, the amplifier 123 may be selected with characteristics suitable to receive the transmitted continuous spread spectrum signal, as well as any ambient seismic noise or other expected sources of acoustic data, without aliasing. Furthermore, the signal received from the receive transducer 124 may be filtered (e.g., low-pass filtered or other band pass filtered, etc.) to have characteristics suitable for the amplifier 123 . [0047] The signal processing unit 122 may be configured to receive the amplified received signal and demodulate the signal using the spreading sequence provided by the spreading sequence generator 121 . In some embodiments, the signal processing unit 122 may be an ASIC, an FPGA, a DSP, or a general purpose microprocessor configured to execute software instructions stored in a computer readable memory. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercially available personal computer (e.g., a Dell Latitude D620) programmed with conventional signal processing software (e.g., commercially available software such as MathWorks™ MATLAB®, PTC® Mathcad®, Halliburton ProMAX®, etc.) may be process the received signal. [0048] In some embodiments, the received signals may be transferred to a processing computer by standard means. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercially available data acquisition unit (e.g., an IOTech Personal DAQ 3001) may be used to transfer the received signals from the receive transducer 124 or the amplifier 123 to a personal computer via a Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. [0049] Processing consists of performing a mathematical cross correlation between the transmitted signal and the received signal to provide a measure of amplitude vs. time delay of return signal for an appropriate range of time delays. The spreading sequence generated by the spreading sequence generator 121 may be used to determine the transmitted signal. Pursuant to one embodiment of the present invention, both transmitted and received signals are recorded for a specified length of time, and fast Fourier transforms may be used to perform the cross correlation on the recorded data. Pursuant to other embodiments, any number of methods could be utilized to obtain the same mathematical results, all of which are familiar to those of skill in the art, and which could be implemented in software (e.g., MathWorks™ MATLAB®), firmware or hardware (e.g., ASICs, FPGAs, DSPs, discrete logic elements, etc.). [0050] Once the time-domain data is obtained, existing processing techniques (e.g., those provided by the Halliburton ProMAX® software product) can be used to generate images, cross-sections, and to perform standard seismological characterization. [0051] In some embodiments, the components described above may be powered by a portable power device. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, a commercially available power inverter (e.g., a Black and Decker PI750B 750 W power inverter) may be used in conjunction with, e.g., a standard car battery. [0052] FIG. 2 illustrates a computer 200 including a computer program product for seismological sounding according to some embodiments of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 2 , machine readable instructions 210 may be stored in a computer readable storage medium 250 (e.g., a random access memory (“RAM”), an electrically erasable programmable read only memory (“EEPROM”), a flash memory, an optical disk, a magnetic disk, etc.). The machine readable instructions 210 may be accessed and executable by a processor 260 to transmit data via an output component 270 (e.g., a USB interface) and receive data via an input component 280 (e.g., a USB interface). The machine readable instructions 210 may include a spreading sequence module 211 for generating the spreading sequence, a signal processing module 212 for processing the spreading sequence to generate a continuous spread spectrum signal (e.g., via DSSS modulation), and a transmission module 214 for transmitting the continuous spread spectrum signal to a transducer (e.g., via a USB interface). In some embodiments, the machine readable instructions 210 may include a receive module 224 for receiving signals from a transducer (e.g., via a USB interface), and a signal processing module 222 for processing the received signals based on the spreading sequence to generate seismic sounding data. [0053] FIG. 3 illustrates a system 300 for seismological sounding including a computer 200 according to some embodiments of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 3 , the computer 200 may communicate with a data acquisition device 300 via the input and output components 270 , 280 . The data acquisition device 300 may be configured to receive continuous spread spectrum signals from the computer 200 and transmit the continuous spread spectrum signal to the amplifier 113 . The data acquisition device may be further configured to receive signals from one or more receive transducers 124 and transmit the received data to the computer 200 for signal processing. Pursuant to one embodiment of the invention, the data acquisition device 300 may be a commercially available data acquisition unit. [0054] FIGS. 4A and 4B are flow charts illustrating, respectively, a process 400 for transmitting a continuous spread spectrum seismic sounding signal and a process 450 for receiving and processing return signals generated by a continuous spread spectrum sounding signal according to some embodiments of the present invention. In some embodiments, one or more of the steps in the processes 400 or 450 may be performed pursuant to software stored in a computer readable medium and one or more digital processors. In other embodiments, all or part of the processes 400 or 450 may be encoded into special purpose hardware (e.g., one or more FPGAs or application specific integrated circuits ASICs). [0055] The process 400 for transmitting a continuous spread spectrum seismic sounding signal according to some embodiments of the present invention may begin at step 402 when the transmitter 110 receives user-specified shot parameters. The shot parameters may include a selected transmission period, selected frequency spectrum parameters, or other aspects of the transmitted signal. [0056] At step 404 , the spreading sequence generator 111 generates the spreading sequence according to spreading sequence parameters and the shot parameters. [0057] At step 406 , the signal processing unit 112 uses the spreading sequence to modulate a signal and may apply further filtering (e.g., filtering specified by the user-specified shot parameters). [0058] At step 408 , the signal processing unit 112 sends the spread spectrum signal to the amplifier 113 . The amplifier 113 amplifies the spread spectrum signal as required and sends the spread spectrum signal to the transducer 114 (step 410 ). [0059] At step 412 , the transducer 114 transmits the spread spectrum signal, via the coupling mechanism 115 , into the target medium 116 . [0060] The process 450 for receiving and processing return signals generated by a continuous spread spectrum sounding signal according to some embodiments of the present invention may begin at step 452 when the receiver 120 is initialized so that it is ready to receive, record, and process acoustic signals from the target medium 116 . This may include providing adequate power to the components of the receiver 120 , preparing any recording devices or software to record the received signals, and inputting into the spreading sequence generator 121 spreading sequence parameters that may be based upon the user-specified shot parameters. In some embodiments, the spreading sequence parameters input to the receiver 120 are matched to the spreading sequence parameters input to the spreading sequence generator 121 , such that both of the spreading sequence generators 111 , 121 will generate the same spreading sequence. [0061] At step 454 , the spreading sequence generator 121 generates a spreading sequence for the receiver 120 that corresponds to the spreading sequence generated by the spreading sequence generator 112 for the transmitter 110 . [0062] At step 456 , the receiver 120 determines the continuous spread spectrum signal generated by the transmitter 110 . In some embodiments, this may be performed via the signal processing unit 122 . [0063] At step 458 , the receiver 120 receives the return signals input buffers of the receive transducer 124 (e.g., a geophone) and, in some embodiments, amplifies the received signal via the amplifier 123 (step 460 ). [0064] At step 462 , the signal processing unit 122 performs cross correlations for an appropriate range of time delays between the received signal and the transmitted signal to determine a measure of amplitude vs. time delay of return signal. [0065] Step 462 may comprise storing the results of the cross correlation, e.g., into a computer readable medium. Step 462 may also comprise displaying the results of the cross correlation, e.g. via a computer monitor or other electronic display or a computer printout. [0066] In some embodiments, the process 400 and the process 450 may occur concurrently. In other embodiments, some or all of steps 454 , 456 , and 462 may occur after the transmitter 110 has completed transmitting the continuous spread spectrum signal (i.e., after step 412 is complete) and may also occur after the receiver 120 has finished receiving return signals (i.e., after step 458 is complete). [0067] FIG. 5 illustrates a system 500 for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal. As illustrated in FIG. 5 , the transmitter 510 and the receiver 520 make simultaneous use of the same transducer 514 and coupling mechanism 515 . DSSS signals are amplified and applied to the shared transducer 514 in such a way as to permit signals created by the transducer 514 to be measured by the same transducer 514 . Pursuant to one embodiment, a resistance impedance is used in series with an electromagnetic transducer to allow voltages induced by return signals to be measured. In some embodiments, to the transmitted signal must be selected to avoid saturating the transducer 514 with the transmit signal, and the amplifier 123 of the receiver 520 must have wide enough dynamic range to measure the small-amplitude return signal summed with the large-amplitude transmit signal. [0068] FIG. 6 illustrates a system 600 for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal. As illustrated in FIG. 6 , the transmitter 610 employs a carrier signal. A carrier frequency is generated at the carrier signal generator 650 and modulates the spreading signal. Signal processing at the unit 622 in the receiver 620 recovers the carrier and uses it to demodulate the sounding data. [0069] FIG. 7 illustrates a system 700 for performing seismic sounding using a spread spectrum signal. As illustrated in FIG. 7 , data can be transmitted along with the sounding signals and can be recovered at the receiver 720 . A data signal generated by a data signal generator 750 can modulate the spreading signal or optional carrier signal of the transmitter 710 . The signal processing unit 722 in the receiver 720 can recover the data 751 as separate from sounding data. [0070] FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary transmitted continuous spread spectrum signal 850 in the transmitter 110 , and an exemplary return signal 860 in the receiver 120 The return signal may be composed of a plurality of different time-shifted copies of the transmitted continuous spread spectrum signal superimposed on each other. Also illustrated in FIG. 8 is an example of the seismic sounding data 130 after the signal processing unit 122 has performed the cross correlations described above to calculate the amplitude vs. time delay of return signal for an appropriate range of time delays. [0071] In some embodiments of the invention, a plurality of receivers (e.g., receivers 120 , 320 , 420 , or 520 ) can be utilized to receive transmissions from a single transmitter (e.g., a transmitter 110 , 310 , 410 , or 510 ). Each receiver uses the spreading sequence matched to that of the transmitter to provide the sounding data for each transmitter receiver pair. [0072] Pursuant to yet another embodiment of the invention, a plurality of transmitters (e.g., transmitters 110 , 310 , 410 , or 510 ) and a plurality of receivers (e.g., receivers 120 , 320 , 420 , or 520 ) can be utilized. Each transmitter is assigned a different spreading sequence. The spreading sequences are selected to have low cross correlation, and therefore to provide low interference between the transmitted signals. The transmitters can transmit simultaneously, in which case each receiver receives the sum of sounding signals from all active transmitters. Each demodulator of the receivers uses the spreading sequence matched to each transmitter to provide the sounding data for each transmitter receiver pair. By using multiple transmitters simultaneously, faster soundings, faster holographic imaging, and faster simultaneous soundings over a wide area may be provided. [0073] Pursuant to another embodiment of the invention, transmission and reception are used over a period of time to provide extended sounding data. A DSSS Signal is transmitted from one or more transmitters over an extended period of time. Pursuant to some embodiments of the present invention, transmissions may continue for 10 minutes or more. One or more receivers receive the DSSS signal and synchronization of the spreading code, so-called “acquisition”, is achieved. After acquisition, extended sounding data is recovered for each transmitter receiver pair. The longer the transmitting duration, the more total energy is transmitted into the target medium 116 , and the more total energy is returned to the receiver. Embodiments according to this aspect of the invention therefore allow for the transmission of a smaller amount of energy per unit of time, while allowing an equivalent amount of total energy to be applied to features of interest. Extended duration sounding may be useful for dynamic environments (e.g., to track the progress of tunnel-boring machines). Furthermore, extended duration sounding may be used to image fault movement, potentially even during an earthquake. Example [0074] An embodiment of the above described seismic sounding systems and methods was used to perform a seismic survey at the South Juanita Mine adit in the Magdalena Mountains. The embodiment used to perform the seismic survey described comprised an AudiSource Amp5.3 amplifier coupled to a Clark Synthesis TST429 Platinum transducer, GeoSpace GS-100 geophones, an IOTech Personal DAQ 3001, and a Dell Latitude D620 laptop computer. The transmitter is a commercially available amplifier and a low-power audio transducer, and the receiver is a commercial single-axis geophone. The transmitter and laptop were powered by a Black and Decker PI750AB power inverter plugged into the field vehicle. The transmitter was coupled to the ground via a small steel stake hand driven with a hammer, and the single geophone was moved to measured offsets. [0075] The following computer code, which is written in C++, can be used to control I/O and to perform signal processing, as described above, with regard to performing a sounding using multiple transmitters 110 and multiple receivers 120 : [0000] #include <stdio.h> #include <AcquisitionBoard.h> class CTransducer { public: CCoordinate m_cLocation; CBuffer m_aData; }; void main(void) { double  Power, Duration, SampleRate; short unsigned  NumberOfTransmitters,  NumberOfReceivers; // read parameters for this data collection sequence ReadParameters(Power, Duration, SampleRate, NumberOfTransmitters, NumberOfReceivers); // create structures to hold transducer information and data CTransducer aTransmitters = new CTransducer[NumberOfTransmitters]; CTransducer aReceivers = new CTransducer[NumberOfReceivers]; // create a structure to hold crosscorrelations for all transducer pairs CBuffer mCorrelations = new CBuffer[NumberOfTransmitters * NumberOfReceivers]; // read information about transducers ReadTransmitterInformation(aTransmitters); ReadReceiverInformation(aReceivers); // initialize acquisition board InitializeAcquisitionBoard(Power, Duration, SampleRate, NumberOfTransmitters, NumberOfReceivers); // create Gold cold PRN sequences in output buffers // each transmitter is given a different sequence to transmit CreateGoldCodes(aTransmitters); // give the acquisition board control over transmit and receive buffers GiveBuffersToAcquisitionBoard(aTransmitters, aReceivers); // transmit and receive data // all transmitters will transmit their buffers simultaneously // all receiver inputs will be recorded into their buffers TransmitAndReceive( ); // data collection is now complete // compute crosscorrelation for all pairs for(int iTransmitter = 0;  iTransmitter < NumberOfTransmitters;  iTransmitter++) { for(int iReceiver = 0;  iReceiver < NumberOfReceivers;  iReceiver++) { ComputeCrossCorrelation( aTransmitter[iTransmitter], aReceiver[iReceiver], mCorrelations[iTransmitter + iReceiver * NumberOfTransmitters]); } } // store to disk for further processing by third-party software WriteDataToDisk(mCorrelations); // clean up delete [ ] aTransmitters; delete [ ] aReceivers; delete [ ] mCorrelations; // de-initialize board DeInitializeAcquisitionBoard( ); // done } [0076] FIG. 9 shows a field record of the processed signals made using a 200 Hz bandwidth and a 20-second integration. The transmitter and geophone spanned the adit on a perpendicular line, and the 1 meter-wide by 1.5 meter-tall adit was estimated to be 10 m below the surface at this point. The results display expected seismic signals. [0077] The following computer code, which is written in C++, can be used to control I/O and to perform signal processing, as described above, according to an embodiment wherein transmission and reception are used over a period of time to provide extended sounding data. In some embodiments, the FillTransmitBuffers( ) subroutine may be used to generate additional portions of the PRN sequence, and the ReceiveBuffersFull( ) subroutine may be used to periodically perform the cross-correlation between received signals and the transmitted signals: [0000] #include <stdio.h> #include <AcquisitionBoard.h> class CTransducer { public: CCoordinate m_cLocation; CBuffer m_aData; }; CTransducer[ ] aTransmitters; CTransducer[ ] aReceivers; CBuffer[ ] mCorrelations; double[ ] aSeeds; int NumberOfTransmitters, NumberOfReceivers; void main(void) { double Power, Duration, SampleRate; // read parameters for this data collection sequence ReadParameters(Power, Duration, SampleRate, NumberOfTransmitters,  NumberOfReceivers); // create structures to hold transducer information and data aTransmitters = new CTransducer[NumberOfTransmitters]; aReceivers = new CTransducer[NumberOfReceivers]; // create a structure to hold crosscorrelations for all transducer pairs mCorrelations = new CBuffer[NumberOfTransmitters * NumberOfReceivers]; // create a buffer to hold a PRN seed for every transmitter aSeeds = new double[NumberOfTransmitters]; // read information about transducers ReadTransmitterInformation(aTransmitters); ReadReceiverInformation(aReceivers); // initialize acquisition board InitializeAcquisitionBoard(Power, Duration, SampleRate, NumberOfTransmitters, NumberOfReceivers); // tell I/O board how to ask for more transmit data RegisterFillTransmitBuffers(FillTransmitBuffers); RegisterReceiveBufferCallback(ReceiveBuffersFull); // give the acquisition board control over transmit and receive buffers GiveBuffersToAcquisitionBoard(aTransmitters, aReceivers); // create initial seed for each transmitter // seeds are chosen to create a different sequence for each transmitter, // and so that each transmitter sequence's autocorrelation with // every other is very low. one could also use different sequence // generators for each transmitter InitializeSeeds(aSeeds); // tell the board to begin transmitting from the transmit // buffers and reading inputs into the receive buffers // the board will call back to obtain more transmit data, // and will call back when the receiver data is full StartTransmitAndReceive( ); // do nothing until time to stop // // callbacks below will be used to flow data // into and out of the acquisition board // // user interface can be updated here, etc. WaitForStopSignal( ); // tell the board to stop StopTransmitAndReceive( ); // clean up delete [ ] aTransmitters; delete [ ] aReceivers; delete [ ] mCorrelations; delete [ ] aSeeds; // de-initialize board DeInitializeAcquisitionBoard( ); // done } void FillTransmitBuffers(void) { // for each transmit buffer, use its current seed to // continue to generate the PRN sequence assigned to it for(int i = 0; i < NumberOfTransmitters; i++) { // fill the buffer with the new section // of its sequence // // leave the seed updated so the next // call continues the sequence FillTransmitBuffer(aTransmitters[i], aSeeds[i]); } } void ReceiveBuffersFull(void) { // compute crosscorrelation for all pairs for(int iTransmitter = 0;  iTransmitter < NumberOfTransmitters;  iTransmitter++) { for(int iReceiver = 0;  iReceiver < NumberOfReceivers;  iReceiver++) { ComputeCrossCorrelation( aTransmitters[iTransmitter], aReceivers[iReceiver], mCorrelations[iTransmitter + iReceiver * NumberOfTransmitters]); } } // store to disk for further processing WriteDataToDisk(mCorrelations); // during continuous sounding, other software can monitor // for triggers, perform periodic postprocessing, // archive data, or remove uninteresting data } [0078] Although the term “ground” has been used above to identify the medium in which the acoustic wave is propagated, the medium can actually be any medium through which an acoustic signal can be transmitted. By way of example only, in addition to the ground, the medium can also be other solids such as rocks, buildings, other structures, concrete, metal, and wood, as well as water and other liquids. It is to be understood that the medium can also contain air or gas pockets. [0079] While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above described exemplary embodiments. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

Systems and methods for seismological sounding with acoustic signals and, more particularly, systems and methods for performing geophysical surveys using spread spectrum acoustic waves generated by non-impulsive sources. A spread spectrum signal is generated and coupled to a medium that is to be sounded for propagation of an acoustic wave through the medium. One or more return signals are received from the medium that are generated by interaction between the acoustic wave and the medium. The return signals are possessed to obtain seismic sounding data describing the structural features of the medium.

[0001] The present patent application is a continuation in part of patent application Ser. No. 11/472,932. [0002] This patent application incorporates items from pending patent application Ser. No. 11/213,029. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] 1. Field of the Invention [0004] 2. Description of the Prior Art [0005] It can be appreciated that battery holders have been in use for years. Typically, battery holders are pre-determined to accommodate a given number of batteries and are susceptible to intermittent voltage in shock and vibration. [0006] The main problem with conventional battery holders is that the absence of even one battery breaks the serial chain and no voltage at all is available at the battery holder output terminals. [0007] Another problem with conventional battery holders is that extra operations are required for assembly in the subsequent installation of contact terminals and interconnections. [0008] Another problem with conventional battery holders is that battery retention is dependant upon covers or the outside two batteries being partially covered by a retainer. Retaining straps are available but are less retentive on the batteries remote from the outside walls. [0009] Another problem with conventional battery holders is that the removal of batteries generally requires fingernail extracting rather than being pressed out. [0010] Another problem with conventional batter holders is that molding costs of the battery holder case are increased by the requirement for holes in the battery holder case walls. [0011] Another problem with conventional battery holders is that when exposed to shock and/or vibration, battery movement can intermittently open even one circuit in the battery chain resulting in the problem stated above in paragraph 0004. [0012] Another problem with conventional battery holders is the expense incurred in complex molding operations, contacts installation and wiring interconnects. [0013] Another problem with conventional battery holders is that when used to supply power to an Electrostatic Discharge sensitive circuit, removal of the battery, or batteries, leaves the circuit input open circuit and Susceptible to Electrostatic Discharge, ESD, damage. [0014] Another problem with prior art battery holders is that they are limited in output voltage to the total voltage of the totally populated battery holder. [0015] While these devices may be suitable for the particular purpose to which they address, they are not as suitable for the provision of a battery holder that provides economy of production and reliable output voltage as a function of the number of batteries installed. [0016] In view of the disadvantages inherent in the known types of battery holders now present in the prior art, the present invention provides a new and less expensive UNINTERRUPTABLE BATTERY HOLDER with incremental voltage, capable of more reliable service under extreme acceleration movement conditions. It has many of the advantages of the holders mentioned heretofore and many novel features that result in a new ruggedized incremental and selectable voltage battery holder which is not anticipated, rendered obvious, suggested, or even implied by any of the prior art, either alone or in any combination thereof. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0017] My battery holder may be considered uninterruptible as the loss of one battery drops the supplied voltage by only the voltage of that one battery. The battery holder is comprised of an injection molded battery holder case containing no holes in the walls, thereby reducing the molding operation to one male and one female mold only. The said holder is able to do this by the use of my invented battery contact and interconnect of pre-formed wire, or stamped metal strip, disposed into positioning retainers molded into the battery holder case 30 and possibly captured by heat staking, spring back or other means. [0018] A given battery is electrically entered into the serially connected battery array by the interconnecting pre-formed wire being contiguous with the positive end of the prior battery and with the negative end of said given battery, which eliminates the need for wall mounted interconnects. [0019] The subsequent battery pre-formed wire forms a normally closed contact with this pre-formed wire that bypasses said given battery position in the event no battery is installed in that position. Each battery position may or may not contain a battery and thereby the serial chain can provide output voltage as a function of the sum of number of batteries present and the voltage of each. [0020] For example, a battery holder of four battery positions can actually supply 14 output voltages by mixing and/or removing 1.5 volt and 1.2 volt batteries. [0021] Shock induced intermittent contact separation protection is increased by the inclusion of my patent pending self-expanding, but resistant to sudden collapsing, bubble. [0022] Shock induced intermittent contact protection is made less critical by the reduction of the severity of losing only 1/n (where “n” is the number of batteries in the chain) of the total voltage as opposed to losing the total voltage. [0023] Battery retention is enhanced by the inclusion of a path for an optional over battery strap, which secures each battery to its adjacent battery case walls. [0024] The general purpose of the present invention, which will be described subsequently in greater detail, is to provide a new incremental voltage battery array holder that has many of the advantages of the holders mentioned heretofore and many novel features that result in a new battery holder which is not anticipated, rendered obvious, suggested, or even implied by any of the prior art, either alone or in any combination thereof. [0025] For the purpose of demonstration of battery economy from experimental results, assume an AA battery costs $1.00. [0026] For an incandescent bulb rated 6 volts: At 4 batteries, the bulb consumes 0.355 amps at 5.93 volts. Rated life of the 4 batteries is 3.5 hours (Ray-O-Vac Corp). Cost for 4 batteries is $4.00/3.5=$1.14 per hour. At 3 batteries, and still quite bright, the bulb consumes 0.304 amps at 4.47 volts. Rated battery life is: 5.5 hours. Cost of 3 batteries is $3.00/5.5=$0.55 per hour. A prior art 4 cell holder would require a 4.87 ohm resistor to drop the voltage to 4.47 volts and 0.304 amps, while still using 4 batteries. Cost is $4.00/5.5=$0.73 per hour plus the resistor cost. My holder with 2 cells, a soft glowing light, at 0.237 amps and 2.91 volts is rated 7.5 hours or $2.00/7.5=$0.27 per hour. A prior art 4-cell holder would cost $4.00/7.5=$0.53 per hour plus a 12.7-ohm resistor. (Powering a 5VDC fan yields even more striking results with less noise). [0033] There has thus been outlined, rather broadly, the more important features of the invention in order that the detailed description thereof may be better understood, and in order that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. [0034] In this respect, before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, i.e. a four battery holder, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and to the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and have being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein are for the purpose of the description and should not be regarded as limiting. [0035] This invention may be embodied in the form illustrated in the accompanying drawings, attention being called to the fact, however, that the drawings are illustrative only, and that changes may be made in the specific construction illustrated. It is assumed that the pre-formed wire is approximately 0.035 diameter, square or rectangular spring temper metal. The length of wire required per battery is less than the length used for that battery's coil spring of prior art battery holders. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0036] Various other objects, features and attendant advantages of the present invention will become fully appreciated as the same becomes better understood when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference characters designate the same or similar parts throughout the several views, and wherein: [0037] FIG. 1 is the schematic of each battery position when no battery is present. [0038] FIG. 2 is the schematic of each battery position when a battery is present. [0039] FIG. 3 is the schematic of a battery holder of 6 positions when only two batteries are present. [0040] FIG. 4 illustrates a battery in position and displacing my positive contact 50 away from being contiguous with the subsequently contiguous pre-formed wire 50 . [0041] FIG. 5 illustrates the absence of a battery in position and my pre-formed wires 50 form a bypassing circuit 20 , bypassing that battery position. [0042] FIG. 6 is an isometric view of pre-formed wire contacts 49 , 50 and 51 before installing into a four-battery holder. [0043] FIG. 7 is my reduced cost battery holder 10 with my pre-formed wire contacts 50 installed. [0044] FIG. 8 is a four-battery holder with a retaining strap woven over each battery, securing them to the battery case. [0045] FIG. 9 is a four battery holder with one battery removed from service by being urged away from that positive portion of the pre-formed wire by the insertion of the “OFF” device 200 . [0046] FIG. 10 is a cross section of my self expanding bubble showing the one vent hole as described in my patent pending Ser. No. 11/213,029. [0047] FIG. 11 graphs the difference between a normal rate of compression verses a shock rate deflection of the bubble of FIG. 10 . [0048] FIG. 12 the bubble of FIG. 10 is used to resist sudden movement of a battery away from the positive pre-formed wire. [0049] FIG. 13 shows by graph how the output voltage of a prior art four-battery holder can go to zero during shock acceleration impact. [0050] FIG. 14 shows by graph how the output voltage of a my invented batter holder can drop to probably greater than zero volts during a shock or vibration acceleration impact. [0051] FIG. 15 shows by graph how the output voltage of my invented batter holder can be smoothed to a lesser voltage variation during shock or vibration impact acceleration by use of an output capacitor. [0052] FIG. 16 is a four-battery holder with a fifth position added for the accommodation of a smoothing capacitor as described in FIG. 15 . [0053] FIG. 17 is effectively the schematic of the battery holder of FIG. 16 . INDEX TO ITEM NUMBERS [0000] 10 —The basic battery holder case assembly complete with all battery contact wire pre-forms and ready for battery installation. 20 —The Normally Closed connection between two pre-formed wires. 30 —The molded battery case with no attachments. 49 —A specially pre-formed wire used as the positive battery connection of battery “A”. 50 —The basic pre-formed wire that conducts electrical current from the negative terminal of a battery to the positive terminal of the next battery. 1 —Partial of wire number 50 conducting current from the negative of battery “D” to external usage. 70 —Finger access holes in the bottom of battery holder case, item 30 for battery ejection. 75 —Recess gaps in the walls for battery retaining straps to pass below the walls. 80 —Recess in each wall for the pre-formed wire to pass through en route to the next battery. 90 —Pre-formed wires guide molded into case 30 to position and retain pre-formed wires, 49 , 50 and 51 . 100 —A basic cylindrical battery such as, but not limited to an “AA” size. 100 (OFF)—A battery 100 , that has been moved longitudinally away from the positive portion of the pre-formed wire contact and is no longer in the serial circuit. 130 —My invented self-expanding but resistant to sudden compression bubble per cited pending application. 140 —Foam contained in bubble to cause maximum inflation to available confines of skin or installation. 150 —A flexible but non-stretchable skin enclosing foam. 160 —A small air leak in bubble 130 . 170 —Resistance to compression curve by bubble undergoing normal battery insertion. 180 —Installed point of bubble during normal service. 190 —Resistance curve very firm when a high acceleration shock force tries to rapidly move the battery longitudinally away from the positive contact and toward the bubble. A bubble can be installed at the positive end of the battery 100 but must not interfere with the operation of contacts 20 . 200 —Plastic clip or device that slides onto wall of battery case 30 ,and disposes battery number 100 (OFF) away from the positive portion of pre-formed wire contact 50 , allowing closure of the bypassing contact 20 and thereby removing said battery from the serial circuit. 210 —A capacitor occupying a space in the battery holder case 30 , connected across the battery holder output terminals and smoothing output voltage of assembly 10 during intermittent contact separation from batteries. 220 —alternate configuration using a single pole-double throw switch or relay. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0076] Turning now descriptively to the drawings, in which similar reference characters denote similar elements throughout the several views, the attached figures illustrate a battery holder of optional quantity of batteries with reduced manufacturing costs and ruggedized for military and industrial applications. [0077] FIG. 1 depicts the schematic of a single battery holder 10 in the absence of an installed battery. Item 20 is a Normally Closed contact that is closed, thereby bypassing the battery position. [0078] FIG. 2 depicts the schematic of a single battery holder in the presence of an installed battery 100 . Item 20 has been forced open, by the presence of the installed battery 100 thereby deleting conductivity across the battery position. At this time battery voltage appears across the battery position and its voltage is added to the total voltage of the battery holder 10 . [0079] FIG. 3 is a 6-position battery holder 10 . A battery 100 is installed in two random positions. Output voltage of the array is the sum of the two batteries due to the normally closed, N.C. contacts passing current through unused positions. [0080] FIG. 4 is a cross section of the battery holder 10 , showing how the presence of a battery 100 has opened the circuit at 20 so that the pre-formed wire 50 of positive contact with battery 100 is no longer contiguous with the wire 50 from the negative of the previous battery. Without this bypassing current path, the voltage of the battery 100 is contributed to the voltage of the total serial array. Item 75 is a recess in the battery case 30 walls between battery shown and adjacent battery through which 50 passes. [0081] FIG. 5 is a cross section of the battery holder 10 , showing how the movement, or removal of battery 100 removes it from service 100 (OFF) and it no longer contributes its voltage to the serial array. N.C. contact 20 , is now closed, thereby connecting the negative of the previous battery to the positive of the subsequent battery. With this current path, the voltage of the battery 100 is bypassed and does not contribute to the voltage of the total. [0082] FIG. 6 shows the basic interconnecting pre-formed wire 50 that typically connects the negative end of battery “A” to the positive end of battery “B”. Said pre-formed wire is available at 20 for conduction, in the absence of battery “B”, to the positive end of battery “C”. Wire 49 connects only to battery “A” positive with the opportunity for conduction to pre-formed wire 50 in the absence of battery “A”. [0083] Pre-formed wire 51 is the same as wire 50 but with the next positive position removed. This wire conducts from the negative of battery “D”, or others, to outside usage of the battery holder as the negative terminal. These outputs can be directed downward for installation onto a printed wiring board. [0084] FIG. 7 shows the battery holder case 30 , with pre-formed wire 50 positioning channels 90 . Also shown are finger holes 70 , for battery removal. These holes are extended into slots 75 in the bottom of the walls for lacing 110 the batteries into place. The pre-formed wires 50 are disposed into the receiving channels whereupon they are secured into position possibly by heat staking, spring back into retainers or bonding into the channels. Note there are no holes required in the walls of the battery holder case 30 , greatly simplifying molding and final assembly. [0085] The positive contact of battery “A” 49 is configured to accommodate securing into the battery holder case 30 and provides the positive voltage output of the battery holder 10 . Battery contact wire 51 is a partial Pre-formed wire 50 and provides the negative output of the battery holder 10 . The flanged extended bottom is optional for mounting the battery holder assembly. [0086] FIG. 8 shows a four-battery holder with the batteries 100 , secured by ribbon 110 . This ribbon can be a “Tie Wrap”, self-bonding tape such as Velcro tape, elastic ribbon or other. One battery 100 is removed for illustration but the ribbon would not retain shape at that battery position unless ribbon was installed with that battery absent. [0087] If it is not desired to use the ability to slide a battery away from the positive wire 50 in order to turn it off, the inside planar surface of the battery holder case 30 , can be coated with a high friction material such as 3140 RTV from DOW CORNING. It will flow off the surface, leaving a thickness of less than 0.010 inches thick with very high frictional characteristics to aid retention in high acceleration forces environments. [0088] FIG. 9 shows an optional “OFF” clip device 200 , which when inserted onto the wall of 10 , moves that battery 100 (OFF), toward its negative terminal and away from its positive contact as shown in FIG. 5 . The battery is now out of the circuit and that battery position is electrically bypassed. [0089] Note that an “OFF” clip 200 at each of all battery positions renders the battery holder assembly 10 electrically off and its outputs are shorted together. A side rail could be added to the molded case 30 that would store one clip 200 per battery for use as desired. [0090] FIG. 10 is an illustration of my shock resisting bubble 130 per pending application Ser. No. 11/213,029. The basic bubble is similar to commercially available packaging bubbles except it contains resilient foam for self-expansion and a small vent hole 160 to allow bubble expansion to fill available confining volume. [0091] FIG. 11 is a LOAD-DEFLECTION graph showing bubble compressibility at a normal rate 170 . It is assumed that an installed battery per FIG. 12 brought the bubble to point 180 . A sudden high acceleration shock force tending to compress the bubble more finds the vent hole too small to rapidly exhaust the contained air and therefore the bubble presents a high resistance to greater compression 190 thereby preventing the battery from separating from 50 at the positive end. [0092] FIG. 12 shows the bubble 130 installed at the negative end of a battery 100 in a battery holder assembly 10 . The bubble will supply high resistance to sudden battery movement away from the faying surfaces between the positive terminal of battery 100 and the pre-formed wire 50 . Due to the venting of the bubble, changes in air pressure, such as altitude, does not inflate or deflate said bubble, moving it away from graph point 180 and it stays ready for shock protection. [0093] FIG. 13 is a graph of voltage output of a prior art four battery holder when experiencing high acceleration shock or vibration forces. When faying surfaces of battery terminals and battery holder contacts separate, output voltage of the battery box drops to zero. This could be damaging or cause operation difficulty in the device using this supplied power. [0094] FIG. 14 is a graph of my invented battery holder showing that the loss of one or two batteries does not totally stop the flow of all supplied current. It is assumed that statistically not more than one battery would be lost at any given instant. Probably the consuming device could accept the resulting varying direct current from the supply. [0095] FIG. 15 it is assumed that the battery holder output is parallel connected with a large capacitance that lessens the amount of voltage variation delivered to the using device during high acceleration loads. See FIG. 16 . [0096] FIG. 16 is a battery holder assembly 10 with an added space for installation of a large capacitor 210 that can be incorporated parallel connected across the battery output as shown in FIG. 17 . Output voltage of this battery holder assembly should be highly reliable and low noise. [0097] FIG. 17 is the schematic of a four-battery holder assembly 10 with the additional output capacitor 210 of FIG. 16 . The alternate to battery actuated bypassing contacts 20 , 220 is shown as a switch for each battery.

A dry cell battery holder with the ability to output the total voltage of the installed batteries, even when less than fully populated. Cost is reduced by the absence of holes in the walls of the battery holder case and thereby reducing molding complexity. Cost is also reduced by all battery interconnections being of pre-pre-formed spring temper wire that are installed by snap in and spring back. A non-linear compression pad at the negative end of the battery improves shock resistance.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] Outdoor fireplaces, grill units, bars and even complete outdoor kitchens have been constructed on-site from concrete blocks and the like for some time and have been generally satisfactory. The cost of on-site construction, however, is substantial and quality control may be difficult to monitor and maintain in on-site construction resulting in a lack of structural integrity of the units and even in structural failure over time. [0002] It is the general object of the present invention to provide a prefabricated monolithic structure of high structural integrity for use in the efficient construction of outdoor fireplaces and the like, and an off-site method of making the same. [0003] It is a further object of the invention to provide a structure of the type mentioned which includes an integral high strength metallic frame resulting in a high degree of structural integrity of the overall structure, and which in turn facilitates the efficient transportation and on-site installation of the structure. [0004] A still further object of the invention resides in the provision of lifting devices particularly well adapted to lift, transport and install the aforesaid structure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0005] In fulfillment of the aforesaid objects and in accordance with the present invention, an off-site prefabricated structure of concrete blocks or the like is provided with a first or base layer or course of blocks outlining the perimeter configuration of the structure. A rust proof frame of high strength metallic construction is provided with a configuration substantially the same as the base layer of blocks and is fixedly secured to the base layer of blocks in supporting relationship therewith to maintain their relative positions with respect to each other. A plurality of additional layers or courses of blocks are then provided atop the base layer of blocks and each block is affixed to each of its adjacent blocks by an adhesive bonding material. [0006] In a presently preferred form, the blocks of the first layer are somewhat wider than those of the second layer to provide a narrow substantially horizontal inwardly extending shelf defined by the top surfaces of the first layer of blocks inwardly around the perimeter of the structure. The structural frame is generally L shaped in cross sectional configuration with one leg arranged horizontally and engaging and affixed to the top surface of the base layer of blocks and with an integral vertical leg engaging and affixed to the inner surfaces of the second layer of blocks. Preferably, the structural frame is both bolted to and secured adhesively to substantially all of the blocks in both the first and second layers of blocks. [0007] While other high strength materials may be employed, the metallic frame is preferably constructed of structural strength steel with a rust proof coating. Various adhesives may also be used with a high strength masonry water-based bonding agent presently preferred. [0008] In the preferred practice of the method of the present invention, conventional off-site facilities conducive to efficient quality control and efficient low cost production are provided. A first layer of blocks is provided in a desired perimeter configuration and adhesively affixed followed by a second narrow layer of blocks, which defines the shelf for receiving the frame. The frame is then affixed in secure engagement with both the first and second layers of blocks both adhesively and with suitable bolts. [0009] Additional layers of blocks are then provided atop the second layer of blocks with each block in each layer throughout adhesively secured to each of its adjacent blocks. [0010] On completion of one or more structures required for a particular outdoor unit, the structures are transported for on-site installation on large trucks and lifting devices of the present invention, to be described hereinbelow, may be employed for loading and unloading the trucks and for locating the structures in their desired on-site positions. A fireplace, for example may require two structures one atop the other. Other units may require two or more structures assembled in various side-by-side arrangements etc. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0011] FIG. 1 of the drawings is a perspective view showing an outdoor fireplace comprising two (2) prefabricated structures of the present invention one atop the other, [0012] FIG. 2 is a perspective view showing a fireplace similar to the FIG. 1 fireplace but with wood storage box units on each side thereof, [0013] FIG. 3 is a grill unit including storage compartments and a sink and employing two (2) prefabricated structures of the invention in side-by-side relationship, [0014] FIG. 4 . is a bar unit comprising two (2) structures of the present invention in side-by-side relationship, [0015] FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a lower fireplace with the front portion thereof broken away, [0016] FIG. 6 is a plan view of a prefabricated structure of the present invention showing a metallic frame member forming a part thereof, [0017] FIG. 7 is an enlarged fragmentary sectional view taken as indicated at 7 , 7 in FIG. 6 and showing a portion of the frame member, [0018] FIG. 8 is a schematic side view of a prefabricated structure of the present invention being transported by a conventional forklift truck with the forks entered in parallel openings at the base of the structure, [0019] FIG. 9 is a side view similar to FIG. 8 but showing the prefabricated structure lifted by an overhead lifting device with depending lifting members engaging the structure, [0020] FIG. 10 is a schematic perspective view of the overhead lifting device, [0021] FIG. 11 is a plan view of a prefabricated structure provided with lifting connections for an overhead lifting device, and [0022] FIG. 12 is a fragmentary sectional view showing the overhead lifting device with a depending member connected with the frame of the structure. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0023] Referring particularly to FIG. 1 of the drawings, an outdoor fireplace is indicated generally at 10 with a lower unit 12 and an upper unit 14 , the lower unit 12 having a conventional front opening 16 and the upper unit 14 having a cap 18 and a vertical through opening internally and serving as a chimney for the lower unit which is open at the top. The fireplace is constructed of concrete blocks with exposed aesthetic surfaces and a decorative emblem 20 may be included on the face of the upper chimney unit 14 . [0024] In FIG. 2 the FIG. 1 fireplace is shown in association with left and right hand wood storage units 22 , 22 . The wood storage units 22 , 22 are of similar construction with aesthetically pleasing concrete blocks and each is provided with a front opening 24 readily accessible for the storage of wood to be used in the fireplace. [0025] FIG. 3 illustrates a somewhat larger unit 26 which may comprise similar units 28 , 28 in side-by-side adjacent relationship with a unitary top 30 mounted on the units 28 , 28 . A sink may be provide as at 32 , with an adjacent storage compartment 34 and a covered grill unit 36 with further storage units 38 accessible through the front wall of the unit. [0026] FIG. 4 shows a bar unit indicated generally at 40 with storage compartments 42 , 44 accessible in a top counter member 46 and front storage units accessible through doors 48 and 50 . The unit 40 may conveniently be constructed of a pair of similar units 52 , 52 disposed in side-by-side relationship with the counter 46 disposed atop both units. [0027] In FIG. 5 a lower fireplace unit 12 a is shown with a portion of its front wall broken away at 54 to expose a portion of a metallic frame 56 better illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7 . The metallic frame 56 takes a rectangular configuration as best illustrated in FIG. 6 and is disposed atop a first layer or course of blocks 58 , 58 . In accordance with the method of the invention the blocks 58 , 58 are arranged in the desired configuration for the perimeter of a structural unit in the course of the prefabrication of the unit. They may then be adhesively secured together with a pair of parallel openings 60 , 60 in the front wall thereof and a similar pair of aligned openings 62 , 62 in the rear wall thereof. The openings 60 , 60 and 62 , 62 cooperate with a lifting device to be described more fully hereinbelow. [0028] The frame 56 is of a high-strength rust-proof metallic construction such as structural steel and preferably takes an L shape configuration in cross-section as best illustrated in FIG. 7 with a horizontal portion 64 and an integral vertical portion 66 . The horizontal portion 64 is secured to the shelf portions of blocks 58 , 58 of the first layer or course of blocks preferably by an adhesive 68 and bolts 70 , 70 . Similar bolts 72 , 72 secure the structural member 56 to the blocks 74 of a second layer or course of blocks disposed atop the blocks 58 , 58 and somewhat narrower so as to provide the horizontal shelf for mounting the structural member 56 atop the blocks 58 , 58 . The vertical portion 66 of the structural member is secured to each of the blocks 74 , 74 by bolts 72 , 72 and by adhesive 68 . Thus, the frame and the blocks of the first and second layers provide a base structure of high integrity for the structural unit 12 a . The metallic structural member 56 may also include a pair of U-shaped brackets 76 , 76 , one shown in FIG. 7 , disposed in the aforementioned openings 60 , 60 . Similar brackets 76 , 76 may also be provided in the openings 62 , 62 . [0029] In accordance with the method of the invention, a plurality of blocks 78 , 78 arranged in vertically stacked relationship may be assembled in a desired number of layers or courses atop the second layer of blocks 74 , 74 with each block adhesively secured to all adjacent blocks to provide a monolithic structure of high structural integrity. [0030] A first method of transport for the prefabricated structures involves the aforesaid openings 62 , 62 and brackets 76 , 76 and a conventional fork lift truck. As will be seen in FIG. 8 , a fork lift truck 80 can readily be employed with its forks entered in the openings and brackets and in engagement with the structural metallic member 56 to lift, transport and deposit a prefabricated structural unit onto a truck for long distance transport and then from the truck to its final destination. [0031] Secondly, and when the first method of transport is impractical or impossible to achieve, transport may be accomplished as illustrated in FIGS. 9, 10, 11 and 12 . An overhead lifting device indicated generally at 82 can be provided for use with a fork lift truck 80 . The device 82 comprises a main frame member 84 and at least one depending lifting element 86 , four (4) preferred. The lifting elements cooperate with the structural frame 56 of a prefabricated structural unit and are manipulated by the frame member 82 and the fork lift truck 80 to lift and transport the prefabricated unit as necessary. As best illustrated in FIGS. 9, 11 and 12 , the depending lifting elements 86 , 86 are connected at lower end portions with frame 56 as by threading the elements in the form of threaded rods into nuts 88 , 88 welded to the frame 56 . At their upper end portions the rods 86 , 86 are lifted or lowered as required by the frame member 82 and the fork lift truck 80 . Brackets 90 , 90 may be provided in two different right angularly related directions for this purpose. [0032] Finally, it should be noted that the second method of transport has the advantage of ease in effecting a slight horizontal adjustment during final positioning of a structural unit. When the depending unit is held slightly above its final position by a fork lift, manual force can be applied laterally by attending workmen in a slight swinging movement for horizontally positioning within a matter of inches. [0033] From the foregoing it will be apparent that a method has been provided for prefabricating a concrete block unit of high structural integrity at economic advantage. Highly effective methods of transport have also been provided.

A method for off-site manufacture of prefabricated monolithic fireplaces etc comprising a plurality of concrete blocks ; the method comprising the steps of constructing a first layer of blocks, providing a steel frame and securing the same to the blocks and to a second layer of blocks constructed atop the first layer, and constructing additional layers of blocks sequentially atop the second layer each block being adhesively secured to each of its adjacent blocks.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/038,968, filed Feb. 24, 1997. The present invention is directed to a method of treating different aluminum alloys, for example The Aluminum Association registered alloys, that may enter the scrap stream, with chemical treatments to enable a system capable of rapid, non-contact, separability between the alloy families and/or their constituent members in order to economically recycle worked aluminum alloy. Those skilled in the aluminum alloy art will appreciate the difficulties in this art of separating aluminum alloys, especially alloys that have been worked such as forged, extruded, rolled, generally wrought alloys, into a reusable or recyclable worked product. These alloys for the most part are indistinguishable upon visual inspection or by other conventional scrap sorting techniques such as density and/or eddy currents. Therefore, it is a difficult task to separate for example, 2xxx, 3xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx series alloys. To recycle aluminum alloys economically and maintain the integrity of the as-made alloy, each series can be separated into its series family or it may also be separated into like constituent alloys. For example, the alloy families as determined by their Aluminum Association definitions have overlapping constituent concentrations. When similarly constituted alloys are mixed, their separation into their family groups may not be feasible, but grouping according to constituent mix instead of family series is a useful exercise in recycling worked product as well. As used herein, the terms "worked" and "wrought" are interchangeable, their meaning defined by putting energy into the alloy by forging, extruding, rolling, heat treating, or any other means of working the alloy. There are more and more wrought aluminum alloys being used, particularly in the manufacture of vehicles such as automobiles and trucks. In order for this manufacturing use to mature, it is considered important to have a recycling schema developed consistent with the so-called "green" or environmentally sensitive movement in industry. It is projected that in order to participate in the supply of material to the automobile manufacturing companies, especially those in Europe, more than 90% of the material used in the manufacture of cars must be recycle friendly. Accordingly, for the aluminum industry to participate in and expand their supply of aluminum to the automotive industry, an initiative to close the circle of life for aluminum alloys is overdue. The mixed alloy scrap presents some difficult problems to resolve. Mixed alloy scrap has poor absorption into high quality wrought alloys, and as a result, only limited amounts of mixed scrap can be used for recycling into wrought products. Absorption is defined as the percentage of an alloy or mixture that can be used to produce an ingot of another desired composition without exceeding the specified alloy composition limits. There are compelling reasons to resolve this problem since as the use of aluminum alloy increases the supply/demand curve pressures increase. It is likely that the use of wrought alloys will grow at a faster pace than aluminum alloy castings. Wrought or worked aluminum alloys combined with cast aluminum alloys are not normally recycled into wrought compositions in the art as it is known today. It is generally desirable to maintain a wrought composition as wrought since that is a higher valued product. The problem to be solved by the present invention is the separation of wrought alloys into their different families and/or their major constituent groups. Without a solution to this problem, there may be a growing scrap pile of both mixed wrought and cast aluminum alloys or just a mixed pile of wrought alloys that are unable to be economically converted into useable wrought aluminum alloys. The growing pile of wrought alloys will be comprised of a cornucopia of mixed family wrought alloys and mixed constituents, as for example stated above, the 2xxx, 3xxx, 4xxx, 5xxx, 6xxx, 7xxx and/or 8xxx series alloys as defined by the Aluminum Association. This growing pile then must be subjected to a separation technique or techniques that are efficient and simple, elsewise, the aluminum incursion into alternative manufacture schemes in the vehicular trade will see limited growth. There are certain economies available to the aluminum industry by developing a well-planned yet simple recycling plan or system. The use of recycled material will be a less expensive metal resource than a primary source of aluminum. As the amount of aluminum sold to the automotive industry increases, it will become increasingly necessary to use recycled aluminum to supplement the availability of primary aluminum. Primary aluminum is defined as aluminum originating from aluminum-enriched ore, such as bauxite. As stated above, wrought scrap contains a mixture of wrought alloys. The mixed wrought scrap has limited value because the mixture, due to its combined chemical composition, must be diluted if used to produce a new wrought alloy. The reason this is so is due to the more stringent compositional tolerances of wrought alloys which are required to meet the performance requirements of wrought products. Ideally, the high value scrap should have a high absorption back into the recycled product. High absorption means that a substantial portion of the final product is comprised of scrap. To increase the value of the wrought scrap requires the separation of wrought product into alloy grades or similar constituted materials to maximize absorption. Mixed alloy scrap presents some difficult problems in separability due to its poor absorption into high quality wrought alloys. The Table shows the limits to absorption and the limiting element of, by way of example, automotive shredder scrap in a variety of castings and wrought alloys. The absorption of mixed scrap consisting of both castings and wrought alloys, a mixture of wrought alloys and a mixture of cast alloys which have been separated from the parent mixture of shredder scrap is represented in the Table. This shows that casting alloys 380 and 384 can absorb large quantities of scrap. Also shown is that the absorption of any of these scrap mixes in the wrought alloys is low. The mixture of wrought alloys separated from the shredder scrap has limited absorption back into wrought products. To increase the absorption of scrap back into wrought products the wrought mixture must be further sorted according to the constituent make-up. ______________________________________ Casting Alloys Wrought Alloys 356 380 384 5754 6111 7003______________________________________Mixed Scrap 15 Cu 64 Cu 100 6 Si, Cu 15 Si, Cu 4 Si Wrought 32 Cu 100 100 13 Cu 12 Zn 26 Cu Cast 9 Cu 41 Cu 75 Fe 4 Si, Fe 8 Si, Fe 2 Si______________________________________ Mixed aluminum wrought alloy product cannot be separated using traditional processes like sink-float or eddy current. The elements listed in the Table indicate the element that limits absorption. The numbers represent the limit in weight percent by which the scrap can be absorbed. It has been demonstrated that wrought alloys have definite and different responses to surface chemical treatments dependent upon their resident major constituents. Aluminum, of course, will always be the bulk of the material, however, constituents such as copper, magnesium, silicon, iron, chromium, zinc, manganese, and other alloying elements provide a range of properties to alloyed aluminum and provide a means to distinguish one wrought alloy from the other. These before referenced chemical treatments can produce distinct and different colors on the surfaces of different wrought aluminum alloys. Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a means to separate scrap wrought aluminum alloys according to families or major constituent members using the color of the treated scrap as the separation variable. The usefulness of such a separation technique is apparent since such a technique would be very convenient and efficient as part of a system of recycling aluminum since sorting should increase the absorption of scrap into the remanufacture of new products. Such a system would be useful for the aerospace and/or automotive industry or any industry where recycling aluminum is an important component of the business. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In the practice of the present invention the use of an etchant, such as a caustic, an acid, an oxidizing agent, a dye, and/or some combination thereof, within a single or plurality of steps using wet chemistry treatment of the surfaces of mixed wrought aluminum alloys which changes the color of the surface of the alloys makes them distinguishable on the basis of alloy families or major constituent members thereby creating a system for the separation of mixed wrought aluminum alloys into related groups. The interaction of these various treatments on the surfaces of the different series aluminum alloys is related to and dependent upon the chemistries of the alloys and the constituent make-up. While the inventors hereof do not wish to be held to any particular theory of interaction, it is believed that dependent upon the chemistry applied, such treatment causes any one of the following. It causes an insoluble precipitate to form on the surface of the metal alloy such as a silver nitrate treatment, some kind of complexation occurs, there is compound formation, causes insoluble constituents to remain on the surface, and/or a dye can be adsorbed. This reaction is then treatment and alloy specific, which is the genesis for the solution to this problem. For the purposes of the invention hereof, the importance of the identification of any particular chemical reaction is at best secondary. The primary reaction of interest is simply to change a surface characteristic and/or surface appearance sufficiently and consistently to be able to separate the alloy series into their appropriate family members or major constituent members. In so doing, the thusly separated alloys may be conveniently reunited with alloys of like or the same composition to be recycled into a wrought product. Once so separated, the once formed unitary scrap may be recycled to produce a supply source of wrought aluminum that may re-enter the aluminum life cycle in a higher value added form. The caustic of choice is a solution of sodium hydroxide. Importantly, any caustic with a sufficiently high dissociation constant to enable the hydroxide ions or ions of similar activity to interact with the transition metals which comprise the different aluminum alloys to cause color variations between the different alloy families is hereof a part of this invention. It is not simply the coloring of aluminum alloys that is the subject of this invention, it is the coloring and subsequent differentiation into alloy family and constituent members. Concentration ranges of sodium hydroxide may be from 0.001 molar sodium hydroxide to up to a saturated sodium hydroxide solution. It is preferred, in keeping with the green concept, that the more dilute caustic is used. Additionally, the application of heat will affect the quickness of the color reaction kinetics. The trade-off between heat, reaction time and concentration of reactants is common to chemical reactions, and this particular etching of the alloy is no exception. Other hydroxides, such as potassium, lithium, and any of the alkali metal hydroxides would make a suitable caustic, limited by the cost and green effect of the caustic. Other bases, such as borate combinations, that dissociate to provide an equivalently active etch of metals as the above cited range of sodium hydroxide can provide a suitable mechanism for creating a colorant. Common acids used as etchants also vary the surface characteristic and/or appearance of the alloy. Some readily available examples of acids are comprised of sulfuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids, the composition range is from 0.001 N to saturation and comprise combinations thereof. While it is not preferred, organic metal etchants could be employed, such as trichloroacetic acid. A part of the process of separation is a multi-stepped treatment where alloy samples are first treated with a caustic and then treated with an acid etchant. In this manner, those alloys which can not be distinguished by one treatment may be separated by an additional or plurality of treatments. When incorporated into a system of recycling for wrought aluminum products, optional treatments may be employed. These treatments relate to the kinetics or the reaction mechanism required to change the color of the surface of the alloy. For example, first envisioned in a system of recycling is the collection of shredded aluminum alloy scrap. At this point in the alloy's life cycle, it is probably coated with either paint or some lacquer coating as it was employed as a decorative or protective coating for the car-bound aluminum. Some of the lacquered or painted coating may have delaminated providing exposed alloy surfaces. That exposure while sufficient to react with the etchant may not be as efficient as a piece of bare alloy. Therefore, a more active optional delamination or delacquering treatment of the coating may be introduced as another step in recycling, for efficiency purposes. Importantly, exposed alloy surfaces are needed to interact with the etchant. The surface-to-volume ratio of alloy to etchant need not be extensive; only enough alloy needs to be exposed to react with the etchant to distinguish one alloy family or constituent members from another. In the recycling system envisioned with the present invention, distinguishing one alloy from another may involve a simple visual and, therefore, labor intensive exercise. However, there are many "off-the-shelf" color sensitive separation devices that could be employed once the means to separate the alloys is effected to enhance the economics of the system. A system for color sorting of different aluminum alloys comprises the steps of optionally shredding and/or delacquering the aluminum alloy and/or separating from castings alloys, treating the shredded aluminum, and detecting and separating the alloy families and constituent members on the basis of color or some other detectable characteristic such as oxide thickness. Once separated, the family or constituent members may be appropriately joined, re-manufactured and re-entered into the wrought aluminum supply stream. The method of treating the alloy can be done by any method whereby the sample is treated with the reagent and subsequently rinsed and then optionally dried. For example, the scrap is placed in a suitable containing means, treated with an appropriate treatment agent, after reaction the treatment agent may be rinsed, the alloys may then be separated by color or shades of lightness and darkness thereof. Drying may be by simple air dry or by some heating means. The treatment agent may be applied at room temperature or at elevated temperatures. The treatment agent may be a solution that the samples are dipped into or may be sprayed or applied as a liquid by any liquid application means. Having said that, it is preferred to have a controlled process to insure that environmental factors are considered, thus not defeating the intent of this system of separating wrought alloys for "greening" the environment. It was found and it is therefore preferred that surface reactions were much more responsive to cleaned and exposed aluminum alloy surfaces than for example lacquered or dirty surfaces. In the alternative, castings may also be color sorted by the same system. It is, however, advantageous and therefore preferred to separate the castings from the wrought products. This may be done visually but it is preferred to separate castings from wrought products by a thermomechanical means such as hot crushing. This thereby facilitates the subsequent separation of castings into the aluminum alloy series such as the 1xx.x, 2xx.x, 3xx.x, 4xx.x, 5xx.x, 7xx.x, 8xx.x and/or constituent members disclosed hereunder when such series or members are cast alloys. The separation techniques are substantially the same as disclosed for the wrought products. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 is an optical photograph of three sample aluminum alloys exhibiting varying degrees of color after treatment with a caustic etchant. FIG. 2 is an optical photograph of three sample aluminum alloys exhibiting varying degrees of color after treatment with an acid etchant. FIG. 3 is an optical photograph of 7 samples from 5 different alloy families exhibiting varying degrees of color after a two step treatment. FIG. 4 is an optical photograph of samples treated at different temperatures and concentrations of caustic exhibiting varying degrees of color. FIG. 5 is an optical photograph of samples treated at different concentrations of an acid etchant. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following is intended to further teach the invention hereof and is not intended to limit the scope of the invention hereof. EXAMPLE 1 Alloy samples of Aluminum Association registered aluminum alloys 2036, 6022, and 7003 were subjected to caustic treatment by 1.2 M NaOH etch at 155° F. for 45 seconds. The results of this etch are shown in FIG. 1, the 2xxx series is the top sample, the 6xxx series is the middle sample, and the 7xxx series is the bottom sample. For each treatment of each family of alloy, a different color and/or shade evinces. Each family can then be separated into its family lot. EXAMPLE 2 Alloy samples of 2036, 6022, and 7003 were also subjected to an acid etch treatment using a combined solution of 4% H 3 PO 4 and 6% H 2 SO 4 at 190° F. for 3 minutes. The results of this etch are shown in FIG. 2, the 2xxx series is the top sample, the 6xxx series is the middle sample, and the 7xxx series is the bottom sample. As in the caustic etch, the acid etch also indicates that these alloys can be separated calorimetrically. EXAMPLE 3 Alloy samples of 2036, 3003, 5754, 6022, and 7003, as displayed in FIG. 3, were treated with 15% sodium hydroxide at 140° F. for 45 seconds. FIG. 3 exhibits the varying colors of these alloys from the caustic treatment, thereby making 2036, 3003, 7003, separable from each other and from the 5754 and 6022 samples. The latter samples were not readily separable visually, but may be separable by the use of optical sensors under appropriate lighting conditions. Therefore a second treatment was made on these two samples using 1% copper sulfate mixed in 0.1% hydrochloric acid. FIG. 3 indicates an HCl concentration of 0.3% by volume which is substantially similar to the 0.1% disclosed in this Example 3. As shown in FIG. 3, this second treatment makes it possible to then readily separate the 5754 sample from the 6022 sample. EXAMPLE 4 With reference to FIG. 4, this figure exhibits 36 samples from 5 different alloy families that were treated by two different concentrations of sodium hydroxide etchant and three different temperatures. The sodium hydroxide concentrations were varied between 5% and 15% by weight. The temperatures were varied within both concentrations at 100° F., 140° F., and 180° F. for 2036 and 7003. The 3003 alloy was treated at two different temperatures and the 5754 and 6022 were treated at one temperature at the 5% sodium hydroxide concentration. 5754 was treated at all three temperatures at the 15% sodium hydroxide temperature, and the 6022 was treated at the two higher temperatures at the 15% sodium hydroxide concentrations. It is noted that as the temperature was increased and sodium hydroxide concentration was increased, the etchant became more active towards the 2036, 3003, and 7003 alloys. The sodium hydroxide had little effect upon the 5754 and 6002 alloys. The samples can be separated whether wet, dried, or oven dried. The effect of drying is to change the color or color intensity but drying does not affect the sortability. The colors in FIG. 4 are from samples that have been aged at room temperature for several weeks. It is preferred to rinse the samples immediately after etching with a caustic. EXAMPLE 5 With reference to FIG. 5, the figure shows the caustic resilient 5754 and 6002 samples after treatment with an acid solution at room temperature. Hydrochloric acid and copper sulfate concentrations were varied in a matrix of 0.1% and 1%, respectively. While it is noted that the 1% and 1% treatment appears most active, it did not distinguish the two alloy samples as well as the lower concentration of hydrochloric acid. The dye quinalizarin proved effective in separating the magnesium containing alloys. As those skilled in this art can appreciate, chelating molecules that are specific for certain of the transition metals would be useful in complexing with those certain metals and therefore a useful separation agent for the purpose in this system. It was found that immersion in acetic acid, which is recommended in Recycled Metals Identification & Testing Handbook, National Association of Recycling Industries, NY, N.Y. to distinguish 5xxx series alloys failed to effect any difference in color. In addition, it was thought that since molybdate turns yellow in the presence of silicate and there is a silicon difference between 5xxx alloys and 6xxx alloys that immersion in molybdate solutions would distinguish these two alloys, but this test failed as well.

The present invention is directed to a method employing wet chemistry techniques of treating wrought aluminum alloys in order to quickly and efficiently separate the alloys into their alloy families and major constituent members by separation by surface color of the treated alloys.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This patent application is a continuation of Int'l Patent Application No. PCT/EP2013/075436, (filed 3 Dec. 2013), which claims priority to and the benefit of EP Patent Application No. 12195570.2 (filed 4 Dec. 2012). Each patent application is incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] This disclosure relates generally to engineering and medicine/medical diagnostics, and more particularly, it relates to methods of hematocrit correction in an analyte test meter, as well as test meters and systems incorporating the same. BACKGROUND [0003] Hematocrit (HCT) may be defined as the volume percentage (%) of red blood cells in whole blood. HCT is normally about 45% for men and 40% for women and may range from about 20% to about 70% in extreme cases. It is known that HCT can impact the glucose level of a blood sample being tested. To account for such a HCT interference, it has been proposed to additionally measure the actual HCT value of a given sample (e.g., by multiple wavelength, conductivity or other tests) in addition to the glucose test. However, such measurements imply unwanted complexity in self-testing devices and are prone to measurement uncertainty. As an alternative, efforts have been made to reduce the HCT influence by the design of the test chemistry or disposable (e.g., by retaining red blood cells through separating layers). However, such a measure can eliminate the HCT influence only to a residual dependency. [0004] For the foregoing reasons, there is a need for improving known methods and devices for HCT correction, especially in glucose measurements, and to provide improved measurement certainty specifically in a self-testing environment without undue effort. BRIEF SUMMARY [0005] An inventive concept described herein includes recognizing that a mean/average HCT from a given individual (under normal life conditions) fluctuates only in a limited range and thus can be used to correct an analyte measurement influenced by the individual's HCT. This inventive concept is achieved by determining at least one HCT reference value for an individual, which can be exactly measured by use of a clinical or laboratory analyzer, whereas routine glucose measurements on test elements can be repeatedly conducted and corrected on the basis of one and the same HCT reference value without increased measurement effort. This inventive concept can be incorporated into exemplary methods, devices and systems as described herein and in more detail below. [0006] For example, methods of HCT correction are provided that include determining by means of a reference instrument, such as a laboratory analyzer, a HCT reference value of a reference blood sample taken from a specific user. [0007] In addition, the methods include applying a fresh blood sample of the user on a disposable analytical test element, and measuring the glucose value of the fresh blood sample by single use of the test element in the glucose meter. [0008] Moreover, the methods include determining a HCT correction value using at least the HCT reference value, and adjusting the measured glucose value using the HCT correction value to receive an unbiased adjusted glucose value. In some instances, the determining the HCT correction value step involves using one or more correction functions or a lookup table determined empirically in connection with the architecture of the test element eventually in combination with the glucose meter. [0009] For a convenient handling, the HCT reference value may be transferred via a wireless or wire-bound interface into a memory of the glucose meter. [0010] For safety considerations, it is advantageous when the HCT reference value is transmitted to the glucose meter using an external software on a device outside the glucose meter that is inaccessible to the user. In some instances, the HCT reference value is stored in an external database outside the glucose meter in connection with a user identifier for the user. [0011] For facilitating data exchange for a personalized device, the glucose meter may include machine readable means, specifically an RFID chip, for automatic user identification. [0012] Another improvement provides that the user identity is checked by a query provided by the glucose meter, whereupon an input of a confirmation by the user is requested. [0013] To account for eventual deviations of the HCT reference value, the user may be queried about a change in living conditions influencing HCT. [0014] For a reliability check, it is favorable when the timeliness of the HCT reference value is verified within a given time interval. [0015] For further awareness of the patient or user, the user can be informed that personalized data are used for correction of the measured glucose value. [0016] To avoid unwanted loss of a test medium, the adjusted glucose value can be displayed to the user upon fulfilling given conditions including availability of the HCT reference value and optionally timeliness of this value, whereas otherwise to provide a fallback result the measured glucose value is displayed. [0017] For improved elimination of the HCT effect when the HCT correction value is determined independent of the HCT reference value and the measured glucose value. [0018] The HCT correction is particularly effective when the glucose value of the fresh blood sample is measured by photometric or electrochemical detection on the analytical test element. [0019] In view of the foregoing, devices for HCT correction, such as blood glucose meters, are provided that include a means configured to receive at least one disposable test element on which a blood sample can be applied or is applied. [0020] The devices also can include a detector adapted for measuring a blood glucose value using the at least one test element loaded with a fresh blood sample of a specific user [0021] The devices also can include an interface configured to input a HCT reference value of a reference blood sample of the user, and a processor adapted to determine a HCT correction value using the HCT reference value and the measured glucose value and to adjust the measured glucose value using the HCT correction value. [0022] For a trusted execution of the HCT correction, it is advantageous to provide a means operable to allow HCT correction of the blood glucose measurement depending on the provision of a (valid) HCT reference value. It may also be conceivable that in case of a missing HCT reference value, an uncorrected measurement result is provided together with a corresponding indication to the user. [0023] Systems for HCT correction also are provided that include a glucose meter as described herein and a reference instrument, such as a laboratory analyzer, to determine a HCT reference value of a reference blood sample taken from a specific user of the glucose meter. [0024] These and other advantages, effects, features and objects of the inventive concept will become better understood from the description that follows. In the description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof and in which there is shown by way of illustration, not limitation, embodiments of the inventive concept. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0025] The advantages, effects, features and objects other than those set forth above will become more readily apparent when consideration is given to the detailed description below. Such detailed description makes reference to the following drawings, wherein: [0026] FIG. 1 is a perspective and partially schematic view of a glucose meter in connection with an external reference system for HCT correction. [0027] FIG. 2 is a plot of HCT-induced glucose bias A versus the glucose concentration C for a given HCT value. [0028] Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding parts throughout the several views of the drawings. [0029] While the inventive concept is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, exemplary embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the description of exemplary embodiments that follows is not intended to limit the inventive concept to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all advantages, effects, features and objects falling within the spirit and scope thereof as defined by the embodiments described herein and the claims below. Reference should therefore be made to the embodiments described herein and claims below for interpreting the scope of the inventive concept. As such, it should be noted that the embodiments described herein may have advantages, effects, features and objects useful in solving other problems. DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS [0030] The methods, devices and systems now will be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which some, but not all embodiments of the inventive concept are shown. Indeed, the methods, devices and systems may be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will satisfy applicable legal requirements. [0031] Likewise, many modifications and other embodiments of the methods, devices and systems described herein will come to mind to one of skill in the art to which the disclosure pertains having the benefit of the teachings presented in the foregoing descriptions and the associated drawings. Therefore, it is to be understood that the methods, devices and systems are not to be limited to the specific embodiments disclosed and that modifications and other embodiments are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims. Although specific terms are employed herein, they are used in a generic and descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation. [0032] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of skill in the art to which the disclosure pertains. Although any methods and materials similar to or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the methods, devices and systems, the preferred methods and materials are described herein. Moreover, reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude the possibility that more than one element is present, unless the context clearly requires that there be one and only one element. The indefinite article “a” or “an” thus usually means “at least one.” Likewise, the terms “have,” “comprise” or “include” or any arbitrary grammatical variations thereof are used in a non-exclusive way. Thus, these terms may both refer to a situation in which, besides the feature introduced by these terms, no further features are present in the entity described in this context and to a situation in which one or more further features are present. For example, the expressions “A has B,” “A comprises B” and “A includes B” may refer both to a situation in which, besides B, no other element is present in A (i.e., a situation in which A solely and exclusively consists of B) or to a situation in which, besides B, one or more further elements are present in A, such as element C, elements C and D, or even further elements. Overview [0033] As noted above, HCT can adversely affect electrochemical and/or photometric measurement of an analyte concentration or presence. The present disclosure addresses that problem by determining at least one HCT reference value, which can be exactly measured by use of a clinical or laboratory analyzer, whereas routine glucose measurements on test elements can be repeatedly conducted and corrected on the basis of one and the same HCT reference value without increased measurement effort. This also is due to a finding that the HCT-dependency of typical self-monitoring blood glucose monitoring systems including a given test architecture and device is relatively constant. The adjustment of the measured glucose value can be easily implemented on processors that are already included in handheld devices or home meters for other data handling purposes. Thus, device and/or system performance can be improved significantly, whereat the meter is then assigned to a specific user (i.e., as a personalized device). In this way, the HCT correction is easily feasible in a glucose monitoring system without the need for the user to bring blood samples to a laboratory for determining the glucose bias in each and every case. Methods, Devices and Systems [0034] FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary handheld glucose meter 10 for insertion of a disposable test strip 12 usable by a proband or user for self-testing in an everyday environment. The meter 10 includes a holder 14 to position the test strip 12 in the optical path of a reflection-photometric detector 16 to read the reflectance of a test pad 18 of the test strip 12 . A small volume of a fresh sample of whole blood taken by the user on the spot can be applied to the test pad 18 , where a reagent reacts with glucose leading to a change in reflectance that is detectable from the bottom of the test pad 18 with the photometric detector 16 . Such measurements are known to one of skill in the art per se and need not to be elucidated in more detail. It is further known that the HCT of a blood sample can impact the glucose level to be tested (e.g., by diffusion effects in the test pad 18 ). [0035] To process and correct the measurement signals, a device electronics 20 includes a processor 22 , a memory 24 , a display 26 and keys 28 for interacting with the user and an interface 30 for eventual connection to an external reference system 32 . The processor 22 is adapted for HCT correction using the measured glucose value and a HCT reference value initially provided through the reference system 32 and stored in the memory 24 . [0036] The HCT reference value can be determined by means of an external reference instrument 34 formed as a laboratory analyzer. For this purpose, a specific user may provide a reference blood sample to be analyzed with the reference instrument 34 in a clinical or laboratory setting. Then, the determined HCT reference value can be transmitted into the memory 24 of the glucose meter 10 via the (wireless) interface 30 using an external software 36 running on a device outside the meter 10 . To ensure a safe handling, the software 36 should be inaccessible to the user and only operable by authorized personnel (e.g., by a health professional). For example, a physician may connect the glucose meter 10 of a patient to a computer in his medical practice running the software 36 such that configuration data of the meter 10 can be read out and the HCT reference value can be set only by the physician, thereby ensuring that the values are controlled and interpreted with the necessary medical knowledge and are not manipulated by a layperson or the user. [0037] It also may be conceivable that the HCT reference value is stored in a database 38 of the reference system 32 in connection with an identifier for the user who has provided the reference sample. An automatic data transfer to the glucose meter 10 assigned to the user could then be accomplished by an identification process enabled by machine readable means, specifically an RFID chip 40 mounted on the meter 10 and containing the user identifier. [0038] It should be emphasized that such an initial procedure is only necessary once in a while, as the HCT value of a given individual is usually relatively constant over time. Given the living situation does not change, the HCT value of an individual typically fluctuates by less than 2%, which is small compared to the possible range of HCT values for different persons (typically about 20% to about 55%, eventually up to about 70% in certain disease states). [0039] By storing the HCT reference, the meter 10 is personalized for the specific user and can be employed for glucose measurements in a daily routine. To carry out such a measurement, the user takes a fresh blood sample and applies it on the test strip 12 before or after insertion into the meter 10 , in which a glucose value can be measured automatically by means of the detector 16 . At the beginning of the measurement routine, the user identity is checked (e.g., by a query displayed to the user on the display 26 and requesting input of a confirmation by means of keys 28 ). The user can be informed by an indication on the display 26 that personalized data are used for correction of the glucose measurement. The user may further be queried about a change in living conditions that may influence HCT such as, for example, training in higher altitudes. [0040] The processing routine also may include a verification of the timeliness of the HCT reference value, which should be updated regularly (e.g., once in a year). [0041] The meter 10 may include an activation stage 42 (e.g., in the form of a software routine or input field) to allow a glucose measurement only if a valid HCT reference value is available. The validity and specifically the attribution to a specific user may be proved by a security query to be confirmed by the user. Alternatively, in case of a missing HCT reference value, the processing routine could provide the measured glucose value to the user together with information that no correction has been made. [0042] If a valid HCT reference value is stored in the memory 24 , the HCT correction value is determined in dependence of the HCT reference value and the measured glucose value. Then, the measured glucose value is adjusted using the HCT correction value to receive an adjusted glucose value unbiased by HCT. [0043] The measured glucose concentration can be corrected in consideration of the HCT reference value by using one or more correction functions. For example, a correction function in the form of a correction equation may be used, in which one or more correction factors and/or one or more correction offsets are used. It has been found that the correction of the measured glucose concentration C(meas) can be effected for example according to the following equation: [0000] C(corr)=C(meas)+m*HCT i + n   (1). [0044] In this equation, HCT is the hematocrit reference value, C(meas) is the measured glucose concentration, C(corr) is the corrected glucose concentration, and the factor m and the exponent i are experimentally or empirically determined correction parameters, which may, for example, depend on the temperature and the concentration of glucose itself. [0045] FIG. 2 illustrates the deviation Δ of the measured glucose concentrations from the actual glucose concentrations C(ref) determined by a means of a reliable reference method. The uncorrected glucose concentration could be measured using the handheld glucose meter 10 , and the actual glucose concentrations could be determined using a laboratory device, or in other ways. For a sample with HCT of 30% the horizontal axis in FIG. 2 denotes the measured glucose concentrations C in milligram per deciliter, and the vertical axis shows the deviation Δ. For glucose concentrations below 100 mg/dL the deviations Δ are given as absolute values in mg/dL, whereas for glucose concentrations above 100 mg/dL, the deviations Δ are given as a percentage. [0046] Such curves or polygons can be determined for a plurality of HCTs and glucose levels, such that the curves can be put together to a hypersurface, wherein for example, the measured glucose concentration is plotted on a first axis, the HCT on a second axis, and the deviation Δ on a third axis. Such hypersurfaces can be stored in the memory 24 for example as individual values in a lookup table or being defined analytically or in other ways, such that in each case for each HCT value and each measured glucose concentration, the corresponding deviation A can be easily deducted with the processor 22 to provide a corrected value of the glucose concentration. It has been found that the HCT dependency largely is stable over different batches of test strips 12 . The HCT correction values determined are therefore generally valid for a combination of a meter 10 and a test strip 12 or other test element having a specific test chemistry. [0047] All of the patents, patent applications, patent application publications and other publications recited herein are hereby incorporated by reference as if set forth in their entirety. [0048] The present inventive concept has been described in connection with what are presently considered to be the most practical and preferred embodiments. However, the inventive concept has been presented by way of illustration and is not intended to be limited to the disclosed embodiments. Accordingly, one of skill in the art will realize that the inventive concept is intended to encompass all modifications and alternative arrangements within the spirit and scope of the inventive concept as set forth in the appended claims. Numbered embodiments are presented below. LISTING OF REFERENCE NUMBERS [0000] 10 handheld glucose meter 12 disposable test strip 14 holder 16 reflection-photometric detector 18 test pad 20 device electronics 22 processor 24 memory 26 display 28 keys 30 interface 32 external reference system 34 external reference instrument 36 external software 38 database 40 RFID chip 42 activation stage

Methods are provided for correcting an analyte concentration measurement that may be influenced by hematocrit (HCT), especially a glucose concentration measurement. The methods include determining by means of a reference instrument a HCT reference value of a reference blood sample taken from a specific user, applying a fresh blood sample of the user on a disposable analytical test element, measuring the glucose value of the fresh blood sample by single use of the test element in a glucose meter, determining a HCT correction value using at least the HCT reference value, and adjusting the measured glucose value using the HCT correction value to receive an adjusted glucose value. Also provided are devices and system incorporating or for performing the methods.

This is a continuation of co-pending application Ser. No. 06/870,466 filed on 06/04/86 now abandoned, which was a divisional application of Ser. No. 06/676,122 filed on 11/29/84 (now U.S. Pat. No. 4,678,842 that issued 07/07/87). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Preparation of plastic materials of high stability with electrically conductive properties has been a major goal of the plastic and electronics industry for some time. Such a plastic product would, for example, revolutionize the battery powered electric motor industry, such as in the automotive field, by making light weight batteries of high storage capacity available. In such batteries the lead plates would be replaced with a relatively light weight plastic material, making long range electric powered automobiles a reality. Such light weight plastics with electrical conductive properties would also be beneficial in solar to electrical conversion equipment and provide equipment of far lighter weight. Such plastics would find a myraid of uses in many varying types of electrical equipment or in components thereof. The production of isolatable films of poly(fluoroacetylene) or poly(difluoroacetylene) by the basic dehydrofluorination of poly(vinylidene fluoride) or poly(trifluoroethylene) containing polymers has not been reported in the literature. A number of experimentors have proposed such dehydrofluorination but have failed to achieve such dehydrofluorinated polymers. For examples, in a brief report by McCarthy and Dias [Chem. & Eng. News, Sept. 5, 1983, p. 26 and Preprints of the Division of Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering, 49, 574 (1983)] the authors speculated the poly(vinylidene fluoride) would undergo dehydrofluorination when treated with aqueous caustic using a phase transfer catalyst. The authors isolated a polymer containing ketone groups after treatment with aqueous sulfuric acid. In U.S. Pat. No. 2,857,366 that issued Oct. 21, 1956 to Middleton, monofluoroacetylene was prepared by thermal decomposition of monofluoromaleic anhydride and monofluoroacetylene polymers prepared therefrom. Such a process is expensive, dangerous, and is limited to monofluoroacetylene. In Japanese Patent Jpn Kohai Tokkyo Koho JP No. 58 59,208 [83 59,208] Apr. 3, 1983 by Mitsubishi Chemical Industries Co., Ltd. (Chem. Abstr. 99, 140600q 1983) poly(difluoroacetylene) was prepared by the polymerization of difluoroacetylene monomoer in tetrahydrofuran solution at 0° C. The process of the present invention merely removes HF from a wide variety of existing, commercially available, fluorine substituted polymers in a relatively inexpensive treatment with a basic solution. No catalyst is required for the process to proceed at commercial rates, although such catalysts might be economically beneficial for some conversions. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The product or composition of this invention is defined as a fluorine substituted, conjugated carbon-to-carbon double bond containing polymeric composition that imparts electrical conductivity to structures made therefrom, consisting essentially of (a) 0 to 95 monomeric mol percent of (i) vinylidene fluoride monomeric units or trifluoroethylene monomeric units, or (ii) a major portion of vinylidene fluoride monomeric units with at least one copolymerized monomeric unit selected from the group consisting essentially of trifluoroethylene, vinyl chloride, and vinyl fluoride monomeric units, and mixtures of (i) and (ii); and (b) 100 to 5 monomeric mol percent of the unit ##STR1## wherein X is H or F and the monomeric units of (b) are arranged to form conjugated double bonds, with the proviso that when a homopolymer of (a)(i) is present, the mol pecent in (b) is 95 to 5 and the mol percent in (a) is 5 to 95, to provide a polymeric composition that imparts electrical conductivity to articles prepared therefrom. The preferred monomeric units in (a)(i) above are vinylidene fluoride or trifluoroethylene or both vinylidene fluoride and trifluoroethylene. It is preferred that the monomeric mol percent of the dehydrofluorinated unit in (a)(ii) above be at least 40. The product of the invention includes electrically conductive film and tubular structures, or other shapes, formed of the above polymeric compositions. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The product of the invention is prepared by treating the appropriate commercially available, fluorine substituted polymer, in film or powder form, with a basic treatment solution (preferred pH of 10 to 14) that removes HF to such an extent that at least 5 monomeric mole percent of the treated polymer contains double bonds. The double bonds are conjugated, which means that at least 5 mole percent of the double bond containing units occur in pairs to provide a sequence of: single, double, single, double, single bonds, Other dehydrofluorinated units may occur, permissively, randomly throughout the polymer chain, but these units are not included in the threshold of 5%. By way of illustration, equations I, II, and III below illustrate the process where full dehydrofluorination occurs. In I the starting polymer is poly(vinylidene fluoride) to provide poly(monofluoroacetylene) (PMFA); in II the starting polymer is poly(trifluoroethylene) to provide poly(difluoroacetylene) (PDFA); and in III the starting polymer is a copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and trifluoroethylene to provide poly(monofluoroacetylene, difluoroacetylene) copolymers. ##STR2## It is thus apparent, that the X substituents forming the adjacent pairs of dehydrofluorinated units ##STR3## that form the conjugated double bonds, need not be the same. X can be H in one unit and F in the adjacent unit, or X could be the same in adjacent units. Moreover, the degree of dehydrofluorination can be such that from 5 to 100 monomeric mol percent of the polymer contains the dehydrofluorinated units that occur in pairs. The polymeric composition of this invention may be prepared by the basic dehydrofluorination of poly(vinylidene fluoride) and poly(trifluoroethylene) and copolymers incorporating either or both of these polymers. The bases are derived either from alkali hydroxides or organic amines in aqueous or organic solvents at room temperatures (preferably 25° to 100° C. at pH of 10 to 14). The period of treatment is from about five minutes to 90 hours, or longer, Preferred solvents for the basic solution are those selected from water, dimethyl formamide, dimethyl acetamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, methanol, ethanol or butanol. Typical bases that can be included in the basic solution are: sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, lithium hydroxide, rubidium hydroxide, and either quaternary ammonium componds such as tetrabutylammonium hydroxide or tetrabutylammonium halides. In some case the addition of a surfactant aids the rate of reaction. Optionally aliphatic, heterocyclic or aromatic amines such as triethylamine, pyridine, quinoline and salts derived from them, can be used as the basic producing agent. The following examples illustrate the invention and are not to be taken as a limitation thereof. EXAMPLE 1 To a mixture of 45 ml of 10% alcoholic potassium hydroxide (prepared from 10 g KOH and 90 g of ethanol) and 10 ml of dimethyl acetamide (DMAC) as solvent at 25° C. was added 0.005 g of a piece of commercially available poly(vinylidene fluoride) film (Kynar® 900 film, of about 0.003 in. thickness having about 2,400 monomer units, sold by Pennwalt Corporation under the Kynar trademark). After 90 hours at 25° C. the film turned brown and the solution was orange in color. The film was washed with water, dried and an infrared (IR) spectrum run on both the treated and untreated film. A comparison of the IR spectra show that significant amounts of poly(fluoroacetylene) was produced, as evidenced by the absorption bond at the 1595.7 wave number which is absent in the spectrum of the untreated poly(vinylidene fluoride) film. EXAMPLE 2 12.8 of a commercially available powdered poly(vinylidene fluoride) homopolymer (Kynar® 901, sold by Pennwalt Corporation) was dissolved in 150 ml of DMAC and added to a solution of 11.2 KOH in 100 ml CH 3 OH, to provide a gel. The gel was washed with water and dried at 100° C. overnight to provide 9.5 g of product. The product was not soluble in DMAC, methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), or NaOH solution, and had a melting point in excess of 300° C. The IR spectra for the product showed an absorption band at about 1600 wave number [corresponding to poly(difluoroacetylene) units] which was absent with the starting polymer. The C, H, and F analysis in weight percent was: ______________________________________ C H F______________________________________Starting Polymer 38.8 3.00 59.10Final Product 48.6 3.16 38.60______________________________________ which also shows significant elmination of HF to provide the conjugated double bonds in the product (monomeric mole percent about 100 would be equal to a polymer with 43% fluorine). EXAMPLE 3 3.0 g of a commercially available poly(vinylidene fluoride) powder (sold under Kynar® trademark of Pennwalt Corporation) was dissolved in 100 ml DMAC and then the solution added to 21 g of 1,8-diazabicyclo[5,4,0]undec-7-ene. After 3 to 4 minutes the solution turned black. The next day the black solid was filtered, washed and dried at 110° C. to provide 2.6 g of product. The product did not show any melt flow behavior and exhibited an IR absorption at a wave number of about 1600, indicating the presence of poly(difluoroacetylene) units. The C, H, and F analysis in weight percent was: ______________________________________ C H F______________________________________Starting Polymer 38.8 3.00 59.10Final Product 39.8 3.44 54.20______________________________________ which indicates elimination of a substantial amount of HF to form the conjugated double bonds (approximately 30 mol % dehydrofluorination). EXAMPLE 4 To a flask containing a solution of 4 g (0.1 mole) of sodium hydroxide in 20 ml of water and the mixture stirred magnetically at 70° C., for a few minutes. Then 1.0 g of poly(trifluoroethylene) film was added (softening point of 200°-202° C.). The flask was sealed with a stopper and the mixture stirred at 70° C. for five hours. The polymer turned dark brown and the solution was amber colored. The polymer film was rinsed with water and dried at room temperature for three days. In infrared spectrum of the film (attenuated total reflectance) shows that poly(difluoroacetylene) was produced as evidenced by absorption at the 1618.9 wave number which is absent in the control (before reaction) film. EXAMPLE 5 This example illustrates severe over dehydrofluorination of the commercially available polyvinylidene fluoride powder of Example 2. 1.5 g of the Kynar® powder in 50 ml of DMAC was added to 10.7 g of 96% 1,8 diazabicyclo [5,4,0]undec-7-ene, then heated at reflux for 3 hours and allowed to remain at room temperature. The resulting polymer product obtained by filtration was then washed with water and dried. The final product analysis of C, H, and F (weight %) was: ______________________________________ C H F______________________________________Starting Polymer 38.8 3.00 59.10Final Product 67.6 5.52 7.68______________________________________ which indicates severe over dehydrofluorination as the final F % is 7.68, whereas at 100 mol percent of the conjugated double bond containing monomeric unit, the % F should be about 43%. EXAMPLE 6 To a stainless steel pressure vessel was added 1.0 g of poly(vinylidene fluoride) powder and 10 ml of triethylamine. The temperature was raised to 110°-155° C. (20-60 psig) and held there for 7 hours. The vessel was cooled, opened and the solid polymer washed with water. After drying at 110° C. the polymer had an analysis of C, H, and F as follows: ______________________________________ C H F______________________________________Starting Polymer 38.8 3.00 59.10Final Product 41.7 3.08 53.00______________________________________ This corresponds to about 37.5% dehydrofluorination. EXAMPLE 7 To a flask containing the caustic solution described in Example 4 is added 1.0 g of poly(vinylidene fluoride/trifluoroethylene) copolymer (22.8% trifluoroethylene content) and reacted as in Example 4. The infrared spectrum of the dried film indicates that dehydrofluorination took place to a polyacetylene structure as indicated in the absorption at about 1609 wave number.

Compositions of poly(fluoroacetylene) useful for providing electrically conductive properties to plastics by a method of dehydrofluorination of saturated fluoroethylene polymers.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention The present invention relates to an electrical connection box which is suitable to be mounted on a vehicle, such as an automobile, and is adapted to have a relatively high voltage applied to it. The invention also relates to a vehicle including such an electrical connection box. 2. Description of Related Art Normally one secondary, i.e. rechargeable, battery having a rated voltage of 12V and a maximum nominal voltage of 14V is mounted on an automobile of the internal combustion engine type. A voltage up to the maximum voltage of 14V is applied from the battery to a circuit composed of bus bars and the like that are accommodated in an electrical connection box. The power supply is distributed by the internal circuit of the electrical connection box. The operation of electric/electronic component parts mounted on the vehicle is controlled through electric wires connected with the internal circuit. On a goods vehicle, such as a lorry or truck, a rated voltage of 24V and a maximum voltage of 28V are applied to a circuit by a battery structure. In recent years, electric/electronic component parts have been mounted in increasing numbers on a vehicle, and there is an increase in the electric current which is applied to one electric/electronic component part. For example, the electric power required to drive a fan is conventionally 130 watts, but has become 260 watts in recent years. At the rated voltage of 12V of the battery, it is impossible to operate suction and exhaust devices of an engine, an electromotive power steering, and the like devices, requiring a high voltage such as 36V. Therefore, they are mechanically operated by the driving force of the engine. With the increase of the electric current applied to each electric/electronic component part, the diameter of the electric wires used has become larger. Further, with rapid increase of the number of electric/electronic component parts, the number of electric wires has increased recently, which has increased the diameter of a wire harness having a bundle of electric wires. Consequently, the weight of the electric wires to be wired on a vehicle body has increased. As described above, if the power supply from the battery is incapable of operating the suction and exhaust devices of the engine, they are mechanically operated. In this case, it is impossible to accomplish fine control of the operation of the suction and exhaust devices. Further much fuel is consumed, which pollutes the environment. Accordingly, it is preferable to operate the suction and exhaust devices of the engine and the like not mechanically but electrically by the power supply from the battery. In the case where the circuit is so constructed that a voltage higher than 14V can be applied to the circuit of the electrical connection box composed of bus bars and the like, it is possible to reduce the required electric current and thus the diameter of the electric wires and the size of a bundle of a plurality of electric wires (wire harness). Therefore, it is possible to reduce the weight of the electric wires. Further, with the application of a high voltage to the circuit composed of bus bars and the like, it is possible to control the operation of the suction and exhaust devices, the power steering motor, and the like not mechanically or hydraulically but electrically. In this case, it is possible to accomplish fine control of the operation of suction and exhaust devices and the like. Further, fuel consumption can be reduced, which reduces pollution. It is preferable to apply a high voltage of about 42V to the electromotive power steering motor, the suction and exhaust devices of the engine, the fan, and other devices requiring a high voltage. On the other hand, in an automobile, it is preferable to apply the rated voltage of 12V (maximum voltage: 14V) to signal-generating devices of the electric/electrical components, parts and coils of relays. However, if the electrical connection box for distributing the power supply is provided with a circuit to which a low voltage up to the maximum voltage of 14V (28V in a truck) is applied and with a circuit to which a high voltage of about 42V is applied, a leak current is liable to be generated between the two circuits owing to the potential difference. Such a leak current may particularly occur if water or dirt enters the electrical connection box. The leak current is also liable to be generated in the circuit to which the high voltage of about 42V is applied. A leak current is liable to be generated between adjacent terminals in a connector attached to the electrical connection box, if the distance between the terminals is short, in the case where one of adjacent terminals disposed in a connector is connected to a bus bar to which a high voltage is applied and the other terminal is connected to a bus bar to which a low voltage is applied, and also in the case where two terminals disposed in the connector are connected to bus bars to which high voltages are applied. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention seeks to mitigate the problem of leak currents in the connector described above. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to prevent generation of leak currents in an electrical connection box which is provided with a circuit to which a low voltage is applied and a high voltage is applied, or a circuit to which a high voltage is applied. According to the invention, there is provided an assembly comprising an electrical connection box and a connector. The electrical connection box has a casing having a connector-receiving portion adapted to receive a connector, at least one first bus bar mounted in the casing and having an upstanding connection tab, at least one second bus bar mounted in the casing and having an upstanding connection tab arranged alongside and spaced from the connection tab of the first bus bar, and insulation resin material embedding the connection tabs of said first and second bus bars while leaving exposed projecting portions thereof, the resin material further providing a recess located between the connection tabs. The connector has first and second terminals engaged respectively to the projecting portions of the connection tabs of the first and second bus bars, and a housing in which the first and second terminals are mounted and which is received at the connector-receiving portion of said casing, the housing having a partition wall of insulating material which lies between the first and second terminals and extends into the recess of said insulation material. In a first embodiment, the first bus bar is adapted to be connected in use to a first voltage source having a nominal maximum output voltage selected from 14V and 28V, and the second bus bar is adapted to be connected in use to a second voltage source having a nominal maximum output voltage higher than that of said first voltage source and not more than 200V. In a second embodiment, the first and second bus bars are both adapted to be connected in use to a voltage source having a nominal maximum output voltage of not less than 14V, e.g. 28V or more. It is preferable to embed each of the bus bars in an insulation body, such as an insulation plate which embeds the entire bus bar except projecting tab portion or portions thereof. For example, the root portion of each of the tabs is embedded in insulation resin, while portions of the tabs which fit in the terminals connected to electric wires are exposed. The partition wall separates the terminals that are disposed in the connector and connected to the tabs, and extends to between the insulation resin portions covering the root portion of the tabs. Thus, it is possible to prevent a leak current from being generated between the adjacent terminals connected to the bus bars. The bus bars may be fixed to a resin substrate by inserting a rib or spigot projecting from the substrate and deforming the rib, and then covering the substrate with a resin embedding the bus bars by molding. It is preferable that the high voltage to be applied to the high-voltage bus bar is 42V. This is partly because it is easy to obtain a maximum nominal voltage of 42V by connecting in series three batteries each having a rated voltage of 12V (maximum voltage: 14V) of the type conventionally used in an automobile. Needless to say, it is possible to use a single battery having a maximum voltage of 42V. A second reason is because using a voltage close to 50V or above for the high-voltage bus bar is possibly dangerous. The present inventors have conducted salt water experiments in order to ascertain the degree of risk when applying a voltage of 42V in an electrical junction box suitable for use in an automobile engine compartment. Details of the experiments are given as follows: 1 ml of salt water was injected into each terminal hole of the casing of a junction box which had bus bars disposed inside. Electrical components such as relay, fuse, connectors, etc. were mounted on the casing. A voltage of 42V was applied to bus bars of the junction box for 8 hours and then suspended for 16 hours. This was repeated twice. There was initially no change to the bus bars and electrical components. After the third repetition, it was found that extra electric current passed between the bus bars generating heat, and a portion of bus bars was melted. The heat also melted resin around bus bars such as an insulation plate, casing and resin portion of electrical components adjacent the casing. Accordingly, since damage did not occur until after the third exposure to salt water, it was confirmed that in consideration of conditions under normal use of an automobile, the application of the electric power at 42V to the electric/electronic component parts should not cause a problem. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the present invention will now be described below by way of non-limitative example with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view of portions of an automobile comprising an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a sectional view of a part of an electrical connection box and connector, shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3A is a plan view of a circuit of the electrical connection box; FIG. 3B is a sectional view of main parts of the circuit of FIG. 3A; FIG. 4 is a sectional view of the box and connector of FIG. 2 in the assembled state; and FIG. 5 is a sectional view similar to FIG. 4 showing another embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS As schematically shown in FIG. 1, in an automobile to which the present invention is applied, an engine E mounted in an engine compartment X is arranged to drive the automobile and generate electrical power, e.g. through a conventional alternator (not shown). A low-voltage battery structure 1 and a high-voltage battery structure 2 are mounted in the engine compartment X. The low-voltage battery structure 1 includes a conventional general-purpose battery having a rated voltage 12V and a maximum voltage of 14V. The high-voltage battery structure 2 includes three such batteries 2 a, 2 b, and 2 c connected in series to generate a maximum voltage of 42V. Each of the three batteries 2 a, 2 b, and 2 c has the rated voltage of 12V. Needless to say, it is possible instead to use a single battery having a maximum voltage of 42V. The low-voltage battery structure 1 is connected to a low-voltage bus bar 10 accommodated in an electrical connection box 3 (electrical junction box) mounted in the passenger compartment Y (or, depending on the vehicle design, in the engine compartment X) to apply a low voltage (nominal maximum voltage: 14V) to the low-voltage bus bar 10 . The high-voltage battery structure 2 is connected to a high-voltage bus bar 11 accommodated in the electrical connection box 3 to apply a high voltage (nominal maximum voltage: 42V) to the high-voltage bus bar 11 . As shown in FIG. 2, the electrical connection box 3 accommodates generally thin flat circuit structures 5 herein called circuits, which are stacked one above another in the molded plastics resin casing 4 of the box 3 . As shown in FIGS. 2-3B, each circuit 5 has an insulation construction in which low-voltage bus bars 10 and high-voltage bus bars 11 are mounted on a plastics resin insulation plate 12 . In an alternative construction of the circuit 5 the bus bars 10 and 11 are molded in a body 12 b of insulating resin. In FIGS. 2-3B, the entire surface of each low-voltage bus bar 10 and each high-voltage bus bar 11 is shown covered with resin portions R 1 , and resin portions R 2 are filled between each low-voltage bus bar 10 and the high-voltage bus bar 11 adjacent thereto. The bus bars 10 and 11 are of conductive metal strip or sheet which is cut or punched to the desired shape. As shown in FIG. 3A, the low-voltage bus bars 10 and the high-voltage bus bars 11 are disposed at random, i.e. dispersed freely among each other, to enhance efficiency in the designing of the circuit. In other words, the bus bars 10 and 11 need not be disposed in such a way that, for example, the low-voltage bus bars 10 are collected at one side of the circuit and the high-voltage bus bars 11 are collected at the other side thereof. Therefore, a region A is present in the gap between two low-voltage bus bars 10 adjacent to each other, a region B is present in the gap between a low-voltage bus bar 10 and a high-voltage bus bar 11 adjacent each other, and a region C is present in the gap between two high-voltage bus bars 11 adjacent to each other. In any of these regions A, B, and C, the resin portion R 2 is interposed between the adjacent bus bars. Similarly to conventional bus bars, the low-voltage bus bars 10 and the high-voltage bus bars 11 are bent up to their ends to form upstanding connection tabs 10 a and 11 a perpendicular to the plane of the circuit 5 . As shown in FIG. 2, tabs 10 a and 11 a are in use connected to adjacent terminals 7 and 8 disposed in a connector 20 which has a molded plastics resin housing 21 received in a connector-receiving socket 30 of the box casing 4 . In this case, a leak current is liable to be generated between the adjacent tabs 10 a and 11 a and between the adjacent terminals 7 and 8 connected to the tabs 10 a and 11 a. To prevent the generation of such leak currents, the tabs 10 a and 11 a are embedded in the molded resin, e.g. resin portions R 3 and R 4 respectively shown in FIG. 4, up to a level of a terminal fit-in line L at which the tabs 10 a and 11 a are connected to the terminals 7 and 8 respectively. Thus, the resin has upstanding portions 12 c extending up the sides of the tabs 10 a and 11 a from the main resin body. As shown in FIGS. 2-3B, a recess 15 may be present between the adjacent upstanding resin portions 12 c. The connector 20 carrying the terminals 7 and 8 to be connected to the adjacent tabs 10 a and 11 a is fitted in the connector-receiving socket 30 formed in the casing of the electrical connection box 3 . The housing 21 of the connector has a partition wall 22 separating the terminals 7 and 8 which are respectively connected to electric wires w 1 and w 2 (see FIG. 4 ). When the connector 20 is fitted in the socket 30 , the partition wall 22 may be received in the recess 15 formed between the adjacent upstanding resin portions 12 c. A peripheral wall 23 of the housing 21 may also be shaped to surround the upstanding resin portion 12 c of the tabs 10 a and 11 a which the terminals 7 and 8 engage. When the tabs 10 a and 11 a formed on the low-voltage bus bar 10 and the high-voltage bus bar 11 respectively are connected to the adjacent terminals 7 and 8 disposed inside the connector 20 , the exposed portions of the tabs 10 a and 11 a are fitted in the terminals 7 and 8 , respectively, whereas the root portions of the tabs 10 a and 11 a not fitted in the terminals 7 and 8 are covered by the resin. Further, the partition wall 22 of the connector housing 21 fits in the recess 15 formed between the resin portions 12 c, thus shielding the gap between the tabs to which different voltages are applied and the gap between the terminals ( 7 , 8 ). Thus it is possible to prevent or minimize the risk of the generation of a leak current. FIG. 5 shows another embodiment in which two tabs 11 a of adjacent high-voltage bus bars 11 are connected to adjacent terminals 7 ′ and 8 ′ disposed in the connector 20 . As in the above-described embodiment, the root portion of each tab 11 a is embedded in the molded resin to form the upstanding resin portion 12 c and define the recess 15 between the resin portions 12 c. The partition wall 12 of the connector 20 extends into the recess 15 to shield the gap between the tabs 11 a and 11 a and the gap between the terminals 7 ′ and 8 ′. The circuits 5 of these embodiments are thus applied to an automobile on which a battery of the rated voltage of 12V is mounted. However, in the case where a maximum voltage of 28V is applied to a bus bar in the automobile or a larger vehicle, such as a truck, the bus bar to which the voltage of 28V is applied is the low-voltage bus bar and the bus bar to which a voltage of 42V (or higher) is applied is the high-voltage bus bar. The construction of the circuits 5 and connection box in this case is the same as that of the embodiments. In the embodiments, a maximum voltage of 42V is applied to the high-voltage bus bar 11 . However, needless to say, a high voltage of e.g. 42V-200V can be applied to the high-voltage bus bars 11 , provided that safety is ensured. As apparent from the foregoing description, by the present invention, a high voltage can be applied to a bus bar accommodated in the electrical connection box, so that it is possible to reduce the diameter of electric wires and the size of a wire harness by reducing the amount of electric current. When tabs of the bus bars to which different voltages are applied are connected to adjacent terminals, the root portion of each tab is embedded in the resin, and the partition wall of the connector accommodating the terminals is extended into the concavity or recess formed between adjacent resin portions covering the root portion of each tab. Thus, it is possible to prevent a leak current from being generated between the tab of the low-voltage bus bar and that of the high-voltage bus bar and between the adjacent terminals connected to the tabs. Similarly, in the case where the tabs of the bus bars to which a high voltage is applied are adjacent to each other, the root portion of each tab is embedded in the resin, and the partition wall of the connector accommodating the terminals is extended into the concavity or recess formed between adjacent resin portions covering the root portion of each tab. Thus, it is possible to prevent a leak current from being generated between the tabs of the high-voltage bus bars and between the adjacent terminals connected to the tabs. In the drawings, the connector 20 is shown with two terminals 7 and 8 , but in practice may contain additional terminals connected to the bus bars of the box 3 , provided that recesses 15 and partition walls 22 are provided at appropriate locations to achieve the desired effect of the invention. While the invention has been described in conjunction with the exemplary embodiments described above, many equivalent modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art when given this disclosure. Accordingly, the exemplary embodiments of the invention set forth above are considered to be illustrative and not limiting. Various changes to the described embodiments may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

An electrical connection box for use in a vehicle has bus bars in a casing with upstanding connection tabs which are alongside and spaced from each other. Insulation resin embeds the tabs while leaving exposed projecting portions. A connector attached to the casing has a housing containing terminals respectively engaged with the projecting portions of the tabs. The resin material provides a recess located between the tabs and the housing of said connector has a partition wall of insulating material which lies between the terminals and extends into the recess, to prevent leak current between the terminals.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to surgical drapes and more particularly to a surgical drape specifically adapted to be used in certain endourological procedures, specifically nephroscopy, nephrolithotomy and nephrolithotripsy procedures. PRIOR ART Surgical drapes are customarily used in the operating room to protect the site of the operation from possible contamination from bacteria which may be found on other portions of the patient's body or which may be airborne or conveyed to the operative site by operating room personnel. The use of surgical drapes is generally considered to be necessary to isolate the patient from the operating room environment and from the operating room staff. The drapes are usually placed over the patient to completely isolate the patient other than that portion of the patient's body which is the actual site of the surgical procedure. Surgical drapes which provide some mechanism for the direction of body fluids or operating room fluids have previously been known. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 3,791,382 discloses a surgical drape construction which provides a pocket in the outer surface of the drape to receive fluid runoff from the site of the surgical procedure. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,076,017 and 4,105,019 disclose surgical drapes in which the pocket is formed on the outer surface of the drape by folding an edge of the drape upon itself and sealing it together. U.S. Pat. No. 4,169,472 discloses a surgical drape which includes an impervious bag used for collecting liquids and other fluids which may be present during the operating procedure. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,378,794; 4,414,968 and 4,462,396 disclose surgical drapes for cystoscopy procedures and these drapes which include some type of fluid collection bag. Surgical drapes which include an incise film are also known. An incise film is a clear plastic film with adhesive on the patient contact side of the film. The film is adhered to the patient over the operative site. The surgical incision is made through the film and the patient's skin. Incise films are considered to be advantageous to prevent bacterial migration from the patient's skin which is adjacent the surgical incision site. Examples of such drapes are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,826,253; 4,027,665 and 4,489,720. Tubing or cord holders of various types have also been used on surgical drapes. Examples of tube or cord holders are disclosed in U.S Pat. Nos. 3,721,234; 3,881,474 and 4,323,062. Although all of the above-mentioned drapes disclose constructions that can be used to collect fluids and hold tubing, the construction of the drapes is not entirely suitable for endourological procedures generally, and such drapes are not suitable for the newly developed percutaneous nephrolithotripsy procedure. The percutaneous nephrolithotripsy procedure is a method of breaking kidney stones using ultrasonic vibrations. In the procedure, a percutaneous incision is made in the patient, and an angiographic guide wire is inserted into the kidney, aided by fluoroscopy, to the vicinity of the stone. The stone itself can be broken with a nephroscope which has an ultrasonic lithotriptor at the end of the scope. When the ultrasonic lithotriptor is in the vicinity of the stone, ultrasonic vibrations will break up the stone, which can be flushed from the kidney with irrigation fluids. This procedure utilizes very large amounts of irrigation fluids and employs a large number of sophisticated medical instruments including angiographic guide wires, an endoscope, pigtail catheter, dialators, a nephroscopy tube containing the ultrasonic lithotriptor, as well as tubing to direct fluid into the operative site and suction tube to remove excess fluid. Prior to the present invention, there was no surgical drape specifically adapted to be used in the nephrolithotripsy procedure. Because of the large amounts of fluid used and the multiplicity of sophisticated surgical instrumentation that is used in these procedures, drapes which have been developed for other procedures were not suitable for use in the nephrolithotripsy procedure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present surgical drape provides multiple tubing guides to hold liquid and suction tubing in place, as well as to provide for the placement of various wires and ready placement of instruments that are used in nephroscopy procedures. The drape employs a fluid collection bag with a large capacity and has a fenestration which is particularly useful in nephrolithotripsy procedures. Other features of the present invention will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the description of the invention which follows. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a top plan view of the surgical drape of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a fragmentary, isometric view of the central region of the drape of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The surgical drape of the present invention is generally shown in FIG. 1. The drape has a main sheet 10, which has a top edge 11, a bottom edge 12 and two opposing side edges 13 and 14. The drape has a lower surface 29 which is in contact with the body of the patient and an upper surface 30 which is opposite the lower surface. The drape has a reinforcement area 31 generally located in the central region on the upper surface of the main sheet. The center of the reinforcement area consists of a plastic film 15. There is a fenestration 16 through the plastic film and the main sheet. There is a transparent plastic film 17 which overlies the fenestration. The plastic film 17 has an adhesive coating on its lower surface which will be in contact with the skin of the patient and which aids in securing the drape to the surface of the skin of the patient. There is a small circular fenestration 18 in the incise film. The portion of the reinforcement, other than the plastic film, and which is shown in the drawing as 32, may be an absorbent nonwoven fabric backed with a plastic film which is secured directly to the upper surface of the main sheet. There are a series of tube holders 19, 20 and 21 attached to the reinforcement area of the drape. The tube holders may be formed by doubling over the reinforcing fabric. One edge of the tube holders is secured to the upper surface of the main sheet, and the other edge is not attached, so that the tube holders may be turned perpendicular to the upper surface of the main sheet. The tube holders have a multiplicity of holes 33 through them to accommodate threading wires and tubings through the holes to keep them in the vicinity of the operative site, which would be the area of the fenestration. The holes 33 in the tube holders are aligned with the holes in the other tube holders. There can be any number of holes in the tube holders, but there should be at least three in each of the tube holders to accommodate the various wires and tubing used in the procedure. The tube holders 21, which are adjacent the fenestration, have extended ends 34 which extend into a plastic fluid collection bag 23 to direct fluid into the bag. The fluid collection bag has a piece of nonwoven fabric or a screen 24 to trap stone particles or dropped instruments. There is a port 25 at the bottom of the bag which may be connected to tubing 26 to empty the bag if necessary. There may also be clamping tabs 22 around the edges of the reinforcement area to provide additional sites to clamp various surgical instruments to the upper surface of the drape. There are flaps 35 at the lower edges of the reinforcement area adjacent the fluid collection bag. These flaps can be bent upward from the upper surface of the main sheet and can be clamped to the tube holders to form instrument bags into which instruments can be placed during the surgical procedure. This is shown in FIG. 2. The edges of the flaps 35 are clamped with surgical clamps to the edges of the tube holders to form a surface into which instruments can be readily placed. There is a moldable strip 27, made from metal or a moldable plastic, secured on the upper surface of the plastic portion of the reinforcement area between the fenestration and the fluid collection bag. There is a second moldable strip 28 secured to the upper portion of the plastic bag. This is shown in both FIGS. 1 and 2. The strips can be bent and are capable of being maintained in a fixed configuration after bending. This allows the strip 27 to be bent to conform to the body of the patient and the strip 28 to be bent in a concave fashion to allow the fluid collection bag to be maintained in an open condition and assist in directing fluid into the bag. The small circular fenestration 18 in the incise sheet is used in the procedure to allow the angiographic wires to be fed from the body of a patient and through the fenestration 18 when the drape is placed on a patient. The angiographic guide wires are very often placed in the patient prior to the patient being sent to the operating room. These wires would be placed by the radiology department, as it is necessary that the placement be done with a fluoroscope or other imaging equipment. The drape may be folded into a compact form to allow the drape to be readily placed on the body of the patient. The incise film 27, which has adhesive on the patient side, is usually covered with a release sheet which is removed from the adhesive prior to the placement of the drape on the patient. When the drape is placed on the patient, the release sheet is removed, the angiographic guide wires would be fed through the fenestration hole 18 and the incise sheet 17, and then the drape would be placed on the patient. After the drape is in place on the patient, the various wires and tubes for the instruments used in the procedure may be threaded through the holes 33 in the tubing holders 19, 20 and 21 to locate the wires and tubes in the vicinity of the fenestration 16 in the drape.

A surgical drape for endourological procedures is disclosed. The drape has a plurality of tube holders on the surface of the drape, a fluid collection bag with strips to hold the bag open during the procedure, and a fenestration specifically adapted for endourological procedures.

[0001] This application is a National Stage completion of PCT/DE2010/050013 filed Mar. 15, 2010, which claims priority from German patent application serial no. 10 2009 002 089.6 filed Apr. 1, 2009. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention concerns a transmission unit, in particular for driving a vehicle wheel, such that the drive input and drive output shafts of the transmission unit can move transversely relative to one another. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Known transmission units transmit drive input torques, and have a drive input shaft can move transversely or in translation relative to the drive output shaft, or in which, while at the same time transmitting the torque, the drive input and drive output shafts can be moved essentially parallel relative to one another, are known. Examples of such transmission units are lateral shafts in wheel suspensions and cardan shafts, or special drive-trains with chains or belts. [0004] However, such known transmission units with a translational degree of freedom of movement are on the one hand complex, and on the other hand take up considerable structural space—especially in the axial or radial direction—to achieve the transversal mobility of the two shafts relative to one another. Depending on the design, these known transmission units are also limited to a defined, generally rotational pivoting movement about a pivot point, and strictly speaking they do not therefore enable pure translational kinematics of the movement of the two shafts unless measures are adopted to compensate the length of the force transmission elements (belt, chain, cardan joint), which in turn entail additional structural complexity. [0005] In the example case when such transmission units are used for driving the wheels of a motor vehicle, it is also necessary to consider the drive-train and wheel suspension/wheel guiding system as a whole, wherein the wheel suspension required for wheel guiding usually comprises a number of control arms, for example longitudinal, oblique and transverse control arms or tie-rods. [0006] On the motor vehicle the associated drive-train usually comprises an internal combustion engine with a connected manual-shift or automatic transmission, one or two driveshafts and one or more differentials with their associated lateral shafts leading to the wheels. These assemblies—especially when they include the wheel-guiding control arms and lateral shafts and are therefore part of the wheel suspension system—take up quite a considerable amount of structural space in the area of the motor vehicle's wheels, this space then no longer being available for other purposes so that the room available for passengers, luggage or even technical assemblies is correspondingly reduced. [0007] The assemblies in a conventional drive-train, in particular the wheel-guiding control arms and driveshafts, cannot be made arbitrarily smaller or shorter since this would result in unfavorable kinematic behavior in the deflection movement of the wheel. [0008] Furthermore, developments in the drive-trains or drive systems of motor vehicles are increasingly directed toward hybrid concepts. These include in particular serial hybrids, in which there is no longer any mechanical connection between the internal combustion engine and the drive wheels. Instead, in a serial hybrid the internal combustion engine can for example power a generator which—if necessary is battery backed—in turn feeds electric motors connected to the drive wheels. A purely electric vehicle can also comprise a similar configuration, and in this case the energy is not supplied by an internal combustion engine but by an electrical energy accumulator; likewise, various mixed alternatives between serial hybrids and electric vehicles have been considered or already exist. [0009] To keep the number of components needed for the transmission unit as small as possible and to minimize their space occupation and mass, in such vehicle designs it is sometimes sought to associate the driving electric motors directly with the wheels and accommodate them as near as possible to the wheels or even, in the form of wheel-hub motors, to fit them inside the wheels themselves. In this way a substantial number of parts of the conventional drive-train can be omitted or replaced by light and flexibly configured electric leads between the energy producer and the wheel-hub motors of the motor vehicle. [0010] In addition efforts have already been made to accommodate the wheel suspension system itself with the associated spring/damper units within the inside space of the wheel rims or in the immediate vicinity of the wheels, so as in this way to gain even more space which, with conventional wheel suspensions, is otherwise needed for the known control arm structures. [0011] From DE 698 06 444 T2 a wheel suspension that can be integrated in the rim of a wheel is known, with which in addition, for example electric drive motors can be accommodated at least partially in the inside space of the wheel rim. However, with this known wheel suspension system the electric drive motor is in each case attached fixed to the wheel carrier, so that the mass of the drive motor has to be added to the unsprung masses of the wheel suspension. Since, owing to the power required, the electric motors that can be used for a wheel-hub drive of a motor vehicle have considerable mass, they substantially increase the unsprung masses of the wheel suspension, with considerable adverse effect on the driving and suspension comfort, particularly since because of the large unsprung masses much stiffer shock absorbers have to be fitted. [0012] From U.S. Pat. No. 2,182,417 a transmission unit for a vehicle is known, which attempts to solve the problem of desired transversal relative mobility of the drive input and output shafts of a wheel-hub drive by arranging the planetary gearwheels between a drive pinion and a drive output ring gear arranged on the output shaft, such that the planetary gearwheels are connected pivotably to the input shaft in each case by a supporting arm. This should enable permanent force transmission from the drive pinion, via the planetary gearwheels, to the ring gear, even when at the same time (for example due to deflection movements of the wheel) transversal movements between the drive pinion and the ring gear are taking place. [0013] However, the technical principle known from that document is disadvantageous inasmuch as according to the principle of the document, the planetary gearwheels are suspended in each case by a single supporting arm, although in combination with a curved sliding guide for an axle stump of the planetary gearwheel concerned in the transmission housing. This, however, results only in a comparatively unstable and in certain positions also kinematically inadequate mounting of the planetary gearwheels, such that the planetary gearwheels are also mounted on only one side and, on the other side, engage with the teeth of the drive output ring gear only in a floating manner. [0014] Thus, by means of this transmission unit known from the prior art only low torques can in any case be transmitted, since otherwise it can be reckoned that the only one-sided suspension of the planetary gearwheels will be overloaded and premature deflection of the planetary gearwheel sliding guide in the transmission housing will take place. Furthermore, owing to the deficient suspension of the planetary gearwheels in accordance with the principle of the document, it is unlikely that exact maintenance of the axial separation of the gearwheels required for transmission teeth of the present day would be possible for long. Accordingly, a transmission unit designed on the technical principle of the document could never be used in light of the torques or powers exerted per wheel in present-day motor vehicles. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] Against this background, the purpose of the present invention is to provide a transmission unit in particular for a vehicle wheel, which overcomes the disadvantages of the prior art. In particular, in the smallest possible space the transmission unit should enable transversal or translational decoupling between a drive input shaft and a drive output shaft. In this way it should in particular be made possible to decouple wheel-hub motors from the wheel suspension in relation to the jouncing movements of a wheel, and thus very substantially to reduce the unsprung masses of the wheel suspension. In addition, however, durable and reliable transmission even of high torques and powers should also be able to take place. [0016] In a first manner known per se the transmission unit according to the present invention comprises a drive input shaft, and a drive output shaft arranged parallel to the drive input shaft. On the drive input shaft is arranged a drive pinion and on the drive output shaft an output ring gear. In a manner also known per se, the drive input and output shafts can be moved while parallel to one another in translation relative to one another—i.e. in the direction perpendicular to their respective rotation axes—in order in this way to be able to compensate for translational or transversal displacements between the drive input and drive output shafts—while at the same time transmitting torque. For this purpose the transmission unit comprises in particular at least one planetary gearwheel, which engages both with the drive pinion and with the output ring gear and which is mounted on a planetary axle of a planetary carrier. The planetary carrier, in turn, is mounted coaxially with the drive pinion and thus coaxially with the drive input shaft. [0017] According to the invention, however, the transmission unit is characterized by a second planetary carrier also associated with the planetary gearwheel, which is associated with the same planetary axle supporting the planetary gearwheel as in the first planetary carrier. Thus, in the axial direction the planetary gearwheel is arranged between the first planetary carrier and the second planetary carrier, and the second planetary carrier is mounted coaxially with the output ring gear. [0018] In other words this means in particular that according to the invention the two ends of the axle of the planetary gearwheel are held, respectively, each in a planetary carrier of its own. Thus, the planetary gearwheel is not—as in the prior art—mounted only floatingly on one side, while the other side in the prior art is mounted either not at all or only in an unstable sliding guide in the transmission housing. [0019] Thus, according to the invention in this way the planetary gearwheel is always guided by the two planetary carriers—which are coupled to one another in a pivotable manner by means of their common planetary axle—in such manner that the planetary gearwheel is in permanent engagement both with the drive pinion and with the output ring gear. The first planetary carrier, which is mounted coaxially with the input shaft, ensures that the planetary gearwheel remains engaged with the drive pinion, while the second planetary carrier, which is mounted coaxially with the output ring gear, ensures that the planetary gearwheel remains permanently engaged with the output ring gear. [0020] In this case it is advantageous, above all, that the transmission unit can be made very compact, since in principle it takes up as little space as does, for example, a conventional planetary transmission. Compared with other drive-trains known from the prior art which have a translational degree of freedom—such as lateral or cardan shafts—this results in a very substantially reduced occupation of structural space, which corresponds only to a fraction of the space taken up by other known solutions that can, respectively, withstand comparable torques. [0021] Thus, at first sight the transmission unit according to the invention resembles a planetary transmission wherein the drive pinion corresponds to the sun gear, the planetary gearwheel to a planetary gearwheel of the planetary transmission, and the output ring gear to the ring gear of the planetary transmission. The difference from a planetary transmission (and also from the prior art described above), however, is that in the transmission unit according to the invention the planetary gearwheel is guided not just by one planetary carrier but by two separate planetary carriers coupled pivotably to one another, the first planetary carrier being mounted coaxially with the drive input shaft and the second planetary carrier mounted coaxially with the output ring gear, with the planetary gearwheel arranged in the axial direction between the two planetary carriers, and such that for their mutual coupling the two planetary carriers have a common planetary axis which in turn coincides with the axle of the planetary gearwheel. [0022] For example, in contrast to a conventional planetary transmission, in the transmission unit according to the invention there is no circulatory rotation of the planetary carriers and the planetary gearwheel around the central suspension (there on the sun gear). Rather, the two planetary carriers of the transmission unit according to the invention serve to ensure co-ordinated pivoting motion of the planetary gearwheel both and simultaneously around the rotational axis of the drive input shaft and around the rotational axis of the output ring gear—while the planetary gearwheel is simultaneously and permanently engaged both with the drive pinion and with the output ring gear. [0023] According to the invention, this provides the advantage that the drive input and drive output shafts with the drive pinion and the output ring gear can be moved in translation relative to and parallel with one another, while the transmission of large torques between the drive pinion and the output ring gear remains possible—regardless of the parallel displacement of the drive input and output shafts. [0024] Thus, the invention is primarily based on the recognition that—particularly when a ring gear is used as the output ring gear—a second planetary carrier can be arranged in the ring gear mounted coaxially thereto in such manner that the planetary gearwheel can be arranged at the point of intersection of the two planetary carriers forming the planetary axle, and axially between the two planetary carriers. This results in exceptional rigidity of the mounting of the planetary gearwheel, since its axle is supported permanently at each end. In addition the damage-prone, ineffectual and only low-load-bearing mounting of the axle of the planetary gearwheel in the curved slide track in the transmission housing, known from the prior art, can be omitted. Thus, in contrast to the prior art, with the transmission unit according to the invention, powers or torques of the size that are common for the wheels of present-day motor vehicles can on the whole be transmitted. [0025] According to a particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the planetary axle common to the two planetary carriers is also made integrally with the first or with the second planetary carrier. This further increases the rigidity of the mounting of the planetary gearwheel, the production and assembly costs can be reduced, and the axial space occupied by the transmission unit can also be made smaller. [0026] The invention can be realized regardless of how the mounting of the two planetary carriers is designed, provided that the two planetary carriers are mounted coaxially with the drive input and output shafts. In a particularly preferred embodiment, however, the first planetary carrier is mounted directly on the input shaft and the second planetary carrier in the ring gear directly on the output shaft. [0027] This arrangement has the advantage of taking up minimal space, particularly in the axial direction, since almost the entire transmission unit can be arranged within the inside space of the ring gear. [0028] In principle the invention can be realized largely independently of the size and tooth-number ratios between the drive pinion, the planetary gearwheel and the output ring gear, provided that gearwheel engagement is ensured. [0029] However, according to a particularly preferred embodiment of the invention the first planetary carrier and the second planetary carrier have the same effective radius. This means, in other words, that the radial distance between the drive input shaft and the axle of the planetary gearwheel matches the radial distance between the drive output shaft and the axle of the planetary gearwheel, so that the axle of the planetary gearwheel is the same distance away from the drive input and drive output shafts. [0030] This embodiment is advantageous inasmuch as in this way the maximum translational freedom of movement between the drive input and output shafts is achieved. Moreover, a further advantage is obtained in that by arbitrary translational movements between the input and output shafts within the freedom of movement range of the transmission unit according to the invention, for geometrical reasons no rotational speed errors between the input and output shafts are induced. This is related to the fact that the planetary carriers of the transmission unit, in this case having the same effective radius, are pivoted during any transversal movement essentially through the same angle, whereby induced rotational angle or rotational speed errors occur only within the transmission unit but are fully compensated for toward the outside. [0031] In a further, particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the planetary carriers are formed only as pivoting levers each having two mounting joints. This embodiment too favors a particularly compact design of the transmission unit according to the invention. In this embodiment the planetary carriers are thus functionally reduced to their task, namely to connect the planetary gearwheel of the transmission unit to the drive input shaft and to the drive output shaft, and to mount it pivotably relative to the input and output shafts, while at the same time ensuring the correct distance between the planetary gearwheel and the drive pinion between the planetary gearwheel and the output ring gear so that the tooth engagement takes place even during transverse movements. [0032] According to a particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the transmission unit comprises two planetary gearwheels and four planetary carriers. In this case each planetary gearwheel is associated with a pair comprising a first planetary carrier and a second planetary carrier. In this embodiment even higher power and torque transmission is achieved by virtue of the two planetary gearwheels; in the neutral position of the transmission unit the two planetary gearwheels are preferably arranged opposite one another in relation to the input shaft. Owing to the resulting at least partial removal of radial tooth forces on the two planetary gearwheels, in this embodiment mutual support of the two planetary gearwheels between the drive pinion and the ring gear is also obtained, and thus, overall, still better rigidity of the gearwheels arrangement of the transmission unit. [0033] Preferably, in this case the two planetary carriers associated with the second planetary gearwheel are each mounted coaxially with the two planetary carriers associated with the first planetary gearwheel. Thanks to this coaxial mounting of the planetary carriers associated with the second planetary gearwheel relative to the planetary carriers associated with the first planetary gearwheel, axial structural space is saved and in addition mounting with greater overall rigidity is obtained in relation to the planetary carrier arrangement consisting in this case of four planetary carriers. [0034] A further preferred embodiment provides that the transmission unit is designed as a wheel drive and is integrated in a wheel rim, such that the output ring gear is at the same time connected directly to the wheel hub. Preferably, the transmission unit is then also designed as a wheel-hub drive and is directly connected to a drive motor. [0035] This enables an exceptionally compact wheel-hub drive to be obtained, which above all has the decisive advantage of permitting vertical deflection movements of a driven wheel completely without interference without the need, for this, to provide the usually necessary drive elements such as lateral shafts or chain drives. Instead, in this embodiment the transmission unit according to the invention enables free—especially vertical—deflection movement of the driven wheel, whereas at the same time the driveshaft of the wheel emerging in the wheel hub does not follow the vertical movement of the wheel but rather, in relation to the vehicle, can be fixed in the vertical direction. Thus, without the interposition of lateral shafts the driveshaft of the wheel can for example be mounted directly on the vehicle chassis or connected directly to an axle drive or wheel drive. [0036] In the case when the transmission unit according to the invention is designed as a wheel-hub drive with a directly connected drive motor, the decisive advantage is also obtained that the drive motor—although for example arranged directly on the wheel hub—does not have to be connected fixed to the wheel hub or to the wheel carrier, but in relation to the deflection movement of the wheel, can be completely decoupled therefrom. In other words, this means that the drive motor of a wheel-hub drive comprising the transmission unit according to the invention can in particular be arranged fixed on the body or chassis, while the driven wheel can undergo its deflection movements uninfluenced by the drive. In this way the disadvantages of wheel-hub drives known from the prior art, in which the drive motor is added to the unsprung masses of the wheel suspension, is eliminated. Thus, thanks to the invention it is possible to produce a torque-withstanding wheel-hub drive which offers suspension comfort comparable to that of an ordinary wheel suspension. [0037] As the drive motor of the wheel-hub drive, in principle any type of motor can be used. For example, even a hydraulic motor can be considered. However, particularly with the background of using the transmission unit according to the invention in the context of passenger cars with an electric or hybrid drive, according to an especially preferred embodiment of the invention it is provided that the drive motor of the wheel-hub drive is an electric motor. [0038] In this way a very compact electric wheel-hub drive is obtained, which can be supplied with current produced, for example, from a battery or from an internal combustion engine with generator. [0039] In such a case the motor shaft of the drive motor preferably forms the drive input shaft directly, and the drive pinion of the transmission unit is arranged directly on the motor shaft. In this way the drive motor can be arranged directly on the driven wheel or, depending on the shape and size of the drive motor and the wheel rim, even within the wheel rim. [0040] In another, particularly preferred embodiment of the invention the transmission unit is arranged in a wheel carrier, which is at the same time designed as the transmission housing. This gives a particularly compact and robust design of the transmission unit made as a wheel-hub drive, since the gearwheels of the transmission unit can be arranged in the inside space of the wheel carrier designed as a transmission housing. [0041] Particularly against the background of a drive motor attached directly to a transmission unit according to the invention, an elastic bellows with a radial and transversal degree of freedom of movement is provided between the shaft side of the drive motor and the transmission unit. In this way, relative movements that take place between the wheel and the transmission unit, on the one hand, and the drive motor arranged on the vehicle chassis, are compensated, while at the same time the driveshaft of the motor and the transmission unit are protected against environmental influences. [0042] In the first place, the invention can be realized regardless of the design of the transverse relative movement between the drive input and the drive output shafts. In the example case of its use in a wheel suspension, the transverse relative movement of the transmission unit can, for example, be realized by an arrangement of control arms known per se. [0043] However, in an alternative embodiment of the invention the transmission unit comprises a linear guide or is connected to a linear guide. This linear guide ensures a purely linear translational or transversal relative movement between the drive input and drive output shafts, so the degree of freedom of movement between the drive input and output shafts is correspondingly restricted to the desired translational movement. Such a linear guide is advantageous inasmuch as, compared with control arm arrangements, it takes up only a minimum amount of (axial) space, which can be particularly important in the case of wheel suspensions in which the linear guide of the transmission unit therefore on the one hand ensures linear transverse mobility between the drive input and output shafts, and on the other hand forms the wheel suspension itself. [0044] Here, bearing housings for the bearing bushes of the linear guide can for example be made integrally with the wheel carrier or connected directly to the wheel carrier. In this way the wheel carrier can not only fulfill the functions of guiding and mounting the wheel and encapsulating the transmission unit according to the invention, but it also forms the moving portion of the wheel suspension. In other words, this means that the bearing housings of the linear guide in which, for example, the sliding surfaces or bearing bushes of the linear guide are arranged, can be formed in one piece with the wheel carrier or connected directly to the wheel carrier, which enables a torsionally rigid and lightweight design of the wheel suspension. [0045] Particularly in the case when the transmission unit is designed as a compact wheel-hub drive which also comprises the above-described linear guide for suspending the wheel, the structural space needed for a driven wheel of a motor vehicle, including its drive and suspension, is very much reduced, sometimes to a fraction of the space taken up by conventional drive-trains and wheel suspensions. [0046] However, when greater demands are made on the kinematics of a wheel suspension, for example in sporty vehicles, the transmission unit according to the invention in the form of a wheel carrier and part of a wheel-hub drive can also be arranged on the vehicle by means of a control arm arrangement. Having this in mind, a further embodiment of the invention provides that between the drive pinion of the transmission unit and the drive motor of the wheel-hub drive at least one shaft compensation joint is arranged. With this compensation joint the slight axial length variations and slight angle differences that can occur during deflection of the vehicle wheel, when the wheel is connected to the vehicle chassis not by means of a linear guide but by an arrangement of wheel guide control arms, can be compensated. [0047] To ensure suitable and reliable torque transmission in all operating conditions of the transmission unit, according to another embodiment of the invention it is provided that a torsion prevention device is arranged on at least one of the planetary carriers. The torsion prevention device is designed such that in the neutral position of the transmission unit, i.e. when the drive input and drive output shafts overlap axially, an otherwise possible rotation of the planetary carrier and thus also of the planetary gearwheels about the, in this case, overlapping axes of the drive input and output shafts, and thus an interruption of the torque transmission, is prevented. [0048] Following what has been said, those with an understanding of the subject will be able to see that the kinematic principle of the invention is not limited to gearwheel transmissions. With this background, according to an alternative embodiment of the invention it is provided that instead of gearwheels the transmission unit has friction wheels, whose diameter ratio can in particular be chosen so as to be proportional to the tooth-number ratios of the gearwheels of the transmission unit. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0049] Below, the invention is explained in more detail with reference to drawings that illustrate embodiments presented only as examples, and which show: [0050] FIG. 1 : An isometric representation of an embodiment of a transmission unit according to the invention, in this case integrated in a wheel-hub drive with a linear guide; [0051] FIG. 2 : The wheel-hub drive with transmission unit according to FIG. 1 , with the drive motor removed; [0052] FIG. 3 : A representation corresponding to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 , showing an embodiment of a transmission unit according to the invention as a wheel-hub drive with a control arm arrangement for wheel guiding; [0053] FIG. 4 : A representation corresponding to FIG. 1 and FIG. 3 , showing the wheel-hub drive with transmission unit according to FIG. 3 , with the transmission housing cover removed; [0054] FIG. 5 : The transmission unit of the wheel-hub drive according to FIGS. 3 and 4 , shown as an enlarged section; [0055] FIG. 6 : An axial section of the wheel-hub drive with its transmission unit, as in FIGS. 3 to 5 ; [0056] FIG. 7 : A schematic side view of the wheel-hub drive with transmission unit as in FIGS. 3 to 6 , with the wheel in the fully extended sprung condition; [0057] FIG. 8 : A view corresponding to FIG. 7 , showing the wheel-hub drive with transmission unit as in FIGS. 3 to 7 , with the wheel in the neutral sprung condition; and [0058] FIG. 9 : A view corresponding to FIGS. 7 and 8 , showing the wheel-hub drive with transmission unit as in FIGS. 3 to 8 , with the wheel in the fully compressed sprung condition. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0059] FIG. 1 shows an isometric representation of an embodiment of a transmission unit according to the present invention, in this case formed as a wheel-hub drive or integrated in a wheel-hub drive. [0060] The figure shows, first, a vehicle wheel 1 with a tire 2 and a rim 3 , and in addition a wheel-hub drive 4 with a transmission unit 5 and a drive motor 6 . The wheel-hub drive 4 illustrated is also equipped as a wheel suspension with a linear guide 7 , 8 represented only schematically, which in the embodiment illustrated comprises two guide rods 7 and two bearing housings 8 . The bearing housings 8 serve as or contain guide bushes and can thus slide up and down in the vertical direction on the guide rods 7 fixed to the chassis. For clarity of representation, springs/damper units also belonging to the wheel suspension are not shown in the figures. [0061] Since the drive motor 6 (like the guide rods 7 ) is connected fixed to the vehicle chassis (not shown), whereas the wheel 1 with the transmission unit 5 according to the invention can undergo vertical deflection movements 9 , between the drive motor 6 and the transmission unit 5 there is arranged a bellows 10 that is elastic in the radial and transversal directions, which protects the drive input shaft 11 against dirt during relative movements between the wheel 1 and the drive motor 6 . [0062] FIG. 2 shows the wheel-hub drive of FIG. 1 , with the drive motor 6 removed to allow better visibility of the transmission unit 5 . In addition to the elements already shown in FIG. 1 , in FIG. 2 the drive input shaft 11 of the transmission unit 5 can be seen in particular. By virtue of the slot-shaped elongated hole 12 in the housing of the transmission unit 5 , transverse articulation 9 of the drive input shaft 11 relative to the housing of the transmission unit 5 or relative to the driven wheel 1 is made possible as indicated in FIG. 2 (see the broken double-arrow 9 in FIG. 2 ). [0063] This means that the drive input shaft 11 (and the drive motor 6 , whose shaft is here identical with the driveshaft 11 ), like the guide rods 7 of the linear guide 7 , 8 , are positioned fixed on the chassis, while the other parts of the transmission unit 5 , the housing of the transmission unit and the driven wheel 1 , can undergo vertical deflection movements 9 . [0064] FIG. 3 shows another embodiment of a transmission unit 5 according to the invention. In FIG. 3 the transmission unit 5 is again integrated in a wheel-hub drive, but in contrast to the example embodiment shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 the wheel suspension takes place not by means of a linear guide, but by virtue of an arrangement of wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , 15 . In a manner known per se, the wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , 15 are at one end each connected elastically or articulated to the chassis of the motor vehicle (not shown), while at their ends on the wheel side they are likewise connected elastically or articulated to the transmission unit 5 , which in this case at the same time forms the wheel carrier. [0065] The result of suspending the vehicle wheel 1 by means of an arrangement of control arms 13 , 14 , 15 is that when the vehicle wheel 1 jounces, in addition to the vertical and, relative to the drive input shaft, transversal movements of the vehicle wheel 1 slight lateral and, relative to the drive input shaft 11 , axial movements of the vehicle wheel 1 take place. Depending on the exact geometry of the wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , 15 , jouncing can also result in a slight variation of the wheel camber. This means that in the embodiment with wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , shown here, the deflection movement of the vehicle wheel 1 does not take place exclusively vertically and in a linear manner. [0066] For this reason, in this embodiment a compensating joint 16 is arranged between the driveshaft 11 of the transmission unit 5 and the drive motor (not shown here, but see FIG. 1 ), which when the wheel jounces, takes up or compensates for the slight axial displacement and any slight camber angle deviations caused by the wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , 15 . In this way too, however, according to the invention the purely vertical component 9 of the deflection movement is absorbed and compensated completely within the transmission unit 5 . [0067] FIG. 4 shows the transmission unit 5 of the wheel-hub drive according to FIG. 3 , with the transmission housing cover removed. One can already see some essential parts of the transmission unit 5 , namely two planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 and the drive output ring gear 19 —bolted to the wheel hub. The output ring gear 19 is enclosed by the wheel carrier at the same time forming the transmission housing 20 , which at the same time forms or carries the joint holders to which the wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , 15 are attached. [0068] For the sake of better visibility the transmission unit 5 of FIG. 4 is shown in an enlarged section in FIG. 5 . In particular one can again see the two planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 and the output ring gear 19 . The drive pinion 21 of the transmission unit 5 that sits on the drive input shaft can also be partially seen in FIG. 5 . Also clearly visible in FIG. 5 are the total of four planetary carriers 22 , 23 and 24 , by which the two planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 are guided in such manner that the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 are at all times engaged both with the drive pinion 21 and also with the output ring gear 19 , and this even when the driveshaft 11 with the drive pinion 21 and the vehicle wheel 1 with the output ring gear 19 undergo vertical relative movements 9 in relation to one another during deflection, as shown in detail in FIGS. 7 to 9 . [0069] In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 5 , the planetary carriers 22 , 23 and 24 , are essentially formed as pivoting levers, each with two mounting points. As can be seen particularly clearly by inspecting FIGS. 5 and 6 together, the two planetary carriers 22 , 23 at the front in relation to the drawing are mounted coaxially on the driveshaft 11 , while the two planetary carriers 24 , 25 at the rear in relation to the drawing are mounted in the inside space of the output ring gear 19 coaxially on a stub axle 26 connected to the output ring gear 19 , which is in turn formed integrally with the wheel hub 27 . [0070] The respective axes 28 , 29 of the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 are at the same time formed by the respective two common planetary axes 28 , 29 for the two planetary carriers 22 , 23 and 24 , 25 respectively associated with the planetary gearwheels 17 and 18 . Thus, the first planetary carrier 22 or 24 associated with a planetary gearwheel 17 , 18 ensures a constant distance and tooth engagement between the drive pinion 21 and the planetary gearwheel 17 or 18 , while the second planetary carrier 23 or 25 associated with the same planetary gearwheel 17 or 18 ensures a constant distance and tooth engagement between the planetary gearwheel 17 or 18 and the output ring gear 19 . [0071] Thus, this means that as in FIG. 5 the driveshaft 11 and wheel axle or output ring gear 19 can undergo a transversal movement 9 relative to one another in the vertical direction in relation to the drawing (see the double-arrow 9 ), while at the same time the tooth engagement of all four gearwheels 21 , 17 , 18 , 19 and hence the full torque transmitted between the driveshaft 11 and the output ring gear 19 is maintained at all times. Thus, the wheel 1 with the wheel carrier or transmission housing 20 can again undergo the vertical deflection movements 9 , while the driveshaft 11 and hence the drive motor 6 (see FIG. 1 ) can essentially be connected solidly to the vehicle chassis, and accordingly and advantageously, constitute sprung masses of the motor vehicle. [0072] Thus, with the transmission unit the force flow of the drive input torque passes, starting from the driveshaft 11 , via the drive pinion 21 firmly connected thereto, and from there to the two planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 ; and in turn, from the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 to the output ring gear 19 connected firmly to the vehicle wheel 1 . The latter can be seen particularly clearly by inspecting FIG. 5 and the sectioned representation in FIG. 6 together, the force flow in the representation of FIG. 6 being indicated by a dotted line 30 . As described, the force flow 30 is maintained unchanged regardless of how the driveshaft 11 with its drive pinion 21 moves relative to the vehicle wheel 1 (see the broken double-arrow 9 in FIG. 5 and the representation of the relative movement between the vehicle wheel 1 and the driveshaft 11 and the drive pinion 21 , shown in FIGS. 7 to 9 ). [0073] FIG. 6 shows the wheel-hub drive with the transmission unit 5 according to FIGS. 4 and 5 , viewed in longitudinal section along the wheel axis or wheel hub 27 . In this case the wheel hub 27 at the same time forms the drive output shaft of the transmission unit 5 , and in the transmission position shown in FIGS. 4 to 6 and 9 , is arranged in a coaxial relative position in relation to the driveshaft 11 of the transmission unit 5 . In the sectioned view of FIG. 6 , also clear to see is the housing 20 of the transmission unit 5 , which at the tame time constitutes the wheel carrier and so also carries the attachment points for the wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 . [0074] In FIG. 6 can be seen, directly inside the housing wall 20 of the transmission unit 5 , the drive output ring gear 19 which is connected in a rotationally fixed manner to the wheel hub 27 of the vehicle wheel 1 . Inside the ring gear 19 can be seen the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 represented in section. The two planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 are held by means of the first pair of planetary carriers 22 , 24 in tooth engagement with the drive pinion 21 , and at the same time by means of the second pair of planetary carriers 23 , 25 on the pivoting planetary position 33 (see the curve segment 33 in FIGS. 7 to 9 ) and in tooth engagement with the output ring gear 19 . [0075] An inspection of FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 together also makes clear the design of the four planetary carriers 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 which, to assist identification, are outline with bolder lines in FIG. 6 . Particularly in FIG. 6 it can be seen that the axes 28 , 29 of the two planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 are formed, respectively, by extensions of the two planetary carriers 23 , 25 on the wheel side, these axes or extensions each being formed integrally with the respective planetary carrier 23 , 25 . This results in particular in a very compact structure in the axial direction and high torsional rigidity of the transmission unit 5 . [0076] Furthermore, particularly in the sectioned view shown in FIG. 6 it can be seen that the two planetary carriers 22 , 23 on the left in the drawing that guide the planetary gearwheel 17 are mounted directly on the driveshaft 11 and on the stub axle 26 of the drive output ring gear 19 , while for their part the other two planetary carriers 24 , 25 , on the right in the drawing and which guide the planetary gearwheel 18 , are each mounted on the bearing points of the first two planetary carriers 22 , 23 . This too results in a particularly compact structure in the axial direction and increases the rigidity of the overall arrangement of the planetary carriers 22 , 23 and 24 , 25 . [0077] In the case of the pictured relative position of the four gearwheels 21 , 17 , 18 , 19 —i.e. for example when during a jouncing movement 9 the driveshaft 11 and the output shaft 27 are positioned exactly coaxially with one another—in some circumstances the position of the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 can be kinematically under-regulated. In such an event the two planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 and the four planetary carriers 22 , 24 and 23 , 25 then positioned parallel in pairs—as in a planetary transmission—could rotate around the then coaxial axes 11 , 27 of the driveshaft 11 and the output ring gear 19 , which is here undesirable since in that case the torque transmission would be interrupted and the transmission 5 could then find itself in an undefined condition. [0078] To prevent this kinematic under-regulation of the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 in their relative position shown in FIG. 5 , in the embodiment illustrated two locking pins 31 are arranged on the two planetary carriers 22 , 24 at the front relative to the drawing. In the immediate area of the medium-sprung position of the driveshaft 11 shown in FIGS. 5 , 6 and 8 the locking pins 31 engage in a suitably shaped locking slideway which, for greater simplicity, is not shown in FIG. 5 . However, the approximate course of the locking slideway is indicated in FIG. 8 (see index 34 therein). [0079] By virtue of the engagement of the locking pins 31 in the locking slideway 34 —for example arranged in the housing cover 32 of the transmission housing 20 —it can be ensured that in the area of the middle position of the driveshaft 11 illustrated (see also FIG. 8 ) the planetary carriers 22 , 24 can undergo their pivoting movement—as during deflection movements of the wheel—only around the planetary axes 28 , 29 as momentary axes, but cannot (in the manner of a planetary transmission) undergo a rotation around the driveshaft 11 . Thus, thanks to the locking pins 31 and their engagement in the corresponding locking slideway 34 in the housing cover 32 , the kinematic under-regulation of the rotation position of the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 —in the pictured coaxial position of the drive input shaft 11 and the drive output shaft 27 —around the driveshaft 11 can be eliminated, and full torque transmission in any relative positions of the driveshaft 11 and the output shaft 27 can be ensured. [0080] FIGS. 7 to 9 show the course of a deflection movement of the driven wheel 1 between sprung conditions of full extension ( FIG. 7 ), the neutral position ( FIG. 8 ) and full compression ( FIG. 9 ). Here, the vehicle-side ends of the wishbone 13 , 15 shown in FIGS. 7 to 9 and the additional track-rod 14 are in each case attached to the chassis, while the wheel-side ends of the wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , 15 are in each case articulated to the housing 20 of the transmission unit according to the invention. [0081] From FIGS. 7 to 9 the principle of the mode of action of the transmission unit 5 consisting of the drive pinion 21 , the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 and the drive output ring gear 19 is easy to see. The output ring gear 19 is again firmly connected to the wheel hub, while the drive pinion 21 (in this case covered by the planetary carriers 22 , 24 at the front in relation to both drawings) sits directly on the driveshaft 11 , which in the embodiment illustrated here is connected with wheel guide control arms 13 , 14 , 15 via a compensation joint 16 to the drive motor (see FIG. 3 ). It can be seen clearly that—regardless of the deflection movements 9 of the wheel 1 —the driveshaft 11 always maintains its fixed vertical relative position in relation to the vehicle chassis, while at the same time there is permanent torque transmission and tooth engagement between the driveshaft 11 /drive pinion 21 and the ring gear 19 via the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 each undergoing a pivoting movement 33 about the wheel axis 26 . The range of the pivoting movement of the planetary gearwheels 17 , 18 is indicated in FIGS. 7 to 9 by the angle segment 33 represented by a dotted line. [0082] Consequently it becomes clear that the invention provides a transmission unit which, while occupying a minimum of structural space, can ensure complete translational de-coupling between a drive input and a drive output, while at the same time the permanent transmission even of high torques or powers can be ensured. Thanks to the invention, in particular it is made possible to completely decouple even powerful wheel-hub motors from the wheel suspension in relation to the jouncing movements of a driven wheel, whereby the unsprung masses of the wheel suspension can be decisively reduced. Furthermore, thanks to the invention exceptionally space-saving wheel-hub drives and wheel suspensions can be produced for motor vehicles of any type. [0083] Thus, the invention makes a decisive contribution in particular toward reducing structural space occupation in the drive-train of motor vehicle drives, extending the application options and improving the driving comfort of wheel-hub drives, especially when used in the context of electric or hybrid drives. LIST OF INDEXES [0000] 1 Vehicle wheel 2 Tire 3 Rim 4 Wheel-hub drive 5 Transmission unit 6 Drive motor 7 Guide rod 8 Guide sleeve 9 Deflection movement 10 Elastomer bellows 11 Driveshaft, motor shaft 12 Elongated hole 13 Transverse control arm 14 Track rod 15 Transverse control arm, wishbone 16 Shaft compensation joint 17 , 18 Planetary gearwheels 19 Ring gear 20 Transmission housing 21 Drive pinion 22 - 25 Planetary carriers 26 Stub axle 27 Drive output shaft, wheel hub 28 , 29 Planetary axes 30 Force flow 31 Locking pins 32 Transmission housing cover 33 Locking slide-way

A transmission unit for a driven vehicle wheel comprising an input shaft having a pinion and an output shaft having a ring gear which are parallel so that the input and the output shafts can move transverse relative to one another. At least one planetary gearwheel engages the pinion and the ring gear and is supported by a planetary carrier such that the carrier, the pinion and the ring gear are coaxial with one another. A second carrier is supported coaxial with the ring gear such that the planetary gearwheel is axially arranged between the first and second carriers. The transmission unit enables transverse decoupling between the input and the output, and transmission of large torques. The transmission unit decouples wheel-hub motors from the wheel suspension, in relation to deflection movement of the driven wheel, which facilitates the reduction of the unsprung masses of a wheel-hub drive.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a diode element circuit and a switch circuit using the same and, more specifically, relates a diode element circuit formed in an IC form having a high break down voltage and a small leakage current which is suitably used for the switch circuit in an IC tester. 2. Background Art As typical conventional diodes which are formed in a monolithic IC circuit and perform rectification, a schottky barrier diode which utilizes a schottky junction between a metal and a semiconductor and a PN junction diode which utilizes a PN junction between a P type semiconductor and an N type semiconductor are enumerated. Among those, the schottky barrier diode has an advantage of a high break down voltage and a disadvantage of a large leakage current in a reverse direction. The PN junction diodes include one using a PN junction between base and emitter of a transistor and one using a PN junction between base and collector of a transistor. A PN junction diode using a PN junction between base and emitter of a transistor which is generally used has an advantage of a small leakage current, but has a disadvantage of a low break down voltage. On the other hand, a PN junction diode using a PN junction between base and collector of a transistor shows a high break down voltage, but has a disadvantage of causing a leakage current to a substrate during being used in forward direction operation because of an influence of parasitic transistors around the junction. Accordingly, in order to achieve at the same time both a small leakage current and a high break down voltage, a variety of measures have been proposed which devise material and structure of the diodes. As examples thereof, with regard to the schottky barrier diodes, JP-A-9-199733 (1997) is enumerated and with regard to the PN junction diodes JP-A-7-66433 (1995) is enumerated. However, these measures bring about problems of requiring a special additional manufacturing process and difficulty of using a conventional manufacturing method and manufacturing device as they are. Further, since these measures complicate the manufacturing process, which causes problems of reducing the yield and increasing the manufacturing cost. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to resolve the above conventional problems and to provide a diode element circuit which requires no additional manufacturing process and realizes a small leakage current and a high break down voltage. Another object of the present invention is to provide a switch circuit which achieves at the same time both a small leakage current and a high break down voltage and is, in particular, suitable for use in an IC tester. A diode element circuit and a switch circuit using the same according to the present invention which achieve the above objects are characterized, in that in a diode element circuit formed in an IC which includes an anode electrode and a cathode electrode and uses a diode of a PN junction between base and collector of a PNP transistor, the PNP transistor is a vertical type transistor formed in a well region, and a voltage drop element which is connected between the collector of the transistor and the anode electrode is included, wherein the base of the transistor is connected to the cathode electrode and the well region is connected to the anode electrode. As indicated in the above structure, the PN junction between base and collector of the PNP transistor which shows a small leakage current in the reverse direction is used, and in order to reduce a leakage current to a substrate due to parasitic transistors in the PNP transistor the voltage drop element is inserted between the anode electrode and the collector thereof as a bias circuit. Thereby, the collector side is placed in a lower potential than the well region to induce a potential difference therebetween. With this measure, the emitter potential of a PNP parasitic transistor is reduced which is constituted by the collector region of the PNP transistors serving as an emitter and the well region thereof serving as a base. As a result, since a reverse bias is applied between the base and emitter of the parasitic transistor, when a forward current is flown and even when a current between the base and collector of the PNP transistor increases and a voltage drop is generated in the well region, a current value where the parasitic transistor is turned ON can be increased. Accordingly, if the diode is operated under a condition below such large current value, the leakage current from the collector region to the substrate is reduced to substantially zero. As a result, the diode element circuit according to the present invention can realize a diode having a small leakage current and a high break down voltage in a monolithic IC circuit without adding a manufacturing process. Thereby, the switch circuit constituted by the diode element circuit likely enjoys the above advantages. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram showing one embodiment of a diode element circuit with a voltage drop means and a PNP transistor according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is an explanatory view of a cross sectional structure of a vertical type PNP transistor used in a general monolithic IC circuit; FIG. 3 is an explanatory view of an embodiment of a switch circuit according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is an explanatory view of another embodiment of a switch circuit according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinbelow, an embodiment according to the present invention will be explained with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 1 is a circuit diagram showing one embodiment of a diode element circuit with a voltage drop means and a PNP transistor according to the present invention; and FIG. 2 is a cross sectional structural view of a vertical type PNP transistor used in a general monolithic IC circuit. As shown in FIG. 1, a diode element circuit 3 is constituted by a PNP transistor 1 serving as a rectification element and a voltage drop means 2 . An emitter terminal 101 and a cathode terminal 103 of the PNP transistor 1 are connected each other and are used as a cathode electrode 5 for the diode element circuit 3 . Further, a collector terminal 102 of the PNP transistor 1 is connected to one terminal of the voltage drop means 2 and a well terminal 104 of the PNP transistor 1 is connected to the other terminal of the voltage drop means 2 , and further, the well terminal 104 serves as an anode electrode 4 for the diode element circuit 3 . With this structure, a well region 6 which is connected to the well terminal 104 and is shown by a dotted line frame is set at a higher potential than a collector region (see FIG. 2) under a forward bias condition. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the vertical type PNP transistor 1 as used in a general monolithic IC circuit is structured by alternatively sandwiching a P type semiconductor and an N type semiconductor, there exist parasitic transistor (NPN transistor) 11 and another parasitic transistor (PNP transistor) 12 other than the main body of the PNP transistor 10 . Among these parasitic transistors, when the parasitic transistor 11 is rendered conductive, a current flows from the well terminal 104 to the base terminal 103 . As a result, when constituting a diode by making use of the junction between the base and collector of the PNP transistor 1 , a current from the well terminal 104 is added to a current from the collector terminal 102 serving as the anode side for the current flowing into the base terminal serving as the cathode terminal. For this reason, when constituting a diode by making use of the junction between the base and collector of the PNP transistor 1 , a positive electrode (anode terminal) is constituted by connecting the well terminal 104 and the collector terminal 102 . Further, when the resistance of the well is large, a voltage drop is caused inside the well due to the current flowing through the well, therefore, if the well terminal 104 and the collector terminal 102 are simply connected as explained above, the well potential lowers below the collector potential near the parasitic transistor 12 to render the parasitic transistor 12 conductive. As a result, a current flows from the base terminal 103 serving as the cathode side to a substrate 105 to reduce the forward direction current and further, because of substrate potential rise an erroneous operation is caused in the surrounding circuits. Therefore, practically such circuit can not be used. For this reason, the potential of an emitter 121 (which corresponds to the collector region 7 of the PNP transistor main body 10 ) of the parasitic transistor 12 in the PNP transistor 1 is lowered by the voltage drop means 2 below that of the base 123 of the parasitic transistor 12 , thereby, an application of a forward bias voltage (usually more than 0.7V) between the base and emitter of the parasitic transistor 12 is prevented, which will be explained later in detail. Because the conduction of the parasitic transistor 12 is prevented in this way, the leakage current to the substrate which is caused during use of the diode in its forward direction can be reduced. Now, an operation of the diode element circuit 3 will be explained with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. Since in a general PNP transistor, the collector resistance is high, the potential of the cathode electrode 5 is higher than that of the anode electrode 4 in the above structure and under a condition where a reverse direction voltage is applied, a substantial part of the applied voltage is applied to the junction between the base and collector of the PNP transistor 1 . Accordingly, the characteristic of the diode element circuit 3 at the time when a reverse direction voltage is applied is determined by the characteristic of the junction between the base and collector thereof (terminals 103 and 102 ), in that shows a large reverse break down voltage as well as. a small leakage current in reverse direction. On the other hand, under a condition where a forward direction voltage is applied in which the potential at the anode electrode 4 is higher than the potential at the cathode electrode 5 , the potential at the collector terminal 102 of the PNP transistor 1 is lowered below the potential of the well terminal 104 through the voltage drop means 2 by the voltage drop therein, therefore, a reverse bias voltage is applied between the base and emitter (terminals 121 and 123 ) of the parasitic transistor 12 . Thus, the conduction of the parasitic transistor 12 is prevented and the leakage current from the anode electrode 4 to the substrate 105 is reduced. At this moment, a reverse bias voltage corresponding to the voltage drop in the voltage drop means 2 is applied between the well region 6 and the collector region 7 . Further, when a current is flown from the anode electrode 4 to the cathode electrode 5 , in that a current is flown in forward direction, a voltage drop is caused by the well resistance in a passage from the well terminal 104 of the PNP transistor 1 to the base terminal 123 of the parasitic transistor 12 . With the voltage caused the parasitic transistor 12 is usually rendered conductive to cause a leakage current to the substrate 105 , however, because of the provision of the voltage drop means 2 , the parasitic transistor 12 is reversely biased and the limit current where the parasitic transistor 12 is rendered conductive can be increased. Further, as the voltage drop means 2 other than the resistor such as a schottky barrier diode and PN junction diode formed by the junction between the base and emitter of an NPN and PNP transistor can be used. Still further, a plurality of these elements can be used therefor while connecting in combination. FIG. 3 is a circuit diagram showing an embodiment of a switch circuit, in that an analogue switch for switching an input and output in an IC tester, in which the diode element circuit 3 according to the present invention is used. A switch circuit 30 for switching an input and output for an IC tester is constituted by four diode element circuits 32 ˜ 35 each corresponding to the diode element circuit 3 , current sources 301 and 311 and switches 302 and 312 as shown in FIG. 3 . The four diode element circuits 32 ˜ 35 are respectively formed by a transistor 32 a and a diode 32 b serving as a voltage drop means, a transistor 33 a and a diode 33 b serving as a voltage drop means, a transistor 34 a and a diode 34 b serving as a voltage drop means and a transistor 35 a and a diode 35 b serving as a voltage drop means, and constitute a diode bridge circuit 31 as shown in FIG. 3 . When the entirety of these constitutes an analogue switch, an input terminal 321 for the analogue switch is connected to the junction between the cathode electrode of the diode element circuit 34 and the anode electrode of the diode element circuit 35 , and an output terminal 322 for the analogue switch is connected to the junction between the cathode electrode of the diode element circuit 32 and the anode electrode of the diode element circuit 33 . As the remaining two terminals for the analogue switch into which a biasing current is flown, the junction between the anode electrode of the diode element circuit 32 and the anode electrode of the diode element circuit 34 constitutes an upstream side terminal, and the junction between the cathode electrode of the diode element circuit 33 and the cathode electrode of the diode element circuit 35 constitutes a downstream side terminal. The upstream side terminal is connected via the switch 302 to the current source 301 for current discharge, and the downstream side terminal is connected via the switch 312 to the current source 311 for current sink. The current sources 301 and 311 are for flowing a bias current to the diode bridge circuit 31 , and the current source 301 is connected to a power source line Vcc and causes to flow a current received from the line to the diode bridge circuit. The current source 311 is connected to a power source line V EE at negative side and causes to sink the current flowing out from the diode bridge circuit 31 into the line. Herein, the diodes 32 b - 35 b are diodes which are formed at the same time in the same well region 6 and which can be formed as vertical type transistors as shown in FIG. 2, as other type transistors or as separate diodes formed separately in the well region 6 . Now, an operation of the switch circuit 30 will be explained. Under a condition when the switches 302 and 312 are connected, by means of the upper current source 301 and the lower current source 311 a bias current is flown into the diode bridge circuit 31 , therefore, the bridge circuit 31 is placed in an electrically balanced condition and the voltage at the input terminal 321 appears at the output terminal 322 . Further, under a condition when the switches 302 and 312 are interrupted, since no bias current flows into the diode bridge circuit 31 , the respective diodes are placed in an OFF condition, thus the output terminal 322 gives a high resistance. As will be seen from the above, the switch circuit 30 functions as an analogue switch which can perform switching of high/low impedance between the input terminal 321 and the output terminal 322 through connection/interruption of the switches 302 and 321 . Further, when the output terminal 322 is connected to an arbitrary device to be inspected (DUT), the switch circuit 30 can be utilized as a load current supply circuit (a current load circuit) for an IC tester. More specifically, under an ON condition of the switches 302 and 321 , when the voltage of the output terminal 322 connected to the output terminal of DUT, is lower than the voltage of the input terminal 321 , a current flows out from the current source 301 to the output terminal of DUT, and further, when the voltage of the output terminal 322 is higher than the voltage of the input terminal 321 , the current source 311 performs an operation of sinking a flow out current from the output terminal of DUT via the output terminal 322 . Further, in this instance, the current sources 301 and 311 can be formed as a constant current source. Herein, the respective diode element circuits 32 ˜ 35 are constituted likely as the diode element circuit 3 and are provided with characteristics of high break down and a low leakage current. Therefore, a high voltage can be applied between the input and output terminals of the switch circuit 30 , the switch circuit is suitable for a switch circuit for an IC tester and further, the switch circuit shows a characteristic of a small leakage current at the time of switch interruption. FIG. 4 is a circuit diagram of another embodiment of a switch circuit for switching input and output in an IC tester in which a diode element circuit 3 according to the present invention is used. A switch circuit 40 as shown in FIG. 4 is an example in which the switches 302 and 312 are respectively formed by change-over switches 303 and 313 . Further, the current sources 301 and 311 are constituted by variable current sources 301 a and 311 a , so that the current values thereof can be set separately at predetermined constant current values through external control signal CONT, thereby, the current load condition to DUT can be varied. Other structure in FIG. 4 are the same as those in FIG. 3 . The change-over switches 303 and 313 are for changing over the current passages of the two variable current sources 301 a and 311 a between the side of the diode bridge 31 and the side of short circuiting (ground GN). The respective single pole sides in the respective single pole double throw type change-over switch are connected to the respective variable current sources 301 a and 311 a and each one of the double throws is connected to each one terminal of the diode bridge 31 and the other of the double throws are connected to the ground. When both passages are changed over toward the diode bridge 31 , like the switch circuit as shown in FIG. 3, a bias current is flown into the diode bridge by the upper and lower current sources and a voltage at the input terminal 321 appears at the output terminal 322 . Further, when the both current passages are changed over toward the short circuiting sides, no bias current flows through the diode bridge, therefore, the respective diodes are rendered into OFF condition to give a high resistance at the output terminal 322 . The other functions and advantages than the above in the switch circuit 40 are the same as those in the switch circuit 30 .

A diode element circuit uses a junction between the base and collector of a vertical type PNP transistor as a diode, and is further designed that a reverse bias voltage is applied between base and emitter of a parasitic PNP transistor in the vertical type PNP transistor, thereby, a diode having a small leakage current and a high break down voltage is realized without necessitating an additional manufacturing process.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] (a) Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention relates to a novel strain having an activity of inhibiting rotavirus and an active protein separated therefrom, more precisely, a novel strain Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) and an active protein also having an anti-rotavirus activity produced from the same. [0003] (b) Description of the Related Art [0004] A particle of rotavirus shape was found by Ms. Bishop, et al. (Australia) in 1973 in biopsy sample of duodenum of a child hospitalized for the treatment of acute diarrhea. [0005] Rotavirus belongs to Family Reoviridae and was given the name ‘rota’ because its double capsid looks like a wheel of the cart. Ever since it was first found, rotavirus has been confirmed by numbers of research teams in the entire world to be a major cause of acute diarrhea in babies. [0006] Then, rotavirus was separated by Light and Hodes in 1943 in feces of a baby having gastroenteritis. And the morphological characteristics of the virus were disclosed under electron microscope in 1977. In the meantime, reovirus-like virus was isolated from mammals and birds, and the virus was later confirmed to be rotavirus. So, the virus, rotavirus, was finally grouped into Genus Rotavirus belonging to Family Reoviridae. [0007] Rotavirus is divided into 6 different antigen groups (A-f). Rotaviruses of group A, B and C are found in both human and animals, and rotaviruses of group D, E and F are found in animals only. Groups divided by serological characteristics have a common or a cross antigen. Rotavirus of group A has been studied most since it was first reported, so that its characteristics have been investigated thoroughly. Rotavirus of group A is largely distributed among human-derived strains, and subgroups are determined by its inner capsid protein VP6 and serological types are determined by outside capsid protein VP7 and VP4. At least two subgroups and four serological types have been disclosed so far. [0008] Rotavirus has an outside capsid and the core without envelope. The viral genome is composed of 11 individual segments of double helical RNA. Outside capsid of the virus is composed of two proteins ‘VP4 and VP7’. VP4, a cell adherent protein and a hemagglutinin, stands out like a spike from the surface of the virus and takes 2.5% of the total weight of the virus. VP4 is split into VP5* (M r 60,000) and VP8* (M r 28,000) to penetrate into inner cells. VP7 is a glycoprotein having the weight of 37 kDa, taking 30% of the total weight of the virus, and constructs cellular shell of the smooth outside capsid. [0009] Table 1 below presents general characters of rotavirus. TABLE 1 Virion: Icosahedral Diameter: 60-80 nm Double capsid shell Composition: RNA (15%), protein (85%) Genome: 11 segments composed of double helical RNA Total molecular weight: 12-15 million Dalton Protein: 9 structural proteins Core includes a couple of enzymes Envelope: No Replication: Cytoplasmic replication [0010] Rotavirus is known as a principal cause of acute diarrhea and enteritis in children and in the young animals of cattle, horses, pigs and monkeys. An infection route of the virus is from feces through the mouth. Rotavirus causes an infectious acute diarrhea in babies under age 2, which is so called infantile gastroenteritis or acute gastroenteritis. [0011] Diarrhea is a result of troubles in absorption of intestinal mucosal epithelial cells caused by the infection with rotavirus. Once villus cells of small intestine are infected with the virus, the virus proliferates in cytoplasm of those cells to cause troubles in transport system. Damaged cells are apart and spout out the virus in intestinal track, so that the virus can be found in feces. When rotavirus infiltrates, damaged cells of villi are replaced by immature crypt cells not having absorption capability, causing malfunction of absorption of sodium and glucose, resulted in diarrhea. [0012] Rotavirus induced diarrhea in babies mostly comes out briefly right after the beginning of weaning, which is called “Weanling diarrhea” or “Colibacillosis”. Such diarrhea, especially in an aerobic strain, is inevitably accompanied with the transition to non-hemolytic E. coli and hemolytic E. coli of Enterococci. Hemolytic E. coli generates enterotoxin and harbors pili which enables E. coli to adhere to an enterocyte. Such strains are named enteropathogenic E. coli or enterotoxigenic E. coli , and have various serotypes. [0013] It was reported in 1973 that a very serious diarrhea was developed in a piglet bred without colostrum. After investigating the cause of the disease, it was diagnosed as colibacillosis. The serious diarrhea in a piglet that was bred without colostrum was caused by the infection with diarrheal fluid harboring retrovirus destroying cells by infiltrating in enterocytes. And numbers of retrovirus were found in diarrheal feces of a three to four week old piglet in weaning period. It was important to find out the cause of diarrhea in a piglet and rotavirus was believed to be a relevant principal cause of the disease. It was also confirmed that non-hemolytic E. coli was transformed into hemolytic E. coli during diarrhea. However, when hemolytic and enteropathogenic E. coli were orally administered without rotavirus to a piglet, diarrhea didn't come out. In conclusion, rotavirus damages intestinal track to builds up a proper environment for enteropathogenic E. coli to move into small intestines and form a colony. [0014] Clinical symptoms of a retrovirus induced disease are vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain and fever, which are mostly related to intestinal tracks. In particular, dehydration and electrolyte imbalance are progressed fast in babies. [0015] According to the statistical data of World Health Organization (WHO), 5 million children under age 5 on earth die of diarrhea every year, and 20% (one million) of them died of rotavirus induced diarrhea. According to a report that investigated more than 12 possible causes of diarrhea for 12 months with children in Seoul, rotavirus was detected in 47% of children suffering from diarrhea, which was the highest appearance exceeding statistics of WHO (20%). Rotavirus induced diarrhea prevails in winter and is the leading cause of infant mortality in the developing countries. The best precaution to prevent the disease is breast-feeding. Since mother's milk includes IgA acting against rotavirus, infantile diarrhea caused by rotavirus can be prevented by breast-feeding. [0016] Table 2 below presents the statistics about enteropathogenics of Korean children with and without diarrhea. TABLE 2 No. (%) of confirmed enteropathogenic a Enteropathogenic Diarrhea group b Control group c Rotavirus 107(46.5) N.D. Enterotoxigenic E. coli  52(22.5) 14(13.5) (ETEC) Other ST  9(4.8)  1(1.0) Enterobacteriaceae Enteroadherent E. coli  34(14.7)  8(7.7) (EAEC) Enteropathogenic E. coli  15(6.5)  5(4.8) (EPEC) Shigella spp.  4(1.7)  0 Salmonella spp.  1(0.4)  0 Campylobacter jejuni  1(0.4)  0 Enteroinvasive E. coli  1(0.4)  0 (EIEC) a Numbers of pathogens separated from one patient were all recorded. b n = 231 c n = 104 [0017] 56 patients (24.2%) with diarrhea were confirmed not to have a pathogen, and 52 people (52.9%) in a control group were confirmed not to have a pathogen. [0018] Most patients are well recovered by the supply with water, but it is not easy for patients of developing countries to be treated simply with water. Although the frequency of development of bacterial diarrhea decreases by the supply with fresh water and sanitation, rotavirus induced diarrhea does not much decreased. [0019] Infection with rotavirus causes the synthesis of IgA secreted in lumen. According to the experiments with sheep, calves and pigs, an antibody secreted in lumen is more important to prevent rotavirus infection than any other antibody existing in serum or lymph. [0020] Thus, it is preferred to develop a live virus vaccine for oral administration, and thus, attempts have been made to develop a subunit vaccine or a microencapsulated killed vaccine. [0021] Every effort has been made for the past 20 years to develop a novel vaccine and both conventional and molecular biological methods have been tried so far. Nevertheless, the development of a novel vaccine without much side effect was not successful. A vaccine was once developed, but it was not good enough for the use because of serious side effects. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0022] The present inventors paid attention to the point that rotavirus infection shows up largely in the weaning period, during which the number of Bifidobacterium residing in intestines decreases rapidly but the number of E. coli increases. [0023] And so, it is an object of the present invention to provide a novel Bifidobacterium strain ‘ Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492)’ having an activity of inhibiting rotavirus infection, in order to solve the above-mentioned problem. [0024] It is another object of the present invention to provide an active protein having an anti-rotavirus activity produced from the strain of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0025] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing the separation and the purification processes of the active protein of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0026] The present invention provides a novel Bifidobacterium strain ‘ Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492)’ having an activity of inhibiting rotavirus and a protein acting against rotavirus which is produced from the same. [0027] The novel Bifidobacterium strain inhibiting rotavirus of the present invention was named ‘ Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) and was deposited at Korean Culture Center of Microorganisms (KCCM) on May 6, 2003 (Accession No: KCCM-10492). [0028] The characteristics of Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) isolated by the present inventors are shown in below Table 3. TABLE 3 Characteristics of Bifidobacterium longum AR81 Morphology Rods or Y-shaped Gram staining + F6PPK + [0029] Protein acting against rotavirus was separated from the strain and a nucleotide sequence of a gene coding the protein was represented by SEQ. ID. No 1. Amino acid sequence thereof was also represented by SEQ. ID. No 2. [0030] The protein of the present invention was confirmed to act against rotavirus. A pharmaceutical composition containing the protein of the present invention can include pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, carriers, diluents, etc., and can be produced in the forms of tablets, pills, disperse preparation, granules, elixirs, suspensions, emulsions, solutions, syrups, etc. The composition can be administered either orally or parenterally and its dosage of a day is 1-20 mg/kg weight. [0031] For the separation and purification of the protein, the novel strain of the invention ‘ Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) was cultured in a trypic soy broth (pH 7.2) supplemented with 0.1% ascorbic acid and 0.01% sodium thioglycollic acid, followed by centrifugation, precipitation and dialysis. [0032] Practical and presently preferred embodiments of the present invention are illustrative as shown in the following Examples. [0033] However, it will be appreciated that those skilled in the art, on consideration of this disclosure, may make modifications and improvements within the spirit and scope of the present invention. EXAMPLE 1 [0034] Target Cells and Culture of the Cells [0035] The target cell line used in the present invention was Macaccus' Rhesus monkey kidney cell line (MA-104), which was provided from Toyama sanitary testing and research institute, Japan. [0036] MA-104 cells were cultured in a 37° C. 5% CO 2 incubator using DMEM supplemented with 10% FBS, 1% antibiotics-antifungal agent and 3.5 g/L of sodium bicarbonate. EXAMPLE 2 [0037] Distribution of Rotavirus and Preparation of the Virus Solution [0038] SA11 rotavirus was provided from National Institute of Health (NIH), Korea and Wa rotavirus was provided from ATCC. [0039] Each virus was distributed into T.C. flasks (25 cm 2 ) by the concentration of 1-2×10 6 cells/flask, then cells were adhered for one hour under the condition of 37° C. and 5% CO 2 . [0040] Supernatant was removed and the cells were washed with FBS-free DMEM medium. 20 μl of DMEM medium (infectious medium) containing 5 μg/ml of trypsin was added to 400 μl of Wa virus or SA11 virus solution, which was treated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. 400 μl of pre-activated Wa virus solution was spread over the cell surface evenly, leading to infection at 37° C. for one hour. [0041] Upon completing the infection, supernatant was removed and cytopathic effect (cpe) was investigated. After confirmation, it was frozen. [0042] Freezing-thawing was repeated three times to break the cell membrane completely. Centrifugation was performed at 4° C., 500 rpm for 20 minutes. Supernatant, a virus solution, was taken only and kept in a refrigerator. EXAMPLE 3 [0043] Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium used in the Present Invention [0044] Lactobacillus acidophilus KCTC 3150, Bifidobacterium longum KCTC 3215 and Bifidobacterium infantis KCTC 3226 used in the present invention were provided from Institute of Genetic Engineering, Korea, and the rest of the strains used in the invention were separated from bacterial flora residing in the human intestines. EXAMPLE 4 [0045] Determination of Titer of Rotavirus Solution [0000] (End-Point Dilution Method) [0046] MA-104 cells cultured in the above Example 1 were treated with 0.25% trypsin-EDTA to isolate them. Then, a fresh medium was provided. Centrifugation was performed at 1200 rpm for 5 minutes to discard supernatant. Cell concentration was adjusted to 5×10 5 cells/ml using infectious medium. [0047] Rotavirus stock solution was serially diluted from 10 −1 to 10 −8 , and each diluted solution was distributed to 8 wells by 100 μl. [0048] The cultured MA-104 cells were distributed thereto by the same amount, followed by further culture in a 37° C., 5% CO 2 incubator for 7 days. [0049] Upon completing the culture, cpe of each well was investigated under inverted microscope to calculate TCID 50 (50% Tissue-culture infectious dose)/ml. Pfu (plaque forming unit)/ml was calculated by multiplying the value of TCID 50 /ml by a coefficient 0.69. EXAMPLE 5 [0050] The Effect of Rotavirus Infection on Components of Lactobacillus Cytoplasm [0051] Each strain used for the experiments was cultured in 5 ml of GAM broth for 18 hours. Centrifugation was performed at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes, resulting in the preparation of bacteria precipitate. The precipitate was suspended in 1 ml of PBS, followed by sonication. Centrifugation was then performed at 12000 rpm for 60 minutes to obtain supernatant, resulting in lactobacillus cytoplasm solution. [0052] The prepared cytoplasm solution was filtered with 0.45 μm syringe filter for sterilization. [0053] The cytoplasm solution of each strain was diluted to the concentrations of 0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 mg protein/ml, which was added by 50 μl to each well containing MA-104 cells and SA11 virus or Wa virus diluted solution, followed by further culture. Then, cpe was investigated and the results were shown in Table 4 and Table 5. TABLE 4 Infection inhibition rate (%) Cytoplasmic component (mg/ml) Bifidobacterium 0.0005 0.002 0.010 B-47 16.7 33.3 66.6 B-81 0 33.3 100 B-180 0 16.7 83.3 KK-11 0 16.7 66.6 KK-12 0 16.7 83.3 B. longum a 0 14.3 14.3 B. infantis a 0 28.6 42.9 L. acidophilus a 0 14.3 28.6 B-81: Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) a KCTC [0054] TABLE 5 Infection inhibition rate (%) Cytoplasmic component (mg/ml) Bifidobacterium 0.0005 0.002 0.010 B-47 16.7 16.7 66.6 B-81 0 33.3 100 B-179 0 33.3 83.3 KK-11 0 16.7 66.6 KK-12 0 16.7 83.3 B. longum a 0 14.3 14.3 B. infantis a 0 28.6 42.9 L. acidophilus a 0 14.3 42.9 B-81: Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) a KCTC [0055] Among lactic acid bacteria, cytoplasmic components of Bifidobacterium animalis KCTC 3126 and 10 Bifidobacterium infantis KCTC 3226 were confirmed to have very good infection inhibition effect. Among isolated strains, 47, 81 ( Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492)) and 179 strains showed excellent inhibition effect, and in particular, strain 81, a novel strain of the present invention, showed the best inhibition effect. [0056] Isolated strains, strain 47, 81 and 179, were confirmed to be Gram-positive. And their morphological characteristics are equal to those of Bifidobacteria (rods shaped, Y-shaped, etc.). After investigating the activity to Bifidobacteria-specific enzyme F6PPK (fructose 6 phosphate phosphoketolase), the above strains were all confirmed to be positive, indicating that they are all Bifidobacteria. [0057] Among isolated strains, highly activated strain 47 and strain 81 were identified by 16S rDNA nucleotide sequence analysis. In order to identify a strain using 16S rDNA sequence, PCR primer had to be prepared first. The general 16S rDNA sequence of Bifidobacterium was obtained from Gene Bank, whose size was about 1.5 kb and preservative sequence was found in inside. Based on that sequence, 4 primers were constructed. [0058] A template for PCR was prepared by using Genereleaser kit. Then, 0.5 kb long DNA fragment was prepared by using primers 616V and 610R in order to obtain a sequencing template. Then, 0.5 kb DNA was obtained by using 612F and 630RIII. [0059] Electrophoresis was performed to recover DNA band using a gel extraction kit (Qiagen, U.S.A). TA cloning to pGEM T easy vector (Promega, USA) was performed for sequence confirmation. [0060] After comparing the sequences of strain 47 and strain 81 with others of Gene Bank, those sequences were confirmed to have 99% homology with that of Bifidobacterium longum , leading to the identification of them as B. longum . In particular, strain 81 was named ‘ Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCM-10492)’ and deposited at Korean Culture Center of Microorganisms (KCCM) on May 6, 2003. [0061] Below are the information about primers to strain 47 and strain 81, a novel strain of the present invention. [0062] Strain 47 (forward primer): 1. Bifidobacterium longum NCC2705 section 172 of 202 of the complete genome Length=10301 Score=1061 bits (535), Expect=0.0 Identities=553/559 (98%), Gaps=1/559 (0%) Strand=Plus/Plus [0064] Strain 47 (reverse primer) 1. Bifidobacterium longum NCC2705 section 172 of 202 of the complete genome Length=10301 Score=940 bits (474), Expect=0.0 Identities=477/478 (99%) Strand=Plus/Plus [0066] Strain 81 (forward primer): 1. Bifidobacterium longum NCC2705 section 172 of 202 of the complete genome Length=10301 Score=1061 bits (487), Expect=0.0 Identities=486/487 (99%), Gaps=1/487 (0%) Strand=Plus/Plus [0068] Strain 81 (reverse primer) 1. Bifidobacterium longum NCC2705 section 172 of 202 of the complete genome Length=10301 Score=1061 bits (521), Expect=0.0 Identities=520/521 (99%), Gaps=1/521(0%) Strand=Plus/Plus EXAMPLE 6 [0070] The Effect of Rotavirus Infection on the Components of Lactobacillus Cell Wall [0071] The strains used in the experiments were cultured in 5 ml of GAM broth for 18 hours. Then, centrifugation was performed at 3000 rpm for 20 minutes, resulting in the preparation of bacteria precipitate. The precipitate was suspended in 1 ml of PBS, followed by sonication. Centrifugation was performed again at 12000 rpm for 60 minutes to obtain precipitate, which was prepared as lactobacillus cell membrane and cell wall. The precipitate was suspended in 1 ml of PBS, to which the same amount of ether was added. The solution was left for 24 hours for sterilization. [0072] The cytoplasmic solution of each strain was diluted to make final concentration to be 0.02, 0.04 and 0.08 mg protein/ml each, which was added by 50 μl to each well containing the diluted MA-104 cells and SA11 virus or Wa virus solution. After culturing, cpe was investigated, and the results are shown in Table 6 and Table 7. TABLE 6 Infection inhibition rate (%) Cell wall (mg/ml) Bifidobacterium 0.0005 0.002 0.010 B-47 16.7 0 16.7 B-81 0 28.6 16.7 B-180 0 16.7 33.3 KK-11 16.7 0 16.7 KK-12 16.7 0 16.7 B. longum a 0 14.3 0 B. infantis a 0 14.3 0 L. acidophilus a 0 0 0 B-81: Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) a KCTC [0073] TABLE 7 Infection inhibition rate (%) Cell wall (mg/ml) Bifidobacterium 0.0005 0.002 0.010 B-47 0 0 16.7 B-81 0 28.6 16.7 B-179 0 16.7 33.3 KK-11 16.7 16.7 16.7 KK-12 16.7 16.7 16.7 B. longum a 0 14.3 14.3 B. infantis a 0 14.3 14.3 L. acidophilus a 14.3 14.3 14.3 B-81: Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492) a KCTC [0074] As shown in Table 6 and Table 7, a cytoplasmic component of lactobacillus is better at inhibiting virus infection than a cell wall component. EXAMPLE 7 [0075] Characteristics and Determination of Wa Virus Infection Inhibitor Included in Lactobacillus [0076] Lactobacillus was cultured in GAM broth. Cells were collected by centrifugation, which were suspended in physiological saline, followed by sonication. Centrifugation was performed again to obtain supernatant. The supernatant was autoclaved, filtered, heat-treated (100° C., 15 minutes), incinerated or precipitated with acetone. [0077] The precipitate was diluted to make the final concentrations (V/V %) of 5, 10 and 20%, which were added by 50 μl to each well containing MA-104 cells and diluted rotavirus solution. Then cpe was investigated. The results are shown in Table 8. TABLE 8 Inhibition rate Lactobacillus Treatment (%) B-47 Autoclaving 0 Heating 0 Filtration 66.6 Incineration 0 Acetone precipitation 50 B-81 Autoclaving 16.7 Heating 0 Filtration 50 Incineration 0 Acetone precipitation 33.3 KK-11 Autoclaving 0 Heating 0 Filtration 50 Incineration 0 Acetone precipitation 33.3 a Final concentration (%) b Not detected [0078] While virus infection inhibiting effect of lactobacillus decreased or disappeared by autoclaving, heating, incineration, etc., the effect slightly decreased by acetone precipitation and was sustained by filtering for sterilization. Thus, it was judged that a protein was the substance inhibiting Wa virus infection. EXAMPLE 8 [0079] Cloning of a Gene of a Protein Having an Anti-Rotavirus Activity [0080] For the cloning of a gene of a protein having an anti-rotavirus activity, a protein was separated and purified from selected strains by the processes described in FIG. 1 . EXAMPLE 9 [0081] Identification of an Amino Acid Sequence of an Active Protein Having an Anti-Rotavirus Activity [0082] Internal sequence assay was performed to identify an amino acid sequence of the protein, separated/purified in the above Example 8, having an anti-rotavirus activity. [0083] The identification of an amino acid sequence was entrusted to Korea Basic Science Institute (KBSI), and as a result, an amino acid sequence composed of 10 amino acids was identified. N′-HLDLAVENT-C′ [0085] After data base (GenBank) search, a corresponding sequence to the identified amino acid sequence was found in dipeptidaseD (GenBank Accession number NC — 004307), one of bifidus originated genes. [0086] Based on that information, PCR was performed by using the below primers to amplify the region including a whole gene coding the above amino acid sequence. pepD-F: 5′-AAAACCGATTGGCAACTCGGG-3′ pepD-R: 5′-GCCACTTCTGGGCGCCGGC-3′ [0087] Then, the PCR product was cloned into pGEM-Teasy vector to identify nucleotide sequence. [0088] The nucleotide sequence is represented by SEQ. ID. No 1, and the protein thereof is represented by SEQ. ID. No 2. EXAMPLE 10 [0089] Expression of a Protein Having an Anti-Rotavirus Activity and Investigation of Titer Thereof. [0090] In order to investigate an anti-rotavirus activity of the protein of Example 7, the expression of the protein was investigated by using E. Coli expression vector. [0091] PCR was performed by using the below primers, and the product was linked to pBAD-TOPO. pepTOPO-F: 5′- ATG GCCTGCACCACGATTCTGGTAGG-3′ pepTOPO-R: 5′-AAAGTCGGACATGTGGAAGCCGTTC-3′ [0092] E. coli was transfected with the vector. Then, the expression of the inserted gene was induced by using arabinose. Cells were recovered. Coenzyme solution was prepared by ultrasonic disruption. Then, an anti-rotavirus activity was investigated. [0093] As shown in Table 9, an anti-rotavirus activity of the protein was higher than that of a control. TABLE 9 Infection inhibition rate (%) Agent 10X dilution 100X dilution Control 25 0 Transfected sample 62.5 10 EXAMPLE 1 [0094] Development of Powdered Medicine for Intestinal Disorders [0095] Medicine for intestinal disorders for babies has been developed by using the novel strain of the present invention, which has an activity of inhibiting rotavirus. [0096] First, the strain was inoculated to medium for bifidus production, followed by further culture (10 ml-->500 ml-->5 L-->50 L-->500 L-->5 KL) Centrifugation was performed to recover cells. The recovered cells were mixed with cryoprotectants, followed by quick-freeze and complete drying with a lyophilizer. Cells of lactobacillus for intestinal regulation were also recovered by the same processes as described above and then used for the production of medicine for intestinal disorders. In order to give intestinal regulating effect and other functional effects, the strain of the present invention can be mixed with galactooligosaccharides and other components according to the below composition. TABLE 10 Component Content Bifidus raw powder     8% Lactobacillus raw powder     1% Cyclodextrin    28% Galactooligosaccharide    12% Alpha Corn    30.5% Aloe Vera   0.5% Glycerine Fatty Acid Ester    16% Xilytole     1% Calcium Lactate     3% Lactoferrin concentrate   0.05% Vitamin B2   0.04% Vitamin B12 0.00004% Vitamin D3 0.00006% [0097] As explained hereinbefore, the novel Bifidobacterium strain of the present invention ‘ Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492)’ has an activity of inhibiting rotavirus that has been known as a principal cause of diarrhea in infants and in the young animals. [0098] Particularly, the strain above and a protein having an anti-rotavirus activity separated from the same are useful for the production of medicine for intestinal disorders. [0099] Moreover, the strain of the present invention and the protein separated therefrom can be used for the production of functional fermented milk for infants.

The present invention relates to a novel strain enabling inhibition of rotavirus that is known as a principal cause of acute diarrhea and enteritis in children and in the young animals of cattle, horses, pigs and monkeys, etc, and an active protein also having an anti-rotavirus activity produced from the same. The novel strain of the present invention was named as Bifidobacterium longum AR81 (KCCM-10492). The novel strain of the present invention and the active protein separated from the same can be effectively used for the production of medicine for intestinal disorders and especially for the production of baby goods.

BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to injection devices useful for injecting large animals while the operator is standing a safe distance from the animal. It is particularly useful with livestock such as cattle, hogs, horses or the like. Most livestock is inoculated with serum against common animal diseases. If the inoculation can be accomplished while the animal is still small (especially hogs), such vaccination poses no problem. However, the young offspring of large animals such as cattle or horses may be relatively large. Injection of such animals--and certainly of adult animals--can obviously be dangerous. Therefore, a number of devices have been proposed to keep the animal at a distance from the user of the device. Some of the devices have used a hypodermic needle on the end of a wand. Most such devices used the thrust by the operator as the force by which the serum would be forced through the needle. However, when the same force is being used to push the needle through the skin of the animal and to eject the liquid from the syringe, there is always considerable degree of spillage. The present invention uses the thrust by the operator to force the needle through the animal hide, but then uses an exterior force--preferable compressed air or other gas--to operate the syringe. An easily operated valve means is conveniently located so that a simple press of the thumb causes the plunger of the syringe to force the serum through the hypodermic needle. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view of the injector of our invention partly in section to show underlying parts, FIG. 2 is a view of the power cylinder portion of the injector showing parts in a secondary position, FIG. 3 is a sectional view of the needle end of the injector with parts in position corresponding to FIG. 2, FIG. 4 is a sectional view of an alternative adjustable device which may be used to adjust the dosage, FIG. 5 is a top view of the adjustment mechanism of the alternative of FIG. 4, and FIG. 6 is view from line 6--6 of FIG. 5 showing a metering scale usable with the alternative of FIG. 4. DESCRIPTION Briefly our invention comprises a device for injecting large animals from a safe distance, in which the syringe is carried at the end of a wand and is operated by a push rod within the wand. The push rod is actuated by compressed gas carried in a tank formed as part of the tool. More specifically, the tool includes a compressed air tank 10 of conventional design. Although it will be described as compressed air, it will be obvious that other compressed gases could be used if desired. The tank 10 is customarily provided with a threaded nipple 11 onto which a tube 12 is treaded. An O-ring 13 may be used to seal the joint between the tank 10 and the tube 12. This tube may also serve as a grip by which the operator may hold the device and direct and inject the point of the needle into the animal. The tube 12 at the end opposite to the tank is threaded to receive a valve housing member 13. This member is drilled to provide a passageway 14 from the tube to a hollowed area 15. A pressurizing check valve 16 similar to the valve on a pneumatic tire may be provided to allow the tank 12 to be re-pressurized from an air compressor (not shown) by use of familiar and readily available fittings. A valve 17 having an operating member 18 is held within the opening 15. This valve is a two-position valve having a normal position in which it exhausts from one port to the atmosphere and a second operating position in which the passage from the tube 12 to a second passageway 20 in the housing member 13 is opened. The preferred valve of the type known as Clippard--MJV-3C or MJV0-3C. The valve is arranged so that the passageway 20 is normally open, thus closing passageway 14 and holding pressure within the tank 10. The passageway 20 leads into a cylinder 21 which is threaded onto the housing member 13, and is sealed thereto by an O-ring 22. A piston 23 is slidably disposed in the cylinder 21, and is biased to the position shown in FIG. 1 by a compression spring 24. This spring is seated in a closure member 25 threaded into the cylinder 21 to close and seal the end of the cylinder within which the piston 23 acts. A piston rod 26 acts both to support the spring 24 and to transmit motion to the piston 23. To perform the latter function, the rod 26 extends slidably through the closure 25 and into an extension tube 27. The extension tube 27 may be clamped onto an extended end 30 of the closure member 25 by means of a clamp 31 surrounding the tube. Because there is no compressed air or the like outward of this part of the device, it is not necessary to provide any seal. At its outer end, the extension tube or wand 27 carries a ferrule 32 which is threadedly engaged with the cylinder 33 of a veterinary syringe 35. This engagement is such that the syringe may be readily removed to be refilled. In order to provide operation of the syringe 35, the rod 26 extends from the closure member 25 into the wand 27 and terminates in a bumper slide 37. This slide is slidable within the wand 27 and serves to hold the rod 26 substantially central of that wand. The bumper 37 is in abutting relation with a similar bumper slide 38 also slidably disposed in the wand 27. The bumper 38 is part of the operating mechanism of the syringe. It is attached to the operating piston 40 of that syringe by a rod 41 so that when the bumper 38 is moved within the wand 27, the piston 40 is similarly moved within the cylinder 33 of the syringe. In operation of the device, the tank 10 is first charged with a compressed gas, ordinarily air, injected into the tank through the valve 16. The syringe is filled with the proper serum by removing the syringe 35 from the wand, removing the piston 40 and pouring the proper amount of serum into the syringe 35 and replacing it. As the animal to be inoculated is approached, the user grasps the tube or grip 12, and stabs the animal with the hypodermic needle 42, and nearly simultaneously presses the operating member 18 of the operating valve 17. By that action, compressed air is allowed to flow into the cylinder 21 causing the piston 23 to move rapidly from the position shown in FIG. 1 to that shown in FIG. 2. This motion is transmitted through the rod 26 to the slide 37, in turn pressing bumper 38 and causing it to move the piston 40 within the syringe 35. That motion expels the serum through the needle 42 to accomplish the desired end. Upon release of the thumb of the operator from the member 18, the gas within the cylinder 21 is exhausted to the atmosphere, and the spring 24 returns the piston 23 to its original position. The mechanism of the syringe 35 can be adjusted when the next dosage of serum is poured in. Because all of this is accomplished very rapidly, it is clear that we have provided a very convenient and relatively simple device to solve the problem of vaccinating large animals safely and quickly. An alternative injector for use where variable dosages may be desired is shown in FIGS. 4-6. In this device we use a bushing 15 which is threaded into the cylinder 21. The bushing is formed with a slot 46 in which is journalled a T-shaped striker 47. The rod 26 as used in the previously described embodiment is attached to this striker. A piston rod 48 from the piston 23 in the cylinder 21 extends to and is fastened to the striker 47. Thus, motion of the piston 23 is transmitted through the piston rod 48 to the striker 47 and then to the rod 27. Threads 50 are formed on the exterior of the bushing 45 at the locale of the slot 46. A threaded collar 51 is engaged with these threads 50 so that the position of the collar can be threadably adjusted. Because the striker 47 extends beyond the outer circumference of the threads 50, movement of the striker can be limited by the position of the collar 51. Thus, movement of the operating piston 40 in the syringe can be adjusted so that variation in the amount of dosage injected into the animal can be controlled. In order to provide a measure for easy control of the adjustment, we provide a flat relief portion 52 on which indicia 53 of the position of the pistons. This scale may readily be calibrated in dosages. Thus, in addition to a convenient and safe injector, we have provided the flexibility which might be useful for the use of different medicaments for different varieties of animals.

A device for injecting serum or the like into animals while remaining at a distance from the animal. The device uses air pressure from a tank built into the device to eject the serum from a syringe on the tip of the wand. The wand is long enough to provide relative safety for the user.

[0001] This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Application 60/574,485 filed Nov. 26, 2003. [0002] The present invention relates to pharmaceutical composition containing (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol useful in the treatment of diseases in mammals, including humans. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol (also known as abacavir, 1592U89, Ziagen®) and its antiviral use, particularly against HIV infections, is described in European Patent Specification Number 0434450. The succinate salt of (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol is described in WO96/06844. The hemisulfate salt of (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol is described in WO98/52949. Each of these references is incorporated herein by reference. [0004] The success of modern multiple-drug treatments for HIV often requires strict compliance with a complex treatment regimen that can require the administration of many different drugs per day, administered at precisely timed intervals with careful attention to diet. Patient non-compliance is a well known problem accompanying such complex treatment regimens. Patient non-compliance is a critical problem in the treatment of HIV because such non-compliance may lead to the emergence of multiple-drug resistant strains of HIV. [0005] The present invention addresses the issue of non-compliance by formulating an entire day's dose of (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol into a single solid dosage form, namely a tablet, to be given once daily. Simply combining two (2) current Ziagen 300 mg tablets into a single tablet would result in a tablet size too large to swallow without difficulty. Furthermore, the greater the amount of drug in the formulation the more excipients are needed in order to compress the mixture into an acceptable tablet. Increased amounts of some excipients can have adverse effects on tablet properties and can lead to problems of, for example, dissolution, content uniformity, hardness, and segregation. [0006] At this high drug dose, it is difficult to compress a tablet to an acceptable size to administer to a patient. In order to achieve high drug loading in a tablet, the amount of traditional binders, diluents, and fillers that would be necessary to form the high drug dose into a tablet that exhibits content uniformity, appropriate hardness, appropriate dissolution characteristics, and that remains intact during manufacture and storage would lead to an unacceptable tablet size, namely a tablet with a total compression weight greater than 100 mg. [0007] We have discovered that the addition of a highly compressible carrier to (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol allows the manufacture of tablets of acceptable size for administration to a patient. Furthermore, such tablets exhibit good content uniformity, hardness and dissolution characteristics. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0008] The present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising the active ingredient (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol, or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof, in the form of a tablet with high drug loading, while maintaining favorable tablet properties and suitable tablet size. [0009] Another embodiment of the present invention is to provide a method for using these pharmaceutical compositions. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0010] The present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions for one tablet delivering an entire day's dose of the active ingredient (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof, in the form of a tablet with high drug loading, while maintaining favorable tablet properties and suitable tablet size. [0011] Another embodiment of the present invention is to provide a method for using these pharmaceutical compositions. [0012] The present invention includes a pharmaceutical composition, comprising: a safe and therapeutically effective amount of (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof; and ii) a pharmaceutically acceptable highly compressible carrier. [0015] The present invention also includes pharmaceutical compositions comprising a safe and therapeutically effective amount of (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol (herein referred to as “abacavir”) or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof and a pharmaceutically acceptable highly compressible carrier wherein the composition has a volume in the range of 0.7-1.0 mL. Further pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention comprise abacavir as described above wherein the composition exhibits acceptable tablet hardness, for example of greater than 20 kilopounds at 25 kilonewtons of force for a 1075 mg tablet. [0016] The phrase “safe and therapeutically effective amount,” as used herein, means a sufficient amount of a drug, compound, composition, product or pharmaceutical agent to abate or reverse or treat a malady in a human or other mammal without severely harming the tissues of the mammal to which the drug or pharmaceutical agent is administered. [0017] The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable derivative,” as used herein, means any pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, ester, or salt of such ester, or any other compound which, upon administration to the recipient, is capable of providing (directly or indirectly) the intended active ingredient or any active metabolite or residue thereof. [0018] The phrase “pharmaceutically acceptable derivative of abacavir” as used herein, means any pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, ester, or salt of such ester, of abacavir, or any other compound which, upon administration to the recipient, is capable of providing (directly or indirectly) abacavir or any antivirally active metabolite or residue thereof. A preferred pharmaceutically acceptable derivative of abacavir is abacavir hemisulfate salt. [0019] The phrase “highly compressible carrier” as used herein means binder or filler that provides good tableting properties such as tablet hardness, low friability, and flow at quantities significantly lower than conventional fillers or binders such as Avicel® PH 101, Avicel® PH102, lactose, and other similar binders or fillers. [0020] The phrase “drug loading,” as used herein, means the ratio of drug to total weight of tablet. [0021] The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention contain highly compressible carriers, for example, diluents, binders or fillers, for example, highly compressible microcrystalline cellulose. The advantages of highly compressible microcrystalline cellulose are low bulk density and high compressibility, superior compatibility and low friability. The use of highly compressible microcrystalline cellulose enables compaction at lower forces and results in the capability to manufacture harder tablets. The carrier(s) must be pharmaceutically acceptable in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and not deleterious to the recipient thereof. [0022] The compositions of the present invention employ safe and therapeutically effective amounts of abacavir or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof along with a safe and effective amount of a pharmaceutically acceptable highly compressible carrier. Highly compressible carriers may be diluents, binders, or fillers. Examples include, but are not limited to, highly compressible microcrystalline cellulose, for example, Ceolus®, ProSolv™, and Avicel®PH105 microcrystalline cellulose. [0023] The present invention further includes a pharmaceutical composition consisting essentially of abacavir, or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof, and Ceolus® microcrystalline cellulose. [0024] Compositions of the present invention include unit dosage forms, for example, tablets containing abacavir wherein the tablet has a volume of less than 1.3 mL, advantageously less than 1.0 mL, or in the range of 0.7-1.0 mL, preferably about 0.9 mL. Tablets of the present invention containing abacavir exhibit properties that are advantageous for administration as a pharmaceutical composition. For example, tablets of the present invention may have a thickness of less than or equal to 7.6 mm, may exhibit low friability (<0.3%), for example, a friability of less than or equal to 0.1%, may exhibit a hardness of greater than 18 kilopounds for a 1075 mg tablet, and/or may exhibit a disintegration of less than or equal to 10 minutes, advantageously less than or equal to 2 minutes. [0025] The present invention includes pharmaceutical compositions as described above which are flowable, compressible, have low friability, good disintegration times, good tablet hardness, and acceptable dissolution. [0026] The present invention also includes pharmaceutical compositions comprising abacavir or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof, and Ceolus® microcrystalline cellulose. Such compositions may have a volume of about 0.9 mL and/or exhibit a hardness of greater than 18 kilopounds and/or exhibit a disintegration of less than or equal to 1 minutes, advantageously less than or equal to 2 minutes. [0027] The present invention includes a pharmaceutical composition comprising abacavir, or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof in an amount from about 20% to 80% of total compression weight or from about 30% to about 70% of total composition weight. The pharmaceutical composition may advantageously be in the form of a tablet, said tablet having 20%-80% drug loading or 30% to 60% drug loading, advantageously 40% to 60% drug loading. [0028] Another embodiment of the present invention is to simplify treatment regimens for HIV and other viruses with the goal of enhancing patient compliance by providing a simplified dosage form containing pharmaceutically acceptable amounts of abacavir or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof. [0029] The present invention also includes a method for treating, reversing, reducing or inhibiting retroviral infections in particular HIV infections, in a mammal, in particular a human, which method comprises administering to said mammal a safe and effective amount of a composition according to the invention. [0030] The present invention provides the use of abacavir, or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable highly compressible carrier in the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment of a retroviral infection, in particular an HIV infection. Preferably, the medicament is provided as a once-daily dosing regimen. [0031] It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that reference herein to “treatment” extends to both the prophylaxis and the treatment of an established malady, infection or its symptoms. [0032] The compositions of the present invention may optionally employ a safe and effective amount of a diluent, a safe and effective amount of a disintegrant, and a safe and effective amount of a lubricant or any other safe and effective amounts of excipients commonly used in the art. [0033] The compositions of the present invention may include from 0 to about 2% magnesium stearate; from about 0.0 to about 5% glidant; from 0 to about 5% sodium starch glycolate; and from about 15 to about 50% microcrystalline cellulose. [0034] The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may optionally contain silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ), also referred to as colloidal silica, fumed silicon dioxide, fumed silica, light anhydrous silicic acid, silicic anhydride, AEROSIL™ or CAB-O-SIL™; asbestos free talc, sodium aluminosilicate, calcium silicate, powdered cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, corn starch, sodium benzoate, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, metallic stearates, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, zinc stearate, stearowet C, starch, starch 1500, magnesium lauryl sulfate, magnesium oxide, colloidal silicon dioxide in combination with microcrystalline cellulose or ProSolv™. [0035] Abacavir may be prepared by the method described in European Patent Specification Number 0434450 or WO95/21161, which are incorporated herein by reference hereto. The succinate salt of 1592U89 may be prepared by the method described in WO96/06844, which is incorporated herein by reference hereto. The hemisulfate salt of 1592U89 may be prepared by the method described in WO98/52949, which is incorporated herein by reference hereto. Preferred salts of abacavir include the succinate salt and the hemisulfate salt. [0036] The invention is preferably presented as a pharmaceutical composition suitable for oral administration. Such compositions may conveniently be presented as discrete units such as tablets, caplets, capsules, or any other form suitable for oral administration and compatible with the compositions of the present invention, each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient. A particularly suitable composition may be prepared from direct compression or granulation processes. Such compositions may contain safe and effective amounts of conventional excipients such as binding agents, fillers, lubricants, or disintegrants. The tablets may also be coated according to any method known to persons skilled in the art that would not interfere with the tablets' release properties, or the other physical or chemical characteristics of the present Invention. Tablet coating is further described and delineated by Remington, The Science & Practice of Pharmacy 19th ed. 1995 incorporated herein by reference. When desired, the above formulations may also be modified by any method known to persons skilled in the art to achieve sustained release of active ingredients. The compositions may also include a safe and effective amount of other active ingredients, such as antimicrobial agents or preservatives. [0037] These compositions of the present invention are suitable for administration to humans or other mammals particularly via an oral route of administration. However, other routes as utilised by medical practitioners and others skilled in the art of pharmaceutical dosage administration such as pharmacists and nurses are not foreclosed. [0038] It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the amount of active ingredients required for use in treatment will vary according to a variety of factors, including the nature of the condition being treated and the age and condition of the patient, and will ultimately be at the discretion of the attending physician, veterinarian or health care practitioner. [0039] In general, however, a suitable dose of abacavir for administration to a human for treatment of an HIV injection may be in the range of 0.1 to 120 mg per kilogram body weight of the recipient per day, preferably in the range of 3 to 90 mg per kilogram body weight per day and most preferably in the range 5 to 60 mg per kilogram body weight per day. [0040] Compositions of the present invention enable patients greater freedom of use from varied multiple dosage medication regimens and also ease the needed diligence required in remembering complex daily dosing times and schedules by allowing once daily dosing of abacavir. [0041] The compositions of the present invention conveniently allow administration of one compound in unit dosage form containing, for example, from about 15 to about 1200 mg of abacavir, particularly from about 100 to about 750 mg of abacavir, and most particularly about 600-700 mg of abacavir. The composition of the present invention may be used in combination with other pharmaceutical formulations as a component of a multiple drug treatment regimen. [0042] Compositions of the present invention may also be packaged as articles of manufacture comprising a safe and therapeutically effective amount of abacavir, or a pharmaceutically acceptable derivative thereof; and a safe and effective amount of a pharmaceutically acceptable highly compressible carrier. [0043] Any of the various methods known by persons skilled in the art for packaging tablets, caplets, or other solid dosage forms suitable for oral administration, that will not degrade the components of the present invention, are suitable for use in packaging. Tablets, caplets, or other solid dosage forms suitable for oral administration, may be packaged and contained in various packaging materials particularly glass and plastic bottles and also including unit dose blister packaging. The packaging material may also have labelling and information related to the pharmaceutical composition printed thereon. Additionally, an article of manufacture may contain a brochure, report, notice, pamphlet, or leaflet containing product information. This form of pharmaceutical information is referred to in the pharmaceutical industry as a “package insert.” A package insert may be attached to or included with a pharmaceutical article of manufacture. The package insert and any article of manufacture labelling provides information relating to the pharmaceutical composition. The information and labelling provides various forms of information utilised by health-care professionals and patients, describing the composition, its dosage and various other parameters required by regulatory agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Agencies. [0044] The compositions of the present invention can be formulated using methods and techniques suitable for the compositions physical and chemical characteristics and that are commonly employed by persons skilled in the art in preparing oral dosage forms utilising direct compression or granulation processes. Remington, The Science & Practice of Pharmacy , p. 1615-1623, 1625-1648, and other applicable sections, 19th ed. (1995). [0045] Compositions of the present Invention in their method aspect are administered to a human or other mammal in a safe and effective amount as described herein. These safe and effective amounts will vary according to the type and size of mammal being treated and the desired results of the treatment. EXAMPLES [0046] The following examples further describe and demonstrate particular embodiments within the scope of the present Invention. The examples are given solely for illustration and are not to be construed as limitations as many variations are possible without departing from spirit and scope of the Invention. Example 1 [0047] Tablet Containing Abacavir for Once-Daily (“OD”) Dosing Quantity Quantity Component (mg/tablet) (% w/w) Abacavir Hemisulfate 702.0 65.3 Ceolus ® 323.55 30.1 Sodium Starch Glycolate 43.00 4.00 Magnesium Stearate 6.45 0.60 Total Tablet Weight 1075 Bulk Preparation Method [0048] The quantities of the present example of manufacturing procedure are based on a typical batch size of 300 kg and may be adjusted depending on batch size. [0049] First the components are weighed from bulk containers in the following amounts: Ingredients Amount (kg) Abacavir hemisulfate 195.9 Ceolus ® (Microcrystalline Cellulose, NF) 90.3 Sodium Starch Glycolate 12.0 Magnesium Stearate 1.8 [0050] The components are then sieved using a Russel-SIV equipped with a 14 mesh (1.4 mm opening) or an equivalent sieve and mesh, and deposited into a stainless-steel blending container. [0051] The abacavir, Ceolus®, and sodium starch glycolate, NF are blended for 12 minutes using a suitable blender, such as a Matcon-Buls bin-type blender, a V-blender or equivalent. The magnesium stearate is then added to the mixture and blending is continued for approximately 1 to 2 minutes. [0052] The lubricated blend is then compressed using a suitable rotary tablet press, typically a Fette 2090 or equivalent. In-process controls for tablet weight and hardness are applied at appropriate intervals throughout the compression run and adjustments to the tablet press are made as necessary. Example 2 [0000] Comparative Batch Data for Different Carriers/Binders [0053] Tablets were weighed on an analytical balance. A digital caliper was used to measure the thickness of the tablets. Tablet hardness was measured on a suitable hardness tester by placing the tablets lengthwise between the crushing jaws. Powder flow was determined by placing a powder sample into a Flodex™. The sample was then allowed to sit undisturbed for fifteen seconds prior to being discharged through a stainless steel orifice. The orifices were changed as needed until the smallest size was determined that allowed the powder to flow freely. Friability and disintegration was measured according to the current U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP 25-NF 20). Test Ceolus Avicel PH101 Compression Weight (mg) 1075 1075 Thickness (mm) 7.04 7.16 Friability (%) 0.0 0.02 Hardness (kp) 28.0 16.5 Disintegration (min) 0.5 0.5 Flow (mm) 17.0 9.0 [0054] Acceptable attributes based on data above: Avicel ® Avicel ® Test Ceolus ® PH101 PH105* Prosolv ™* Friability yes yes yes yes Hardness yes no yes yes Disintegration yes yes yes yes Flow yes yes marginal yes Appearance yes yes yes yes Tooling yes no yes yes Apperance *Note responses are based on dry lab estimates [0055] The application of which this description and claims form part may be used as a basis for priority in respect of any subsequent application. The claims of such subsequent application may be directed to any embodiment or combination of embodiments described herein. They may take the form of product, composition, process or use claims and may include, by way of example and without limitation, one or more of the following claims.

A pharmaceutical composition comprising (1S, cis)-4-[2-amino-6-(cyclopropylamino)-9H-purin-9-yl]-2-cyclopentene-1-methanol in an amount which achieves antiviral efficacy, a process for the preparation of such a composition, and a method of inhibiting human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which comprises administering such a composition to an HIV infected patient is disclosed.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates in general to a display case, and particularly a jewelry display case. More particularly, the present invention pertains to a novel way of displaying a jewelry item that is disposed in the case or jewelry box by means of illuminating the jewelry item. Even more particularly, the present invention relates to a novel jewelry display case or box in which a sensing arrangement is used to control the illumination. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION There presently exist jewelry boxes that contain a light source. The light source is typically activated when the jewelry box is opened. Examples are found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,937,320; 5,329,433 and 7,325,940. Typically a mechanical switch of some type is used. This may be, for example, a switch at the hinge that closes when the jewelry box is opened to activate the light source. One problem associated with these prior art devices is that the light source may stay on for an indefinite period of time draining the battery that activates the light source. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a novel jewelry product, particularly a jewelry box in which the jewelry item that is contained in the jewelry box is selectively illuminated by means of a sensory signal from a user. Another object of the present invention is to provide a novel jewelry box or case in which the jewelry item that is contained in the jewelry box is selectively illuminated by using such means as a motion detector, an ambient light sensor, a touch sensor or a proximity sensor. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a novel jewelry box or case in which the sensory signal is facilitated by simple and inexpensive means that can be readily attached with the jewelry box or case. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION To accomplish the foregoing and other objects and advantages of the present invention there is provided a jewelry display case that includes a base for supporting an item that is being displayed; a cover engaged with the base, with the base forming an interior compartment for the item and having respective opened and closed positions relative to the base; a light source disposed in the interior compartment, supported at an internal surface of said cover and, when illuminated, casts a light beam on the item to highlight the item; and a sensory sensor associated with at least one of the base and cover and for activating the light source. In accordance with other aspects of the present invention the following features apply: the sensor comprises a motion detector responsive to a motion of the user for activating the light source; the motion detector is disposed within the compartment formed by the base and cover, and the motion detector is activated upon mere opening of the cover to, in turn, activate the light source; the sensor includes an ambient light detector for interrupting energy to the light source in the closed position of the cover; the sensor includes an ambient light detector that is disposed within the compartment formed by the base and cover, said ambient light detector controlling the light source to interrupt activation of the light source in the closed position of the cover and to activate the light source in the open position of the cover. the ambient light detector has a variable control to control the level of excitation of the ambient light detector so that the ambient light detector causes illumination of the light source even at low levels of ambient light when the cover is open; the sensor comprises one of a touch sensor and a proximity sensor; the touch sensor is disposed within the base and cover; the sensor comprises a touch sensor disposed external to the base and cover; the proximity sensor is disposed within the base and cover; the sensor comprises a proximity sensor disposed external to the base and cover; the motion detector is coupled in series with the ambient light detector and furthermore in series with the light source; further including a battery for powering the light source and also disposed in series with the motion detector and the ambient light detector; the light source comprises an LED; the item is a piece of jewelry and the base and cover are constructed in the form of a clam shell or rocket box construction; including a controller for controlling the duration of time that the light source is illuminated; and the controller comprises a mono-stable device that sets a predetermined time interval with the light source controlled to interrupt after the duration of the time interval. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS It should be understood that the drawings are provided for the purpose of illustration only and are not intended to define the limits of the disclosure. In the drawings depicting the present invention, all dimensions are to scale. The foregoing and other objects and advantages of the embodiments described herein will become apparent with reference to the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a jewelry box or case shown open to illustrate the light source and sensor; FIG. 2 illustrates the same jewelry box or case of FIG. 1 in a closed position and a motioning action or touch action for illuminating the internal light source; FIG. 3 is a circuit diagram illustrating the light source, battery and sensor of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a fragmentary view of the circuit of FIG. 3 illustrating the sensor as a motion detector; FIG. 5 is a fragmentary view of the circuit of FIG. 3 illustrating an ambient light detector; FIG. 6 is a fragmentary view that illustrates a partial series circuit including the battery, motion detector, ambient light detector, an LED light source and a controller for controlling the light source; FIG. 7 is a fragmentary view of the circuit of FIG. 3 illustrating the sensor as a touch sensor; and FIG. 8 is a fragmentary view of the circuit of FIG. 3 illustrating the sensor as a proximity sensor. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference is now made to FIGS. 1 and 2 that both illustrate a display case 10 that is basically comprised of a base 12 and a cover 14 . FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate one version of the display case. However, the display case can be provided in many different forms including, but not limited to, a clamshell construction or a rocket box construction. The perspective view of FIG. 1 illustrates the display case in an open position. On the base 12 , there may be provided a display area 13 for containing an item such as the illustrated jewelry item 15 . FIG. 1 also illustrates on an internal surface of the cover 14 the light source 20 which may be in the form of one or more LED's. Also associated with the cover 14 is the sensor 24 . As indicated, the light source is disposed in the interior compartment formed between the cover and base, is supported at an internal surface of the cover, and when illuminated, casts a light beam 17 on the jewelry item 15 so as to highlight the jewelry item. Reference to FIG. 2 also illustrates the base 12 and the cover 14 in a closed position. There may be associated with either the cover or the base what is referred to herein as a touch zone 30 . In the particular embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2 this “touch zone” is disposed at the cover 14 . In one embodiment the sensor 24 of FIG. 1 may instead be disposed at the area 30 of FIG. 2 . For example, the sensor may be in the form of a touch, proximity or motion detector so that the user simply has to take some motion or touching adjacent to the area 13 in order to control the light source; particularly to activate the light source once the motion or touching occurs. Reference may now be made to the circuit diagram of FIG. 3 . This depicts the manner in which the sensor 24 and the light source 20 are arranged in a series circuit with the battery 30 . The battery 30 may be provided at any location within the display case 10 . The battery 30 may be provided in the base 12 along with the wiring that interconnects the battery with the sensor 24 and the light source 20 in the series circuit illustrated in FIG. 3 . The sensor 24 is for sensing a sensory condition or, in one embodiment, is in the form of an ambient light detector. A first embodiment of the sensor 24 is illustrated in the fragmentary circuit illustrated in FIG. 4 . The sensor is in the form of a motion detector 34 that would also be connected in a series circuit between the battery and the light source. The motion detector 34 may be of conventional design that initiates a control signal for essentially bridging the connection between the battery 30 and the light source 20 . FIG. 5 also illustrates an alternate embodiment in which the sensor is in the form of an ambient light detector 36 . Refer also to the fragmentary circuit diagram of FIG. 6 that includes both a motion detector 34 and the ambient light detector 36 in a series circuit diagram that also includes a controller 38 . The controller 38 may be in the form of a monostable device that allows the light source to be illuminated but only for a set predetermined period of time. This monostable device operates so that it essentially provides a “pulse” of a certain duration. It is only during that pulse duration that the light source is illuminated. After the pulse duration is over, the pulse ends and thus the illumination of the light source ends. This control prevents the light source from staying on for an indefinite period of time. In the embodiment of FIG. 6 this is a condition wherein both a motion ( 34 ) is sensed as well as ambient light ( 25 ). This can occur when the display case is open. As a matter of fact, the mere opening of the display case provides sufficient motion so that both the detector 34 , as well as the detector 36 , are activated. In that instance the light source 20 can be operated from the battery 30 . The controller 38 provides the aforementioned delay period. As indicated previously, this can be in the form of a monostable vibrator type of device that essentially pulses the light source or LED to its illuminated state but only for a predetermined period of time as set by the monostable controller 38 . The use of a controller 38 can also be provided in association with either the motion detector or the light detector. For example, the user may provide some movement, when the display case is open, that is detected and in turn causes the light source to illuminate. There may be situations in which it is not desired to have the light source be continuously illuminated and with the use of the controller 38 , one can control the duration of illumination of the light source. This controller 38 may be used separately with either the motion detector 34 or the ambient light detector 36 . Thus, as mentioned previously, the motion detector may be provided either on the outside of the case or inside the case 10 . It is preferred that these detectors be placed within the internal case compartment defined between the base 12 and cover 14 ; particularly the ambient light detector. If both the motion detector and the light detector are within the internal jewelry case compartment, when the user opens the case 10 there may well be enough motion to excite both the motion detector and the light detector. Because the internal compartment is completely dark when the case is closed; once the case is opened virtually any level of light will activate the ambient light detector and the mere opening of the case will most likely also activate the motion detector. Thus, in another embodiment of the invention either detector 34 or 36 may be used without requiring the use of both detectors. For the light detector 36 this device responds to detecting an adjustable amount of light to, in turn, activate the light source 20 . The light detector 36 may be of conventional design that initiates a control signal for essentially bridging the connection between the battery 30 and the light source 20 . Reference is also now made to FIGS. 7 and 8 . These figures describe further embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 7 illustrates a touch sensor 40 that can be in the circuit of FIG. 3 . FIG. 8 illustrates a proximity sensor 42 that can be in the circuit of FIG. 3 . The touch sensor 40 may be disposed within the display case inner compartment or at an external surface such as illustrated in FIG. 2 . In either case it is preferred to also use the controller of FIG. 6 so that the illumination of the jewelry item is limited to a set predetermined of time. In a sense the proximity sensor of FIG. 8 may be considered as substantially the same as the motion detector 34 of FIG. 4 . The proximity sensor 42 may also be disposed within the display case inner compartment or at an external surface such as illustrated in FIG. 2 . In either case it is preferred to also use the controller of FIG. 6 so that the illumination of the jewelry item is limited to a set predetermined of time. As previously mentioned, FIG. 7 shows a fragmentary view of the circuit of FIG. 3 illustrating the sensor as a touch sensor FIG. 8 illustrates a fragmentary view of the circuit of FIG. 3 illustrating the sensor as a proximity sensor. In still another embodiment of the present invention, either of these sensors illustrated in FIGS. 7 and 8 can also be replaced by a sound sensor or transducer. In that way, the highlighting of the item can be based upon the detection of a sound. Having now described a limited number of embodiments of the present invention, it should now be apparent to those skilled in the art that numerous other embodiments and modifications thereof are contemplated as falling within the scope of the present invention, as defined by the appended claims. For example, the concepts of the present invention can be applied to virtually any type of display case that displays any item whether a jewelry item or not.

A display case that includes a base for supporting an item that is being displayed; a cover engaged with the base, with the base forming an interior compartment for the item and having respective opened and closed positions relative to the base; a light source disposed in the interior compartment, supported at an internal surface of said cover and, when illuminated, casting a light beam on the item to highlight the item; and a sensor associated with at least one of the base and cover and for activating the light source. The sensor may include a motion detector, a light detector, a touch sensor or a proximity sensor.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus in which a plurality of piezoelectric transducers are arranged in a predetermined direction so as to transmit and receive ultrasonic waves to obtain a tomographic image on the inside of the subject, and more particularly to an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus adopting such a scheme that a sector scan is electronically performed. 2. Description of the Related Art Hitherto, there has been used an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus in which ultrasonic waves are transmitted toward the subject, specially a living body and ultrasonic waves reflecting from a tissue within the living body are received by piezoelectric transducers to generate received signals, and an image of the living body is displayed on the basis of the received signals, thereby facilitating a diagnostic of an intestinal disease or the like in the living body. FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram showing a functional structure of an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus. The ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus 100 is provided with, for example, 64 piezoelectric transducers (hereinafter, it may happen that these are each referred to as "element") 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64, which are arranged as a strip. Those elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 are applied to a body surface of the subject (not illustrated), and then a transmitting circuit 102 sends out pulse signals to the piezoelectric transducers in their associated timings, respectively. The pulse signals are converted into high voltage pulses by the associated transmitting driver 103 -- 1, 103 -- 2, . . . , 103 -- 64, respectively. The converted high voltage pulses are applied to the elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64, respectively, so that ultrasound beams emanate from the elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 toward the inside of the subject. The ultrasonic waves reflecting from the inside of the subject again return to the elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 and are received thereat. Signals, which are generated through receiving by the elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64, are amplified suitably by receiving amplifiers 104 -- 1, 104 -- 2, . . . , 104 -- 64, respectively, and then supplied to a beamformer circuit 105. The beamformer circuit 105 is arranged to delay the respective entered received signals and then to add the respective delayed received signals, so that the received signals can be generated along the ultrasound beams extending into the subject. The added received signals, which are outputted from the beamformer circuit 105, are applied to a signal transforming circuit 106 so as to be transformed into a displaying signal. The displaying signal outputted from the signal transforming circuit 106 is applied to a CRT display 107, so that a tomographic image 110 on the inside of the subject is displayed on a screen of the display 107. Incidentally, when the piezoelectric transducers (elements) 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 are generally named, they are denoted as the piezoelectric transducers (elements) 12, hereinafter. This is the similar as to the matter of the transmitting driver 103 -- 1, 103 -- 2, . . . , 103 -- 64, and the receiving amplifiers 104 -- 1, 104 -- 2, . . . , 104 -- 64. FIG. 24 is a typical illustration of an example showing a relationship between an arrangement of the piezoelectric transducers and reflecting points of ultrasonic waves within the subject. In this figure, the axis of abscissas X denotes an arrangement direction of 64 pieces of piezoelectric element 12 applied to a body surface, and the axis of ordinates Z and the clinoaxis Z' denote the directions (each of them is referred to as a scan line) of traveling of ultrasound beams within the subject. Here, it is assumed that an acoustic velocity within the subject is uniform independently of a place. In case of the formation of ultrasound beams having a focus at a point P1 within the subject, the transmitting circuit 102 (Cf. FIG. 23) sends out transmission pulse signals to the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 in their associated timings, respectively, such that the transmission pulse signals are delayed in accordance with a delay pattern corresponding to an arc R1 described with the point P1 in the center so that the ultrasonic waves emitted from the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 arrive simultaneously on the arc R1, in such a manner that taking account of an acoustic velocity within the subject, for example, the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 31 and 12 -- 32 at the center radiate the ultrasonic waves at the time point when the ultrasonic waves emitted from the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1 and 12 -- 64 at the both ends arrive on the arc R1. In a similar fashion to that of the formation of ultrasound beams having a focus at a point P1, ultrasound pulse beams having focuses at points P2 and P3, respectively, which travel toward a scan line Z direction, are formed by means of generating by the transmitting circuit 102 transmission pulse signals delayed in accordance with delay patterns corresponding to arcs R2 and R3, respectively. Further, it is possible to form not only a scan line extending to a direction (Z direction) perpendicular to the arrangement direction X of the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 but also a scan line extending to a direction (Z' direction) oblique with respect to the arrangement direction X. Ultrasound pulse beams having focus at a point P4, which travel toward a scan line Z' direction, are formed through an adjustment of delay patterns for transmission pulse signals so that the ultrasonic waves emitted from the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 arrive simultaneously on an arc R4 described with the point P4 in the center. This is the similar as to the matter of receiving. For example, the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P1 travels toward the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 with dispersion and arrive simultaneously on the arc R1. Here, the received signals involved in the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P1, which are derived from, for example, the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 31 and 12 -- 32 of the center, are delayed until the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P1 are received by the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1 and 12 -- 64 of the both ends. In this manner, the respective received signals are delayed through a delay pattern corresponding to the arc R1 and the delayed received signals are added, thereby forming at the receiving end the equivalent ultrasound beams having a focus at a point P1 and extending to the scan line Z direction. In a similar fashion to that of the formation of ultrasound beams having a focus at a point P1 at the receiving end, ultrasound beams having focuses at points P2 and P3, respectively, which extend to the scan line Z direction, are formed at the receiving end by means of delaying the respective received signals in accordance with delay patterns corresponding to arcs R2 and R3, respectively. Further, ultrasound beams having focus at a point P4, which extend to the scan line Z' direction, are formed at the receiving end by means of delaying the respective received signals in accordance with a delay pattern corresponding to an arc R4. Here, the ultrasonic waves transmitted from the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 toward the scan line Z direction first arrive at a shallow point P3 within the subject, then at a point P2 and finally at a point P1. Consequently, the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P3 reach the elements 12 earlier than the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P2. Likewise, the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P2 reach the elements 12 earlier than the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P1. Hence, this aspect is utilized for a control of delay patterns in such a way that a delay pattern for the respective received signals derived through the piezoelectric elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64 is adjusted, in timing of receipt of the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P3, to provide a delay pattern corresponding to the arc R1; in timing of receipt of the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P2, to provide a delay pattern corresponding to the arc R2; and in timing of receipt of the ultrasonic waves reflecting from the point P1, to provide a delay pattern corresponding to the arc R3. In this manner, it is possible to implement a so-called receiving dynamic focus in which a focal point at the receiving end is sequentially shifted, as P1→P2→P3, extending to the scan line Z direction. FIG. 25 is an illustration showing a pattern of weighting (amplification factor of each of the receiving amplifiers 104 -- 1, 104 -- 2, . . . , 104 -- 64) for the respective received signals derived through the elements 12 -- 1, 12 -- 2, . . . , 12 -- 64. It is assumed that the center of a group of the elements (receiving aperture) for use in receiving is given by X=0. As a function representative of a pattern of weighting, generally, Gaussian function, which is expressed by formula (1), is adopted. g(x)=exp{-α.sup.z (X/XO).sup.2 } (1) where α: weighting factor, and XO: coordinates of end of receiving aperture. The weighting factorα serves to determine a ratio of gain of the received signal derived through an element located away from the center (X=0) of the aperture. It is known that the above-mentioned weighting of the received signals may reduce a side-lobe-level of the received ultrasound beams, thereby enhancing resolution. Incidentally, while Gaussian function is shown in formula (1) as the weighting function, it is noted that the weighting function is not always Gaussian function. It is known that the use of, for example, a trapezium-like shaped weighting function, which approximates to Gaussian function, may also bring the substantially same result. FIG. 26 is an illustration showing an example in which a size D (the number of elements used for receiving) of the receiving aperture is varied in a state that weighting is fixed. It is also known that a receiving is performed, as shown in FIG. 26, temporarily using a part of the arranged elements for the purpose of, for example, a control of the intensity and resolution of the received signals at a shallow point and a deep point within the subject, but not using all of the arranged 64 pieces of elements. This is similar to the matter of a transmission. It is known that a transmission is performed, temporarily using a part of the arranged elements for the purpose of, for example, a control of the intensity of the ultrasonic waves at a shallow point and a deep point within the subject, and a beam width of the transmitting ultrasound beam. There is also known such a technique of weighting that in transmission, in a similar fashion to that of the weighting shown in FIG. 26, the number of pulses of the transmission pulse signal, a pulse voltage and the like are controlled to transmit the ultrasonic waves, which are mutually different in an intensity, from the respective elements in the transmission aperture (a group of elements for use in transmission). Next, taking account of the various techniques as to the ultrasonic diagnostic system as mentioned above, there will be described the conventional electronic sector scan type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, which is used, for example, for observation of the heart, and the problems involved in such an apparatus. The sector scan implies such a scanning scheme that as explained referring to FIG. 24, a scan line extending to a direction oblique with respect to the arrangement direction of the elements is formed and sequentially varied in the direction of the scan line so as to spread in a sector configuration in its entirety. The use of such a sector scan serves to form a sector shaped tomographic image 110 as illustrated in the screen of the CRT display 107 in FIG. 23. FIG. 27 is a typical illustration showing the state of transmitting and receiving of the ultrasonic waves through adjacent ribs toward the heart using the conventional electronic sector scheme of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus. According to the conventional typical electronic sector scan type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, a sector shaped tomographic image is formed in such a manner that as seen from FIG. 27, an amount of delay of each of the elements 12 applied to a body surface 11 at the time of transmitting and receiving is controlled so that the ultrasound beams are deflected right and left with the center 1 of the elements 12 in the center. In this manner, in order to form the tomographic image of the heart, a scan is performed, placing a group of elements between rib 10-to-rib 10 each being of 10 mm in an adult. Consequently, as to the aperture with respect to the scan direction (an arrangement direction of the elements, or the right and left direction in FIG. 27), there are two conflicting requirements, one of which is involved in a requirement in which the aperture is formed in size as smaller as possible in view of the fact that the scan is performed through adjacent ribs, another concerns a requirement in which the aperture is formed in size as large as possible to obtain a penetration. As common grounds, usually, the aperture with respect to the scan direction is set up with a size of the order of 10 mm-20 mm. Hence, the scan lines (areas 20) of the edge portions of the sector configuration, where the ultrasonic waves are larger in the deflection angle, involves such problems that the ultrasonic waves are obstructed by the ribs 10 and as a result an observer cannot see portions deeper than the ribs 10, and further multiple reflection echoes due to reflection from the ribs appear and as a result overall image is deteriorated. FIG. 28 is a typical illustration showing a technique of removing or reducing a bad influence of the ribs, which technique is proposed in, for example, Japanese Utility Model Laid Open Gazette No. 114019/1990. According to the proposal as noted above, arranging the piezoelectric transducers 12 as a concave sets up the center of curvature (an intersection of scan line-to-line) 2 of the transmitting and receiving wave surface within the human body, and a so-called linear scan is carried out through a ultrasonic propagation medium 14 within a water sack 15, thereby implementing the sector scan in which the center of curvature 2 is placed in the center independent of the ribs 10. However, according to this scheme, the ultrasonic waves are reflected on a boundary between a body surface 11 and the ultrasonic propagation medium 14 and as a result multiple reflection echoes emanate, and thus it is difficult to obtain a good image. Japanese Patent Publication No. 12971/1992 proposes a method of improving the problem as to the above-mentioned multiple reflection. FIGS. 29 and 30 are each a typical illustration useful for understanding the proposal disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No. 12971/1992. According to the system of this proposal, the scan is performed in such a manner that the ultrasound beams pass through substantially a fixed point (center 2) within the human body, using fixed or semi-fixed delay elements 17 each provided for the associated element, so as to obtain the equivalence to such a situation that as in the related art shown in FIG. 28, the elements 12 are arranged on the arc of a radius R from the center 2 of the sector scan within the human body. In this case, the focal position of the ultrasound beams is equal to the position of the center 2 within the human body. On the other hand, it is necessary for observation of the heart to provide a focus position of the order of 80-100 mm, and thus variable delay elements 19 for use in alteration of the focal position are used in combination. With respect to the aperture width, as shown in FIG. 30, there is provided the same effective aperture (L1'=L1·COS (θ)=L0) on each scan line. The number of elements forming an aperture on each scan line is about 7-9 pieces. However, this system is poor in the number of transmitting and receiving elements and thus poor in resolution and penetration. In case of the general electronic sector type, the aperture is of about 20 mm, and is comprised of 60 pieces of element. According to such general electronic sector type, 50 pieces of element are used for transmission, and about overall elements are used for receiving. Consequently, according to the conventional systems as proposed in FIGS. 29 and 30, the aperture area (the number of transmitting and receiving elements) is too little to form the converged ultrasound beam, and thus it is apparent that resolution is reduced and penetration is not attained. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the foregoing, it is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus capable of solving the above-mentioned problems, preventing deterioration of an image by reducing an influence of reflection of the ultrasonic waves from the ribs, and forming a good image improved in resolution. To achieve the above-mentioned objects, according to the present invention, there is provided an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the first type of system, comprising: transmitting and receiving means, having a plurality of piezoelectric transducers are arranged in a predetermined arrangement direction, for sequentially transmitting ultrasound beams along a plurality of scan lines from the piezoelectric transducers into a subject and for sequentially receiving ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines with the piezoelectric transducers; and display means for displaying a tomographic image of the subject on the basis of received signals generated from said transmitting and receiving means, wherein said transmitting and receiving means are arranged to transmit and receive ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines which are sequentially deflected as a sector in the arrangement direction and pass through a first predetermined point within the subject apart from said piezoelectric transducers, and performs transmitting and/or receiving of ultrasonic waves using a larger number of said piezoelectric transducers for transmitting and receiving of ultrasonic waves along the scan lines nearer a central part of the sector configuration. It is preferable, in the first type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus as recited above, that a distance d 1 between said piezoelectric transducers and said first predetermined point is expressed by 1 mm≦d 1 ≦6 mm. Further, it is preferable that said transmitting and receiving means includes a scan line intersection shift means for shifting said first predetermined point to said arrangement direction and a depth direction within the subject. To achieve the above-mentioned objects, according to the present invention, there is provided an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the second type of system, comprising: transmitting and receiving means, having a plurality of piezoelectric transducers are arranged in a predetermined arrangement direction, for sequentially transmitting ultrasound beams along a plurality of scan lines from the piezoelectric transducers into a subject and for sequentially receiving ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines with the piezoelectric transducers; and display means for displaying a tomographic image of the subject on the basis of received signals generated from said transmitting and receiving means, wherein said transmitting and receiving means are arranged to transmit ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines which are sequentially deflected as a sector in the arrangement direction and pass through a second predetermined point within the subject apart from said piezoelectric transducers, and receive ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines which are sequentially deflected as a sector in the arrangement direction and pass through a third predetermined point within the subject, the third predetermined point being set up to a place deeper than the second predetermined point. It is preferable, in the second type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus as recited above, that a distance d 2 between said piezoelectric transducers and said second predetermined point is expressed by 1 mm≦d 2 ≦3 mm, and a distance d 3 between said piezoelectric transducers and said third predetermined point is expressed by d 2 <d 3 ≦6 mm. Further, it is preferable that said transmitting and receiving means includes scan line intersection shift means for shifting said second predetermined point and said third predetermined point to said arrangement direction and a depth direction within the subject. To achieve the above-mentioned objects, according to the present invention, there is provided an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the third type of system, comprising: transmitting and receiving means, having a plurality of piezoelectric transducers are arranged in a predetermined arrangement direction, for sequentially transmitting ultrasound beams along a plurality of scan lines from the piezoelectric transducers into a subject and for sequentially receiving ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines with the piezoelectric transducers; and display means for displaying a tomographic image of the subject on the basis of received signals generated from said transmitting and receiving means, wherein said transmitting and receiving means are arranged to transmit ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines which are sequentially deflected as a sector in the arrangement direction and pass through a fourth predetermined point on said piezoelectric transducers, and receive ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines which are sequentially deflected as a sector in the arrangement direction and pass through a fifth predetermined point within the subject apart from said piezoelectric transducers. It is preferable, in the third type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus as recited above, that a distance d 5 between said piezoelectric transducers and said fifth predetermined point is expressed by 1 mm≦d 5 ≦6 mm. Further, it is preferable, in the third type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus as recited above, that said transmitting and receiving means includes scan line intersection shift means for shifting said fourth predetermined point to said arrangement direction, and for shifting said fifth predetermined point to said arrangement direction and a depth direction within the subject. Also in the apparatus according to the second or third type of system as recited above, similar to the apparatus according to the first type of system as recited above, it is preferable that said transmitting and receiving means performs transmitting and/or receiving of ultrasonic waves using a larger number of said piezoelectric transducers for transmitting and receiving of ultrasonic waves along the scan lines nearer a central part of the sector configuration. Further, in the apparatus according to the first, second or third type of system as recited above, it is preferable that said transmitting and receiving means is arranged to form received signal on each scan line in such a manner that a larger weighting is applied to received signals derived from the piezoelectric transducers arranged nearer a central part of a receiving aperture comprised of a plurality of the piezoelectric transducers which serve to receive ultrasonic wave of the associated scan line, and then the signals subjected to the weighting process are added. And it is also preferable that said apparatus further comprises second transmitting and receiving means for transmitting and receiving ultrasonic waves along a plurality of scan lines which are sequentially deflected as a sector in the arrangement direction and pass through a predetermined point on said piezoelectric transducers, said second transmitting and receiving means being adapted to be replaced by said transmitting and receiving means on a switching basis. Furthermore, in the apparatus according to the first, second or third type of system as recited above, it is preferable that said transmitting and receiving means is arranged to perform transmission of ultrasonic waves in such a manner that a higher energy of electric power is supplied to said piezoelectric transducers for transmitting of ultrasonic waves along scan lines nearer edge portions of said sector configuration. And it is preferable that said transmitting and receiving means is arranged to amplify the received signals derived through said piezoelectric transducers with a higher amplification factor for receiving of ultrasonic waves along scan lines nearer edge portions of said sector configuration. With respect to display means, in the apparatus according to the first, second or third type of system as recited above, it is preferable that said display means displays a relative position of said piezoelectric transducers to a tomographic image of the subject, along with the tomographic image. Further, in the apparatus according to the first, second or third type of system as recited above, in a case where there is provided the second transmitting and receiving means in addition to said transmitting and receiving means, it is acceptable that said display means displays a tomographic image of the subject based on the received signals derived through said transmitting and receiving means, and in addition a partial image of a tomographic image of the subject based on the received signals derived through said second transmitting and receiving means, said partial image being displayed on a screen area, in which the former tomographic image is not displayed, in alignment of coordinates with the former tomographic image. Furthermore, in the apparatus according to the first, second or third type of system as recited above, it is a preferable aspect that said display means displays a tomographic image having an angle defined by two scan lines of both the edges of said sector configuration, said angle exceeding 90°. And it is acceptable that said display means displays a first tomographic image of the subject based on the received signals derived through said transmitting and receiving means, and in addition a screen area adapted to display a second tomographic image of the subject based on received signals which will be derived when ultrasonic waves are received along a plurality of scan lines which are sequentially deflected as a sector in the arrangement direction and pass through a predetermined point fixed on said piezoelectric transducers or movable on said piezoelectric transducers in the arrangement direction, said screen area being displayed in alignment of coordinates with the first tomographic image. According to the conventional scan scheme, it is obliged to be influenced by the ribs in transmitting and receiving of ultrasonic waves, since the ribs appear on scan lines. For this reason, according to the ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the first type of system, a sector center is set up within the human body (between adjacent ribs) and the sector scan is implemented with the set up position in the center. A positional relationship between the human body and the ribs is expressed such that a distance from the body surface to the ribs is of the order of 0-1 mm; a shape of a rib is almost elliptical with a dimension of the order of 12 mm in width and of the order of 8 mm in thickness; and an opening of adjacent ribs is about 10 mm. In view of such a positional relationship, if the sector center is set up to 1-6 mm in depth, preferably, 4 mm-5 mm within the human body, it is possible to perform a scan avoiding the ribs. Consequently, if transmitting and receiving of ultrasonic waves are effected through shifting a starting point of a scan line (an intersection of the scan line and the arranged piezoelectric transducers) in accordance with a deflecting angle of the scan line concerned, in such a manner that the respective scan lines intersect at a predetermined point of 1-6 mm (preferably 4 mm-5 mm) in depth within the human body, it is possible to implement a sector scan with a point (the first point) within the human body in the center. With respect to the aperture (the number of elements) for transmitting and receiving, hitherto, the number of elements for transmitting and receiving is given by 7 to 9 elements (cf. FIGS. 29 and 30) so that the same aperture is provided for the respective scan lines. On the other hand, according to the ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the first type of system of the present invention, transmitting and/or receiving of ultrasonic waves are performed using a larger number of said piezoelectric transducers for transmitting and receiving of ultrasonic waves along the scan lines nearer a central part of the sector configuration. Thus, according to the ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the first type of system of the present invention, resolution and penetration are improved comparing with the conventional system. In this case, the aperture of the edge portion is smaller than that of the central part. As a result, resolution and penetration will be reduced relatively comparing with the central part. However, it is possible to avoid such a reduction by means of increasing an energy (voltage, the number of pulses and the like) for driving the piezoelectric transducers for scan lines nearer the edge portion, or increasing an amplification factor of the received signal for scan lines nearer the edge portion. Further, moving the first predetermined point as the pivot of a sector shaped scan line to the depth direction within the subject makes it possible to control the first predetermined point to a suitable depth even if individuality (physique) of the subject is varied. Furthermore, moving the first predetermined point to the arrangement direction make it possible to observe with greater resolution one of the right and the left of the tomographic image in accordance with the moving direction. In this manner, according to the ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the first type of system of the present invention, it is possible to perform transmitting and receiving of ultrasonic waves without obstruction, thereby suppressing multiple reflection from the ribs and deterioration of images. And in addition, it is possible to improve resolution and penetration. According to the ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the second type of system of the present invention, a cross point (the second predetermined point) as to transmitting is set up shallowly more than a cross point (the third predetermined point) as to receiving. This feature permits a less moving amount of the cross point of scan lines in transmitting with the piezoelectric transducers, thereby spreading a transmitting aperture also as to the scan lines at the sector shaped edge portions. Therefore, comparing with the first type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, while it is influenced somewhat by the ribs, it is possible to enhance resolution of the edge portions and intensity of the received signals by the corresponding enlargement of the transmitting aperture. According to the ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the third type of system of the present invention, with respect to transmission, in a similar fashion to that of the conventional system (cf. FIG. 27), a cross point (the fourth predetermined point) of the scan lines is set up on the piezoelectric transducers, and on the other hand, with respect to receiving only, a cross point (the fifth predetermined point) of the scan lines is set up within the subject away from the piezoelectric transducers. According to the ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, as the third type of system of the present invention, comparing with the second type of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus, while it is more influenced somewhat by the ribs, it is possible to enhance resolution of the edge portions and intensity of the received signals by the corresponding. Further, for example, if the above-mentioned receiving dynamic focus is used in combination, it is possible to form a tomographic image, similar to the conventional one, in which a point coming in contact with the piezoelectric transducers is provided as the pivot of the sector configuration. In this case, it is possible to perform a display which will give little a sense of disharmony for an operator who is familiar with the conventional tomographic image in observation. Further, positioning a cross point of scan lines for transmitting and receiving within the subject away from the piezoelectric transducers makes it possible, even in a case where a sector shaped tomographic image is formed with the point located away from the piezoelectric transducers in the center, to clear a distinction from the screen of the conventional tomographic image in such a manner that a relative position of the piezoelectric transducers is displayed on the screen, the tomographic image concerned is superposed on the conventional sector shaped tomographic image formed with a point coming in contact with the piezoelectric transducers in the center, or a display image area of the conventional sector shaped tomographic image is clarified. Thus, it is possible, for an operator who is familiar with the conventional tomographic image in observation, to avoid mistake as to the corresponding between the tomographic image and the position within the subject. Incidentally, according to the present invention, it is possible to set up the center of a sector configuration of a tomographic image inside the subject. Consequently, it is possible to display a wider-angle of tomographic image than 90° of opening angle of tomographic image according to the conventional scheme. The display of such a wide-angle of tomographic image allows observation and diagnostic over the wide area particularly as to a deep portion within the subject. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the first ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the first ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the first ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the first ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the second ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the second ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the second ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the second ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the third ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the third ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the third ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a typical illustration showing an example in which the present invention is applied to the related art; FIG. 13 is a typical illustration showing an example in which the present invention is applied to the related art; FIG. 14 is a typical illustration showing an example in which the present invention is applied to the related art; FIG. 15 is a typical illustration showing an example in which an intersection of the scan lines within the human body is varied in a scan direction and a depth direction; FIG. 16 is a typical illustration showing an example in which an intersection of the scan lines within the human body is varied in a scan direction and a depth direction; FIG. 17 is a typical illustration showing an example in which an intersection of the scan lines within the human body is varied in a scan direction and a depth direction; FIG. 18 is an illustration showing the first example in which information as to the depth direction is displayed; FIG. 19 is an illustration showing an example in which coordinates of a tomographic image according to the conventional sector scan is displayed along with a tomographic image according to the present invention; FIG. 20 is an illustration showing an example in which an image interpolation is effected; FIG. 21 is an illustration showing an example in which an image interpolation is effected; FIG. 22 is an illustration showing an example as to an image display according to the present invention; FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram showing a functional structure of an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus. FIG. 24 is a typical illustration of an example showing a relationship between an arrangement of the piezoelectric transducers and reflecting points of ultrasonic waves within the subject; FIG. 25 is an illustration showing a pattern of weighting for the respective received signals derived through the elements; FIG. 26 is an illustration showing an example in which a size of the receiving aperture is varied in a state that weighting is fixed; FIG. 27 is a typical illustration showing the state of transmitting and receiving of the ultrasonic waves through rib-to-rib toward the heart using the conventional electronic sector scheme of ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus; FIG. 28 is a typical illustration showing a technique of removing or reducing a bad influence of the ribs, which has been proposed in the related art; FIG. 29 is a typical illustration useful for understanding the proposal according to the related art; and FIG. 30 is a typical illustration useful for understanding the proposal according to the related art. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, there will be described embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 1 to 4 are each a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the first ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention. According to the present embodiment, it is assumed that 64 pieces of element are arranged with 0.3 mm of element pitch, and thus there is provided 19.2 mm of aperture. Transmitting and receiving are effected using a number of elements, such as the maximum 48 pieces of element for transmitting and the maximum 64 pieces of element or overall elements for receiving, as much as possible, and setting up a cross point 2 of the respective scan lines at about 5 mm of depth. First, FIG. 1 concerns an example in which the leftmost scan line is formed. A starting point 3 of the scan line is set up at a position shifting from the center 1 to the right side by the corresponding 17 pieces of element (about 5 mm), and the ultrasound beam is transmitted from the starting point 3 toward the left down. In this case, since 15 pieces of element remain on the right of the starting point 3, the number of elements available for transmission is 30 pieces (aperture 4) which is a maximum assuming symmetry with respect to right and left. For receiving, the same elements as transmission are used. With respect to weighting for receiving, as shown in a mountain-shaped weighting distribution 5 in the figure, the higher weighting is provided at the central part with the starting point 3 in the center, and the lower at the edge parts. Next, there will be described a case in which the scan line of the central part as shown in FIG. 2 is formed. In FIG. 2 and the following figures, suffixes "T" and "R" of reference numbers denote transmitting end and receiving end, respectively. For example, in FIG. 2, 4T and 4R denote a transmitting aperture and a receiving aperture, respectively. The scan line shown in FIG. 2 concerns an example in which the starting point 3 is shifted to the left side by the corresponding 2 pieces of element. While the number of elements available for transmission is 60 pieces which is a maximum assuming symmetry with respect to right and left, the maximum number of elements available for transmission is set up to be 48 pieces, and thus 48 pieces of element are used for transmission. With respect to receiving, in a similar fashion to that of FIG. 1, the receiving is implemented using 60 pieces of element the number of which is a maximum assuming symmetry with respect to right and left with the starting point 3 in the center. Performing the transmitting and receiving scans as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 provides, as shown in FIG. 3, a sector configuration of scan with a cross point 2 within the human body in the center. FIG. 4 shows a distribution of the number of elements for transmitting and receiving to the shift of scan lines. Incidentally, if intensity of the received signal of the scan line on the edge portion is insufficient owing to shortage of the elements, it is possible to facilitate an observation by increasing an amplification factor of the scan line on the edge portion. FIGS. 5-8 are each a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the second ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; According to the present embodiment, as to an arrangement involved in receiving, that in the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-4 is retained without any changes, and as to an arrangement involved in transmitting, there is so arranged that the respective scan lines on the transmitting side intersect at a position 2T of about 2.4 mm in depth which is shallower than that in the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-4. The reason why according to the present embodiment there is so arranged that the respective scan lines on the transmitting side intersect at the position which is shallower than that in the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-4 is that such an arrangement permits the situation that a shift amount 6T (cf. FIG. 7) of the center 3T for transmitting is less than a shift amount 6R of the center 3R for receiving. Consequently, it is sufficient for forming the edge portion scan lines to simply shift the starting point 3T from the center by the corresponding 8 elements, so that the number of elements available for transmission is 48 pieces which is a maximum assuming symmetry with respect to right and left. Thus, as shown in FIG. 8, it is possible to transmit overall scan lines using 48 elements the number of which is a maximum number of elements available for transmission. Therefore, comparing with the embodiment shown in FIGS. 2-4, while it is influenced somewhat by the ribs, it is possible to enhance resolution of the edge portions and intensity of the received signals by the corresponding enlargement of the transmitting aperture. FIGS. 9-11 are each a typical illustration of ultrasonic wave transmitting and receiving according to an embodiment of the third ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus of the present invention; according to the present embodiment, as to transmitting, in a similar fashion of that of the conventional electronic sector system (cf. FIG. 27), the ultrasonic waves are transmitted with the central part 1 of the elements 12 in the center, and with respect to receiving only, this is the similar as to the matter of the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-4 and the embodiment shown in FIGS. 5-8. As seen from FIG. 9, when the ultrasound beams are transmitted toward the left side, the left half of elements among the elements 12 receive reflecting echoes from the ribs more than that of the right half of elements. Hence, as shown in FIG. 10, only the elements of the right-hand side among the elements 12, which will receive less reflecting echoes from the ribs, are used for receiving, thereby contributing to reduction of the reflecting signals from the ribs. FIGS. 12-14 are each a typical illustration showing an example in which the present invention is applied to the techniques (cf. FIGS. 29 and 30) proposed in Japanese Patent Publication No. 12971/1992. According to this scheme, the number of elements for transmitting and receiving is increased in comparison with the conventional scheme, thereby improving resolution and intensity of the received signals. With respect to the scan lines of the central part of the sector configuration, the number of elements for transmitting and receiving is increased in comparison with that of the edge portions, thereby improving remarkably a portion of the scanlines of the central part of the sector shaped tomographic image in the quality of image. FIGS. 15-17 are each a typical illustration showing an example in which an intersection of the scan lines within the human body is varied in a scan direction and a depth direction. Since a distance from a body surface up to the ribs and an interval between adjacent ribs differ from individual to individual, it is desirable to provide, as shown in FIGS. 15 and 16, such an arrangement that a position 2 of the sector center is optionally variable in depth directions 21 and 22. Providing a variable amount of 1-6 mm in depth permits the system to be sufficiently applicable for children to adults who are on the plump side with a distance between the body surface and the ribs in the order of 8 mm. It is acceptable to mount, for example, a variable switch on a scan panel so as to control the variable amount while observing an image. Further, if it is so arranged that the sector center 1 is optionally variable also with respect to a scan direction (right and left direction in FIGS. 15-17), then for example, in a case where a target is in the left edge portion of the screen, it is possible, as shown in FIG. 17, to shift a group of elements to the right so that the sector center can be moved to the left-hand side 23. In this manner, the number of elements for transmitting and receiving on the right-hand side is increased. An increase of the number of elements for transmitting and receiving on the right-hand side makes it possible to enhance resolution of the left-hand side portion of the image and intensity of the received signal, thereby enhancing a quality of image on the portion of the left-hand side. As another embodiment, not illustrated, it is acceptable to provide on an operation panel a switch for change-over of a sector mode so as to be switched also to the conventional sector scan (cf. FIG. 27). Providing an additional function of change-over of a sector mode permits the system of the invention to be used for a case other than the case of diagnostic of the heart through an opening between adjacent ribs. Incidentally, according to the system of the present invention, the number of elements for transmitting is reduced with nearer scan lines to the edge portions larger in an amount of shift of the center 2 of a group of elements for transmitting and receiving. This will invite a lower transmitting sound pressure on the edge portion. Further, since the number of elements for receiving is also reduced, intensity of the received signal is reduced. This will invite darkness on the edge portions when displayed in the form of image, and thus be in danger of assuming image hard to see. For these reasons, according to the present invention, there is provided an additional function in which a drive voltage increases with nearer scan lines to the edge portions to enhance the transmitting sound pressure, thereby improving an S/N ratio. Further, if there is provided a function in which an amplification factor is enhanced with nearer scan lines to the edge portions, it is possible to prevent the edge portions from being displayed with dark images, thereby assuming images easy to see. Next, there will be described an example involved in an image display. FIG. 18 is an illustration showing the first example in which information as to the depth direction is displayed. When the sector center according to the present invention is set up within the human body (between adjacent ribs) and is varied optionally, if a tomographic image 31 of only a portion deeper than the sector center is displayed in a similar fashion to that of the conventional sector scan, there is the possibility that the position of the depth direction can not be grasped. For this reason, there is displayed also a tomographic image 30 from a surface of the elements to the sector center, thereby facilitating understanding a relative position relation of the elements and the tomographic image. As another method, instead of no display of the tomographic image 30 shown in FIG. 18, it is acceptable to display information as to a distance from the surface of the elements on a scale basis, or to display a position of the surface of the elements. Further, as shown in FIG. 19, if there are displayed coordinates provided by a sector display from the center 1 of the elements along with a tomographic image 31 according to the present invention, it will be easy to use for an operator who is used to the conventional display scheme for the tomographic image and an operator who uses the sector scan according to the present invention and the sector scan according to the conventional scheme on a switching basis, since there is no remarkable changes on the screen. FIGS. 20 and 21 are each an illustration showing an example in which an image interpolation is effected. FIG. 20 illustrates an example in which an image interpolation is effected in a remaining area 32 other than a display area of the tomographic image 31 according to the present invention, in the conventional sector scan in FIG. 19. As an example of an image to be interpolated, there are considered a tomographic image formed through the conventional sector scan taking with the sector center 1 in the center of the sector configuration, or a uniform brightness of image and the like. Further, according to an example shown in FIG. 21, as an interpolating image, there is used an image in a case where a trapezoid scan is effected with a shift width 6 (cf. FIG. 3) of the starting point 3 (cf. FIG. 1) of the scan lines as an aperture. FIG. 22 is an illustration showing the fourth example as to an image display according to the present invention. According to the present invention, the ultrasonic waves are transmitted and received avoiding the ribs, and thus the field of the vision is narrowed by the corresponding area 32 portion in comparison with the conventional sector scan. For this reason, according to the present embodiment, a scan angle is spread exceeding 90°, so that a deep portion can be seen over the wide range. According to the conventional scan scheme in which a scan is performed in a sector configuration from the center 1 of the elements, even if the scan angle is spread, the ultrasonic waves will be obstructed by the ribs. And thus, it is difficult to expect the effect. On the contrary, the scan scheme according to the present invention makes it possible to see the deep portion over the wide range. While the present invention has been described with reference to the particular illustrative embodiments, it is not to be restricted by those embodiments but only by the appended claims. It is to be appreciated that those skilled in the art can change or modify the embodiments without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention.

There is provided an ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus in which a plurality of piezoelectric transducers are arranged in a predetermined direction so as to transmit and receive ultrasonic waves to obtain a tomographic image on the inside of the subject. The ultrasonic diagnostic apparatus adopts such a scheme that a sector scan is electronically performed, and is capable of preventing deterioration of an image by reducing an influence of reflection of the ultrasonic waves from the ribs, and forming a good image improved in resolution. An intersection of scan lines at at least receiving end is set up between rib-to-rib which are located at the position deeper than the body surface of the subject. An aperture for transmitting and receiving of ultrasonic waves along the scan line of the central part of the sector configuration is wider than that along the scan line of the edge portion of the sector configuration.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT This invention was made with government support under award 0845832 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Live migration of virtual machines (VMs) is a critical activity in the operation of modern data centers. Live migration involves the transfer of multiple Gigabytes of memory within a short duration (assuming that network attached storage is used, which does not require migration) and can consequently consume significant amounts of network and CPU resources. An administrator may need to simultaneously migrate multiple VMs to perform resource re-allocation to handle peak workloads, imminent failures, cluster maintenance, or powering down an entire rack to save energy, Simultaneous live migration of multiple VMs is referred to as gang migration[8]. Gang migration is a network intensive activity that can cause an adverse cluster-wide impact by overloading the core links and switches of the datacenter network. Gang migration can also affect the performance at the network edges where the migration traffic competes with the bandwidth requirements of applications within the VMs. Hence it is important to minimize the adverse performance impact of gang migration by reducing the total amount of data transmitted due to VM migration. Reducing the VM migration traffic can also lead to a reduction in the total time required to migrate multiple VMs. Process migration has also been extensively researched. Numerous cluster job schedulers exist, as well as virtual machine management systems, such as VMWare's DRS, XenEnterprise, Usher, Virtual Machine Management Pack, and CoD that let administrators control jobs/VM placement based on cluster load or specific policies such as affinity or anti-affinity rules. [27] optimizes the live migration of a single VM over wide-area network through a variant of stop-and-copy approach which reduces the number of memory copying iterations. [30] and [27] further use page-level deduplication along with the transfer of differences between dirtied, and original pages, eliminating the need to retransmit the entire dirtied page. [16] uses an adaptive page compression technique to optimize the live migration of a single VM. Post-copy [13] transfers every page to the destination only once, as opposed to the iterative pre-copy[20], [5], which transfers dirtied pages multiple times. [14] employs low-overhead RDMA over Infiniband to speed up the transfer of a single VM. [21] excludes the memory pages of processes communicating over the network from being transferred during the initial rounds of migration, thus limiting the total migration time. [29] shows that certain benchmarks used in high performance computing are likely to have large amounts of content sharing. The work focuses mainly on the opportunity and feasibility of exploiting content sharing, but does not provide an implementation of an actual migration mechanism using this observation, nor does it evaluate the migration time or network traffic reduction. Shrinker[22] migrates virtual clusters over high-delay links of WAN. It uses an online hashing mechanism in which hash computation for identifying duplicate pages (a CPU-intensive operation) is performed during the migration. 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Nos. 8,612,439; 8.601,473; 8,600,947; 8,595,460; 8,595,346; 8,595,191; 8,589,640; 8,577,918; 8,566,640; 8,554,918; 8,549,518; 8,549,350; 8,549,245; 8,533,231; 8,527,544; 8,516,158; 8,504,870; 8,504,791; 8,504,670; 8,489,744; 8,484,505; 8,484,356; 8,484,249; 8,463,991; 8,453,031; 8,452,932; 8,452,731; 8,442,955; 8,433,682; 8,429,651; 8,429,649; 8,429,360; 8,429,307; 8,413,146; 8,407,428; 8,407,190; 8,402,309; 8,402,306; 8,375,003; 8,335,902; 8,332,689; 8,311,985; 8,307,359; 8,307,177; 8,285,681; 8,239,584; 8,209,506; 8,166,265; 8,135,930; 8,060,553; 8,060,476; 8,046,550; 8,041,760; 7,814,470; and 7,814,142. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present technology provides, for example, live gang migration of multiple VMs that run on multiple physical machines, which may be in a cluster or separated by a local area network or wide area network. A cluster is assumed to have a high-bandwidth low-delay interconnect such has Gigabit Ethernet[10], 10 GigE[9], or Infiniband[15]. Wide Area Networks tend to have lower throughput, lower communications reliability, and higher latency than communications within a cluster. One approach to reducing the network traffic due to gang migration uses the following observation. VMs within a cluster often have similar memory content, given that they may execute the same operating system, libraries, and applications. Hence, a significant number of their memory pages may be identical[25]. Similarly, VMs communicating over less constrained networks may also share memory content. One can reduce the network overhead of gang migration using deduplication, i.e. by avoiding the transmission of duplicate copies of identical pages. One approach is called gang migration using global deduplication (GMGD), which performs deduplication during the migration of VMs that run on different physical machines. In contrast, gang migration using local deduplication (GMLD) refers to deduplicating the migration of VMs running within a single host[8]. Various aspects which may be used include: A technique to identify and track identical memory content across VMs running on different physical machines in a cluster, including non-migrating VMs running on the target machines; and a technique to deduplicate this identical memory content during the simultaneous live migration of multiple VMs, while keeping the coordination overhead low. For example, an implementation of GMGD may be provided on the QEMU/KVM[18] platform. A quantitative evaluation of GMGD on a 30 node cluster test bed having 10 GigE core links and 1 Gbps edge links was performed, comparing GMGD against two techniques—the QEMU/KVM's default live migration technique, called online compression (OC), and GMLD. Prior efforts to reduce the data transmitted during VM migration have focused on live migration of a single VM[5], [20], [13], [16], live migration of multiple VMs running on the same physical machine (GMLD) [8], live migration of a virtual cluster across a wide-area network (WAN)[22], or non-live migration of multiple VM images across a WAN[17]. Compared to GMLD, GMGD faces the additional challenge of ensuring that the cost of global deduplication does not exceed the benefit of network traffic reduction during the live migration. The deduplication cost may be calculated, inferred or presumed. In contrast to migration over a WAN, which has high-bandwidth high-delay links, migration within a datacenter LAN has high-bandwidth low-delay links. This difference is important because hash computations, which are used to identify and deduplicate identical memory pages, are CPU-intensive operations. When migrating over a LAN, hash computations become a serious bottleneck if performed on line during migration, whereas over a WAN, the large round-trip latency can mask the online hash computation overhead. First, a distributed duplicate tracking phase identifies and tracks identical memory content across VMs running on same/different physical machines in a cluster, inducting non-migrating VMs running on the target machines. The key challenge here is a distributed indexing mechanism that computes content hashes on VMs' memory content on different machines and allows individual nodes to efficiently query and locate identical pages. Two options are a distributed hash table or a centralized indexing server, both of which have their relative merits and drawbacks. The former prevents a single point of bottleneck/failure, whereas the latter simplifies the overall indexing and lookup operation during runtime. Secondly, a distributed deduplication phase, during the migration phase, avoids the need for re-transmission of identical memory content, that was identified in the first step, during the simultaneous live migration of multiple VMs. The goal here is to reduce the network traffic generated by migration of multiple VMs by eliminating the retransmission of identical pages from different VMs. Note that the deduplication operation would itself introduce control traffic to identify which identical pages have already been transferred from the source to the target racks. This control traffic overhead is minimized, in terms of both additional bandwidth and latency introduced due to synchronization. Deduplication has been used to reduce the memory footprint of VMs in[3],[25],[19],[1],[28] and[11]. These techniques use deduplication to reduce memory consumption either within a single VM or between multiple co-located VMs. In contrast, the present technology uses cluster-wide deduplication across multiple physical machines to reduce the network traffic overhead when simultaneously migrating multiple VMs. Non-live migration of a single VM can be speeded up by using content hashing to detect blocks within the VM image that are already present at the destination[23]. VMFlock[17] speeds up the non-live migration of a group of VM images over a high-bandwidth high-delay wide-area network by deduplicating blocks across the VM images. In contrast, one embodiment of the present technology focuses on reducing the network performance impact of the live and simultaneous migration of the memories of multiple VMs within a high-bandwidth low-delay datacenter network. The technology can of course be extended outside of these presumptions. In the context of live migration of multiple VMs, GMLD[8] deduplicates the transmission of identical memory content among VMs co-located within a single host. It also exploits sub-page level &duplication, page similarity, and delta difference for dirtied pages, all of which can be integrated in GMGD. The large round-trip latency of WAN links masks the high hash computation overhead during migration, and therefore makes online hashing feasible. Over low-delay links, e.g., Gigabit Ethernet LAN, offline hashing appears preferable. Gang migration with global deduplication (GMGD) provides a solution to reduce the network load resulting from the simultaneous live migration of multiple VMs within a datacenter that has high-bandwidth low-latency interconnect, and has implications for other environments. The technology employs cluster-wide deduplication to identify, track, and avoid the retransmission of pages that have identical content. Evaluations of a GMGD prototype on a 30 node cluster show that GMGD reduces the amount of data transferred over the core links during migration by up to 51% and the total migration time by up to 39% compared to online compression. A similar technology may be useful for sub-page-level deduplication, which advantageously would reduce the amount of data that needs to be transferred. Ethernet multicast may also be used to reduce the amount of data that needs to be transmitted. Although we describe GMGD in the context of its use within a single datacenter for clarity, GMGD can also be used for migration of multiple VMs between multiple datacenters across a wide-area network (WAN). The basic operation of GMGD over a WAN remains the same. Compared to existing approaches that use online hashing/compression, GMGD uses an offline duplicate tracking phase. This would in fact eliminate the computational overhead of hash computation during the migration of multiple VMs over the WAN and improve the overall performance applications that execute within the VMs. Furthermore, as WAN link latencies reduce further, the cost of performing online hash computation (i.e. during migration) for large number of VMs would continue to increase. This would make GMGD more attractive due to its use of offline duplicate tracking phase. It is therefore an object to provide a system and method for gang migration with global deduplication, comprising: providing a datacenter comprising a plurality of virtual machines in a cluster defined by a set of information residing in a first storage medium, the cluster communicating through at least one data communication network; performing cluster-wide deduplication of the plurality of virtual machines to identify redundant memory pages of the first storage medium representing the respective virtual machines that have corresponding content; initiating a simultaneous live migration of the plurality of virtual machines in the cluster, by communicating information sufficient to reconstitute the plurality of virtual machines in a cluster defined by the set of information residing in a second storage medium, through the at least one data communication network; based on the identification of the redundant memory pages having corresponding content, selectively communicating information representing the unique memory pages of the first storage medium through the at least one communication network to the second storage medium, substantially without communicating all of the memory pages of the first storage medium; and subsequent to communication through the at least one communication network, duplicating the redundant memory pages of the first storage medium in the second storage medium selectively dependent on the identified redundant memory pages, to reconstitute the plurality of virtual machines in the second storage medium. It is also an object to provide a system for gang migration with global deduplication, in a datacenter comprising a plurality of virtual machines in a cluster defined by a set of information residing in a first storage medium, the cluster communicating through at least one data communication network, comprising: at least one processor configured to perform cluster-wide deduplication of the plurality of virtual machines to identify redundant memory pages of the first storage medium representing the respective virtual machines that have corresponding content; at least one communication link configured to communicate a simultaneous live migration of the plurality of virtual machines in the cluster, by communicating information sufficient to reconstitute the plurality of virtual machines in a cluster defined by the set of information residing in a second storage medium, through the at least one data communication network: the at least one processor being further configured, based on the identification of the redundant memory pages having corresponding content, to selectively communicate information representing the unique memory pages of the first storage medium through the at least one communication network to the second storage medium, substantially without communicating all of the memory pages of the first storage medium, and subsequently to communicate through the at least one communication network, duplicating the redundant memory pages of the first storage medium in the second storage medium selectively dependent on the identified redundant memory pages, to reconstitute the plurality of virtual machines in the second storage medium. It is a still further object to provide a method for migration of virtual machines with global &duplication, comprising: providing a plurality of virtual machines at a local facility, defined by a set of stored information comprising redundant portions, the network being interconnected with a wide area network; identifying at least a subset of the redundant portions of the stored information; initiating a simultaneous live migration of the plurality of virtual machines by communicating through the wide area network to the remote location data sufficient to reconstitute the set of stored information comprising the identification of the subset of the elements of the redundant portions and the set of stored information less redundant ones of the subset of the redundant portions of the stored information; receiving at a remote location the data sufficient to reconstitute the set of stored information; duplicating the subset of the redundant portions of the stored information to reconstitute the set of stored information defining the plurality of virtual machines; and transferring an active status to the reconstituted plurality of virtual machines at the remote location The identification of redundant portions or pages of memory is advantageously performed using a hash table, which can be supplemented with a dirty or delta table, such that the hash values need not all be recomputed in real time. A hash value of memory portion which remains unchanged can be computed once, and so long as it remains unchanged, the hash value maintained. Hash values of pages or portions which change dynamically can be recomputed as necessary. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an illustration of GMGD; FIG. 2 shows deduplication of identical pages during migration; FIG. 3 shows the layout of the testbed used for evaluation; FIG. 4 illustrates network traffic on core links when migrating idle VMs; FIG. 5 illustrates network traffic on core links when migrating busy VMs; FIG. 6 shows a downtime comparison; FIG. 7 shows the total migration time with background traffic; FIG. 8 shows background traffic performance with gang migration; and FIG. 9 illustrates the proposed scatter-gather based live VM migration. FIG. 10 shows a block diagram of a known computer network topology. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Architecture The high-level architecture of GMGD is shown with respect to FIG. 1 . For simplicity of exposition, we first describe how GMGD operates when VMs are live migrated from one rack of machines to another rack, followed by a description of its operation in the general case. For each VM being migrated, the target physical machine is provided as an input to GMGD. Target mapping of VMs could be provided by another VM placement algorithm that maximizes some optimization criteria such as reducing inter-VM communication overhead[26] or maximizing the memory sharing potential[28]. GMGD does not address the VM placement problem nor does it make any assumptions about the lack or presence of inter-VM dependencies. As shown in FIG. 1 , a typical cluster consists of multiple racks of physical machines. Page P is identical among all four VMs at the source rack. VM 1 and VM 3 are being migrated to target rack 1 . VM 2 and VM 4 are being migrated to target rack 2 . One copy of P is sent to host 5 which forwards P to host 6 in target rack 1 . Another copy of P is sent to host 8 which forwards P to host 9 in target rack 2 . Thus identical pages headed for the same target rack are sent only once per target rack over the core network, reducing network traffic overhead. Machines within a rack are connected to a top-of-the-rack (TOR) switch. TOR switches are connected to one or more core switches using high-bandwidth links (typically 10 Gbps or higher). GMGD does not preclude the use of other layouts where the core network could become overloaded. Migrating VMs from one rack to another increases the network traffic overhead on the core links. To reduce this overhead, GMGD employs a cluster-wide deduplication mechanism to identify and track identical pages across VMs running on different machines. As illustrated in FIG. 1 , GMGD identifies the identical pages from VMs that are being migrated to the same target rack (or more generally, the same facility) and transfers only one copy of each identical page to the target rack. At the target rack, the first machine to receive the identical page transfers the page to other machines in the rack that also require the page. This prevents duplicate transfers of an identical page over the core network to the same target rack. GMGD can work with any live VM migration technique, such as pre-copy[5] or post-copy[13]. In the prototype system described below, GMGD was implemented within the default pre-copy mechanism in QEMU/KVM. GMGD has two phases, namely duplicate tracking and live migration. Physical machines in enterprise clusters often have multiple network interface cards (NICs) to increase the network bandwidth available to each node. The availability of multiple NICs may be exploited to reduce the total migration time of live gang migration. The basic idea is that memory pages from each VM can be potentially be scattered during migration to multiple nodes at the target machine's rack. The scattered pages could then be gathered by the target machine through parallel transfers over multiple NICs. At the first look, this scatter-gather approach seems to introduce an additional hop in the page transfer between the source and the target. However, when scatter-gather operation is combined with distributed deduplication across multiple VMs, the performance advantages of the approach becomes apparent. In essence, pages with identical content on different VMs are scattered to the same machine on the target rack. Only the first copy of the identical page needs to be transferred, whereas subsequent pages are communicated via their unique identifiers (which includes VM's ID, target machine's ID, page offset and content hash). A. Duplicate Tracking Phase The Duplicate Tracking Phase is carried out during normal execution of VMs at the source machines, before the migration begins. Its purpose is to identify all duplicate memory content (e.g., at the page-level) across all VMs residing on different machines. Content hashing is used to detect identical pages. The pages having the same content yield the same hash value. When the hashing is performed using a standard 160-bit SHA1 hash[12], the probability of collision is less than the probability of a memory error, or an error in a TCP connection[4]. Of course, different hashing or memory page identification technologies might be used. For example, in some environments, static content is mapped to memory locations, in which case, the static content need only be identified, such as with a content vector. In other cases, especially where local processing capacity is available, a memory page which differs by a small amount from a reference page may be coded by its differences. Of course, other technologies which inferentially define the content of the memory can be used. In each machine, a per-node controller process coordinates the tracking of identical pages among all VMs in the machine. The per-node controller instructs a user-level QEMU/KVM process associated with each VM to scan the VM's memory image, perform content based hashing and record identical pages. Since each VM is constantly executing, some of the identical pages may be modified (dirtied) by the VM, either during the hashing, or after its completion. To identify these dirtied pages, the controller uses the dirty logging mode of QEMU/KVM. In this mode, all VM pages are marked as read-only in the shadow page table maintained by the hypervisor. The first write attempt to any read-only page results in a trap into the hypervisor which marks the faulted page as dirty in its dirty bitmap and allows the write access to proceed. The QEMU/KVM process uses a hypercall to extract the dirty bitmap from KVM to identify the modified pages. The per-rack deduplication servers maintain a hash table, which is populated by carrying out a rack-wide content hashing of the 160-bit hash values pre--computed by per-node controllers. Each hash is also associated with a list of hosts in the rack containing the corresponding pages. Before migration, all deduplication servers exchange the hash values and host list with other deduplication servers. In some cases, data in memory is maintained even though the data structures corresponding to those memory pages are no longer in use. In order to avoid need for migration of such data, a table may be maintained of “in use” or “available” memory pages, and the migration limited to the live data structures or program code. In many cases, operating system resources already maintain such table(s), and therefore these need not be independently created or maintained. B. Migration Phase In this phase, all VMs are migrated in parallel to their destination machines. The pre-computed hashing information is used to perform the deduplication of the transferred pages at both the host and the rack levels. QEMU/KVM queries the deduplication server for its rack to acquire the status of each page. If the page has not been transferred already by another VM, then its status is changed to sent and it is transferred to the target QEMU/KVM. For subsequent instances of the same page from any other VM migrating to the same rack, QEMU/KVM transfers the page identifier. Deduplication servers also periodically exchange the information about the pages marked as sent, which allows the VMs in one rack to avoid retransmission of the pages that are already sent by the VMs from another rack. C. Target-side VM Deduplication The racks used as targets for VM migration are often not empty. They may host VMs containing pages that are identical to the ones being migrated into the rack. Instead of transferring such pages from the source racks via core links, they are forwarded within the target rack from the hosts running the VMs to the hosts receiving the migrating VMs. The deduplication server at the target rack monitors the pages within hosted VMs and synchronizes this information with other deduplication servers. Per-node controllers perform this forwarding of identical pages among hosts in the target rack. D. Scatter-Gather VM Deduplication FIG. 9 shows the potential architecture of the system for a two-rack scenario, for simplicity of exposition. The system is easily generalized for a larger multi-rack scenario. One or more VMs are migrated from source machine(s) in one rack to target machine(s) in another rack. Machines in each rack together export a virtual memory device, which is essentially a logical device that aggregates the free memory space available on each machine in the rack. Within each node, the virtual memory device is exported via the block device interface, which is normally used to perform I/O operations. Such a virtualized memory device can be created using the MemX system[31], [32], [33]. See, osnet.cs.binghamton.edu/projects/memx.html, expressly incorporated herein by reference. At the source node, memory pages of the VMs being migrated are written to the virtual memory device, which transparently scatters the pages over the network to machines in Rack 2 and keeps track of their location using a distributed hash table. These pages are also deduplicated against identical pages belonging to other VMs. The target node then reads the pages from the virtual memory device, which transparently gathers pages from other nodes on Rack 2 . Note that the scatter-gather approach can be used with both pre-copy and post-copy migration mechanisms. With pre-copy, the scatter and gather phases overlap with the iterative copy phase, enabling the latter to complete quickly, so that the source can initiate downtime earlier than it would have through traditional pre-copy. With traditional pre-copy, the source node may take a long time to initiate downtime depending upon whether the workload is read-intensive or write-intensive. With post-copy, the scatter operation allows active-push phase to quickly eliminate residual state from the source node, and the gather phase quickly transfers the memory content to the intended target host. The scatter and gather operation can use multiple NICs at the source and target machines to perform parallel transfer of memory pages. In addition, with the availability of multi-core machines, multiple parallel threads at each node can carry out parallel reception and processing of the VM's memory pages. These two factors, combined with cluster-wide deduplication, will enable significant speedups in simultaneous migration of multiple VMs in enterprise settings. EXAMPLE A prototype of GMGD was implemented in the QEMU/KVM virtualization environment. The implementation is completely transparent to the users of the VMs. With QEMU/KVM, each VM is spawned as a process on a host machine. A part of the virtual address space of the QEMU/KVM process is exported to the VM as its physical memory. A. Per-node Controllers Per-node controllers are responsible for managing the deduplication of outgoing and incoming VMs. The controller component managing the outgoing VMs is called the source side and component managing the incoming VMs is called the target side. The controller sets up a shared memory region that is accessible only by other QEMU/KVM processes. The shared memory contains a hash table which is used for tracking identical pages. Note that the shared memory poses no security vulnerabilities because it is outside the physical memory region of the VM in the QEMU/KVM process' address space and is not accessible by the VM itself. The source side of the per-node controller coordinates the local deduplication of memory among co-located VMs. Each QEMU/KVM process scans its VM's memory and calculates a 160-bit SHA1 hash for each page. These hash values are stored in the hash table, where they are compared against each other. A match of two hash values indicates the existence of two identical pages. Scanning is performed by a low priority thread to minimize interference with the VMs' execution. It is noted that the hash table may be used for other purposes, and therefore can be a shared resource with other facilities. The target side of the per-node controller receives incoming identical pages from other controllers in the rack. It also forwards the identical pages received on behalf of other machines in the rack to their respective controllers. Upon reception of an identical page, the controller copies the page into the shared memory region, so that it becomes available to incoming VMs. B. Deduplication Server Deduplication servers are to per-node controllers what per-node controllers are to VMs. Each rack contains a deduplication server that tracks the status of identical pages among VMs that are migrating to the same target rack and the VMs already at the target rack. Deduplication servers maintain a content hash table to store this information. Upon reception of a 160-bit hash value from the controllers, the last 32-bits of the 160-bit hash are used to find a bucket in the hash table. In the bucket, the 160-bit hash entry is compared against the other entries present. If no matching entry is found, a new entry is created. Each deduplication server can currently process up to 200,000 queries per second over a 1 Gbps link. This rate can potentially handle simultaneous VM migrations from up to 180 physical hosts. For context, common 19-inch racks can hold 44 servers of 1U (1 rack unit) height[24]. A certain level of scalability is built into the deduplication server by using multiple threads for query processing, fine-grained reader/writer locks, and batching queries from VMs to reduce the frequency of communication with the deduplication server. Finally, the deduplication server does not need to be a separate server per rack. It can potentially run as a background process within one of the machines in the rack that also runs VMs provided that a few spare CPU cores are available for processing during migration. C. Operations at the Source Machine Upon initiating simultaneous migration of VMs, the controllers instruct individual QEMU/KVM processes to begin the migration. From this point onward, the QEMU/KVM processes communicate directly with the deduplication servers, without any involvement from the controllers. After commencing the migration, each QEMU/KVM process starts transmitting every page of its respective VM. For each page it checks in the local hash table whether the page has already been transferred. Each migration process periodically queries its deduplication server for the status of next few pages it is about to transfer. The responses from the deduplication server are stored into the hash table, in order to be accessible to the other co-located VMs. If the QEMU/KVM process discovers that a page has not been transferred, then it transmits the entire page to its peer QEMU/KVM process at the target machine along with its unique identifier. QEMU/KVM at the source also retrieves from the deduplication server a list of other machines in the target rack that need an identical page. This list is also sent to the target machine's controller, which then retrieves the page and sends it to the machines in the list. Upon transfer the page is marked as sent in the source controller's hash table. The QEMU/KVM process periodically updates its deduplication server with the status of the sent pages. The deduplication server also periodically updates other deduplication servers with a list of identical pages marked as sent. Dirty pages and unique pages that have no match with other VMs are transferred in their entirety to the destination. FIG. 2 shows the message exchange sequence between the deduplication servers and QEMU/KVM processes for an inter-host deduplication of page P. D. Operations at the Target Machine On the target machine each QEMU/KVM process allocates a memory region for its respective VM where incoming pages are copied. Upon reception of an identical page, the target QEMU/KVM process copies it into the VM's memory and inserts it into the target hash table according to its identifier. If only an identifier is received, a page corresponding to the identifier is retrieved from the target hash table, and copied into the VM's memory. Unique and dirty pages are directly copied into the VMs' memory space. E. Remote Pages Remote pages are deduplicated pages that were transferred by hosts other than the source host. Identifiers of such pages are accompanied by a remote flag. Such pages become available to the waiting hosts in the target rack only after the carrying host forwards them. Therefore, instead of searching for such remote pages in the target hash table immediately upon reception of an identifier, the identifier and the address of the page are inserted into a per-host waiting list. A per QEMU/KVM process thread, called a remote thread, periodically traverses the list, and checks for each entry if the page corresponding to the identifier has been added into the target shared memory. The received pages are copied into the memory of the respective VMs after removing the entry from the list. Upon reception of a more recent dirtied copy of the page whose entry happens to be on the waiting list, the corresponding entry is removed from the list to prevent the thread from over-writing the page with its stale copy. The identical pages already present at the target rack before the migration are also treated as the remote pages. The per-node controllers in the target rack forward such pages to the listed target hosts. This avoids their transmission over the core network links from the source racks. However, pages dirtied by VMs running in the target rack are not forwarded to other hosts and they are requested by the corresponding hosts from their respective source hosts. F. Downtime Synchronization Initiating a VM's downtime before completing target-to-target transfers can increase its downtime duration. However, in the default QEMU/KVM migration technique, downtime is started at the source's discretion and the decision is made solely on the basis of the number of pages remaining to be transferred and the perceived link bandwidth at the source. Therefore, to avoid the overlap between the downtime and target-to-target transfers, a synchronization mechanism is implemented between the source and the target QEMU/KVM processes. The source QEMU/KVM process is prevented from starting the VM downtime and keep it in the live pre-copy iteration mode until all of its pages have been retrieved at the target and copied into memory. Once all remote pages are in place, the source is instructed by the target to initiate the downtime. This allows VMs to minimize their downtime, as only the remaining dirty pages at the source are transferred during the downtime. G. Desynchronizing Page Transfers An optimization was implemented to improve the efficiency of deduplication. There is a small time lag between the transfer of an identical page by a VM and the status of the page being reflected at the deduplication server. This lag can result in duplicate transfer of some identical pages if two largely identical VMs start migration at the same time and transfer their respective memory pages in the same order of page offsets. To reduce such duplicate transfers, each VM transfers pages in different order depending upon their assigned VM number, so as to break any synchronization with other VMs. This reduces the likelihood that identical pages from different VMs may be transferred around the same time. Evaluation GMGD was evaluated in a 30 -node cluster testbed having high-bandwidth low-latency Gigabit Ethernet. Each physical host has two Quad core 2 GHz CPUs, 16 GB of memory, and 1 Gbps network card. FIG. 3 shows the layout of the cluster testbed consisting of three racks, each connected to a different top of rack (TOR) Ethernet switch. The TOR switches are connected to each other by a 10 GigE optical link, which acts as the core link. Although we had only the 30-node three-rack topology available for evaluation, GMGD can be used on larger topologies. Live migration of all VMs is initiated simultaneously and memory pages from the source hosts traverse the 10 GigE optical link between the switches to reach the target hosts. For most of the experiments, each machine hosts four VMs and each VM has 2 virtual CPUs (VCPUs) and 1 GB memory. We compare GMGD against the following VM migration techniques. (1) Online Compression (OC): This is the default VM migration technique used by QEMU/KVM. Before transmission, it compresses pages that are filled with uniform content (primarily pages filled with zeros) by representing the entire page with just one byte. At the target, such pages are reconstructed by filling an entire page with the same byte. Other pages are transmitted in their entirety to the destination. (2) Gang Migration With Local Deduplication (GMLD): This technique uses content hashing to deduplicate the pages across VMs co-located on the same host[8]. Only one copy of identical pages is transferred from the source host. In initial implementations of GMGD prototype, the use of online hashing was considered, in which hash computation and deduplication are performed during migration (as opposed to before migration). Hash computation is a CPU-intensive operation. In the evaluations, it was found that the online hashing variant performed very poorly, in terms of total migration time, on high-bandwidth low-delay Gigabit Ethernet. For example, online hashing takes 7.3 seconds to migrate a 1 GB VM and 18.9 seconds to migrate a 4 GB VM, whereas offline hashing takes only 3.5 seconds and 4.5 seconds respectively. CPU-heavy online hash computation became a serious performance bottleneck and, in fact, yielded worse total migration times than even the simple OC technique described above. Given that the total migration time of online hashing variant is considerably worse than offline hashing, but the savings in network traffic are just comparable, the results for online hashing are omitted in the reports of experiments below. A. Network Load Reduction 1) Idle VMs: Here an equal number of VMs are migrated from each of the two source racks, i.e., for 12×4 configuration, 4 VMs are migrated from each of the 6 hosts on each source rack. FIG. 4 shows the amount of data transferred over the core links for the three VM migration schemes with an increasing number of hosts, each host running four 1 GB idle VMs. Since OC only optimizes the transfer of uniform pages, a set that mainly consists of zero pages, it transfers the highest amount of data. GMLD also deduplicates zero pages in addition to the identical pages across the co-located VMs. As a result, it sends less data than OC. GMGD transfers the lowest amounts of data. For 12 hosts, GMGD shows more than 51%, and 19% decrease in the data transferred through the core links over OC and GMLD respectively. 2) Busy VMs: To evaluate the effect of busy VMs on the amount of data transferred during their migration, Dbench[6], a filesystem benchmark, was run inside VMs. Dbench performs file I/O on a network attached storage. It provides an adversarial workload for GMGD because it uses the network interface for communication and DRAM as a buffer. Dbench was modified to write random data, hence its memory footprint consisted of unique pages that cannot be deduplicated. Also the execution of Dbench was initiated after the deduplication phase of GMGD to ensure that the memory consumed by Dbench was not deduplicated. The VMs are migrated while execution of Dbench is in progress. FIG. 5 shows that GMGD yields a 48% reduction in the amount of data transferred over OC and 18% reduction over GMLD. B. Total Migration Time 1) Idle VMs: To measure the total migration time of different migration techniques, the end-to-end (E2E) total migration time is measured, i.e. the time taken from the start of the migration of the first VM to the end of the migration of the last VM. Cluster administrators are concerned with E2E total migration time of groups of VMs since it measures the time for which the migration traffic occupies the core links. The idle VM section of Table I shows the total migration time for each migration technique with an increasing number of hosts containing idle VMs. Note that even with the maximum number of hosts (i.e. 12 with 6 from each source rack), the core optical link remains unsaturated. Therefore, for each migration technique nearly constant total migration time is observed, irrespective of the number of hosts. Further, among all three techniques, OC has highest total migration time for any number of hosts, which is proportional to the amount of data it transfers. GMGD's total migration time is slightly higher than that of GMLD, approximately 4% higher for 12 hosts. The difference between the total migration time of GMGD and GMLD can be attributed to the overhead associated with GMGD for performing deduplication across the hosts. While the migration is in progress, it queries with the deduplication server to read, or update the status of deduplicated pages. Such requests need to be sent frequently to perform effective deduplication. 2) Busy VMs: Table I shows that Dbench equally increases the total migration time of all the VM migration techniques as compared to their total migration time with idle VMs. However, a slight reduction in the total migration time is observed with an increasing number of hosts. With a lower number of hosts (and therefore a lower number of VMs), the incoming 1 Gbps Ethernet link to the network attached storage server might remain unsaturated, and therefore each Dbench instance can perform I/O at a faster rate compared to a scenario with more VMs, where the VMs must contend for the available bandwidth. The faster I/O rate results in higher page dirtying rate, resulting in more data being transferred during VMs' migration. C. Downtime FIG. 6 shows that increasing the number of hosts does not have a significant impact on the downtimes for all three schemes. This is because each VM's downtime is initiated independently of other VMs. However, the downtime for OC is slightly higher, in the range of 250 ms to 280 ms. D. Background Traffic With the three-rack testbed used in the above experiments, the core links remain uncongested due to limited number of hosts in each source rack. To evaluate the effect of congestion at core links, for the remaining experiments a 2-rack topology was used, consisting of one source rack and one target rack, each containing 10 hosts. With this layout, migration of VMs from 10 source hosts is able to saturate the core link between the TOR switches. The effect of background network traffic on different migration techniques was investigated. Conversely, the effect of different migration techniques on other network-bound applications in the cluster was compared. For this experiment, the 10 GigE core link between the switches was saturated with VM migration traffic and background network traffic. 7 Gbps of background dNetperf[2] UDP traffic was transmitted from the source rack to the target rack such that it competes with the VM migration traffic on the core link. FIG. 7 shows the comparison of total migration time with UDP background traffic for the aforementioned setup. With an increasing number of VMs and hosts, the network contention and packet loss on the 10 GigE core link also increases. A larger total migration time for all three techniques was observed as compared to the corresponding idle VM migration times listed in Table I. However, observe that GMGD has lower total migration time than both OC and GMLD, in contrast to Table I where GMGD had higher TMT compared to GMLD This is because, in response to packet loss at the core link, all VM migration sessions (which are TCP flows) backoff. However, the backoff is proportional to the amount of data transmitted by each VM migration technique. Since GMGD transfers less data, it suffers less from TCP backoff due to network congestion and completes the migration faster. FIG. 8 shows the converse effect, namely, the impact of VM migration on the performance of Netperf. With an increasing number of migrating VMs, Netperf UDP packet losses increase due to network contention. For 10 hosts, GMGD receives 13% more packets than OC and 5.7% more UDP packets than GMLD. E. Application Degradation Table II compares the degradation of applications running inside the VMs during migration using 10×4 configuration. NFS I/O Benchmark: VMs images are often stored on a network attached storage, which can be located outside the rack hosting the VMs. Any I/O operations from VMs traverse one or more switches before reaching the storage server. Here the impact of migration on the performance of I/O operations from VMs in the above scenario is evaluated. Two NFS servers are hosted on two machines located outside the source rack, and each connected to the switch with 1 Gbps Ethernet link. Each VM mounts a partition from one of the NFS servers, and runs a 75 MB sequential file write benchmark. The migration of VMs is carried out while the benchmark is in progress, and the effect of migration on the performance of the benchmark is observed. Since, at the source network interface, the NFS traffic interferes with the migration traffic, the benchmark shows degradation proportional to the amount of data the migration technique transfers. Table II shows the NFS write bandwidth per VM. GMGD yields the smallest reduction in observed bandwidth among the three. TCP RR: Netperf TCP RR VM workload was used to analyze the effect of VM migration on the inter-VM communication. TCP RR is a synchronous TCP request-response test. 20 VMs from 5 hosts are used. as senders, and 20 VMs from the other 5 hosts as receivers. The VMs are migrated while the test is in progress and measure the performance of TCP RR. Figures in Table II show the average transaction rate per sender VM. Due to the lower amount of data transferred through the source NICs, GMGD keeps the NICs available for the inter-VM TCP RR traffic. Consequently, it least affects the performance of TCP RR and gives the highest number of transactions per second among the three. Sum of Subsets: is a CPU-intensive workload that, given a set of integers and an integer k, finds a non-empty subset that sum to k. This program is run in the VMs during their migration to measure the average per-VM completion time of the program. Although GMGD again shows the least adverse impact on the completion time, the difference is insignificant due to the CPU-intensive nature of the workload. F. Performance Overheads Duplicate Tracking: Low priority threads perform hash computation and dirty-page logging in the background. With 4 VMs and 8 cores per machine, a CPU-intensive workload (sum of subsets) experienced an 0.34% overhead and a write-intensive workload (random writes to memory) experienced a 1.99% overhead. With 8 VMs per machine, the overheads were 5.85% and 3.93% respectively, primarily due to CPU contention. Worst-case workload: GMGD does not introduce any additional overheads, compared against OC and GMLD, when running worst-case workloads. VMs run a write-intensive workload that reduces the likelihood of deduplication by modifying 1.7 times as much data as the sire of each VM. All the three techniques show no discernible performance difference in terms of total migration time, data transferred, and application degradation. Space overhead: In the worst case, when all pages are unique, the space overhead for storing the deduplication data structures in each host is 4.3% of the total memory of all VMs. Hardware Overview FIG. 8 (see U.S. Pat. No. 7,702,660, issued to Chan, expressly incorporated herein by reference), shows a block diagram that illustrates a computer system 400 . Computer system 400 includes a bus 402 or other communication mechanism for communicating information, and a processor 404 coupled with bus 402 for processing information. The processor may be a multicore processor, and the computer system may be duplicated as a cluster of processors or computing systems. Computer system 400 also includes a main memory 406 , such as a random access memory (RAM) or other dynamic storage device, coupled to bus 402 for storing information and instructions to be executed by processor 404 . Main memory 406 also may be used for storing temporary variables or other intermediate information during execution of instructions to be executed by processor 404 . Computer system 400 further includes a read only memory (ROM) 408 or other static storage device coupled to bus 402 for storing static information and instructions for processor 404 . A storage device 410 , such as a magnetic disk or optical disk, is provided and coupled to bus 402 for storing information and instructions. The computer system 400 may host a plurality of virtual machines (VMs), which each act as a complete and self-contained computing environment for the software and user interaction, while sharing physical resources. Computer system 400 may be coupled via bus 402 to a display 412 , such as a liquid crystal display monitor, for displaying information to a computer user. An input device 414 , including alphanumeric and other keys, is coupled to bus 402 for communicating information and command selections to processor 404 . Another type of user input device is cursor control 416 , such as a mouse, a trackball, or cursor direction keys for communicating direction information and command selections to processor 404 and for controlling cursor movement on display 412 . This input device typically has two degrees of freedom in two axes, a first axis (e.g., x) and a second axis (e.g., y), that allows the device to specify positions in a plane. In a server environment, typically the user interface for an administrator is provided remotely through a virtual terminal technology, though the information from the physical communications ports can also be communicated remotely. The techniques described herein may be implemented through the use of computer system 400 , which will be replicated for the source and destination cluster, and each computer system 400 will generally have a plurality of server “blades”. According to one embodiment of the invention, those techniques are performed by computer system 400 in response to processor 404 executing one or more sequences of one or more instructions contained in main memory 406 . Such instructions may be read into main memory 406 from another machine-readable medium, such as storage device 410 . Execution of the sequences of instructions contained in main memory 406 causes processor 404 to perform the process steps described herein. In alternative embodiments, hard-wired circuitry may be used in place of or in combination with software instructions to implement the invention. Thus, embodiments of the invention are not limited to any specific combination of hardware circuitry and software. The term “machine-readable medium” as used herein refers to any medium that participates in providing data that causes a machine to operation in a specific fashion, and is tangible and non-transitory. In an embodiment implemented using computer system 400 , various machine-readable media are involved, for example, in providing instructions to processor 404 for execution. Such a medium may take many forms, including but not limited to, non-volatile media, and volatile media, which may be local or communicate through a transmission media or network system. Non-volatile media includes, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as storage device 410 . Volatile media includes dynamic memory, such as main memory 406 . Transmission media includes coaxial cables, copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise bus 402 . Transmission media can also take the form of acoustic or light waves, such as those generated during radio-wave and infra-red data communications. Common forms of machine-readable media include, for example, a hard disk or any other magnetic medium, a DVD or any other optical medium, a RAM, a PROM, and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, or any other medium from which a computer can read. Various forms of machine-readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to processor 404 for execution. For example, the instructions may initially be carried on a magnetic disk or solid state storage media of a remote computer. The remote computer can load the instructions into its dynamic memory. Bus 402 carries the data to main memory 406 , from which processor 404 retrieves and executes the instructions. The instructions received by main memory 406 may optionally be stored on storage device 410 . Computer system 400 also includes a communication interface 418 coupled to bus 402 . Communication interface 418 provides a two-way data communication coupling to a network link 420 that is connected to a local network 422 . For example, communication interface 418 may be a 10 Gigabit Ethernet port to provide a data communication connection to switch or router. The Ethernet packets, which maybe jumbo packets (e.g., 8k) can be routed locally within a data center using TCP/IP or in some cases UDP or other protocols, or externally from a data center typically using TCP/IP protocols. Wireless links may also be implemented. In any such implementation, communication interface 418 sends and receives electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams representing various types of information. Network link 420 typically provides data communication through one or more networks to other data devices. For example, network link 420 may provide a connection through local network 422 to a host computer 424 or to data equipment operated by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) 426 or to an Internet 428 backbone communication link. In the case where an ISP 426 is present, the ISP 426 in turn provides data communication services through the world wide packet data communication network now commonly referred to as the Internet 428 . Local network 422 and Internet 428 both use electrical, electromagnetic or optical signals that carry digital data streams. The signals through the various networks and the signals on network link 420 and through communication interface 418 , which carry the digital data to and from computer system 400 , are exemplary forms of carrier waves transporting the information. Computer system 400 can send messages and receive data, including program code, through the network(s), network link 420 and communication interface 418 . In the Internet example, a server 430 might transmit a requested code for an application program through Internet 428 , ISP 426 , local network 422 and communication interface 418 . The information received is stored in a buffer memory and may be communicated to the processor 404 as it is received, and/or stored in storage device 410 , or other non-volatile storage. U.S. 2012/0173732, expressly incorporated herein by reference, discloses various embodiments of computer systems, the elements of which may be combined or subcombined according to the various permutations. It is understood that this broad invention is not limited to the embodiments discussed herein, but rather is composed of the various combinations, subcombinations and permutations thereof of the elements disclosed herein, including aspects disclosed within the incorporated references. 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[31] Umesh Deshpande, Beilan Wang, Shafee Haque, Michael Hines, and Kartik Gopalan, MemX: Virtualization of Cluster-wide Memory, In Proc. of 39th International Conference on Parallel Processing (ICPP), San Diego, Calif., USA, September 2010. [32] Michael Hines and Kartik Gopalan, MemX: Supporting Large Memory Workloads in Xen Virtual Machines, In Proc. of the International Workshop on Virtualization Technology in Distributed Computing (VTDC), Reno, N.V., November 2007. [33] Michael Hines, Jian Wang, Kartik Gopalan, Distributed Anemone: Transparent Low-Latency Access to Remote Memory in Commodity Clusters, In Proc. of the International Conference on High Performance Computing (HiPC), December 2006. TABLE I Total migration time (in seconds) Total migration time (seconds) Idle VMs Busy VMs Hosts × VMs OC GMLD GMGD OC GMLD GMGD 2 × 4 18.98 10.96 10.61 25.87 17.12 17.40 4 × 4 18.23 11.70 11.8 23.45 15.64 15.98 6 × 4 18.67 11.21 11.56 21.97 14.92 15.07 8 × 4 18.26 11.31 11.25 20.98 14.13 14.37 10 × 4  18.7 11.16 12.05 21.90 14.13 14.9 12 × 4  19.10 11.48 12.00 21.65 14.05 14.09 TABLE II Application degradation in migrating 40 VMs W/o Benchmarks Migration OC GMLD GMGD NFS (Mbps/VM) 48.08 34.52 36.93 44.82 TCP-RR (trans/sec) 1180 232.36 280.41 419.86 Sum of Subsets (sec) 32.32 33.045 33.77 32.98

Datacenter clusters often employ live virtual machine (VM) migration to efficiently utilize cluster-wide resources. Gang migration refers to the simultaneous live migration of multiple VMs from one set of physical machines to another in response to events such as load spikes and imminent failures. Gang migration generates a large volume of network traffic and can overload the core network links and switches in a data center. The present technology reduces the network overhead of gang migration using global deduplication (GMGD). GMGD identifies and eliminates the retransmission of duplicate memory pages among VMs running on multiple physical machines in the cluster. A prototype GMGD reduces the network traffic on core links by up to 51% and the total migration time of VMs by up to 39% when compared to the default migration technique in QEMU/KVM, with reduced adverse performance impact on network-bound applications.

This is a division of application Ser. No. 07/475,432, filed Feb. 5, 1990, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,004,587. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to ozone generators and is more particularly concerned with a method and apparatus which allows for the controlled production of ozone gas by the direct application of electrical energy input. 2. Description of the Prior Art Many authorities believe ozone gas to be a superior oxidizing agent. Devices to manufacture ozone gas have before been inefficient and costly to build thus severely limiting their practical application for the private or commercial generation of ozone gas. Therefore, the oxidative treatment of waste fluids, gases, and solids has heretofore been accomplished with alternate oxidative agents such as various dioxides, peroxides, chlorine, or other halogenated compounds. These compounds are not only dangerous during periods of acute exposure, producing a variety of illness syndromes, but several of these compounds as well as their by-products are known to be potent carcinogens. Some examples of these carcinogenic substances would include chloramines, tri-chloroethane (TCE), and tri-halomethanes (THM). In addition most of these alternative oxidizing agents require the potentially hazardous steps of manufacture, transportation, and storage. Oxidative treatment of substances by ozonation avoids the hazards of transportation and storage of these dangerous compounds as ozone gas may be both made and used on site. Because of its superior oxidizing capability, second in nature only to elemental fluorine, ozone gas probably inactivates the majority of these halogen-based carcinogenic compounds rendering them non-carcinogenic, (Burleson and Chambers, Environmental Mutagenesis, 4:469-476, 1982). Ozone is generally formed by the action of oxygen atoms on oxygen molecules. The splitting of the oxygen molecule can be achieved by applying electrical, optical, chemical or thermal energy. As is well known, splitting of the oxygen molecule may be effected by subjecting oxygen to thermal energy. However, this method is inefficient since elevated temperatures used to produce ozone by heating, or with chemical reactions which cause heat production, favor the thermal degradation of ozone immediately as it is produced. Ultraviolet light ozone generators, such as those disclosed in Pincon U.S. Pat. No. 4,124,467, and Beitzel U.S. Pat. No. 4,189,363, produce concentrations of ozone suitable only for minimal decontamination, purification, or oxidative treatment. Other means of generating ozone have generally involved electrical means, i.e., corona discharge units (using either cylindrical tubes or flat plate generators) and hollow-cathode plasma discharge assemblies. The cathode plasma discharge assembly, such as that disclosed by Orr, Jr. et al U.S. Pat. No. 4,095,115, produces ozone gas by exposing an oxygen enriched medium to a high-energy electron beam causing splitting of the oxygen molecules into singlet oxygen and/or ozone. Devices of this sort produce only a maximum concentration of less than 500 parts per million ozone in air but require extremely high velocities of gaseous injection to achieve even this modest concentration of ozone. Additionally, the overall efficiency of this system is compromised because of the energy requirements of pumps, gauges, power supply inefficiencies, etc. Other electrical means of generating ozone gas universally depend upon the cold spark of corona discharge in order to split the oxygen molecule. Corona discharge units commonly depend upon the field intensified ionization of an oxygen bearing gas which occurs within an insulating system. The luminous discharge of electricity due to the ionization of the gas within such an insulating system will occur when the field potential gradient of an alternating current exceeds a certain value termed the corona start voltage (CSV). If the strength of the insulating system is not exceeded and the system does not immediately break down in a catastrophic manner, then a non-disruptive electrical discharge will occur and continue until the voltage is reduced to the corona extinction voltage (CEV). Corona extinction voltage is always at a lower potential than the (CSV). This is well illustrated in attached FIGS. 4a and 4b. The values and relationships of the (CSV) and (CEV) are important in that they define the period of latency; that period of time during each cycle of alternating current application in which no corona discharge is present within the tube to produce ozone gas. The alternating current cycle is bidirectional in that it travels both above and below ground potential. As the wave of electrical potential is passing upward from ground as in FIG. 4a at point T0 and at (CEV) point T1, insufficient ionization potential is present within the corona discharge gap to permit corona formation and subsequent ozone production. It is not until the wave exceeds (CSV) at point T2 that corona discharge begins. Ozone producing corona discharge will continue as the wave travels in the direction of point T3, its maximum positive excursion, and continues until the wave potential drops below point T5 the (CEV). The wave continues its fall through ground potential at point T6 and (CEV) at point T7, until reaching the (CSV) (in the opposite polarity) at point T8. Corona discharge is re-established and continues through the maximum negative excursion at point T9 and through (CSV) at point T10 until reaching (CEV) at point T11 traveling toward and reaching ground potential at point T12. FIG. 4a graphically illustrates that there is a significant period of time during each cycle of alternating current application wherein no ozone gas can be produced (illustrated by the broken lines in the electrode potential waveform). In any corona discharge apparatus, this less-than-optimal cycle repeats itself at the frequency of alternating current applied thereto. On the molecular level, these devices produce ozone by bombardment of the oxygen molecule with high-energy electrons causing a splitting of the diatomic molecule into charged oxygen atoms or singlets. These may randomly recombine with one or more charged oxygen atoms to produce oxygen (02) or ozone (03). They may also, in a random fashion, recombine with diatomic oxygen molecules to produce ozone. Because of the random nature of this recombination of oxygen atoms and oxygen molecules, a metastable equilibrium state will be achieved. Concentrations of up to 5% of ozone in pure anhydrous oxygen can be prepared in this manner. The oxidative treatment of large volumes of fluid, solid and/or gaseous substances will require a proportionately large volume of ozone gas. The capital expenses of purchasing, storing, and utilizing pure oxygen may limit its practical and economic merit for use in ozone gas generation. Air, having an oxygen concentration of approximately 21%, is a reasonable alternative source of oxygen molecules but has the drawbacks of being composed mainly of nitrogen (approximately 78%), and also having variable amounts of water vapor diffused within it. When exposed to high temperatures and high voltages (typically greater than 15,000 Volts), the nitrogen molecules in air will ionize and break into singlets which may combine with oxygen atoms or molecules to form undesired nitrous oxide compounds. This situation can be further complicated by the reaction of hydrogen atoms from water vapor reacting with the nitrous oxide compounds to produce unwanted and toxic nitric acids. Additionally, water vapor detrimentally lowers the spark voltage in the corona discharge chamber further limiting the efficiency of ozone gas production. Previously described flat plate corona discharge units, such as those disclosed by Lowther (U.S. Pat. No. 3,996,474) and Erz et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,545,960), have utilized materials of high dielectric constant which are breakable, fragile, expensive to manufacture, generate excessive heat, and require elaborate schemata to remove the heat produced. Electrical energy for ozonation may also be supplied for example by the so-called "Siemens ozonizer" and variations therefrom, which are in essence devices comprised of two telescoping coaxial glass tubes whose outer and inner walls respectively are made electrically conductive, are water cooled, and which are electrically connected to the terminals of an alternating current power supply. Electric discharges take place in the narrow annular chamber between the glass tube walls when an alternating current is applied thereto, a dry system of oxygen or air being passed through this chamber. Multiple variations of this basic theme have been described in the prior art, (to U.S. Pat. No. 4,725,412, Hirth U.S. Pat. No. 4,690,803, Sasaki U.S. Pat. No. 4,696,800, and Slipiec et al U.S. Pat. No. 3,967,131). Apparatus of this nature, while having been much improved in the meantime, are still bulky, cumbersome, difficult and costly to manufacture, poorly durable, and they employ rigid fragile materials in their manufacture and construction. For example, Hirth's ozonizer tube utilizes a rigid dielectric member coated with a glaze of titanium oxide ceramic and therefore achieves a high dielectric constant with an increased spark voltage and increased ozone production, but only at the cost of degradation of a portion of the newly generated ozone due to heat accumulation. This construction is not only expensive but relatively fragile. Any break, crack, or puncture of the rigid dielectric shield member will cause high voltage, disruptive arcing and self destruction of the device thereof. In addition, there must be practical limitations to the physical length of such an ozonizing tube, which therefore limits the surface area and volume of a gas which can be exposed to ozonizing currents at any one point in time. Any attempt to increase the volume of gas which can be exposed to ozonizing current by simply increasing the annular space in a rigid ozonizer tube will result in reduced ozone production because the electric field density will be proportionately diminished. This phenomena is a well known law of nature (the inverse square law) wherein the strength of field intensity decreases in proportion to the square of the distance from the energy source. Only a portion of the energy of corona discharge (about 34 kcal. per gram mole) is required for formation of ozone (Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 69th Ed. 1988-89, Library of Congress #13-11056). The remaining energy will dissipate as heat and light. If this excess energy is not rapidly transferred from the system, then the temperature of the effluent gases, electrode, dielectric shield, and housing will rise. This may lead to a more rapid decomposition of a portion of the ozone which, at approximately 100 degrees Centigrade, breaks down almost as soon as it is formed. Prior attempts at increasing ozone production have stressed the utilization of insulators with a high dielectric constant such as glass or ceramics interposed between the electrodes. The prior art has emphasized the importance of using insulators with dielectric constants ranging from 8-12,000 in order to achieve their stated goal. Despite the increased corona spark voltage and the increased production of ozone therefrom, the heat generated by electrical excitations in these materials of high dielectric constant causes loss of ozone through degradation due to excess heat formation. Of even greater importance is the extreme total energy loss produced by dielectric heating per se (Modern Electronics Communications, by Gary Miller, 1978, Library of Congress #77-25881, page 364) and (Buchsbaum's Complete Handbook of Practical Electronic Reference Data, 1978, Library of Congress #78-1055, second edition page 551). Dielectric losses result from heating of the insulating materials between the electrode and counter-electrode when an alternating current is applied thereto. Materials most susceptible to this type of heating are known as "lossy" type dielectrics. A means for predicting losses caused by dielectric heating is easily determined by the product of the dielectric constant and the power factor. The power factor is the ratio of resistance to impedance of the dielectric material. The production of heat within a dielectric requires energy which must be taken from the power source. Application of an alternating current electric field formed by the alternating potential difference between the two electrodes (electrode and counter-electrode) across an insulating dielectric member will cause distortion of the normal electron spin paths of the atoms comprising the dielectric insulator. The electron paths will be altered because they will be alternately repelled by the negative potential of one electrode and attracted to the positive potential of the counter electrode and vice versa. The structures of the atoms of some materials are harder to distort, i.e., glass, ceramic, polyvinylchloride (PVC), rubber; thus more energy is absorbed from the power source. The electron paths of some atoms are easily altered and require very little energy from the source, i.e. polyethylene, polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and silicone materials. As a general rule, insulators with a low dielectric constant will have more easily altered electron spin paths and hence lower susceptibility to dielectric heating. Distortion and subsequent heat formation in the dielectric material are directly proportional to the peak voltage applied across the dielectric as well as the frequency of the alternating current source. Even though dielectric losses play a significant role in the deficiencies of the prior art leading to inefficiency in the generation of ozone, of paramount importance is the previously unrecognized significance of maximizing energy transfer to the corona discharge gap. The multiplicity of constraints of the prior art concerned with the methods and apparatus for the production of ozone gas including the electrical and mechanical inefficiencies, the relatively large size of previous chambers, and the expense of construction, has limited the practical applicability of the heretofore described devices and methods. Both the theoretical and practical improvements of the present invention will become clear as the discussion proceeds. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is the goal of the present invention to provide means for resolving the above problems. In addition, the embodiment of the present invention is designed to encourage both the private and commercial utilization of ozone gas as an oxidizer by fulfilling the following objectives: It is the first object of the present invention to provide a device Which generates sufficiently high concentrations of ozone gas so as to be useful in the terminal oxidative treatment of large volumes of fluid, solid, and gaseous substances. It is the second object of the present invention to construct an ozonation system which is durable, relatively non-breakable, and easily manufactured with exchangeable parts and readily available inexpensive materials. It is the third object of the present invention to construct a corona discharge chamber of flexible or easily deformable dielectric materials which can be arranged in a multiplicity of configurations, allowing for packaging of the device in a relatively small volume of space. It is the fourth object of the present invention to produce ozone gas by a method and apparatus of such improved electrical efficiency so as to make the use of alternative sources of energy both practical and economically feasible. These sources include, but are not limited to: solar, hydroelectric, wind, thermoelectric, and micronuclear power. The ozonizer chamber of the present invention comprises a flexible high tension electrode and supporting spacers loosely enclosed within the lumen of a flexible dielectric tubing which physically separates and electrically isolates the high tension electrode from a counter-electrode surrounding the outside of the flexible dielectric tube. The inside of the tube functions as a reservoir and passageway for dry oxygen bearing gas through which ozone producing electrical discharges will occur between the high tension electrode enclosed by the dielectric tube, and the counter-electrode outside and completely surrounding the tube. Because the tube is flexible and deformable, it may be constructed in almost unlimited length and may be configured or deformed into almost any shape. In this way, the surface area of ozonation as well as the volume of gas to be exposed to the ozonizing current may be expanded or reduced simply by increasing or decreasing the linear dimension of the corona discharge chamber and its associated electrode and counter-electrode. It is particularly advantageous to construct this cylindrical corona discharge chamber utilizing an insulating material of low dielectric constant interposed between the electrode and the counter-electrode. This design avoids the excessive heat production and subsequent thermal degradation of newly formed ozone caused by dielectric loss (heating). However, using an insulator of low dielectric constant between the electrode and counter-electrode tends to lower the corona spark voltage and hence the field intensity within the tube unless steps are taken to maximize the transfer of electrical energy into the discharge gap. Conspicuously absent from the prior art is any mention or apparent recognition of the importance of impedance matching between the alternating current power supply and the ozone generating corona discharge chamber. The phenomenon of parallel circuit resonance, a well recognized principle in the radio-communications prior art, but not heretofore recognized or utilized in the art of ozone gas generation, has been found by this inventor to be of utmost importance in the efficient generation of ozone gas by maximizing the transfer of energy into the corona discharge gap. The corona discharge chamber of the present invention primarily responds to the flow of alternating electrical current as does a capacitor. The high voltage transformer of the present invention, to which the corona discharge chamber is electrically connected, acts primarily as does an inductor. The corona discharge chamber and its companion high-voltage transformer are connected in a parallel fashion and can be viewed as, and perform as, a parallel resonance circuit as illustrated in FIG. 5. Each of the two components of this parallel resonance circuit offer frequency dependent impedance to the flow of alternating current. Generally speaking, higher frequency currents will pass or flow more easily through a capacitor, whereas lower frequency currents will pass or flow more easily through the inductance of a coil. At some particular frequency, the impedance of each of these components will be equal but 180 degrees out of phase so that their individual impedances will cancel, while a maximum excursion of voltage (peak voltage) will occur across both of the components. It is at this point that the maximum transfer of energy will occur between the transformer and the corona discharge chamber through the phenomena of electrical resonance. In order to sustain the maximum peak voltage across the components and the peak flow of current between the components, it is only necessary to supply additional resonating energy to replace system deficits. These deficits consist of the minimal electrical losses caused by the impedance of the conductors themselves, and more significantly that amount of electrical energy absorbed in the corona discharge gap for the formation of ozone. Therefore, by employing a parallel circuit and resonant impedance matching between the high voltage transformer and its companion corona discharge chamber, it is possible to achieve a high spark voltage and matching field density within the tube even when it is constructed of low dielectric constant material. All things being equal, an increase in the length of the ozonizing chamber (also increasing the volume of gas enclosed by said chamber) will increase the electrical capacitance of said chamber and hence change its impedance at any prescribed frequency of resonance. In order to produce ozone gas efficiently it is advantageous to use the highest possible frequency of resonance. It has been found that increasing the number of electrical excitations per unit time (frequency) is attributed to an increase in ozone formation because energy transfer in an alternating current system occurs primarily when voltage and current are changing. It follows, that increased frequency is synonymous with increased energy transfer. The highest frequency of electrical resonance should be physically limited primarily by the electrical reactance of the paired high voltage transformer and corona discharge chamber. The corona discharge chamber may be constructed with a great linear dimension, and as such, the volume of gas to be exposed to the ozonizing current within the tube will likewise be expanded. The practical determinant of the actual length of the corona discharge tube depends upon the need to adjust the capacitive reactance of the corona discharge chamber by varying its physical length in order to match the inductive reactance of its companion power transformer at some pre-determined frequency of resonance. Because the frequency of the alternating current applied to the tube in a resonating fashion is so critically important to the efficient generation of ozone, one of the primary objectives of the design herein is to minimize both the capacitive and inductive reactance of both components and thus establish a higher intrinsic frequency of resonance. This object can only be realized if the electrical capacitance of the corona discharge chamber is not allowed to become excessive. If the counter-electrode were constructed with a continuous and/or painted conductive layer surrounding the outer circumference of the tube e.g.: (U.S. Pat. No. 4,725,412 Ito, and U.S. Pat. No. 3,739,440 Lund et. al.) experimental data shows that a higher value of capacitance would be realized. The increase in capacitive reactance would serve to lower the frequency of resonance and hence reduce the yield of ozone gas. Additionally, the corona discharge chamber of the present invention is designed to be flexible in all planes of deformation. The bending deformation of the dielectric tube which may occur during packaging as well as the micro-vibratory motion of the dielectric tube which occurs during energy applications tends to produce both static and dynamic mechanical stresses. These potentially damaging stresses would be transferred to any continuous or painted conductive layer applied to the outer surface of the tube. For these reasons, it is particularly advantageous to construct the corona discharge chamber without a continuous metallic conductor surrounding its circumference as disclosed by the embodiment of the present invention. Any high voltage electrical system will necessarily produce some heat and removal of this generated heat remains vitally important if ozone is to be produced in an efficient manner. The present invention provides a strikingly simple, but heretofore unrecognized, resolution to this problem by employing a fluid counter-electrode of high electrical conductivity which simultaneously functions as an electrolytic power connection (change electron current to ion current) to the chamber as well as an excellent means for heat removal. As fluids are known to be very efficient conductors of thermal energy, the present invention utilizes a fluid to serve in both capacities. The use of a fluid counter-electrode similarly represents a significant departure from the previously described ozone generating devices. Prior art ozone generating apparatus often produce undesirable and toxic nitrous oxides when air is used as the gaseous medium. As the formation of nitrous oxides are encouraged by the application of high voltages (typically greater than 15,000 volts) and elevated temperatures, the components of the corona discharge chamber assembly of the present invention are never allowed to accumulate excessive heat energy or exposure to extreme voltages. High voltages are easily avoidable because the application of resonating current to the high voltage transformer and its companion corona discharge chamber is fully adjustable in terms of the amplitude of resonating energy applied, the duration of resonating energy application, and the interval of time between the applications of resonating energy application. The lumen of the corona discharge chamber remains relatively cool because the fluid counter-electrode continuously absorbs thermal energy by conduction as well as the optical radiation of corona discharge produced within the translucent dielectric tube. The preferred embodiment of the present invention produces no significant concentration of nitrous oxides when operated at typical voltage levels. When corona discharge has achieved the desired maximum concentration of ozone gas within the entire internal volume of the tube, any additional application of ozonizing current is wasteful. It is only necessary to intermittently apply resonating ozonation current to the tube in order to maintain the plateau concentration of metastable ozone. The corona discharge chamber of the present invention contains and encloses a fixed volume of gas. When the flowrate of gas through the chamber is maintained at a steady state during operation (fixed volume per unit time), then a numerical time constant can be identified. This time constant is useful as a reference in determining and adjusting both the interval and duration of energy applications to the corona discharge chamber. In this way, ozone gas production is precisely and adjustably matched to ozone gas utilization. This method and apparatus functions so as to provide for intermittent application of resonant energy to the tube while at the same time allows for the continuous transfer of generated heat from the corona discharge chamber and into the liquid counter-electrode for subsequent dissipation, thus helping to improve the overall system efficiency. The improved electrical efficiency of the present invention is also a function of the low dielectric constant material of the corona discharge chamber behaving as an electret. The technique of thermo-electret formation is well known prior art. It was originally described by Eguchi, 1919 (Japan), and as such, there is no need to describe the phenomenon and technique in anything more than general terms. However, as far as I know, the thermo-electret process has not heretofore been described in relation to ozone gas generators. An electret is an insulating material (dielectric) which retains an induced electrostatic charge in its structure for a long period of time. The process of forming the "permanent" electrostatic charge includes the steps of elevating the temperature of the dielectric material while subjecting it to an electric field during the cooling process. When the electret is formed, the material is said to be polarized; meaning that charges on its surface have been oriented in a preferred direction. When individual positive/negative charge pairs are aligned in the same direction throughout the dielectric material, it is said to be heterocharged. This arrangement is significant in that it allows charges of high-potential to be fixed on one surface of the dielectric material with opposing charges fixed on the opposite surface. This arrangement is similar to the dipoles created in the dielectric material of a capacitor. Heterocharge and dipole mean the same thing in this context, but the dipoles set up in the dielectric of a capacitor are only a temporary phenomenon associated with the instantaneous voltage applied across the capacitor plates. Incorporation of a high potential thermo-electret charge into the dielectric structure of the corona discharge chamber is advantageous to ozone production efficiency by improving the quality and quantity of corona formation. This concept will be explained in greater detail as the disclosure of specification proceeds. Referring to FIG. 4a, there is a period of time during each cycle of alternating current application to the corona discharge chamber wherein no ozone gas is produced. Whenever the potential difference between the electrode and the grounded counter-electrode drops below the corona extinction voltage (CEV), and whenever the voltage is approaching but has not exceeded the corona start voltage (CSV), there will be insufficient ionization potential within the discharge gap to form ozone. This period, during which there is no corona formation, occurs in both polarities. By incorporating an electret effect into the design and construction of the corona discharge chamber (represented in FIG. 4b by a shift in the baseline potential labeled CD Tube Charge), as illustrated in FIG. 3a and 3b, one can elevate or lower the baseline potential in the discharge gap to reduce that period of time wherein there is insufficient ionization potential to produce ozone gas. In effect the period of corona formation, during each cycle of excitation current, is increased and possibly made continuous. Please note, that incorporation of an electret charge does introduce the potential for a slight energy loss through increased dielectric heating. However, this slight loss is more than offset by improved corona activation. Because the allotropic form of oxygen, 03 (ozone) is considered a metastable dipole, it is reasonable to suspect that this molecule will align itself with the electrostatic charge intrinsic to the dielectric material of the corona discharge chamber when it is acting as an electret. This alignment might well provide temporary stabilization, sequestration, and/or protection from breakdown of already produced 03 molecules. In this way, the maximal concentration of generated ozone may be further enhanced and maintained within the chamber. The art of ozone gas production has a long and varied history. Many improvements have been made in the design and function of electrical ozonizers, accompanied by a concurrent expansion in their applications. If the role of ozone gas is to be further expanded as useful art in fluid, solid, or gaseous oxidative treatment, then the remaining limitations of the prior art must be overcome. Specifically, the present invention produces relatively high concentrations of ozone gas with improved electrical efficiency while constructed of easily available, low cost materials, which are durable and reliable in the configuration of the present invention. The design, construction, and methods of the present invention provides five (5) individual areas of improvement over prior art ozone generating apparatus: 1. construction of the corona discharge chamber and high voltage transformer as a parallel circuit employing resonant impedance matching techniques which maximize energy transfer to the discharge gap and allow for the use of low dielectric constant insulating materials, 2. construction of a flexible corona discharge chamber assembly of adjustable capacitance and linear dimension with a relatively small internal diameter which serves to expose a relatively large volume of gas to a high electrical field density corona discharge while allowing for low volume packaging of the assembly, 3. intermittent application of resonant electrical energy into this impedance matched system, minimizing the amount of energy input to achieve a predetermined concentration of ozone gas within the tube, 4. incorporation of an electrostatic charge (electret) within and across the wall of the corona discharge chamber thereby increasing the percentage of corona period in which there is formation of ozone during each cycle of alternating current, and 5. utilization of a fluid counter-electrode to serve as an electrolytic connection a well as the heat dispersal mechanism for the corona discharge chamber. In summary, each of these individual areas and components are relatively important and represent significant advancements in the art of ozone gas generation. The present invention encompasses and embodies each of these areas and components producing compound and synergistic improvements, which represent new and novel art not only in part, but also in union. The various components, improvements, methods, and their inter-relationships will be further detailed, and explained in the following descriptions and claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a fragmentary (1a) and cutaway (1b), plan view of the corona discharge chamber apparatus of the present invention including two cross sectional views (1c and 1d). FIG. 2 is a view in perspective, partly cut away, illustrating one embodiment of the corona discharge chamber assembly in which the tube and high voltage transformer are mechanically joined in a singular unit; FIGS. 3a and 3b illustrate the electret effect when incorporated into the construction of the corona discharge chamber of the present invention; FIGS. 4a and 4b are graphs of ozonizing current versus time as related to the period of corona formation; FIG. 4b shows enhanced corona formation by incorporation of the electret effect within the corona discharge chamber; FIG. 5 schematically illustrates the tuned parallel resonance circuit formed by the high voltage transformer and companion corona discharge chamber of the present invention; the oscillographic insert to the right shows the effect upon voltage by varying the input frequency and is related to the algebraic equation for electrical resonance; FIG. 6 is a graphic illustration showing the reactance characteristics of several values of capacitance and inductance which may be typically realized during the construction of the present invention; FIG. 7 shows a diagrammatic representation of the preferred embodiment including the electrical, pneumatic, and fluid connections as well as the inter-relationships of the corona discharge chamber, fluid counter-electrode, high voltage transformer, and heat exchanger; FIG. 8 shows an exploded, cutaway view of one embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a block-form presentation of the major electrical components, their appropriate electrical connections, the inter-relationships between the subgroups of components, and their respective adjustment controls; FIG. 10 illustrates the typical as well as alternative sources of power and how they may be configured and switched in the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIG. 2, a labeled representation of one embodiment of the corona discharge chamber assembly of the present invention can be seen. Centermost in the construction of said corona discharge chamber 1 is the flexible high tension electrode 2 illustrated in FIG. 1. Said high tension electrode 2 is formed of thin gauge stainless steel wires 3 (gauge 24-30 ) which are interwoven with insulating spacers 4 in a crisscross pattern as best illustrated in FIG. 1. Gapping spacers 5 are formed of curved ceramic or glass beads which are fixedly attached to the outer surfaces of insulative spacers 4. Gapping spacers 5 serve to maintain a central positioning of said high tension electrode 2 within the lumen of dielectric tube 6. This form of construction allows said high tension electrode 2 to be flexible in all planes of deformation. In practice, said high tension electrode 2, when loosely enclosed within the lumen of an insulating tube 6, forms the corona discharge chamber 1 of the present invention. Said insulating tube 6 comprises a flexible, deformable, and poorly compressible polymeric tubing formed of low dielectric constant material such as translucent polyethylene with an outer diameter between 0.25-0.5 inches, a wall thickness of 20-80 mils, and a variable length, typically between 10-100 feet. (Tubings of polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene (p.t.f.e), and silicone materials have all been used advantageously.) The lumen of said insulating tube 6, serves as a reservoir and passageway for the flow of dry oxygen bearing gas through which a high voltage corona is discharged to create ozone from resident oxygen molecules flowing through and enclosed by the inner surface 7 of insulating tube 6. This corona discharge originates between said high tension electrode 2 and a counter-electrode means 9 located outside and in intimate contact with the outer wall surface 8 of said insulating tube 6 which in effect, forms the corona discharge chamber 1. The flexible electrode 2 and spacers 4 and 5 serve to maintain a semi-coaxial gap for corona discharge between the inner wall surface 7 of insulating tube 6 and the wire conductor 3 of high tension electrode 2 even when dielectric tube 6 is deformed into a coiled configuration. The insulating spacers 4 comprise small tubular glass and/or ceramic beads with an approximate linear dimension of 2-5 millimeters (mm), a wall thickness dimension of 0.1-0.4 mm, and an outer diameter of 0.5-2.0 mm. Gapping spacers 5 must be of such dimension so as to maintain a central positioning of high tension electrode 2 within the lumen of dielectric tube 6 without causing excessive obstruction to the flow of gas through said dielectric tube 6. The conductive wire 3 of high tension electrode 2 passes through the lumen of each of said dielectric spacers 4 in an interwoven pattern as illustrated again in FIG. 1. Said high tension electrode 2 is finished on each end with a curved ceramic or glass bead 5 in order to eliminate sharp end projections of wire conductor 3 of high tension electrode 2. Conceptually and practically speaking, a variety of wire(s) and spacer(s) configurations may be used to advantage so long as acute angles and projections of conductive wire 3 are avoided. Additionally, the configuration must cause the structure of high tension electrode 2 to remain centrally located within the lumen of dielectric tube 6 without causing excessive obstruction to gas flow. FIG. 2 shows one embodiment of the composite tube assembly including the high tension electrode 2, spacers 4 and 5, corona discharge chamber 1, and casing means 10 for housing a companion high voltage transformer 11 with its electrical connectors 12 and 13, pneumatic mechanical connector 14, and hermetic seal 16. Said casing means 10 serves to form and insulate the electrical connections 30 and 34 between the high tension electrode 2 and the high voltage transformer 11 and the drive circuitry for the high voltage transformer 11. It acts as a separator for the counter-electrode means 9 outside and in intimate contact with casing 10, and the external surface 8 of insulating tube 6 which forms said corona discharge chamber 1. Case 10 also serves as a means for protection and enclosure of said high voltage transformer 11 while allowing for efficient heat transfer and dissipation via conductive metal rod 17. Said metal rod 17 is positioned so as to be partially immersed within fluid counter-electrode 9 upon exiting the surface of casing means 10. All of the components located within casing means 10 are fixedly cemented by a dielectric epoxy resin 18 which affords mechanical strength as well as a medium for transfer of thermal energy to metal rod 17 with subsequent dissipation into fluid counter-electrode 9. Casing means 10 is formed with an integrated threaded sealable compression fitting 39. Electrical connectors 12 and 13 as well as metal rod 17 extend through the central opening of fitting 39. Threaded fitting 39 mates with female threaded fitting 40 located in the central opening of thermal vessel 19 (best illustrated in FIG. 8). This advantageous form of construction allows for releasable electrical and mechanical connections and easy exchangeability should any part of the composite tube assembly fail. As illustrated in FIG. 7., one can gain a better understanding of the constructional precepts of the apparatus of the present invention. The corona discharge chamber assembly 1 and specifically the outer wall surface 8 of insulative tube 6 is essentially immersed within a fluid counter-electrode 9. This construction allows the formation of an electrolytic junction between the fluid counter-electrode 9 and the outer wall surface 8 of insulative tube 6. In this way, an ozone producing corona discharge occurs within the lumen of corona discharge chamber 1 due to the potential difference between high tension electrode 2, the insulative tube 6, and fluid counter-electrode 9 when a high voltage alternating current is applied thereto. This configuration allows any heat formed within the corona discharge chamber assembly 1 to be conducted directly into fluid counter-electrode 9. Another advantage of this construction is evident by the attainment of a relatively homogeneous electric field throughout the internal volume of the corona discharge chamber 1 during applications of high voltage resonating energy between electrode 2 and the counter-electrode 9. This relatively uniform electric field results in improved efficiency of cold-spark ozone generation because all oxygen molecules enclosed by inner wall surface 7 of insulative tube 6 will be exposed almost instantaneously to the ionizing potential of the applied resonating energy. Furthermore, this form and construction of the present invention assures a proportional electric field throughout the lumen of corona discharge chamber assembly 1 even when it is coiled into a tight configuration as illustrated in FIG. 2, and FIG. 8. The inter-relationships of the corona discharge chamber, fluid counter-electrode, high voltage transformer, and heat exchanger are best shown by FIG. 7 and FIG. 8. Said corona discharge chamber assembly 1 is positioned and contained within thermally insulated container 19. Corona discharge chamber assembly 1 has an inlet port 14 for the flow of dry oxygen bearing gas and an outlet port 15 for the discharge of ozone enriched gas after the gas within the tube has been exposed to the ozonizing current. Thermally insulated container 19 has an inner wall 20 lined by a thin layer of conductive metal 21 such as copper sheeting that possess an ohmic connection 22 with conductor 23 connecting directly to earth grounding bus 24. Conductive metal 21 is in intimate contact with, and forms an electrolytic connection with, fluid counter-electrode 9. It is particularly advantageous to formulate fluid counter-electrode 9 with an aqueous solution of ionizable copper which possesses the properties of high optical absorbance (deep blue/green color), high electrical conductivity, but low potential for reactivity with the conductive metal 21 lining the inner surface 20 of thermally insulated container 19. Because copper is located below hydrogen on the chemical electromotive series, little if any hydrogen gas is liberated during alternating current applications and thus minimal explosion hazard exists during normal operation. Metal rod 17 as well as copper sheeting 21 and soon to be described heat exchanger 25 are all advantageously formed of copper metal. Metal rod 17 also serves as a low impedance pathway to earth ground via its union with frictional connector 38. In this way, a multiplicity of sources are available for the replenishment of the minute losses of copper ions from the electrolytic fluid counter-electrode 9. Also disposed within the fluid counter-electrode 9 is a heat exchanger means 25 formed of malleable metallic tubing, such as copper tubing through which a coolant fluid flows under the influence of a pressure differential via inlet 26 and outlet 27. Conductive heat exchanger 25 is connected to ground bus 24 via conductor 28 ohmically fastened at point 29 and also forms an electrolytic connection with counter-electrode 9. Coolant fluid flows into heat exchanger 25 under an externally applied pressure and may encompass a variety of substances including water, oil, antifreeze, etc. Dry oxygen bearing gas flows into the corona discharge chamber assembly 1 under a pressure differential via inlet port 14 and after exposure to corona discharge an ozone enriched gas flows out of the tube via outlet port 15. The high tension electrode 2 exits lumen of the insulative tube 6 through a hermetic seal 16 located within conduit means 49. Hermetic seal 16 prevents gas loss from the lumen of conduit 49 and associated tube 6 which forms corona discharge chamber assembly 1 and provides an ohmic connection via insulated conductor 30 to the power side connection 31 of secondary coil 32 of high voltage transformer 11. The ground potential side connection 33 of secondary coil 32 of high voltage transformer 11 is ohmically connected to ground potential via conductor 34. The primary coil 35 of high voltage transformer 11 receives intermediate level, high-voltage resonating current applied between connection point 12 and connection point 12. Grounding bus 24 makes a low impedance ohmic connection to earth ground via conductor 36, which at one end is frictionally mated via push in connector 37 fixedly mounted to case 10. Conductor 36 traverses the interior of casing means 10 and makes an ohmic connection 41 with metal rod 17 (see (FIG. 2). Referring to FIG. 8, heat exchanger means 25 with its inlet connection port 26 and outflow port 27 is fixedly mounted as an integral component of female threaded lid assembly 42a. Additionally, thermometer 43 and its sensing tube 44 is positioned within the central opening of coolant coil 25, and fixedly mounted to lid assembly 42a. This design allows the thermometer to sense the aggregate temperature of fluid counter-electrode 9 within thermally insulated container 19 when lid assembly 42a is mated in the closed position with the male threaded connector 42b of thermally insulated container 19. Insulative conduit 45 is fixedly mounted within thermally insulated container 19 and frictionally mates with corona discharge chamber assembly 1 via push-in connector 46 and continues to function as outlet port 15 of corona discharge chamber assembly 1. Conduit 45 penetrates the wall of thermally insulated container 19 through seal 47 and serves as a continuation of outlet port 15 for discharge of ozone enriched gas. Frictional connector 48 mates the opposing end of corona discharge chamber assembly 1 with conduit 49 serving as the continuation of inlet port 14. Frictional connector 48 also serves as an electrical conduit for high tension electrode 2 which penetrates into the interior rod case 10 and exits conduit 49 via hermetic seal 16 and makes an ohmic connection with high voltage transformer 11. Corona discharge chamber 1 is mechanically fixed within thermally insulated container 19 using dielectric support struts 50. FIGS. 3a and 3b illustrate the electret effect which may be incorporated into the corona discharge chamber assembly of the present invention. The tube 6 illustrated shows the presence of a heterocharged electrostatic field incorporated in a cross sectional view. Note the presence of a positive electrostatic charge on the inner surface 7 and a corresponding negative charge on the outer surface 8 of insulative tube 6 (this effect is demonstrated in FIG. 3b by the use of the schematic symbol for battery supply drawn within the wall structure of tube 6 . . . this is included only to illustrate the presence of a fixed electrical charge across the tube wall 6. FIG. 3a illustrates the corona discharge chamber 1 of the present invention with the associated electrostatic charge potential across dielectric tube 6 which is characteristic of an electret. Referring to FIGS. 4a and 4b a better understanding of the importance of the electret effect can be realized. Whenever alternating current is utilized to produce an ozone-forming corona discharge within and across an insulating system, there is a period of latency during each cycle. During this period (as was explained in detail in the section: Description of the Prior Art), there is insufficient ionization potential across the discharge gap to maintain corona activation. The levels of corona start voltage (CSV) and corona extinction voltage (CEV), which define the period of corona latency, are specific characteristics of any individual tube construction. These characteristics are an effect of dielectric wall thickness, dielectric constant, tube capacitance and frequency of drive current. By fabricating a relatively permanent electrostatic charge across the tube wall 6 of corona discharge chamber 1, the baseline potential of the alternating current applied across the discharge gap can be elevated in a predictable fashion. The net effect of this alteration, is to elevate the charge potential present on inner wall surface 7 of dielectric tube 6 in a manner which causes the potential difference between inner wall surface 7 and electrode 2 to remain above corona extinction voltage (CEV) at all times when alternating current is applied between the electrode 2 and counter-electrode 9 of corona discharge chamber 1. In this way, the electret effect is advantageous to ozone production by maintaining the ionization potential of gases enclosed by corona discharge chamber 1 at a level sufficient to allow corona activation during a greater period of each cycle of energy application. FIG. 4a and FIG. 4b graphically illustrate this point. Both graphs were prepared from data obtained from prototype devices operated under similar circumstances (voltage, frequency, temperature, dielectric constant, tube and electrode length) except that the prototype of FIG. 4a did not utilize an electret charge while the prototype of FIG. 4b incorporated an 8000 volt thermo-electret. Both prototypes possessed similar characteristics of corona start voltage (CSV 3000 vac) and corona extinction voltage (CEV 1500 vac) and each was alternately driven by the same power source. Referring specifically to FIG. 4b, as the wave of alternating electrical potential is passing upward from ground at point T0 there exists a potential gradient between the electrode 2 and the inner wall surface 7 of the corona discharge chamber 1 of 8000 volts and thus, corona formation is active. The progressing wave passes through T1 and T2 in the direction of point T3, its maximum positive excursion, at which point the potential gradient across the spark gap is no lower than 2000 volts (500 volts above CEV). The corona producing wave of alternating potential begins its fall through points T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, and continues through the maximum negative excursion at point T9 where the potential gradient across the spark gap is now 14,000 volts. The wave begins its upward swing through T10 and T11 reaching ground potential at point T12 where, once again, there exists a potential gradient between the electrode 2 and the inner wall surface 7 of the corona discharge chamber 1 of 8000 volts. This improved cycle repeats itself at the frequency of alternating current applied thereto; this beneficial effect is easily observed in the electret tube by an increase in luminosity during energy application. It should be noted that the driving current across the corona discharge chamber is of the alternating type, and for this reason, the polarity of electret charge incorporated within the tube structure is of little consequence. The corona discharge chamber 1 of the present invention functions most efficiently when an electret effect is fabricated across the dielectric tube wall 6. However, it is reasonable to forego the added expense of construction and fabrication of insulative tube 6 incorporating an electret when a lesser degree of efficiency will achieve the oxidative requirements for any particular application. FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of the ozone producing parallel resonance circuit unique to this invention. This illustration will assist in developing an understanding of the teachings and concepts of the present invention. Intermediate voltage current, typically between 100 and 300 volts, is applied across primary coil 35 of high voltage transformer 11 between connection point 12 and connection point 13. The energy absorbed in primary coil 35 is inductively coupled to secondary coil 32 resulting in a step-up to high voltage, typically between 5,000 and 15,000 volts A.C., as measured across connection point 31 and connection point 33. This high voltage current is ohmically connected at points 31 and 33 to the primarily capacitive reactance of the corona discharge chamber 1, schematically depicted as a capacitor 1. Capacitor 1 comprises two conductive plates 2 and 9 separated from one another by an insulative space 6a. The uppermost plate 2 serves to represent the form and function of high tension electrode assembly 2 as previously described and illustrated. The lowermost plate 9 serves to represent the form and function of fluid counter-electrode 9 as previously described and illustrated. The insulative space 6a serves to schematically represent the form and function of the inner wall surface 7 of insulative tube 6 enclosing the corona discharge gap. To the right hand side of the figure is an oscillographic representation 51 of voltage versus frequency measured across the parallel resonance circuit at connection point 31 and connection point 33. As can be seen from oscillographic presentation 51, the voltage measured across the parallel resonance circuit formed by the primarily inductive high voltage transformer 11 and the primarily capacitive corona discharge chamber 1 reaches a maximum excursion at the center frequency fc at peak 52. Peak 52 represents the frequency of electrical resonance intrinsic to these matched components. The frequency fc is the frequency at which the primarily inductive reactance of the high voltage transformer 11 and the primarily capacitive reactance of corona discharge chamber 1 will become equal but 180 degrees out of phase. In this way, the intrinsic reactive impedances of the parallel resonance circuit are minimized and thus effectively canceled. This allows for the maximum transfer of energy into the discharge gap 6a of corona discharge chamber assembly 1, when resonating current is applied to transformer 11 through the primary coil 35 via connection points 12 and 13. Employing the principle of parallel resonance greatly reduces the loss of energy from the system allowing for more efficient cold spark corona production between high tension electrode 2 and liquid counter-electrode 9. The corona discharge produced herein occurs across and through resident oxygen molecules enclosed within the lumen of corona discharge chamber 1 depicted schematically as insulative space 6a. A conceptual understanding of this precept of electrical reactance is clearly illustrated in FIG. 6. This figure is a graph of the impedance curves generated by two different capacitive and inductive values plotted against changing frequency. These values are representative of the variable inductive and capacitive values of different corona discharge tubes 1 and high voltage transformer 11 combinations which may be encountered in the construction and application of the present invention. The data plotted in this figure was obtained by utilizing the standard equations for capacitive and inductive reactance: ##EQU1## wherein: Xc=capacitive reactance measured in Ohms F=frequency in Hertz C=value of capacitance measured in Farads and X.sub.L =2πFL wherein: XL=inductive reactance measured in Ohms F=frequency in Hertz L=value of inductance measured in Henries. Curves 53 and 54 represent the impedances measured in ohms of two different corona discharge chambers 1 possessing a capacitance value of 0.002 uf (micofarads) and 0.001 uf respectively. Lines 55 and 56 represent the impedances measured in ohms of two different high voltage transforms 11 possessing an inductive value of 16 mh (millihenries) and 8 mh respectively. This figure shows the effect of impedance changes caused by varying the frequency of current applied to any given value of inductance and/or capacitance. The large bold dots where the lines and curves intersect are abled fc and represent the center frequency of resonance for these component combinations at their respective values of impedance. As described in the Summary of the Present Invention, it is particularly advantageous to utilize the highest possible frequency of alternating current in forming the corona discharge in an ozonizing apparatus. This situation can only be achieved when the lowest value of inductance and capacitance is employed for any particular set of matched components. By way of example, a high voltage transformer possessing a value of inductance of 16 mH line 56 will resonate with a corona discharge chamber possessing a value of capacitance o 0.001 uf curve 54 at approximately 40 KHz, fc center frequency of resonance 57. Note that curve 53 representing a corona discharge chamber 1 possessing a value of capacitance of 0.002 uf will also intersect fc 58 40 KHz with line 55 representing a high voltage transformer 11 possessing a value of inductance of 8 mH. Clearly, doubling the capacitance of the corona discharge chamber 1 can be offset by halving the inductance of the companion high voltage transformer 11. Of greater significance, is the intersection of curve 54 representing a value of capacitance of 0.001 uf and line 55 representing a value of inductance of 8 mH, where the center frequency of resonance fc 59 is approximately 56 KHz. This significant increase in frequency promotes greater transfer of energy into the corona discharge gap with a consequent increase in ozone production. Referring to FIG. 9., depicted is a block diagram of the collective driving circuitry necessary to take full advantage of the electrical efficiency of the present invention. As discussed in Summary of the Invention, it is particularly advantageous to energize the corona discharge chamber 1 with adjustable quanta of resonant energy. The specific parameters which define this quanta or amount of energy are amplitude (peak voltage applied to the transformer), duration (the period of time for which the tube receives resonant alternating current during each cycle time), interval (the length of each time cycle), and finally the frequency of resonation (variable for any different corona discharge chamber 1 and high voltage transformer 11 combination). As shown in FIG. 9, raw energy is received by the driving circuit via connector and conductive link 60 and first applied to the power conditioner 61 where the raw energy is converted or rectified in a manner well known in the prior art. The voltage voltage is adjusted to an appropriate level via potentiometer 62, and then presented to high energy storage circuit 64 by conductive link 63. Power conditioner 61 and high energy storage circuit 64 represent the high voltage section 65 which occupies a discreet segment in the driving element package 70. Also enclosed within the driving element package 70, is the resonance switching apparatus 67. Resonance switching apparatus 67 comprises an adjustable, binary oscillator 68 the output frequency of which is supplied to conductive link 71 after appropriate adjustment to resonance frequency by potentiometer 69. Low energy switch 72 is a solid-state single pole/single throw switching device which is controlled by a signal received at input 73. Conductive link 63 and conductive link 74 form the solid state switching leg of low energy switching device 72. High energy switch 75 is a solid state single pole/single throw switching device similar to low energy switch 72 but possessing a greater capacity to handle high current pulses. Conductive link 76 and conductive link 77 (connected to ground potential) form the solid state switching leg of high energy switching device 75. For safety reasons, it would be good practice to incorporate the whole of driving element package 70 within a sealed container 81 which forms an integral and component part of base plate 82 of thermally insulated container 19 (see FIG. 8). Located within sealed container 81 is a poorly oxidizable, dielectric conduit 101 which extends beyond the enclosure walls of sealed container 81 and forms a releasable friction/seal connection with conduit member 49. In this way, the combination of member 49 and member 101 serve to form the pneumatic input port 14 of corona discharge chamber assembly 1. This form of design affords mechanical stability as well as an extreme level of protection against inadvertent electrocution. The final important component of the driving element package 70 is the controller box 78, which comprises a solid state timer circuit adjustable for duration of output via potentiometer 79, and interval between outputs via potentiometer 80. Said controller box 78, in a preferred embodiment, would be located at some distance from and remotely linked to the driving element package 70 via conductive link 63. In operation, high voltage energy held in storage circuit 64 is linked to the primary coil 35 of high voltage transformer 11 by the combination of connector pairs 66 and 12. Connector 13 of the primary coil 35 is combined with connector 76 to complete the circuit through the grounded switching leg 77 of high energy switch 75. High energy switch 75 will receive the output signal of binary oscillator 68 through the switching leg of low energy switch 72 when a positive polarity signal is present on conductive link 73. In this way, the high voltage energy present stored in storage circuit 64 is applied across primary coil 35 of high voltage transformer 11 at a frequency adjustable by potentiometer 69 to the intrinsic frequency of resonance which exists between high voltage transformer 11 and corona discharge chamber 1. When conductive link 73 does not possess a positive polarity signal, then low energy switch 72 is in an open state and no binary signal from oscillator 68 will pass to high energy switch 75, and thus switch 75 will assume an open condition and prevent energy flow through primary coil 35. In this way, controller 78 is able to utilize low voltage low current signal pulses to modulate the high energy required for efficient resonating corona discharge. All components which form the driving circuitry for the present invention are well known prior art. However, as far as is known, these teachings of the electronics art have not been advantageously utilized or anticipated in the prior art of ozone gas generation. For this reason they are covered only in general terms, as there are many conceivable variations which could be advantageously applied to the teachings of the present invention. The teachings herein comprise a number of new and novel ideas, apparatus, and methods. All of these taken singularly are important to the improved generation of ozone gas. However, when taken together they represent a quantum advance in the art of corona discharge ozone gas generation. The present invention, described herein, comprises all of these improvements. However, because one of the main goals of this disclosure is to encourage both the private and commercial use of ozone gas in oxidative applications, it is realized that the term "efficient" may have varying meanings when used to describe oxidative needs. By way of example, the requirements would be much different to disinfect waste water for a large municipality as opposed to the requirements to disinfect the water of a small spa or hot tub. Obviously, the improved electrical efficiency of the present invention would soon offset the initial capital expenses that a municipality might incur from incorporating many of the teachings as described herein. In contrast, the added complexity of incorporating all teachings of the present invention, might be ill advised in the case of disinfecting a private spa or hot tub. In the latter example, the use of only a portion of the teachings of the present invention, could achieve the required oxidative goal at a lower cost. As conservation of energy has become paramount for mankind's future, the present invention with its inherently improved electrical efficiency allows and encourages the use of power sources heretofore considered impractical in the traditional sense. The apparatus and methods of the present invention, due to a markedly enhanced electrical efficiency, can in theory and in practice be powered by the so-called alternative energy sources as depicted schematically in FIG. 10. These replaceable and natural sources of energy include solar 84, wind 85, micronuclear 86, hydroelectric 87, and thermoelectric 88. The present invention is easily configured to utilize any of these sources by a simple switching means as illustrated in FIG. 10. Rotary switch 89 with wiper blade 90 can make electrical contact at any of five (5) connection points including: conductor point 91 solar, conductor point 92 hydroelectric, conductor point 93 wind, conductor point 94 thermoelectric, and conductor point 95 micronuclear power source. A single pole/double throw switching means 96 incorporates wiper blade 97 which can make electrical contact with the output of rotary switch 89 at connection point 98 or can alternately make electrical contact with a source of mains energy 100 at connection point 12. The output of switch 96 is routed through and present at connection point 12 which forms a combination pair with input conductor and connective link 60 of power conditioner 61. The present invention has been described in detail with particular reference to the preferred embodiments thereof, but it will be understood that variations and modifications can be effected within the spirit and scope of the invention as described and as defined in the appended claims.

Disclosed herein is an apparatus and method for the production of ozone gas comprising: a parallel resonance circuit formed by a high voltage transformer and a companion flexible polymeric corona discharge chamber which encloses an electrode and serves as both a passageway and reservoir for oxygen bearing gas, and a fluid counter-electrode, all contained within an appropriate enclosure. Said corona discharge chamber possesses an electrical reactance which can be varied in order to match the electrical reactance of a companion high voltage transformer so that the components resonate, thereby maximizing the transfer of energy to the corona discharge gap. The dwell of corona discharge is further enhanced by an electrostatic potential incorporated across said tube wall (electret effect). Heat formed in said discharge gap (detrimental to ozone production) is advantageously transferred to said fluid counter-electrode which also serves as an electrolytic connection between said high voltage transformer and said corona discharge chamber. Within said chamber, relatively large volumes of oxygen may be exposed to the high field density, ozone producing, resonating discharges as a consequence of its flexible and linear design. The apparatus and methods described herein permit and encourage the use of intermittent and cyclic application of resonating energy and therefore achieves an improved degree of electrical efficiency. The teachings of the present invention make practical the use of alternative sources of energy for the private and commercial generation of ozone gas.

FIELD [0001] The embodiments disclosed herein relate generally to wet suits used by water sports enthusiasts (e.g., surfers) having the ability to be inflated during emergency situations to provide life-saving buoyancy and floatation aid. BACKGROUND [0002] Personal floatation devices (sometimes colloquially known as “life vests”) are well known. More recently, several proposals have been made to combine a wet suit with inflation capabilities so as to provide the wearer with an emergency floatation aid as evidenced by U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,976,894, 7,351,126 and 7,699,679 (the entire content of each such prior-issued U.S. patent being expressly incorporated herein by reference). [0003] While the inflatable wet suits in the art appear to be suitable for their intended purpose, some improvements are still desirable. It is toward providing such improvements that the present invention is directed. SUMMARY [0004] According to the embodiments disclosed herein, wet suits used by water sports enthusiasts (e.g., surfers) are provided with the ability to be inflated during emergency situations to provide life-saving buoyancy and floatation aid. In especially preferred embodiments, the inflatable wet suit will include a torso section having a back pocket and a bladder assembly having an inflatable bladder bag and an inflator valve adapted for operative connection with a compressed gas canister positioned within the back pocket. A rip cord has one of its ends connected to the inflator valve and extends over a shoulder region of the torso section so that the other end thereof is graspably positioned adjacent a front portion of the torso section. [0005] A canister pouch within the back pocket of the torso section is provided for receiving the gas canister therein. The canister pouch includes a front wall attached to the torso section along side and bottom edges thereof with a top edge being unattached to the torso section so as to define a pouch space with an open upper end. The front wall also preferably includes at least one cut-out region to allow manual manipulation of the gas canister positioned in the pouch space. [0006] According to some embodiments, the canister pouch may include a top flap fixed to the torso section about top and lateral edges thereof so as to provide an unsecured bottom edge to allow the top flap to extend over and thereby close the open upper end of the pouch space. The top flap may include an opening therein to allow a neck of the gas canister to protrude therethrough and permit operative coupling of the gas canister to the inflator valve. [0007] A handle assembly is preferably provided which is connected to the other end of the rip cord. According to some embodiments, the handle assembly may include an attachment to removably attach the hand handle assembly to the front portion of the torso section. A strap member may be provided to carry the attachment means. [0008] According to certain disclosed embodiments, the handle member may include an aligned series of beads with a strap member bridging the beads such that proximal and distal ends of the strap member are connected adjacent to proximal and adjacent ones of the beads, respectively. [0009] Some embodiments of the inflatable wet suit may be provided with a deflation assembly connected operatively to the bladder bag so as to allow for manual deflation of the bladder bag. If provided, the deflation assembly will preferably include an elongate flexible deflation tube having a proximal end connected operatively to the bladder bag, and a manually operated normally closed deflation valve positioned at a distal end of the deflation tube. [0010] These and other aspects and advantages of the present invention will become more clear after careful consideration is given to the following detailed description of the preferred exemplary embodiments thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ACCOMPANYING DRAWINGS [0011] The disclosed embodiments of the present invention will be better and more completely understood by referring to the following detailed description of exemplary non-limiting illustrative embodiments in conjunction with the drawings of which: [0012] FIGS. 1A and 1B are front and rear elevational views, respectively, of an inflatable wet suit embodying the present invention; [0013] FIG. 2 is an exploded rear perspective view of the wet suit depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B particularly showing the inflatable region thereof; [0014] FIG. 3 is an enlarged perspective view of the inflator assembly showing the gas canister positioned in the canister pouch and operatively connected to an actuator valve associated with the inflatable bladder assembly; [0015] FIG. 4 is an enlarged close-up view of the rip-cord handle used to manually actuate the actuator valve of the inflator assembly; [0016] FIGS. 5A-5C depict a sequence for positioning the canister in the canister pouch so as to arm the inflator assembly; and [0017] FIGS. 6A and 6B depict a sequence of operation of the inflatable wet suit embodying the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0018] An exemplary embodiment of an inflatable wet suit 10 is depicted in FIGS. 1A and 1B as being in the form of a so-called full body suit having front and rear torso sections 10 - 1 a , 10 - 1 b , respectively, and right and left arm sections 10 - 2 a , 10 - 2 b . Although not shown, right and left leg sections extending downwardly from the torso sections 10 - 1 a , 10 - 1 may be provided to cover the wearer's legs. As is conventional, the various sections of the wet suit 10 are constructed from a rubber material (e.g., neoprene). [0019] Although depicted as a full body suit in FIGS. 1A and 1B , the wet suit 10 which embodies the present invention may be provided with a variety of coverages for the wearer, such as partial wet suits which include shortened leg and/or arm sections or vest suits (wherein just a torso section is provided). Thus, all varieties and variants of wet suits may advantageously be provided with emergency inflation capability of the embodiments of the present invention. [0020] The wet suit 10 is provided with a back pocket 10 - 4 having an access opening 11 closed by a closure member 11 a (e.g., a zipper or equivalent closure system, e.g., snaps, hook and loop fasteners or the like). The access opening 11 is preferably covered by a flap 11 b associated with the pocket 10 - 4 . The pocket 10 - 4 is sized and configured to accept therein an inflatable bladder assembly 12 comprised of a flexible bladder bag 12 - 1 and an inflator valve 12 - 2 . The bladder assembly 12 is in and of itself conventional and can be obtained commercially from Mustang Survival Corporation of British Columbia, Canada. [0021] The inflator valve 12 - 2 includes an actuator lever 12 - 2 a (see FIG. 3 ) which is connected to one end of a pull cord 14 . The pull cord 14 is directed over the shoulder region 10 - 1 c of the wet suit 10 and terminates at its other end with a handle assembly 16 positioned on the upper part of the front torso section 10 - 1 a below the bib flap 10 - 1 d (which in the view shown by FIG. 1A has been folded away to reveal the handle assembly 16 therebelow). The inflator valve 12 - 2 is threadably connected to the threaded stem 18 a (see FIG. 2 ) of a conventional gas canister 18 which contains compressed gas of sufficient volume (e.g., a CO 2 canister of conventional size from about 20- to about 35 grams) to expand and thereby inflate the bladder bag 12 - 1 upon actuation of the inflator valve 12 - 2 . The gas canister is positionally retained in a canister pouch 20 to be described in greater detail below. [0022] In order to allow manual deflation of the bladder bag 12 - 1 following its inflation, a deflation assembly 13 is provided. The deflation assembly 13 includes an elongate flexible deflation tube 13 - 1 which is connected at its proximal end to a deflation nipple 13 - 2 associated with the bladder bag 12 - 1 . The deflation tube 13 - 1 extends from the deflation nipple 13 - 2 to a manually operated normally closed deflation valve 13 - 3 (see FIG. 1A ) located at its distal end. The deflation tube 13 - 1 may be retained positionally by one or more material loops 13 - 4 associated with the suit and/or by any suitable two-part fastening system (e.g., VELCRO-Brand hook and loop fasteners). Although depicted as being positioned over the wearer's shoulder, other placements of the deflation tube 13 - 1 and its associated deflation valve 13 - 3 are of course possible. For example, the tube could be positioned near the wearer's waist region or maintained in the interior of the back pocket 10 - 4 for access when needed. [0023] The back pocket 10 - 4 and the components contained therewithin are more visible in the exploded perspective view of FIG. 2 . As shown, the back pocket 10 - 4 is formed by an interior and exterior pair of opposed back panels 10 - 4 a and 10 - 4 b , respectively, which are overlaid with one another and stitched around their peripheral edges directly into the rubber material forming the back torso section 10 - 1 b of the wet suit 10 . As noted briefly above, a transverse opening 11 (shown closed by a suitable closure member 11 a ) is provided in the exterior panel 10 - 4 b and is covered by a flap 10 - 4 b . The opening 11 will thus permit access to the interior space 15 of the back pocket 10 - 4 when the closure member 11 a is opened. [0024] The interior space 15 formed between the panels 10 - 4 a and 10 - 4 b removably receives the bladder assembly 12 (e.g., which may be inserted physically into the space 15 through the opening 11 ). As shown in FIG. 3 , the gas canister 18 is received by and removably retained within the canister pouch 20 . The placement of the gas canister 18 within the canister pouch 20 dependently supports the bladder assembly 12 within the back pocket 10 - 4 by virtue of the mechanical coupling of the canister 18 via its stem 18 - 1 to the valve 12 - 2 and the physical attachment of the valve 12 - 2 to the bladder bag 12 - 1 (e.g., via the nut and washer assembly 17 associated with the valve 12 - 2 ). Thus, the bladder bag 12 - 1 can be positionally maintained within the interior space 15 of back pocket 10 - 4 without fear of wrinkling or the like which could impede and/or inhibit its capability for full inflation. [0025] Accompanying FIG. 4 depicts in greater detail the handle assembly 16 attached to the distal end of the rip cord 14 . As shown, the handle assembly 16 is most preferably formed by a series of coaxially aligned beads 16 - 1 that fixed to and surround a distal end section of the rip cord 14 . The coaxially aligned beads 16 - 1 are thus preferably capable of independent movement relative to one another which allow the handle assembly 16 to flex relative to the axis of the rip cord 14 . Such flexion of the beads 16 - 1 will thus promote comfort during use and also provide for a tactile sensation to aid the user. If desired, a one-piece handle assembly 16 may be provided in which case suitable tactile impressions and/or grip surfaces may be physically molded or formed thereon. [0026] The beads 16 - 1 are bridged by a retainer strap 16 - 2 carrying one part 16 - 2 a of a two-part fastening system. The other part 16 - 2 b of the fastening system is fixed to the shoulder region of the front torso section 10 - 1 a . Connection of the fastening parts 16 - 2 a and 16 - 2 b will thus retain the beads 16 - 1 of the handle assembly in a ready position against the shoulder region of the upper torso section 10 - 1 a (shown by dashed line in FIG. 4 ). Although a two-part snap system is depicted, various other suitable fasteners may similarly be employed (e.g., a hook and loop (e.g., VELCRO-Brand) fastener). The strap 16 - 2 also provides a space between the beads 16 - 1 through which a user's fingers may be inserted. As such, the strap 16 - 2 will facilitate the user exerting a reliable grip on the beads 16 - 1 to allow the handle assembly to be reliably pulled in an emergency situation so as to cause inflation of the inflatable bladder 12 - 1 . [0027] As noted previously, during normal use the handle assembly 16 is hidden under the bib flap 10 - 1 d to prevent inadvertent actuation of the inflator assembly 12 with the rip cord 14 extending from the handle assembly 16 to the actuation lever 12 - 2 a over the shoulder region of the front and back torso sections 10 - 1 a and 10 - 1 b , respectively. The rip cord 14 is positionally retained within eyelets (one of which is depicted in FIG. 4 by reference numeral 14 - 1 ). In preferred embodiments, the eyelets 14 - 1 have one end fixed to the material of the wet suit 10 and another free end carrying one part of a two part fastener system (e.g., a hook and loop (VELCRO-Brand) fastener) to allow a user to position the rip cord 14 within the channel formed by the eyelet. [0028] The manner in which the gas canister 18 is assembled within the canister pouch 20 is depicted by accompanying FIGS. 5A-5C . As is shown in FIG. 5A , a back wall 20 - 1 is preferably stitched to the back panel 10 - 4 d around its perimeter edges. The front wall 20 - 2 is however preferably stitched to the back panel 10 - 4 d along its side and bottom edges so that its upper edge remains unattached. As such, the front wall 20 - 2 will define a pouch space 20 - 2 a with an open upper end 20 - 2 b of sufficient size to accommodate the gas canister 18 therewithin. The front wall 20 - 2 includes opposed cut-out portions 20 - 3 a to allow side access to the pouch space 20 - 2 a to thereby permit gas canister 18 to be manipulated when positioned therein. [0029] A top flap 20 - 4 is provided and stitched along its top and side edges to the back panel 10 - 4 d . The top flap 20 - 4 is thus unattached to the back panel 10 - 4 d along its bottom edge 20 - 4 b which is opposed to the unattached upper edge of the front wall 20 - 2 . The top flap 20 - 4 includes a central opening 20 - 4 a to allow the threaded stem 18 - 1 of the gas canister 18 to protrude therefrom when positioned in the canister pouch 18 (see FIG. 5C ). The top flap 20 - 4 has a sufficient lengthwise dimension so as to provide a skirt that covers an upper region of the front wall 20 - 2 . [0030] It is preferred that each of the back wall, 20 - 1 , front wall 20 - 2 and top flap 20 - 3 is formed of a rubber material (e.g., neoprene) comparable to that forming the torso sections 10 - 1 a and 10 - 1 b . The back wall 20 - 1 , front wall 20 - 2 and top flap 20 - 4 are thus sufficiently elastic to allow each to be resiliently stretched during placement of the canister 18 within the pouch 20 . As shown in FIG. 5B , therefore, the elastic resiliency of the top flap 20 - 3 allows it to be stretched to expose the pouch space 20 - 2 a defined by the front wall 20 - 2 to thereby permit the canister 18 to be inserted therein. Once the canister 18 is positioned in the pouch space 20 - 2 a , the top flap 20 - 4 may then be stretched over the stem 18 - 1 of the canister 18 so the stem 18 - 1 can be forced to protrude through the opening 20 - 4 a . With the top flap 20 - 4 extended over the canister 18 such that the stem 18 - 1 extends through the opening 20 - 4 a , the canister 18 will be positionally retained within the pouch 20 . Moreover, the elastic rubber nature of the walls 20 - 1 , 20 - 2 and the top flap 20 - 4 will serve to reliably hold the canister 18 in the pouch 20 during the water sports activities associated with the wet suit. [0031] Once the canister 18 is positioned within the canister pouch 20 , it may be threadably coupled to the inflator valve 12 - 2 of the bladder assembly 12 . To accomplish this task, the threaded neck 18 - 1 of the canister 18 will initially be aligned with a threaded female coupling (not shown) associated with the inflator valve 12 - 2 . Finger contact may be established with the sides of the canister 18 in the pouch 20 by virtue of the cut out portions 20 - 3 to allow the canister 18 to be rotated within the pouch space 20 - 2 a and thereby thread the neck 18 - 1 thereof into the female coupling of the inflator valve 12 - 2 . After finger tight threaded coupling has been established between the canister 18 and the inflator valve 12 - 2 , the inflator assembly 12 , and hence the wet suit 10 , will then be “armed” and ready for use as depicted in FIG. 3 . [0032] Accompanying FIGS. 6A and 6B schematically show a water sports enthusiast in an underwater emergency situation. In the example depicted, a surfer wearing a wet suit 10 as described above is trapped underwater by hydraulic action of the waves which prevent the surfer from surfacing for air. When the surfer determines that an unsafe situation exists, s/he may access and grasp the handle assembly 16 as is shown in FIG. 6A . A sharp pull on the handle assembly 16 causes the rip cord 14 to move the actuator lever 12 - 2 a of the inflator valve 12 which in turn releases the compressed gas within the canister 18 through the valve 12 - 2 to fill the bladder bag 12 - 1 . The decompressed gas released from the canister 18 will thus inflate the bladder bag 12 - 1 . Since the back panel 10 - 4 b is formed of a rubber material (e.g., neoprene), it will resiliently expand with inflation of the bladder bag 12 - 1 . The increased buoyancy provided by the inflated bladder bag 12 - 1 will thus cause the surfer to ascend rapidly to the water surface as depicted in FIG. 6B . Moreover, depending on the submerged depth of the surfer when the bladder bag 12 - 1 is inflated, further inflation, and hence buoyancy, will occur due to the decreasing surrounding water pressure during the ascent. [0033] Upon reaching the surface of the water, the enthusiast may manually deflate the bladder bag 12 - 1 by operating the normally closed deflation valve 13 - 3 associated with the deflation assembly 13 . In this way, the water sports enthusiast can manually decrease buoyancy as needed and/or completely deflate the bladder bag 12 - 2 so it can be rearmed with a fresh canister 18 to allow for more water sports activities. [0034] While the invention has been described in connection with what is presently considered to be the most practical and preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the disclosed embodiment, but on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope thereof.

Wet suits used by water sports enthusiasts (e.g., surfers) are provided with the ability to be inflated during emergency situations to provide life-saving buoyancy and floatation aid. The inflatable wet suit will preferably include a torso section having a back pocket and a bladder assembly having an inflatable bladder bag and an inflator valve adapted for operative connection with a compressed gas canister positioned within the back pocket. A rip cord has one of its ends connected to the inflator valve and extends over a shoulder region of the torso section so that the other end thereof is graspably positioned adjacent a front portion of the torso section. A canister pouch within the back pocket of the torso section is provided for receiving the gas canister therein. The canister pouch includes a front wall attached to the torso section along side and bottom edges thereof with a top edge being unattached to the torso section so as to define a pouch space with an open upper end. The front wall also preferably includes at least one cut-out region to allow manual manipulation of the gas canister positioned in the pouch space. A deflation assembly allows the bladder bag to be deflated after use.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The preset invention relates to an apparatus and a method for performing secret communication in order to avoid illegal eavesdropping and interception by a third party, more particularly, relates to a data transmitting apparatus, a data receiving apparatus and a data transmitting method for performing data communication through selecting and setting a specific encoding/decoding (modulating/demodulating) method between a legitimate transmitter and a legitimate receiver. [0003] 2. Description of the Background Art [0004] Conventionally, in order to perform secret communication between specific parties, there has been adopted a structure for realizing secret communication by sharing key information for encoding/decoding between transmitting and receiving ends and by performing, based on the key information, an operation/inverse operation on information data (plain text) to be transmitted, in a mathematical manner. FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing a structure of a conventional data communication apparatus based on the above-described structure. [0005] In FIG. 17 , the conventional data communication apparatus has a configuration in which a data transmitting apparatus 9001 and a data receiving apparatus 9002 are connected to each other via a transmission line 913 . The data transmitting apparatus 9001 includes an encoding section 911 and a modulator section 912 . The data receiving apparatus 9002 includes a demodulator section 914 and a decoding section 915 . [0006] In the data transmitting apparatus 9001 , information data 90 and first key information 91 are inputted to the encoding section 911 . The encoding section 911 encodes (modulates), based on the first key information 91 , the information data 90 . The modulator section 912 converts, in a predetermined demodulation method, the information data 90 encoded by the encoding section 911 into a modulated signal 94 which is then transmitted to the transmission line 913 . [0007] In the data receiving apparatus 9002 , the demodulator section 914 demodulates, in a predetermined demodulation method, the modulated signal 94 transmitted via the transmission line 913 . To the decoding section 915 , second key information 96 which has the same content as the first key information 91 is inputted. The decoding section 915 demodulates (decrypts), based on the second key information 96 , the modulated signal 94 and then outputs information data 98 . [0008] Here, eavesdropping by a third party will be described by using an eavesdropper receiving apparatus 9003 . In FIG. 17 , eavesdropper receiving apparatus 9003 includes an eavesdropper demodulator section 916 and an eavesdropper decoding section 917 . The eavesdropper demodulator section 916 demodulates, in a predetermined demodulation method, the modulated signal 94 transmitted via the transmission line 913 . The eavesdropper decoding section 917 attempts, based on third key information 99 , decoding of a signal demodulated by the eavesdropper demodulator section 916 . Here, since the eavesdropper decoding section 917 attempts, based on the third key information 99 which is different in content from the first key information 91 , decoding of the signal demodulated by the eavesdropper demodulator section 916 , the information data 98 cannot be reproduced accurately. [0009] A mathematical encryption (or also referred to as a computational encryption or a software encryption) technique based on such mathematical operation may be applicable to an access system described in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 9-205420 (hereinafter referred to as Patent Document 1), for example. That is, in a PON (Passive Optical Network) system in which an optical signal transmitted from an optical transmitter is divided by an optical coupler and distributed to optical receivers at a plurality of optical subscribers' houses, such optical signals that are not desired and aimed at another subscribers are inputted to each of the optical receivers. Therefore, the PON system encrypts information data for each of the subscribers by using key information which is different by the subscribers, thereby preventing a leakage/eavesdropping of mutual information data and realizing safe data communication. [0010] Further, the mathematical encryption technique is described in “Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice” translated by Keiichiro Ishibashi et al., Pearson Education, 2001 (hereinafter referred to as Non-patent Document 1) and “Applied Cryptography” translated by Mayumi Adachi et al., Softbank publishing, 2003 (hereinafter referred to as Non-patent Document 2). [0011] Among the mathematical encryption, a method called a stream encryption has a simple structure in which a cipher text is generated by performing an XOR operation between a pseudo-random number sequence outputted by a pseudo-random number generator and information data (a plain text) to be encrypted, and thus is advantageous for speedup. On the other hand, the method is disadvantageous in that security in the stream encryption depends only on the pseudo-random number generator. That is, if the eavesdropper can obtain a combination of the plain text and the cipher text, the pseudo-random number series can be identified accurately (this is generally called a known-plain-text attack). Further, since an initial value of the pseudo-random number generator, that is, the key information and the pseudo-random number series correspond to each other uniquely, the key information can be figured out certainly if any decryption algorithm is applied. Further, a processing speed of a computer has been improved remarkably in recent years, and thus there has been a problem in that there is an increasing danger of decryption of the cipher text within a practical time period. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] Therefore, an object of the present invention is to provide a highly concealable data communication apparatus which causes the eavesdropper to take a significantly increased effort and time to analyze the cipher text, compared to a conventional stream encryption, by introducing an uncertain element into a relation among key information, a pseudo-random number sequence and a cipher text. [0013] The present invention is directed to a data transmitting apparatus for encrypting information data by using predetermined key information and performing secret communication with a receiving apparatus. To attain the object mentioned above, the data receiving apparatus of the present invention includes: a multi-level code generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a multi-level code sequence in which a signal level changes so as to be approximately random numbers; a multi-level processing section for combining the multi-level code sequence and the information data and generating a multi-level signal having a plurality of levels corresponding to a combination of the multi-level code sequence and the information data; and a modulator section for treating the multi-level signal with predetermined modulation processing and outputting a modulated signal. Further, the multi-level code generation section includes: a random number sequence generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences; and a multi-level conversion section to which a plurality of bit sequences including at least a part of the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences is inputted as an input bit sequence and which converts the input bit sequence into the multi-level code sequence. The input bit sequence to the multi-level conversion section is greater in number of digits than each of the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences generated by the random number sequence generation section. [0014] Preferably, the multi-level processing section allocates different values of the information data to adjoining multi-levels of the multi-level signal. [0015] At least one of the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences is inputted to the multi-level conversion section as a lowest-order bit of the input bit sequence. [0016] Preferably, the multi-level code generation section further includes a physical random number generation section for generating one or more physical random number sequences. In this case, the one or more physical random number sequences are inputted, to the multi-level conversion section, as remaining bit sequences of the input bit sequence after excluding the at least a part of the plurality of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0017] Further, fixed values may be inputted, to the multi-level conversion section, as remaining bit sequences of the input bit sequence after excluding the at least a part of the plurality of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0018] Preferably, the multi-level code generation section further includes a physical random number generation section for generating one or more physical random number sequence. In this case, the one or more physical random number sequences are inputted to the multi-level conversion section as a part of the plurality of the bit sequences of the input bit excluding the at least a part of the plurality of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences, and fixed values are inputted, as remaining bit sequences thereof. [0019] Further, a signal generated based on a predetermined rule may be inputted, to the multi-level conversion section, as remaining bit sequences of the input bit sequence excluding the at least a part of the plurality of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences. The signal generated based on the predetermined rule may be generated by delaying a part or a whole of the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences by a predetermined time period. [0020] A condition needs to be satisfied where a ratio of an information amplitude, which corresponds to an amplitude of the information data, to a fluctuation width of the multi-level signal is greater than a signal-to-noise ratio acceptable to a legitimate receiving party. [0021] Preferably, the random number sequence generation section includes: a pseudo-random number generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a pseudo-random number series which is in a binary format; and a serial/parallel conversion section for performing serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series generated by the pseudo-random number generation section, and outputting the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0022] Further, the random number sequence generation section may includes: a pseudo-random number generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a pseudo-random number series which is in a binary format; a plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections for performing serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series generated by the pseudo-random number generation section and outputting the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences; a first switch for switching, based on a rate selection signal, an output destination of the pseudo-random number series generated by the pseudo-random number generation section, between the plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections; and a second switch for selecting, based on the rate selection signal, and outputting the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number series outputted from the plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections. The plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections output respectively different numbers of the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0023] Further, the present invention is directed to a data receiving apparatus for receiving information data encrypted by using predetermined key information and performing secret communication with a transmitting apparatus. To attain the object mentioned above, the data receiving apparatus includes: a multi-level code generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a multi-level code sequence in which a signal level changes so as to be approximately random numbers; a demodulator section for demodulating, in a predetermined demodulation method, a modulated signal received from the transmitting apparatus so as to be outputted as a multi-level signal having a plurality of levels corresponding to a combination of the information data and the multi-level code sequence; and an decision section for deciding, based on the multi-level code sequence, the information data from the multi-level signal. The multi-level code generation section includes: a random number sequence generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences; and a multi-level conversion section to which a plurality of bit sequences including at least a part of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences are inputted as an input bit sequence, and which converts the input bit sequence into the multi-level code sequence. The input bit sequence to the multi-level conversion section is greater in number than each of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences generated by the random number sequence generation section. [0024] Fixed values are inputted, to the multi-level conversion section, as remaining bit sequences of the input bit sequence excluding the at least a part of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0025] A signal generated based on a predetermined rule may be inputted, to the multi-level conversion section, as remaining bit sequences of the input bit sequence excluding the at least a part of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences. The signal generated based on the predetermined rule may be generated by delaying a part or a whole of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences by a predetermined time period. [0026] A condition needs to be satisfied where a ratio of an information amplitude corresponding to an amplitude of the information data to a fluctuation width of the multi-level signal corresponding to remaining bit sequences of the input bit sequence to the multi-level conversion section, after excluding the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences, is greater than a signal-to-noise ratio acceptable to a legitimate receiving party. [0027] Preferably, the random number sequence generation section includes: a pseudo-random number generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a pseudo-random number series which is in a binary format; and a serial/parallel conversion section for performing serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series generated by the pseudo-random number generation section, and outputting the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0028] Further, the random number sequence generation section may include: a pseudo-random number generation section for generating, based on the predetermined key information, a pseudo-random number series which is in a binary format; a plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections for performing serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series generated by the pseudo-random number generation section and outputting the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences; a first switch for switching, based on a rate selection signal, an output destination of the pseudo-random number series generated by the pseudo-random number generation section, between the plurality of the serial/parallel conversion sections; and a second switch for selecting, based on the rate selection signal, and outputting the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number series outputted from the plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections. The plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections outputs respectively different numbers of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0029] Further, the data transmission apparatus mentioned above and processing procedures performed by the modulation section may be regarded as a data transmission method for causing a series of processing procedures to be executed. That is, the data transmission method includes: a multi-level code generation step of generating, based on the predetermined key information, a multi-level code sequence in which a signal level changes so as to be approximately random numbers; a step of combining the multi-level code sequence and the information data and generating a multi-level signal having a plurality of levels corresponding to a combination of the multi-level code sequence and the information data; and a modulation step of treating the multi-level signal with predetermined modulation processing and outputting a modulated signal. The multi-level code generation step includes: a random number sequence generation step of generating, based on the predetermined key information, a plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences; and a multi-level conversion step in which a plurality of bit sequences including at least a part of the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences is inputted as an input bit sequence and the input bit sequences are converted into the multi-level code sequence. The input bit sequence is greater in number of digits than each of the plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0030] Further, respective processing procedures performed by the multi-level code generation section, the demodulation section, and the decision section which are included in the data receiving apparatus mentioned above may be regarded as a data receiving method for causing a series of processing procedures to be executed. That is, the data receiving method includes: a multi-level code generation step of generating, based on the predetermined key information, a multi-level code sequence in which a signal level changes so as to be approximately random numbers; a demodulation step of demodulating, in a predetermined demodulation method, a modulated signal received from the transmitting apparatus so as to be outputted as a multi-level signal having a plurality of levels corresponding to a combination of the information data and the multi-level code sequence; and an decision step of deciding, based on the multi-level code sequence, the information data from the multi-level signal. The multi-level code generation step includes: a random number sequence generation step of generating, based on the predetermined key information, a plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences; and a multi-level conversion step in which a plurality of bit sequences including at least a part of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences are inputted as an input bit sequence, and the input bit sequence is converted into the multi-level code sequence. The input bit sequence is greater in number than each of the plurality of demodulation pseudo-random number sequences. [0031] The data communication apparatus of the present invention encodes/modulates, based on key information, information data into a multi-level signal which is then to be transmitted, decodes/demodulates, based on the key information, a received multi-level signal and optimizes a signal-to-noise power ratio of the multi-level signal, thereby causing a cipher text obtained by an eavesdropper to be erroneous. As a result, the eavesdropper needs to perform decoding considering that a correct cipher text is highly likely to be different from what the eavesdropper has obtained, and thus the number of attempts required for the decoding, that is the amount of computing, will be increased compared to a case of no error. Accordingly, security against eavesdropping can be improved. Further, the intervals between the levels of the multi-level signal are set appropriately, whereby an increase in a rate of the cipher text pseudo-random number generator used within the apparatus can be kept at the lowest level. [0032] These and other objects, features, aspects and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the present invention when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0033] FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an example of a configuration of a data communication apparatus according to the present invention; [0034] FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a waveform of a transmission signal of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention; [0035] FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating names of the waveform of the transmission signal of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention; [0036] FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating quality of the transmission signal of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention; [0037] FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating the quality of another transmission signal of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention; [0038] FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of a first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to a second embodiment of the present invention; [0039] FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of a second multi-level code generation section 212 a according to the second embodiment of the present invention; [0040] FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating a signal format used for a data transmitting apparatus according to the second embodiment of the present invention; [0041] FIG. 9 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of a first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to a third embodiment of the present invention; [0042] FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of a second multi-level code generation section 212 a according to the third embodiment of the present invention; [0043] FIG. 11 is a diagram illustrating a signal format used for a data transmitting apparatus according to the third embodiment of the present invention; [0044] FIG. 12 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of a first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0045] FIG. 13 is a diagram illustrating a signal format used for a data transmitting apparatus according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0046] FIG. 14A is a block diagram showing an example of another configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0047] FIG. 14B is a block diagram showing an example of another configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0048] FIG. 15 is a diagram illustrating another signal format used for the data transmitting apparatus according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention; [0049] FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of a first random number sequence generation section 141 according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention; and [0050] FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing a configuration of a conventional data communication apparatus. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0051] Hereinafter, embodiment of the present invention will be described, with reference to drawings. First Embodiment [0052] FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an example of a configuration of a data communication apparatus according to the present invention. In FIG. 1 , the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment has a configuration in which a data transmitting apparatus 1101 and a data receiving apparatus 1201 are connected to each other via a transmission line 110 . The data transmitting apparatus 1101 includes a multi-level encoding section 111 and a modulator section 112 . The multi-level encoding section 111 includes a first multi-level code generation section 111 a and a multi-level processing section 111 b . The data receiving apparatus 1201 includes a demodulator section 211 and a multi-level decoding section 212 . The multi-level decoding section 212 includes a second multi-level code generation section 212 a and a decision section 212 b . A metal line such as a LAN cable or a coaxial line, or an optical waveguide such as an optical-fiber cable can be used as the transmission line 110 . Further the transmission line 110 is not limited to a wired cable such as the LAN cable, but can be free space which enables a wireless signal to be transmitted. [0053] FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a waveform of a transmission signal of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating names of the waveform of the transmission signal of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating quality of the transmission signal of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention. Hereinafter, an action of the data communication apparatus according to the first embodiment of the present invention will be described, with reference to FIGS. 1 to 4 . [0054] The first multi-level code generation section 111 a generates, based on predetermined first key information 11 , a multi-level code sequence 12 (( b ) of FIG. 2 ) in which a signal level changes so as to be approximately random numbers. The multi-level code sequence 12 (( b ) of FIG. 2 ) and information data 10 (( a ) of FIG. 2 ) are inputted to the multi-level processing section 111 b . The multi-level processing section 111 b combines the multi-level code sequence 12 and the information data 10 in accordance with a predetermined procedure, and generates a multi-level signal 13 (( c ) of FIG. 2 ) having a plurality of levels corresponding to a combination of the multi-level code sequence 12 and the information data 10 . For example, in the case where a level of the multi-level code sequence 12 changes to c 1 /c 5 /c 3 /c 4 with respect to time slots t 1 /t 2 /t 3 /t 4 , the multi-level processing section 111 b regards the multi-level code sequence 12 as a bias level, adds the information data 10 to the multi-level code sequence 12 , and then generates the multi-level signal 13 in which a signal level changes to L 1 /L 8 /L 6 /L 4 . The modulator section 112 modulates the multi-level signal 13 in a predetermined modulation method, and outputs the modulated multi-level signal 13 as a modulated signal 14 to the transmission line 110 . [0055] Here, as shown in FIG. 3 , an amplitude of the information data 10 is referred to as an “information amplitude”, a total amplitude of the multi-level signal 13 is referred to as a “multi-level signal amplitude”, pairs of levels (L 1 ,L 4 )/(L 2 ,L 5 )/(L 3 ,L 6 )/(L 4 ,L 7 )/(L 5 ,L 8 ) which the multi-level signal 13 may obtain corresponding to the levels c 1 /c 2 /c 3 /c 4 /c 5 of the multi-level code sequence 12 are respectively referred to as a first to a fifth “bases”, and a minimum interval between signal levels of the multi-level signal 13 is referred to as a “step width”. [0056] The demodulator section 211 demodulates the modulated signal 14 transmitted via the transmission line 110 , and reproduces a multi-level signal 15 . The second multi-level code generation section 212 a previously shares second key information 16 which has the same content as the first key information 11 , and based on the second key information 16 , generates a multi-level code sequence 17 . The decision section 212 b receives the multi-level signal 15 and reproduces information data 18 by deciding (binary determination) a value of the information data 18 using the multi-level code sequence 17 as a threshold. Here, the modulated signal 14 which is modulated in a predetermined modulation method and is transmitted/received between the modulator section 112 and the demodulator section 211 via the transmission line 110 , is a signal obtained by modulating an electromagnetic wave (electromagnetic field) or a light wave using the multi-level signal 13 . [0057] Note that, the multi-level processing section 111 b may generate the multi-level signal 13 by using any methods, in addition to a method of generating the multi-level signal 13 by adding the information data 10 and the multi-level code sequence 12 as above described. For example, the multi-level processing section 111 b may generate the multi-level signal 13 by modulating, based on the information data 10 , an amplitude of the levels of the multi-level code sequence 12 . Alternatively, the multi-level processing section 111 b may generate the multi-level signal 13 by reading out consecutively, from a memory having levels of the multi-level signal 13 previously stored therein, the levels of the multi-level signal 13 , which are corresponding to the combination of the information data 10 and the multi-level code sequence 12 . [0058] Further, in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 , the levels of the multi-level signal 13 are represented as 8 levels, but the levels of the multi-level signal 13 are not limited to the representation. Further, the information amplitude is represented as three times or integer times of the step width of the multi-level signal 13 , but the information amplitude is not limited to the representation. The information amplitude may be any integer times of the step width of the multi-level signal 13 , or is not necessarily integer times thereof. Further, in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 , each of the levels of the multi-level code sequence 12 is located so as to be at an approximate center between each of the levels of the multi-level signal 13 , but each of the levels of the multi-level code sequence 12 is not limited to such location. For example, each of the levels of the multi-level code sequence 12 is not necessarily at the approximate center between each of the levels of the multi-level signal 13 , or may coincide with each of the levels of the multi-level signal 13 . Further, the above description is based on an assumption that the multi-level code sequence 12 and the information data 10 are identical in a change rate to each other and also in a synchronous relation, but the change rate of either of the multi-level code sequence 12 or the information data 10 may be faster (or slower) than the change rate of another, or the multi-level code sequence 12 and the information data 10 are in an asynchronous relation. [0059] Next, an action of eavesdropping by a third party will be described. It is assumed that the third party, who is an eavesdropper, decodes the modulated signal 14 by using a configuration corresponding to the data receiving apparatus 1201 held by a legitimate receiving party or a further sophisticated data receiving apparatus (hereinafter referred to as an eavesdropper data receiving apparatus). The eavesdropper data receiving apparatus reproduces the multi-level signal 15 by demodulating the modulated signal 14 . However, the eavesdropper data receiving apparatus does not share the key information with the data transmitting apparatus 1101 , and thus, unlike the data receiving apparatus 1201 , the eavesdropper data receiving apparatus cannot generate, based on the key information, the multi-level code sequence 17 . Therefore, the eavesdropper data receiving apparatus cannot perform binary determination of the multi-level signal 15 by using the multi-level code sequence 17 as a reference. [0060] As an action of the eavesdropping which may be possible under these circumstances, there is a method of identifying all the levels of the multi-level signal 15 (generally referred to as “all-possible attacks”). That is, the eavesdropper data receiving apparatus performs determination of the multi-level signal 15 by preparing thresholds corresponding to all possible intervals between the signal levels which the multi-level signal 15 may obtain, and attempts extraction of correct key information or information data by analyzing a result of the determination. For example, the eavesdropper data receiving apparatus sets all the levels c 0 /c 1 /c 2 /c 3 /c 4 /c 5 /c 6 of the multi-level code sequence 12 shown in FIG. 2 as the thresholds, performs the multi-level determination of the multi-level signal 15 , and then attempts the extraction of the correct key information or the information data. [0061] However, in an actual transmission system, a noise occurs due to various factors, and the noise is overlapped on the modulated signal 14 , whereby the levels of the multi-level signal 15 fluctuates temporally/instantaneously as shown in FIG. 4 . In this case, an SN ratio (a signal-to-noise intensity ratio) of a signal to be determined (the multi-level signal 15 ) by the legitimate receiving party (the data receiving apparatus 1201 ) is determined based on a ratio of the information amplitude to a noise level of the multi-level signal 15 . On the other hand, the SN ratio of the signal to be determined (the multi-level signal 15 ) by the eaves dropper data receiving apparatus is determined based on a ratio of the step width to the noise level of the multi-level signal 15 . [0062] Therefore, in the case where a condition of the noise level contained in the signal to be determined is fixed, the SN ratio of the signal to be determined by the eavesdropper data receiving apparatus is relatively smaller than that by the data receiving apparatus 1201 , and thus a transmission feature (an error rate) of the eavesdropper data receiving apparatus deteriorates. The data communication apparatus of the present invention utilize this feature so as to induce an identification error in the all-possible attacks by the third party using all the thresholds, thereby causing the eavesdropping to be difficult. Particularly, in the case where the step width of the multi-level signal 15 is set at an order equal to or smaller than a noise amplitude (spread of a noise intensity distribution), the data communication apparatus substantially disables the multi-level determination by the third party, thereby realizing an ideal eavesdropping prevention. [0063] As the noise to be overlapped on the signal to be determined (the multi-level signal 15 or the modulated signal 14 ), a thermal noise (Gaussian noise) included in a space field or an electronic device, etc. may be used, in the case where an electromagnetic wave such as a wireless signal is used as the modulated signal 14 , and a photon number distribution (quantum noise) may be used in addition to the thermal noise, in the case where the light wave is used. Particularly, signal processing such as recording and replication is not applicable to a signal using the quantum noise, and thus the step width of the multi-level signal 15 is set by using the quantum noise level as a reference, whereby the eavesdropping by the third party is disabled and an absolute security of the data communication is secured. [0064] As above described, according to the data communication apparatus based on the first embodiment of the present invention, when the information data to be transmitted is encoded as the multi-level signal, the interval between the signal levels of the multi-level signal 13 is set with respect to the noise level so as to disable eavesdropping by the third party. Accordingly, quality of the receiving signal at the time of the eavesdropping by the third party is crucially deteriorated, and it is possible to provide a further safe data communication apparatus which causes decryption/decoding of the multi-level signal by the third party to be difficult. [0065] Note that the multi-level encoding section 111 may fluctuate the step width (S 1 to S 7 ) of the multi-level signal 13 , as shown in FIG. 5 , depending on a fluctuation level of each of the levels, that is, the noise intensity distribution overlapped on each of the levels. Specifically, the interval between the signal levels of the multi-level signal 13 is distributed such that respective SN ratios determined based on respective adjoining two signal levels of the signal to be determined which are inputted to the decision section 212 b become approximately uniform. Further, the step width of each of the levels of the multi-level signal 13 is set in a uniform manner, in the case where the noise level to be overlapped on each of the levels is constant. [0066] Generally, in the case where a light intensity modulated signal whose light source is a diode laser (LD) is assumed as the modulated signal 14 outputted from the modulator section 112 , a fluctuation width (the noise level) of the modulated signal 14 will vary depending on the levels of the multi-level signal 13 inputted to the diode laser. This results from the fact that the diode laser emits light based on the principle of stimulated emission which uses a spontaneous emission light as a “master light”, and the noise level contained in the modulated signal outputted from the diode laser is defined based on a relative ratio of a stimulated emission light level to a spontaneous emission light level. That is, the higher an excitation rate of the diode laser (the excitation rate of the diode laser corresponds to a bias current to be injected) is, the larger a ratio of the stimulated emission light level becomes, and consequently the noise level becomes small. On the other hand, the lower the excitation rate of the diode laser is, the larger a ratio of the natural emission light level becomes, and consequently the noise level becomes large. Accordingly, as shown in FIG. 5 , the multi-level encoding section 111 sets the step width to be large in a range where the level of the multi-level signal 13 is small, and sets the step width to be small in a range where the level of the multi-level signal is large, in a non-linear manner, whereby it is possible to set, in an approximately uniform manner, the respective SN ratios of the intervals between the respective adjoining signal levels of the signal to be determined. [0067] Further, in the case where a light modulated signal is used as the modulated signal 14 , a SN ratio of a receiving signal will be determined mainly based on a shot noise as long as a noise caused by the spontaneous emission light or the thermal noise to be used for an optical receiver is sufficiently small. Under such condition, the larger the level of the multi-level signal is, the larger the noise level included in the multi-level signal becomes. Therefore, contrary to the case of FIG. 5 , the multi-level encoding section 111 sets the step width to be small in the range where the level of the multi-level signal is small, and sets the step widths to be large in the range where the level of the multi-level signal is large, whereby it is possible to set, in an approximately uniform manner, the respective SN ratios of the intervals between the respective adjoining signal levels of the signal to be determined. Accordingly, the quality of the receiving signal at the time of the eavesdropping by the third party is crucially deteriorated in a uniform manner, and it is possible to cause decryption/decoding of the multi-level signal by the third party to be difficult. Second Embodiment [0068] An overall configuration of a data communication apparatus according to a second embodiment of the present invention is the same as that of the data communication apparatus as shown in FIG. 1 , and thus description thereof will be omitted. The data communication apparatus according to the second embodiment is different, only with regard to configurations of a first multi-level code generation section 111 a and a second multi-level code generation section 212 a , from the first embodiment. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to the second embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 6 , the first multi-level code generation section 111 a has a first random number sequence generation section 141 and a first multi-level conversion section 142 . The first random number sequence generation section 141 includes a pseudo-random number generation section 1411 and a serial/parallel conversion section 1412 . Here, an example of a case where the number of bits of the multi-level code sequence 12 is 8 bits (m=8) is shown. [0069] The pseudo-random number generation section 1411 generates, based on inputted first key information 11 , a binary pseudo-random number series 31 . The serial/parallel conversion section 1412 performs serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series 31 , and outputs a first to an eighth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 h . The first to the eighth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 h are inputted to the first multi-level conversion section 142 . Further, the first modulation pseudo-random number sequence 32 a is inputted to the multi-level processing section 111 b . The first multi-level conversion section 142 converts the first to the eighth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 h into the multi-level code sequence 12 having 2 m multi-levels, and then outputs the same to the multi-level processing section 111 b. [0070] FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of the second multi-level code generation section 212 a according to the second embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 7 , a configuration of the second multi-level code generation section 212 a is basically the same as that of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a . Note that, in the second multi-level code generation section 212 a , outputs from a serial/parallel conversion section 2412 are referred to as a first to an eighth demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 a to 42 h . The second multi-level code generation section 212 a outputs a multi-level code sequence 17 and the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a to the decision section 212 b. [0071] FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating a signal format used for the data transmitting apparatus according to the second embodiment of the present invention. With reference to FIG. 8 , a value of the multi-level code sequence 12 used in the present embodiment is determined based on the first to the eighth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 h . Further, a level of a multi-level signal is determined based on the value of the multi-level code sequence 12 and a value of the information data 10 . Further, a step width of the multi-level signal is set to be equal to or smaller than a noise level. [0072] The multi-level processing section 111 b allocates respectively adjoining levels of the multi-level signal to different values of the information data 10 (“0” or “1”) in an alternate manner. For example, in the levels of the multi-level signal included in an upper half side of FIG. 8 , the multi-level processing section 111 b allocates the information data “0” in the case where the multi-level code sequence 12 is odd-numbered, and the information data “1” in the case where the multi-level code sequence 12 is even-numbered. Further, in the levels of the multi-level signal included in a lower half side of the FIG. 8 , the multi-level processing section 111 b allocates the information data “1” in the case where the multi-level code sequence 12 is odd-numbered, and the information data “0” in the case where multi-level code sequence 12 is even-numbered. In other words, a manner of the multi-level processing section 111 b relating each of the levels of the multi-level signal to either “0” or “1” is determined based on a value of the first modulation pseudo-random number sequence 32 a which corresponds to a lowest-order bit of the multi-level code sequence 12 . Accordingly, it becomes impossible for an eavesdropper who does not have key information to identify data directly, and consequently the eavesdropper is forced to try to identify the key information so as to execute eavesdropping by first performing a multi-level determination of all the levels of the multi-level signal. [0073] On the other hand, in the data receiving apparatus, an identification level of a received multi-level signal is determined based on values of the first to the eighth demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 a to 42 h . The decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data in accordance with a level of the received multi-level signal, the identification level of the multi-level signal, and a value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a. [0074] Specifically, the decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data as “1” in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is larger than the identification level, and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “0”, also in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is smaller than the identification level, and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “1”. Contrary to this, the decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data as “0” in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is larger than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “1”, and also in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is smaller than the identification level, and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “0”. [0075] Note that, the examples of FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 illustrate cases where the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences is 8, however, the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences is not limited thereto, and can be set arbitrarily. [0076] As above described, according to the present embodiment, in the case where the eavesdropper attempts the multi-level determination of the multi-level signal so as to identify the key information, an error in identification of the multi-level signal will occur, as with a case of the first embodiment, since the step-width of the multi-level signal is set to be equal to or smaller than the noise level. Accordingly, the data communication apparatus according to the second embodiment can crucially deteriorates quality of a receiving signal at the time of eavesdropping by a third party, whereby it is possible to provide a safe data communication apparatus which causes decryption/decoding of the receiving signal to be difficult. Third Embodiment [0077] In the data communication apparatus according to the second embodiment (see FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 ), it is necessary to change the first to the eighth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 h and the value of the multi-level code sequence 12 at the same rate as a bit rate of the information data 10 . Here, a rate of a pseudo-random number series 31 (that is, a random number generation rate of a pseudo-random number generation section 1411 ) is obtained from a product of the bit rate of the information data 10 and the number of the bits of the multi-level code sequence 12 . Therefore, the random number generation rate of the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 increases as the number of multi-levels of the multi-level code sequence 12 increases. On the other hand, a receiving SN ratio of an eavesdropper deteriorates as the number of the multi-levels increases, and thus the more the number of the multi-levels increases, the more significant identification error the eavesdropper will incur. Accordingly, the more the number of the multi-levels are increased for the sake of security, the more the random number generation rate required to the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 is increased, which lead to a problem in that it is difficult to realize such pseudo-random number generation section 1411 . The present embodiment aims to solve such problem. [0078] An overall configuration of a data communication apparatus according to a third embodiment of the present invention is the same as that of the data communication apparatus as shown in FIG. 1 , and thus description thereof will be omitted. The data communication apparatus according to the third embodiment is different, only with regard to configurations of a first multi-level code generation section 111 a and a second multi-level code generation section 212 a , from the second embodiment. Hereinafter, component parts which are the same as those of the second embodiment are omitted by providing common reference characters, and the data communication apparatus according to the third embodiment will be described by mainly focusing such components parts that are different from those of the second embodiment. [0079] FIG. 9 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to the third embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 9 , the first multi-level code generation section 111 a has a first random number sequence generation section 141 and a first multi-level conversion section 142 . The first random number sequence generation section 141 includes a pseudo-random number generation section 1411 and a serial/parallel conversion section 1412 . Here, an example of a case where the number of bits of the multi-level code sequence 12 is 8 bits (m=8) is shown. [0080] In the first multi-level code generation section 111 a , the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 generates, in a similar manner to the second embodiment (see FIG. 6 ), a binary pseudo-random number series 31 in accordance with the first key information 11 . The serial/parallel conversion section 1412 performs serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series 31 and outputs a first to a fourth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 d . Here, the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences outputted from the serial/parallel conversion section 1412 is smaller than the number of bits of a bit sequence to be inputted to the first multi-level conversion section 142 (that is, an input bit sequence). The first to the fourth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 d are inputted to the first multi-level conversion section 142 as a part of the input bit sequence. For example, as shown in FIG. 9 , the modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a and 32 b , and the modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 c and 32 d are inputted to low-order 2 bits and to high-order 2 bits, respectively, of an 8-bit input bit sequence. Fixed values are inputted to remaining parts of the input bit sequence. The first multi-level conversion section 142 converts the inputted bit sequences into the multi-level code sequence 12 having 2 m multi-levels and then outputs the same to the multi-level processing section 111 b. [0081] FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of the second multi-level code generation section 212 a according to the third embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 10 , the second multi-level code generation section 212 a has a second random number sequence generation section 241 and a second multi-level conversion section 242 . The second random number sequence generation section 241 includes a pseudo-random number generation section 2411 and a serial/parallel conversion section 2412 . [0082] In the second multi-level code generation section 212 a , the pseudo-random number generation section 2411 generates and outputs, based on the second key information 21 , a binary pseudo-random number series 41 . The serial/parallel conversion section 2412 performs serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series 41 , and outputs a first to a fourth demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 a to 42 d . Here, the number of the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences outputted from the serial/parallel conversion section 2412 is smaller than the number of bits of a bit sequence to be inputted to the second multi-level conversion section 242 (that is, the input bit sequence). A part of the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences outputted from the serial/parallel conversion section 2412 is inputted to the second multi-level conversion section 242 as a part of the input bit sequence. [0083] For example, as shown in FIG. 10 , the third and the fourth demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 c and 42 d are inputted to the second multi-level conversion section 242 as high-order bits of the input bit sequence. It is preferable that a position in the input bit sequence to the second multi-level conversion section 242 to which the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences are to be inputted is the same as that of a high-order bit in the input bit to the first multi-level conversion section 142 to which the modulation pseudo-random number sequences are inputted. Fixed values are inputted to remaining bit sequence positions of the input bit sequence to the second multi-level conversion section 242 to which the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences are not inputted. The second multi-level conversion section 242 converts the input bit sequence into the multi-level code sequence 22 having 2 m multi-levels and then outputs the same. [0084] FIG. 11 is a diagram illustrating a signal format used for a data transmitting apparatus according to the third embodiment of the present invention. With reference to FIG. 11 , in the case where four bits of the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 are fixed values, the number of the levels which the multi-level code sequence 12 may actually obtain is 16. The level of the multi-level signal is determined based the multi-level code sequence 12 and a value of the information data 10 (“0” or “1”), and thus the number of the levels which the multi-level signal 13 may obtain is 32. These levels are divided into 8 groups respectively having four levels respectively including values which are close to one another. A step width of the multi-level signal in each of the groups is set to be equal to or smaller than a noise level. Further, it is preferable that a difference between a highest-order level and a lowest-order level in each of the groups is equal to or smaller than the noise level. [0085] Further, the multi-level processing section 111 b allocates, in each of the groups, respectively adjoining levels of the multi-level signal to different values of the information data 10 (“0” or “1”) in an alternate manner. For example, in the levels of the multi-level signal included in an upper-half side as shown in FIG. 11 , the multi-level processing section 111 b , allocates the information data “0” in the case where the multi-level code sequence 12 is odd-numbered, and allocates the information data “1” in the case where the multi-level code sequence 12 is even-numbered. Further, in the levels of the multi-level signal included in a lower-half side as shown in FIG. 11 , the multi-level processing section 111 b allocates the information data “1” in the case where the multi-level code sequence 12 is odd-numbered, and allocates the information data “0” in the case where the multi-level code sequence 12 is even-numbered. In other words, a manner in which the multi-level processing section 111 b relates each of the levels of the multi-level signal to either of “0” or “1” is determined based on a value of the first modulation pseudo-random number sequence 32 a which corresponds to a lowest-order bit of the multi-level code sequence 12 . [0086] On the other hand, in a data receiving apparatus, an identification level of a received multi-level signal is determined based on values of the third and the fourth demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 c and 42 d . The data receiving apparatus may also use values of the first and the second demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 a and 42 b when determining the identification level, however, since fluctuation of the identification level corresponding to the values is small, an error rate after identification will not deteriorate even if the identification level is determined with the fluctuation being ignored. The decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data in accordance with the level of the received multi-level signal, the identification level of the multi-level signal, and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a. [0087] Specifically, the decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data as “1” in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is greater than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “0”, and also in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is smaller than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “1”. On the other hand, the decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data as “0” in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is greater than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “1”, and also in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is smaller than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “0”. [0088] The random number generation rate required to the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 in the configuration of FIG. 9 is four times of the bit rate of the information data 10 , since the number of output bits (the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences) of the serial/parallel conversion section 1412 is four, and compared to the case of the configuration of FIG. 6 (8 times of the bit rate of the information data 10 ), the random number generation rate of the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 can be halved. [0089] Note that the fluctuation of the levels of the multi-level signal corresponding to the first and the second demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 a and 42 b which are not used for generating the identification level leads to a deterioration of a signal level, that is, an deterioration of an SN ratio, at the time of identification. However, if such deteriorated SN ratio is set so as to satisfy a required value of the data receiving apparatus 1201 , a legitimate receiving party can identify the multi-level signal without an error. That is, a ratio of a information amplitude to a fluctuation width of the multi-level signal corresponding to the low-order bits of the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences is set so as to satisfy a condition of being greater than the SN ratio acceptable to the legitimate receiving party. The SN ratio acceptable to the legitimate receiver is determined based on a bit error rate of data required by the legitimate receiving party. For example, in optical communications, a value equal to or smaller than 10 −12 are generally used, as an acceptable bit error rate, and for this case, acceptable SN rate is equal to or more than 23 dB. [0090] Further, in the example of FIG. 9 , the number of input bits to the first multi-level conversion section 142 is 8 bits, and the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences is four, and the example shows that the modulation pseudo-random number sequences are inputted to the high-order 2 bits and low-order 2 bits of the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 , but is merely one example. The number of input bits to the first multi-level conversion section 142 is arbitrary, and the numbers of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences and the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences can be set arbitrarily in accordance with a ratio of a feasible random number generation rate to a required bit rate. Further, the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences to be allocated to the high-order bits and low-order bits of the input bit to the first multi-level conversion section 142 can be set arbitrarily if it satisfies a condition where any of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences is definitely inputted to the lowest-order bit of the input bit sequence. [0091] As above described, according to the present embodiment, in the case where the eavesdropper attempts a multi-level determination of the multi-level signal so as to identify the key information, an identification error of the multi-level signal occurs in the similar manner to the first embodiment since the step width of the multi-level signal in a single group is set to be equal to or smaller than the noise level. Further, the signal levels of the multi-level signal is allocated appropriately, whereby it is possible to keep, at a low level, an increase in the random number generation rate required to the pseudo-random number generator, thereby improving the security. Therefore, the data communication apparatus according to the third embodiment can crucially deteriorates quality of a receiving signal at the time of eavesdropping by a third party, whereby it is possible to provide a safe data communication apparatus which causes decryption/decoding of the receiving signal to be difficult. Fourth Embodiment [0092] An overall configuration of a data communication apparatus according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention is the same as that of the data communication apparatus as shown in FIG. 1 , and thus description thereof will be omitted. The data communication apparatus according to the fourth embodiment is different, only with regard to a configuration of a first multi-level code generation section 111 a , from the third embodiment. Hereinafter, component parts which are the same as those of the third embodiment are omitted by providing common reference characters, and the data communication apparatus according to the fourth embodiment will be described by mainly focusing such components parts that are different from those of the third embodiment. [0093] FIG. 12 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. In the FIG. 12 , the first multi-level code generation section 111 a has a first random number sequence generation section 141 , first multi-level conversion section 142 , and a physical random number generation section 143 . The first random number sequence generation section 141 includes a pseudo-random number generation section 1411 and a serial/parallel conversion section 1412 . Here, an example of a case where the number of bits of the multi-level code sequence 12 is 8 bits (m=8) is shown. A second multi-level code generation section 212 a in the present embodiment has a configuration as shown in FIG. 7 , as with the second embodiment. [0094] Next, an action of the data communication apparatus according to the present embodiment will be described. Actions of the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 and the serial/parallel conversion section 1412 are the same as those of the second embodiment. The physical random number generation section 143 generates and outputs one or a plurality of physical random number sequences. In the example of FIG. 12 , the physical random number generation section 143 outputs a first to a fourth physical random number sequences 33 a to 33 d . Here, the number of modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 d outputted from the serial/parallel conversion section 1412 is set so as to be smaller than the number of bits of the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 . The first to the fourth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 d are inputted as a part of the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 . The first to the fourth physical random number sequences 33 a to 33 d are inputted to a remaining part of the input bit sequence. The first multi-level conversion section 142 converts the input bit sequence into a multi-level code sequence 12 having 2 m multi-levels and outputs the same. [0095] FIG. 13 is a diagram illustrating a signal format used for the data transmitting apparatus according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. The signal format as shown in FIG. 13 corresponds to the configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a as shown in FIG. 12 . With reference to FIG. 13 , the first multi-level code generation section 111 a determines high-order 2 bits and low-order 2 bits of 8 bits of the multi-level code sequence 12 , in accordance with the modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 d , and also determines intermediate 4 bits in accordance with the physical random number sequences 33 a to 33 d . Therefore, the number of levels of the multi-level code sequence corresponding to the first to the fourth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 d is 16. A step width of the multi-level signal is set to be equal to or smaller than a noise level. Further, respectively adjoining levels of the multi-level signal are allocated to different values of the information data. [0096] On the other hand, in a data receiving apparatus, an identification level of a received multi-level signal is determined, in a similar manner to the second embodiment, based on values of the third and the fourth demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 c and 42 d . In the decision section 212 b , a value of the information data is decided based on the level of the multi-level signal, the identification level of the multi-level signal, and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a. [0097] Specifically, the decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data as “1” in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is greater than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “0”, and also in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is smaller than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “1”. On the other hand, the decision section 212 b decides the value of the information data as “0” in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is greater than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “1”, and also in the case where the level of the received multi-level signal is smaller than the identification level and the value of the first demodulation pseudo-random number sequence 42 a is “0”. [0098] Note that fluctuation of the levels of the multi-level signal corresponding to the first to the fourth physical random number sequences which are not used for generating the identification level leads to a deterioration of a signal level, that is, a deterioration of an SN ratio, at the time of identification. However, if such deteriorated SN ratio is set so as to satisfy a required value of the data receiving apparatus 1201 , a legitimate receiving party can identify the multi-level signal without error. That is, a ratio of a information amplitude to a fluctuation width of the multi-level signal corresponding to the physical random number sequence is required to be set so as to satisfy a condition of being greater than the SN ratio acceptable to the legitimate receiving party. [0099] As a configuration which can obtain the same effect as the first multi-level code generation section 111 as shown in FIG. 12 , a configuration as shown in FIG. 14A may be considered. [0100] FIG. 14A is a block diagram showing an example of another configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14A is the same, with regard to functional blocks and actions thereof contained in the configuration, as FIG. 12 , but is different from FIG. 12 in that FIG. 14A includes a bit sequence, as the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 , to which not only the modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 c and the physical random number sequences 33 a to 33 b but also fixed values are inputted. FIG. 15 illustrates a multi-level signal format in this exemplary configuration. In this case, fixed values are allocated to 2 bits of the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 , the number of levels which the multi-level code sequence 12 may obtain is 64. Since the level of the multi-level signal corresponds to the multi-level code sequence 12 and the value of the information data 10 (“0” or “1”), the number of the level to be obtained is 128. These levels are divided into 8 groups respectively having 16 levels respectively including values which are close to one another. The step width of the multi-level signal in each of the groups is set to be equal to or smaller than the noise level. Further, in each of the groups, respectively adjoining levels of the multi-level signal are allocated to different values of the information data. On the other hand, the identification level is determined, in a similar manner to a case of FIG. 9 , based on the values of the third and the fourth demodulation pseudo-random number sequences 42 c and 42 d. [0101] Further, as a configuration which can obtain the same effect as the first multi-level code generation section 111 a as shown in FIG. 12 , a configuration as shown in FIG. 14A may be considered. FIG. 14B is a block diagram showing an example of another configuration of the first multi-level code generation section 111 a according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14B is basically the same, with regard to functional blocks and actions thereof contained in the configuration, as FIG. 12 , but is different from FIG. 12 in that, as a part of the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 , signals generated based on a predetermined rule are inputted instead of the physical random number sequences 33 a to 33 d . In the example as shown in FIG. 14B , signals, which are generated by providing predetermined delay time to the modulation pseudo-random number sequences 32 a to 32 c , are inputted to the first multi-level conversion section 142 as the signals generated based on the predetermined rule. [0102] Note that the examples of FIG. 9 and FIG. 10 shows that the number of input bits to the first multi-level conversion section 142 is 8 bit, and the numbers of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences and the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences are respectively four, and the modulation pseudo-random number sequences are inputted to the high-order 2 bits and the low-order 2 bits of the input bit sequence to the first multi-level conversion section 142 , but these are merely one examples, respectively. The number of the input bits to the first multi-level conversion section 142 is arbitrary, and the numbers of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences and the demodulation pseudo-random number sequences can be set arbitrarily in accordance with a ratio of a feasible random number generation rate to a required bit rate. Further, the number of the physical random number sequences can be set arbitrarily if the number of the same is equal to or smaller than a difference between the number of the input bits to the first multi-level conversion section 142 and the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences. Further, selection of whether either of the modulation pseudo-random number sequence or the physical random number sequence, or the fixed value is to be inputted to respective positions of the input bit sequence can be set arbitrarily if it satisfies a condition where the modulation pseudo-random number sequence is definitely inputted to the lowest-order bit of the input bit sequence. [0103] As above described, according to the present embodiment, the number of the levels which the multi-level signal may obtain is greater than the third embodiment, and thus the number of the levels of the multi-level signal which is likely to be identified erroneously at the time of the multi-level determination by the eavesdropper also increases, whereby eavesdropping will become difficult. Further, it is possible to keep, at a low level, an increase in the random number generation rate required to the pseudo-random number generator, thereby improving the security. Therefore, the data communication apparatus according to the fourth embodiment can crucially deteriorates quality of a receiving signal at the time of eaves dropping by a third party, whereby it is possible to provide a safe data communication apparatus which causes decryption/decoding of the receiving signal to be difficult. Fifth Embodiment [0104] The fifth embodiment of the present invention aims to keep a pseudo-random number generation rate constant and to transmit information data 10 at different bit rates. An overall configuration of a data communication apparatus according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention is the same as that of the data communication apparatus as shown in FIG. 1 , and thus description thereof will be omitted. The data communication apparatus according to the fifth embodiment is different, only with regard to configurations of a first random number sequence generation section and a second random number sequence generation section 241 , from the third embodiment. Hereinafter, component parts which are the same as those of the third embodiment are omitted by providing common reference characters, and the data communication apparatus according to the third embodiment will be described by mainly focusing such components parts that are different from those of the third embodiment. [0105] FIG. 16 is a block diagram showing an example of a detail configuration of the first random number sequence generation section 141 according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 16 , the first random number sequence generation section 141 has a pseudo-random number generation section 1411 , a first switch 1413 , a first serial/parallel conversion section 1414 , a second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 , and a second switch 1416 . [0106] Next, an action of the data communication apparatus according to the present embodiment will be described. In a similar manner to the second embodiment, the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 generates a binary pseudo-random number series 31 in accordance with the first key information 11 . The first switch 1413 switches, based on a rate selection signal 36 to be inputted, an output destination of the pseudo-random number series 31 between the first serial/parallel conversion section 1414 and the second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 . The first serial/parallel conversion section 1414 performs serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series 31 , and outputs a first to an eighth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 34 a to 34 h . The number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences outputted from the first serial/parallel conversion section 1414 is the same as the number of the input bits to the first multi-level conversion section 142 . The second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 performs serial/parallel conversion of the pseudo-random number series 31 and outputs a first to a fourth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 35 a to 35 d . The number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences outputted from the second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 is set to be smaller than the number of the input bits to the first multi-level conversion section 142 . [0107] The first to the eighth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 34 a to 34 h outputted from the first serial/parallel conversion section 1414 and the first to the fourth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 35 a to 35 d outputted from the second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 are inputted to the second switch 1416 . The second switch 1416 selects, based on the rate selection signal 36 , either of the inputs from the first serial/parallel conversion section 1414 or the second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 , to be outputted to the first multi-level conversion section 142 . Here, to the second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 , the first to the fourth modulation pseudo-random number sequences 35 a to 35 d are inputted, and fixed values are also inputted as remaining bit sequences. The configuration and an action of the second random number sequence generation section 241 are not shown, but are the same as those of the first random number sequence generation section 141 . [0108] In the case where the first switch 1413 and the second switch 1416 are switched to the first serial/parallel conversion section 1414 side, the data communication apparatus according to the present embodiment performs the same action as that according to the second embodiment. A bit rate of such case is ⅛ of the random number generation rate in the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 . On the other hand, the first switch 1413 and the second switch 1416 are switched to the second serial/parallel conversion section 1415 side, the data communication apparatus according to the present embodiment performs the same action as that according to the third embodiment. The bit rate of such case is ¼ of the random number generation rate in the pseudo-random number generation section 1411 . In this manner, a plurality of serial/parallel conversion sections, which respectively output different numbers of modulation pseudo-random number sequences, is prepared and used by switching therebetween, whereby it is possible to correspond to different bit rates in spite of being a single pseudo-random number generation rate. That is, since a product of the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequence and the bit rate is equal to the pseudo-random number generation rate, and thus it is possible to vary the bit rate by switching the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences, which is limited to a case where remaining configuration blocks which are not shown in FIG. 16 can be adapted to any transmittable bit rates. [0109] An exemplary configuration of FIG. 16 is merely an example, and any configuration may be possible if the bit rate can be switched by switching the number of the modulation pseudo-random number sequences while the pseudo-random number generation rate is kept constant. Further, the value of the bit rate to be switched is not limited to two, and can be set arbitrarily as necessary. [0110] As above described, according to the present embodiment, it is possible to respond to a plurality of bit rates while the random number generation rate of the pseudo-random number generation section is kept constant. [0111] Note that each of the data communication apparatuses according to the first to the fifth embodiments may have a configuration which combines features of the remaining embodiments. Further, processing performed by each of the data transmitting apparatuses, the data receiving apparatuses, and the data communication apparatuses according to the above-described first to fifth embodiments may be respectively regarded as a data transmitting method, a data receiving method, and a data communication method, each of which cause a series of processing procedure to be executed. [0112] Further, the above-described data transmitting method, the data receiving method, and the data communication method may be realized by causing a CPU to interpret and execute predetermined program data which is capable of executing the above-described processing procedure stored in a storage device (such as a ROM, a RAM, and a hard disk). In such case, the program data may be executed after being stored in the storage device via a storage medium, or may be executed directly from the storage medium. Note that the storage medium includes a ROM, a RAM, a semiconductor memory such as a flash memory, a magnetic disk memory such as a flexible disk and a hard disk, an optical disk such as a CD-ROM, a DVD, and a BD, a memory card, or the like. Further, the storage medium is a notion including a communication medium such as a telephone line and a carrier line. [0113] The data communication apparatus according to the present invention is useful as a safe secret communication apparatus which is unsusceptible to eavesdropping/interception. [0114] While the invention has been described in detail, the foregoing description is in all aspects illustrative and not restrictive. It is understood that numerous other modifications and variations can be devised without departing from the scope of the invention.

A highly concealable data communication apparatus which is based on an astronomical complexity and causes an eavesdropper to take a significantly increased time to analyze a cipher text, is provided. In a multi-level code generation section 111 a , a random number sequence generation section 141 generates, based on predetermined key information 11 , a plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences. The plurality of modulation pseudo-random number sequences is inputted to a multi-level conversion section 142 as a part of an input bit sequence which is converted into a multi-level code sequence 12 . A multi-level processing section 111 b combines the multi-level code sequence 12 and information data 10 , and generates a multi-level signal 13 having a plurality of levels corresponding to a combination of the multi-level code sequence 12 and the information data 10.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The invention concerns an apparatus for the optimization of the regulation adjustment of a spinning preparation machine with, for example, a draw frame, in particular, a regulated draw frame, a carding machine, or a combing machine. Likewise, the invention concerns first a procedure corresponding to a regulation of said machines and second, a machine for a spinning works. A spinning preparation machine with a regulated draw frame can be, for example, the regulated draw frame RS-D 30 of the Firm Rieter, wherein the thickness-variations of the entering fiber bands at the feed end are continually monitored by a mechanical device (groove-roll/feeler roll) and subsequently converted into electrical signals. The measured values are transmitted to an electronic memory with a variable, time delayed response. The time delay allows the draft between the mid-roll and the delivery roll of the draw frame to occur exactly at that moment when the band piece, which had been measured by a feeler roll pair, finds itself at a point of draft. The time delay then reacts so that corresponding band pieces can run through the distance between the feeler roll pair and the first location of draft. When the piece of band reaches the hypothetical draft point in the draft field, a corresponding value is released by the electronic memory. The distance, which separates the feeler roll pair and the point of draft, respectively, is called the zero point of regulation. When the zero point is reached, then, conditioned by the value of the measurement, a variable speed motor positioning operation is carried out. Especially in the case of a change of fiber material, or batches thereof, in regulated draw frames and generally in the case of all spinning machines and universally where textile machines are concerned, extensive re-optimization of the machine regulation is necessary. In the case of draw frames, for instance, the mechanical adjustments must be optimized. These mechanical adjustments include the lengths of the draft fields, the tensioning, the upper roll loadings, the speed of output and the like. At the same time, the process controlling parameters must be adjusted anew. This adjustment would include the zero point, the intensity of the regulation, (i.e., the amplification of the variable speed motor control), the setting of band fineness, that is, the length related thickness of the band, and the correction values in the case of a slow run of the machine. Actually, sensors measure the band thickness. As a matter of common speech usage, “band fineness” and “band thickness” are employed as synonyms. A possibility for the determination of at least the optimal regulation intensity is made available by the so-called “bands-test”. With this testing, it is expected that inherent machine behavior and material-specific idiosyncrasies would be reliably detected independently of the regulation. The bands-test is carried out in a random sampling manner and executed manually for the determination of the correct control of thickness variation of the fiber band(s). In conducting this testing, first, the normal number of fiber bands present (for instance, six bands) which are being drawn is determined, and at the same time the variations thereof are controlled. Thereafter, one of the bands present is removed, and the remaining bands are subjected to control, so that the required thickness of a band when the normal number of bands are present is achieved. In a converse example, an additional band can be added to the original number of the present fiber bands (in the example, the named 6 bands). The bands are again so controlled, that the band thickness appropriate to the original band number is obtained. From each three steps, samples of a specified length, for instance, of 25 m, are taken out and weighed. (In the speech of the practice, the expression “ktex” is used for the term “band-weight”.) This procedural method is repeated a number of times to achieve a statistically secured value. Deviations of the A %-value (A %=percent-based, band thickness deviation) of the drawn, controlled band are determined from the obtained mean values, which represent a three-point measurement. The described bands-test is repeated, until an acceptable A %-deviation (for example, <0.1%) is attained. The procedure and the basis for the calculations as carried out for the draw frame RSB-D 30 of the Firm Rieter are described, for example, in the brief operational manual under Item 2.31, Section 3C/100 to 3C-102. The bands-test described requires a large investment in time and materials. In the case of the exchange of small batches, such an investment is unwarranted. An additional problem is, that where critical fiber materials are involved, the testing conditions must be held within very exact limits. For example, under certain circumstances of humidity in the working space, fiber material picks up moisture in different quantities, which can falsify the comparativity of the test values. In DE 42 15 682, teaches a method of conducting an automatic bands-test, wherein a transient signal regarding a thickness portion can be directed to an on-line execution of a bands-test. This procedure has, however, the disadvantage, that the regulation fluctuates permanently so that the regulating parameters, especially the regulation zero point and the intensity of regulation, become biased because of the measurements at the output end of the draw frame. In this way, both an interrupted and therefore a not necessarily desired regulation behavior follows which can bring about a chaotic control situation. In an alternative variant of the DE 42 15 682, the transient signal is generated via a reserve band which is infed temporarily, which adds to causing this procedure to also be complex and time consuming. A further complicated adaption of the parameters for regulation is necessary if the values of the band weight sensors or band thickness sensors at the draw frame feed end, during a specified slow run of the machine (as compared to normal speed, i.e., 800 to 1000 ma/min) must be corrected dependent on the characteristics of the fiber material. In accord with the previously described mechanical feeler-roll system at the entry to the draw frame, it became evident that the feeler roll measurement differs as the speed varies. Further, the penetrating depth of the feeler roll is dependent upon the kind of fiber, even when thickness does not change. On this very account, previously, with the mentioned Rieter machine, for example, the cited “Adaption to Fiber Type” process is carried out. Reference can be made, for example, to the brief operational manual for the above mentioned draw frame RSB-D 30 of the firm Rieter under Item 2.30, Section 3C/99. In this reference it is found that the actual band-thickness at the draw frame output end (that is, delivered band thickness) with a slow running machine can be compared with the same delivered band thickness, but processed at a normally fast delivery speed. As part of this comparison, the effect on the band exiting from the draw frame because of weight differentiation was examined. This examination included producing a band sample of, for example, 10 m long at normal operating speed and subsequently, producing the same during a slow run, the latter being perhaps one-sixth of the normal speed. From the result of the weight comparison of the samples, the operating person, having the predetermined standard values (“x % difference between the two actual band-thicknesses somewhat corresponding to a change as referred to in “Adaption to Fiber Type” of y %), can input on an operation panel the correction for measurement error in the values for the slow run of the machine. This procedure is also time consuming, restricts production and is costly. OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Thus, it is a principal purpose of the invention to improve an apparatus, that is to say, a procedure of the kind mentioned above, in such a manner that a rapid optimization of regulation parameters of spinning machines and, in particular, of regulated draw frames can be carried out. Additional objects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in part in the following description, or may be obvious from the description, or may be learned through practice of the invention. This principal purpose is achieved by an apparatus and a procedure performed by the apparatus. The apparatus optimizes the adjustments for regulation of a spinning preparation machine with regulated drawing, in particular, a regulated draw frame machine, a carding machine or a combing machine, which are continuously fed one or more fiber bands. The apparatus has at least one sensor situated ahead of the draw frame for the capture of values of the band thickness of the one or more infeeding fiber band. At least one sensor is located at the delivery end for the determination of the value of the band thickness of the resulting fiber band in a first draw frame operational mode of a draw frame machine. The apparatus has a microprocessor which compares the values captured by the at least one delivery end sensor for the first draw frame operational mode to values for a second draw frame operational mode, whereby the second draw frame operational mode does not represent the normal delivery speed of the draw frame. Using these measured values, a control and/or regulation unit of the apparatus makes adaptions of the regulatory adjustments on the basis of such machine characteristics and/or fiber band material characteristics which can influence such measured values. The invention offers the advantage of making possible a more rapid optimization of the parameters for the regulation, especially, of the regulation intensity and of the dynamic behavior of the regulated drawing, especially upon change of batch and/or material. At the same time, it becomes possible to quickly detect by computation faulty measured values upon machine start-up and to correct the same by means of the units employed for control and/or regulation. The computing means, i.e., the microprocessor, required for this task can form a separate entity or be integrated, for example, into another central computer station or even be placed in an expanded sensor apparatus. Advantageously, as a first draw frame operational mode, the normal running of a draw frame will be considered. By means of a comparison of the band thicknesses, or the variance of the band thicknesses, being delivered from the delivery end of the machine (here a draw frame) during the normal operation to those in a second operational mode running at slower operational speed, extrapolation will show to what extent influences inherent in the material and/or the machine will be exerted on the product. If more exact correction is desired, then also third and fourth (etc.) operational modes of the machine can be brought into the evaluation, wherein these third and fourth operational modes are to represent a non-normal operational modes. (The corresponding base value of the normal operation has been obtained in the first operational modes.) Contrarily, it is also possible, not to designate the first operational mode as being the normal mode of operation, but rather to select a different operational mode from at least a second operational mode, in order to determine optimized regulation in the case of special conditions. The apparatus in accord with the invention, as well as the corresponding procedure, permits itself to be most advantageously applied, if the at least one sensor at the output end of the draw frame furnishes a very high degree of measuring exactness. Most appropriately, at the output end, would be a nearly ideal measuring sensor, which measures the band thickness and the variations thereof with very little error. The permissible error should not be greater than 0.9%. The parameters for the draw frame can be adjusted very well when based on very exact measured values at the draw frame output end. Especially for such measuring demands, preferably, a microwave sensor (see, for example, WO 00/12974) with a hollow space resonator can be applied at the draw frame output end. In the case of a microwave sensor, the object of measurement is the weight of the band, instead of the thickness of the band. If, in the realm of this invention, where “band thickness” is spoken of, this also includes, in the case of the microwave sensor, the concept of “band weight,” which is a measurement of mass per unit of length. A preferred embodiment of the invention simulates the addition or removal of a single presented band or a principally optional part of one or more presented bands. Therefore, for the optimization of the regulated product, the active, i.e., the actual addition or removal of a single presented band to the actual number of presented bands can be eliminated. The at least one second operational mode simulates the presentation (or removal) of one or more fiber bands or a non-integer number of fiber band parts to the actual present band count, respectively, in an additive or subtractive manner. The previously stated simulation of the bands-tests has the advantage, that—contrary to the above-mentioned DE 42 15 682 A1—the true band characteristic has no importance. It is not necessary to bring in a transient signal into the presented bands or a reserve band in order to carry out the bands-test. Instead of this, the execution of the simulation at any optional point in time is sufficient. In the case of such a simulation, control signals advantageously are transmitted to the regulation drive of the draw frame, wherein the electrical voltage of the actual variations of the band thickness—determined from the signals of the at least one sensor located at the feed end of the machine—is increased or decreased in the amount of the voltage corresponding to the simulated additive or subtractive fiber band portions. If, at the same time, it has been simulated that seven bands have been presented to the draw frame when, in reality, only six bands have been introduced, then the corresponding draw frame rolls are controlled as if seven bands were present. The band, which is exiting the draw frame at the output end, accordingly becomes thinner in its cross-section than a normally regulated band—simulation being withheld—wherein the control signal would have corresponded to the true number of bands. If, for example, the set band-thickness should read 5 ktex at six presented bands, then the set band thickness in the case of a simulation of seven presented bands would be 5 ktex x ⅚. If the presentation was simulated at 5 bands, then the set band thickness would be 5 ktex˜{fraction (7/6)}. The measured actual band thicknesses with the set band thicknesses are now advantageously, by means of iterative changes of the regulation intensity, compensated in such a manner until the actual band thickness essentially agrees with the set band thickness. This means, that the actual band width deviation is very small. As will be explained below, the actual band width deviation is to be employed as a computational value. In order to proceed in this matter safely, the simulated bands-tests can be repeated correspondingly until a sufficiently exact agreement between the actual and the set values is transmitted to the delivered band thicknesses. In such a case, for example, threshold values may be established, wherein, in an understepping of the same, no further simulations need be undertaken. With the presented value of the corrected regulation intensity, the characteristic curve of the variable speed motor drive for regulation can be corrected, especially in its slope. Note should be taken that the characteristic curve changes in accord with each adjusted delivery speed on the machine and for each current delivery speed can be computed and stored. The procedure of the bands-testing is here more explicitly described with the aid of an example. Upon the presentation of (assumed) several fiber bands, the band thickness deviations as measured by a sensor at the draw frame feed end, designated by m i , which is composed from the mean band weight m doubling and the deviation thereof. Δm i is determined and converted to an electrical signal Ui (which is composed from U doubling and ΔUi). The measurement signal portions, which the dynamic portion ΔUi reflects, are brought in for the regulation. The measurement signal of the mean band weights m doubling represents the so-called 0%-compensation (operational point). For the simulation of the additives of a presented band, the electrical voltage U doubling , which represents the mean band weight, is increased by the direct current amount ΔU +1 Band which represents the addition of one fiber band. However, advantageously, this increase can be limited by principally the maximum occurring band thickness deviations, for example, +10%. In case six bands are presented, then the addition of one band would indicate a deviation of band thickness of 16.7%. Upon the limitation of 10%, the presence of a complete band would not be simulated, but rather about 10/16.7 of a fiber band would be simulated. For the sake of simplicity, however, only an entire band will be considered for the simulation below of the addition (and the subtraction). In the case of the simulated addition of a band, the regulatory drive signal receives control signals which represent the potential ΔU i of the actual band thickness deviations plus the simulated additional direct current amount of ΔU +1 Band . From this, the result is an actual thinning of the drawn fiber band as compared to the set band thickness by adding a proportional amount of ΔU +1 Band the amount of the direct current potential. For the determination of the percentage-related, actual band thickness deviations (A % ist ) in accord with the basis of computation for the bands-test, there are at least two computational methods, independent of each other. The first possibility rests on the formation of a set-quotient, which is derived from the following equation: A ⁢ % soll = T soll , Δ ⁢   ⁢ U + 1 ⁢ Band T N , D · 100 ( 1 ) For the determination of the actual A % ist a second equation is put forth: A ⁢ % ist = A ⁢ % soll - T ist , Δ ⁢   ⁢ U + 1 ⁢ Band - T N , D T N , D · 100 ( 2 ) Wherein; T soll,ΔU +1 Band : Set band thickness of sim.added band, T ist,ΔU +1 Band : Actual band thicness of sim.added band, T N,D : Actual band thickness of normal drawn bands Advantageously, a plurality of values are determined for the actual band thickness per draw frame operational mode, for example, respectively three values for a fiber band length of 20 m. In the concrete example, this means, that three values for six fiber bands (without simulation) and three values for seven fiber bands (six actually present and one additionally simulated) are measured and thus the arithmetical mean value is determined. With the aid of Equation (2), it is possible to compute the actual value associated with the A %-value, i.e., A % ist . In this case, this actual value falls above the threshold value. Thus, preferably, the regulating intensity is changed and the simulated bands-test advantageously is carried out again. Additionally, one or several other band presentations can be simulated, for example, the removal of one band, in order to calculate the appropriate A % ist -value. It is also principally possible to carry out the simulation largely for essentially a second draw frame operational mode (addition or subtraction of a sliver or sliver fraction) and to compare the result advantageously with that of the actual presented fiber bands. Independent of the number of different operational modes on which the measurements were performed, the procedure is preferably iterative. The reason is that the A % ist -value for the at least two draw frame operational modes should be computed and, if necessary, thereafter the regulation intensity changed to calculate the corresponding A % ist -value. This procedure continues until it has understepped a given threshold and the corrected regulation intensity is found. A second alternative possibility for the calculation of the true A % ist -value rests first, upon the recalculation of the actual band thickness, which has been measured at the delivery end of the draw frame as a result of the simulated addition of one band, namely T ist,ΔU +1 Band , for the quotient T N , D T soll , Δ ⁢   ⁢ U + 1 ⁢ Band : T ist , Δ ⁢   ⁢ U + 1 ⁢ Band ⁢   ⁢ recalculated = T U = T ist , Δ ⁢   ⁢ U + 1 ⁢ Band · T N , D , T soll , Δ ⁢   ⁢ U + 1 ⁢ Band ( 3 ) The determination of the A %-value is done in accord with the following condensation: A ⁢ % ist = T U - T N , D T N , D · 100 ( 4 ) For the simulation of the removal of a presented band, the electrical potential, that is, U doublng , which represents the mean band weight is reduced by the direct current potential amount of ΔU −1Band . In this manner, the regulation drive receives control signals, which represents the signals ΔU i of the actual band thickness variations, as well as the simulated direct current potential of ΔU −1Band . From this, the result will be a thickening of the drawn fiber band as compared to the set-band thickness by an amount proportional to the equal potential amount ΔU −1Band , e.g., +10%. The computation of the actual A %-values, i.e., (A % ist ), is carried out advantageously in accord with the equation (2) or (4), wherein the corresponding band thicknesses averaged over a plurality of determined measurements are taken into consideration. In a preferred method, the band thickness is measured by a simulation of an additional fiber band (second draw frame operational mode) and by the band thickness in a simulation of one removed fiber band (third draw frame operational mode) as well as the band thickness being measured in a normal operation (first draw frame operational mode). Advantageously, in this method, the mean values are determined by some three measurements. With the equation (2) at hand, for example, from these (determined) band thicknesses, the A % ist -values are determined respectively for the greater and the lesser number of fiber bands. If these A % ist -values exhibit different prefixes, which is synonymous with an over-regulation in one case and an under-regulation in the other, then a mean value advantageously can be formed. This is also described in the conventional bands-test in regard to the short operational manual under Item 3.31, Sec. 3C/101. The regulation intensity is then preferably changed in iterative processing to the point where this mean value and/or the two A % ist -value understep the specified threshold values. For the computation of the A %-values, a computer unit is necessary. The execution of the automatic bands-tests by means of simulation is accomplished in a preferred variant before a batch change. Alternatively, or additionally, the simulation bands-test is simulated at definite time intervals and/or following the occurrence of certain happenings, for instance, upon the drift of the A %-value above a specified drift allowance threshold. In a second advantageous formulation of the invention, erroneous measured values during a slow run of the machine, that is to say, especially during start-up or at shut-down, are corrected. This can occur without the necessity of carrying out the mentioned “Adaption to Fiber Type”, which entails extensive laboratory testing. In general, the optimal regulation parameters are not known as a function of the delivery speed below a specified delivery speed. By the use of, for example, a groove-feeler roll pair at the feed end during a slower run of the machine (start-up and stopping the machine), false measurement values are the result because of the differing penetrative behavior of the feeler roll into the individual or collective fiber bands at the slower speeds as compared to the higher production speeds. Only by higher delivery speeds, or in an extreme case, only by reaching the final delivery speed, can one rely on any constancy in the regulation parameters. On this account, when measurements are carried out during the stopping and the starting of the machine, these measurements must be such that they can only be counted on for extrapolation or estimation toward optimal regulation parameters. To this end, measurements with the aid of at least one sensor on the draw frame delivery end are at least necessary at two speeds. Advantageously, the two speeds are, first, a speed at a defined slow run of the machine (equaling the second draw frame operational mode), for example ⅙ of the operational speed and, second, the higher normal operational speed (equaling the first draw frame operational mode) itself. The presented fiber bands are drafted under regulation at both speeds. The current band thicknesses produced under these conditions are detected by the aid of at the least one sensor at the output of the regulated drawing machine. If necessary, the “Adaption to Fiber Type” operation is automatically activated in such a way that the regulation of the faulty measurement results of the at least one sensor at the draw frame feed end is compensated for by the slow run in comparison to normal operation, i.e., the rapid run. For example, a correction factor which is determined by the processor is also involved here. With this factor, the measurement errors arising in a speed reduced from the normal speed are corrected. Instead of the two-point measurement, that is, measuring in first, a defined slow run and second, in a normal operational speed, it also becomes possible to employ measured values from many other speeds which have been advantageously reduced from the normal speed. In this way, the precision of the correlation or function between optimal regulation parameters and the delivery speed can be increased. For example, to this end, it is possible that several operational conditions of the draw frame at coming up to speed and/or at shut-down of the textile machine can be employed which offer slower delivery speeds as compared to that of normal operation. The present day speed of the processors makes it possible, during coming up to speed or approaching shut-down, to capture many points of measurement which allow a very exact approach to the functional curve. The results from the simulated bands-test and the “Adaption to Fiber Type” can be electronically stored to make them available upon a repetition of like conditions. In any case, the simplicity and the rapidity of the invented solution makes such a procedure not unconditionally necessary. In this case, for example, a plausibility control is carried out. Instead of an automatic adjustment to the optimal regulation parameters, a manual adjustment or correction of this or individual parameters is possible. In this case, these adjustment values are preliminarily proposed by the machine, and the operator can then install the adjustments in a corresponding operations panel, which is advantageously combined with a display apparatus. In another alternative, first, a plausibility monitoring is run through the machine and upon a positive result, the optimization of the regulation parameter(s) is undertaken automatically. In another alternative, after a positive plausibility monitoring, such an optimized machine adjustment is proposed to the operator. The operator can even himself, additionally or alternatively, carry out such a plausibility control on the basis of his own experience and/or with the aid of a control manual. In the following, the invention is more completely described and explained in greater detail with the aid of the drawing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a schematic of circuit arrangement of a regulated drawing machine as well as the regulated drawing machine in accord with the invention; FIGS. 2 a , 2 b show graphs of bands-tests, in 2 a in accord with the state of the technology and in 2 b in accord with the invention, wherein respective signals are indicated on an entry sensor and at an output sensor; FIGS. 3 a , 3 b show graphs of a simulation of an addition to, and a detraction of a fiber band by an appropriate potential, applied in 3 a at the input of a FIFO storage and, in 3 b , applied behind the FIFO storage and showing as well the actual band thickness resulting therefrom as measured by an output sensor; FIG. 4 shows a graph with the set band thickness with and without simulated fiber band pieces, showing dependency of the set band thickness deviation (A % ist ); FIG. 5 shows a graph of a presentation of the error to be corrected at the entry sensor during slow delivery speeds; and FIG. 6 shows a graph of a correction of the error by means of an automatic “Adaption to Fiber Type.” DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference will now be made in detail to the presently preferred embodiments of the invention, one or more examples of which are shown in the figures. Each example is provided to explain the invention, and not as a limitation of the invention. In fact, features illustrated or described in part of one embodiment can be used with another embodiment to yield still a further embodiment. It is intended that the present invention cover such modifications and variations. Schematically, in the diagram of FIG. 1 , is presented the control principle of a regulated draw frame 1 as an example. At the entry to the draw frame 1 , the band-thickness of the bands 2 passing through—in this case, six bands 2 —are mechanically measured by a groove/feeler roll-pair 3 , which is located immediately after a band collection funnel 18 . After passing through the funnel 18 and the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 , the fiber bands 2 are again permitted to spread out in order to enter the draw frame. The measurement values of the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 , which is serving as the fiber feed sensor, are converted in a signal transducer 4 into electrical potential values, which are conducted to a FIFO (First In, First Out) designed memory module 5 . This FIFO-memory 5 relays the measurement potentials with the aid of a pulse generator 6 , which has a specified time delay to a set value stage 7 . The FIFO-memory 5 and the set value stage 7 are a part of a regulation computer 17 (which is shown in a dotted line block). The set value stage 7 gets, in addition to a lead-tachometer 9 , a lead potential, which is a measure for the speed of rotation of the lower roll of a delivery roll-pair 22 , which roll is driven by a main motor 8 . Subsequently, in the set value stage 7 , a set potential is computed and transmitted to a control and/or regulation unit 10 . In the control and/or regulation unit 10 , a comparison is made between the set and actual values. The actual values of concern here originate from a regulator motor 11 , which transmits the actual values to an actual value tachometer 12 . This tachometer 12 , in turn, sends the corresponding actual potential to the control and/or regulation unit 10 . The set to actual value comparison made in the control and/or regulation unit 10 is made use of for the purpose of providing the regulation motor 11 with an entirely defined speed of rotation, which corresponds to the desired draft changing speed of rotation. The regulator 11 is connected to a planetary gear drive 13 , which receives its drive from the main motor 8 . By means of the planetary gear drive 13 , the speed of rotation of the lower roll of an feed end roll-pair 20 and the lower roll of a mid-point roll-pair 21 is so altered that a band equalization is established at constant speeds of rotation of the delivery pair 22 (constant delivery speed). The fiber bands on this account are drawn first in the pre-draw section between the input roll-pair 20 and the mid roll-pair 21 , and drawn second in the main draw field (and, indeed at the regulation application point) between the mid roll-pair 21 and the delivery roll-pair 22 . Also, the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 is driven with the aid of variable speed motors 8 , 11 . The band thickness measured at the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 (inlet sensor) serves for the reference regulation band thickness. Because of the fiber band transport from the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 to the draw frame, which comprises the entry, mid and delivery roll pairs 20 , 21 , 22 , a dead time is computed that corresponds to the time delay in the FIFO-memory. The theoretically computed dead time is continually corrected with consideration given to the dynamic drive of the regulation motor 11 and the drive-line belonging thereto. The speed of rotation for the regulation motor 11 as a control value is determined by the control and/or regulation unit 10 , which processes the actual band thickness of the fiber band, the set value of the band thickness (as a guide size) and the speeds of rotation of the main motor 8 and the regulator motor 11 . By means of the proportional superimposition of the speed of rotation of the main motor 8 and the regulation motor 11 , and taking into consideration the computed dead time, the band thickness is regulated in the draw frame at the regulation application point, which lies between the middle roll-pair 21 and the delivery roll-pair 22 . A component, in accord with the invention, of the regulated draw frame, which has been presented as an example, is at least one very precisely measuring band thickness sensor 30 at the delivery end of the draw frame, which, in the shown embodiment ( FIG. 1 ) follows a band funnel 19 . The sensor 30 of this embodiment, for example, can very exactly measure the band thickness variations, which is also the band weight variations of the regulated or processed fiber band 2 ′ leaving the machine by means of microwaves. Other principles of measurement with greater measurement precision are likewise possible, these being based on capacitive, optical, acoustic and/or mechanical measuring methods. The at least one sensor 30 , as is shown in an embodiment in FIG. 1 , (solid connection line) is connected with the microprocessor 14 in the regulation-computer 17 with the memory 15 interposed therebetween. The microprocessor 14 is in turn connected with the set value stage 7 . In a further, alternative—shown in dotted connecting lines in FIG. 1 —the sensor 30 is connected to a separate microprocessor 14 ′, with the memory 15 ′ interposing therebetween. This microprocessor 14 ′, itself, can be directly connected to regulation computer 17 whereby the connection continues to the set value stage 7 . The microprocessor 14 ′ and the memory 15 ′ can be integrated into a second regulation computer 17 ′ for band monitoring, which is shown again in FIG. 1 by a dotted outline. Alternatively, it is possible to integrate in the at least one sensor 30 itself, a microprocessor with a measured value memory (not shown). A simulated bands-test is possible by means of the at least one sensor 30 . To execute this simulated bands-test, the control and/or computer unit 10 is subjected to a short-period potential. This would be administered through the microcomputer 14 or 14 ′, through the set value stage 7 , or through a central computer (not provided in the embodiment of FIG. 1 ). This potential would represent the addition or the subtraction of one band or a portion of one or several fiber bands presented to the draw frame. These potential signals are superimposed on those of the actual potential signals, which, for example, have been converted in the transducer 4 from the mechanical signals of the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 . The control and/or regulation unit 10 provides an adjustment signal corresponding to the superimposed potential signals to the regulation motor 11 , so that this exercises a corresponding draft on the fiber bands 2 , which are now in the form of spreadout fiber bands. By means of the at least one sensor 30 , which, in accord with the above requirements, permits very precise measurements, the examination can now be made as to whether, and how, the addition or the subtraction of fiber band portions has found its result in the correspondingly regulated fiber band 2 ′. This evaluation is undertaken in accord with the two presented alternatives in FIG. 1 by means of the microprocessor 14 or 14 ′. In case the results of the investigation show that the regulation intensity, i.e., the amplification of the regulation motor control, is not optimally adjusted, then these must be changed, preferably on the grounds of the microprocessor findings by means of a corresponding command from the microprocessor 14 or 14 ′ released to the control and/or regulation unit 10 . Preferably, subsequent to this, an automatic, that is simulated bands-test, is carried out at least once, in order to determine the proper regulation intensity and, if necessary, the operation is to be repeated (iterated) for further optimization. The intermediate results can be stored in a memory bank, or memory, 16 or 16 ′ and again read out, since the memory is in communication with the microprocessor 14 or 14 ′. Likewise, in this memory 16 or 16 ′ are stored the different determined factors of the regulation intensity obtained by the possibly different simulated draw frame operational modes. Subsequently, a possibly better evaluated mean or average value is determined from this data advantageously with the aid of the microcomputer 14 or 14 ′. Thus, the bands-test, formerly determined by complicated laboratory trials, is simulated by means of the addition or the subtraction of fiber band portions. The simulations would be more precise, that is to say, approached the regulation intensity more closely, if both the addition as well as the subtraction of fiber bands portions were simulated each time more measuring points (simulation of respectively different fiber band parts) were picked up. Within the framework of the terminology of this invention, “simulated bands-test” modus preferentially designates the normal draw frame mode of operation as the “first draw frame operational mode”, and the additional superimposition by means of potential signals of simulated added and/or subtracted fiber band portions as a second, third, fourth, etc. draw frame operational mode. If only one additional or negative potential representing a simulated fiber band part is applied, then, besides the first draw frame operational mode, just a second draw frame operational mode is now to be considered. Advantageously, however, both the addition as well as the removal of a fiber band or a fiber band part are simulated. In FIGS. 2 a , 2 b , respectively, a graph of the previous conventional procedure of the bands-test is displayed in comparison with a graph of a simulated bands-test in accord with the invention. In FIG. 2 a , one sees an illustration in the left half of the graph of the presentation of six fiber bands 2 —which represent the normal operation—as well as the presentation of five to seven actual fiber bands 2 along with the corresponding potential signals generated as measured on the feed end sensor 3 (shown as A). The regulation of the draw frame is so adjusted, that the measured potential signal at the delivery end sensor 30 —shown as B in the right half of the graph—and therewith the band thickness of the resulting fiber band 2 ′ is ideally represented as always uniform. Contrary to this, in the case of the simulated bands-test in accord with the invention as seen in FIG. 2 b , the actual presented number of the fiber bands 2 is constant, for example, six fiber bands with about 5 ktex, so that even the measurement potential at the inlet sensor 3 oscillates within a narrow range of measurement, namely “A” in the left half of the illustration. Contrarily, with the delivery end sensor 30 , different degrees of band thicknesses are obtained corresponding to the actually presented number of fiber bands to which are added or from which are taken the simulated band parts as represented by “B” in the right half of the graph in FIG. 2 b . The middle measurement curve illustrates the six presented fiber bands 2 without simulation parts. The two upper measurement curves represent a simulation of 10/16.7 or one completely removed fiber band (representing 10% or 16.7% set band weight deviation). The two lower measurement curves represent a simulation of −10/016.7 or one added complete fiber band (representing −10%, or −16.7% set band weight deviation). In toto, in accord with this situation, the simulations must be run through five separate draw frame operational modes, whereby, advantageously, per draw frame operational mode, measurements from several determinations are undertaken. For example, for each draw frame operational mode, measurements are taken three or four times per 20 meters of fiber band and the result determined. The measurement values, corresponding to each measurement are, advantageously, intermediately stored in the memory 15 or 15 ′ and then made available for the determination and further processing employing the microprocessor 14 or 14 ′. In FIG. 3 a , the simulated addition- and, in FIG. 3 b , the simulated subtraction of a fiber band are presented in reference to the actually presented number of fiber bands and, indeed, in respectively two alternatives. The left, dotted Y-axis represents here the predetermined control potential for the variable speed motor 11 and the right, full line Y-axis represents the actual band thickness as measured with the delivery end sensor 30 . The control potential runs, in the normal regulation operation, about 0 V (in the case of the—not shown—use of single drives, the control potential would be, in normal operation not equal to 0 V). The graphs pertaining thereto, are likewise plotted respectively in dotted or solid lines. In the case of one of the two alternatives, the fiber band, whether added or removed, can be realized by the superimposition of a corresponding pulse at a potential of about +0.7 V or −0.7 Vat the input of the FIFO memory 5 . (See the potential jump at “1”.) Because of the mentioned dead-time, i.e., time delay in the memory 5 —this being a “FIFO delay”—the drop-off in the case of a simulated additional fiber band ( FIG. 3 a ), and the corresponding rise by a simulated removed fiber band ( FIG. 3 b ) only registers with the corresponding delay registered by sensor 30 (covering the distance of the fiber band 2 from the feed end sensor 3 to the regulation onset point, which represents the FIFO-delay plus the covered distance from the regulation point inset point to the delivery end sensor 30 ). Otherwise, this is in the case of a possible superimposition of the simulation potential at the output side of the FIFO-memory 5 (or at the input or output of the set value stage 7 or at the input of the control and/or regulation computer 10 )—see the respective potential jump at “2”—whereby, because of the short travel between the draw frame and the delivery end sensor 30 , the corresponding signal is received with only a short delay at the output of the delivery end sensor 30 . In that particular time delay, which is designated as “evaluation” measuring points were picked up by the sensor 30 , for example, one measuring point each centimeter over a band length of 20 m. The determined value provides the set band thickness T ist,ΔU+1Band or T ist,ΔU−1Band , as appears in Equation (2) (in the section above). As has been explained above, advantageously, because of the spreading of the measurement results, the measurements at each point of operation, that is, each draw frame operational mode, are repeated and subsequently a mean value for the actual band thickness is reprocessed. Considering now FIG. 4 , in the following, with the incorporation of the equations (1) and (2) above, the principle of the simulated bands-test utilizing an example of a six-fold doubling will be described in additional detail. The assumption is made here, that possibly five determined measurements representing five different draw frame operational modes were employed for the establishment of a function, which represents the set band thicknesses, dependent upon the set band thickness deviation (A % soll ). The actual band thickness of the resulting fiber band 2 ′ by the drawing of six fiber bands 2 without simulation (T N,D ) should run, ideally, with a presentation of 5 ktex. The set band thickness A % soll resulting from one simulated additional fiber band Tist,ΔU +1Band calculates out to 5·⅚=4.167, so that in accord with Equation ( 1 ) A % soll =−16.7%. Following the example of FIG. 4 , the removal of one fiber band (A % soll =16.7%) as well as the addition of one fiber band part representing A % soll =−10% and the removal of one fiber band part represents A % soll =10% is simulated. According to this, in FIG. 4 , the curve shows the set band thickness of simulated bands T soll plotted against the set band deviations (A % soll ). In principle, now the set band thicknesses of simulated bands T soll in accord with FIG. 4 , can be compared with the actual band thicknesses of simulated bands T ist can be compared together as in FIG. 2 b . From the computational standpoint, with the usage of Equation (2) and the aid of the A % soll -value from FIG. 4 for the second, third, etc., draw frame operational mode, a mean value can be computed. Subsequently, the regulation intensity of the draw frame is changed and once again the measurements of the corresponding set-band thicknesses (proportional to the measurement potentials at the delivery end sensor 30 ) are carried out until the corresponding A % ist -value understeps a specified predetermined threshold value. By means of the invented apparatus, also preferred is a correction of the measurement value error of the feed end sensor 3 , in the case of slow delivery speeds, these being possible especially at start-up and shut-down. The first draw frame operational mode represents in this matter the normal operation of the machine with the customary high delivery speeds (these being today in the area of 800 to 1000 n/min), conversely, the second operational mode is operated in a slow run. Especially in the case of mechanically feeling feed end sensors, such as that shown in FIG. 1 as the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 , the penetrative depth of the feeling element into the one or more presented fiber bands 2 is dependent upon the speed of these bands, so that measurement error can arise which must be corrected in the slow speed operation. In FIG. 5 , this matter is presented to show greater detail. The band thickness measured at the feed end by sensor 3 (solid line), and the band thickness measured by the sensor 30 at the delivery end (dotted line), are presented for the states of start-up, normal operation, and shut-down of the machine. The whole band thickness of the six presented fiber bands should show a constant 30 ktex, wherein this value is measured during normal operation. Upon the start-up and the shut-down of the machine, the rolls of the groove/feeler roll-pair 3 penetrate deeper into these six bands, so that a lesser measure of band thickness results than is the case during normal operation. This situation shows up as the registration of a thin stretch in the fiber band. Reacting to this, more band material is fed into the draw frame, in order to obtain a uniform fiber band. As a consequence at the delivery end sensor 30 , the fiber band is detected to be thicker. The invention allows this error to be corrected without the necessity of laboratory checks. This correction can be undertaken, in accord with the invention, if one or more draw frame modes are operating slower than the more rapid rate designated as normal mode of operation, the currently produced band thicknesses are detected by the at least one delivery end sensor 30 . As an embodiment example, shown in FIG. 6 , three measuring points are picked up at different slow delivery speeds, along with one measuring point at the normal high speed at which no measuring error can occur at the feed end sensor 3 . Advantageously, in this case, mean values can also be determined by a plurality of measurements under the same circumstances. The dotted line clarifies the course of the curve, wherein, if, at each speed of delivery, measuring points were picked up. With the aid of the microprocessor 14 or 14 ′, the latter as allowed by the alternate in FIG. 1 , the measured values are immediately evaluated, which indicate the deviations of the band thicknesses measured on the delivery end sensor 30 during the various speeds of delivery. By the deviation of the band thicknesses, the so-called “Adaption to Fiber Type”, can be automatically undertaken in accord with the invention, in such a manner, that the regulation computer 17 compensates for the erroneous measurement results of the at least one feed-end sensor 3 at the one or more slow run speeds by comparison to the normal operating speed (high speed running), whereby the registered measurements signals are corrected and thus the regulation motor 11 is correspondingly controlled. In this matter, advantageously a correction factor or a correction function is determined, for example, by means of the microprocessor 14 or 14 ′ and therewith the measurement error in the speed operation counter to the normal operation is corrected. The correction factor and/or the correction function can be input into the memory 16 or 16 ′. FIG. 6 shows, for instance, how a correction function of this kind can be determined. The four measuring points are respectively joined by straight lines, wherefrom a non-continuous function arises. The values of the corrections functions upon start-up or upon shut-down of the machine can then be related to the momentary delivery speed in order to accordingly control the regulation motor 11 . In a simple alternative, principally just one measurement point at a low speed is taken (corresponding with the state of the technology, in which, in any case, gravimetric laboratory weighing must be carried out on the drawn fiber band) and this measurement point approaches that measurement points at which no measurement error can occur by a single straight line. This straight incremental line then provides a correction factor. Instead of such a linear approximation, it is also possible to combine the measurement point with a constant function, whereby the exactness of the correction can be increased. FIG. 6 likewise shows that the resulting fiber band with the correction in accord with the invention possesses an essentially constant band thickness of 5 ktex (solid line graphing). With an alternative regulating system (not shown), the planetary gear drive can be dispensed with. In this case predominately, single drives are installed. The drive of the under inlet roll and the under mid-roll is carried out directly by a separate variable speed motor. The exact synchronization of the main motor, which provides the delivery roll with a constant speed of rotation, and the variable speed motor is taken care of by a draft microprocessor. The speed relationship of the two motors determines the draft. Also, in the case of this regulation system, the described invention is accordingly applied. Before or after the carrying out of each optimizing step, or even at the conclusion of the optimization of the regulation adjustments, the achieved results can be confirmed by the user, for instance, on a machine display such as the display apparatus 25 , which, in FIG. 1 , is shown connected to the regulation computer 17 . The double arrow between the regulation computer 17 and the display apparatus 25 make clear, that, first, data from the regulation computer 17 can be transmitted to the display apparatus 25 and that, second, on the display apparatus 25 , for instance, an interface such as a touch keyboard can be placed in order to send commands to the regulation computer 17 . In this way, the determined values can be employed by the user, for example, for a plausibility control. As an alternative, the display apparatus and an input apparatus can be installed separate from one another. After the optimizing, preferably an automatic can exchange at the delivery end could be installed, so that, in the cans, which are subsequently to be filled, only a uniformly drawn fiber band will be laid down, which is optimal over its entire length. Moreover, notice can be exhibited on the machine display that the test material is to be removed. Thus, the invention makes possible that the bands-test can be considerably automatized. As another advantage, a method for the correction of the band error is proposed, which correction can be effective at the start-up and shut-down of the machine during a defined slow run of a regulated draw frame, as compared to the normal operational speed with consideration given to the fiber material to be processed. As this is done, the processes advantageously can be fully automatic. Especially after a batch change, first the mechanical parameters are optimized and the desired band thickness is obtained, before—advantageously in this succession—the “Adaption to Fiber Type” and the simulated bands-test are undertaken. The point of regulation subsequently can be determined by the CV-value, as this is set forth in the EP 803 596 B1. The invention has been described in regard to a regulated draw frame. The invention can be used, however, on a carding machine or a combing machine with regulated drawing. Likewise, the invention can be applied to a carding or combing machine with a subsequent drawing machine having regulated drawing. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the present invention without departing from the scope of the invention. It is intended that the present invention include such modifications and variations as come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents.

The invention concerns an apparatus for the optimization of the regulation adjustment of a machine in spinning preparation, in particular a regulated draw frame, a carding machine, or a combing machine, to which one or more fiber bands are continually fed. The apparatus has at least one sensor which is positioned ahead of the feed end of a draw frame machine for the purpose of capturing the values of band thicknesses of one or more of the entering fiber bands. The apparatus also has at least one delivery end sensor located at the delivery end of the draw frame machine for the purpose of capturing the values of the band thickness of the produced fiber band of a first draw frame operational mode. The apparatus also includes a microprocessor for the comparing of the captured values of the at least one delivery end sensor to those of at least a second draw frame operational mode, whereby the second draw frame operational mode does not represent the normal operational mode of the draw frame machine. The apparatus also includes a control and/or regulation unit for the adaption of the regulatory adjustments on the grounds of such machine characteristics and/or fiber material properties as can influence the measured values. Likewise, a corresponding procedure is proposed.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a method to form polymeric materials using a reverse suspension, or a reverse emulsion, polymerization. The invention further relates to compositions of matter formed using Applicants' method. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION As a general matter, prior art emulsion polymerizations utilize a chain growth mechanism, wherein an initiator adds to a monomer to form a reactive end group which then reacts with another monomer molecule. Additional monomer units are added to the reactive end group until some termination reaction takes place wherein the reactive end group is quenched. One or more monomers and one or more surfactants are dispersed in an aqueous medium. Sufficient levels of surfactants are employed to reach a critical micelle concentration (CMC). Prior art emulsion polymerization methods are generally not suitable for step growth polymerizations using one or more condensation monomers. By “condensation monomer,” Applicants mean a first monomer which reacts either with another first monomer, or with a second monomer, to liberate water as a reaction product. Step growth polymerizations include formation of a polyester using a mixture of a di-acid monomer and a di-ol monomer, or a monomer comprising both an acid group and an alcoholic group. Similarly, polyamides can be formed using a mixture of a di-acid monomer and a di-amine monomer, or a single monomer comprising an acid group and an amino group, i.e. an amino acid. In such a step growth polymerizations, an acid group on a first monomer reacts with, for example, an alcohol/amine group disposed on a second monomer to liberate water and form an ester/amide linkage, respectively, interconnecting the first monomer with the second monomer. The process is repeated, and the molecular weight of the reaction product increases. As a further general matter, prior art emulsion polymerization methods are virtually always initiated using a free radical. Anionic or cationic reactive chain ends would be rapidly quenched by the aqueous solvent. Using prior art emulsion polymerization methods, the interior of each micelle provides the site necessary for polymerization. A monomer, such as for example styrene or methyl methacrylate, and a water soluble free radical initiator are added and the reaction mixture is agitated. The product of such an emulsion polymerization is sometimes referred as a “latex.” In the reaction mixture, the monomer(s) can be found in three different places. Those one or more monomers may be disposed in large monomer droplets disposed in the aqueous solvent. Some of the monomer, albeit very little, may be dissolved in the water. Lastly, the one or more monomers may be found in micelles. Initiation takes place when an initiator fragment migrates into a micelle and reacts with a monomer molecule. Water soluble initiators, such as peroxides and persulfates, are commonly used to, inter alia, prevent polymerization in the big monomer droplets. Once polymerization starts, the micelle is referred to as a particle. Polymer particles can grow to extremely high molecular weights, especially if the initiator concentration is low. That makes the radical concentration and the rate of termination low as well. Sometimes a chain transfer agent is added to the mix to keep the molecular weight from getting too high. Monomer migrates from the large monomer droplets to the micelles to sustain polymerization. On average, there is one radical per micelle. Because of this, there isn't much competition for monomer between the growing chains in the particles, so they grow to nearly identical molecular weights and the polydispersity is very close to one. Practically all the monomer is consumed in emulsion polymerizations, meaning the latex can be used without purification. This is important for paints and coatings. Each micelle can be considered as a mini bulk polymerization. Unlike traditional bulk polymerizations there is no unreacted monomer leftover, and no thermal “hot spots” form. In bulk polymerizations, thermal hot spots cause degradation and discoloration and chain transfer broadens the molecular weight distribution. What is needed is a method to polymerize one or more condensation monomers, where those condensation monomers are dispersed in a non-aqueous solvent system, and where those one or more condensation monomers are essentially insoluble in that non-aqueous solvent system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Applicants' invention includes a method to form a polymeric material. The method provides a water immiscible solvent and one or more condensation monomers, wherein those one or more condensation monomers are essentially insoluble in the water immiscible solvent. The one or more condensation monomers may be either a solid or a liquid at room temperature. The method forms a reaction mixture comprising a suspension of one or more solid condensation monomers, or an emulsion of one or more liquid condensation monomers, in the water immiscible solvent. The method includes heating the reaction mixture to form the polymeric material product. That polymeric material is then separated from said reaction mixture. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A wide variety of polymeric materials can be formed using Applicants' reverse suspension and/or emulsion polymerization method. For example, in certain embodiments Applicants' method is used to prepare polyamides and/or polyamideimides using the chemistry illustrated below in reaction pathway I. In other embodiments, Applicants' method is used to prepare polyesters. In certain embodiments, Applicants' method uses acid/alcohol precursors. In certain embodiments, Applicants' method utilizes a mixture of diacids and diols. Reaction Pathway II summarizes the chemistry used to prepare polyesters using Applicants' method. In other embodiments, Applicants' method is used to prepare polyesters. In certain embodiments, Applicants' method uses acid/alcohol precursors. In certain embodiments, Applicants' method utilizes a mixture of diacids and diols. Reaction Pathway II summarizes the chemistry used to prepare polyesters using Applicants' method. Applicants' method includes forming a suspension of monomer in a water immiscible liquid. The water immiscible liquid material is selected such that the water various monomer(s) are substantially insoluble. In certain embodiments, the water immiscible liquid material comprises a single component. In certain embodiments, the water immiscible liquid material comprises more than one component. In certain embodiments, the water immiscible liquids are selected from those conventionally used for reverse polymerization such as aliphatic, aromatic or naphthenic hydrocarbon solvent or oils, chlorinated hydrocarbons and aromatic or higher aliphatic esters such as fatty glycerides, dibutyl phthalate and di-octylphthalate. Mixtures may be used. The liquids are inert, non-solvents for the water soluble polymers produced. In certain embodiments, the water immiscible liquid component includes 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethylene, 1,2-dibromoethane, 2-chloroethanol, ethylene carbonate, isopentyl alcohol, diethylene glycol monomethyl ether, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, bromobenzene, dichlorobenzene, cyclohexanol, diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, benzonitrile, ethyl benzene, diphenyl ether, m,o,p-xylenes, octane, diethylene glycol diethyl ether, triethylene glycol dimethyl ether, naphthalene, decane, and mixtures thereof. In certain embodiments, Applicants' method includes adding one or more emulsifiers to the reaction mixture prior to refluxing. In certain embodiments, those one or more emulsifiers are present in an amount between about 0.0 wt. % and about 30 wt. %. In certain embodiments. the one or more emulsifiers are present in an amount between about 0.1 wt. % and about 15 wt. %. In certain embodiments, the one or more emulsifiers are present in an amount between about 0.2 wt. % and about 5 wt. %. In certain embodiments, the one or more emulsifiers are selected from the group consisting of hydroxypropyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, butyrate ether blend, copolymers of ethylene and vinyl acetate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan, mono-oleates, laurates, stearates, cetyl dimethicone copolyol, polyglyceryl-4-isostearate, hexyl laurate, sorbitan monostearate, and sorbitan monooleate. In certain embodiments, Applicants' method includes adding one or more antioxidants to the reaction mixture. In certain embodiments, the one or more antioxidants are added in an amount between about 0.01 wt. % and about 10 wt. %. In certain embodiments, the one or more antioxidants are added in an amount between about 0.1 wt. % and about 5 wt. %. In certain embodiments, the one or more antioxidants are added in an amount between about 0.5 wt. % and about 1 wt. %. In certain embodiments, the one or more antioxidants include n-octadecyl-3-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydrox, n-octadecyl-4-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)butyrate, n-hexyl-3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenylpropionate, n-dodecyl-3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenylpropionate neo-dodecyl-3-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydro, ethyl-.alpha.-(4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-isobutyrate, octadecyl-.alpha.-(4-hydroxy-3,5-di-t-buty, 1,2-propylene glycol bis-{3-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl), 2-stearoyloxyethyl-7-(3-methyl-5-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)heptanoate, 1,6-n-hexanediol-bis{(3′,5′-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)propionate}, di-n-octadecyl-.alpha.-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxybenzyl)malonate, di-n-octadecyl-.alpha.-(3-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-5-methyl-benzyl)malonate, di-n-octadecyl-,.alpha.′-bis-(3-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-5-methylbenzyl)malonate, di-n-octadecyl-3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxybenzylphosphonate, di-n-octadecyl-1-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanephosphonate, di-n-tetradecyl-3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxybenzylphosphonate, di-n-hexadecyl-3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxybenzylphosphonate, di-n-dodecyl-3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxybenzylphosphonate, tris-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxybenzyl)isocyanurate, tris-(3-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-5-methylbenzyl)isocyanurate, and mixture thereof. In certain embodiments, Applicants' method utilizes the comonomer mixture taught by Sikes et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 6,495,658. In one embodiment, Applicants' method is used to polymerize that monomer mixture using a reverse suspension polymerization. In a separate embodiment, Applicants' method is used to polymerize that monomer mixture using an emulsion polymerization. In either case, the product comprises the copoly(succinimide asparate) shown below. As an example, sodium/ammonium salts of L-aspartic acid are first suspended in an immiscible liquid material having a boiling range between about 75° C. and about 300° C. In certain embodiments, the immiscible liquid material has a boiling range between about 100° C. and about 250° C. In certain embodiments, the immiscible liquid material has a boiling range between about 140° C. and about 210° C. Upon heating the reaction mixture to the boiling point, water is continuously removed as it forms. The reaction can be run at a range of pressure from full vacuum (0.1 mmHg) to high pressure up to 600 psig. Controlling the pressure of the reaction will in turn dictate the temperature of the reaction. Thus a high boiling solvent can be ‘forced’ to boil at a lower temperature keeping the reaction temperature low or a low boiling point solvent can be ‘forced’ to boil at a higher temperature under high pressure and increase the temperature of the reaction. Applicants' method utilizes a constant reaction temperature, and thereby transfers heat uniformly to the reactants. Applicants have found that such uniform heat transfer decreases the incidence of color causing side reactions, increases the molecular weight of the polymer formed, and affords greater control of copolymer ratio (aspartate to succinimide). Aspartic acid has been produced commercially since the 1980's via immobilized enzyme methods. The aspartic acid so produced mainly has been used as a component of the synthetic sweetener, N-aspartyl phenylalanine methyl ester (ASPARTAME®). In a typical production pathway, a solution of ammonium maleate is converted to fumarate via action of an immobilized enzyme, maleate isomerase, by continuous flow over an immobilized enzyme bed. Next, the solution of ammonium fumarate is treated also by continuous flow of the solution over a bed of the immobilized enzyme, aspartase. A relatively concentrated solution of ammonium aspartate is produced, which then is treated with an acid, for example nitric acid, to precipitate aspartic acid. After drying, the resultant product of the process is powdered or crystalline L-aspartic acid. Prior art that exemplifies this production pathway includes U.S. Pat. No. 4,560,653 to Sherwin and Blouin (1985), U.S. Pat. No. 5,541,090 to Sakano et al. (1996), and U.S. Pat. No. 5,741,681 to Kato et al. (1998). In addition, nonenzyrnatic, chemical routes to D,L aspartic acid via treatment of maleic acid, fumaric acid, or their mixtures with ammonia at elevated temperature have been known for over 150 years (see Harada, K., Polycondensation of thermal precursors of aspartic acid. Journal of Organic Chemistry 24, 1662-1666 (1959); also, U.S. Pat. No. 5,872,285 to Mazo et al. (1999)). Although the nonenzymatic routes are significantly less quantitative than the enzymatic syntheses of aspartic acid, possibilities for continuous processes and recycling of reactants and by-products via chemical routes are envisioned. As reviewed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,495,658 to Sikes et al., polymerization and copolymerization of aspartic acid alone or with other comonomers is known. Synthetic work with polyamino acids, beginning with the homopolymer of aspartic acid, dates to the mid 1800's and has continued to the present. Interest in polyaspartates and related molecules increased in the mid 1980's as awareness of the commercial potential of these molecules grew. Particular attention has been paid to biodegradable and environmentally compatible polyaspartates for commodity uses such as detergent additives and superabsorbent materials in disposable diapers, although numerous other uses have been contemplated, ranging from water-treatment additives for control of scale and corrosion to anti-tartar agents in toothpastes. There have been some teachings of producing copolymers of succinimide and aspartic acid or aspartate via thermal polymerization of maleic acid plus ammonia or ammonia compounds. For example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,548,036 Kroner et al teach that polymerization at less than 140° C. results in aspartic acid residue-containing polysuccinimides. However, the reason that some aspartic acid residues persisted in the product polymers was that the temperatures of polymerization were too low to drive the reaction to completion, leading to inefficient processes. In JP 8277329 (1996), Tomida teaches the thermal polymerization of potassium aspartate in the presence of 5 mole % and 30 mole % phosphoric acid. The purpose of the phosphoric acid was stated to serve as a catalyst so that molecules of higher molecular weight might be produced. However, the products of the reaction were of lower molecular weight than were produced in the absence of the phosphoric acid, indicating that there was no catalytic effect. There was no mention of producing copolymers of aspartate and succinimide; rather, there was mention of producing only homopolymers of polyaspartate. In fact, addition of phosphoric acid in this fashion to form a slurry or intimate mixture with the powder of potassium aspartate, is actually counterproductive to formation of copolymers containing succinimide and aspartic acid residue units, or to formation of the condensation amide bonds of the polymers in general. That is, although the phosphoric acid may act to generate some fraction of residues as aspartic acid, it also results in the occurrence of substantial amounts of phosphate anion in the slurry or mixture. Upon drying to form the salt of the intimate mixture, such anions bind ionically with the positively charged amine groups of aspartic acid and aspartate residues, blocking them from the polymerization reaction, thus resulting in polymers of lower molecular weight in lower yield. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,371,180, Groth et al. (1994) teach production of copolymers of succinimide and aspartate by thermal treatment of maleic acid plus ammonium compounds in the presence of alkaline carbonates. The invention involved an alkaline, ring-opening environment of polymerization such that some of the polymeric succinimide residues would be converted to the ring-opened, aspartate form. For this reason, only alkaline carbonates were taught and there was no mention of cations functioning themselves in any way to prevent imide formation. More recently, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,936,121 Gelosa et al. (1999) teach formation of oligomers (Mw<1000) of aspartate having chain-terminating residues of unsaturated dicarboxylic compounds such as maleic and acrylic acids. These aspartic-rich compounds were formed via thermal condensation of mixtures of sodium salts of maleic acid plus ammonium/sodium maleic salts that were dried from solutions of ammonium maleate to which NaOH had been added. They were producing compounds to sequester alkaline-earth metals. In addition, the compounds were shown to be nontoxic and biodegradable by virtue of their aspartic acid composition. Moreover, the compounds retained their biodegradability by virtue of their very low Mw, notwithstanding the presence of the chain-terminating residues, which when polymerized with themselves to sizes above the oligomeric size, resulted in non-degradable polymers. A number of reports and patents in the area of polyaspartics (i.e., poly(aspartic acid) or polyaspartate), polysuccinimides, and their derivatives have appeared more recently. Notable among these, for example, there have been disclosures of novel superabsorbents (U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,549 to Chang and Swift, 1999; U.S. Pat. No. 6,027,804 to Chou et al., 2000), dye-leveling agents for textiles (U.S. Pat. No. 5,902,357 to Riegels et al., 1999), and solvent-free synthesis of sulfhydryl-containing corrosion and scale inhibitors (EP 0 980 883 to Oda, 2000). There also has been teaching of dye-transfer inhibitors prepared by nucleophilic addition of amino compounds to polysuccinimide suspended in water (U.S. Pat. No. 5,639,832 to Kroner et al., 1997), which reactions are inefficient due to the marked insolubility of polysuccinimide in water. U.S. Pat. No. 5,981,691 teaches mixed amide/imide, water-soluble copolymers of aspartate and succinimide for a variety of uses. The concept therein was that a monocationic salt of aspartate when formed into a dry mixture with aspartic acid could be thermally polymerized to produce the water-soluble copoly(aspartate, succinimide). The theory was that the aspartic acid comonomer when polymerized led to succinimide residues in the product polymer and the monosodium aspartate comonomer led to aspartate residues in the product polymer. It was not recognized that merely providing the comonomers was not sufficient to obtain true copolymers and that certain other conditions were necessary to avoid obtaining primarily mixtures of polyaspartate and polysuccinimide copolymers. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,981,691, the comonomeric mixtures were formed from an aqueous slurry of aspartic acid, adjusted to specific values of pH, followed by drying. There was no teaching of use of solutions of ammonium aspartate or any other decomposable cation plus NaOH, or other forms of sodium or other cations, for generation of comonomeric compositions of aspartic acid and salts of aspartate. Thus, although some of the U.S. Pat. No. 5,981,691 examples obtain products containing some copolymer in mixture with other products, particularly homopolymers, the theory that true copolymers could be obtained merely by providing the comonomers in the manner taught in U.S. Pat. No. 5,981,691 was not fully realized. It is now known that the methods taught in U.S. Pat. No. 5,981,691, or in any of the other discussed references, fail to provide an efficient process to produce a true mixed amide/imide polyamino acid copolymer, a copolymer prepared by such process or other novel copolymers. These previous references fail to teach a method whereby a sufficiently intimate mixture of the comonomers is provided such that polymerization leads to a true copolymer with a significant number of both aspartate and succinimide residues. For example, the above-described method of U.S. Pat. No. 5,981,691 purportedly for producing such copolymers results, instead in a mixture, albeit intimate mixture, of aspartic acid (amide) and succinimide (imide) homopolymers, possibly with an amount of copolymer, unappreciated by the reference, mixed therein. U.S. Pat. No. 6,495,658 teaches a method to provide a mixture of comonomers which allows the production of a true copolymer with a significant number of both aspartate (also referred to as amide) residues or units and succinimide (also referred to as imide) units or residues. That method includes providing an intimate solution of an aspartate of a non-volatile cation and an aspartate of a volatile cation. By the term aspartate is meant an aspartic acid residue, either as a monomer or as a polymerized or copolymerized unit having its carboxyl group in ionic form associated with a cation, i.e., as —COO − . Specifically, for example, an ammonium aspartate solution can be titrated with NaOH to a fractional molar equivalence of a sodium salt of aspartate and an ammonium salt of aspartate. This comonomeric solution is then dried to produce a comonomer mixture of a partial sodium salt of aspartic acid and free aspartic acid. By free aspartic acid is meant aspartic acid or a polymerized or copolymerized aspartic acid residue having its carboxyl group not in ionic form, i.e., as —COOH. Because the dried comonomer mixture is prepared from the novel intimate solution of comonomers, an intimate dried mixture of these comonomers is obtained. Sikes et al. teach that the mixture is intimate to the extent of exhibiting a salt lattice structure of the aspartate with the aspartic acid. Further according to Sikes, et al., it is possible for the dried comonomeric composition to also contain some residual ammonium aspartate, but in very small amounts, e.g., not exceeding 5% by weight, preferably not exceeding 2% by weight. The following examples are presented to further illustrate to persons skilled in the art how to make and use the invention and to identify presently preferred embodiments thereof. These examples are not intended as limitations, however, upon the scope of Applicants' invention, which is defined by the appended claims. EXAMPLE I Reverse Suspension Polymerization a. A mixture of Sikes et al. co-monomer (83 g), naphtha 200 mL (bp 190-201° C.), and Sorbitan monostearate (12 g) was stirred in a 3 Liter, 4-neck resin kettle using mechanical stirring, a Dean-Stark trap, a condenser, and a collection vessel for the water removed from the reaction mixture. b. When the temperature reached 174° C. (inside temp), a constant reflux and water collection was observed. c. At approximately 190° C., 15 mL of water was collected in the Dean-Stark (˜16 mL theoretical). d. The temperature was increased to 200° C. to maintain a constant reflux of naphtha, with no additional water collection. e. Heating was continued for approximately 1 hour and then the reaction was shut down. f. The final product, a light brown solid, was filtered and dried in the vacuum oven at 100° C. for 24 hours. EXAMPLE II Reverse Suspension Polymerization A mixture of Adipic acid (100 g) and m-Xylene Diamine (97.7), naphtha 200 mL (bp 190-201° C.), and Sorbitan monostearate (12 g) was stirred in a 3 Liter, 4-neck resin kettle using mechanical stirring, a Dean-Stark trap, a condenser, and a collection vessel for the water removed from the reaction mixture. b. When the temperature reached 174° C. (inside temp), a constant reflux and water collection was observed. c. At approximately 198° C., 23 mL of water was collected in the Dean-Stark (˜23 mL theoretical). d. The temperature was increased to 200° C. to maintain a constant reflux of naphtha, with no additional water collection. e. Heating was continued for approximately 1 hour and then the reaction was shut down. g. The final product, a white powder, was filtered and dried in the vacuum oven at 100° C. for 24 hours. EXAMPLE III Reverse EmulsionPolymerization a. About 200 mL of a 1:1 sodium/ammonium salt: diammonium salt solution (30% solids), 400 mL of naphtha (bp 190-201° C.), and 3 g of Sorbitan monostearate, were stirred in a 3L resin kettle using the apparatus recited above. b. Droplets of water began to collect in the Dean-Stark trap when the reaction reached 100° C. c. After approximately 3.5 hours 140 mL of water (the amount of free water present in the stock solution) were collected in the trap (maximum temperature of 113° C.). d. After all the free water was collected, the temperature began to increase and after reaching approximately 130° C. the water from reaction was observed. e. A white solid mixture began to turn light yellow in color at 171° C. and the stirring became a little strained (the RPM's had to be decreased to prevent seizing of the motor). f. As the temperature increased the water collection began to decrease, and at 201° C. the collection ceased. g. This temperature was maintained for an additional hour with no observable water collection, and then the reaction was shut down and allowed to cool under a nitrogen atmosphere. h. The light orange solid was then filtered and dried in the vacuum oven at 100° C., 30″ for 24 hours. EXAMPLE IV Reverse EmulsionPolymerization a. A solution was made consisting of 100 grams of Adipic acid, 97.7 grams of m-Xylene Diamine and 100 mL of water were added to 400 mL of naphtha (bp 190-201° C.), and 3 g of Sorbitan monostearate, were stirred in a 3L resin kettle using the apparatus recited above. b. Droplets of water began to collect in the Dean-Stark trap when the reaction reached 100° C. c. After approximately 3.5 hours 980 mL of water (the amount of free water present in the stock solution) were collected in the trap (maximum temperature of 113° C.). d. After all the free water was collected, the temperature began to increase and after reaching approximately 130° C. the water from reaction was observed. e. As the temperature increased the water collection began to decrease, and at 201° C. the collection ceased. g. This temperature was maintained for an additional hour with no observable water collection, and then the reaction was shut down and allowed to cool under a nitrogen atmosphere. h. The white solid was then filtered and dried in the vacuum oven at 100° C., 30″ for 24 hours. While the preferred embodiments of the present invention have been illustrated in detail, it should be apparent that modifications and adaptations to those embodiments may occur to one skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the following claims.

A method to form a polymeric material is disclosed. The method provides a water immiscible solvent and one or more condensation monomers, where those one or more condensation monomers are essentially insoluble in the water immiscible solvent. The one or more condensation monomers may be either a solid or a liquid at room temperature. The method forms a reaction mixture comprising a suspension of one or more solid condensation monomers, or an emulsion of one or more liquid condensation monomers, in the water immiscible solvent. The method includes heating the reaction mixture to form the polymeric material product. That polymeric material is then separated from said reaction mixture.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/174,070 for SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR INDEX PROCESSING, filed Jun. 30, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes; and to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/174,083 for IMPROVED INDEX PROCESSING, filed Jun. 30, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes; and to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/173,910 for EFFICIENT INDEX PROCESSING, filed Jun. 30, 2005, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. This application is related to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/242,179 for INDEX PROCESSING, and filed concurrently herewith, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes; and co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/242,514 for ADAPTIVE INDEX PROCESSING and filed concurrently herewith, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to index processing, and more particularly to index processing for backup and/or restore. BACKGROUND This invention relates to backing up and/or restoring objects (such as in the form of files) on an object storage system (such as a file system). File systems are typically backed up to a backup storage on a regular basis, and in performing backups or retrievals, it is desirable to quickly locate a backup file. Information about backup files may be stored in an index for rapid searching, so that the backup system does not have to search the entire backup storage. A set of data being backed up in a backup operation (e.g., a grouping of files and/or directories to be backed up) may be referred to herein as a “saveset”. The index, sometimes referred to herein as “client file index”, stores information about the savesets. When it is desired to determine what has been backed up, such as during retrieval, the index may be used to facilitate lookup. However, storage systems often contain large numbers of objects, and it would not be unusual for a storage system to contain hundreds of thousands, or millions, of objects. Even with the use of an index, a straightforward search of the index for backup objects can be unwieldy and slow. There is a need, therefore, for an improved method, article of manufacture, and apparatus for efficiently locating backup files. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be readily understood by the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate like structural elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a backup system environment; FIG. 2 illustrates an embodiment of an index header file; FIG. 3A illustrates an embodiment of an entry in the index header file using concatenation; FIG. 3B illustrates an embodiment of an entry in the index header file using concatenation of hashed values; FIG. 3C illustrates an embodiment of an entry in the index header file using a bitmap of hashed values; FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a process for producing a hint using concatenation of object names; FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a process for looking up a target object name using a hint produced by concatenation of object names; FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a process for producing a hint using concatenation of hashed values; FIG. 7 is a flowchart illustrating a process for looking up a target object name using a hint produced by concatenation of hash values; FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating a process for producing a hint using a bitmap of hashed values; FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating a process for looking up a target object name using a bitmap of hash values; FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating a process for utilizing an optimization hint; FIGS. 11 a - 11 e illustrate byte sequences representing a hash value; FIG. 12 is a flowchart illustrating a process for encoding hash values; and FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustration a process for retrieving encoded hash values. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION A detailed description of one or more embodiments of the invention is provided below along with accompanying figures that illustrate the principles of the invention. While the invention is described in conjunction with such embodiment(s), it should be understood that the invention is not limited to any one embodiment. On the contrary, the scope of the invention is limited only by the claims and the invention encompasses numerous alternatives, modifications, and equivalents. For the purpose of example, numerous specific details are set forth in the following description in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. These details are provided for the purpose of example, and the present invention may be practiced according to the claims without some or all of these specific details. For the purpose of clarity, technical material that is known in the technical fields related to the invention has not been described in detail so that the present invention is not unnecessarily obscured. It should be appreciated that the present invention can be implemented in numerous ways, including as a process, an apparatus, a system, a device, a method, or a computer readable medium such as a computer readable storage medium or a computer network wherein program instructions are sent over optical or electronic communication links. In this specification, these implementations, or any other form that the invention may take, may be referred to as techniques. In general, the order of the steps of disclosed processes may be altered within the scope of the invention. An embodiment of the invention will be described with reference to a system configured to perform backups of application data, but it should be understood that the principles of the invention are not limited to backing up applications. Rather, they may be applied to backups of file systems, and any system in which it is desirable to quickly locate stored objects, and may be applied to systems configured to store objects, such as database storage systems that store data as BLOBs. They are useful in backup of objects created by applications, such as databases, that do not use the same naming or browsing characteristics as file systems. Disclosed herein are a method and system to efficiently locate object names in a large index of records containing object names. An embodiment of a backup system environment is shown in FIG. 1 . As shown, client 102 is connected to server 108 through network 106 . Any number of clients and servers may be connected to the network. The network may be any public or private network and/or combination thereof, including without limitation an intranet, LAN, WAN, and other forms of connecting multiple systems and or groups of systems together. Client 102 is connected to backup storage 104 . In some embodiments, the backup storage may comprise one or more of the following: hard drive, tape drive, optical storage unit, and any non-volatile memory device. More than one backup storage 104 may be used. In an embodiment, backup storage 104 is connected directly to the network. In another embodiment, backup storage 104 is connected to server 108 . In another embodiment, backup storage 104 is connected to client 102 through a SAN (Storage Area Network). Any or all of these configurations may be used in an embodiment. Backup database 110 is connected to server 108 . In an embodiment, backup database 110 contains data associated with data on one or more clients and/or servers. In another embodiment, backup database 110 contains data associated with data written to one or more backup media. In another embodiment, backup database 110 is directly connected to the network. In another embodiment, backup database 110 is connected to client 102 . In another embodiment, backup database 110 is a part of server 108 and/or client 102 . In an embodiment, backup of client 102 is coordinated by server 108 . Server 108 instructs the client to backup data to backup storage 104 . When the data is successfully written to the backup storage 104 , a record is made on backup database 110 . In another embodiment, server 108 cooperates with a backup agent running on client 102 to coordinate the backup. The backup agent may be configured by server 108 . A set of data being backed up in a backup operation (e.g., a grouping of files and/or directories to be backed up) may be referred to herein as a “saveset”. The saveset may be preconfigured, dynamically configured, specified through a user interface, set to any first level of data, and/or determined in some other way. The saveset can be any data structured in a hierarchy such as data organized as a tree, a directory, an array, and/or a linked list. The current backup directory is a directory associated with data the process is currently backing up. The current backup directory can be preconfigured, dynamically configured, and/or specified through a user interface to be any data point in the processing data. An individual save file in a saveset stream may be referred to as a “backup item”. For file systems, a backup item is a file. A backup item could also be a file that belongs to a database system, or an opaque data blob generated by the database system itself. To facilitate efficient location and retrieval of backup items, information about the saveset may, in one embodiment, be stored in a client file index. In an embodiment, the client file index is used to determine what has already been backed up. There are no constraints on what client file index lookups may be used for. For example, an index lookup may be used in the following instances: A user who wants to restore a file may examine the client file index, to determine which file was backed up when, so that he/she can request the correct version of the file to be restored to disk. During an incremental backup, a program accesses the client file index, to determine which file was backed up when, so that it can determine whether the version of a file currently on disk has to be backed up or not. An application may want to enforce the constraint that each backup name has to be unique. In such a case, before the actual backup starts, the application will query the client file index to determine whether such a backup name already exists; if such a name exists, it will not perform the backup. Oracle is such an application, i.e. Oracle performs a client file index query before each backup. Once the last byte of a backup has been transferred from disk to tape, an application may want to “double-check that everything has been done right” by making client file index lookup for the just-finished backup; if this client file index lookup is unsuccessful, the application will consider the backup as “never done”. Oracle is such an application; i.e. Oracle performs a client file index query after each backup (in addition to performing a client file index query before each backup). To facilitate lookup, the client file index may contain information about several savesets. In an embodiment, a “record file” may be used to store information about backup items in a saveset. In an embodiment, a high-level structure, called an “index header”, could contain summarized descriptions of each saveset. These summarized descriptions may be referred to herein as “saveset descriptors”. In an embodiment, each record file may be indexed by filename in a “filename key file” and/or by fileid, which is stored in a “fileid key file”. In an embodiment, “savepoint” information may be stored for each saveset as part of the saveset descriptor. The savepoint information may comprise the longest common prefix of all the backup items in the saveset; e.g., in a file system, the savepoint may indicate the lowest-level directory that contains all of the backup items in the saveset. This may be determined at the time that the backup is performed. The savepoint information may be used to accelerate lookups in the client file index, by facilitating the elimination of savesets whose savepoints do not indicate a pathname that could contain the backup item being sought. The index header and the key files may be regarded as two layers of indexing on top of the record files, facilitating the search for a backup item. The top layer (index header) finds the candidate savesets which may contain the backup item being looked up; the search at this layer is performed using the savetime (provided by the query) and/or the savepoint (prefix-matching the object's name provided by the query) fields of the savesets descriptors; the search is always performed within a certain namespace (provided by the query, and refers to the name of the application that wrote these backups; e.g. Oracle, Sybase, Filesystem). For each candidate saveset resulting from the index header search, a lower layer (filename or fileid key) is employed to quickly search for the backup item name within the candidate saveset. An example of a lookup is illustrated in FIG. 2 . In this example, suppose that a system (such as a backup system) is searching for /foo/bar/sample.txt, which is the target. The index header contains several entries 202 - 210 , with savepoints recorded for each. Entry 202 shows the savepoint as /foo/bar, which could contain the target. Similarly, entries 204 and 206 show savepoints of /and/foo, which could also contain the target. Each of these is considered to be a candidate saveset in which the target may be found. However, entry 208 has savepoint of /bob which could not contain the target, so it is eliminated from consideration. The index header may also contain a pointer to the filename key file for each saveset. Each of these filename key files will be searched for the target. The foregoing steps may be performed in any order, and some or all of these steps may be performed, depending on the application. For example, if a negative lookup is being performed, a backup item is looked up to ensure that this object name does not exist in the index(es), and all candidates will need to be examined. In another example, when a file is being recovered, the system searches for the most recent saveset and the index search ends when the search locates the first backup item with the required characteristic(s). Timestamp information indicating the savetime of the saveset may also be included in the index header, and a query could specify a savetime range to limit the search. This is an efficient method for finding target files in regular file system backup entries such as /foo/bar/sample.txt. However, many databases and applications do not have file-like names (e.g. orc1816_full — 5uf5pj99), or they may use the same naming prefix for many different objects. The client file index queries may also not significantly limit the savetime (timestamp) range. For example, Oracle, Informix, and DB2 typically specify only the backup item name, and not the savetime. As a result, the timestamp and savepoint fields in the index header files may not provide enough information to select candidates or eliminate candidates from consideration. For example, Oracle backup items are opaque data streams, passed by Oracle to the backup system, and the savepoints will be empty, as shown in FIG. 2 as entries 210 , 212 , and 214 (savepoint=NULL). Informix and DB2 generate huge numbers of identical savepoints because their directory names use the name of the database instance; e.g. /olatom:/olatom/0/(olatom is the Informix database instance name), and /ROCKY/NODE0001/(ROCKY is the DB2 database name, NODE0001 is the DB2 Node#). These are shown by respective entries 216 and 218 in FIG. 2 . This is essentially the worst-case scenario of the above-described search algorithm. The client file index query does not provide a savetime, and the savepoint is either empty or “not distinctive” (i.e. saveset descriptors of many different backup items have the identical savepoint information). In such a case, the above search algorithm degenerates into a linear search on the entire index header file, examining (i.e. opening, processing, and closing) the key file or even the record file of every saveset of the index header that belongs to the namespace provided by the query. Because a client file index may contain thousands of savesets per namespace, such a worst-case performance is unacceptably slow even in moderately sized environments. To improve the efficiency of the search, a “hint” may be provided, which would contain search optimization information. In an embodiment, search optimization information for the savesets may be provided, included in the client file index or provided separately from the client file index, and associated with the savesets in the client file index. In an embodiment, the search optimization information may be provided in a new field in the index header file. In an embodiment, the search optimization information may be provided in the savepoint field of the saveset descriptor in the index header file. This approach may be used to integrate seamlessly with existing client file indices. In one embodiment, search optimization information may be generated at storage time, such as when a backup is being made. An optimization algorithm may be used to generate the search optimization information from the backup item names being stored under a saveset, and this information may be saved as a savepoint. As mentioned above, the search optimization information may be stored separately or in another field. Any of several optimization algorithms may be appropriate, and several embodiments will be discussed herein. It should be understood, however, that the principles of the invention are not limited to the specific algorithms disclosed herein, and other optimization algorithms may be used. In one embodiment, several optimization algorithms may be used, with a flag or flags to indicate the use of an optimization algorithm and/or which one is being used. In an embodiment, a hint could involve concatenation of backup items (such as files) into the savepoint. The length of each item name may be stored, or delimiters may be used between names. Concatenation may be done in a sequential fashion as backup item names are determined, or some other ordering may be used, such as ordering by most recently modified or accessed. FIG. 3A illustrates an embodiment of the concatenation approach. Other methods of concatenation may include storing the first n characters, last n characters, or every k th character, of backup item names, where n and k are calculated using the number of objects in the saveset and the savepoint maximum size. In this approach, the savepoint maximum size would be divided by the number of objects in the saveset to determine the amount of space to be used for each item name in the concatenation. In an embodiment, the savepoint might have space for 1010 characters allocated to it, 10 of which are used to store the identification of the hint, hint parameters, and other useful information. Then for example, a saveset might consist of 50 objects, such that the concatenation of their names is 2000 chars long. In this case, the system might decide to store the first 20 chars of the name of each object (for a total of 1000 chars) as well as the hint identification, and the numbers “1” and “20” indicating that it has stored every char of the first 20 chars of each backup object name. Alternatively, the system might decide to store every second character of the first 40 chars of name of each object (for a total of 1000 chars) as well as the hint identification, and the numbers “2” and “40” indicating that it has stored every second char of the first 40 chars of each backup object name. Increasing the number of characters allowed for an item name in the concatenation reduces the risk of collisions between two distinct item names that produce the same item name for concatenation, such as when the first or last n characters or every k th characters are used to represent the original item name in the concatenation. In an embodiment, the store process is iterative, backup item names are kept in memory or other storage location, and when the number of backup items is known, such as at the end of the backup process, the lengths of the item names to use in the concatenation can be calculated. The backup item names are then processed to form the names for the concatenation and concatenated. The resulting concatenation may then be stored in the savepoint field along with a flag to indicate the hint used, as well as information about the concatenation. This approach is advantageous when the saveset contains a relatively small number of backup items. FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment of the process. In step 400 , it is determined what application is associated with the objects. This can be performed at other stages of the process, and this determination may be implicit; i.e., a backup client 102 may be application-specific and already know what kind of objects it is processing. The backup is performed, step 402 , and the space available for each object name in the concatenation is calculated, step 404 . The process determines the portion of object names to use in the concatenation, step 406 . This determination may be made based on the amount of space available for each object name, and take into account the application associated with the objects. The process may choose to store the entire object name, the first n characters, the last n characters, every nth character, or other method of choosing characters from the object name. The object names are then processed for concatenation (i.e. the first n characters, last n characters, or other characters, are selected), step 408 , and the processed object names are concatenated, step 410 . They may be concatenated in first-in, first-out order or some other sequence such as an ordering based on most recent use or modification. In step 412 , the concatenation is stored as a hint. The hint may be stored in the index header file in place of the savepoint or in another part of the descriptors for the saveset. Flags may be included with the hint to indicate what type of hint was used and the parameters, step 414 . The flags may be used during lookup to determine what kind of hint/search optimization information was provided. In an embodiment, savepoint information for a candidate saveset is retrieved from the savepoint field in the index header file. If the search optimization information is stored in another field, or in another file, it may be retrieved from that location. The hint may include a flag or flags indicating what optimization algorithm was used, and information about the parameters may be retrieved as well. If a flag indicates that concatenation was used, the lookup process may search the savepoint information for a match to a target (a backup item being sought). If the flags indicate that the first n characters, last n characters, every k-th character, etc. was used to produce the item name for concatenation, then the name of the target will be processed to produce the name as it would be used in the concatenation. Information necessary to produce the concatenation name, such as n and/or k, may be retrieved from the savepoint information. The savepoint information will be searched for the concatenation name. If a match is found, the lookup process may return a positive result, and may be configured to continue searching for more matches, such as when looking for all versions of the target item. The saveset record file (or index for that record file, such as a filename key file) corresponding to that savepoint may then be opened and searched for the target item name. If no match is found, the lookup process may then move to the next saveset that might contain the target, and repeat the above method. An embodiment of this process is illustrated in FIG. 5 . The descriptors (such as the savepoint) associated with a saveset are read from the index, step 500 , and the flags and hint parameters are determined, step 502 . The hint is retrieved from the savepoint, step 504 . The target name is processed (if needed), step 506 . For example, it may be processed to determine the first n characters, last n characters, etc. This processed target name is then checked against the hint to determine whether it is present, step 508 , and if there is a match, the record file (such as the filename key file that indexes the record file) is opened and searched for the target, step 510 . The search in the filename key file may seek the full target name rather than the processed target name. If the target is found, a positive result is returned, step 512 . If the processed target name is not found in the hint or the target name is not found in the filename key file, the process moves to the next saveset descriptors in the index and repeats, step 500 . Hashing may be performed on item names before concatenation. An embodiment may include applying a hash function to the item names and concatenating the hashed values of the item names. In an embodiment, the hash function may be: h ( k )= k mod m where m is the table size and k is the hash value of the backup item. The hash value of the backup item is calculated using a polynomial hash function using Horner's rule. The value of m may be chosen based on the number of bytes to be used for storing each key (e.g., if 4 bytes are used, m would be 2 32 −1). The value of m may be stored as a parameter of the hint. It is advantageous to choose a prime number for the table size, since hash tables of prime size tend to perform much better than hash tables of non-prime size. In an embodiment, m may be chosen as the largest prime number smaller than the maximum size of the table (which is limited by the amount of space allocated). A larger table size will reduce the risk of collisions that occur when two distinct item names produce the same hash value. To illustrate, suppose the savepoint has space for 1010 characters allocated, 10 of which are used to store the identification of the hint, hint parameters, and other useful information. The saveset in this example might consist of 500 objects. If 2 bytes are used for the hash value, the table size variable m may then be set to the largest prime number that can fit in 2 bytes. The largest number that can be stored in 2 bytes is 2 16 =65536, and the largest prime smaller than 65536 is 65521. 1000 bytes will be available to store the 500 hash values, assuming that 1 byte is used to store 1 character. The remaining 10 bytes can be used to store the hint identification, and the number “2” (indicating that 2 bytes have been used for each hash value) and/or the number “65521” (indicating the value of m). Three bytes may be used for each hash value, independently of the number of backup objects in the saveset. In this case, since the largest number that can be stored in 3 bytes is 2 24 =16777216, m would be 16777213 (the largest prime number smaller than 16777216). With these parameters, this method would be applicable for savesets consisting of at most 333 objects, since the hash value of each object occupies 3 bytes and 1000 bytes are available for storing the hash values. The disclosed hash function has been determined to work well, though any hash function could be used to implement this method. Horner's Rule may be used to convert the item name to an integer. In an embodiment, the hash values may be calculated by interpreting the characters in backup item name as coefficients of a polynomial in one variable, and then evaluating the polynomial for x=231: s[0]*x k +s[1]*x k-1 +s[2]*x k-2 + . . . +s[k−1]*x 1 +s[k]*x 0 s[0]*231 k +s[1]*231 k-1 +s[2]*231 k-2 + . . . +s[k−1]*231 1 +s[k]*231 0 Other values for the polynomial's variable may be used instead of 231. For example, the values 33, 37, 39, 41 and 131 have been reported by experimental studies such as “Algorithm Design: Foundations, Analysis and Internet Examples” [M. T. Goodrich, R. Tamasia, 2002] and “Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures in Pascal and C” [G. H. Gonnet, 1991], the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. Some applications may generate object names for which a particular value for the polynomial's variable works well. The hash value of the backup item name would be the above computed value, mod m, where m is the size of the hash table. An implementation of Horner's Rule for computing the hash function described above could be as follows: int hash (char key[KeyLength]) { int h=0; int i; for (i=0; i<KeyLength; i++) { h=(231*h+key[i]) % TableSize; } return h; } As each item is saved by the backup process, its name is passed to the hash function, and the result concatenated into the savepoint. Hash values may be stored sequentially in the savepoint in a first-in-first-out fashion, or some other ordering may be used such as placing the hash values for the most recently used or modified items first. Although delimiters may be used between each hash value in the concatenation, a fixed hash value size obviates the need for delimiters, and without delimiters, more space would be available for storing hash values. In an embodiment, the concatenated hash values are stored in the savepoint field, along with flags to indicate the optimization algorithm being used. This approach is advantageous in that hash values will have fixed sizes, so it will be known in advance how many bits will be needed for each hash value. An example is illustrated in FIG. 3B . In an embodiment, the hashed value could include other information associated with the item, such as savetime, timestamp of last modification to the item, all or part of the content of the item, etc. For example, the item name and timestamp of last modification could be concatenated and then hashed, and the resulting hash value stored in the savepoint as part of the concatenation. FIG. 6 illustrates an embodiment of the process. In step 600 , it is determined what application is associated with the objects. This can be performed at other stages of the process, and this determination may be implicit; i.e., a backup client 102 may be application-specific and already know what kind of objects it is processing. The backup is performed, step 602 , and the space available for each hash value in the concatenation is calculated, step 604 . The process determines the range of hash values to use, step 606 . This determination may be made based on the amount of space available for storing the concatenation (e.g., the size of the savepoint field minus the size of the flags/parameters), and the maximum end of the range could be the largest prime number smaller than the largest number that can be represented by the space available. For example, if there are 24 bits available for storing the hash value, the largest number that can be represented is 2 24 =16777216. The object names are hashed, step 608 , and the hash values are concatenated, step 610 . They may be concatenated in first-in, first-out order or some other sequence such as an ordering based on most recent use or modification. In step 612 , the concatenation is stored as a hint. The hint may be stored in the index header file in place of the savepoint or in another part of the descriptors for the saveset. Flags may be included with the hint to indicate what type of hint was used and the parameters, step 614 . In an embodiment, the lookup process retrieves the savepoint for a candidate saveset in the index header file, and examines the flags in the savepoint to determine which optimization algorithm, if any, was used. When the use of concatenated hashed values is detected, the name of the target is hashed to produce a target hash value. The lookup process may search the concatenated hash values looking for a match to the target hash value. If a match is found, the lookup process may return a positive result, and may be configured to continue searching for more matches, such as when looking for all versions of the target item. The saveset record file (or index for that record file, such as a filename key file) corresponding to that savepoint may then be opened and searched for the target item name. A positive match may be returned due to the presence of an item name having the same hash value as the name of the target item being sought. If no match is found, the lookup process may then move to the next saveset that might contain the target, and repeat the above method. FIG. 7 shows an embodiment of the process. The descriptors (such as the savepoint) associated with a saveset are read from the index, step 700 , and the flags and hint parameters are determined, step 702 . The hint is retrieved from the savepoint, step 704 . The target name is hashed, step 706 , using the same hash function and parameters as used to produce the hint. This hashed target name is then checked against the hint to determine whether it is present, step 708 , and if there is a match, the record file (such as the filename key file that indexes the record file) is opened and searched for the target, step 710 . The search in the filename key file may seek the full target name rather than the hashed target name. If the target is found, a positive result is returned, step 712 . If the hash value of the target name is not found in the hint or the target name is not found in the filename key file, the process moves to the next saveset descriptors in the index and repeats, step 700 . To keep the index header file from becoming unwieldy, the amount of space allocated to the savepoint field may be limited. The savepoint may, for example, be 4095 characters long. This limits the use of the above-disclosed hints/optimization algorithms to savesets that do not contain too many backup items. In an embodiment, the names of the backup items are hashed as described herein, and mapped into a bitmap array. For example, each backup item's name may be hashed to an integer k between 0 and 4095*CHAR_BITS, and the k th bit in the bitmap array will be turned ON (i.e., set to 1, but may be set to 0 if active low is chosen). If flags are used to indicate what hint is being used and the parameters for the hint (collectively referred to as “hint-keywords”), and those flags are stored in the savepoint field, this will reduce the amount of space available for the bitmap array, and the range will be between 0 and (4095-size of (hint-keywords))*CHAR_BITS. CHAR_BITS indicates the number of bits used to represent a character, typically 1 byte=8 bits. Thus, if 5 bytes are used to store hint-keywords, there will be 4090 bytes, or 4090*8=32720 bits. Then the hash function would be h(k)=k mod 32720, mapping each backup item name to a number between 0 and 32719, and setting the corresponding bit of the bitmap array to ON. In an embodiment, the range should be between 0 and the largest prime number that will fit the allocated space, because prime numbers result in more even distribution of numbers over the hash table and clustering is minimized. FIG. 3C illustrates an embodiment of the bitmap array of hash values. As shown in the figure, each bit position corresponds to a hash value, up to k where k is the maximum hash value allowed (which is dependent on the amount of space allocated). FIG. 8 illustrates an embodiment of the process. In step 800 , it is determined what application is associated with the objects. This can be performed at other stages of the process, and this determination may be implicit; i.e., a backup client 102 may be application-specific and already know what kind of objects it is processing. The backup is performed, step 802 , and the bitmap size calculated, step 804 . This determination may be made based on the amount of space available for storing the bitmap (e.g., the size of the savepoint field minus the size of the flags/parameters), and the maximum end of the range could be the largest prime number smaller than the size of the space available. The object names are hashed, step 806 , and the bits in the bitmap that correspond to the hash values are set to ON, step 808 . In step 810 , the bitmap is stored as a hint. The hint may be stored in the index header file in place of the savepoint or in another part of the descriptors for the saveset. Flags may be included with the hint to indicate what type of hint was used and the parameters, step 812 . When the savepoint is retrieved from the index header files and the flags are determined to indicate that a bitmap array of hash values is stored in the savepoint, the lookup process computes the hash value of the target item name. This value is used to index into the bitmap array, and a simple check is performed to determine whether the bit at that position is set to ON. If the bit is ON, a positive result is returned. The saveset record file (or index for that record file, such as a filename key file) corresponding to that savepoint may then be opened and searched for the target item name. A collision (“false positive”) may occur even though the probability is relatively low, and a positive match in the bitmap array may be triggered by the presence of an item name having the same hash value as the name of the target item being sought. If no match is found, the lookup process may then move to the next saveset that might contain the target, and repeat the above method. An embodiment of the process is shown in FIG. 9 . The descriptors (such as the savepoint) associated with a saveset are read from the index, step 900 , and the flags and hint parameters are determined, step 902 . The hint is retrieved from the savepoint, step 904 . The target name is hashed, step 906 , using the same hash function and parameters as used to produce the hint. The bit in the bitmap corresponding to the target hash value is checked to determine whether it is set, step 908 , and if it is set, the record file (such as the filename key file that indexes the record file) is opened and searched for the target, step 910 . The search in the filename key file may seek the full target name rather than the target hash value. If the target is found, a positive result is returned, step 912 . If the bit corresponding to the hash value of the target name is not set or the target name is not found in the filename key file, the process moves to the next saveset descriptors in the index and repeats, step 900 . In an embodiment, a backup process might use any of several hints/search optimization algorithms, and use flags to indicate which algorithm was selected. This decision may be made by the client 102 or server 108 . In an embodiment, client 102 has information about the objects that it is backing up and what application(s) created them, and may use that information to determine what backup method to use. If the backup item names fit into the savepoint, concatenation of the item names can be performed as described herein. Methods of shortening the item names can be used, such as storing the first or last n characters of each item name, or using every k th character of each item name. If the backup item names will not fit into the savepoint using the concatenation methods described herein with an acceptable level of distinctiveness, hashing of item names may be performed as described herein. Hashed values may be concatenated or stored into a bitmap array. Concatenating hash values may produce fewer collisions, if the range of the hash function is greater than when used with the bitmap array, but at the expense of fewer hash values that can be stored in the savepoint without having too many collisions. For example, if the backup client 102 of an application knows that, because of the application it's backing up, no backup item will ever have a name longer than 64 chars and no saveset will ever contain more than 10 backup items, then it may determine that concatenating all names of backup items is the best solution. This would be the case if the client index file entry had 4095 characters allocated, because 10×64=650 characters, which will easily fit. Any form of hashing would introduce the possibility of false positives. In this case, the backup client 102 would store a flag indicating that the item names were concatenated and other parameters (such as a fixed filename length), as well as a concatenation of the names of all backup items. When a process searches the client file index, it checks to see if a flag for any hint has been set; if it sees no flag, it knows that the standard savepoint (e.g., the longest pathname containing all of the items) has been stored in the client file index entry; if it sees a flag that indicates any of the hints, it knows how to interpret the rest of the client file index entry. Use of an adaptive process as described herein enables a system running a backup process to automatically choose an appropriate search optimization algorithm, taking into account the number of backup items it finds in a saveset and the application associated with the objects, shown as step 1000 in FIG. 10 . Objects are backed up, step 1002 . In an embodiment, the system first tries to concatenate the names of all backup items, step 1004 . It should be understood that this process may be performed in parallel with the store operations (i.e., concatenate object names as objects are identified and stored). This minimizes this way the number of false positives that may occur during a client file index lookup. A “false positive” is a match in the header file, which necessitates the lookup of the record file, but whose lookup results in no matches, thereby wasting time, so it is desirable to minimize the occurrence of false positives. If the client file index entry (such as the savepoint field) does not have enough space to store the concatenation of all backup item names, step 1006 , the system attempts to concatenate the hash values of all backup item names, step 1008 . Such a concatenation of the hash values can accommodate more backup items per saveset than the concatenation of the names themselves, but (a) there is still a maximum number of backup items per saveset it can accommodate (b) it introduces the likelihood of some false positives, unlike the previous method. If the client file index entry does not have enough space to store even the concatenation of the hash values of all backup item names, step 1010 , the system uses the bitmap hash table approach in step 1012 . This approach can accommodate savesets of an arbitrary number of backup items, at the expense of increasing the expected number of false positives. Regardless of which approach is chosen, the hint is stored in the index, step 1014 , and flags and parameters associated with the hint are stored as well, step 1016 . These functions may be performed by client 102 , server 108 , or some other component in the system, and the principles disclosed herein apply equally to all configurations. Regardless of the approach chosen, the hint may be stored in the savepoint field of the index as described herein. In some embodiments, a reader such as a string stream reader may be used to read the index or saveset record. The string stream reader may be configured to read data until a flag is seen, such as a special byte or sequence of bytes, and this is assumed to be the end of the stream. Thus, the flag may signify an endpoint used to terminate the read. The flag may, for example, be a null byte (a byte whose bits are all set to 0), and when the null byte is encountered, the reader stops reading. If this null byte or other special byte is generated and stored as a hint in the index, the reader may stop reading prematurely when it encounters the null or special byte in the hint, before the end of the string or record has been reached. This may be handled by ensuring that the hint does not generate a sequence of bits or bytes (the prohibited flag) that would cause the reader to stop prematurely. In one embodiment, a search optimization is used that involves hashing the name of each backup item (which may be stored in a filename string) to an integer k between 0 and 2 32 −1, and concatenating k to the other hash values in the savepoint, as described herein. The hash value k may be represented in 4 bytes. If a null byte is used to represent the end of the string, then it is desirable to avoid a 0 value (which corresponds to a null byte) in any of these 4 bytes. In some cases, such as in legacy applications or to maintain compatibility, it may be impractical to change the method of signaling the end of the string or record. Referring to FIG. 11 a , a hash value is illustrated as comprising 4 bytes. Each 8-bit byte can represent 256 values between 0-255. Blocks a, b, c, and d each represent one byte, and each byte can contain a value between 0-255 (i.e. 0≦value≦255). Block a is the least significant byte, and d is the most significant byte. The integer value M represented by this 4-byte value is calculated as follows: M=a* 256 0 +b* 256 1 +c* 256 2 +d* 256 3 Because a null byte must be avoided in order to avoid conflict with the reader, bytes a, b, c, or d cannot be 0 for the hash value representation. This means that no byte can have the value of 0; each byte can only have 255 values between 1-255 (0 is discarded). This is similar to using one byte to encode 255 values between 0-254, and replacing any resultant O-valued byte with a value of 255. Base-255 encoding never generates 255 as the value of the byte, and therefore, this approach could safely replace any byte with the value of 0, with the value of 255. However, all of the key values k cannot be represented using only the 255 values in each byte of 4 bytes in this encoding scheme. The maximum integer value that can be represented by this encoding is 255 4 −1=4228250624, which is smaller than the maximum value of k (256 4 −1=4294967295). Because the difference between k's maximum value and the maximum value represented by 4 bytes using new 255-based encoding is 66716669, and this difference is smaller than 1*255 4 , only one extra bit is needed at the most significant end of the 4-byte value. This would entail dividing byte boundaries, however, and an extra byte may be used instead of an extra bit. The hash value may thus be represented by 5 bytes instead of 4 bytes, and encoded in base-255 such that each byte can encode a value between 0-254 (i.e. 0≦value≦254), as illustrated in FIG. 11 b , in which block e′ representing the new most significant byte has been utilized. The integer value M′ represented by this 5-byte value using base-255 encoding is then: M′=a′* 255 0 +b′* 255 1 +c′* 255 2 +d′* 255 3 +e′* 255 4 As described herein, the base-255 encoding may generate bytes with a value of 0, each of which may safely be replaced with a byte having a value of 255 (because base-255 encoding will never produce 255 as a value). Thus, a 0 may be written as a 255, and conversely, a 255 may be read as a 0 when the index is read. For example, suppose a string (such as a backup item name) hashes to k=16777216. Normal base-256 encoding will result in the 4 bytes shown in FIG. 11 c . As shown in the figure, the first three bytes are 0. Encoding the 4 bytes into base-255 and using 5 bytes to represent the result produces the 5-byte sequence shown in FIG. 11 d: M′= 1*255 0 +3*255 1 +3*255 2 +1*255 3 +0*255 4 Each byte with value 0 is mapped to 255. The result is shown in the 5-byte sequence in FIG. 11 e. FIG. 12 illustrates an embodiment. A hash value is computed from the backup item name, step 1200 , with a range of values between 0 and 2 32 -1. This value may be represented in 5 bytes, and in step 1202 , each byte is encoded in base-255. In step 1204 , any 0 values in the base-255 encoded bytes are mapped to 255, thereby avoiding any occurrence of a byte with a 0 value. This byte sequence may be concatenated into the savepoint, step 1206 . These steps may be performed separately or combined. For example, the mapping of 0 to 255 may be merged with the base-255 encoding. Referring to FIG. 13 , when the index is read, step 1300 , such as during backup or restore operations, the reader should not encounter any null bytes in the stored hints. Bytes containing the value 255 are mapped to 0, step 1302 , and may be decoded from base-255 to base-256, step 1304 , essentially reversing the encoding of the original hash value. After decoding, the most significant byte may no longer be needed for storing the hash value and may be dropped. The decoded hash value may be processed as described herein. For example, it may be used to determine whether an object has been stored. The foregoing has been described with reference to an embodiment using base-256 values encoded into base-255, and a flag comprising a null byte, but it should be understood that the principles of the invention are not limited to the specific embodiments disclosed herein. A value may be transformed into portions (e.g., bytes), and each portion may be encoded into a base (e.g., base-255) lower than the maximum base (e.g., base-256) that could be represented by each portion (e.g., byte). This leaves unused values that will never be used by the encoding, and those unused values may be mapped to ensure that the flag (the prohibited value) never appears in the hint. Although the methods and systems herein have been described with respect to an illustrative embodiment, it should be appreciated that the methods and systems disclosed are independent of the precise architecture of the backup system or object storage system used, and are applicable to mass storage, tape storage, optical devices, and all other types of systems that process data in the form of files or other objects. For the sake of clarity, the processes and methods herein have been illustrated with a specific flow, but it should be understood that other sequences may be possible and that some may be performed in parallel, without departing from the spirit of the invention. Additionally, steps may be subdivided or combined. As disclosed herein, software written in accordance with the present invention may be stored in some form of computer-readable medium, such as memory or CD-ROM, or transmitted over a network, and executed by a processor. All references cited herein are intended to be incorporated by reference. Although the present invention has been described above in terms of specific embodiments, it is anticipated that alterations and modifications to this invention will no doubt become apparent to those skilled in the art and may be practiced within the scope and equivalents of the appended claims. More than one computer may be used, such as by using multiple computers in a parallel or load-sharing arrangement or distributing tasks across multiple computers such that, as a whole, they perform the functions of the components identified herein; i.e. they take the place of a single computer. Various functions described above may be performed by a single process or groups of processes, on a single computer or distributed over several computers. Processes may invoke other processes to handle certain tasks. A single storage device may be used, or several may be used to take the place of a single storage device. The present embodiments are to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive, and the invention is not to be limited to the details given herein. It is therefore intended that the disclosure and following claims be interpreted as covering all such alterations and modifications as fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention.

A method, article of manufacture, and apparatus for tracking a plurality of objects being stored are disclosed. In an embodiment, this comprises computing the hash value of the name of each object being stored, transforming the hash value into a plurality of bytes such that none of the bytes has the value of a flag used by the system, concatenating the transformed hashed values into a hint, and storing the hint in an index. In an embodiment, bytes having the flag value are mapped to an unused value during the transformation. In an embodiment, the hint is retrieved from the index and hashed values are transformed back. Mapped values are restored to the flag values. This allows use of the hint with a system that uses a flag in the index as an indicator; for example, to indicate that an endpoint has been reached.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] Reference is made to commonly-assigned, U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 11/516,064 and 11/516,134, both filed Sep. 6, 2006, in the name of Stanley W. Stephenson, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] This invention relates generally to the field of digitally controlled printing devices, and in particular to printhead assemblies that include replaceable printheads. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Ink jet printing systems apply ink to a substrate. The inks are typically dyes and pigments in a fluid. The substrate can be comprised of an material or object. Most typically, the substrate is a flexible sheet that can be a paper, polymer or a composite of either type of material. The surface of the substrate and the ink are formulated to optimize the ink lay down. [0004] Ink drops can be applied to the substrate by modulated deflection of a stream of ink (continuous) or by selective ejection from a drop generator (drop-on-demand). The drop-on-demand (DOD) systems eject ink using either a thermal pulse delivered by a resistor or a mechanical deflection of a cavity wall by a piezoelectric actuator. Ejection of the droplet is synchronized to motion of the substrate by a controller, which selectively applies an electrical signal to each ejector to form an image. [0005] U.S. Pat. No. 6,491,385 to Anagnostopoulos et al., issued Dec. 10, 2002, entitled “CMOS/MEMS integrated ink jet print head with elongated bore and method of forming same,” describes a continuous ink jet head and it's operation. A silicon substrate supports layers on the front surface having a pair of resistive elements. A bore through the silicon substrate is supplied for each nozzle. A fluid, which can be ink, is forcibly ejected through the bore and through a nozzle formed in the layers on the front surface. The resistors are modulated to break the stream of fluid into discrete droplets. Asymmetric heating of the resistors can selectively direct the droplets into different pathways. A gutter can be used to filter out select droplets, providing a stream of selectable droplets useful for printing. The modulated stream printing system requires significant additional apparatus to manage fluid flow. [0006] Piezoelectric actuated heads use an electrically flexed membrane to pressurize a fluid-containing cavity. The membranes can be oriented in parallel or perpendicular to the ejection direction. U.S. Pat. No. 6,969,158 to Taira, issued Nov. 29, 2005, entitled “Ink-jet head,” describes a piezoelectric drop-on-demand ink jet head having the membrane perpendicular to the droplet ejection direction. A set of plates is stacked up and includes plate of piezoelectric which flexes a pressure chamber parallel to the direction of ink ejection. The membranes require a large amount of surface area, and multiple rows of ejectors are arrayed in depth across the head. Ejectors are arranged across the printing direction at a pitch of 50 dpi and are arrayed in the printing direction 12 ejectors deep on an angle theta to form a head having an effective pitch of 600 dpi. Such heads are complex, requiring multiple layers that must be bonded together to form passages to the nozzle. [0007] U.S. Pat. No. 6,926,284 to Hirst, issued Aug. 9, 2005, entitled “Sealing arrangements,” discloses a drop-on-demand inkjet head permitting single-pass printing. A single pass print head comprises 12 linear array module assemblies that are attached to a common manifold/orifice plate assembly. Droplets are ejected from the orifice by twelve staggered linear array assemblies that support piezoelectric body assemblies to provide drop-on-demand ejection of ink through the orifice array. The piezoelectric system cannot pitch nozzles closely together; in the example, each swath module has a pitch of 50 dpi. The twelve array assemblies are necessary to provide 600 dpi resolution in a horizontally and vertically staggered fashion. [0008] The orifice array on the plate can be a single two-dimensional array of orifices or a combination of orifices to form an array of nozzles. In the printing application, the orifices must be positioned such that the distance between orifices in adjacent line is at last an order of magnitude (more than ten times) the pitch between print lines. The assembly is quite complex, requiring many separate array assemblies to be attached to the orifice plate thorough the use of sub frames, stiffeners, clamp bar, washers and screws. [0009] It would be advantageous to provide a staggered array in a unitary assembly with an integral orifice plate. It would be useful for the spacing between nozzles to be less than an order of magnitude deeper than is disclosed in this patent. [0010] U.S. Pat. No. 6,722,759 to Torgerson et al., issued Apr. 20, 2004, entitled “Ink jet printhead,” describes a common thermal drop-on-demand inkjet head structure. The drop generator consists of ink chamber, an inlet to the ink chamber, a nozzle to direct the drop out of the cavity and a resistive element for creating an ink ejecting bubble. Linear arrays of drop generators are positioned on either side of a common ink feed slot. Two linear arrays are fed by a common ink feed slot. Ink from the slot passes through a flow restricting ink channels to the ink chamber. A heater resistor at the bottom of the ink chamber is energized to form a bubble in the chamber and eject a drop of ink through a nozzle in the top of the chamber. The ejectors are constrained to be in linear rows on either side of the ink jet supply slot. [0011] U.S. Pat. No. 6,367,903 to Gast et al., issued Apr. 9, 2002, entitled “Alignment of ink dots in an inkjet printer,” discloses a similar structure. The arrays of drop generators are not in a strictly linear fashion, but are slightly offset in groups of three and four generators. Generators in a group are displaced sequentially farther from the supply slot within a group. Adjacent nozzles between the groups have a maximum variation in distance from the common supply slot. [0012] U.S. Pat. No. 5,134,425 to Yeung, issued Jul. 28, 1992, entitled “Ohmic heating matrix,” discloses a passive two-dimensional array of heater resistors. The structure and arrangement of the droplet generators is not disclosed. The patent discloses the problem of power cross talk between resistors in two dimensional arrays of heater resistors. Voltages firing a resistor also apply partial voltages across unfired resistors. The parasitic voltage increases as the number of rows is increased to 5 rows. The patent applies partial voltages on certain lines to reduce the voltage cross talk. The partial energy does not eject a droplet, but maintains a common elevated temperature for both fired and unfired nozzles. The patent covers print head arrays having limited numbers of rows. [0013] U.S. Pat. No. 5,548,311 to Hine, issued Aug. 20, 1996, entitled “Mount for replaceable ink jet head,” discloses a piezoelectric drop-on-demand print head having a replaceable ink jet head. A set of nozzles selectively ejects ink when from electrical pulses are applied to transducers. The transducers are connected by wires to a series of spring contacts on the surface of the head that are electrically connected to a second set of contacts in a mobile carriage. The head structure uses connectors for each of 32 ink jets. The 32 contacts require 160 of clamping force to make a connection. A total of 400 grams of force needs to be applied at the connection to prevent disconnection due to g-forces when the carriage holding the head is translated during printing. It would be useful to reduce the complexity of the interconnection. [0014] U.S. Pat. No. 4,791,440 to Eldridge et al., issued Dec. 13, 1988, entitled “Thermal drop-on-demand ink jet print head,” discloses a structure for a DOD thermal inkjet head. A heater chip, nozzle plate and chip mount are combined to produce a pluggable unit which has both fluid and electrical connections. The patent describes the increase in cost and complexity of electrical fanout and electrical connection as the supporting electrical connections as nozzle count increases. The patent addresses those issues by organizing the heating means in multiple column and passing electrical connection through the substrate. Through connections are more complex and costly. The device has no internal semiconductor elements, and a dedicated connection is required for each heater. The author organizes the heating elements in two staggered rows on either side of tow large holes supplying a common [0015] As such, there is a need to provide a replaceable ink jet print head structure available at a reduced cost having a reduced number of semiconductor devices and electrical interconnections. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0016] It is an object of this invention to provide low-cost replaceable head element. Another object of the invention is to provide tool-less replacablility of critical portions of an inkjet head. [0017] According to one aspect of the present invention, a print head assembly is provided. The printhead includes a substrate including a plurality of electrical contacts and an array of ejectors arranged on the substrate. Each ejector includes a chamber including a nozzle. A resistive element is associated with the chamber and is operable to eject liquid from the chamber through the nozzle of the chamber when actuated through the plurality of electrical contacts. At least one supply passage through the substrate supplies fluid to each ejector. A printhead holder includes a structure to retain the printhead in a fixed position and a manifold to supply fluid to each ejector through the at least one supply passage. A removable frame has a first position and a second position relative to the printhead holder. The frame includes a plurality of electrical contacts that provide an electrical connection to the plurality of electrical contacts on the substrate of the printhead when the frame is in the first position, and permits removal of the printhead from the retaining structure of the printhead holder when the frame is in the second position. [0018] According to another aspect of the present invention, a method of printing includes providing an original printhead comprising: a substrate including a plurality of electrical contacts; and an array of ejectors arranged on the substrate, each ejector comprising: a chamber including a nozzle; a resistive element associated with the chamber operable to eject liquid from the chamber through the nozzle of the chamber when actuated through the plurality of electrical contacts; and at least one supply passage through the substrate; a printhead holder including a structure to retain the printhead in a fixed position and a manifold to supply fluid to each ejector through the at least one supply passage; and a removable frame having a first position and a second position relative to the printhead holder, the frame including a plurality of electrical contacts that provide an electrical connection to the plurality of electrical contacts on the substrate of the printhead when the frame is in the first position, and permit removal of the printhead from the retaining structure of the printhead holder when the frame is in the second position; printing using the original printhead; moving the frame to the second position; replacing the original printhead with another printhead; and moving the frame to the first position. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0019] FIG. 1 is a top schematic view of an ejector in accordance with the present invention; [0020] FIG. 2 is a side sectional view through the ejector shown in FIG. 1 ; [0021] FIG. 3 is a top view of an array of ink ejectors according to prior art; [0022] FIG. 4 is a top view of an inkjet print head assembly in accordance with prior art; [0023] FIG. 5 is a side sectional view of the inkjet print head assembly shown in FIG. 4 ; [0024] FIG. 6 is a top schematic view of an ejector in accordance with the present invention; [0025] FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of an ejector array in accordance one example embodiment of the invention; [0026] FIG. 8 is an electrical schematic of an ink jet head in accordance with the present invention; [0027] FIG. 9 is a schematic view of a head assembly in accordance with the present invention; [0028] FIG. 10 is a side view of a printer using a head in accordance with the present invention; [0029] FIG. 11 is a top view of a head holder in accordance with the present invention; [0030] FIG. 12 is a side view of a head holder in accordance with the present invention; and [0031] FIG. 13 is a side view of the disassembled invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT [0032] FIG. 1 is a top schematic view of an ejector 10 in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 is a side sectional view through the ejector shown in FIG. 1 . A substrate 3 supports a polymer layer 5 . Substrate 3 is most commonly a silicon wafer, however substrate 3 can be made of a glass or metal such as stainless steel, Invar, or nickel. An ink chamber 12 is formed as a cavity in polymer layer 5 to hold a printing ink. A cover 7 over ink chamber 12 can be formed directly over polymer layer 5 using a vacuum deposited ceramic or metal. Cover 7 over ink chamber 12 can also be a separate plate formed of ceramic or metal which is bonded to the polymer layer 5 defining ink chamber 12 . Cover 7 has an opening to form a nozzle 14 to direct an ejected droplet of ink in a specified direction when ink chamber 12 is pressurized. [0033] A heater resistor 20 is embedded in the substrate 3 . A pulse of electrical energy to heater resistor 20 causes ink within ink chamber 12 to momentarily be converted into a gaseous state. A gas bubble is formed over heater resistor 20 within ink chamber 12 , and pressurizes ink chamber 12 . Pressure within ink chamber 12 acts on ink within ink chamber 12 and forces a droplet of ink to be ejected through nozzle 14 . Inlet 16 supplies ink to ink chamber 12 . Restriction 18 can be formed at inlet 16 to improve firing efficiency by restricting the majority of the pressure pulse to ink chamber 12 . Restriction 18 can be in the form of one or more pillars formed within inlet 16 , or by a narrowing of the sidewalls in polymer layer 5 at inlet 16 of ink chamber 12 . [0034] Resistive heads are commonly made using silicon for substrate 3 . Heater resistor 20 and associated layers are formed over substrate 3 , followed by polymer layer 5 . Polymer layer 5 is patterned, followed by cover 7 , which is patterned to form nozzle 14 . After those layers have been formed, ink feed slot 22 is formed through substrate 3 using a reactive ion milling process. The reactive ion milling process has the characteristic of forming near-vertical walls through a silicon substrate 3 . The ion milling process has the virtue that the process is specific to silicon and can form ink feed slot 22 without damage to structures associated with ejectors 10 on substrate 3 . Substrate 3 is bonded to a structure which has one or more cavities 31 for supplying ink to some or all of ejectors 10 formed on substrate 3 . [0035] FIG. 3 is a top view of an array of ink ejectors according to prior art. Ejectors 10 must be supplied by ink from the rear side of substrate 3 . U.S. Pat. No. 6,722,759 describes a prior art thermal drop-on-demand printhead. Ejectors 10 are arranged in two closely packed rows that share a common ink feed slot 22 . Ink feed slot 22 passes through substrate 3 , which supports ejectors 10 . Arranging two linear rows of ejectors 10 on either side of ink feed slot 22 provides for a compact ink jet head. Because the nozzles are adjacent to each other, fluidic cross-talk can occur between the ejectors. Close packing of the nozzles makes the head susceptible to thermal cross-talk between adjacent nozzles. Overheating can become more pronounced if substrate 3 is not silicon, but a less thermally conductive material such as glass, ceramic or metal. [0036] FIG. 4 is a top view of an inkjet print head in accordance with prior art. The recitation again generally follows the structures found in U.S. Pat. No. 6,722,759. A print head 32 has two ink feed slots 22 , each feed slot feeding two rows of ejectors 10 . A set of ejector drivers 52 is formed adjacent to each row of ejectors 10 . Each ejector driver 52 is a semiconductor-switching elements that is attached to each heater resistor 20 within each ejector 10 . The power requirements for thermal drop on demand inkjet are high, typically over 1 watt of power for approximately 1 microsecond. Ejector drivers 52 then are formed of PMOS or NMOS transistors to selectively apply power to heater resistors 20 . Alternatively, ejector drivers 52 can be formed of thin-film-transistor elements having characteristics capable of meeting the power and switching times required to thermally eject a droplet from an ejector 10 . [0037] Power to ejector drivers 52 is provided by a conductor line 54 disposed one each side and down the center of substrate 3 . Conductor lines 54 supply power and return for ejector drivers 52 . Control logic 58 is disposed on both ends of the substrate 3 to decode data signals from printer controller 38 (not shown in figure). Data and power are delivered to control logic 58 through bond pads 60 . Wire bonds 62 provide connection between bond pads 60 on substrate 3 and flex circuit 64 . Data from controller 38 is delivered through flex circuit 64 through wire bonds 62 to control logic 58 . Control logic 58 responds to control data from printer controller 38 [0038] FIG. 5 is a side sectional view of the inkjet print head assembly shown in FIG. 4 . In accordance with current art, print head 32 is bonded on head holder 66 . Cavities 31 are formed in head holder 66 to provide ink to each ink feed slot 22 in print head 32 . Flex circuit 64 is bonded to head holder 66 and wire bonds 62 are connected between flex circuit 64 and bond pads 60 formed over substrate 3 . [0039] Silicon based print heads 32 are built on a silicon wafer that is diced into a rectangular shape. The sawing process to cut out print heads 32 varies by 50 microns, creating variability in location of bond pads 60 relative to the edges of substrate 3 . Bond pads 60 are small, typically 200 microns square, and require wire bonds 62 to connect to contacts areas on flex circuit 64 . Because of the variability in dimension and accuracy requirements, print heads 32 are permanently bonded to head holder 66 . [0040] FIG. 6 is a top schematic view of an ejector in accordance with the present invention. In the invention, an ejector 10 comprises an ink chamber 12 actuated by heater resistor 20 . Ink chamber 12 is fed by inlet 16 and ejects fluid through nozzle 14 . A restriction 18 can be formed at the inlet to improve ejector 10 's performance. A single ink feed slot 22 is dedicated to ejector 10 . In the case that substrate 3 is made of silicon, the ability of reactive ion etching process to form substantially columnar individual supply passages 22 to be formed through substrate 3 . Each ink feed slot 22 shares a common cavity 31 located at the back of substrate 3 . Ejector 10 in accordance with the invention provides a complete assembly that can be positioned at greater distance from adjacent ejectors 10 to eliminate fluidic cross talk and improve cooling efficiency. In the case that substrate 3 is not silicon, the greater distance prevents overheating that would result from closely spaced ejectors 10 on lower conductivity substrates 3 . Sufficient spacing between ejectors 10 further permits the use of anisotropic etching in non-silicon substrates. [0041] U.S. Pat. No. 5,134,425 discloses a passive two-dimensional array of heater resistors. The patent discloses the problem of power cross talk between resistors in two-dimensional arrays of heater resistors. Voltages used to fire a given resistor apply partial voltages across unfired resistors, significantly increasing the current and power demand. In FIG. 6 , ejector 10 is connected to row conductor 26 and column conductor 28 . A diode 24 permits multiple ejectors 10 to be attached to a matrix of row conductors 26 and column conductors 28 . The diodes block current flows to parasitic elements, reducing power demand of the device. The diodes permit large number of columns to be used on the head. The larger number of columns permits heads with finer resolution and greater spacing between ejectors 10 . [0042] FIG. 7 is a schematic representation of an ejector array in accordance one example embodiment of the invention. A coordinate system is shown and includes a first direction X with X an axis of motion between the printhead and an ink-receiving surface. This is commonly referred to as a printing direction. A second direction Y is also shown with Y being a cross printing direction. A direction Z is also shown with Z being a direction perpendicular to the printhead. This is commonly referred to as the direction of ink drop ejection from the printhead. [0043] Ejectors 10 are shown schematically as a box having individual supply ports 22 and ejectors 10 . Ejectors 10 have been attached to a matrix of row conductors 26 and column conductors 28 to form laterally staggered columns of ejectors 10 . Each ejector 10 of a column of ejectors is staggered at a desired pitch, typically expressed in dpi or microns, which is finer than the pitch of the ejector columns. For example, each column can be pitched 600 microns apart due to the area required for each ejector. If the required printing pitch is 40 microns, each ejector in the column can be laterally staggered 40 microns to a depth of 15 ejectors (40×15=600) to achieve the required 40 micron printing pitch. [0044] The embodiments shown in FIGS. 6 and 7 are particularly well suited for print heads having large area arrays, for example, print heads having a length dimension of four inches and a width dimension of one inch. However, the large area array print head can have other length and width dimensions. One (or a plurality of large area array print heads stitched together) can be used to form a pagewide print head. [0045] In a pagewide print head, the length of the printhead is preferably at least equal to the width of the receiver and does not “scan” during printing. The length of the page wide printhead is scalable depending on the specific application contemplated and, as such, can range from less than one inch to lengths exceeding twenty inches. [0046] FIG. 8 is an electrical schematic of an ink jet head in accordance with the present invention. Print head 32 has column conductors 28 connected to column driver 36 . Column driver 36 can be a ST Microelectronics STV 7612 Plasma Display Panel Diver that is connected to column conductors 28 . The chip responds to digital signals to either apply a drive voltage or ground to each column conductors. Each row conductor 26 is connected to a row driver 34 . Row driver 34 can be a ST Microelectronics L6451 28 Channel Ink Jet Driver that provides a DMOS power transistor to each row conductor 26 . Diode 24 , provided with each ejector 10 , provides logic to permit print head 32 to be logically driven in a sequential column wise fashion. [0047] Print head 32 is fired row sequentially. Row driver 34 applies a ground voltage to a written row. Digital signals apply a drive voltage (Vdd) or ground voltage to each row conductor 26 . Row conductors 26 having an applied drive voltage provide energy to the ejector attached to column conductor 28 and the grounded row conductor 26 . Row conductors 26 having a ground voltage are not fired. Only one row conductor 26 at a time has a ground voltage, the other row conductors are attached to high impedance drivers and cannot fire. Row conductors 26 are fired in a sequential manner, and column conductors 28 are set to a state that corresponds to a row of ejectors being fired or not fired. After all rows have been written, all ejectors are fired and the process is repeated to apply an image wise pattern of ink droplets from print head 32 . [0048] FIG. 9 is a schematic view of a head assembly in accordance with the present invention. Substrate 3 has been mounted to head holder 66 that provides a supply of ink behind substrate 3 to supply ink through individual ink feed slots 22 to each ejector on the front of substrate 3 . Row driver 34 and column driver 36 are attached to head holder 66 . [0049] FIG. 10 is a schematic side view of a printer using a head in accordance with the present invention. Printer controller 38 moves an ink receiver 40 using receiver driver 42 . Receiver driver 42 is a motor that operates on a plate or roller to drive ink receiver 40 under print head 32 . Printer controller 38 provides drive signals to row driver 34 and column driver 36 connected to print head 32 mounted on head holder 66 to apply an image-wise pattern of ink droplets onto ink receiver 40 in synchronization with the motion of ink receiver 40 . [0050] FIG. 11 is a top view of a head holder 66 in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 12 is a side view of a head holder 66 in accordance with the present invention. In the invention, print head 32 is not bonded to head holder 66 . Head holder 66 has a recess 70 to receive print head 32 . Recess 70 is deep enough to provide a perimeter closely conforming to the perimeter of print head 32 . If print head is 450 microns thick, recess 70 can have the same depth. In another embodiment, recess 70 can provide predefined point contacts to the perimeter of print head 32 . Silicon print heads 32 made using semiconductor and MEMS processes will have flatness on the order of a few microns across the surface setting into the bottom of recess 70 . The bottom of recess 70 should have equivalent flatness to provide a seal for inks in cavities 31 and ink feed slot 22 . In the case of drop-on-demand heads, the ink is under less than 250 mm of water vacuum. The flatness of the two contacting surfaces on the bottom of recess 70 and the typical contact width of 1 mm are enough to provide a seal. [0051] A holding frame 72 is aligned and can be selectively connected to head holder 66 . In the example, holding frame 72 is a rectangular frame that aligns to the periphery of head holder 66 . Securing pins 76 fit into details in head holder 66 to securely attach holding frame 72 to head holder 66 . Head contacts 74 are secured to holding frame 72 and are formed to provide pressure contact to bond pads 60 when holding frame 72 is slide around the periphery of head holder 66 and securing pins 76 are locked into securing detail in head holder 66 . [0052] In the example, head contacts 74 are formed of gold plated beryllium-copper foil or wire, which have a bend that is flexed as holding frame 72 is secured to head holder 66 . The bend provides a wiping action on bond pads 60 , which provides reliable electrical connection during assembly. The gap between the ink-ejecting surface of print head 32 and an ink receiving substrate is small, typically 700 to 1,000 microns. Head contacts must fit into that space with enough clearance from the ink receiving substrate. Head contacts 74 can be formed of 75-micron thick beryllium-copper foil or wire and be bent nearly parallel to the ejecting surface of print head 32 . Head contacts 74 can be designed to project can project a total of 200 microns into the space between the front of print head 32 and the ink receiving substrate. Additional, non-conductive contacts 75 can be provided around the periphery of holding frame 72 to provide sufficient and balanced pressure to hold print head 32 into recess 70 . [0053] Flex circuits 64 provide electrical connection to each head contact 74 . Flex circuit 64 provides connection to row drivers 34 and column drivers 36 in the exemplary embodiment. Using the device structure of the examples, no control logic 58 is required; row drivers 34 and column drivers 36 provide those functions. The apparatus permits those components, as well as the manifold assembly to be reused. The life of ejectors 10 is limited, and the apparatus permits rapid, simple replacement of the ejectors without wasting other parts of the assembly. [0054] Bond pads 60 and head contacts 74 must be must be large enough to compensate for tolerance errors in the assembled components. The fit between ink jet head and the perimeter of recess 70 requires 50 microns of clearance. The fit between head holder 66 and holding frame 72 requires another 50 microns of clearance. Head contacts can be manufactured to 75 micron accuracy. The contact area required for good electrical connection is 125 microns. In practice, bond pads need to be 300 microns square for the apparatus to work. That bond pad area is not significantly larger than the bond pads used in current devices. Arranging ejectors 10 into a row-column configuration with internal control logic in the form of diodes 24 minimizes the number of contacts required for a given number of ejectors 10 on a substrate. [0055] FIG. 13 is a side view of the disassembled invention. Securing pins 76 have been disengaged from head holder 66 , releasing holding frame 72 to move upwards and off of head holder 66 . Flex circuit 64 permits holding frame 72 to be removed completely from the vicinity of head holder 66 to permit unhindered access to print head 32 . With holding frame 72 removed, print head 32 can be lifted from recess 70 in head holder 66 and be replaced with another print head 32 . Head contacts 74 move downward into their unloaded state position as holding frame 72 is removed. After a new print head 32 has been placed in recess 70 , holding frame 72 can be slide back around head holder 66 and secured by securing pins 76 . The action of positioning holding frame 72 back onto head holder 66 springs head contacts 74 nearly parallel to the front surface of print head 32 , the ends of head contacts 74 wipe across the surface of bond pads 60 . The presence of gold on the contact surface permits multiple head replacement with good electrical contact. [0056] The invention has been described in detail with particular reference to certain preferred embodiments thereof, but it will be understood that variations and modifications can be effected within the scope of the invention. [0000] PARTS LIST 3 substrate 5 polymer layer 7 cover 10 ejector 12 ink chamber 14 nozzle 16 inlet 18 restriction 20 heater resistor 22 ink feed slot 24 diode 26 row conductor 28 column conductor 30 spacing distance 31 cavities 32 print head 34 row drivers 36 column drivers 38 printer controller 40 ink receiver 42 receiver driver 52 ejector drivers 54 conductor lines 58 control logic 60 bond pads 62 wire bonds 64 flex circuit 66 head holder 70 recess 72 holding frame 74 head contacts 75 non-conductive contacts 76 securing pin

A print head assembly is provided. The printhead includes a substrate including a plurality of electrical contacts and an array of ejectors arranged on the substrate. Each ejector includes a chamber including a nozzle. A resistive element is associated with the chamber and is operable to eject liquid from the chamber through the nozzle of the chamber when actuated through the plurality of electrical contacts. At least one supply passage through the substrate supplies fluid to each ejector. A printhead holder includes a structure to retain the printhead in a fixed position and a manifold to supply fluid to each ejector through the at least one supply passage. A removable frame has a first position and a second position relative to the printhead holder. The frame includes a plurality of electrical contacts that provide an electrical connection to the plurality of electrical contacts on the substrate of the printhead when the frame is in the first position, and permits removal of the printhead from the retaining structure of the printhead holder when the frame is in the second position.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority based on parent application Ser. No. 09/261,640, entitled “Method And Apparatus For Text Image Stretching” by Morris Jones, filed on Mar. 3, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,281,876, issued Aug. 28, 2001. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to video display systems. More particularly, the present invention relates to a method and apparatus for expanding a text image to fit within a display that supports images of higher resolution, resulting in an image that optimally fits within a display. 2. Background For the purposes of this disclosure, a panel-like display may be any class of display means having a fixed pixel resolution, i.e., a display that has a fixed number of pixel lines upon which scan lines may be rasterized. For example, for maximum display resolution, a panel-like display provides one pixel line for every scan line that comprises an image. One such display may be a flat panel display such as that found in portable computers and laptops, as commonly known in the art. Currently, most displays use Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) technology because it is well known and cost effective. However, panel-like displays have been gaining in popularity, due in part to their superior size, weight and power consumption characteristics. This popularity of panel-like displays has resulted in the use of panel-like display technology instead of CRT technology for computer products. This use of panel-like technology for applications has put a premium on software compatibility. When new computer equipment is developed, it is important to provide software compatibility with the new computer equipment. If software written for the old computer equipment does not run on the new computer equipment, new software must be developed. In order to avoid creating new software, new computers are generally designed so that previously written software can be used. On-screen resolution is important for displays, since it determines how sharp text characters and graphics will appear. Currently, three resolution standards predominate: CGA (640×200); double-scanned CGA (640×400); and VGA (640×480). VGA is most popular in current panel-like displays because it is the same standard used by most current desktop displays. Using VGA for panel-like displays therefore allows using the same software and drivers as desktop displays. A problem exists when VGA images are displayed on panel-like displays. The resolution of flat panel displays is commonly 800×600, 1024×768, or 1280×1024 pixels. Unlike CRTs, panel-like displays have a fixed number of pixels and lines that are lighted when the monitor is in use. Therefore, when the screen size is larger than the VGA standard resolution of 640×480 pixels, the display on the screen does not utilize the full screen area. Improvements are made possible by filling the entire screen regardless of what mode the video system operates in. These improvements adjust the image size, depending on whether the panel operates in text or graphics mode. One improvement expands a VGA display to fill a panel-like display by duplicating pixels according to a scheme formulated based upon the current resolution and the desired resolution. In text mode, this can make adjacent lines and columns of text appear to be different sizes. FIG. 1 illustrates scaling of text images via pixel duplication. Reference numeral 10 shows text characters before scaling. Reference numeral 12 shows the same text characters after upscaling by a factor of four. The scaled text 12 appears noticeably blocky. Edges not apparent in the original text 10 are noticeable in the scaled text 12 . Another improvement expands a VGA display by interpolating the pixel data in each scan line of the digital input image. Linear interpolation is used for column data, and bilinear interpolation is used for row data. This method requires complicated circuitry and results in text images having reduced sharpness. With the advent of operating systems with integrated VGA and better resolution, systems employing text mode are often not supported. This may hinder or prevent running old applications on new systems. A need exists in the prior art for a video display system compatible with existing software that can expand a VGA image in text mode to fit a panel-like display while maintaining image quality. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides for expanding the text of a standard VGA graphics format within a larger display. In the current invention, text expansion in the horizontal direction is performed to fill a panel-like display. Text expansion is accomplished by remapping individual cell lines to create new scan lines, which fill a panel-like display. For this disclosure, a panel-like display is a display that has a fixed number of pixel lines such as a flat panel LCD display and will hereinafter be referred to as a “display”. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates text character expansion by pixel duplication. FIG. 2 is a simplified block diagram of a typical graphical adapter for the generation of text images on a video display in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a more detailed schematic diagram of a typical VGA in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a VGA for the generation of text images on a flat panel display according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for stretching a text image in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating the use of VGA memory in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for stretching a text image in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that the following description of the present invention is illustrative only and not in any way limiting. Other embodiments of the invention will readily suggest themselves to such skilled persons having the benefit of this disclosure. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating the general structure of a graphics adapter 14 in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. The main part of a graphics adapter 14 is the video controller or graphics control chip CRTC (cathode ray tube controller) 16 . The CRTC 16 supervises the functions of the adapter 14 and generates the necessary control signal. The CPU 18 accesses the video RAM 20 via the bus interface 22 to write information that defines the text or graphics the monitor 24 is to display. The CRTC 16 continuously generates addresses for the video RAM 20 to read the corresponding characters, and to transfer them to the character generator 26 . Referring now to FIG. 3 , a diagram of a typical VGA in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention is illustrated. In text mode, the characters are usually defined by their ASCII codes, which are further assigned an attribute. The attribute defines the display mode for a particular character more precisely. Some typical attributes include whether it is to be displayed in a blinking, bold, or inverted manner. The character generator RAM, for every ASCII code, holds a pixel pattern for the corresponding character. The character generator 32 converts the character codes using the pixel pattern in the character RAM 30 into a sequence of pixel bits, and transfers them to a shift register 34 . The signal generator 36 generates the necessary signals for the monitor 38 , using the bit stream from the shift register 34 , the attribute information from the video RAM 40 , and the synchronization signals from the CRTC 42 . The monitor 38 processes the passed video signals and displays the symbolic information in the video RAM 40 in the usual form as a picture. In text mode, every text row is generated by a number of scanlines. Graphics adapters typically use 14 scanlines for one text row; every character is represented in text mode by a pixel block comprising a height of 14 scanlines and a width of nine pixels. As every character is separated by a narrow space from the next character, and every row by a few scanlines from the next row, the complete block is not occupied by character pixels. For the actual character a 7×11 matrix is available, the reset of the 9×14 matrix remains empty. Also in text mode, every alphanumeric character is displayed as a pixel pattern held in the character RAM 30 . A “1” means that at the location concerned, a pixel with the foreground color is written, and a “0” means that a pixel with the background color appears. The description of character cells consisting of 14 scanlines of nine pixels each is not intended to be limiting in any way. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other sizes may be used as well. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, the cell lines supplied by the character generator are remapped to expanded cell lines. The cell lines are selected based upon the row number and the dot pattern supplied by the character generator. The remapping may be implemented using a lookup table. However, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other implementations are possible. Referring to FIG. 4 , a block diagram of the above mentioned embodiment is presented. An eight-bit character code 44 is presented to the character generator font memory 46 . The character generator returns an eight-bit dot pattern corresponding to the character code 44 . The dot pattern is presented to a map table 48 , which returns a ten-bit expanded dot pattern based upon the row number and the character code. The expanded dot pattern is presented to a shift register 52 for orderly output to the display 54 according to the attribute data supplied by the video RAM 40 . Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize expanded bit patterns of sizes greater than ten may be used to create expanded row information for displays having more than 800 pixels per scan line. Referring now to FIG. 5 , a method for the above embodiment is presented. At reference numeral 60 , a data element is received from the character generator 32 . The data element comprises a sequence of bits representing a cell line. At reference numeral 62 , a horizontal expansion pattern is formed. The remapping may be implemented using a lookup table indexed by the data element. However, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other implementations are possible. The size of the horizontal expansion pattern is selected so that a sequence of all cell lines representing a scan line will optimally fill a display. At reference numeral 64 , the horizontal expansion pattern is appended to a sequence of horizontal expansion patterns representing a scan line. At reference numeral 66 , a check is made to determine whether another data element should be read. If another data element is ready, execution continues at reference numeral 60 . If there are no more data elements, the sequence of horizontal expansion patterns comprising an expanded scan line is complete. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, each lookup table used for generating expanded cell lines is located in VGA memory layer three. FIG. 6 illustrates a typical VGA Video RAM 40 organization. VGA Video RAM 40 is organized into four 64 K parallel memory layers 70 . The character code data for 256 characters resides in memory layer zero 72 . The attribute data resides in memory layer one 74 . The character generator stores the character definition table for converting the character code into pixel patterns in memory layer two 76 . Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that memory layer three 78 is normally unused. Referring now to FIG. 7 , a method for the above embodiment is presented. At reference numeral 80 , a sequence of bits comprising a series of cell lines is received from the character generator 32 . At reference numeral 82 , the cell line number is derived based upon the horizontal frequency. At reference numeral 84 , the first and last bits for each data element are determined. In a VGA system with 640×480 resolution, each data element comprises eight bits. In a VGA system with 720×480 resolution, each data element comprises nine bits. Typically, only the first seven pixels of each cell line contain character information. The remaining pixel(s) are set to the background color to maintain spacing between characters. The background color is typically represented by the value zero. According to this embodiment, a history buffer of the bits received at reference numeral 80 is maintained. This history buffer is scanned for repeating patterns of the bit representing the background color at multiples of eight or nine bits. When a repeating pattern is found, the first bit of a data sequence is set to the bit following the last bit of a repeating sequence. The last bit is determined based upon the first bit and the number of bits per data element. At reference numeral 86 , a horizontal expansion pattern is formed. The size of the horizontal expansion pattern is selected so that a sequence of all cell lines representing a scan line will optimally fill a display. At reference numeral 88 , the horizontal expansion pattern is appended to a sequence of horizontal expansion patterns comprising a scan line. At reference numeral 90 , a check is made to determine whether another data element should be read. If another data element is ready, execution continues at reference numeral 80 . If there are no more data elements, the sequence of horizontal expansion patterns comprising an expanded scan line is complete. According to another embodiment of the present invention, there are separate cell line expansion lookup tables for each cell line. The lookup table is loaded into VGA RAM during horizontal blanking. Keeping only one table in VGA RAM conserves VGA RAM and requires only one index into the table. According to a presently preferred embodiment, the present invention may be implemented in software or firmware, as well as in programmable gate array devices, ASIC and other hardware. While embodiments and applications of this invention have been shown and described, it would be apparent to those skilled in the art that many more modifications than mentioned above are possible without departing from the inventive concepts herein. The invention, therefore, is not to be restricted except in the spirit of the appended claims.

A method and apparatus for horizontally expanding a video graphics adapter (VGA) text character display image to fully fill the screen of a flat panel display. Cell lines for each character are remapped to provide expanded cell lines. The flat panel apparatus includes a video memory for storing the character code, attribute data and font data, a character generator for generating character font data based on the character code, a lookup table for providing expanded cell lines, and an attribute controller for combining the font data and the attribute data for output to a flat panel display.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the priority of German Patent Application No. 10 2010 013 951.3, filed Mar. 30, 2010, and also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/343 880, filed May 5, 2010. The disclosures of these prior applications are hereby incorporated by reference in the entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention relates to a cup made of paper material and having a fillable interior comprising a tubular wall that is at least partially conical, and a bottom wall that is joined to the tubular wall at the bottom end of its interior in a substantially liquid-tight manner, and the tubular wall delimiting the interior comprises at least one peripheral deforming entity. The invention also relates to a method for the production of a cup made of paper material. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Cups made of paper material and comprising a peripheral deforming entity on the tubular wall are known in the prior art. Such deforming entities are provided, for example, for improving the stacking properties and the feel of such cups or also for maintaining a distance between an outer sleeve and a tubular wall so that an insulating space between the outer sleeve and the tubular wall is not compressed even when a full cup is held in the hand. [0004] A generic cup is disclosed in European Patent EP 1 227 042. The aforementioned document describes a heat-insulating cup formed by two conical walls, the inner wall comprising an inwardly oriented groove that serves for stacking a cup of a similar type inside another cup in the stack. The inwardly oriented groove produced by a roll-in process is intended to impart effective stacking and unstacking properties to the cup without the possibility of a plurality of stacked cups becoming jammed inside each other. Experience has shown that the disclosed cup exhibits satisfactory properties that enable up to approximately 20 cups to be stacked. If substantially more cups are stacked, they become jammed inside each other. In particular, such cases of the stacked cups becoming jammed inside each other are caused by axial pressure that is directed from the open end of the cup to the bottom wall thereof as a result of the dead weight of the cups when a large number of cups are stacked together. The cups can become jammed inside each other even when a stack of 50 packed cups is put down with moderate force. Insufficient rigidity of the groove must be considered as the cause of the cups becoming jammed inside each other, but this insufficient rigidity cannot be improved on with this fabrication method, since the roll-in process to produce the groove reduces the strength of the material. [0005] A cup having improved stacking properties over that mentioned above is described in German patent application DE 10 2004056032 A1, but this application again does not propose a satisfactory solution to the problem of the cups becoming jammed inside each other due to deformation of the tubular wall of the cup in the region of the peripheral deforming entity. [0006] It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved cup made of paper material and an improved method for the production of a cup made of paper material. [0007] According to the invention, a cup made of paper material is provided for this purpose, which cup has a fillable interior comprising an at least partially conical tubular wall and a bottom wall that is joined to the tubular wall at the bottom end of the interior of the cup in a substantially liquid-tight manner, and the tubular wall delimiting the interior comprises at least one peripheral deforming entity, and a reinforcement for stabilizing the peripheral deforming entity is disposed in the region of the at least one peripheral deforming entity. [0008] It has been observed, surprisingly, that a reinforcement in the region of the peripheral deforming entity can substantially improve the performance characteristics of cups made of paper material. Thus it has been established that these deforming entities that can be provided on the cup for various purposes can themselves become deformed under load to such an extent that they can no longer perform the task intended for them, namely that of enabling a plurality of cups to be stacked reliably or of maintaining a distance between the outer sleeve and the tubular wall. Surprisingly, deformation of the peripheral deforming entity occurs even though there are in fact no excessive forces actually acting on the cups made of paper materials. For example, in a stack containing a plurality of paper cups, it is only the weight of each upper cup that acts on the lower cup. By providing a reinforcement, it can be ensured that the shape of the peripheral deforming entity is not altered substantially even under load or that the shape of the peripheral deforming entity is altered only to such an extent that the peripheral deforming entity can still perform the task intended. [0009] In a development of the invention, the reinforcement is in the form of a coating applied to the tubular wall. [0010] For example, the reinforcement can be in the form of a coating of plastics material that is sprayed, in particular, onto the periphery of the tubular wall in the region of the peripheral deforming entity in certain parts thereof. The paper material of which paper cups are made is usually coated, for example with plastics material, on an interior surface that comes into contact with liquid. An additional coating can then be applied in the region of the peripheral deforming entity in order to stabilize the peripheral deforming entity following the production of the same. [0011] In a development of the invention, the reinforcement is in the form of an adhesive fillet applied to the tubular wall. [0012] It has been observed, surprisingly, that a very substantial reinforcement of the peripheral deforming entity on the tubular wall can be achieved by the simple application of an adhesive fillet. The application of an adhesive fillet is particularly simple, since the bottom wall and the tubular wall and optionally an outer sleeve of the cup are in any case joined to each other by means of adhesive. The additional application of an adhesive fillet in the region of the peripheral deforming entity thus requires no other devices than those included in conventional apparatus for the production of cups. For the purposes of the invention, the term ‘adhesive’ refers to glue, hot-melt adhesive, plastics adhesive, and the like. [0013] In a development of the invention, the adhesive fillet for stabilizing the peripheral deforming entity is applied over the entire periphery of the tubular wall. [0014] In this way, the peripheral deforming entity can be simply stabilized over the entire circumference of the tubular wall, and the adhesive fillet can also be applied without giving rise to problems, since it is in any case necessary to establish a liquid-tight connection, for example, when joining the bottom wall of the cup to the tubular wall around the entire circumference of the cup. Advantageously, the adhesive fillet is positioned at a constant level around the entire circumference of the tubular wall. Depending on the type of peripheral deforming entity and the type of adhesive used, it can be advantageous when the adhesive fillet is disposed on that side of the tubular wall that is remote from the interior of the cup. In this way, the adhesive fillet can be completely hidden from view in a double-walled insulated cup, since the adhesive fillet is located between the insulating outer sleeve and the tubular wall accommodating the liquid in the finished state of the cup. [0015] In a development of the invention, an outer sleeve is provided that is joined to the tubular wall and/or the bottom wall by means of the adhesive fillet. [0016] Double-walled insulated cups comprise an outer sleeve that can be slid over the actual cup or placed around the same. The adhesive fillet for stabilizing the peripheral deforming entity can at the same time be used for joining the outer sleeve, for example at the bottom end thereof, to the tubular wall or to the bottom wall of the cup. In this way, the adhesive applied can perform a double function, namely that of stabilizing the peripheral deforming entity, on the one hand, and of securely attaching the outer sleeve on the other. [0017] In a development of the invention, the reinforcement is in the form of a separate reinforcing component, more particularly a reinforcing ring. [0018] The peripheral deforming entity can be stabilized on the tubular wall by the provision of a separate reinforcing component. Advantageously, the reinforcing component is configured to match that region of the peripheral deforming entity that requires reinforcement. The reinforcing component can be made, for example, of plastics material and can be in the form of a ring of plastics material, for example. A ring of such type can be slid over the external surface of the tubular wall, or alternatively inserted into the interior of the cup, and secured in the region of the peripheral deforming entity. When the reinforcing component is placed in the interior of the cup, this reinforcing component can also be used for attaching additional components that do not directly form part of the cup, such as a lid or a component comprising a filling orifice, provided that the reinforcing component is disposed in the region of the open end of the cup. For example, a part of an insulating outer sleeve that is positioned to form a ring around the inner cup in the region of the peripheral deforming entity and that is additionally glued to the inner cup can also serve as a separate reinforcing component. [0019] In a development of the invention, the peripheral deforming entity is in the form of a means for supporting a cup of a similar type in the stacked state of a plurality of cups. [0020] For example, the peripheral deforming entity is in the form of a reentrant heel-shaped shoulder extending into the interior of the cup or a groove having an approximately semicircular cross-section. [0021] In a development of the invention, the bottom wall and the tubular wall form a peripheral edge frame in the region of the liquid-tight joint, the peripheral deforming entity being in the form of means for supporting the peripheral edge frame of another cup of a similar type in the stacked state of a plurality of cups. [0022] The provision of a reinforcement in the region of the peripheral deforming entity has proved to be particularly advantageous in such an embodiment of the peripheral deforming entity, that is to say, a peripheral deforming entity in the form of a support for the peripheral edge frame of another cup. The peripheral deforming entity can be reinforced very simply by the application of an adhesive fillet, and it has been found, surprisingly, that the peripheral deforming entity can withstand even very large stacking loads when provided with reinforcement. In the cup of the invention, there is no fear of a plurality of cups becoming jammed inside each other, not even in a stack containing a very large number of cups. [0023] In a development of the invention, the cup comprises an outer sleeve that surrounds the tubular wall at least in part, the peripheral deforming entity being in the form of a means for supporting the outer sleeve of a cup of a similar type in the stacked state of a plurality of cups. [0024] For example, the cups are stacked by means of the peripheral deforming entity disposed on the tubular wall and by means of the peripheral edge frame of the outer sleeve. In this case also, reinforcement in the region of the peripheral deforming entity can substantially improve the stacking properties of such cups. [0025] In a development of the invention, the peripheral deforming entity represents a constriction, at least in certain regions, in the cross-section of the interior, when viewed from the open end of the cup in the direction of the bottom wall, the reinforcement being disposed directly downstream of the region of constricted cross-section. [0026] In this way, particularly when the peripheral deforming entity is provided in the form of means for supporting cups of a similar type when stacking a plurality of cups, the reinforcement can prevent the peripheral deforming entity from losing its shape in the loaded state and thus causing the stacked cups to become jammed inside each other. As a result of the reinforcement being disposed directly downstream of the region of constricted cross-section, the peripheral deforming entity will be deformed in such a way, at most, that the stacked upper cup outwardly presses that portion of the tubular wall of the underlying cup that is located above the area of constricted cross-section, but the stacked upper cup will not slide down below that region of the underlying cup that has a constricted cross-section, which would otherwise inevitably cause the stacked cups to become jammed inside each other. [0027] In a development of the invention, the reinforcement rests against that portion of the peripheral deforming entity that forms the reduction of cross-section on the external surface of the tubular wall that is remote from its interior. [0028] In this way, an adhesive fillet, a separate reinforcing component, or a reinforcement applied in the form of a coating enables the tubular wall of the cup to be reinforced precisely in that region which is exposed to the largest deformation forces in the stacked state of a plurality of cups. [0029] The object of the invention is also achieved by a method for the production of a cup made of paper material, which method includes the following steps: joining a conical or cylindrical tubular wall to the bottom wall of a cup in a substantially liquid-tight manner, incorporating at least one peripheral deforming entity in the tubular wall, and providing a reinforcement in the region of the at least one peripheral deforming entity for stabilizing the at least one peripheral deforming entity. [0033] The method of the invention enables a peripheral deforming entity disposed in the tubular wall to be reinforced in a very simple manner. For the purpose of providing the reinforcement, it is merely necessary to apply additional material to the paper material of the cup. Unlike injection-molded cups of plastics materials, it is extremely problematic to provide reinforcements on paper cups, which, of course, are of a continuous, substantially constant material thickness. The invention solves this problem in that a reinforcement is provided in the region of the at least one peripheral deforming entity following the production of the peripheral deforming entity in the tubular wall. [0034] In a development of the invention, the reinforcement is provided on that external surface of the tubular wall that is remote from the interior of the cup. [0035] In this way, the interior of the cup that comes into contact with liquid remains unaffected by the application of the reinforcement so that, if need be, the reinforcement can be composed, for example, of material that should not come into contact with the liquid for extended periods of time. [0036] In a development of the invention, an adhesive fillet is applied in the region of the peripheral deforming entity in order to stabilize the at least one peripheral deforming entity. [0037] A particularly effective and particularly simple reinforcement can be achieved by the application of an adhesive fillet. As a rule, an application of adhesive is required in any case for joining the tubular wall to the bottom wall, for the production of a conical component from the paper blank to form the tubular wall and also for attaching the outer sleeve. Thus, the method of the invention makes it possible to use conventional apparatus for the production of paper cups for the application of an additional adhesive fillet in the region of the peripheral deforming entity to stabilize the peripheral deforming entity. [0038] The stacking and unstacking properties of cups are substantially improved by the invention. In particular, it is possible to stack substantially more cups than in the prior art, and these do not become jammed inside each other, not even when a stack containing a large number of stacked cups is dropped abruptly or when a large axial thrust acts on the stacked cups in some other way, as is possible when loading a cup magazine, for example. [0039] The cup might be deformed and lose its circular shape due to application of a peripheral deforming entity, but this is likewise prevented by the invention. [0040] According to the invention, the peripheral deforming entity is reinforced by the purposeful application of a coating, preferably a hot-melt adhesive customarily used in this field. Furthermore, the peripheral deforming entity of the tubular wall of the cup can be reinforced by means of a component that is in the form of a ring, for example, which preferably already has the shape of the peripheral deforming entity. A component of this type is preferably made of plastics material or paper. The location at which this ring is attached to the tubular wall of the cup is not relevant in this context regarding the question as to whether or not this ring is located on the inside or outside of the tubular wall of the cup. [0041] The disadvantage of the cup disclosed in EP 1 227 042 B1 is that the forces occurring when stacking the cups are absorbed by means of the tubular wall delimiting the interior of the cup and by means of the outer sleeve. The forces that are derived from the first supporting means and that have to be absorbed inside the cup by the second supporting means are initially absorbed by way of the tubular wall delimiting the interior by the joint between the inner tubular wall and the outer sleeve, and are then absorbed by way of this joint by the outer sleeve. In the outer sleeve, the forces are then absorbed by the second supporting means that is in the form of a roll-in entity, and are absorbed at this point by the next cup. As a result, both the tubular wall and the outer sleeve have to be configured so as to be strong enough to resist the resultant forces. Furthermore, the joint between the outer sleeve and the tubular wall must also be designed so as to withstand the maximum forces occurring. [0042] The freedom of design of the cup disclosed in EP 1 227 042 B1 is detrimentally restricted, since the second supporting means attached to the outer sleeve must always match the dimensions of the first means for supporting another cup of a similar type and be capable of absorbing the relevant forces. It is not possible to provide the outer sleeve with an arbitrary shape or to alter its shape as desired. Furthermore, it is not possible to dispense with the outer sleeve, if need be, without losing the effective stacking properties of the cup. [0043] The stackable cup is preferably produced by means of a method including the following steps: shaping at least a first means for supporting another cup of a similar type on the tubular wall delimiting the interior; shaping a second supporting means on the peripheral edge frame, which second supporting means can cooperate, when the cups are stacked, with a first supporting means attached to another cup of similar type. [0046] The second supporting means is disposed on the tubular wall delimiting the interior or on the bottom wall or on a joint that joins the tubular wall delimiting the interior to the bottom wall. In any case, the second supporting means is attached to a component of the cup that is in contact with the fillable interior. [0047] The advantage of the cup of the invention is that it can be stacked in a secure and stable manner with or without an outer sleeve and also unstacked without the cups becoming jammed inside each other, and it is possible to provide the cup with a heat-insulating outer sleeve. [0048] The tubular wall delimiting the interior and the bottom wall are in any case strong enough to resist the forces occurring when stacking the cups, since they are also required to resist the forces occurring when filling the cups. [0049] In order to prevent a plurality of cups from becoming jammed inside each other when stacking the same, it is advantageous when the dimensions of the second supporting means match those of the first means for supporting another cup of a similar type. The first means for supporting another cup of a similar type can in fact be arbitrarily shaped. The important factor is that the first means should have a contour that can resist the forces acting in the axial direction of the cup, that is to say, forces acting between two cups during the stacking process. The first supporting means is preferably in the form of a bead or a groove that is produced at least in a region around the circumference of the cup in the tubular wall delimiting its interior. The bead or groove can be shaped so as to extend continuously or discontinuously around the circumference of the cup. [0050] In one embodiment of the invention, a heat-insulating outer sleeve is provided for the cup, the design of the heat-insulating outer sleeve being arbitrary as such. For example, the outer sleeve can be made of a plastics material, of paper, or of composite material. For improving the insulating properties, the outer sleeve may be corrugated, ribbed, or embossed, or it can be provided with a foam layer. The outer sleeve can alternatively be in the form of a multilayered component. For example, it can comprise a corrugated intermediate layer that is covered by an outer layer in flat contact therewith. By virtue of the fact that the cup of the invention can be stacked irrespective of the outer sleeve, it is possible to combine one and the same inner cup in a simple and almost arbitrary manner with a wide variety of outer sleeves. Without altering the shape and dimensions of the inner cup and the components forming the fillable interior, it is possible to produce different cups having variable optical and haptical properties, since the appearance of the cup as registered by the user is mainly determined by the design of the outer sleeve. [0051] Furthermore, the bottom roll-in end of the outer sleeve shown in FIGS. 3 a , 3 b , and 3 d can also be used as an additional reinforcing element for the peripheral deforming entity. [0052] Furthermore, a ring that is preferably made of plastics material is provided according to the invention for reinforcing the peripheral deforming entity. [0053] This ring can have the shape of the region of the peripheral deforming entity that requires support. Furthermore, the peripheral deforming entity itself can be produced, according to the invention, with the aid of the ring, this ring being pressed into the tubular wall of the cup. [0054] The ring should preferably be glued to the tubular wall of the cup in cases where the forces occurring when the ring is pressed into the tubular wall of the cup are not sufficient to fix the ring permanently. [0055] Additional features and advantages of the invention are revealed in the claims and in the following description of preferred embodiments of the invention, with reference to the drawings. Individual features of the various embodiments shown can be combined as required without going beyond the scope of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0056] In the drawings: [0057] FIG. 1 is a view of a longitudinal cross-section of a cup of the invention according to a first embodiment, [0058] FIG. 2 is a view of a longitudinal cross-section of two stacked cups of the invention according to a second embodiment, [0059] FIGS. 3 a to 3 d are partial views of longitudinal cross-sections of any two cups of the invention according to a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth embodiment, [0060] FIG. 4 is a partial view of a longitudinal cross-section of a cup of the invention according to a seventh embodiment, [0061] FIG. 5 is a partial view of a longitudinal section of a cup of the invention according to an eighth embodiment, [0062] FIG. 6 is a partial view of a longitudinal cross-section of a cup of the invention according to a ninth embodiment, in which a device shown here in the form of a ring is fitted from outside to the tubular wall of the cup for reinforcing the peripheral deforming entity, and [0063] FIGS. 7 a and 7 b are partial views of longitudinal cross-sections of the cup of the invention according to tenth and eleventh embodiment respectively, in which a device shown here in the form of a ring is fitted from inside to the tubular wall of the cup for reinforcing the peripheral deforming entity. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0064] FIG. 1 illustrates a double-walled heat-insulating cup 10 comprising an inner cup 12 and an outer. sleeve 14 . The inner cup 12 consists of a substantially conical tubular wall 16 and a bottom wall 18 , the tubular wall 16 and the bottom wall 18 being joined to each other in a liquid-tight manner to form a peripheral edge frame 20 . The peripheral edge frame 20 is formed by a U-shaped fold of the tubular wall 16 , into which an approximately right-angled edge of the pot-shaped bottom wall 18 has been inserted. Following the insertion of the edge, the peripheral edge frame 20 is completed by gluing, pressing, and/or sealing the tubular wall 16 to the bottom wall 18 . [0065] The outer sleeve 14 is slid on like a casing and it likewise has a conical shape. The bottom end of the outer sleeve 14 is in the form of a lower bead 22 . The lower bead 22 of the outer sleeve 14 rests against the inner cup 12 below the horizontal portion of the bottom wall 18 . The top end of the outer sleeve 14 rests against the inner cup 12 so as to adjoin a mouth bead 24 that forms the top end of the cup 10 . [0066] A peripheral deforming or deformed entity in the form of a heel-shaped shoulder 26 extending into the interior of the inner cup 12 is provided on the tubular wall 16 of the inner cup 12 approximately at the level of a quarter of the vertical dimension of the interior of the inner cup 12 . The shoulder 26 is formed by an abrupt reduction in the diameter of the interior as viewed from the open end of the cup 10 defined by the mouth bead 24 toward the bottom wall 18 , in that the tubular wall 16 is bent approximately horizontally toward a longitudinal center axis 28 of the cup. The tubular wall 16 then extends parallel to the longitudinal center axis 28 over a portion thereof to again assume a conical shape over a final portion reaching down to the bottom end of the cup 10 . The shoulder 26 thus protrudes into the interior of the cup 10 . For stabilizing the peripheral deforming entity in the form of the shoulder 26 , an adhesive bead or an adhesive fillet 30 is provided that is disposed below the approximately horizontal portion of the shoulder 26 on the external surface of the tubular wall 16 . The adhesive fillet 30 thus does not come into contact with a liquid filling the interior of the cup 10 . As can be seen in FIG. 1 , the adhesive fillet 30 is introduced into the approximately right-angled cavity formed by the heel-shaped shoulder 26 on the external surface of the tubular wall 16 remote from its interior. [0067] The shoulder 26 is provided as a means for supporting a cup of a similar type when a number of cups are stacked together. More specifically, the lower bead 22 of another cup of a similar type is supported on the shoulder 26 when two cups are stacked. The adhesive fillet 30 reinforces the peripheral deforming entity in the form of the shoulder 26 even in the case of heavy loads. The adhesive fillet also prevents the cups from becoming jammed inside each other when numerous cups are stacked together or when a stack of cups is dropped down abruptly. [0068] FIG. 2 illustrates a longitudinal cross-section of two stacked cups 32 a, 32 b according to a second preferred embodiment of the invention. The cups 32 a, 32 b are stacked into each other and are each in the form of a single-walled cup. However, it is readily possible to provide both cups 32 a, 32 b with an insulating outer sleeve in the manner of the outer sleeve shown in FIG. 1 , since there is again sufficient space between the two cups 32 a , 32 b in the stacked state. [0069] As can be seen FIG. 2 , a tubular wall 34 of the cups 32 a, 32 b is provided in the region of its lower half with a peripheral deforming entity 36 in the form of a heel-shaped shoulder protruding into the interior. The tubular wall 34 and a bottom wall 38 of each cup 32 a, 32 b are joined to each other in a liquid-tight manner to form a peripheral edge frame 40 . The peripheral edge frame 40 is flared outwardly so as to form a truncated cone. In the stacked state of the two cups 32 a, 32 b, the bottom edge of the cup and thus the lower, free end of the peripheral edge frame 40 rests on the peripheral deforming entity 36 . In order to reinforce this peripheral deforming entity 36 , an adhesive fillet 42 is applied to an external surface of the tubular wall 34 in the region of the cavity formed by the peripheral deforming entity 36 . The adhesive fillet 42 is applied around the entire circumference of the tubular wall 34 . The adhesive fillet 42 reinforces the peripheral deforming entity 36 to the effect that the heel-shaped peripheral deforming entity 36 of the lower cup may possibly be deformed when strong pressure is applied to the upper cup 32 a, but the lower cup 32 b will at all events be prevented from expanding in the region of the peripheral deforming entity 36 and from allowing the upper cup 32 a to then slide further down into the lower cup 32 b. Rather, the shoulder-shaped peripheral deforming entity 36 will at most be deformed in such a way that the portion on which the peripheral edge frame 40 of the upper cup 32 a rests will bend into the horizontal. There is no fear of the two cups 32 a, 32 b becoming jammed inside each other. [0070] The peripheral deforming entity 36 is in the form of a shoulder and it thus represents a reduction in the cross-section of the tubular wall 34 . The constriction 36 can thus absorb forces that act toward the center axis 28 of the cup; that is, forces acting when the cups 32 a, 32 b are stacked. The constriction 36 is in the form of a shoulder and it extends into the interior of the cup. The peripheral edge frame 40 , at which the tubular wall 34 delimiting the interior of the cup is folded around the pot-shaped, deep-drawn bottom wall 38 and to which the tubular wall 34 is sealed in a liquid-tight manner, is outwardly expanded and thus represents means for supporting a cup of a similar type, which cooperates with the shoulder-shaped constriction 36 when two cups 32 a, 32 b are stacked. [0071] FIG. 3 a illustrates a partial view of a longitudinal cross-section of two stacked cups 46 a, 46 b according to a further embodiment of the invention. The inner cup 46 a of the cups 46 a, 46 b are each provided with a peripheral deforming entity in the form of a shoulder 50 protruding into the interior. An adhesive fillet 52 for stabilizing the shoulder 50 is provided on an external surface of the tubular wall 48 in the cavity formed by the shoulder 50 . An outer sleeve 54 of the cups 46 a, 46 b is folded in its lower region through 180°, and the folded free end is then in turn bent toward the inner cup 46 a to rest against the adhesive fillet 52 . In this way, the adhesive fillet 52 can perform a double function in that it not only stabilizes the shoulder 50 but also ensures that the outer sleeve 54 is securely joined to the tubular wall 48 of the inner cup 46 a since the free end of the outer sleeve 54 is adhesively joined to the tubular wall 48 by the adhesive fillet 52 . Alternatively, there is no adhesive joint and the free end of the outer sleeve 54 only rests against the adhesive fillet. In the embodiment shown, the outer sleeve 54 rests against the tubular wall 48 below the bottom wall and, via its folded end, against the adhesive fillet 52 . [0072] FIG. 3 b illustrates a partial view of a longitudinal cross-section of two stacked cups 56 a, 56 b of the invention according to a further embodiment of the invention. This differs from the cups 46 a, 46 b shown in FIG. 3 a only in that the fold of the outer sleeve 58 of each cup is shaped differently. The bottom end of the outer sleeve 58 is folded through 180°, and this fold is not flattened, but is instead bulged around a small diameter. The folded free end is then again bent toward the inner cup 56 a to rest against the adhesive fillet 52 . [0073] FIG. 3 c shows a partial view of a longitudinal cross-section of two stacked cups 60 a, 60 b of the invention. The cups 60 a, 60 b differ from those shown in FIGS. 3 a and 3 b merely in terms of the shape of the bottom end of the respective outer sleeve 62 . The outer sleeve 62 is folded at its bottom end and bent slightly in toward the inside so that the bottom end of the outer sleeve 62 rests, below the bottom wall of the cups 60 a, 60 b, against the peripheral edge frame by means of which the tubular wall and the bottom wall are joined to each other in a liquid-tight manner. The folded portion of the bottom end of the outer sleeve 62 is flattened so that the folded portion also rests with its entire surface against the internal surface of the outer sleeve 62 . [0074] FIG. 3 d shows a longitudinal cross-section of two further cups 64 a, 64 b of the invention. The cups 64 a, 64 b differ from those shown in FIGS. 3 a to 3 c merely in terms of the shape of the lower end of the outer sleeve 66 . The outer sleeve 66 is folded at its bottom end by slightly less than 180° such that the folded portion of the outer sleeve 66 rests flat against the external surface of the tubular wall of the cups 64 a, 64 b. The folded portion 68 of the outer sleeve 66 thus forms a ring that rests, below the peripheral deforming entity 70 , on the external surface of the tubular wall. The end of the folded portion 68 extends up to the peripheral deforming entity 70 , and the top edge of the folded portion 68 rests against the adhesive fillet 72 . By folding the outer sleeve 66 , an additional separate reinforcement is thus achieved, by means of which the constriction 70 and that section 73 of the cup that is located between the constriction 70 and the bottom wall can be reinforced. [0075] FIG. 4 shows a partial view of a longitudinal cross-section of a further cup 74 of the invention. The cup 74 comprises an inner cup comprising a tubular wall 76 and an insulating outer sleeve 78 . The tubular wall 76 is provided with a peripheral deforming entity 82 below a mouth bead 80 , the peripheral deforming entity 82 being in the form of a bead or a groove extending outwardly away from the interior of the cup 74 . The peripheral deforming entity 82 serves to ensure a precisely defined distance between the outer sleeve 78 and the tubular wall 76 and thus provide satisfactory insulating properties. The peripheral deforming entity 82 is reinforced by means of an adhesive fillet 84 disposed below the peripheral deforming entity 82 as illustrated in FIG. 4 , and the adhesive fillet 84 adjoins the bottom portion of the peripheral deforming entity 82 . As can be seen from the figure, the adhesive fillet 84 stabilizes the peripheral deforming entity 82 , on the one hand, and at the same time adhesively joins the outer sleeve 78 to the tubular wall 76 , on the other. [0076] FIG. 5 shows another cup 86 of the invention according to a further embodiment of the invention. The cup 86 comprises an inner cup comprising a tubular wall 88 and a bottom wall 90 that are joined to each other in a liquid-tight manner in the region of a downwardly flared peripheral edge frame. Furthermore, the cup 86 comprises an insulating outer sleeve 92 that rests against the tubular wall 88 below the horizontally extending portion of the bottom wall 90 . The bottom end of the outer sleeve 92 is used for stacking the cup 86 in that the bottom end of the outer sleeve 92 rests against a bead-shaped or groove-shaped peripheral deforming entity 94 in the tubular wall 88 in the stacked state of two cups. The peripheral deforming entity 94 is approximately in the form of a semicircle or an arc of a circle and it extends into the interior of the cup 86 . The peripheral deforming entity 94 is formed, for example, by means of a roller moving around a periphery of the tubular wall. In order to stabilize the peripheral deforming entity 94 , the indentation formed by the peripheral deforming entity 94 on the external surface of the tubular wall 88 is filled out by an adhesive fillet 96 . The adhesive fillet 96 thus stabilizes the peripheral deforming entity 94 so that the outer sleeve 92 cannot slide beyond the peripheral deforming entity 94 when the cups are stacked. In this way, several cups can be stacked without any fear of them becoming jammed inside each other. [0077] FIG. 6 shows a further cup 98 of the invention in a partial longitudinal cross-section. The cup 98 comprises an inner cup comprising a tubular wall 100 and a bottom wall 102 that are joined to each other in a liquid-tight manner to form a flared peripheral edge frame 104 . The bottom wall 102 is as a whole in the form of an inverted pot, and a folded edge thereof is inserted into a U-shaped fold of the tubular wall 100 such that the circumferential peripheral edge frame 104 is formed. The frame 104 is conical and it flares out toward the bottom end of the cup 98 . The tubular wall 100 is provided with a peripheral deforming entity in the form of a reentrant shoulder 106 , which abruptly reduces the inside diameter of the cup 98 . In the stacked state of a plurality of cups, the lower end of the peripheral edge frame 104 bears on the shoulder 106 . [0078] In order to stabilize the shoulder 106 , a reinforcing ring 108 made of plastics material is provided below the shoulder 106 , which reinforcing ring 108 is slid over an external surface of the tubular wall 100 to rest against the underside of the shoulder 106 . The reinforcing ring 108 remains on the tubular wall 100 in the finished state of the cup 98 . After the reinforcing ring 108 has been slid into position, an insulating outer sleeve 110 can be slid onto the inner cup and attached to the same. [0079] FIG. 7 a shows a further cup 112 of the invention that is provided with a tubular wall 114 and a bottom wall 116 . The tubular wall 114 is provided with a groove-shaped peripheral deforming entity 118 that protrudes into the interior of the cup 112 . For stabilizing the peripheral deforming entity 118 , a plastic ring 120 is provided that is inserted from the top into the interior of the cup 112 to rest against the upper portion of the peripheral deforming entity 118 . The plastic ring 120 can be used, for example, to make it possible to stack a plurality of cups. The plastic ring 120 can also be used, for example, to accommodate additional components that are not directly part of the cup 112 , such as a clip-on lid, a glued-on membrane, or a disk comprising a filling orifice. [0080] FIG. 7 b shows a further cup 122 of the invention. Unlike the cup 112 shown in FIG. 7 a , the cup 122 is provided with a peripheral deforming entity in the form of a reentrant shoulder 124 . A tubular wall 126 of the cup 122 extends below the shoulder 124 substantially parallel to the center axis of the cup 122 in order to re-assume a conical shape just above the bottom wall 128 . A plastic ring 130 is inserted into the interior of the cup 122 , which plastic ring 130 is provided with a circumferential reentrant heel that rests against the shoulder 124 and thus reinforces the same. The reinforcing ring 130 may, but not necessarily, be glued to the tubular wall 126 . As a result of the conical shape of the tubular wall 126 above the shoulder 124 , the reinforcing ring 130 can also be held securely on the cup 122 without the use of adhesive. The reinforcing ring 130 can be used for securely stacking a plurality of cups, but can also be used, for example, for accommodating membranes, lids, or the like. [0081] It is expressly stated that the various designs of the outer sleeve and other shaping means of the cup such as the peripheral deforming entity can be arbitrarily combined with each other as required and are not restricted to the variants shown. Furthermore, it should be noted that the illustrations are not drawn to scale.

A cup made of a paper material and having a fillable interior formed by a conical tubular wall and a bottom wall is provided. The bottom wall is joined at a bottom end of the interior to a peripheral edge frame of the tubular wall in a substantially liquid-tight manner. The tubular wall has a peripheral deforming entity around at least part of a perimeter, which peripheral deforming entity is reinforced in order to avoid deformation of the paper cup.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to the field of electrical connectors and more particularly to the field of a flexible pin used in connecting two circuit boards together. The flexible pins mate with a like pin rather than with a receiving connector in a board or chip. 2. Description of the Prior Art Low resistance, stable electrical connections having a disconnect function have been provided by pin and socket constructions. One of the connector members is comprised of a plurality of resilient finger members which are suitably deformed to engage the other socket member under spring pressure. Several components have been interconnected using a pin and socket construction. U.S. Pat. No. 3,286,671 to G. A. Fuller exemplifies prior art using pin and socket connectors. A male deformable pin attached to one piece is inserted into a female socket attached to a second piece. Female socket construction for printed circuit boards is exemplified by U.S. Pat. No. 3,777,303 to McDonough. A lead or pin is inserted through a socket placed in the printed circuit board. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The board to board contact of the invention is preferably made from a ribbon of metal combining high electrical conductivity, good formability and high strength. One such metal by way of example is berryllium copper having a thickness of 0.0045 inches and the further characteristic of being formed of one-quarter hard temper and subsequently heat treated for greater strength. The contact generally includes three portions defining a longitudinal axis. The first portion has a generally barrel shape in which the lateral edges are bent towards each other until they are in close proximity to each other. The inside diameter of the first portion is approximately 0.0225 inches. The second portion of the contact communicates with the first barrel shaped portion and has a similar barrel shape in which a shoulder or step with a 45° incline joins the first and second portions such that the second portion outside diameter is substantially equal to the inside diameter of the barrel of the first portion. The second portion is inserted into a bore in a circuit board with the shoulder or step acting as a stop or depth guide. The third portion of the board to board contact forms the pin portion of the contact. A pair of fingers extend parallel to a longitudinal axis and are cantilevered and integrally formed from the second portion. The fingers are disposed in confronting relationship, preferably as mirror images of each other with each finger having a curved configuration in which the greatest transverse projection is greater than the inside diameter of its mating barrel portion. Each of the edges of the fingers preferably have coined edges. As viewed from a plan view, the fingers have a blunt curved end with a reduced cross section width adjacent where joined to the second portion. Some board to board contacts may be made in a more compact and altered version, as more clearly disclosed in FIG. 7 where the second portion of the contact is eliminated. That is, the first portion having the general barrel shape is joined directly to the third portion that encorporates the fingers forming the pin portion of the contact. Thus when so employed, the first portion is secured in the board to a depth of the barrel to make contact with the printed circuit formed on a face of the board. Two or more circuit boards may be interconnected with the contacts of the invention. The third pin portion of one contact is inserted into the barrel shaped first portion of a second contact. The coined edges of the fingers produce a smooth wiping electrical contact which is also achieved through the flexing of the fingers. The board to board contact of the invention provides a low cost one piece construction whereby printed circuit boards may be interconnected with each other or with ceramic chip platforms. The contacts provide the short electrical path from the board to board or chip to board. Once the contacts are plugged directly into a hole patttern of the board, a second board with corresponding contacts is plugged into the first portions of the board contacts. Additional boards may be plugged into the boards as desired. Since the contact mates with itself rather than with a socket, no eyelet or plated holes is required in a board or a chip. The contact of the invention provides an integral unit which can function both as a male pin and as a female socket. This enables the board to be easily interconnected with another board which would not be possible for a board that merely includes conventional plated holes since such a board would have no projecting pins to attach to another board. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The detailed description of one preferred embodiment of the board to board contact is hereafter described with specific reference being made to the drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a side elevational view of a contact of the invention; FIG. 2 is a side elevational view of the contact of FIG. 1 rotated 90°; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the contact of the invention positioned within a bore of a printed circuit board; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of the contacts of the invention interconnecting two printed circuit boards; FIG. 5 is a sectional view of the fingers of the contact taken along line 5--5 of FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a sectional view of the first portion of the contact taken along line 6--6 of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view of the contacts of another embodiment of the invention in which two printed circuit boards are interconnected; FIG. 8 is a partial sectional view of the fingers of the contact when held in a compressed position; and FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of the fingers of the contact taken along line 9--9 of FIG. 8. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The board to board contact 10 of the invention, as shown in FIGS. 1-3, generally includes three portions forming a unit. The contact 10 is formed from a ribbon of metal combining high electrical conductivity, good formability and high strength. One metal found to be acceptable for this purpose is beryllium copper of one-quarter hard temper which is heat treated for greater strength after the contacts are formed. The contacts are formed from a ribbon of beryllium copper having a thickness of about 0.0045 inches that may be wound on a reel. The first portion 12 is rolled into a generally barrel shape 14 as is best shown in FIG. 6. The end of first portion 12 preferably includes a turned-out rim 16 bevelled at about 45° to the longitudinal axis of barrel 14 to aid in guiding a second contact 10 within barrel 14 as shown in FIG. 4. The inside diameter of first portion 12 is preferably about 0.0225 inches. The second portion 20 of the contact 10 communicates with the first portion 12 and has a general barrel shape 22 with an outside diameter preferably substantially equal to the inside diameter of first portion 12. The reduction in diameter is accomplished by a bevel or step 24 formed at approximately a 45° angle, and acts as a stop for the second portion as will be described more fully below. The third portion 30 of contact 10 includes a pair of fingers 32 and 33 that extend parallel to a longitudinal axis 36 and are cantilevered and integrally formed from second portion 20. Fingers 32 and 33 have reduced width portions 38 and 39 adjacent second portion 20. When a load is applied to fingers 32 and 33, and they are within the barrel of another first portion 12 (as found in FIG. 4), a tensile stress is produced on the opposite inside faces of fingers 32 and 33. Associated with the tensile stress on the inside faces of fingers 32 and 33, a compressive stress is produced on the inside faces of fingers 32 and 33 at points near the reduced width portions 38 and 39, and at point 40. Somewhere between the points where a load is applied to fingers 32 and 33, and the reduced width portions 38 and 39, there is a point on the inside surfaces of fingers 32 and 33 where tensile stress changes to compressive stress and a zero bending stress is developed. This allows increased accomodation of nonparallelism of the axis of the second portion barrel 22 and the interior of the first portion of a second contact. The tip ends 42 and 43 of fingers 32 and 33 are formed with a 0.005 inch radius where the remaining portion of the tip is formed with a 0.030 inch radius. The edge of each of fingers 32 and 33 preferably include a pair of coined edges 46 and 47 on finger 32 and 48 and 49 on finger 33 extending from the reduced portion to the tip ends 42 and 43. The separation between fingers 32 and 33 is maybe about 0.004 inches. However, the separation may change and vary somewhat between different fingers. As the fingers 33 and 32 are inserted into barrel 12 of the other set of contacts, the exact separation will change as the coiled edges 46 and 47 on finger 32, and 48 and 49 on finger 33 engage the inside walls of barrel 12. That is, the exact width of each finger 32 or 33 will determine how high or low, above or below, the longitudinal axis 36 each finger is disposed and thus each separation between fingers 32 and 33 will vary somewhat. For a better understanding, reference is made to FIGS. 8 and 9. The contacts 10 of the invention are preferably formed from a reel of metal which is cut or stamped such that a plurality of unfolded and flat contacts are formed. The contacts are then formed through conventional processes forming the first portion barrel 14, second portion barrel 22 and the third portion 30 forming the fingers. The fingers are bent towards each other as shown in FIGS. 1 and 5, preferably such that tips 42 and 43 touch each other. The formed contacts are preferably gold plated to produce the necessary good electrical characteristics. The electricl characteristics of the contacts are enhanced through the coined edges and the flexing of fingers 32 and 33. Fingers 32 and 33 may be somewhat askew with each other and through the reduced width portions 38 and 39, the fingers are brought into what may be generally considered to be parallel alignment as shown in FIG. 5. In operation, a contact 10 is inserted through a bore in a printed circuit board 55 or chip. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, second portion 20 is inserted into the hole until step 24 is contacted which prevents further insertion and provides a known depth. The tight friction fit of the second portion 20 with the hole provides an electrical contact with a printed circuit on the board as shown in FIGS. 3, 4, and 7. In a typical board having a thickness of about 0.040 inches, third portion 30 preferably extends through the bore such that reduced width portions 38 and 39 are positioned below the circuit board 55. The entire length of contacts 33 and 32 [below the board] is about 0.080 inches. A second, like board 55, with one or more printed circuit contacts 18 of the invention disposed around bore 56 [predetermined holes], is then attached to the first board contact 10. Depending on the orientation desired, a third portion of the contact may be inserted into first portion 12 of contact 10, such that the second board is above the first board. In a similar manner, a third portion 30 of contact 10 may be inserted into the first portion of the second contact such that the first board is above the second. Thus, without modification, a board with contacts of the invention may be stacked in any desired order interconnecting a plurality of boards. A variation of this, may be found in FIG. 7 where the second portion 20 of each contact is eliminated, but the two contacts are secured one within the other. In considering this invention, it should be remembered that the present disclosure is illustrative only, and that the scope of the invention should be determined by the appended claims.

A flexible, hollow electrical connector includes an end barrel portion which receives a second, identical connector, an intermediate portion positionable through a bore in a circuit board and a third contact portion. The contact portion comprises a pair of longitudinal fingers disposed in confronting relationship, each finger having a curved configuration in which the greatest transverse projection is at least as great as the inside diameter of the end barrel portion. Some embodiments may eliminate the intermediate portion and insert the barrel portion in the circuit board.

CONTRACTUAL ORIGIN OF THE INVENTION The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-86H10303 between the United States Department of Energy and Argonne National Laboratory. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to an improvement in the electrochemical separation of uranium and plutonium from spent metal-clad fuel pins, in which essentially complete recovery of uranium and plutonium is achieved at high reaction rates and acceptable levels of anode efficiency, without the need for good electrical contact between the fuel pins and the power source at the anode, and with effective separation of non-uranic fission byproducts, as well as cladding materials, so that high purity uranium and plutonium are recovered at the cathode, while preserving the operating metal parts of the electrochemical cell from corrosion. The recovery of fissionable materials such as uranium and plutonium from spent reactor fuel is often carried out using electrochemical cells of the types described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,596,647 and 2,951,793, as well as U.S. Ser. No. 07/117,880 (filed Nov. 5, 1987). U.S. Pat. No. 4,596,647, for example, describes an electrochemical cell incorporating many features that have been found useful. In the process for which that cell is intended, spent metal-clad fuel pins chopped into disc-shaped pieces are loaded into a perforated metal basket which forms the anode of the cell. The basket is immersed in a pool of electrolyte such as an eutectic salt of CaCl 2 -BaCl 2 -LiCl, also containing U +3 and U +4 cations and plutonium cations in solution, which pool in turn floats upon a lower pool of molten cadmium. Both the perforated basket containing the fuel pins and the pool of cadmium are electrically connected as anodes. The cathode assemblies, of which one or more may be employed, may consist of a metallic rod (for uranium deposition), typically of molybdenum/-tungsten or mild steel, contained within a perforated, non-conductive cylindrical casing and provided with means for rotating the rod and casing assembly so as to agitate the electrolyte pool, as described in U.S Pat. No. 4,596,647. Alternatively, one or more molten cadmium cathodes of the type described in U.S. Ser. No. 07/117,880 may be used to recover substantially pure uranium followed by a mixture of uranium and plutonium in a two-step operation. In operation, the anode basket is first lowered into the electrolyte pool and an electrical potential is imposed between the anodes and the cathode, resulting in the electrochemical oxidation of spent uranium and plutonium from the anode and reduction of their cations to metallic uranium and plutonium at the cathode. In this manner, the uranium and plutonium can be dissolved from the pins without using voltages high enough to cause corrosion of the anode basket material and other fittings, or attack on the metal cladding of the pins. But a significant fraction of the power applied to the anode is used to produce U +4 cations instead of U +3 cations, a condition that worsens as the voltage is increased. Production of U +4 cations that eventually reach the cathode in that higher oxidation state lowers the anodic efficiency (the ratio of uranium and plutonium actually dissolved to the theoretical amount that would have dissolved if all of the current used had actually oxidized fissionable material) below the level that could be achieved if only U +3 cations were produced and transported to the cathode, because more amp-hours of current are required to oxidize one mole of uranium to U +4 than to U +3 . Also, when U +3 is oxidized to U +4 at the anode, dissolution of fuel does not take place, and current is consumed. It is an object of the present invention to increase the rate of anodic dissolution in the anode basket of such an electrochemical cell. Another object is to provide for complete removal of the uranium and plutonium (including uranium and plutonium that have reacted with the metal cladding of the pins) without need to immerse the anode basket in the cadmium pool. (In prior art devices, even immersing the anode basket in the cadmium pool left undissolved an insoluble layer of uranium and plutonium that had reacted with the cladding.) It is a further object of this invention to improve the anodic efficiency of the operation by reducing the transport of U +4 cations to the cathode, and/or once having formed U 30 4 at the anode, to cause the U +4 to react with elemental U in the spent fuel, producing further fuel dissolution. Yet another object of this invention is to provide an improved anode basket design that operates satisfactorily notwithstanding poor electrical contact between the basket and the spent fuel pins. A final object of this invention is to provide an anode basket design that can be easily and completely cleared of electrolyte salt solution after the dissolution process has been completed, thus facilitating recovery of clean metal cladding, as a process waste. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The process of the invention includes the steps of (1) loading chopped, spent metal-clad fuel pins into one or more improved anode baskets fabricated of selected metals including iron, stainless steel, and molybdenum that are attached to rotating means; (2) lowering the anode baskets into the electrolyte pool of an electrochemical cell of one of the general types known in the prior art; (3) inducing a flow of electrolyte salt through the packed beds of chopped pins, while supplying electrical current between the improved anode baskets and the cathode; (4) continuing to induce the electrolyte flow and to supply current until all of the uranium and plutonium in the pins has been oxidized at the anode baskets and reduced at the cathode as elemental uranium and plutonium; and (5) raising the improved anode basket or baskets out of the electrolyte pool while continuing to flush electrolyte through and out of them, thus clearing electrolyte salt and drying the metal cladding that remains in the baskets. In one particular embodiment of the process, flushing of the electrolyte out of the anode baskets is accomplished by spinning the baskets about a central axis, thus clearing the electrolyte from the packed beds of chopped pins by centrifugal force. In another variant of this process, the improved anode basket is designed so as to contain a small amount of liquid cadmium. The electrolyte flushing action is stopped periodically, and the applied voltage is increased so as to oxidize the cadmium to CdCl 2 , which then reacts chemically with the uranium and plutonium in the pins to produce soluble uranium and plutonium cations and elemental cadmium throughout the packed bed of pins. The flushing action is then resumed, while the voltage is reduced to less than that needed to oxidize cadmium, thus flushing out the uranium and plutonium cations into the bulk electrolyte pool and recovering the cadmium for the next oxidation cycle. The process of this invention requires an improved anode basket design that induces flow of electrolyte through the packed bed or beds of chopped pins when the basket is rotated. Such a design is required in order to promote the chemical reaction of U +4 cations, which form in the proximity of the metal parts of the anode basket, with elemental uranium, to form U +3 cations, thus conserving electrical energy and improving anodic efficiency. In one such design, a plurality of boxes made of perforated metal such as iron or molybdenum or stainless steel are affixed to a central shaft, through which the electrical connection is made. Rotation of the shaft about its axis while the perforated boxes are submerged in the electrolyte pool forces electrolyte through the perforations and the packed beds of chopped pins contained in the boxes. In another improved anode basket design, which is especially suited for carrying out the cyclical version of the process, a cylindrical basket is formed coaxially about a central shaft that is hollow and open at its bottom, and that extends upward to connect with the rotating means and the electrical connection. The central shaft is perforated throughout that portion that is enclosed in the basket, and is solid above the basket. The outer walls of the cylindrical basket are solid near the base, and perforated near the top. The bottom of the basket contains means for retaining a small pool of liquid cadmium. The packed bed of pins fills the annular space formed by the central shaft and the cylindrical basket walls. The top of the basket, through which the central shaft protrudes, is closed. Rotation of the basket about the axis of the central shaft forces electrolyte out the perforated section of the upper wall of the basket, and draws fresh electrolyte in through the hole in the bottom of the central shaft by centrifugal force, as in a centrifugal pump. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a sectional view of one type of a prior art electrochemical cell that might be used in the process of this invention, showing a single-anode version of an anode basket. FIG. 2 is a plan view of one embodiment of an improved anode basket assembly suitable for practicing the invention, illustrating the use of a plurality of boxes of perforated metal arranged around a central shaft to contain the chopped pins. FIG. 3 is a detail illustrating one possible method of attaching the perforated metal boxes to the central shaft. FIG. 4 is a partial sectional view of that assembly along section line A--A, showing its location relative to the electrolyte pool during the anodic dissolution operation. FIG. 5 is a sectional view of another improved anode basket design utilizing cadmium especially suited for practicing the cyclical method of anodic dissolution. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The invention will be described with reference to the prior art electrochemical cell shown in FIG. 1, and in embodiments utilizing only one anode basket assembly. But it is &:o be understood that other types of electrochemical cells can be used to practice the process of this invention, and that a plurality of anode basket assemblies also may be used, and that such processes and equipment configurations are within the scope of this invention. FIG. 1 shows a sectional view of an electrochemical cell that can be used to practice the process of this invention. It consists of a cylindrical containment vessel 1 typically made of iron and surrounded by refractory 2. Outside the refractory is heating means 3, typically a high-frequency induction coil, which can maintain temperatures in the range of 450 to 525 degrees centigrade within the cell. Inside the cell is a pool of electrolyte 4, which may consist of an eutectic mixture of CaCl 2 -BaCl 2 ,-LiCl (roughly 28.8-16.5-54.6 mol %), or preferably an eutectic salt of LiCl-KCl (approximately 45 wt. % LiCl), with both salts also containing UCl 3 /PuCl 3 . The electrolyte floats upon a pool of molten cadmium 5. A cathode assembly 6 enters the top cover 7 of the cell, submerging the cathode in the electrolyte bath 4. The cathode assembly is connected to a power source 9 and may be provided with rotating means 10 in order to provide agitation of the electrolyte pool 4. The improved anode basket 11 is suspended from a shaft 12 which enters the top cover 7 of the cell and supports the anode basket 11 in the electrolyte pool 4. The shaft 12 is provided with means 13 for raising and lowering the anode basket, which allows the anode basket to be lifted out of the electrolyte pool 4 into the position shown by the phantom lines 14, which is a position in the gaseous phase of the cell. The shaft 12 also is provided with rotating means 15, which allows the anode basket 11 to be spun about the axis of the shaft 12 in both the raised and lowered positions. Electrical power is supplied by power means 16. FIG. 2 is a plan view of one preferred improved anode basket design. In this design, a plurality of perforated metal boxes 17 are arranged radially around the shaft 12. The boxes 17 are attached to the shaft 12 by attachment means 18, which allows the boxes 17 to be detached from the shaft 12 for cleaning or loading, as shown in FIG. 3. Attachment means 18, in this preferred embodiment, comprises four dovetail slides 18, which tapers to form an expanded cross-section as from the top of the slide to its base, allowing the boxes 17 to be removed from the dovetail slide 18 by being vertically lifted upwards off of the dovetail slide (see FIG. 3, which shows the detail of the box attachment). Power is supplied to &:he boxes 17 through the shaft 12, the dovetail slides 18 and current bus 19. The boxes 17 and the current buses 19 preferably are constructed of iron, stainless steel or molybdenum. Electrical contact with the packed bed of chopped pins 20 (shown in FIGS. 2 and 4) contained in the boxes 17 is made by contact between the pin cladding and the walls of the boxes. What is shown is only one method for attaching a box or boxes 17 to the central shaft 12 which is the current source and the means for rotation; other attachment means will suggest themselves to those skilled in the art. FIG. 4 is a sectional view of this preferred improved anode basket design along section line A-A, showing the boxes 17 in operation, suspended from shaft 12 in the electrolyte pool 4. When the shaft 12 is rotated about its axis like a vertical paddlewheel, the electrolyte flows through the perforated walls 21 of the boxes 17 and permeates the packed bed of chopped pins 20, carrying away uranium and plutonium cations, as these are formed by the passage of current through the baskets. Metal cladding from the chopped pins is retained in the boxes 17 throughout the operation. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view of another preferred improved anode basket design, which is particularly suitable for cyclic operation of the process of this invention. This anode basket comprises a metal cylindrical housing 22 attached to the shaft 12, which cylinder contains the packed bed of metal-clad pins 20. Situated at the base of the cylindrical housing 22 is an opening 23 through which electrolyte solution from the electrolyte pool 4 can enter the housing 22. A perforated, double-walled cylindrical screen 24 communicates with the opening 23 and extends upward coaxially through the housing 22. A fiber mesh filter 31 fills the annular space between the two walls of the double-walled cylindrical screen 24. The bottom section 25 of the screen 24 is not perforated. A short distance above the base of the housing 22, a ring-shaped solid retainer baffle 32 is attached to the outer wall of the housing 22 and extends radially inward part of the way to the central screen 24. Near the top of the housing 22 an optional similar ring-shaped baffle 26 may be attached to the outside wall of the housing 22 and extends radially inward part of the way toward the central perforated cylindrical screen 24. A disc-shaped mesh filter 27 is attached to the top of the central perforated cylindrical screen 24 and forms the top of the packed bed of chopped pins 20. Above the filter 27 the walls of the housing 22 and its solid top 28 create a disc-shaped plenum 29. A plurality of perforations 30 around the upper wall of the housing 22 communicate between the plenum 29 and the electrolyte pool 4. The center of the top 28 of the housing 22 is attached to the shaft 12. In operation, rotation of the housing 22 about the axis of the shaft 12 impels electrolyte in through the hole 23, up through the central perforated cylindrical screen 24 and into the packed bed of chopped pins 20, from whence the electrolyte flows through the filter 27 and into the plenum 29, to be ejected from the housing 22 through the perforations 30 by centrifugal force. One preferred embodiment of the process of this invention is as follows. Chopped, spent metal-clad fuel pins are loaded into the perforated screen boxes 17 of an improved anode basket like that shown in FIGS. 2 and 4. The basket assembly 11 (shown in greater detail in FIG. 4) is lowered into the electrolyte pool 4 and spun about the axis of the supporting shaft 12, while direct electrical current is supplied to the shaft 12 and thence through the bus bars 19 to the perforated metal boxes 17 containing the chopped pins 20. The voltage is preferably held below 1.25 volts (absolute value), and more preferably below 1 volt (absolute value). The box construction material is preferably iron, and more preferably nickel or 300 series stainless steel. The use of ferritic alloys containing significant amounts of chromium is contraindicated because of electrochemical corrosion problems. Where there is good electrical contact between the boxes and the chopped pins, uranium and plutonium in the pins are oxidized electrically to form U +3 and plutonium cations, which migrate to the cathode 8 where elemental uranium and plutonium are plated out. But at voltages approaching one (1) volt or greater in absolute value, such as may be needed if the electrical contact between the chopped pins and the basket walls is poor, there is a tendency for U +4 cations to form as well, by further oxidation of U +3 cations already in solution. In conventional anodic dissolution, these higher oxidation state cations migrate to the cathode and are reduced, thus lowering anodic efficiency and wasting electrical power. But in the method of this invention, the electrolyte flushing action produced by the rotation of the basket assembly 11 in the electrolyte pool 4 brings the U +4 cations into close contact with the elemental uranium in the pins. The U +4 reacts according to mechanisms like: ##STR1## Thus, most of the U +4 is chemically consumed in the boxes rather than migrating to the cathode 8. The result is improved anodic efficiency (and therefore reduced electrical power requirements) and higher overall uranium oxidation rates due to the combination of electrical and chemical oxidation mechanisms. After essentially all of the fissionable material has been oxidized, leaving the metal cladding behind in the boxes, the power is shut off and the improved anode basket assembly 11 (Illustrated in FIGS. 2-4) is raised above the surface of the electrolyte pool 4 into the position shown on FIG. 1 by phantom lines 14 while rotation is continued. Centrifugal force clears the liquid electrolyte from the metal cladding that remains in the boxes after the fissionable material has been oxidized. In another preferred embodiment of the process, chopped pins are loaded into a cylindrical improved anode basket similar to that shown in FIG. 5 having an electrolyte intake opening 23 situated at the bottom of the basket on the axis of the shaft 12 to which the basket is attached; a reservoir at the bottom of the basket containing a small amount of cadmium (beneath retainer baffle 32); a central electrolyte distributor 24 coaxial with the shaft, in the form of a perforated column, preferably screened with a mesh filter 31, and a plenum chamber 29 at the top of the cylindrical improved anode basket which collects electrolyte that enters the packed bed of chopped pins in the basket from the intake opening 23 and discharges it back into the electrolyte pool 4 by centrifugal force when the basket is rotated. The loaded basket is lowered into the electrolyte pool 4 and a comparatively high voltage is applied, preferably above 1 volt and more preferably above 1.25 volts. This not only causes oxidation of the fissionable materials to soluble cations (including substantial amounts of U +4 because of the high voltage used), it also oxidizes the cadmium to Cd +2 cations. Use of higher voltages is practical, even with iron baskets, because the presence of cadmium inhibits electrochemical corrosion of the iron, which otherwise would become serious at voltages above about 1.1 volts. The Cd +2 cations, like the U +4 cations, react with elemental uranium in the pins to form elemental cadmium and U +3 , respectively, thus regenerating the cadmium, and oxidizing the fuel. The anode basket is periodically rotated, at speeds preferably between 200 and 400 r.p.m., causing fresh electrolyte to enter the intake opening 23, to flow through the packed bed of chopped pins 20 and carry out the uranium and plutonium cations that have been formed, and to exit through the plenum 29 into the bulk electrolyte pool 4. Flushing (rotation) cycles alternate with cycles during which Cd +2 is produced and diffuses through the packed bed of pins, reacting with the uranium to form U +3 , until all of the uranium and plutonium has been oxidized. Rotation is then stopped and the basket is lifted out of the electrolyte pool 4. The bulk of the electrolyte drains out by gravity through the intake opening 23, leaving the cladding material in the basket, and the cadmium drains out of the basket and is trapped in the bottom pool. EXAMPLE Ten (10) kg. of simulated chopped fuel pins consisting of non-irradiated U - 10 wt. % Zr alloy clad with mild steel were loaded into an improved anode basket assembly similar to that shown in FIGS. 2, 3, and 4. A 32 hour test was conducted in LiCl-KCl-UCl 3 electrolyte, during the course of which uranium removal rates ranged from 0.5 kg/hr at the beginning of the test to 0.1-0.2 kg/hr during the last 45% of the time. An overall anodic efficiency of about 50% was attained. At the end of the test, the improved anode basket assembly was lifted out of the electrolyte pool and rotated at about 250 r.p.m. This spin-drying operation removed essentially all of the electrolyte from the cladding material residue. Removal of uranium from the chopped pins was essentially complete, and the cladding material was easily recoverable from the basket.

An electrochemical process and apparatus for the recovery of uranium and plutonium from spent metal clad fuel pins is disclosed. The process uses secondary reactions between U +4 cations and elemental uranium at the anode to increase reaction rates and improve anodic efficiency compared to prior art processes. In another embodiment of the process, secondary reactions between Cd +2 cations and elemental uranium to form uranium cations and elemental cadmium also assists in oxidizing the uranium at the anode.

RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §120 of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/260,699, entitled “Entertainment System With Bandless Tuning, Remote Control Alarm and Universal Docking,” filed on Oct. 27, 2005, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. [0002] This application hereby incorporates by reference the following U.S. Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 60/623,006 and 60/622,924, both filed on Oct. 27, 2004, and 60/637,669, filed Dec. 20, 2004, all titled “APPARATUS FOR AUDIO PLAYBACK AND METHODS OF USING SAME” and Ser. No. 60/708,673, filed Aug. 16, 2005 and titled “DUAL-MODE WIRED/WIRELESS REMOTE CONTROL AND ENTERTAINMENT UNIT USING SAME.” FIELD OF INVENTION [0003] This invention relates to the field of electronic entertainment systems and, in particular, to a system which includes a base (table) audio unit, a dual-mode control unit, a fail-safe alarm and a universal docking mechanism for portable music/media players, network and wireless receivers and other (detachable) devices. BACKGROUND [0004] Electronic entertainment systems are not, as a category, new. Radios, for example, have delivered audio content for more than 75 years. Phonographs have existed for more than 100 years. They have evolved into numerous other pertinent devices, including removable media tape and CD players (both stationary and portable), satellite broadcast receivers and various kinds of portable fixed-media players such as MP3 players. The latter include, for example, various models of the iPod brand MP3 players from Apple Computer, Inc. of Cupertino, Calif., the Zen and other players from Creative Technology, Ltd. of Singapore, and so forth. [0005] Some manufacturers have provided base units into which certain specific portable MP3 players of a single manufacturer, such as Apple Computer's iPod players, may be docked to play music recorded on the MP3 player via amplifiers and speakers external to the player. In general, such units, however, have a limited range of players they can accept as input. This is somewhat problematic in that when a customer purchases such a product, the customer has little assurance that it will not be made obsolete in relatively short order by the introduction to the market of a new MP3 player or other device. Accordingly, a need exists for an entertainment platform which is not so readily obsolesced. To the extent that attempts have been made to provide a more flexible platform that is useful with multiple and future players, typically a standard plug is provided to plug into any analog audio output jack of the player; and there is only limited external control of the player (e.g., forward, back and play). [0006] Efforts also have been made to marry MP3 players with table clock radios. The result is basically a conventional clock radio that can also play songs from the MP3 player via loudspeakers contained in the clock radio. The table clock radio is a ubiquitous household appliance whose functionality has changed little in many decades. Consequently, virtually all commercial clock radios are subject to numerous limitations which lead to a variety of user frustrations not alleviated by the addition of a portable music player as a music source. For example, a clock radio normally has a single volume control which controls the volume of sound when the radio is turned on normally, as well as when the alarm function turns on the radio. Consequently, if one temporarily turns down the volume control while the radio is playing and, not realizing that situation, activates the alarm, then when the alarm turns on, it turns on a radio whose volume has been muted. Thus, the user may not be awakened by the alarm. Conventional alarm clocks have a variety of other limitations and it has become virtually ingrained in the consuming public to expect them. [0007] Radio tuners, particularly user interfaces of such tuners, have also changed very little in years. Yet new broadcast modes, such as satellite radio, HD radio and the like present challenges for the integration with AM and FM tuning bands. For both home entertainment systems and automobile entertainment systems, new interfaces are needed to simplify tuning. [0008] Thus, in general, improved user interface for home and auto entertainment systems are needed. SUMMARY OF INVENTION [0009] Various efforts to integrate bits and pieces of the audio landscape into a cohesive and affordable system have been met with problems such as, for example, incompatibility of various devices, proprietary frequencies, inelegant user integration, or even high price. The system presented herein provides for more convenient and easier to use hosting for the large number of existing audio products, adaptability to future products, and a better user experience for the consumer. There is shown a system for in-home or in-office use, and some aspects for automobile use, which can accommodate numerous playback or broadcast sources, and provides extensive and advanced alarm clock functionality along with simplified radio station tuning. Some aspects or features may be useful for portable devices, as well, while others likely will not. [0010] Entertainment systems as presented herein address the above-expressed needs and others that will become apparent below. An integrated collection of components, features and techniques together provide improved delivery of (typically, audio) content and improved, simplified control over the delivery and selection of that content, and related functionality. There are various aspects to the system, and related methods as discussed below. [0011] According to a first aspect, an entertainment system is shown, comprising a base unit having electronics including a transceiver for interacting, at least at times, with a control unit via a communications link that is preferably an RF link, and a control unit for controlling the base unit, the control unit being dockable with the base unit to establish direct electrical connection therebetween and including a transceiver for interacting with the control unit via said RF link when undocked from the base unit. The control unit is thus operable in two modes and presents substantially the same user experience in both modes. The control unit may be considered a separate aspect of the invention or system. [0012] The base unit may contain a radio tuner, preferably with bandless tuning capability (see below), and may be designed to receive into a universal docking arrangement a digitally controllable auxiliary audio source such as a portable MP3 player or a variety of other devices, such as satellite receivers, wireless networking cards, and so forth. The radio tuner and/or auxiliary audio source may supply a stream of information from a broadcaster or other medium, about the broadcaster and/or program content, or otherwise, for example; and the base unit may include processing capability to decode, store, recall, and/or display some or all of that information, or otherwise to process the information (for example, to sort it or analyze it), such as to facilitate content selection. The base unit may further provide alarm clock functionality with numerous features including a “fail-safe’ volume control system and fail-safe alarm time setting capability. [0013] An example of a streaming audio service compatible with the device of at least some embodiments of the present invention includes Rhapsody by Real Systems. Rhapsody is a streaming service that permits a user to have a remote personal music library. Likewise, the device can play music and content from personal downloaded music libraries, particularly digital libraries such as Napster and iTunes. [0014] The device is a “pull” or “on-demand” system, which permits the user to select the audio content from a location remote from the device. This contrasts with “push” systems such as AirTunes, that require a user to control programming from a central computer for supply to remote players. In other aspects, the device provides for a central unit in wireless communication with one or more remote player units. Thus a user can play music in one or more locations in their house, and can control playback from multiple locations, thereby providing whole house audio, without having to run speaker or control wires through walls and floors. [0015] In one aspect, the invention provides a device for receiving, storing and playing back broadcast content. The device provides for numerous features that improve the user experience, and is compatible with a variety of broadcast signals, including those provided on FM, AM, satellite shortwave bands, high definition (HD) and weather radio bands. The device is also compatible with proprietary broadcast formats requiring a decoder, such as those used in satellite radio. In this embodiment, the device is configured with power and signal routing adaptors for XM, Sirius and other satellite radio decoder and control units. The device includes a receiver, optionally a decoder with a storage medium coupled to the decoder, one or more user inputs and a system controller coupled to the user input, an amplifier and optionally a preamplifier, a display screen, and one or more speakers or audio output devices. In one embodiment, the receiver receives a signal, such as a digitally encoded bit stream over-the-air on a plurality of communication resources, wherein each of the plurality of communication resources contains content and associated index information. The decoder selectively decodes a selected plurality of communication resources and the user input selects the selected plurality of communication resources based on the associated index information and selects a portion of the content contained in selected plurality of communication resources to be retrieved. The storage medium stores the content and associated index information contained in the selected plurality of communication resources and the system controller stores and retrieves content to and from the storage medium based on input received at the user input. In another aspect of the present invention, a method of receiving and storing audio radio signals, comprises the steps of receiving a signal, such as a digitally encoded bit stream over-the-air on a plurality of communication resources, wherein each of the plurality of communication resources contains content and associated index information and selectively decoding a selected plurality of communication resources. The method then enables the selection of the selected plurality of communication resources using a user input and the associated index information and stores the content and associated index information contained in the selected plurality of communication resources in a memory device. In a third aspect of the present invention, a system for transmitting, receiving, storing and playing back digital audio radio signals comprises an encoder, a transmitter, a receiver, a decoder, a user input, a storage medium coupled to the decoder, and a system controller coupled to the user input. The encoder encodes one or more content sources and associated index information in an encoded bit stream and the transmitter transmits over-the-air the content sources. The receiver receives the encoded bit stream over-the-air and the decoder selectively decodes the transmitted signal. The user input selects a portion of the content contained in selected communication resources to be retrieved. The storage medium stores the content and associated index information, and the system controller stores and retrieves content to and from the storage medium based on input received at the user input interface. In preferred embodiments, the device is compatible with all types of modular decoder/player satellite radio components, e.g., those from XM and Sirius. [0016] According to a second aspect, there is provided by the control unit a radio tuning interface which presents to a user a bandless tuning experience even when the radio receiver in the base unit covers multiple bands of the radio spectrum. Such a radio tuning interface for a radio receiver having apparatus for receiving signals broadcast on a first band and signals broadcast on a second band, may provide the user only a single frequency selection knob for selecting broadcast frequencies on both bands by presenting the bands as successive rotationally adjacent positions of the knob. This also enables cross-band “seeking” and “scanning” for a station or content of interest. The interface may include a counter or encoder for tracking rotational position of the knob and a processor for generating signals in response to said rotational position, the signals mapping the position to a band and a frequency within the band, a display connected and arranged to display said band and frequency, and a tuner interface supplying said band and frequency signals to a tuner in the base unit. Optionally, the tuner may include so-called one or more station “preset” buttons, which may be used to store, and quickly recall with a simple button press, a desired station(s). If desired, the preset functionality may be combined with information captured from a signal source, such as a radio station, such as the station's call letters. A “soft” button may be provided (e.g., on a touch screen or other input device) and the button may be labeled with the station's call letters. Or a button label area may be provided on screen (e.g., for hardware buttons) and the call letters or station frequency may be displayed there, even if the area is not touch-responsive. Optionally, a sorting algorithm may be used to sort such information and to re-assign stations to preset buttons; for example, to sort stations by music type, if that data is made available. Systems such as RDS supply a number of types of information and different users may wish to use that information in different ways. Preferably, therefore, a mechanism (e.g., software running on a processor in either the control unit or the base unit) is provided to place the unit into a user-programmable mode wherein the user may, through menu picks and other input conveniences, select which information to use and how to use it. Innumerable arrangements are possible by virtue of including a programmable processor element and memory in the control unit and/or the base unit. [0017] According to yet another aspect, there is provided an adapter assembly substantially as shown and described, for receiving audio signal sources, satellite receivers, wireless LAN interfaces and other devices which have different connectors and form factors. [0018] According to a still further aspect, the system may include alarm clock operation and, indeed, by virtue of the processing capability provided, numerous advanced alarm clock features may be incorporated at virtually no incremental cost. Such alarm clock features are discussed below. Some aspects of such alarm clock operation interrelate to another aspect of the invention, whereby separate audio channels with separate volume controls are provided, typically at the input to the audio amplifier, for each signal source or function, so that, for example, the volume of the radio in the alarm clock mode is independently controlled from the regular playing volume of the radio. [0019] Yet another aspect of the system is the architecture of providing a base unit and a remote unit which communicate wirelessly, preferably by RF (though an optical—e.g., infrared—link is also an alternative), and each having a processor, whereby great flexibility and capability are provided, as outlined above and below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS [0020] The accompanying drawings are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the drawings, each identical or nearly identical component that is illustrated in various figures is represented by a like numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component may be labeled in every drawing. In the drawings: [0021] FIG. 1 is a high-level block diagram of an example of a system as taught herein; [0022] FIG. 2A is a pictorial view of an example of a remote unit for a system as taught herein; [0023] FIG. 2B is a pictorial view of a system as taught herein with the detachable remote unit of FIG. 2A docked with an example of a base unit, [0024] FIG. 3 is another high-level block diagram further illustrating the architecture of the components of the remote unit and base unit in an exemplary embodiment; [0025] FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic illustration of the signal flow between the remote unit and base unit when the remote unit is undocked; [0026] FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic illustration of the signal flow between the remote unit and base unit when the remote unit is docked; [0027] FIG. 6 is a front view of an example of an entertainment unit as taught herein, with a docked remote control unit and a simulated display; [0028] FIG. 7 is another front view of the unit of FIG. 6 , showing a top panel open to receive an ASM; [0029] FIG. 8 is still another front view of the unit of FIGS. 6 and 7 , with an Auxiliary Source Module (ASM) docked; [0030] FIG. 9 is an isometric top view of the unit of FIGS. 6-8 , showing an example of an interface module for an ASM; [0031] FIG. 10 is a diagrammatic, exploded view of a portion of the interface module of FIG. 9 ; [0032] FIG. 11 is a top view of the example entertainment unit showing an interface module in place with the cover open and no ASM docked; [0033] FIG. 12 is a block diagram of audio routing in the base unit to effect some optional “fail-safe” alarm features; [0034] FIG. 13 is a front view of a base unit of an example system, with an Apple Computer iPod player installed as an ASM and the wireless control unit undocked to reveal a snooze alarm kill switch and (at the bottom) contacts for interfacing directly to the control unit when it is docked; [0035] FIGS. 14 and 15 are close-up views of a display on an example of a control unit, illustrating on-screen labeling of soft buttons (shown below the screen on the control unit); and [0036] FIG. 16 is an isometric view of an example of a system as discussed herein, with a docked control unit (or permanently attached control unit) and another ASM, perhaps a satellite receiver, docked on top. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0037] This invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangement of components set forth in the following description of or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or of being carried out in various ways. Also, the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. As used herein, a “processor” can be implemented in any convenient way. It may, for example, be a programmable microprocessor or microcontroller, or it may be an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or it may be hard-wired circuitry, or a neural network, or a gate array or FPGA (field-programmable gate array), or any other form of information processing device. A microprocessor is discussed as a practical example, not to be limiting. The use of “including,” “comprising,” or “having,” “containing,” “involving,” and variations thereof herein, is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof, as well as additional items. [0038] As shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 (i.e., FIGS. 2A and 2B ), an entertainment system 100 of the type to be discussed herein has a number of sub-assemblies. These include at least a base or table unit 102 and a control sub-assembly 104 . The base unit 102 further includes an audio amplifier 106 , one or more (preferably at least two) loudspeakers (or speakers) 108 , and housing 112 . (As illustrated, the speakers 108 are within housing 112 , but this is not required.) It may also include a tuner 114 and/or audio signal source interface sub-assembly 116 connectable to one or more detachable devices 118 (also called Auxiliary Source Modules, or ASMs). The control sub-assembly includes a two-mode, detachable control unit 104 A and an interface therefor, 104 B, in the base unit. The detachable device 118 is preferably a digitally controlled device that supplies an audio signal (in any acceptable format, analog or digital), via the interface sub-assembly 116 , to the audio amplifier 106 . For example, the audio signal source in an ASM may be an MP3 player, a device such as an iPod digital player from Apple Computer, Inc. of Cupertino, Calif., a wireless network adapter, a satellite radio receiver, or any other device that can be plugged into interface sub-assembly 116 at connector assembly 122 . When the ASM is plugged into the interface sub-assembly, it supplies audio signals to the audio amplifier sub-assembly under control of the control sub-assembly. When the audio signal source (i.e., ASM) supplies an audio signal in a digital format, the audio signal is first routed through a decoder (e.g., in a codec) before the analog decoder output is routed to the audio amplifier. The decoder may be a dedicated module or it may be implemented by software executing on a processor 115 which has multiple functions. The decoder must be appropriate to the signal format, of course, and appropriate decoders will be familiar to software developers and other engineers. [0039] When a network adapter is used (wired or wireless), the system may control a remote device (personal computer, etc.) which can then act as a server of music and other files to the base unit (e.g., from Apple Computer's iTunes service or the like) or as a streaming audio source. With appropriate decoder software executing on processor 115 or another processor (not shown), the device can play songs provided in various music formats, such as WAV, MP3, WMA, and AAC, among others. The system may provide for receiving, storing and playing back broadcast content. [0040] The detachable control unit 104 A preferably comprises a display device 132 , one or more input devices 134 A- 134 N, a wireless transceiver 136 and a docking (wired) interface port 138 , and batteries for power (not shown), in a housing or stand 140 designed to mate with the base unit 102 . Preferably, when mated, the control unit 104 A and base unit 102 appear to be an integrated device. Optionally, when detached from the base unit, the control unit may be supported on a cradle of convenient design, such as an angled piece of plastic or other material, the arrangement and style of the cradle being a matter of design choice. [0041] The control unit 104 A operates in two modes. In a first, docked mode, the control unit is electrically connected to the audio amplifier and signal source electronics sub-assembly via a set of connectors or terminals 142 A, 142 B and its wireless transceiver is disabled. This “wired” connection conserves battery power (power for the control unit being supplied by the base unit), in a typical implementation it also allows the battery power supply to be recharged from the base unit, simplifies the wireless connection as it is engaged only when the wireless mode is used, and provides the reliability of a direct electrical connection. In a second, undocked mode, the control unit is separated from the base unit and the electrical connection at connectors 142 A, 142 B is broken. The control unit switches (preferably automatically, with appropriate circuitry detecting the undocking) to battery power and intercommunicating wireless transceivers in the control unit and base unit are enabled. [0042] Preferably, the wireless transceivers provide and receive signals compliant (at least at a physical level) with an industry standard, such as the ZigBee standard. This allows use of inexpensive, mass-produced transceivers. As for the logical levels of the signaling protocol, standardized or proprietary specifications can be employed. One advantage of using a proprietary signaling protocol is that other devices would not be able to control the base unit (e.g., remote controls for other systems, or stray signals of other systems). Optionally, a signaling protocol may be used which allows multiple control units to interact with, and control, the base unit. That way, the user may deploy control units in different rooms in a house or in different places in the same room, for example. [0043] The control unit preferably includes a display, such as a liquid crystal (LCD) screen, for showing the user textual and/or graphical information such as is typically displayed on a home entertainment device. For example, such information may include a selected input device (e.g., built-in radio tuner, iPod portable music device, network card, etc.), volume, song and/or station being listened to (if operating in a radio mode), control functions, etc. Preferably, the display is capable of presenting standard bitmapped graphics to the user, but displays using other formats are certainly acceptable; bitmapped graphics simply provide the maximum display flexibility at the lowest cost. The combination of a processor-operated bitmapped display screen, together with a knob and buttons that can be pressed to move a cursor and indicate a selection, provides for a menu-driven user interface established by software executing on the processor. The details of the interface selections are a matter of design choice. The input source and other user information preferably is displayed on the display screen. Desirably, when the user has selected the tuner as the audio signal source, the system receives and displays RDS (Radio Data Service) broadcast information in a conventional way, which allows a user to receive information relating to the song being played, such as the song title and recording artist. Using conventional techniques, the display screen can be programmed to deliver content in multiple selectable languages. In other embodiments, display content may be replaced by or complemented by voice prompts during user-defined operations. The use of voice prompts permits operation by vision-impaired individuals. [0044] The display outputs data obtained locally in the control unit and/or obtained from the base unit via the interface. In addition, the control unit includes input devices such as one or more switches and one or more knobs. One of the knobs, 134 A, preferably is a tuning knob, as a rotatable knob appears to be widely adopted for radio station selection and other inputs of home entertainment devices. A knob, however, certainly is not a requirement. Any suitable input device may be substituted, such as switches for directing upward and downward frequency change. Tuning [0045] Preferably, the tuner (the details of which are not relevant, as any conventional turner can be adapted for use in this system) is capable of receiving broadcast signals from different radio bands, such as the AM band, the FM band, other radio sources such as satellite broadcast bands (which may be subscription services), or direct audio broadcast or internet broadcast or other such services. Each of those bands occupies a different segment of the radio frequency spectrum or the equivalent, addressable “space.” Each radio band typically is allocated to a broadcast service which, by regulation, employs a specific type of modulation scheme for encoding information that is transmitted, for example, in the AM band, amplitude modulation is used; while in the FM band, frequency modulation is used (Likewise, the other services use distinct modulation or encoding schemes.) In a typical AM/FM radio, the processing of a received AM signal is thus usually performed by circuitry which is almost completely different from that used for processing a received FM signal. The outputs of the AM section and the FM section are, however, supplied to an audio amplifier and speakers shared by those two sections. Typically, a user operates a band selection switch to choose which of the two sections is energized and connected to the audio amplifier, etc. Appropriate mechanics, logic and circuitry may switch the source of some of the screen information to show appropriate frequency and other information, and connect the input controls to control the frequency setting of the selected section and sometimes to adjust functions such as sensitivity or filtering. [0046] At one time, the program content of AM and FM stations were markedly different. FM broadcasts are better suited to the delivery of music and tended more to provide music content. AM broadcasts were largely used for talk shows, news reports, sports and the like, with less music. Programming in the two bands is now far less distinct than it was decades ago and users often make less distinction between the two bands than was true years ago. Talk shows, sporting events, etc. are frequently broadcast on the FM band, for example. Yet users still have to consciously switch between bands on their AM/FM and other multi-band radios. [0047] Turning to FIG. 3 , there is shown in block diagram form an arrangement we call “bandless” tuning, whereby no AM/FM switch is presented to the user and the user does not have to activate a switch to change bands. Instead, one simply tunes from the end of one band directly into the beginning of another band, as though they were contiguous in frequency. The illusion is given the user of single band operation. The bands can be arranged in a loop, so that the top end of the last band in sequence wraps to the bottom end of the first band. If there are three or more bands, they may be arranged in any desired sequence. To effect this operation, various implementations are possible. The implementation shown in FIG. 3 is presented by way of illustration and example only, not to illustrate specific circuitry. There, an all-digital control system is depicted for selecting the active tuning section and connecting it appropriately. A tuning knob 134 A provides UP and DOWN (DN) counter control signals (in response to clockwise and counterclockwise rotation, respectively) to associated circular (modulo) counter electronics 302 , the design of which is well known to electronics engineers. The counter 302 supplies a digital output signal on line 304 . The digital signal on line 304 represents a count value from a counter whose count increments, for example, as the tuning knob is rotated clockwise, and whose count decrements as the tuning knob is rotated counterclockwise. The COUNT signal on line 304 may represent a number from zero through a maximum value determined by the designer to resolve at least a certain predetermined number of radio station channel assignments so that there is a 1:1 mapping of count values and channels (frequencies). Through whichever interface is employed at the time (wired or wireless), a corresponding CHANNEL SELECT signal is conveyed on data line(s) 306 to a processor 115 . The processor maps the CHANNEL SELECT signal to the band to which the count corresponds and (a) sends to the tuner a BAND signal or equivalent which switches on the corresponding one of the receiver units 310 (for AM) or 312 (for FM), (b) supplies a FREQUENCY signal to that receiver unit, and (c) selects the output of the selected receiver unit to be connected to the input of the audio amplifier by supplying an appropriate control signal to a multiplexer 314 , for example. The output of the multiplexer 314 is connected to the input of audio amplifier 106 . [0048] Assume that there are not just two, but three, bands covered by the receiver, for example: the broadcast AM band of approximately 535-1650 kHz, the FM band of approximately 88-108 MHz, and a third band covering weather service channels in the 162.4-162.55 MHz range. Like the FM broadcast band, the weather service broadcasts are transmitted using frequency modulation. There are thus six band limits: the lower and upper limits of each band. Let us call the lower limit of the AM band AML (denoting the value of the CHANNEL SELECT signal corresponding to that lower limit; the upper limit of the AM band, AMU; the lower limit of the FM band, FML; the upper limit of the FM band, FMU; the lower limit of the weather band, WL; and the upper limit of the weather band, WU. Thus if AML≦CHANNEL SELECT≦AMU, then the processor provides a BAND signal that selects the AM receiver and activate AM reception. Similarly, if FML≦CHANNEL SELECT≦FMU, the processor provides a BAND signal that selects the FM receiver and activate FM reception. If WL≦CHANNEL SELECT≦WU, the BAND signal also selects the FM receiver, to effect reception of an FM signal, but the value of the FREQUENCY signal will be appropriate to the weather band instead of the FM band. Clearly, this methodology may be extended to the use of different or additional bands or services that are accessed using a tuning metaphor or mechanism, such as DAB, satellite and HD radio. [0049] Various receiver circuits may require tuning component or parameter changes customizations for different broadcast bands, such as different antennae, different bandpass filters, etc. All of these customizations can be controlled appropriately from the BAND signal(s) or from a combination of those signals and the FREQUENCY signal, as will readily occur to those skilled in the art. [0050] In some embodiments, the tuner may be placed into a “scan” mode whereby, taking advantage of the “bandless” tuning capability, the tuner may cycle through a series of frequencies associated with a first band and then begin automatically to scan through a series of frequencies of a different band. For example, a user may initiate the scan feature when the tuner is initially set to a station “low” in the AM band. The tuner cycles through the AM band, playing short (e.g., three-second) samples of each station it encounters. At the top of the AM band, whereas most radios would begin a second survey of the AM band starting back at the bottom, instead the system begins a scan of the FM band. Scanning may combine other bands or different bands, or be limited to a single band, at the user's selection. This operation is particularly useful in automotive environments, to minimize a driver's distraction incurred when interacting with radio controls. [0051] In other embodiments, bandless tuning may be adapted to scan broadcast signals as well as signals input from peripheral devices, allowing the system to scan through content in the FM and satellite bands, and from a music library. All of these variations require no more than minor programming changes that will be obvious to anyone skilled in programming within the architecture of the system. For example, the bandless tuning feature may be coupled through software to the RDS information, also, so that scanning is limited to stations that meet certain user-defined criteria. For example, with the bandless feature turned on, scanning can be set to sample only stations broadcasting in talk radio format on the AM, FM and satellite bands. On a tabletop system or car radio, dedicated or soft (programmable) buttons (which may be self-labeling on the display) may be provided, to be preset to filter stations according to characteristics programmed into the button. A user might set up, for example, a country music button, a sports button, and an “all news” button, or a button dedicated to call a specific song or playlist from an auxiliary source such as an iPod player, using an appropriate codec. Alternatively, some or all of the preset buttons can be mapped to positions of the tuning knob (encoder) and treated the same as radio stations, for simplified, pre-configured access, scanning, etc. With reference to FIGS. 14 and 15 , there are shown, respectively, examples of display screens whereon radio stations “presets” have been mapped to eight soft button labels indicating how the soft buttons will operate when pressed ( FIG. 14 ) and whereon an alphabetical keypad arrangement is mapped as an alternative for use in navigating a song index, for example ( FIG. 15 ). [0052] The arrangement shown in FIG. 3 and discussed above is exemplary only. Numerous other configurations will readily occur to those skilled in the art. For example, in the example, the counts (channel selection signals) for AM, FM and weather bands are expressly neither contiguous and continuous nor discontinuous; they may be either. Also, those bands may be divided into sub-bands, if desired. [0053] When one of the “bands” is a digital “radio” service, such as a satellite, internet or direct audio broadcast service, then one merely employs a processor running browser or other software as the “tuner” for accessing that service, or a similar “receiver,” and tuning involves the BAND signal being a signal to start the receiver (e.g., start the browser or other software and connect to the Internet) and the FREQUENCY signal supplying a URL or Internet IP address instead of a frequency. Memory can supply to the display any desired identifier for the “station.” Each of these non-radio-frequency broadcasts can be mapped to its own band for tuning purposes. [0054] With this “bandless” tuning methodology, the user need not even be concerned with whether a particular station is in one band or another. Further, it has been common practice to provide on some tuners a number of buttons for station “presets;” that is, buttons which can be assigned to preselected stations so that the user has fast access to those stations by merely pressing the assigned button. However, the number of buttons provided is finite, typically in the neighborhood of about six or eight, most often (but not always) with a dedicated number of button positions for each band. Yet one user may wish to listen (in the extreme) only to AM stations and another user may wish to listen (again, in the extreme) only to FM stations. Thus, each user would be able to use only the six or eight (or other number of) buttons provided for his favorite band and the other buttons would be unused. By contrast, as stations herein are mapped to CHANNEL SELECT counts and those counts are “agnostic” as to band until the processor decodes them, a preset button in this system preferably stores a station count in a memory 322 in a “record” mode and then causes that count to appear as the COUNT and CHANNEL SELECT signals when the preset button is pressed, overriding the knob (counter) output. In this way, the buttons can be assigned to stations in any band. If twelve buttons re provided, the user can assign them all to a single band or assign them in any arrangement and number to different bands. The user might, for example, group the button assignments according to the program content type of specific stations, regardless of band. For example, the first two buttons might be assigned to AM and FM stations that have good weather reports. The next three buttons might be assigned to one AM station and two FM stations that play “oldies” music. And so forth. Note that it is unnecessary for the user to use a switch to select a band; thus, there is no AM/FM switch. [0055] In the control unit 104 , there preferably is provided a processor 324 which performs various functions, including controlling the information shown on display unit 132 . This processor receives the count output by the tuning knob circuitry or “preset” buttons, if any are provided, and converts the count to a frequency assignment (e.g., through use of a lookup table or algorithm, not shown) which is then shown on the display unit. Optionally, other information may also be displayed on the display unit, such as the time and/or data supplied in a signal from the radio station, including the station call letters, type of program content, name of a song being played and the artist and album, or other information. [0056] Preferably, the processor in the control unit and the processor in the base unit are the same type or family of processor, whereby much of the software need be written only once and can be used by both processors. [0057] The control unit may also include circuitry and programming for the processor to provide “alarm clock” functionality, including a clock and interfacing between the clock and the controls of the radio circuits. Such circuitry is conventional and need not be shown in any detail. [0058] Referring now to FIGS. 4 and 5 , there are illustrated examples of the signaling operation which may be established between the control unit and the base unit in, respectively, the undocked and docked configurations. [0059] In the undocked configuration, the control unit 104 A (labeled “Remote Unit Controller”) communicates with the base unit 102 via a wireless channel provided by, for example, a ZigBee-compliant (or partially compliant) transceiver. [0060] In the base unit, the described functionality may be implemented in many ways, the selection of which is based on practical considerations of cost, space, power consumption, and the like. One typical arrangement is shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 . There, the base unit comprises a base unit controller (BUC) module 402 and an analog circuit board module 404 . Optionally, the base unit may also have, or be able to receive (e.g., at a socket), a device we term an Auxiliary Source Module 118 . The Auxiliary Source Module may be any of a number of kinds of devices. For example, it may be a device that provides audio files in mp3 or .wav or other convenient format (e.g., an iPod device from Apple Computer, or other portable music player); a wireless local area network (LAN) card providing connectivity to audio files on a server or to an internet router, permitting the downloading of music and other files; or a receiver for a service such as satellite radio, as depicted, for example, in FIG. 16 . The output from the Auxiliary Source Module is routed to the BUC module instead of to the analog circuit board, preferably, in order to employ the processor in the BUC module to decode any digital audio signals and convert them to analog form before being provided to the analog module. If the signal is already in analog form, of course, if can be passively routed to the analog module by the BUC module. [0061] The BUC module includes a wireless transceiver for communicating with the control unit, a processor 115 , and an interface 406 to the analog circuit board module for control and to pass through analog audio signals. The analog circuit board typically includes audio amplifiers, power regulation circuits, and pre-processing apparatus. The audio output from the analog circuit board is connected or connectable to speakers 108 located inside or outside the housing for the base unit. The AM and FM tuner circuits are preferably provided on the analog circuit board, but they could be provided on a separate board. [0062] The audio output from the Auxiliary Source Module, if one is provided, may be routed directed to the analog circuit board or via the BUC to the analog circuit board. [0063] In the docked configuration, shown in FIG. 5 , preferably the ZigBee transceivers are deactivated when the direct, physical mating is detected, and a wired connection is established between the control unit and the base unit, as well as a power connection to charge the battery(ies) in the control unit. Otherwise, the system functions the same as in the undocked arrangement. Universal Docking System [0064] It is desirable, though not required, that the Auxiliary Source Module be connectable to the base unit through a connector. However, it is also true those different signal sources typically will have different form factors and use different connectors. For example, even some of the different models of Apple iPod music players provide different connectors and/or form factors; and Apple iPod devices use different connectors than do Creative Technology's Zen players and XM or Sirius satellite radio receivers. While a system can be made to accept only Auxiliary Source Modules (ASMs) with a certain type of connector and a certain form factor, if the user changes ASM or has multiple ASMs with different connectors and/or form factors, the user would find that the base unit cannot accept all of them or future products of different design. Accordingly, it would be commercially more effective and desirable to permit a user to employ ASMs with a variety of connectors and form factors, interchangeably. For this purpose, a base unit may desirably employ an interface module 116 such as is shown in FIGS. 9-11 . The interface module mates to a “universal” connector (not shown) provided as part of the entertainment unit, typically on a circuit board or cable. (The connector is “universal” in the sense that, if it is provided with a sufficient number of connection terminals, or pins, then with the appropriate interface module, a wide range of ASMs can be connected to the base unit.) A typical interface module contains two adapters, a first (electrical) adapter 504 and a second (mechanical) adapter 506 . The mechanical adapter may not be required, if the electrical adapter is not “sunken” below the housing surface, as it serves to provide adjustment to the “form factor” of an ASM and to protect a docked ASM and the connectors (on the ASM and in the interface module) from mechanical damage. [0065] The universal connector contains connection pins for power and for the kinds of signals that might potentially (foreseeably) be provided to or received from an ASM. Some ASMs will require fewer connections than others. The electrical adapter 504 , in its most basic form, assuming a passive electrical interface suffices, has three components: a first connector (not shown) which is mateable with the “universal” connector (within the entertainment system base unit); an interconnection sub-assembly (e.g., printed circuit board or cable or a combination) 512 ; and a second connector 514 for receiving an ASM of a particular type. That is, second connector 514 is specific to and compatible with the ASM. In one embodiment, the two connectors may be mounted on different sides of a printed circuit board and the appropriate pins of the first connector may be wired to corresponding pins of the second connector through the printed circuit board, the correspondence being dictated by the functions assigned to the various pins by the ASM manufacturer and the base unit manufacturer. In some situations, not all pins have counterparts. If needed or desired, buffer circuitry can be provided on the printed circuit board, powered from the first connector, to buffer, isolate, amplify or level-shift signals passed between the base unit and the ASM. In another embodiment, which is useful for the configuration illustrated in the drawings, it has been found useful for the interconnection sub-assembly to be formed of a first printed circuit board wired to the first connector, a second printed circuit board on which the second connector is mounted, and a flexible cable interconnecting the circuit boards. Another approach would be to mount the second connector on something other than a printed circuit board, such as a plastic part of the adapter housing, and to interconnect the first and second connectors with a cable, the cable directly connected to the first connector. Still another alternative is to provide two (or more) ASM adapters and switching circuits for selecting one to be active while the other(s) is (are) inactive; or, alternatively switching or arranging one to be an audio source while the other ASM provides other functionality such as networking. [0066] Other configurations may be devised according to design considerations. [0067] Optionally, selected pins of the universal connector can be used to code the identity of the interface module and/or ASM which will be docked. On circuit board 512 , the leads from those pins can be tied to “high” or “low” logic levels, so as to identify to the processor in the entertainment unit, via the universal connector in the base unit, a type of ASM. The processor can then retrieve from memory specifications for the ASM and route appropriate signals to and from the pins of the universal connector. Thus, at least some pins of the universal connector preferably are connected to multiplexing circuitry to permit re-routing connections. As new ASM devices are marketed, new specifications can be downloaded to the entertainment unit via a USB port or other interface (not shown). [0068] The mechanical adapter, if used, is intended to provide an appropriate fit between the base unit housing and the ASM, with differently sized mechanical adapters being made available for ASMs of different dimensions or shapes. The base unit is made with an aperture 520 of size sufficient to receive ASMs of maximum expected size. The mechanical adapter 506 has a central aperture sized and shaped and positioned to receive the ASM and to place a connector on the bottom of the ASM into alignment with the second connector of the electrical adapter. The mechanical adapter may, and preferably does, retain the ASM in a slightly recessed disposition, to provide some physical security for the ASM. The mechanical adapter 506 may be provided with a hinged or sliding lid, optionally, to close the aperture 520 and protect connector 514 when no ASM is installed. Database Management and User Interface [0069] Apple's iPod and similar players now are sold with sufficient memory capacity to store thousands of songs. While this is a boon to music lovers, it also presents a challenge: finding a desired song among the many that have been stored. Creative Technology of Singapore has recognized this problem in its U.S. Pat. No. 6,928,433, which provides a hierarchical interface to facilitate song retrieval. Additionally, facilities are known for creating stored lists of songs, called “playlists.” A command to play a playlist causes the corresponding list of songs to be played seriatim. Use of playlists is particularly helpful when an MP3 player is used in an automobile, to relieve the driver of the distraction of having to deal with the user interface to choose a song every few minutes. [0070] On the player, songs typically are stored sequentially as they have been recorded. Means are provided on the player to allow a user to scroll linearly forward and backward through the list of songs, and sometimes facilities are provided to select and play recorded playlists. [0071] Beyond the availability of these features, little facility is available for making it easy for a user to identify and play songs. Currently, iPod devices provide the services of a database engine to external devices because very little database functionality has been built in. Songs, artists and albums and the like are represented by data records. An external device can select which records are to be made currently active, such as all songs, all songs by artist X or all songs from album Y. When an external device accesses a record, however, the record is identified by its position in the list of currently selected records, not by absolute identifier. Thus, a single song will have a different identifier based upon how the user navigated to a current list (e.g., by album, artist, genre, etc.). This is a limiting approach. [0072] To provide improved functionality, when an iPod music player or similar device is docked to the universal connector of the new entertainment connector, all of the records defining the music content on the device are downloaded and a new database is created of that information. This database is created by first writing a list of all artists, then for each artist writing the list of all of that artist's albums, and for each album, retrieving and writing the list of all songs thereon. This creates a database wherein each song is uniquely identified and indexable by the combination of the artist/album/song names. For example, a data tree may be constructed with the list of artists at the top root level, the albums for each artist at the next level and the songs for each album at the third level. [0073] Optionally, secondary indices may be written to permit quick access to, for example, the list of all albums (regardless of artist), all songs (regardless of album or artist), and songs by artist (regardless of album). [0074] Once this database exists in memory (e.g., memory 117 ) within the base unit, it can be used to implement a variety of access features, including a “jump by spelling” feature, or to easily go from a song that is playing to the list of other songs in the same album or by the same artist or by the same name but by different artists. These access options are all straight forward database programming tasks. Then, once a song is selected to be played by any of these access features, the music player can be controlled via the user interface to serve up the selected song (e.g., by number) and play it back through the base unit. Of course, it is also possible, technically, copyright law permitting, to download the song file into memory (semiconductor, hard drive or optical, for example) in the base unit and to play it from there, using an appropriate codec to turn the stored digital representation into an analog signal that can be supplied to transducers such as loudspeakers. [0075] As shown, the interface module may also include a cover to protect the connector 514 when no ASM is docked. Alarm Clock [0076] With reference to FIGS. 1 and 12 (discussed below) and appropriate software control to effect the functionality to be discussed, a “fail-safe” radio/player-alarm function is provided which will confirm alarm settings, minimize the risk of a user inadvertently overwriting desired alarm settings and provide a wake-up service in four situations where conventional clock radios will not play a radio or music source to provide a wake-up service. The first situation is that the volume control has been turned down or the volume has been muted by the user, instead of turning the radio off. When the time arrives for the alarm clock to turn on the radio, it does so but the radio emits no or very low sound output. The second situation is when if headphones are left plugged in. Normally, when headphones are plugged in, the speakers are disconnected. Thus, if one goes to sleep with headphones plugged in, the clock radio fails to sound an alarm that will wake the user. Third, if a plug is present on an auxiliary output jack, the situation is basically the same as when headphones are plugged in. Fourth, if the AM/PM setting was incorrect, when the time arrives for the expected alarm (e.g., 6:00 a.m.), nothing happens because the clock radio actually was set to 6:00 p.m. [0077] The enhanced functionality which overcomes these shortcomings is provided by employing a processor in the base unit 102 , which may be processor 115 or another processor or microcontroller, to control the volume of the audio channels separately for the alarm function and for the non-alarm “regular play” function. This permits the radio's alarm volume to be controlled independently of normal listening volume and also permits the audio output to be supplied through the system's loudspeakers for alarm purposes even when the speakers are deactivated for other purposes. Additionally, separate volume controls are provided to control the volume emitted by the speakers in alarm mode as compared with normal listening mode. The alarm volume defaults to a pre-set level that should be appropriate for normal alarm usage and steps are taken to require extra efforts by the user to change the alarm volume so that inadvertent changes are made unlikely. For example, the alarm mode volume setting should not be an external knob or slider or similar mechanical control that is too easily turned down to a low setting. It may, for example, be an internal knob or a “soft” setting established on-screen by the user, stored and left to be forgotten. Preferably, if a manual control is employed, the alarm volume control is in a hidden or interior location so that, once set, a user normally will not change the volume setting and thereby defeat the intended “fail-safe” functionality. [0078] When the base unit is connected via a network to a computer, it is straightforward to allow alarm settings to be programmed from the computer, and to store preferences in user profiles in either the computer or base unit or both. Storing default user profiles in the base unit is also one way to facilitate selection of the language of text displayed on the bitmapped graphics of the display device. [0079] Turning to FIG. 12 , there is shown a simplified block diagram of audio signal routing and control which provides the basis for implementing, among other things, some of the “fail-safe” alarm features discussed above. As illustrated, four different inputs are presented, which may possibly generate audio outputs. First is an auxiliary input jack 602 . Second is an auxiliary source module (ASM) 118 . Third is the processor 115 , which can generate an alarm buzz by providing an appropriate pulse-width modulated (PWM) signal on line 604 . Fourth is the tuner 114 . The signals from each of these inputs are supplied to block 606 which is a multiplexer and volume control stage. In exemplary form, the multiplexer (i.e., input selector) and volume control stage 606 may be implemented using a commercially available integrated circuit such as the TDA7462 dual audio processor with compander from STMicroelectronics, Philips's TEF6892H integrated signal processor or other suitable circuit. Mux (multiplexer) and volume control stage 606 is controlled by signals supplied by processor 115 on line(s) 608 . The processor determines which of the inputs to the Mux 606 will supply an output signal on line 610 and it also sets the volume (amplitude) of the output signal on line 610 . The signal on line 610 may be a monaural or stereo signal, depending on the input, and illustrating output 610 as a single line is not intended to suggest only a monaural signal. Line 610 supplies input to the main speaker amplifier 106 , a headphone amplifier 612 to headphone jack 614 , and “line out” amplifier 616 to line out jack 618 . The main speaker amplifier 106 and the headphone amplifier are each controlled by an on/off signal supplied, respectively, on lines 622 and 624 from processor 115 . Finally, circuitry 626 and 628 is provided to monitor the condition of each of headphone and line out jacks 614 and 618 , respectively. The output of each of circuits 626 and 628 is provided to the processor 115 . Depending upon the state of the output signals from circuits 626 and 628 , the processor “knows” whether a headphone is plugged into the headphone jack and whether an external amplifier or other device is plugged into the line out jack, for supplying an audio signal to an external speaker or other lode [load]. When a headphone is plugged into headphone jack 614 , the processor detects that condition and turns off the main speaker amplifier for generating an appropriate “off” signal on line 622 . The processor may also turn off the headphone amplifier if there is no headphone plugged into the headphone jack, or under other appropriate conditions. Suitable program code executing on the processor implements the alarm clock functions. For each of the input “channels” to Mux volume control 606 , a distinct volume control setting (or settings) is stored. The volume control settings may be stored in any convenient location, including in data storage (memory) 117 which is accessible by processor 115 . Through the control unit, the user can select one of the inputs and set its volume which is then saved. So the volume for the tuner when it is providing a normal alarm output, is saved separately from the volume setting for the tuner when it is being used as a source of a wake up program. The programming of processor 115 assures that when an alarm “goes off,” the control signal on line 622 turns on the main speaker amplifier irrespective of the sense conditions of the headphone jack 614 and line out jack 618 , and that the alarm volume is controlled by the pre-saved alarm volume setting, irrespective of the volume settings for any of the inputs in “normal” play mode. [0080] Other fail-safe alarm functions are provided principally by the programming of processor 115 . For example, alarm clock users, with some frequency, have been known to mistakenly set an alarm that is in error by twelve hours, because they make a mistake about AM/PM selection, which is often shown simply by a lighted dot. To avoid this problem, processor 115 compares the current time with the set alarm time if the alarm is being set more than 12 hours ahead of the time, an error message is generated to the user, asking whether the indicated alarm time is correct. [0081] Another example of a fail-safe alarm system feature relates to the “snooze” feature found on those clock radios. In the invented system, a user-defined limit is programmed into the processor, and the snooze feature is disabled when the limit is reached, thus providing additional control over such features as the number of times a snooze feature may be activated (to temporarily disable the alarm) or the number of permitted minutes in a snooze cycle. Further, the system may include a feature that the last time the alarm comes on after the snooze cycle has completed, the only way to turn off the alarm is to press a different button on the base unit itself. [0082] It is envisioned that users will desire to separate the control unit from the base unit. For example, users may desire to place one or two control units on bedside tables (e.g., “his” and “her” control units), while placing the base unit on a bedroom dresser that cannot be reached from the bed. As previously stated, in some embodiments the number of “snooze” actions that can be taken may be limited, either by fixed design or in response to user input. In such embodiments, when the last alarm goes off and turns on the base unit, the remote units are preferably rendered incapable of turning off the alarm. Rather, a hardware button 702 is provided (e.g., at the back of the docking area for the remote—see FIG. 13 ), interfaced to the processor 155 by, for example, an interrupt operation, so a user must make an extra effort, perhaps getting out of bed and walking across the room to press this button to turn off the alarm. In some embodiments, the last alarm after multiple snooze cycles may be limited to a loud and irritating buzz supplied by the PWM signal on line 604 , instead of a potentially soothing musical output. In some embodiments, the volume may be successively increased for each snooze cycle or the source for content of the sound output can be changed from one alarm to the next, to encourage the user to wake up. [0083] A persistent alarm setting, as used herein, is one which, having been set, generates an alarm on subsequent days at the set time automatically, and does not require that the user turn the alarm on for each successive day. Thus, if a user intends to set an alarm for the same time for each weekday, the user need only set the alarm once and the user does not run the risk of oversleeping because he did not turn on the alarm before going to sleep a given evening. [0084] Thus, many common causes of oversleeping may be avoided with proper use of the architecture and programming thus provided. [0085] Using an internal calendar that is initialized at setup, the internal clock accounts for changes between Daylight Savings and Standard time. That, of course, is a common function on personal computers and other digital appliances. In some embodiments, provision may be made to set alarm times individually for different days of the week. The number of different days for which alarms can be set is simply a matter of manufacturing choice according to how much memory the designer wishes to devote to alarms. In some embodiments, one or more persistent alarms, for all or only selected days of the week, can be set and in some embodiments a single one-time alarm setting is provided. Any combination of persistent and one-time alarms may be provided, of course. Aesthetics [0086] Preferably, the base unit can be customized to the user's aesthetic taste. For example, the base unit preferably comprises a housing that holds circuit boards, speakers, jacks and other hardware, and detachable panels may be selected and attached (e.g., snapped or screwed into place or otherwise affixed) for the top, bottom, sides and back, and possibly the front, constructed from any suitable material, such as wood, metal, plastic or the like. These panels may be provided in various colors, shades and tones, painted or unpainted, with plush surfaces or textured surfaces or other embellishments. Wood panels of various types, staining, and design may be made available. If desired, the top panel can be configured as a detachable tray. Speaker grills can have various embodiments, and (for example) may have a plurality of small apertures or may be cloth covered. [0087] It should be understood that the described user interface can present to a user a standardized interface for use in tabletop systems, automotive systems and even portable systems. The use of bandless tuning; a bit-mapped graphics display and “soft”, programmable buttons; along with the described database features for accessing content from an ASM, all can be employed in those systems, together or in various groupings. The more features used in common, the more standard or unified the user interface becomes and the lower the cost of implementation. Adoption of a standard interface for automobile, home and/or office use, moreover, means the automobile driver is more likely to be able to operate the interface with minimal distraction, due to acquired familiarity and simplicity of interaction. [0088] Having thus described several aspects of at least one embodiment of this invention, it is to be appreciated various alterations, modifications, and improvements will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Such alterations, modifications, and improvements are intended to be part of this disclosure, and are intended to be within the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, the base unit need not include a tuner at all; or it may only include a single band tuner. The base unit need not include an audio amplifier or loudspeakers; they could be in other housings. The base unit need not have the ability to receive portable music devices, network cards or the like. A system could be built wherein the control unit cannot be docked with the base unit and can only be a separate remote control. Or the control unit, when docked, might not have a direct electrical connection to the base unit; it might continue to use an RF link or it might use an infrared link or some other channel. The various features discussed above may be practiced singly or in any combination. Other variations will occur to the skilled artisan. Accordingly, the foregoing description and drawings are by way of example only.

A media entertainment system including an appliance that has first and second communications interfaces. The first interface is configured to convey communications between the appliance and at least one content source device, such that the appliance can control the device to receive at least one of media content and media metadata. The second interface is configured to communication bi-directionally with a control unit to convey control information and/or media metadata between the appliance and the control unit. The system further includes a control unit separate or separable from the appliance and the device and having a bi-directional communications interface and a graphical user interface configured to control the appliance and the device.

[0001] This patent application is a divisional of U.S. patent application 08/857,496, filed on May 16, 1997, U.S. Pat. No. 6,004,025. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] The present invention relates to the field of cell culture medium formulations, and more specifically, to methods for continuously preparing cell culture medium formulations and buffered salt solutions from selected subgroups of medium concentrates. [0004] 2. Related Art [0005] Cell culture medium formulation provide nutrients necessary to maintain and grow cells in a controlled, artificial and in vitro environment. Characteristics and compositions of the cell culture mediums vary depending on the particular cellular requirements. Important parameters include osmolarity, pH, and nutrient formulations. [0006] Medium formulations have been used to grow a number of cell types including animal, plant and bacterial cells. Cells grown in culture medium catabolize available nutrients and produce useful biological substances such as monoclonal antibodies, hormones, growth factors and the like. Such products have therapeutic applications and, with the advent of recombinant DNA technology, cells can be engineered to produce large quantities of these products. Thus, the ability to grow cells in vitro is not only important for the study of cell physiology, it is necessary for the production of useful substances which may not otherwise be obtained by cost-effective means. [0007] Cell culture medium formulations have been well documented in the literature and a number of medium are commercially available. Typical nutrients in cell culture medium formulations include amino acids, salts, vitamins, trace metals, sugars, lipids and nucleic acids. Often, particularly in complex medium formulations, stability problems result in toxic products and/or lower effective concentrations of required nutrients, thereby limiting the functional life-span of the culture medium. For instance, glutamine is a constituent of almost all medium formulations that are used in the culturing of mammalian cells in vitro. Glutamine decomposes spontaneously into pyrrolidone carboxylic acid and ammonia. The rate of degradation can be influenced by pH and ionic conditions but in cell culture medium, formation of these breakdown products cannot be avoided (Tritsch et al., Exp. Cell Research, 28:360-364(1962)). [0008] Wang et al. ( In Vitro, 14:(8):715-722 (1978)) have shown that photoproducts such as hydrogen peroxide, which are lethal to cells, are produced in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM). Riboflavin and tryptophan or tyro sine are components necessary for formation of hydrogen peroxide during light exposure. Because most mammalian culture medium formulations contain riboflavin, tyrosine and tryptophan, toxic photoproducts are likely produced in most cell culture mediums. [0009] To avoid these problems, researchers make medium formulations on an “as needed” basis, and avoid long term storage of the culture medium. Commercially available medium formulations, typically in dry powder form, serve as a convenient alternative to making the medium formulations from scratch, i.e., adding each nutrient individually, and also avoids some of the stability problems associated with liquid medium formulations. However, only a limited number of commercial culture medium formulations are available, except for those custom formulations supplied by the manufacturer. [0010] Although dry powder medium formulations may increase the shelf-life of some medium formulations, there are a number of problems associated with dry powdered medium formulations, especially in large scale application. Production of large volumes requires storage facilities for the dry powder, not to mention the specialized kitchens necessary to mix and weigh the nutrient components. Due to the corrosive nature of dry powder medium ingredients, mixing tanks must be periodically replaced. [0011] There exists a need to lower the cost of production of biological substances. Efficient and cost effective methods to stabilize liquid cell culture medium formulations as well as the development of convenient methods to produce 1× medium formulations would be an important development in the field of cell culture medium technology. [0012] One such development in the field of cell culture medium formulations is the development of liquid medium concentrates as is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,474,931 issued to DiSorbo et al. on Dec. 12, 1995 (“DiSorbo”). DiSorbo discloses a method of subgrouping medium formulations into stable, compatible components that can be solubilized at high concentrations (10× to 100×). Concentrated culture medium formulations (2−10×) or 1× cell culture medium formulations can be prepared by mixing a sufficient amount of the concentrated subgroup solutions with each other and with a sufficient amount of a diluent (water, buffer, etc.). [0013] Escalating demand for large volumes of nutrient medium and buffered salt solutions and increasing pressure to minimize batch-associated costs, such as sterile filtration and quality release testing, has driven a requirement for increased production batch sizes of liquid medium. As a result, stainless steel formulation tanks of 5000-10,000 liters for preparation of large batches of liquid medium or buffered salt solutions have become relatively common. However, scale-up manufacture of these fluids in this manner presents challenges regarding product quality and economy. [0014] What is needed is a system and method for providing continuous, online preparation of large volumes of biological fluids (e.g., liquid medium, buffered salt solutions, etc.) within a highly controlled manufacturing system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] The present invention is a system and method for continuous, online preparation of cell culture medium formulations from selected subgroups of medium concentrates. In particular, a computer controlled system controls the flow of a diluent and one or more concentrated solutions into a static mixing chamber wherein the diluent and the concentrated solutions are mixed to form the cell culture medium formulations. [0016] The present invention is able to formulate a cell culture medium from concentrated solution subgroups including an acid soluble concentrate solution subgroup, a group I salts solution concentrate subgroup, a group II salts solution concentrate subgroup, and a base soluble solution concentrate subgroup. Furthermore, the present invention is able to adjust the pH of the cell culture medium using either an acid solution or a base (caustic) solution. [0017] In particular, the present invention is able to mix the concentrated solution subgroups with the diluent in a manner such that the ingredients of the concentrated solution subgroups do not adversely react chemically with one another. [0018] One feature of the present invention is the preparation of large quantities of 1× cell culture medium (100,000 liters or more) while requiring only one quality control test. By increasing the size of the “batch,” the present invention reduces the per liter cost of cell culture medium. [0019] Another feature of the present invention is the increased consistency in the 1× cell culture medium. Statistical analyses have demonstrated that the present invention is able to provide 1× cell culture medium with homogeneity within batches of ±2.0%. Furthermore, the present invention provides improved precision between production runs of 1× cell culture medium manufactured from identical concentrate solutions of ± 3.0%. [0020] Still another feature of the present invention is a clean in place (CIP) and a steam in place (SIP) system which allows various components of the present invention to be sanitized and sterilized according to current good manufacturing practices (cGMP). [0021] Further features and advantages of the present invention, as well as the structure and operation of various embodiments of the present invention, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0022] The present invention is described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the drawings, like reference numbers indicate identical or functionally similar elements. Additionally, the left-most digit(s) of a reference number identifies the drawing in which the reference number first appears. [0023] [0023]FIG. 1 illustrates an automated liquid manufacturing system (ALMS) according to the present invention. [0024] [0024]FIG. 2 illustrates a diluent system according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. [0025] [0025]FIG. 3 illustrates a medium mixing system according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. [0026] [0026]FIG. 4 illustrates a medium surge vessel according to one embodiment of the present invention. [0027] [0027]FIG. 5 illustrates a pre-filtration system and a sterile filtration system according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. [0028] [0028]FIGS. 6A and 6B, respectively, illustrate a front view and a right side view of a medium mixing chamber according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. [0029] [0029]FIG. 7 illustrates an isometric view of a portion of the medium mixing chamber according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. [0030] [0030]FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a computer control system useful for controlling the operation of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0031] In the description that follows, a number of terms conventionally used in the field of cell culture medium are utilized extensively. In order to provide a clear and consistent understanding of the specification and claims, and the scope to be given such terms, the following definitions are provided. [0032] Ingredients. The term “ingredients” refers to any compound, whether of chemical or biological origin, that can be used in cell culture medium to maintain or promote the growth or proliferation of cells. The terms “component,” “nutrient,” and “ingredient” can be used interchangeably and are all meant to refer to such compounds. Typical ingredients that are used in cell culture medium formulations include amino acids, salts, metals, sugars, lipids, nucleic acids, hormones, vitamins, fatty acids, proteins and the like. Other ingredients that promote or maintain growth of cells in vitro can be selected by those of skill in the art, in accordance with the particular need. [0033] Cell Culture. By “cell culture” is meant cells or tissues that are maintained, cultured or grown in an artificial, in vitro environment. [0034] Culture Vessel. Glass, plastic or metal containers of various sizes that can provide an aseptic environment for growing cells are termed “culture vessels.” [0035] Cell Culture Medium. The phrases “cell culture medium” or “culture medium” or “medium formulation” or “cell culture medium formulation” refer to a nutritive solution for culturing or growing cells. The ingredients that comprise such medium formulations may vary depending on the type of cell to be cultured. [0036] In addition to nutrient composition, osmolarity and pH are considered important parameters of culture medium formulations. [0037] Compatible Ingredients. Each ingredient used in cell culture medium formulations has unique physical and chemical characteristics. By “compatible ingredients” is meant those medium nutrients which can be maintained in solution and form a “stable” combination. A solution containing “compatible ingredients” is said to be “stable” when the ingredients do not degrade or decompose substantially into toxic compounds, or do not degrade or decompose substantially into compounds that can not be utilized or catabolized by the cell culture. Ingredients are also considered “stable” if degradation can not be detected or when degradation occurs at a slower rate when compared to decomposition of the same ingredient in a 1× cell culture medium formulation. Glutamine, for example, in 1× medium formulations, is known to degrade into pyrrolidone carboxylic acid and ammonia. Glutamine in combination with divalent cations are considered “compatible ingredients” since little or no decomposition can be detected over time. [0038] Compatibility of medium ingredients, in addition to stability measurements, are also determined by the “solubility” of the ingredients in solution. The term “solubility” or “soluble” refers to the ability of an ingredient to form a solution with other ingredients. Ingredients are thus compatible if they can be maintained in solution without forming a measurable or detectable precipitate. Thus, the term “compatible ingredients” as used herein refers to the combination of particular culture medium ingredients which, when mixed in solution either as concentrated or 1× medium formulations, are “stable” and “soluble.” [0039] 1× Formulation. A cell culture medium is composed of a number of ingredients and these ingredients vary from medium to medium. A “1× formulation” or “1× medium formulation” is meant to refer to any aqueous solution that contains some or all ingredients found in a cell culture medium. The “1× formulation” can refer to, for example, the cell culture medium or to any subgroup of ingredients for that medium. The concentration of an ingredient in a 1× solution is about the same as the concentration of that ingredient found in the cell culture formulation used for maintaining or growing cells. Cell culture medium formulations used to grow cells are 1× formulation by definition. When a number of ingredients are present (as in a subgroup of compatible ingredients), each ingredient in a 1× formulation has a concentration about equal to the concentration of those ingredients in a cell culture medium. For example, RPMI 1640 culture medium contains, among other ingredients, 0.2 g/l L-arginine, 0.05 g/l L-asparagine, and 0.02 g/l L-aspartic acid. A “1× formulation” of these amino acids, which are compatible ingredients according to the present invention, contains about the same concentrations of these ingredients in solution. Thus, when referring to a “1× formulation” it is intended that each ingredient in solution has the same or about the same concentration as that found in the cell culture medium being described. The concentrations of medium ingredients in a 1× formulation are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, See Methods For Preparation of Media, Supplements and Substrate For Serum - Free Animal Cell Culture, Allen R. Liss, N.Y. (1984), which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The osmolarity and/or pH, however, may differ in a 1× formulation compared to the culture medium, particularly when fewer ingredients are contained by the 1× formulation. [0040] 10× Formulation. A “10× formulation” refers to a solution wherein each ingredient in that solution is about 10 times more concentrated than the same ingredient in the cell culture medium formulation. RPMI 1640 medium, for example, contains, among other things, 0.3 g/l L-glutamine. By definition, a “100× formulation” contains about 3.0 g/l glutamine. A “10× formulation” may contain a number of additional ingredients at a concentration about 10 times that found in the 1× culture medium. As will be apparent, “25× formulation,” “50× formulation” and “100× formulation” designate solutions that contain ingredients at about 25, 50 or 100 fold concentrations, respectively, as compared to a 1× cell culture medium. Again, the osmolarity and pH of the medium formulation and concentrated formulation may vary. [0041] Automated Liquid Manufacturing System [0042] According to the present invention, an automated liquid manufacturing system (ALMS) continuously prepares medium products (e.g., cell culture medium, buffered salt solutions, salt solutions, buffers, etc.) having various formulations (e.g., 1-10×) by mixing one or more concentrate solution subgroups together with a diluent (e.g. water, buffer, etc.). The amount of concentrated solution and amount of diluent needed may vary depending on the concentration of each subgroup, the number of subgroups, and the desired concentration of the final medium product. One of ordinary skill in the art can easily determined a sufficient volume of a diluent and a sufficient volume of the concentrated solutions to prepare the desired medium product. [0043] The pH of the desired medium product may also be adjusted by the addition of acid or base. The medium product, however, may not require any adjustment, especially if the pH of the medium product as prepared is within the desired pH range. Osmolarity of the medium product can also be adjusted after mixing the concentrated solutions with the diluent. Typically, the desired osmolarity may be predetermined and adjustments in the salt concentration of the concentrated solutions may be made to prepare a final medium product with the desired osmolarity. [0044] The present invention also provides for on-line sanitization and sterilization in place as required by current good manufacturing practices (cGMP). The sanitization operation is commonly referred to as “clean in place,” and sterilization operation is commonly referred to as “steam in place.” These operations are discussed in further detail below. [0045] According to the present invention, sufficient amounts of each concentrate solution subgroup are continuously admixed with sufficient amounts of a diluent in a mixing chamber, while the resulting medium product is continuously removed. The following describes various aspects of the present invention and the manner in which they accomplish the continuous preparation of medium product. [0046] [0046]FIG. 1 illustrates a system level block diagram of an automated liquid manufacturing system (ALMS) 100 according to the present invention. ALMS 100 includes a concentrate system 110 , a diluent system 120 , a medium mixing system 130 , a medium surge vessel 140 , a prefiltration system 150 , a sterile filtration system 160 and a fill system 170 . Sterile filtration system 160 and fill system 170 operate in a clean area 180 . In addition to the above-mentioned system components, a preferred embodiment of the present invention includes a waste disposal system 190 . Each of these components of ALMS 100 will be discussed in further detail below. [0047] A preferred embodiment of the present invention is controlled by a computer control system 105 . For ease of illustration, connections between computer control system 105 and the various components of ALMS 100 have not been shown. Needless to say, each of the components of ALMS 100 has some subcomponent, be it a valve, a pump, a sensor, etc., that is connected to computer control system 105 and used to control the operation of ALMS 100 as would be apparent. Computer control system 105 is described in further detail below. [0048] Concentrate System [0049] Concentrate system 110 provides one or more concentrate solutions 115 to ALMS 100 . Specifically, concentrate system 110 provides concentrate solutions 115 to medium mixing system 130 . Concentrate system 110 may perform this task in a variety of ways. In one embodiment of the present invention, concentrate system may provide concentrate solutions 115 in a manner similar to that described in commonly owned U.S. Pat. No. 5,474,931 issued to DiSorbo et al. on Dec. 12, 1995, which is incorporated herein by reference as if reproduced below in its entirety. DiSorbo discloses a method for producing liquid medium concentrates in compatible subgroups. According to this embodiment of the present invention, concentrate solutions 115 are chemically stable 5× formulations of liquid medium concentrates. [0050] These subgroups include the following: an acid soluble concentrate solution subgroup, a group I salts concentrate solution subgroup, a group II concentrate solution subgroup, and a base soluble concentrate solution subgroup. In addition, sodium hydroxide may be prepared as a concentrate solution subgroup although this is not necessary. The acid soluble concentrate solution subgroup referred to herein is essentially equivalent to the acid-soluble subgroup referred to in DiSorbo; the group I salts concentrate solution subgroup referred to herein is essentially equivalent to the glutamine-containing subgroup referred to in DiSorbo; the group II salts concentrate solution subgroup referred to herein is essentially equivalent to the weak acid-base soluble subgroup referred to in DiSorbo; and the base soluble concentrate solution subgroup referred to herein is essentially equivalent to the alkali-soluble subgroup referred to in DiSorbo. The remaining subgroups referred to in DiSorbo are treated as reserve concentrate solutions for purposes of the present invention. [0051] In this embodiment, the subgroups are formulated and “kited” according to published procedures as would be apparent. After being prepared according to these procedures the subgroups are stored in intermediate storage vessels for use by ALMS 100 . [0052] In another embodiment of the present invention, concentrate system 110 provides preformulated and prepackaged concentrate solutions 115 . These concentrate solutions 115 are purchased from a manufacturer of such concentrate solutions such as are available from Life Technologies, Incorporated, 3175 Staley Road, Grand Island, N.Y., 716/774-6700. In addition, concentrated subgroups for buffered salts can be obtained from Life Technologies as acid soluble concentrate solution subgroups and base soluble concentrate solution subgroups. This embodiment permits a manufacturer of medium products to purchase concentrate solutions 115 without itself having the facilities to manufacture or produce such concentrate solutions 115 . [0053] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, concentrate system 110 provides an on-line concentrate solution 115 as a part of a continuous manufacturing process in which concentrate solutions 115 are produced directly from raw materials and passed directly to ALMS 100 without an intermediate storage device such as that described in DiSorbo. [0054] As would be apparent to one skilled in the art, other types of concentrate solutions 115 are available other than the subgroups described above. Furthermore, other means for providing concentrate solution 115 to ALMS 100 may be available as would also be apparent. [0055] Diluent System [0056] Diluent system 120 provides a diluent 125 to ALMS 100 . In particular, diluent system 120 provides diluent 125 to medium mixing system 130 . Diluent 125 may be any solution or liquid that may be used to dilute concentrate solutions 115 . Such diluents include water, buffers, salt solutions, etc. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, diluent 125 is water, most preferably, water for injection. However, any diluent 125 may be used in ALMS 100 that appropriately dilutes concentrate solutions 115 according to the particular needs of the medium product manufacturer. [0057] A preferred embodiment of diluent system 120 is illustrated in FIG. 2. In this embodiment of the present invention, diluent system 120 includes an ambient water for injection (WFI) tank 210 , a hot WFI tank 220 , a control valve 215 , a control valve 225 , and a WFI break tank 230 . WFI break tank 230 includes a level indicator 250 and a spray ball 240 . [0058] The purpose of WFI break tank 230 is to provide an atmospheric break between the plant water system and ALMS 100 as required by current good manufacturing practices (cGMP). In addition, WFI break tank 230 assures removal of entrained air from ambient WFI tank 210 and hot WFI tank 220 prior to their introduction to ALMS 100 . [0059] In one embodiment of the present invention, ambient WFI tank 210 is not a tank. Rather, ambient WFI tank 210 is directly connected to the plant's water system. In other embodiments of the present invention, ambient WFI tank 210 may actually be a tank. This may be the case, for example, when a diluent 125 other than water is used, or when a particular type of water is required (e.g. deionized, distilled, sterile, etc.). Hot WFI tank 220 provides hot water to ALMS 100 during a clean-in-place (CIP) operation which is discussed in further detail below. [0060] Valve 215 and valve 225 control the flow of ambient water from ambient WFI tank 210 and hot water from hot WFI tank 220 , respectively, to WFI break tank 230 . In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, WFI break tank 230 provides ambient water as diluent 125 to ALMS 100 . [0061] Level indicator 250 monitors a level of diluent 125 in WFI break tank 230 . Level indicator 250 is monitored by computer control system 105 to maintain an appropriate level of diluent 125 in WFI break tank 230 . [0062] Spray ball 240 is a part of the CIP operation which is discussed in further detail below. Spray ball 240 provides a mechanism for cleaning the inside of WFI break tank 230 during the CIP operation. [0063] Medium Mixing System [0064] Medium mixing system 130 is shown in further detail in FIG. 3. Medium mixing system 130 includes a static mixing chamber 310 , a diluent input pump 320 , a diluent flow indicator 325 , a CIP divert valve 330 , a series of concentrate solution pumps 340 (shown as concentrate solution pumps 340 A-H), a first pH sensor 361 , a second pH sensor 362 , a conductivity sensor 363 , a UV absorbance sensor 364 , an output flow indicator 365 , a diverter valve 370 , and a back flow preventer valve 375 . Each of these elements of medium mixing system 130 is described in further detail below. [0065] Medium mixing system 130 receives diluent 125 and one or more concentrate solutions 115 and mixes them in mixing chamber 310 . Medium mixing system 130 accomplishes this in a manner such that none of the ingredients of concentrate solutions 115 adversely chemically react with one another or with diluent 125 . By “adversely chemically react” it is meant that the ingredients react 1) to form an irreversible precipitate; 2) to cause degradation in one or more components of the concentrate solutions; 3) to cause certain components to become inactivated; or 4) to cause any other condition that would result in an unacceptable medium product 135 . [0066] Diluent input pump 320 controls the flow of diluent 125 into static mixing chamber 310 . This flow is measured by diluent flow indicator 325 . Diluent flow indicator 325 permits computer control system 105 to monitor the flow of diluent 125 and thereby, control diluent input pump 320 . Back flow preventer valve 375 prevents diluent 125 from flowing backwards from static mixing chamber [0067] Based on the flow of diluent 125 into static mixing chamber 310 , computer control system 105 controls the flows of concentrate solutions 115 (shown as concentrate solutions 115 A-H) into static mixing chamber 310 via concentrate solution pumps 340 (shown as concentrate solution pumps 340 A-H). The flow of each of concentrate solutions 115 A-H is controlled to be proportional to the flow of diluent 125 into static mixing chamber 310 according to a formulation of a desired medium product. [0068] Sensors 361 , 362 , 363 , 364 and 365 monitor a medium product 135 output from static mixing chamber 310 to ensure that particular parameters associated with medium product 135 are within acceptable levels associated with the desired medium product. These sensors are coupled to computer control system 105 which monitors these parameters of medium product 135 to ensure that proper mixing of concentrate solutions 115 A-H and diluent 125 is being accomplished. [0069] If the medium product is within the acceptance levels, medium product 135 passes to medium surge vessel 140 . If not, computer control system 105 diverts medium product 135 to waste disposal system 190 via diverter valve 370 . This allows medium mixing system 130 to guarantee an acceptable medium product 135 . For example, when ALMS 100 starts up preparation of a particular medium product 135 , the initial output of static mixing chamber 310 may not be within the acceptance levels for the particular medium product. Thus, this portion of the output is diverted to waste disposal system 190 . When the output of static mixing chamber 310 enters into the acceptable levels (i.e., the operation reaches a “steady state”), the output from static mixing chamber 310 is passed to medium surge vessel 140 . [0070] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, first pH sensor 361 and second pH sensor 362 are placed in close proximity to each other and as close to static mixing chamber 310 as possible, and prior to sensors 363 , 364 to ensure that the proper pH levels of medium product 135 is being achieved. [0071] Conductivity sensor 363 measures the ionic character of medium product 135 . In particular, conductivity sensor 363 measures the resistivity of the flow of medium product 135 . Conductivity sensor 363 is useful for determining the quality of medium product 135 , especially for salt solutions. [0072] UV absorbance sensor 364 measures an amount of ultraviolet light that passes through the flow of medium product 135 . UV absorbance sensor 364 is useful for detecting the presence of precipitates within medium product 135 . UV absorbance sensor 364 can also be used to measure a concentration of a particular component as an on-line measurement of concentrate addition and mixing quality. [0073] As would be apparent to one skilled in the art, other types of sensors may be implemented in medium mixing system 130 to measure other levels of other parameters associated with medium product 135 . [0074] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, concentrate solution pumps 340 A-H are extremely precise variable speed pumps. In particular, concentrate solution pumps 340 A-F are capable of delivering 0 to 3 liters of fluid per minute with ±1.0% or better accuracy. Concentrate solution pumps 340 G-H are capable of delivering 0 to 3.5 liters of fluid per minute with ±1.0% accuracy. A preferred embodiment of the present invention uses pumps which are manufactured by IVEK, North Springfield, Ver. [0075] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, concentrate solution 115 A and concentrate solution 115 B are reserved for providing an acid solution and a base solution, respectively, to static mixing chamber 310 . Hence, referring to these as “concentrate solutions” may be considered a misnomer. However, as would be apparent, solutions, liquids, etc., other that “concentrate solutions” may be introduced in this manner to static mixing chamber 310 as would be apparent. [0076] In this preferred embodiment of the present invention, acid solution 115 A and caustic solution 115 B adjust a pH level of diluent 125 according to specifications required by the production of medium product 135 . The addition of either acid solution 115 A or caustic solution 115 B to diluent 125 is done first so that the proper pH level of diluent 125 can be achieved prior to the addition of other concentrate solutions 115 C-H. [0077] As shown in FIG. 3, diluent 125 enters static mixing chamber 310 and begins “mixing” sufficiently prior to the addition of any concentrate solutions 115 A-H. This ensures that static mixing chamber 310 can provide a “turbulent diluent stream” from diluent 125 to enhance the overall mixing process between diluent steam 125 and concentrate solution 115 A-H. The turbulent diluent stream is produced from diluent 125 by being forced past a series of baffles within static mixing chamber 310 as is well understood by those in the art. Also, the introduction of a last concentrate solution 115 H occurs sufficiently prior to the end of static mixing chamber 310 so that last concentrate solution 115 H can be sufficiently mixed in turbulent diluent stream. As discussed above, the output of static mixing chamber 310 is medium product 135 . [0078] As shown in FIG. 3, static mixing chamber 310 includes a series of injection ports 315 (shown as injection ports 315 A- 315 H). Injection ports 315 introduce concentrate solutions 115 into static mixing chamber 310 . In particular, injection ports 315 introduce concentrate solutions 115 into turbulent diluent stream 125 . FIG. 6 shows a mechanical drawing of static mixing chamber 310 in further detail. [0079] [0079]FIG. 6A, FIG. 6B, and FIG. 7 illustrate static mixing chamber 310 in greater detail. In particular, FIGS. 6A and 6B are mechanical drawings showing a front view and a right side view, respectively, of static mixing chamber 310 . FIG. 7 is an isometric drawing of static mixing chamber 310 . As shown in FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 7 , static mixing chamber 310 includes a series of injection ports 315 . In particular, static mixing chamber 310 includes two groupings of radially disposed injection ports shown as injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E and injection ports 315 F, 315 G, and 315 H. In addition, as shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B, static mixing chamber 310 also includes two additional injection ports 315 A and 315 B. [0080] Injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E are described as being radially disposed around static mixing chamber 310 . By “radially disposed” it is meant that injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E are located on a common circumference around static mixing chamber 310 . That is, injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E are located at an approximately equal distance from the upstream end of static mixing chamber 310 . Preferably, injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E are spaced equally about the common circumference of static mixing chamber 310 . Thus, for the case of three injection ports, the injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E are space at 120 degree increments. Other embodiments may provide for non-equal spacings about the common circumference. [0081] In one embodiment of the present invention, the injection ports are essentially disposed both “linearly” and “radially” from one another. Such would be the case, for example, where the injection ports were disposed in spiral fashion about static mixing chamber 310 . Depending on the length of the spiral, the injection ports could be considered linearly disposed, radially disposed, or both. [0082] Injection ports 315 F, 315 G, and 315 H are also radially disposed around static mixing chamber 310 . In addition, this group of injection ports, both individually and collectively, is “linearly disposed” along the fluid flow path of static mixing chamber 310 from injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E as shown in FIG. 6. In other words, injection ports 315 F, 315 G, and 315 H are located at an approximately equal distance from the upstream end of static mixing chamber 310 , where this distance is sufficiently different from the distance from the upstream end of static mixing chamber 310 to injection ports 315 C, 315 D, and 315 E. [0083] In the particular embodiment shown in FIG. 6 and FIG. 7, three injection ports are radially disposed from one another in each of the two groups of injection ports. As would be apparent to one skilled in the art, additional injection ports may be included within each group, limited by two parameters. The first parameter is the number of injection ports that can physically, or mechanically, fit around static mixing chamber 310 . The second parameter is the number of injection ports that can be used to introduce concentrate solutions 115 to diluent 125 without the ingredients of concentrate solutions 115 adversely chemically reacting with one another. As also would be apparent, fewer injection ports may be included within each group. [0084] In addition to changing the number of injection ports within each radially disposed group, the number of radially disposed groups may also be changed. The number of radially disposed groups of injection ports is also limited by the same parameters as described above as would be apparent. [0085] As shown in FIG. 6 and FIG. 7, diluent 125 flows from the upstream end of static mixing chamber 310 toward the downstream end of static mixing chamber 310 . Thus, as diluent 125 flows through static mixing chamber 310 , diluent 125 encounters injection ports 315 A and 315 B first, followed by injection ports 315 C, 315 D and 315 E, and finally, injection ports 315 F, 315 G and 315 H. [0086] As thus described, static mixing chamber 310 provides two manners in which different concentrate solutions 115 can be added to diluent 125 . The first manner is to add the different concentrate solutions 115 by using injection ports that are radially disposed from one another such as injection ports 315 F, 315 G, 315 H or injection ports 315 C, 315 D and 315 E. The second manner in which different concentrate solutions 115 can be added to diluent 125 is by using injection ports 315 that are linearly disposed from one another such as injection ports 315 C and 315 F. In either case, an injection port 315 adds a concentrate solution 115 to diluent 125 in a manner such that the concentrate solution 115 becomes sufficiently diluted by diluent 125 prior to encountering any other concentrate solution 115 added from a different injection port 315 . This prevents any adverse chemical reaction between the ingredients of the two concentrate solutions. [0087] While this is true in general, the order of introduction of certain concentrate solutions 115 to diluent 125 from a particular injection port configuration are preferred, while other orders of introduction are discouraged. For example, medium product 135 that includes a base soluble concentrate solution and a group II salts concentrate solution are preferably prepared by introducing these two concentrate solutions into diluent 125 by radially disposed injection ports. Doing so improves the microenvironment chemistry of the resulting medium product 135 . [0088] Also, medium product 135 that includes a group II salts concentrate solution and an acid soluble concentrate solution are preferably prepared by introducing these two concentrate solutions into diluent 125 from linearly disposed injection ports 315 . Introducing these two concentrate solutions from injection ports that are radially disposed from one another is detrimental to product quality and may create an irreversible precipitation of critical cell culture medium components rendering the resulting medium product inactive. [0089] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the following injection ports 315 concentrate solution 115 pairings are used: acid soluble concentrate solutions are introduced by injection port 315 D; group I salts concentrate solutions are introduced by injection port 315 E; group II salts concentrate solutions are introduced by injection port 315 G; base soluble concentrate solutions are introduced by injection port 315 H; acid solutions for adjusting pH are introduced by injection port 315 A; and base (caustic) solutions for adjusting pH are introduced by injection port 315 B. If sodium hydroxide concentrate solutions are used, they are preferably introduced by injection port 315 F. Otherwise, injection port 315 F is reserved for other concentrate solutions not included above. Injection port 315 C is also reserved for other concentrate solutions not included above. [0090] Medium Surge Vessel [0091] [0091]FIG. 4 illustrates medium surge vessel 140 in greater detail. Medium surge vessel 140 includes a medium surge tank 410 , an agitation system 420 , a level indicator 430 , a temperature control system 450 , and a pH sensor 470 . Medium product 135 from medium mixing system 130 enters medium surge tank 410 which provides a buffering mechanism for ALMS 100 . In other words, medium surge vessel 140 provides a “buffer” between the continuous operation of medium mixing system 130 and the discontinuous operation of downstream components of ALMS 100 such as fill system 170 . Thus, medium product 135 from medium mixing system is permitted to accumulate in medium surge vessel 140 when, for example, fill system 170 is temporarily shutdown to change fill containers. [0092] An amount of medium product 135 in medium surge tank 410 is monitored by computer control system 105 via fill indicator 430 . Depending on the level of medium product 135 in medium surge tank 410 , computer control system 105 adjusts the output rate of medium product 135 from medium mixing system 130 . [0093] A pH level of medium product 135 is measured by pH sensor 470 as medium product 135 leaves medium surge tank 410 . This permits computer control system 105 to monitor and ensure the quality of medium product 135 . [0094] In one embodiment of the present invention, agitation system 420 is used to provide agitation (i.e., mixing) to medium product 135 within medium surge tank 410 . In one embodiment, agitation system 420 provides continuous mixing of medium product 135 in medium surge tank 410 . In another embodiment, agitation system 420 provides mixing of medium product in medium surge tank 410 after a particular level is reached or some other parameter. Agitation system 420 may or may not be required in order to maintain medium product 135 in a homogeneous state. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, agitation system 420 is not used. [0095] In one embodiment of the present invention, temperature control system 450 controls the temperature of medium product 135 within medium surge tank 410 . Temperature control system 450 operates so as to maintain a particular temperature of medium product 135 in medium surge tank 410 . Various means of controlling the temperature of the contents of medium surge tank 410 are available as would be apparent. In one embodiment of the present invention, glycol is circulated through an outer tank (not shown) around medium surge tank 410 thereby maintaining a particular temperature of the contents within medium surge tank 410 . In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, temperature control system 450 is not used. [0096] In one embodiment of the present invention, compressed air 460 is provided to medium surge tank 410 to maintain a given head pressure within medium surge tank 410 . Compressed air 460 is used to provide sufficient pressure to move medium product 135 through medium surge tank into prefiltration system 150 . In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the head pressure is maintained between 6 and 10 p.s.i.g. Other embodiments may utilize gases other than air, such as nitrogen, to provide the head pressure as well as to prevent the outgasing from medium product 135 as would be apparent. [0097] Diverter valve 445 is controlled by computer control system 105 to implement the CIP operation as will be discussed below. Diverter valve 445 diverts fluid to spray ball 440 in order to clean the inside of medium surge tank 410 during the CIP operation. [0098] Filtration System [0099] [0099]FIG. 5 illustrates prefiltration system 150 and sterile filtration system 160 in further detail. Prefiltration system 150 includes a prefiltration pump 510 and a prefiltration filter 520 . Prefiltration system 150 receives medium product 145 from medium surge tank 140 . Prefiltration pump 510 pumps medium product 145 through a non-sterile prefilter filter 520 . Prefilter filter 520 is a filter membrane that provides variable filtration of medium product 145 . Depending upon the particular medium product 145 being prepared, the filter membrane is selected to filter particles that may range between 0.1 and 2 microns. [0100] Medium product that has been filtered by prefiltration system 150 enters sterile filtration system 160 . As shown in FIG. 5, sterile filtration system 160 operates in a clean area 180 . Sterile filtration system 160 includes two sterilizing filters 530 A and 530 B in a parallel configuration followed by a final sterilizing filter 540 . This particular configuration of sterilizing filters provides redundant 0.1 or 0.2 micron filtration for medium product 145 . Filtered medium product 165 is output from sterile filtration system 160 and enters fill system 170 . [0101] Sterilizing filters 530 and final sterilizing filter 540 are steam sterilized via a steam in place operation which is discussed in further detail below. In a preferred embodiment, the sterilizing filters are steam sterilized prior to manufacturing a new batch of cell culture medium formulation. [0102] Fill System [0103] As shown, fill system 170 is also contained within clean area 180 . Fill system 170 provides aseptic connections in clean area 180 so that multiple medium product containers can be filled outside of clean area 180 . [0104] In one embodiment of present invention, fill system 170 provides a mechanism whereby multiple containers (i.e., sterile bags, carboys, glass bottles, drums, etc.) can be filled. In another embodiment of the present invention, fill system 170 may not be required or may be modified. For example, an embodiment of ALMS 100 may be implemented to provide medium product 145 directly to a bioreactor as would be apparent. [0105] Diverter valves 505 , 525 and 545 are controlled by computer control system 105 and used during the CIP operation as will be discussed below. The diverter valves provide a mechanism to flush unwanted medium product through to waste disposal system 190 as well as to provide mechanisms to clean and product purge prefilter 520 and sterilizing filters 530 A, 530 B and 540 . [0106] ALMS Process Capability [0107] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, ALMS 100 is designed to operate with flow rates between 1,000 and 3,000 liters or medium product per hour. Other embodiments of the present invention may have different flow rates depending upon the sizing and accuracy of, for example, concentrate solution pumps 340 , diluent input pump 320 , and static mixing chamber 310 . [0108] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, medium product 165 has an intra-run homogeneity with a precision tolerance of ±2.0%. Precision between production runs of medium product 165 from identical concentrated materials is ± 3.0%. Furthermore, a pH fluctuation of medium product 165 is within ±0.1 units. [0109] Clean In Process (CIP) and Steam In Place (SIP) Process Operations [0110] ALMS 100 is designed for on-line sanitization and sterilization in place as required. The sanitization operation is commonly referred to as “clean in place.” The sterilization operation using steam under pressure is commonly referred to as “steam in place.” A typical operation will require sanitization of the entire system including WFI brake tank 230 and steam sterilization of sterile filtration system 160 as well as fill system 170 . [0111] Sanitization of ALMS 100 includes the flushing of the entire ALMS 100 with hot water from hot WFI 220 . Hot water from hot WFI 220 is routed through ALMS 100 via diverter valves (e.g., diverter valve 145 , diverter valve 505 , diverter valve 525 , diverter valve 545 , etc.) to and through spray balls (e.g., spray ball 240 and spray ball 440 ), and recirculated from fill system 170 to media mixing system 130 via an appropriate conduit (shown as line 175 in FIG. 1) to flush ALMS 100 . In one embodiment of the present invention, caustic solution is added to hot water from hot WFI 220 via static mixing chamber 310 to provide a hot caustic sanitization of ALMS 100 . The hot caustic is recirculated, neutralized with acid and sent to waste disposal system 190 . [0112] For sterilizing ALMS 100 , steam is introduced at the sterile filtration system 160 via a steam input port 550 located inside clean area 180 . Steam flows through sterile filtration system 160 , including sterilizing filters 530 and final sterilizing filter 540 , and fill system 170 , and heats these components to sterilization temperatures. The temperature is monitored at appropriate points and sterilization is confirmed using well known time/temperature parameters as would be apparent. [0113] The by-products of the sanitization process are routed to waste disposal system 190 as shown in various figures. In one embodiment of the present invention, waste disposal system treats any by-products of ALMS 100 by appropriate measures so as not to introduce any harmful products into the plant's waste disposal system as would be apparent. [0114] Computer Control System [0115] In various embodiments of the present invention, computer control system 105 is implemented using hardware, software or a combination thereof and may be implemented in a computer system or other processing system. In fact, in one embodiment, the invention is directed toward a computer system capable of carrying out the functionality described herein. An example computer system 802 is shown in FIG. 8. Computer system 802 includes one or more processors, such as processor 804 . Processor 804 is connected to a communication bus 806 . Various software embodiments are described in terms of this example computer system. After reading this description, it will become apparent to a person skilled in the relevant art how to implement the invention using other computer systems and/or computer architectures. [0116] Computer system 802 also includes a main memory 808 , preferably random access memory (RAM), and may also include a secondary memory 810 . Secondary memory 810 may include, for example, a hard disk drive 812 and/or a removable storage drive 814 , representing a floppy disk drive, a magnetic tape drive, an optical disk drive, etc. Removable storage drive 814 reads from and/or writes to a removable storage unit 818 in a well known manner. Removable storage unit 818 , represents a floppy disk, magnetic tape, optical disk, etc. which is read by and written to by removable storage drive 814 . As will be appreciated, removable storage unit 818 includes a computer usable storage medium having stored therein computer software and/or data. [0117] In alternative embodiments, secondary memory 810 may include other similar means for allowing computer programs or other instructions to be loaded into computer system 802 . Such means can include, for example, a removable storage unit 822 and an interface 820 . Examples of such can include a program cartridge and cartridge interface (such as that found in video game devices), a removable memory chip (such as an EPROM, or PROM) and associated socket, and other removable storage units 822 and interfaces 820 which allow software and data to be transferred from the removable storage unit 818 to computer system 802 . [0118] Computer system 802 can also include a communications interface 824 . Communications interface 824 allows software and data to be transferred between computer system 802 and external devices. Examples of communications interface 824 can include a modem, a network interface (such as an Ethernet card), a communications port, a PCMCIA slot and card, etc. Software and data transferred via communications interface 824 are in the form of signals which can be electronic, electromagnetic, optical or other signals capable of being received by communications interface 824 . Signals 826 are provided to communications interface via a channel 828 . Channel 828 carries signals 826 and can be implemented using wire or cable, fiber optics, a phone line, a cellular phone link, an RF link and other communications channels. [0119] In this document, the terms “computer program medium” and “computer usable medium” are used to generally refer to media such as removable storage device 818 , a hard disk installed in hard disk drive 812 , and signals 826 . These computer program products are means for providing software to computer system 802 . [0120] Computer programs (also called computer control logic) are stored in main memory and/or secondary memory 810 . Computer programs can also be received via communications interface 824 . Such computer programs, when executed, enable the computer system 802 to perform the features of the present invention as discussed herein. In particular, the computer programs, when executed, enable processor 804 to perform the features of the present invention. Accordingly, such computer programs represent controllers of the computer system 802 . [0121] In an embodiment where the invention is implement using software, the software may be stored in a computer program product and loaded into computer system 802 using removable storage drive 814 , hard drive 812 or communications interface 824 . The control logic (software), when executed by processor 804 , causes processor 804 to perform the functions of the invention as described herein. [0122] In another embodiment, the invention is implemented primarily in hardware using, for example, hardware components such as application specific integrated circuits (ASICs). Implementation of the hardware state machine so as to perform the functions described herein will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s). [0123] In yet another embodiment, the invention is implemented using a combination of both hardware and software. [0124] Conclusion [0125] While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to several preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

A method for continuously preparing a medium formulation mixes a diluent with a plurality of chemically incompatible concentrate solutions in such a manner that none of the ingredients of the concentrate solutions chemically react in an adverse manner. The method utilizes a static mixing chamber to add the concentrate solutions to the diluent stream sufficiently in advance of one another so that adverse chemical reactions do not occur. The method also adjusts a pH level of the diluent prior to adding any of the concentrate solutions to the diluent.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST This invention was made with Government support under Contract N00024-03-C-6110 awarded by the Department of the Navy. The Government has certain rights in this invention. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The disclosure relates to target tracking devices. More particularly, the disclosure relates to a missile with a ranging bistatic RF seeker. BACKGROUND High-velocity guided missiles are used for intercepting very fast targets, such as ballistic rockets, or highly maneuverable targets. Such missiles use a seeker to detect and guide the missile to the intended target. Seeker-missiles typically employ optical, infrared (IR), radio frequency (RF), or multi-mode seekers for detecting and guiding the missile toward the intended target. Multi-mode seekers, may employ both an IR and/or optical seeker, and a RF seeker for detecting and guiding the missile toward the intended target. Existing multi-mode seekers employ either an active RF seeker providing range and angle information for terminal guidance only, or employ a bistatic RF seeker that is not cohered with an illuminator, and therefore provides angle information only. Consequently, existing multi-mode seekers fail to provide range information over most or all of the intercept path, which degrades their ability to detect and guide the missile toward the intended target. Accordingly, a seeker that provides the missile with ranging information offers the ability to resolve objects in range that are close in angle, and the ability to measure object distance for improved detection and guidance of the missile to its intended target. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic side view of an exemplary embodiment of a missile with bistatic RF ranging capability. FIG. 2 is a schematic front view of the missile of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a system, in which the missile of FIG. 1 may be used. FIG. 4 is a block diagram detailing data flow in the system of FIG. 3 . FIG. 5A schematically illustrates how the bistatic range detector computes the range (bistatic range) of each one of the objects of a cluster of moving, air-borne objects (the range between the missile and the object). FIG. 5B depicts an iso-delay surface for illustrating bistatic range calculations. SUMMARY A seeker apparatus for a missile is disclosed herein. The apparatus includes a an RF antenna; and a bistatic ranging detector operatively connected with the RF antenna. The RF antenna and bistatic ranging detector are operative for detecting one or more guidance objects in a RF band and providing angle and range data to the missile. Further disclosed herein is a missile including a missile body; a missile propulsion system disposed in or on the missile body; and a ranging bistatic RF seeker disposed in or on the missile body. Also disclosed herein is a method for detecting and guiding a missile to a targeted object. The method includes illuminating the target object with RF illumination produced by a source external to and cohered with the missile; detecting RF illumination scattered by the targeted object with an RF seeker of the missile; estimating a range between the missile and the targeted object with the RF seeker using illuminator position data, missile position data, missile attitude data, targeted object delay data and target object angle data; and guiding the missile to the targeted object using the estimated range data. Still further disclosed herein is a method far detecting and guiding a missile to an object targeted in a cluster of objects. The method includes illuminating the objects with RF illumination produced by a source external to and cohered with the missile; detecting RF illumination scattered by each of the objects with an RF seeker of the missile; estimating a range between the missile and each of the objects with the RF seeker using illuminator position data, missile position data, missile attitude data, and target object angle data; and guiding the missile to a selected one of the objects in the cluster of objects based on the estimated ranges, angles, and rates, the selected one of the objects being the targeted object. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 shows an exemplary embodiment of a missile with bistatic RF ranging capability, designated by reference numeral 100 . The missile 100 includes a missile body 102 that contains a guidance and propulsion system 104 . The propulsion sub-system of the guidance and propulsion system 104 includes, for example, a rocket motor, a jet engine, or other thrust-producing device. The guidance and propulsion system provides missile guidance, control, and propulsion to enable the missile to intercept a targeted, moving, air-borne object (target object). The missile 100 further includes a ranging bistatic RF seeker (RF seeker) formed by an RF seeker antenna 122 , a multi-channel receiver 114 , and a bistatic ranging detector 116 . The bistatic RF seeker detects the moving, air-borne targeted object or a cluster of moving, air-borne objects (one of which is the targeted object) in the RF band and provides angle and precision range data for object association and missile guidance. The RF seeker antenna 122 is located in a forward tip 103 of the missile 100 behind a dome 110 which is transparent to infrared and RF radiation. In other embodiments of the missile 100 , the dome 110 may be omitted. The multi-channel receiver 114 is located in the missile body 102 and has one or more inputs that are operatively coupled to one or more outputs of the RF seeker antenna 122 , and an output that is operatively coupled to an input of the bistatic ranging detector 116 . As shown in FIG. 4 , the bistatic ranging detector 116 , in one embodiment, includes a multi-channel detector 408 and a bistatic range estimator 410 operatively coupled to an output of the multi-channel detector 408 . An IR seeker 112 can also be located in the forward tip 103 of the missile 100 behind the dome 110 . The IR seeker 112 is operatively coupled to an input of the RF seeker's multi-channel receiver 114 . The IR seeker 112 detects the moving targeted object or the cluster of moving objects that includes the targeted object, in the IR band and provides precision angle data for object association and missile guidance in conjunction with the ranging bistatic RF seeker. In other embodiments of the missile, the IR seeker 112 may be omitted. An illuminator-synched high-precision clock 120 or other coherent timing source can be included in the missile body 102 of the missile 100 , and is operatively coupled to the input of the multi-channel receiver 114 . The illuminator-synched clock 120 provides the multi-channel receiver 114 with precision time delay data relating to one or more RF radar illuminators located remotely from the missile 100 . In other embodiments, the clock 120 can be included in the RF seeker or be external to both the missile and RF seeker. The missile 100 can further include a GPS/INS navigation system 118 (a global positioning system integrated with an inertial navigation system) operatively coupled to the bistatic ranging detector 116 . The navigation system 118 , in other embodiments, can be included in the RF seeker or be external to both the missile and the RF seeker. The GPS/INS navigation system 118 provides the bistatic ranging detector 116 with missile position and attitude data (seeker navigation data). The bistatic range detector 116 is constructed to generate RF seeker-observed target object angles and RF seeker-observed target object ranges. More specifically, the multi-channel detector 408 of the bistatic range detector 116 generates time synchronized detections, i.e., target object delays and target object angles. The target object angles at the output of the multi-channel detector 408 are available at the output of the bistatic range detector 116 for use in missile guidance and association. The bistatic range estimator of the bistatic range detector 116 uses the time synchronized detections (target delays and target angles) at the output of the multi-channel detector 408 and the missile or seeker navigation data (e.g., missile position, velocity, and/or attitude) at the output of the GPS/INS navigation system 118 , to estimate target object ranges. An RF communications antenna 109 is located on or in the missile body 102 of the missile 100 . The RF communications antenna 109 is operatively coupled to an RF uplink 108 located in the missile body 102 . The RF communications antenna 109 receives target object map (TOM) data (pertaining to the moving targeted object or the cluster of moving objects which includes the targeted object) from a missile firing platform 304 ( FIG. 3 ) of the missile and/or a Radar Command and Control System 302 ( FIG. 3 ) and the RF uplink 108 uploads the object data (TOM data) to an operatively coupled association and selection logic (ASL) unit 106 located in the missile body 102 of the missile 100 . The ASL unit 106 is also operatively coupled to the input of the bistatic ranging detector 116 and an input of the guidance and propulsion system 104 . The ASL unit 106 processes the object data received from the RF uplink 108 and the estimated seeker angle and range data at the output of the bistatic ranging detector 116 , to associate by position and velocity, the moving targeted object or the cluster of moving objects that includes the targeted object observed or detected by the RF seeker (and the IR seeker if equipped), with targeted object guidance data provided by the missile firing platform 304 of the missile and/or the Radar Command and Control System 302 via the RF uplink, and in the case of the cluster of objects selects a “best” one of the objects in the cluster (i.e., the targeted object to intercept) for input to the guidance and propulsion system 104 . FIG. 2 is a front view of the missile. As can be seen, the RF seeker antenna 122 , in one exemplary embodiment, is formed by a set of sub-arrays 122 a , each sub-array 112 a being formed by one or more antenna elements. The sub-arrays 122 a of the RF seeker antenna 122 conventionally sense and convert scattered RF radar illumination into a radar signal which is applied to the input of the multi-channel receiver 114 . FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an exemplary embodiment of a system, designated by reference numeral 300 , in which the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 may be used. The system 300 includes, a Radar Command and Control System (RCCS) 302 , a missile firing platform 304 for firing the missile 100 , an RF illuminator 306 located at the firing platform 304 , and/or one or more RF illuminators 308 located remote from the firing platform. The missile 100 , the missile firing platform 304 , the RF illuminator 306 , and the remotely located RF illuminator(s) 308 are operatively coupled (using e.g., any suitable wireless method) with the RCCS 302 . The RCCS 302 coordinates the missile 100 , the missile firing platform 304 and the RF illuminators 306 , 308 and provides command and control services between assets (not shown). The one or more remote RF illuminators 308 may be located on the ground, in the sky, at sea, in space or in or at any other remote location. In addition, the RF illuminators 306 , 308 form an external RF radar illumination source for the missile 100 . Although the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 uses bistatic ranging in conjunction with some type of association logic to associate with an external TOM, it should be understood that in other embodiments, the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 can operate with just course guidance (point and direction) and without any external information. Referring still to FIG. 3 , the RCCS 302 directs the RF illuminator(s) ( 306 , 308 ) to illuminate one or more air-borne objects 310 with remote RF radar illumination. The RF illuminators 306 , 308 sense the RF illumination scattered by one or more objects in object cluster 310 and communicate this radar data (illuminator sensed radar data) to the RCCS 302 . The RCCS 302 evaluates the illuminator sensed radar data and possibly data from other sensor assets (not shown), to produce targeted object guidance information for the missile 100 . The RCCS 302 communicates the targeted object guidance information to the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 and/or the missile platform 304 and then, the RCCS 302 and/or the platform 304 fires the missile 100 . As the missile 100 travels towards a targeted one of the objects in the cluster of objects 310 , the missile 100 is cohered with the external illumination provided by first and second RF illuminators 306 , 308 because the RCCS 302 continuously sends updated targeted object guidance information to the missile 100 . The missile 100 receives and processes the targeted object guidance data and associates the cluster of objects 310 observed or sensed by the RF seeker and optionally, the IR seeker of the missile 100 with the target object guidance data provided by the missile firing platform 304 of the missile 100 and/or the Radar Command and Control System 302 to select the “best” one of the objects in the object cluster 310 (the targeted object to intercept) for input to the guidance and propulsion system 104 of the missile 100 . FIG. 4 is a block diagram detailing data flow in the system 300 of FIG. 3 . The RF illuminators 306 , 308 each have a coherent timing source 403 (e.g., a high-precision clock) that generates timing data. As the RF illuminators 306 , 308 illuminate the one or more objects in the object cluster 310 and then sense the RF radar illumination scattered by the one or more objects in the object cluster 310 , the timing data generated by the coherent timing sources 403 of the RF illuminators 306 , 308 is time synchronize against a time-synched reference 402 (e.g., clock 120 of the missile 100 or an illuminator-synchronize clock). Accordingly, the RF illuminators 306 , 308 form a coherent, external illumination source for the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 the RF illumination of which is cohered with the missile 100 . The time-synched reference 402 coheres the multi-channel detector 408 of the bistatic range detector 116 with one or more remote RF radar illuminators 306 , 308 . Illuminator position data 404 provided by the RCCS 302 , 308 and seeker position and attitude data 406 provided by the GPS/INS 118 of the missile 100 , are applied to the bistatic range estimator 410 of the bistatic range detector 116 of the missile 100 . The RF seeker antenna 122 of the missile 100 conventionally senses and converts the RF illuminator's radar illumination scattered by the objects in the cluster 310 into a radar signal (e.g., a voltage), which radar signal is communicated to the multi-channel receiver 114 . The multi-channel receiver 114 conventionally processes the radar signal and applies the processed radar signal to the input of the multi-channel detector 408 . The multi-channel detector 408 applies target object delay data 408 - m and target object angle data 408 TA to the input of the bistatic range estimator 410 . The multi-channel detector also applies the target object angle data 408 TA to the input of the ASL unit 106 . The bistatic range estimator 410 uses the illuminator position data 404 , the seeker position and attitude data 406 , the target object delay data 408 TD and the target object angle data 408 TA , to estimate target object range data 410 TR for each object detected in the cluster 310 , which is applied to the input of the ASL unit 106 . The ASL unit 106 processes the target object angle data 408 TA received from the multichannel detector 408 , the estimated target object range data 410 TR received from the bistatic range estimator 410 , and the object data (TOM data) 108 O received from the RF uplink 108 , to perform the earlier described association and guidance functions, i.e., associate the one or more target objects observed or detected by the RF seeker of the missile 100 with the guidance object data (e.g., object track and discrimination data) provided by the missile firing platform 304 of the missile and/or the Radar Command and Control System 302 , and select the best guidance object (the object in the cluster which best matches targeted object to hit) for input to the guidance and propulsion system 104 of the missile 200 . Any suitable matching method, such as a goodness-of-fit or closeness metric, can be used for selecting the best guidance object. FIG. 5A schematically illustrates how the bistatic ranging detector 116 of the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 calculates the range (bistatic range) of each one of the objects (the target object for that calculation) of the cluster (the range 506 between the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 and the target object 500 ). The RF seeker of the missile 100 senses or detects a response by each one of the target objects 500 , to a given one of the RF illuminators (either RF illuminator 306 or 308 ) along a surface 502 of constant time delay, i.e., an iso-delay surface. The iso-delay surface 502 can be determined by measuring the time delay difference between the received waveform and the on-missile waveform generated from the cohered clock. The iso-delay surface 502 forms an ellipsoid whose two foci are coincident with the RF illuminator 306 or 308 and the missile 100 . For each one of the target objects 500 of the cluster, the distance or range 504 from the missile 100 to the target object 500 is the point of intersection 510 between the ellipsoid surface 502 and a line 506 subtended in the seeker observed direction 508 defined by angles Φ, Θ. The angles Φ, Θ can be determined using a monopulse or phase difference of arrival technique. Because the RE seeker of the missile 100 and the RF illuminator 306 or 308 are cohered, i.e., the timing data generated by the coherent timing sources 403 of the RF illuminators 306 , 308 is time synchronized against the time-synched reference 402 , the bistatic ranging detector 116 of the RF seeker of the missile 100 can estimate the range 506 between the missile 100 and the target object 500 . In one exemplary embodiment, the illuminator waveforms are time and/or phase coded to maximize range resolution, accuracy, and detection; and minimize range ambiguity. Time and/or phase coding is often employed in other digital communications systems, such as GPS, for instance for similar reasons stated. The bistatic range calculations performed by the bistatic ranging detector 116 of the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 will now be described with reference to the iso-delay surface 502 (τ) illustrated in FIG. 5B . Given the following expressions: ∥ P Tgt −P Skr ∥+∥P Tgt −P III ∥c·τ P Tgt =P Skr +R·d R = c 2 · τ 2 - [ P Skr - P I ⁢ ⁢ 11 ] T ⁡ [ P Skr - P I ⁢ ⁢ 11 ] 2 · ( s · τ + d T ⁡ [ P Skr - P I ⁢ ⁢ 11 ] ) . where: P Tgt is the location vector or point of the target object 500 on the iso-delay surface 502 ; P Skr is the location vector or point of the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 on the iso-delay surface 502 ; P III is the location vector or point of the RF illuminator 306 or 308 on the iso-delay surface 502 ; ∥P Tgt −P Skr ∥ is the norm of the distance on the iso-delay surface 502 between the point of the target object 500 and the point of the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 ; ∥P Tgt −P III ∥ is the norm of the distance on the iso-delay surface 502 between the point of the target object 500 and the point of the RF illuminator 306 or 308 ; c is the velocity constant for speed of light; and d is the RF seeker-equipped missile-to-target object direction vector, the bistatic range R, i.e., the range between the RF seeker-equipped missile 100 and the target object 500 , can be estimated using the following expression: d =  cos ⁡ ( φ ) · cos ⁡ ( θ )   cos ⁡ ( φ ) · sin ⁡ ( θ )   sin ⁡ ( φ ) ,  The bistatic range data (the estimated target object range data 410 TR ) can then be used by the ASL unit 106 along with the target object angle data 408 TH and the object data (TOM data) 108 O , to perform the earlier described association and guidance functions and select the best guidance object (target object to hit) for input to the guidance and propulsion system 104 of the missile 200 . While exemplary drawings and specific embodiments have been described and illustrated herein, it is to be understood that that the scope of the present disclosure is not to be limited to the particular embodiments discussed. Thus, the embodiments shall be regarded as illustrative rather than restrictive, and it should be understood that variations may be made in those embodiments by persons skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the claims that follow and their structural and functional equivalents.

A ranging seeker apparatus includes an RF antenna and a bistatic ranging detector operatively connected with the RF antenna. The RF antenna and bistatic ranging detector are operative for detecting one or more guidance objects in a RF band and providing angle and range data to the missile. Also, a missile including a missile body, a missile propulsion system disposed in or on the missile body, and the ranging bistatic RF seeker disposed in or on the missile body.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application takes priority from U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/691,792 filed on Jun. 17, 2005. This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/783,471 filed Feb. 20, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,114,581 which is: (i) a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/251,138 filed Sep. 20, 2002 now abandoned, which takes priority from U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/323,803 filed on Sep. 20, 2001, titled “Active Controlled Bottomhole Pressure System and Method” and (ii) a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/716,106 filed on Nov. 17, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,854,532 which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/094,208, filed Mar. 8, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,648,081 granted on Nov. 18, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/353,275, filed Jul. 14, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,415,877, which claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/108,601, filed Nov. 16, 1998, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/101,541, filed Sep. 23, 1998, U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/092,908, filed, Jul. 15, 1998 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/095,188, filed Aug. 3, 1998. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to oilfield wellbore drilling systems and more particularly to drilling systems that utilize active control of bottomhole pressure or equivalent circulating density during drilling of the wellbores. BACKGROUND OF THE ART Oilfield wellbores are drilled by rotating a drill bit conveyed into the wellbore by a drill string. The drill string includes a drill pipe (tubing) that has at its bottom end a drilling assembly (also referred to as the “bottomhole assembly” or “BHA”) that carries the drill bit for drilling the wellbore. The drill pipe is made of jointed pipes. Alternatively, coiled tubing may be utilized to carry the drilling of assembly. The drilling assembly usually includes a drilling motor or a “mud motor” that rotates the drill bit. The drilling assembly also includes a variety of sensors for taking measurements of a variety of drilling, formation and BHA parameters. A suitable drilling fluid (commonly referred to as the “mud”) is supplied or pumped under pressure from a source at the surface down the tubing. The drilling fluid drives the mud motor and then discharges at the bottom of the drill bit. The drilling fluid returns uphole via the annulus between the drill string and the wellbore inside and carries with it pieces of formation (commonly referred to as the “cuttings”) cut or produced by the drill bit in drilling the wellbore. For drilling wellbores under water (referred to in the industry as “offshore” or “subsea” drilling) tubing is provided at a work station (located on a vessel or platform). One or more tubing injectors or rigs are used to move the tubing into and out of the wellbore. In riser-type drilling, a riser, which is formed by joining sections of casing or pipe, is deployed between the drilling vessel and the wellhead equipment at the sea bottom and is utilized to guide the tubing to the wellhead. The riser also serves as a conduit for fluid returning from the wellhead to the sea surface. During drilling, the drilling operator attempts to carefully control the fluid density at the surface so as to control pressure in the wellbore, including the bottomhole pressure. Typically, the operator maintains the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid in the wellbore above the formation or pore pressure to avoid well blow-out. The density of the drilling fluid and the fluid flow rate largely determine the effectiveness of the drilling fluid to carry the cuttings to the surface. One important downhole parameter controlled during drilling is the bottomhole pressure, which in turn controls the equivalent circulating density (“ECD”) of the fluid at the wellbore bottom. This term, ECD, describes the condition that exists when the drilling mud in the well is circulated. The friction pressure caused by the fluid circulating through the open hole and the casing(s) on its way back to the surface, causes an increase in the pressure profile along this path that is different from the pressure profile when the well is in a static condition (i.e., not circulating). In addition to the increase in pressure while circulating, there is an additional increase in pressure while drilling due to the introduction of drill solids into the fluid. This negative effect of the increase in pressure along the annulus of the well is an increase of the pressure which can fracture the formation at the shoe of the last casing. This can reduce the amount of hole that can be drilled before having to set an additional casing. In addition, the rate of circulation that can be achieved is also limited. Also, due to this circulating pressure increase, the ability to clean the hole is severely restricted. This condition is exacerbated when drilling an offshore well. In offshore wells, the difference between the fracture pressures in the shallow sections of the well and the pore pressures of the deeper sections is considerably smaller compared to on shore wellbores. This is due to the seawater gradient versus the gradient that would exist if there were soil overburden for the same depth. In some drilling applications, it is desired to drill the wellbore at at-balance condition or at under-balanced condition. The term at-balance means that the pressure in the wellbore is maintained at or near the formation pressure. The under-balanced condition means that the wellbore pressure is below the formation pressure. These two conditions are desirable because the drilling fluid under such conditions does not penetrate into the formation, thereby leaving the formation virgin for performing formation evaluation tests and measurements. In order to be able to drill a well to a total wellbore depth at the bottomhole, ECD must be reduced or controlled. In subsea wells, one approach is to use a mud-filled riser to form a subsea fluid circulation system utilizing the tubing, BHA, the annulus between the tubing and the wellbore and the mud filled riser, and then inject gas (or some other low density liquid) in the primary drilling fluid (typically in the annulus adjacent the BHA) to reduce the density of fluid downstream (i.e., in the remainder of the fluid circulation system). This so-called “dual density” approach is often referred to as drilling with compressible fluids. Another method for changing the density gradient in a deepwater return fluid path has been proposed, but not used in practical application. This approach proposes to use a tank, such as an elastic bag, at the sea floor for receiving return fluid from the wellbore annulus and holding it at the hydrostatic pressure of the water at the sea floor. Independent of the flow in the annulus, a separate return line connected to the sea floor storage tank and a subsea lifting pump delivers the return fluid to the surface. Although this technique (which is referred to as “dual gradient” drilling) would use a single fluid, it would also require a discontinuity in the hydraulic gradient line between the sea floor storage tank and the subsea lifting pump. This requires close monitoring and control of the pressure at the subsea storage tank, subsea hydrostatic water pressure, subsea lifting pump operation and the surface pump delivering drilling fluids under pressure into the tubing for flow downhole. The level of complexity of the required subsea instrumentation and controls as well as the difficulty of deployment of the system has delayed (if not altogether prevented) the practical application of the “dual gradient” system. Another approach is described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/353,275, filed on Jul. 14, 1999 and assigned to the assignee of the present application. The U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/353,275 is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. One embodiment of this application describes a riser less system wherein a centrifugal pump in a separate return line controls the fluid flow to the surface and thus the equivalent circulating density. The present invention provides a wellbore system wherein the bottomhole pressure and hence the equivalent circulating density is controlled by creating a pressure differential at a selected location in the return fluid path with an active pressure differential device to reduce or control the bottomhole pressure. The present system is relatively easy to incorporate in new and existing systems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides wellbore systems for performing downhole wellbore operations for both land and offshore wellbores. Such drilling systems include a rig that moves an umbilical (e.g., drill string) into and out of the wellbore. The umbilical can include wires for transmitting power such as electrical downhole. A bottomhole assembly, carrying the drill bit, is attached to the bottom end of the drill string. A well control assembly or equipment on the well receives the bottomhole assembly and the tubing. A drilling fluid system supplies a drilling fluid into the tubing, which discharges at the drill bit and returns to the well control equipment carrying the drill cuttings via the annulus between the drill string and the wellbore. A riser dispersed between the wellhead equipment and the surface guides the drill string and provides a conduit for moving the returning fluid to the surface. In one embodiment of the present invention, an active pressure differential device moves in the wellbore as the drill string is moved. In an alternative embodiment, the active differential pressure device is attached to the wellbore inside or wall and remains stationary relative to the wellbore during drilling. The device is operated during drilling, i.e., when the drilling fluid is circulating through the wellbore, to create a pressure differential across the device. This pressure differential alters the pressure on the wellbore below or downhole of the device. The device may be controlled to reduce the bottomhole pressure by a certain amount, to maintain the bottomhole pressure at a certain value, or within a certain range. By severing or restricting the flow through the device, the bottomhole pressure may be increased. The system also includes downhole devices for performing a variety of functions. Exemplary downhole devices include devices that control the drilling flow rate and flow paths. In one embodiment, sensors communicate with a controller via a communication link to maintain the wellbore pressure at a zone of interest at a selected pressure or range of pressures. The communication link can include conductors, wires, cables in or adjacent the drill string that are adapted to convey data signals and/or electrical power. The sensors are strategically positioned throughout the system to provide information or data relating to one or more selected parameters of interest such as drilling parameters, drilling assembly or BHA parameters, and formation or formation evaluation parameters. The controller for suitable for drilling operations preferably includes programs for maintaining the wellbore pressure at zone at under-balance condition, at at-balance condition or at over-balanced condition. The controller may be programmed to activate downhole devices according to programmed instructions or upon the occurrence of a particular condition. Exemplary configurations for the APD Device and associated drive includes a moineau-type pump coupled to positive displacement motor/drive via a shaft assembly. Another exemplary configuration includes a turbine drive coupled to a centrifugal-type pump via a shaft assembly. Preferably, a high-pressure seal separates a supply fluid flowing through the motor from a return fluid flowing through the pump. In a preferred embodiment, the seal is configured to bear either or both of radial and axial (thrust) forces. In still other configurations, a positive displacement motor can drive an intermediate device such as a hydraulic motor, which drives the APD Device. Alternatively, a jet pump can be used, which can eliminate the need for a drive/motor. Moreover, pumps incorporating one or more pistons, such as hammer pumps, may also be suitable for certain applications. In still other configurations, the APD Device can be driven by an electric motor. The electric motor can be positioned external to a drill string or formed integral with a drill string. In a preferred arrangement, varying the speed of the electrical motor directly controls the speed of the rotor in the APD device, and thus the pressure differential across the APD Device. Bypass devices are provided to allow fluid circulation in the wellbore during tripping of the system, to control the operating set points of the APD Device and/or associated drive/motor, and to provide a discharge mechanism to relieve fluid pressure. Embodiments of the present invention can be to manage wellbore pressure even when the formation is not being actively drilled. For example, embodiments of the present invention can be used to control pressure during periods where joints are added to the drill string and when the drill string is tripped into or out of the wellbore. In one embodiment, a system includes a drill string, a drilling fluid unit, a device that allows continuous circulation of drilling fluid into the wellbore, and an APD Device in communication with the drilling fluid to control pressure in the wellbore. The continuous circulation device is adapted to circulate fluid while making up joints to a drill string, while tripping the drill string, and other such activities. In addition to controlling wellbore pressure during drilling of the wellbore, the APD Device also controls wellbore pressure when drilling is stopped for these activities. Using appropriate controls, wellbore pressure can be maintained below the combined pressure caused by weight of the fluid and pressure losses created due to circulation of the fluid in the wellbore, at or near a balanced pressure condition, and at an underbalanced condition. Additionally, the APD Device can be operated to reduce swab effect in the wellbore and/or reduce surge effect in the wellbore. Advantageously, wellbore pressure can be controlled both during the drilling and when the drilling is stopped without substantially changing density of the fluid. In some embodiments, surface control of wellbore pressure is provided by a flow restriction device such as a choke or valve coupled to the fluid flowing out of the annulus of the wellbore. The flow restriction device selectively creates a backpressure in the wellbore that can be used to modulate wellbore pressure. Examples of the more important features of the invention have been summarized (albeit rather broadly) in order that the detailed description thereof that follows may be better understood and in order that the contributions they represent to the art may be appreciated. There are, of course, additional features of the invention that will be described hereinafter and which will form the subject of the claims appended hereto. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For detailed understanding of the present invention, reference should be made to the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing: FIG. 1A is a schematic illustration of one embodiment of a system using an active pressure differential device to manage pressure in a predetermined wellbore location; FIG. 1B graphically illustrates the effect of an operating active pressure differential device upon the pressure at a predetermined wellbore location; FIG. 2 is a schematic elevation view of FIG. 1A after the drill string and the active pressure differential device have moved a certain distance in the earth formation from the location shown in FIG. 1A ; FIG. 3 is a schematic elevation view of an alternative embodiment of the wellbore system wherein the active pressure differential device is attached to the wellbore inside; FIGS. 4A-D are schematic illustrations of one embodiment of an arrangement according to the present invention wherein a positive displacement motor is coupled to a positive displacement pump (the APD Device); FIGS. 5A and 5B are schematic illustrations of one embodiment of an arrangement according to the present invention wherein a turbine drive is coupled to a centrifugal pump (the APD Device); FIGS. 6 is a graph depicting exemplary dynamic pressure losses associated with a conventional drilling system and also a system utilizing an active pressure differential device made in accordance embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a schematic illustration of a continuous circulation system used in conjunction with an APD Device and flow restriction device made in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; and FIG. 8 is a graph depicting exemplary dynamic pressure losses associated with a system utilizing the FIG. 7 system and also the FIG. 7 system when utilizing an active pressure differential device made in accordance embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring initially to FIG. 1A , there is schematically illustrated a system for performing one or more operations related to the construction, logging, completion or work-over of a hydrocarbon producing well. In particular, FIG. 1A shows a schematic elevation view of one embodiment of a wellbore drilling system 100 for drilling wellbore 90 using conventional drilling fluid circulation. The drilling system 100 is a rig for land wells and includes a drilling platform 101 , which may be a drill ship or another suitable surface workstation such as a floating platform or a semi-submersible for offshore wells. For offshore operations, additional known equipment such as a riser and subsea wellhead will typically be used. To drill a wellbore 90 , well control equipment 125 (also referred to as the wellhead equipment) is placed above the wellbore 90 . The wellhead equipment 125 includes a blow-out-preventer stack 126 and a lubricator (not shown) with its associated flow control. This system 100 further includes a well tool such as a drilling assembly or a bottomhole assembly (“BHA”) 135 at the bottom of a suitable umbilical such as drill string or tubing 121 (such terms will be used interchangeably). In a preferred embodiment, the BHA 135 includes a drill bit 130 adapted to disintegrate rock and earth. The bit can be rotated by a surface rotary drive or a motor using pressurized fluid (e.g., mud motor) or an electrically driven motor. The tubing 121 can be formed partially or fully of drill pipe, metal or composite coiled tubing, liner, casing or other known members. Additionally, the tubing 121 can include data and power transmission carriers such fluid conduits, fiber optics, and metal conductors. Conventionally, the tubing 121 is placed at the drilling platform 101 . To drill the wellbore 90 , the BHA 135 is conveyed from the drilling platform 101 to the wellhead equipment 125 and then inserted into the wellbore 90 . The tubing 121 is moved into and out of the wellbore 90 by a suitable tubing injection system. During drilling, a drilling fluid from a surface mud system 22 is pumped under pressure down the tubing 121 (a “supply fluid”). The mud system 22 includes a mud pit or supply source 26 and one or more pumps 28 . In one embodiment, the supply fluid operates a mud motor in the BHA 135 , which in turn rotates the drill bit 130 . The drill string 121 rotation can also be used to rotate the drill bit 130 , either in conjunction with or separately from the mud motor. The drill bit 130 disintegrates the formation (rock) into cuttings 147 . The drilling fluid leaving the drill bit travels uphole through the annulus 194 between the drill string 121 and the wellbore wall or inside 196 , carrying the drill cuttings 147 therewith (a “return fluid”). The return fluid discharges into a separator (not shown) that separates the cuttings 147 and other solids from the return fluid and discharges the clean fluid back into the mud pit 26 . As shown in FIG. 1A , the clean mud is pumped through the tubing 121 while the mud with cuttings 147 returns to the surface via the annulus 194 up to the wellhead equipment 125 . Once the well 90 has been drilled to a certain depth, casing 129 with a casing shoe 151 at the bottom is installed. The drilling is then continued to drill the well to a desired depth that will include one or more production sections, such as section 155 . The section below the casing shoe 151 may not be cased until it is desired to complete the well, which leaves the bottom section of the well as an open hole, as shown by numeral 156 . As noted above, the present invention provides a drilling system for controlling bottomhole pressure at a zone of interest designated by the numeral 155 and thereby the ECD effect on the wellbore. In one embodiment of the present invention, to manage or control the pressure at the zone 155 , an active pressure differential device (“APD Device”) 170 is fluidly coupled to return fluid downstream of the zone of interest 155 . The active pressure differential device is a device that is capable of creating a pressure differential “ΔP” across the device. This controlled pressure drop reduces the pressure upstream of the APD Device 170 and particularly in zone 155 . The system 100 also includes downhole devices that separately or cooperatively perform one or more functions such as controlling the flow rate of the drilling fluid and controlling the flow paths of the drilling fluid. For example, the system 100 can include one or more flow-control devices that can stop the flow of the fluid in the drill string and/or the annulus 194 . FIG. 1A shows an exemplary flow-control device 173 that includes a device 174 that can block the fluid flow within the drill string 121 and a device 175 that blocks can block fluid flow through the annulus 194 . The device 173 can be activated when a particular condition occurs to insulate the well above and below the flow-control device 173 . For example, the flow-control device 173 may be activated to block fluid flow communication when drilling fluid circulation is stopped so as to isolate the sections above and below the device 173 , thereby maintaining the wellbore below the device 173 at or substantially at the pressure condition prior to the stopping of the fluid circulation. The flow-control devices 174 , 175 can also be configured to selectively control the flow path of the drilling fluid. For example, the flow-control device 174 in the drill pipe 121 can be configured to direct some or all of the fluid in drill string 121 into the annulus 194 . Moreover, one or both of the flow-control devices 174 , 175 can be configured to bypass some or all of the return fluid around the APD device 170 . Such an arrangement may be useful, for instance, to assist in lifting cuttings to the surface. The flow-control device 173 may include check-valves, packers and any other suitable device. Such devices may automatically activate upon the occurrence of a particular event or condition. The system 100 also includes downhole devices for processing the cuttings (e.g., reduction of cutting size) and other debris flowing in the annulus 194 . For example, a comminution device 176 can be disposed in the annulus 194 upstream of the APD device 170 to reduce the size of entrained cutting and other debris. The comminution device 176 can use known members such as blades, teeth, or rollers to crush, pulverize or otherwise disintegrate cuttings and debris entrained in the fluid flowing in the annulus 194 . The comminution device 176 can be operated by an electric motor, a hydraulic motor, by rotation of drill string or other suitable means. The comminution device 176 can also be integrated into the APD device 170 . For instance, if a multi-stage turbine is used as the APD device 170 , then the stages adjacent the inlet to the turbine can be replaced with blades adapted to cut or shear particles before they pass through the blades of the remaining turbine stages. Sensors S 1-n are strategically positioned throughout the system 100 to provide information or data relating to one or more selected parameters of interest (pressure, flow rate, temperature). In a preferred embodiment, the downhole devices and sensors S 1-n , communicate with a controller 180 via a telemetry system (not shown). Using data provided by the sensors S 1-n , the controller 180 maintains the wellbore pressure at zone 155 at a selected pressure or range of pressures. The controller 180 maintains the selected pressure by controlling the APD device 170 (e.g., adjusting amount of energy added to the return fluid line) and/or the downhole devices (e.g., adjusting flow rate through a restriction such as a valve). When configured for drilling operations, the sensors S 1-n provide measurements relating to a variety of drilling parameters, such as fluid pressure, fluid flow rate, rotational speed of pumps and like devices, temperature, weight-on bit, rate of penetration, etc., drilling assembly or BHA parameters, such as vibration, stick slip, RPM, inclination, direction, BHA location, etc. and formation or formation evaluation parameters commonly referred to as measurement-while-drilling parameters such as resistivity, acoustic, nuclear, NMR, etc. One preferred type of sensor is a pressure sensor for measuring pressure at one or more locations. Referring still to FIG. 1A , pressure sensor P 1 provides pressure data in the BHA, sensor P 2 provides pressure data in the annulus, pressure sensor P 3 in the supply fluid, and pressure sensor P 4 provides pressure data at the surface. Other pressure sensors may be used to provide pressure data at any other desired place in the system 100 . Additionally, the system 100 includes fluid flow sensors such as sensor V that provides measurement of fluid flow at one or more places in the system. Further, the status and condition of equipment as well as parameters relating to ambient conditions (e.g., pressure and other parameters listed above) in the system 100 can be monitored by sensors positioned throughout the system 100 : exemplary locations including at the surface (S 1 ), at the APD device 170 (S 2 ), at the wellhead equipment 125 (S 3 ), in the supply fluid (S 4 ), along the tubing 121 (S 5 ), at the well tool 135 (S 6 ), in the return fluid upstream of the APD device 170 (S 7 ), and in the return fluid downstream of the APD device 170 (S 8 ). It should be understood that other locations may also be used for the sensors S 1-n . The controller 180 for suitable for drilling operations preferably includes programs for maintaining the wellbore pressure at zone 155 at under-balance condition, at at-balance condition or at over-balanced condition. The controller 180 includes one or more processors that process signals from the various sensors in the drilling assembly and also controls their operation. The data provided by these sensors S 1−n and control signals transmitted by the controller 180 to control downhole devices such as devices 173 - 176 are communicated by a suitable two-way telemetry system (not shown). A separate processor may be used for each sensor or device. Each sensor may also have additional circuitry for its unique operations. The controller 180 , which may be either downhole or at the surface, is used herein in the generic sense for simplicity and ease of understanding and not as a limitation because the use and operation of such controllers is known in the art. The controller 180 preferably contains one or more microprocessors or micro-controllers for processing signals and data and for performing control functions, solid state memory units for storing programmed instructions, models (which may be interactive models) and data, and other necessary control circuits. The microprocessors control the operations of the various sensors, provide communication among the downhole sensors and provide two-way data and signal communication between the drilling assembly 30 , downhole devices such as devices 173 - 175 and the surface equipment via the two-way telemetry. In other embodiments, the controller 180 can be a hydro-mechanical device that incorporates known mechanisms (valves, biased members, linkages cooperating to actuate tools under, for example, preset conditions). For convenience, a single controller 180 is shown. It should be understood, however, that a plurality of controllers 180 can also be used. For example, a downhole controller can be used to collect, process and transmit data to a surface controller, which further processes the data and transmits appropriate control signals downhole. Other variations for dividing data processing tasks and generating control signals can also be used. In general, however, during operation, the controller 180 receives the information regarding a parameter of interest and adjusts one or more downhole devices and/or APD device 170 to provide the desired pressure or range or pressure in the vicinity of the zone of interest 155 . For example, the controller 180 can receive pressure information from one or more of the sensors (S 1 -S 2 ) in the system 100 . The controller 180 may control the APD Device 170 in response to one or more of: pressure, fluid flow, a formation characteristic, a wellbore characteristic and a fluid characteristic, a surface measured parameter or a parameter measured in the drill string. The controller 180 determines the ECD and adjusts the energy input to the APD device 170 to maintain the ECD at a desired or predetermined value or within a desired or predetermined range. The wellbore system 100 thus provides a closed loop system for controlling the ECD in response to one or more parameters of interest during drilling of a wellbore. This system is relatively simple and efficient and can be incorporated into new or existing drilling systems and readily adapted to support other well construction, completion, and work-over activities. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1A , the APD Device 170 is shown as a turbine attached to the drill string 121 that operates within the annulus 194 . Other embodiments, described in further detail below can include centrifugal pumps, positive displacement pump, jet pumps and other like devices. During drilling, the APD Device 170 moves in the wellbore 90 along with the drill string 121 . The return fluid can flow through the APD Device 170 whether or not the turbine is operating. However, the APD Device 170 , when operated creates a differential pressure thereacross. As described above, the system 100 in one embodiment includes a controller 180 that includes a memory and peripherals 184 for controlling the operation of the APD Device 170 , the devices 173 - 176 , and/or the bottomhole assembly 135 . In FIG. 1A , the controller 180 is shown placed at the surface. It, however, may be located adjacent the APD Device 170 , in the BHA 135 or at any other suitable location. The controller 180 controls the APD Device to create a desired amount of ΔP across the device, which alters the bottomhole pressure accordingly. Alternatively, the controller 180 may be programmed to activate the flow-control device 173 (or other downhole devices) according to programmed instructions or upon the occurrence of a particular condition. Thus, the controller 180 can control the APD Device in response to sensor data regarding a parameter of interest, according to programmed instructions provided to said APD Device, or in response to instructions provided to said APD Device from a remote location. The controller 180 can, thus, operate autonomously or interactively. During drilling, the controller 180 controls the operation of the APD Device to create a certain pressure differential across the device so as to alter the pressure on the formation or the bottomhole pressure. The controller 180 may be programmed to maintain the wellbore pressure at a value or range of values that provide an under-balance condition, an at-balance condition or an over-balanced condition. In one embodiment, the differential pressure may be altered by altering the speed of the APD Device. For instance, the bottomhole pressure may be maintained at a preselected value or within a selected range relative to a parameter of interest such as the formation pressure. The controller 180 may receive signals from one or more sensors in the system 100 and in response thereto control the operation of the APD Device to create the desired pressure differential. The controller 180 may contain pre-programmed instructions and autonomously control the APD Device or respond to signals received from another device that may be remotely located from the APD Device. FIG. 1B graphically illustrates the ECD control provided by the above-described embodiment of the present invention and references FIG. 1A for convenience. FIG. 1A shows the APD device 170 at a depth D 1 and a representative location in the wellbore in the vicinity of the well tool 30 at a lower depth D 2 . FIG. 1B provides a depth versus pressure graph having a first curve C 1 representative of a pressure gradient before operation of the system 100 and a second curve C 2 representative of a pressure gradients during operation of the system 100 . Curve C 3 represents a theoretical curve wherein the ECD condition is not present; i.e., when the well is static and not circulating and is free of drill cuttings. It will be seen that a target or selected pressure at depth D 2 under curve C 3 cannot be met with curve C 1 . Advantageously, the system 100 reduces the hydrostatic pressure at depth D 1 and thus shifts the pressure gradient as shown by curve C 3 , which can provide the desired predetermined pressure at depth D 2 . In most instances, this shift is roughly the pressure drop provided by the APD device 170 . FIG. 2 shows the drill string after it has moved the distance “d” shown by t 1− t 2 . Since the APD Device 170 is attached to the drill string 121 , the APD Device 170 also is shown moved by the distance d. As noted earlier and shown in FIG. 2 , an APD Device 170 a may be attached to the wellbore in a manner that will allow the drill string 121 to move while the APD Device 170 a remains at a fixed location. FIG. 3 shows an embodiment wherein the APD Device is attached to the wellbore inside and is operated by a suitable device 172 a . Thus, the APD device can be attached to a location stationary relative to said drill string such as a casing, a liner, the wellbore annulus, a riser, or other suitable wellbore equipment. The APD Device 170 a is preferably installed so that it is in a cased upper section 129 . The device 170 a is controlled in the manner described with respect to the device 170 ( FIG. 1A ). Referring now to FIGS. 4A-D , there is schematically illustrated one arrangement wherein a positive displacement motor/drive 200 is coupled to a moineau-type pump 220 via a shaft assembly 240 . The motor 200 is connected to an upper string section 260 through which drilling fluid is pumped from a surface location. The pump 220 is connected to a lower drill string section 262 on which the bottomhole assembly (not shown) is attached at an end thereof. The motor 200 includes a rotor 202 and a stator 204 . Similarly, the pump 220 includes a rotor 222 and a stator 224 . The design of moineau-type pumps and motors are known to one skilled in the art and will not be discussed in further detail. The shaft assembly 240 transmits the power generated by the motor 200 to the pump 220 . One preferred shaft assembly 240 includes a motor flex shaft 242 connected to the motor rotor 202 , a pump flex shaft 244 connected to the pump rotor 224 , and a coupling shaft 246 for joining the first and second shafts 242 and 244 . In one arrangement, a high-pressure seal 248 is disposed about the coupling shaft 246 . As is known, the rotors for moineau-type motors/pump are subject to eccentric motion during rotation. Accordingly, the coupling shaft 246 is preferably articulated or formed sufficiently flexible to absorb this eccentric motion. Alternately or in combination, the shafts 242 , 244 can be configured to flex to accommodate eccentric motion. Radial and axial forces can be borne by bearings 250 positioned along the shaft assembly 240 . In a preferred embodiment, the seal 248 is configured to bear either or both of radial and axial (thrust) forces. In certain arrangements, a speed or torque converter 252 can be used to convert speed/torque of the motor 200 to a second speed/torque for the pump 220 . By speed/torque converter it is meant known devices such as variable or fixed ratio mechanical gearboxes, hydrostatic torque converters, and a hydrodynamic converters. It should be understood that any number of arrangements and devices can be used to transfer power, speed, or torque from the motor 200 to the pump 220 . For example, the shaft assembly 240 can utilize a single shaft instead of multiple shafts. As described earlier, a comminution device can be used to process entrained cutting in the return fluid before it enters the pump 200 . Such a comminution device ( FIG. 1A ) can be coupled to the drive 200 or pump 220 and operated thereby. For instance, one such comminution device or cutting mill 270 can include a shaft 272 coupled to the pump rotor 224 . The shaft 272 can include a conical head or hammer element 274 mounted thereon. During rotation, the eccentric motion of the pump rotor 224 will cause a corresponding radial motion of the shaft head 274 . This radial motion can be used to resize the cuttings between the rotor and a comminution device housing 276 . The FIGS. 4A-D arrangement also includes a supply flow path 290 to carry supply fluid from the device 200 to the lower drill string section 262 and a return flow path 292 to channel return fluid from the casing interior or annulus into and out of the pump 220 . The high pressure seal 248 is interposed between the flow paths 290 and 292 to prevent fluid leaks, particularly from the high pressure fluid in the supply flow path 290 into the return flow path 292 . The seal 248 can be a high-pressure seal, a hydrodynamic seal or other suitable seal and formed of rubber, an elastomer, metal or composite. Additionally, bypass devices are provided to allow fluid circulation during tripping of the downhole devices of the system 100 ( FIG. 1A ), to control the operating set points of the motor 200 and pump 220 , and to provide safety pressure relief along either or both of the supply flow path 290 and the return flow path 292 . Exemplary bypass devices include a circulation bypass 300 , motor bypass 310 , and a pump bypass 320 . The circulation bypass 300 selectively diverts supply fluid into the annulus 194 ( FIG. 1A ) or casing C interior. The circulation bypass 300 is interposed generally between the upper drill string section 260 and the motor 200 . One preferred circulation bypass 300 includes a biased valve member 302 that opens when the flow-rate drops below a predetermined valve. When the valve 302 is open, the supply fluid flows along a channel 304 and exits at ports 306 . More generally, the circulation bypass can be configured to actuate upon receiving an actuating signal and/or detecting a predetermined value or range of values relating to a parameter of interest (e.g., flow rate or pressure of supply fluid or operating parameter of the bottomhole assembly). The circulation bypass 300 can be used to facilitate drilling operations and to selective increase the pressure/flow rate of the return fluid. The motor bypass 310 selectively channels conveys fluid around the motor 200 . The motor bypass 310 includes a valve 312 and a passage 314 formed through the motor rotor 202 . A joint 316 connecting the motor rotor 202 to the first shaft 242 includes suitable passages (not shown) that allow the supply fluid to exit the rotor passage 314 and enter the supply flow path 290 . Likewise, a pump bypass 320 selectively conveys fluid around the pump 220 . The pump bypass includes a valve and a passage formed through the pump rotor 222 or housing. The pump bypass 320 can also be configured to function as a particle bypass line for the APD device. For example, the pump bypass can be adapted with known elements such as screens or filters to selectively convey cuttings or particles entrained in the return fluid that are greater than a predetermined size around the APD device. Alternatively, a separate particle bypass can be used in addition to the pump bypass for such a function. Alternately, a valve (not shown) in a pump housing 225 can divert fluid to a conduit parallel to the pump 220 . Such a valve can be configured to open when the flow rate drops below a predetermined value. Further, the bypass device can be a design internal leakage in the pump. That is, the operating point of the pump 220 can be controlled by providing a preset or variable amount of fluid leakage in the pump 220 . Additionally, pressure valves can be positioned in the pump 220 to discharge fluid in the event an overpressure condition or other predetermined condition is detected. Additionally, an annular seal 299 in certain embodiments can be disposed around the APD device to direct the return fluid to flow into the pump 220 (or more generally, the APD device) and to allow a pressure differential across the pump 220 . The seal 299 can be a solid or pliant ring member, an expandable packer type element that expands/contracts upon receiving a command signal, or other member that substantially prevents the return fluid from flowing between the pump 220 (or more generally, the APD device) and the casing or wellbore wall. In certain applications, the clearance between the APD device and adjacent wall (either casing or wellbore) may be sufficiently small as to not require an annular seal. During operation, the motor 200 and pump 220 are positioned in a well bore location such as in a casing C. Drilling fluid (the supply fluid) flowing through the upper drill string section 260 enters the motor 200 and causes the rotor 202 to rotate. This rotation is transferred to the pump rotor 222 by the shaft assembly 240 . As is known, the respective lobe profiles, size and configuration of the motor 200 and the pump 220 can be varied to provide a selected speed or torque curve at given flow-rates. Upon exiting the motor 200 , the supply fluid flows through the supply flow path 290 to the lower drill string section 262 , and ultimately the bottomhole assembly (not shown). The return fluid flows up through the wellbore annulus (not shown) and casing C and enters the cutting mill 270 via a inlet 293 for the return flow path 292 . The flow goes through the cutting mill 270 and enters the pump 220 . In this embodiment, the controller 180 ( FIG. 1A ) can be programmed to control the speed of the motor 200 and thus the operation of the pump 220 (the APD Device in this instance). It should be understood that the above-described arrangement is merely one exemplary use of positive displacement motors and pumps. For example, while the positive displacement motor and pump are shown in structurally in series in FIGS. 4A-D , a suitable arrangement can also have a positive displacement motor and pump in parallel. For example, the motor can be concentrically disposed in a pump. Referring now to FIGS. 5A-B , there is schematically illustrated one arrangement wherein a turbine drive 350 is coupled to a centrifugal-type pump 370 via a shaft assembly 390 . The turbine 350 includes stationary and rotating blades 354 and radial bearings 402 . The centrifugal-type pump 370 includes a housing 372 and multiple impeller stages 374 . The design of turbines and centrifugal pumps are known to one skilled in the art and will not be discussed in further detail. The shaft assembly 390 transmits the power generated by the turbine 350 to the centrifugal pump 370 . One preferred shaft assembly 350 includes a turbine shaft 392 connected to the turbine blade assembly 354 , a pump shaft 394 connected to the pump impeller stages 374 , and a coupling 396 for joining the turbine and pump shafts 392 and 394 . The FIG. 5A-B arrangement also includes a supply flow path 410 for channeling supply fluid shown by arrows designated 416 and a return flow path 418 to channel return fluid shown by arrows designated 424 . The supply flow path 410 includes an inlet 412 directing supply fluid into the turbine 350 and an axial passage 413 that conveys the supply fluid exiting the turbine 350 to an outlet 414 . The return flow path 418 includes an inlet 420 that directs return fluid into the centrifugal pump 370 and an outlet 422 that channels the return fluid into the casing C interior or wellbore annulus. A high pressure seal 400 is interposed between the flow paths 410 and 418 to reduce fluid leaks, particularly from the high pressure fluid in the supply flow path 410 into the return flow path 418 . A small leakage rate is desired to cool and lubricate the axial and radial bearings. Additionally, a bypass 426 can be provided to divert supply fluid from the turbine 350 . Moreover, radial and axial forces can be borne by bearing assemblies 402 positioned along the shaft assembly 390 . Preferably a comminution device 373 is provided to reduce particle size entering the centrifugal pump 370 . In a preferred embodiment, one of the impeller stages is modified with shearing blades or elements that shear entrained particles to reduce their size. In certain arrangements, a speed or torque converter 406 can be used to convert a first speed/torque of the motor 350 to a second speed/torque for the centrifugal pump 370 . It should be understood that any number of arrangements and devices can be used to transfer power, speed, or torque from the turbine 350 to the pump 370 . For example, the shaft assembly 390 can utilize a single shaft instead of multiple shafts. It should be appreciated that a positive displacement pump need not be matched with only a positive displacement motor, or a centrifugal pump with only a turbine. In certain applications, operational speed or space considerations may lend itself to an arrangement wherein a positive displacement drive can effectively energize a centrifugal pump or a turbine drive energize a positive displacement pump. It should also be appreciated that the present invention is not limited to the above-described arrangements. For example, a positive displacement motor can drive an intermediate device such as an electric motor or hydraulic motor provided with an encapsulated clean hydraulic reservoir. In such an arrangement, the hydraulic motor (or produced electric power) drives the pump. These arrangements can eliminate the leak paths between the high-pressure supply fluid and the return fluid and therefore eliminates the need for high-pressure seals. Alternatively, a jet pump can be used. In an exemplary arrangement, the supply fluid is divided into two streams. The first stream is directed to the BHA. The second stream is accelerated by a nozzle and discharged with high velocity into the annulus, thereby effecting a reduction in annular pressure. Pumps incorporating one or more pistons, such as hammer pumps, may also be suitable for certain applications. In other embodiments, an electrical motor can be used to drive and control the APD Device. Varying the speed of the electrical motor will directly control the speed of the rotor in the APD device, and thus the pressure differential across the APD Device. It will be appreciated that many variations to the above-described embodiments are possible. For example, a clutch element can be added to the shaft assembly connecting the drive to the pump to selectively couple and uncouple the drive and pump. Further, in certain applications, it may be advantages to utilize a non-mechanical connection between the drive and the pump. For instance, a magnetic clutch can be used to engage the drive and the pump. In such an arrangement, the supply fluid and drive and the return fluid and pump can remain separated. The speed/torque can be transferred by a magnetic connection that couples the drive and pump elements, which are separated by a tubular element (e.g., drill string). Additionally, while certain elements have been discussed with respect to one or more particular embodiments, it should be understood that the present invention is not limited to any such particular combinations. For example, elements such as shaft assemblies, bypasses, comminution devices and annular seals discussed in the context of positive displacement drives can be readily used with electric drive arrangements. Other embodiments within the scope of the present invention that are not shown include a centrifugal pump that is attached to the drill string. The pump can include a multi-stage impeller and can be driven by a hydraulic power unit, such as a motor. This motor may be operated by the drilling fluid or by any other suitable manner. Still another embodiment not shown includes an APD Device that is fixed to the drill string, which is operated by the drill string rotation. In this embodiment, a number of impellers are attached to the drill string. The rotation of the drill string rotates the impeller that creates a differential pressure across the device. It should be appreciated that the teachings of the present invention can be advantageously applied to manage wellbore pressure throughout the well construction process. As is known, formations can have a narrow “window” within which wellbore pressure must be maintained to prevent a kick or damage to the formation. As discussed previously, the lower pressure limit is generally the pore pressure of the formation and the upper limit is the fracture pressure of the formation. Wellbore pressure should be maintained within this “window” both when the formation is being drilled and during periods when drilling has been interrupted. Instances where drilling is interrupted include periods where joints are added to the drill string and when the drill string is tripped into or out of the wellbore. Advantageously, embodiments of the present invention can be used to control pressure in such situations. An exemplary situation wherein it is desirable to control wellbore pressure arises while drilling is interrupted in order to add a joint of pipe to the drill string. Conventionally, drilling is halted and fluid circulation is stopped so that the pipe can be added to the drill string at the rig. Referring now to FIG. 6 , there is shown a graph illustrating changes in wellbore pressure during such a procedure. The x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents dynamic pressure loss. For reference, a zero value for dynamic pressure loss is labeled with numeral 0. A line 700 generally represents wellbore pressure associated with a conventional drilling system. Interval 702 represent a time period when drilling is halted, interval 704 represent a time period when drilling is occurring and interval 706 represents transient conditions. At interval 702 , there is no fluid circulation and, therefore, no dynamic pressure loss. Thus, wellbore pressure at interval 702 is generally the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column. At interval 704 , a dynamic pressure loss occurs due to fluid circulation, which manifests itself as an increase in wellbore pressure. While the interval 706 is shown as smooth transitions between the upper and lower pressure values, it should be understood that the cycling of mud pumps and other factors can cause spikes in pressure. As can be seen, with conventional drilling systems, wellbore pressure periodically varies between an upper and lower pressure value due to dynamic pressure losses. Advantageously, utilization of an APD Device, such as those previously described in connection with FIGS. 1A-5 , can increase flexibility in selecting operating parameters and improve drilling operations. For instance, a line 710 represents the pressure associated with a drilling system utilizing an APD Device (e.g., the APD Device 170 of FIG. 1A ). The line 710 is shown offset from the lower pressure values of line 700 merely for clarity. For line 710 , interval 712 represents a time period when drilling is halted and interval 714 represents a time period when drilling is occurring. Intervals of transient conditions can exist but have been omitted for simplicity. At interval 712 , there is no fluid circulation and, therefore, no dynamic pressure loss. While an APD Device could be operating, it assumed that the APD Device is stopped. Thus, wellbore pressure at interval 712 is generally the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column. At interval 714 , a pressure loss normally occurs due to fluid circulation, which manifests itself as an increase in wellbore pressure. However, the APD Device reduces the dynamic pressure loss at interval 704 of line 700 . For simplicity, the pressure differential generated by the APD Device is shown as generally equaling the dynamic pressure loss. The pressure differential, however, can be selected to be a fraction or a multiple of the dynamic pressure loss. As can be seen, the APD Device can reduce the magnitude of the pressure changes, which can lead to a more benign pressure condition in the wellbore when fluid circulation is periodically halted. As discussed below, the utility of the present invention extends also to applications where circulation continues even though drilling is halted. Referring now to FIG. 7 , there is schematically shown a conventional drilling rig 730 utilizing a continuous circulation system 732 . The rig 730 includes known equipment such as a top drive 734 , a blowout preventer (BOP) stack 736 , and a fluid circulation system 738 , which includes known equipment such as a pump, mud pit and suitable conduits. A drill string 740 suspended from the rig 730 drills a wellbore 742 in a formation 737 . The continuous circulation system 732 includes a coupler 733 that is connected to the top drive 734 and drill string 740 . During operation, the top drive 734 rotates the drill string 740 while the fluid circulation system 738 pumps drilling fluid into the wellbore 742 via the top drive 734 and drill string 740 . The coupler 733 maintains fluid circulation through the drill string 740 and to the wellbore 742 even when the top drive 734 is uncoupled from the drill string 740 . The coupler 733 can include suitable rams and isolation chambers that direct drilling fluid into the drill string while one or more tubular joints are made up to the drill string. One suitable coupler is discussed in “Continuous Circulation Drilling”, OTC 14269, J. W. Jenner, et al., which is hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes. Thus, the continuous circulation system 732 reduces or eliminates the instances where drilling fluid ceases to flow in the wellbore 742 . Thus, wellbore pressure does not normally drop to hydrostatic pressure when the continuous circulation system 732 is in operation. It should be understood that the coupler 733 is merely representative of devices and equipment that convey fluid into the wellbore while making a connection to the drill string or while tripping the drill string. The teachings of the present invention can be advantageously utilized with any device or system that can convey fluid into the wellbore during activities such as tripping and connections interrupt drilling. Moreover, the term “continuous circulation system” should be understood generically to refer to one or more devices that can be operated to convey fluid and not any particular device or system. Referring now to FIG. 8 , there is shown a graph illustrating the wellbore pressure changes associated with the FIG. 7 system. The x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents dynamic pressure loss. A line 750 represents pressure for the FIG. 7 drilling system. Interval 752 represent a time period when drilling is halted and interval 754 represent a time period when drilling is occurring. For both intervals 752 and 754 , a dynamic pressure loss occurs due to fluid circulation, which manifests itself as an increase in wellbore pressure relative to hydrostatic pressure. Thus, the wellbore pressure is generally the hydrostatic pressure plus ECD for the FIG. 7 system. As noted earlier, wellbore pressure should be maintained between the pore pressure and the fracture pressure. Thus, to prevent a kick, the wellbore pressure associated with operation of the continuous circulation system 732 should remain above pore pressure even if fluid circulation is interrupted. That is, the value of the hydrostatic pressure alone, without dynamic pressure loss, should be greater than pore pressure to ensure formation fluids do not flow into the wellbore since dynamic pressure loss disappears when circulation stops. A conventional circulation system could utilize a drilling fluid having a high enough mud weight to provide a hydrostatic pressure above pore pressure. However, dynamic pressure loss is additive to hydrostatic pressure. Thus, during circulation, dynamic pressure losses could cause wellbore pressure to approach or exceed the fracture pressure of the formation. It should be appreciated that, while the continuous circulation system can provide enhanced drilling operations, constraints relating to drilling operating parameters and formation parameters could limit its applicability in certain situations. Advantageously, use of an APD Device in conjunction with the continuous circulation system can mitigate such constraints. Referring to FIG. 7 , there is shown an APD Device 760 positioned in the wellbore in conjunction with the continuous circulation system 732 . The APD Device 760 creates a pressure differential in the wellbore in a manner previously discussed. Referring now to FIG. 8 , this pressure differential reduces dynamic pressure losses and thereby shifts the line 750 to dashed line 770 . It should be appreciated that this shift can assist in keeping wellbore pressure below the fracture pressure of the formation. Moreover, wellbore pressure can be so maintained even when using a drilling fluid having a mud weight that provides a hydrostatic pressure greater than pore pressure. Thus, if operation of the continuous circulation system is interrupted, then wellbore pressure drops to hydrostatic pressure, which is higher than pore pressure. If operation of the APD Device is interrupted, then wellbore pressure increases to hydrostatic pressure plus ECD. In neither case does wellbore pressure fall below pore pressure. Because the circulating wellbore pressure can be maintained below fracture pressure while still allowing a hydrostatic pressure above pore pressure in the event that circulation is stopped, the risk of a kick is minimized. Furthermore, referring to FIG. 7 , a surface flow modulation or restriction device 780 can be used to control wellbore pressure by controlling the flow of fluid out of the wellbore 742 . The flow restriction device 780 , which can be a choke or valve, can be actuated to modulate flow of drilling fluid out of the annulus of the wellbore 742 and thereby alter wellbore pressure. For example, a restriction of flow can cause a backpressure in the annulus of the wellbore 742 that can increase wellbore pressure. This backpressure can in effect reduce the magnitude of the pressure differential caused by the APD Device 760 . Thus, for example, the APD Device 760 can be operated to provide a generally fixed pressure differential. From the surface, the flow restriction device 780 can be modulated as desired to increase backpressure and thereby set the wellbore pressure. It should be thus appreciated that any device that can control flow out of the wellbore can be suitable for such a purpose. It should be appreciated that although the above discussion related to drilling interruptions for adding joints to a drill string, the utility of the APD Device in conjunction with a continuous circulation system can also be applied to instances such as tripping of a drill string into or out of a wellbore. As noted earlier with reference to FIG. 6 , the transient interval 706 can include pressure spikes that temporarily and significantly vary wellbore pressure; e.g., surge effects can increase wellbore pressure whereas swab effect can decrease wellbore pressure. Operation of the APD Device during such transient conditions can mitigate such effects by appropriately controlling wellbore pressure. Furthermore, while utilization of the APD Device was discussed in the context of the FIG. 7 system, it should be understood that the present teachings can be applied to any drilling system; including offshore systems, land-based systems, coiled tubing systems, rotary table driven systems, tractor based systems, and other systems previously described. While the foregoing disclosure is directed to the preferred embodiments of the invention, various modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art. It is intended that all variations within the scope and spirit of the appended claims be embraced by the foregoing disclosure.

An APD Device provides a pressure differential in a wellbore to control dynamic pressure loss while drilling fluid is continuously circulated in the wellbore. A continuous circulation system circulates fluid both during drilling of the wellbore and when the drilling is stopped. Operating the APD Device allows wellbore pressure control during continuous circulation without substantially changing density of the fluid. The APD Device can maintain wellbore pressure below the combined pressure caused by weight of the fluid and pressure losses created due to circulation of the fluid in the wellbore, maintain the wellbore at or near a balanced pressure condition, maintain the wellbore at an underbalanced condition, reduce the swab effect in the wellbore, and/or reduce the surge effect in the wellbore. A flow restriction device that creates a backpressure in the wellbore annulus provides surface control of wellbore pressure.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, the maneuvering device essentially comprises a shaft arranged on the drawbar of the trailer, the shaft being adjustable for height. At least one wheel is mounted at the end of the shaft with the axis of the wheel being perpendicular to the shaft. The present invention also includes at least one driving means for driving the wheel in rotation about its axis and means for swivelling the wheel. In accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention, the driving means for driving the wheel comprises an electric or internal combustion motor and a speed reducer, both of which are mounted on the top free end of the shaft so as to ensure the transmission of the rotary movement to the wheel. In this first embodiment, the shaft consists of a hollow casing adjustable for height terminating at, for example, a simple rack and pinion assembly in which a pin is located which transmits the rotary movement of the driving means to at least one wheel. Because of the height adjustability, the wheel may be raised or lowered in relation to the drawbar of the trailer depending upon whether the operator has hooked the trailer onto the towing vehicle; or whether the operator has the intention of moving it independently of the towing vehicle. In this embodiment, the wheel swivelling means comprises a handle or a manual steering wheel arranged, for example, on the casing of the driving motor. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, the wheel driving means comprises an electric or an internal combustion motor and a speed reducer, both of which are mounted on the axis of the wheel. In this second embodiment, the shaft is adjustable for height and is able to slide in a sleeve integral with the drawbar of the trailer. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a motorized device for aiding the maneuvering of trailers such as caravans, horse box or boat trailers and the like subsequent to detachment of the trailers from the towing vehicle. Conventional trailers generally comprise a retractable device which aids in manual maneuvers after the trailers are detached from the towing vehicle. Such devices generally comprise a wheel mounted on a pivoting shaft or on a pivoting fork. However, it will be appreciated that as the weight and dimensions of a trailer becomes relatively large, it becomes difficult to steer the trailers by hand and to push them for the purpose of changing their position. This task becomes all the more arduous when the ground is uneven. Accordingly it is an object of the present invention to provide a device for trailer maneuvering which particularly aids the maneuvering of trailers subsequent to their detachment from the towing vehicle. It is another object of the present invention to provide a trailer maneuvering device which comprises at least one driving motor and which aids the operator in movements from place to place, without the operator having to exert considerable muscular effort. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a simple maneuvering device of strong construction which is particulary well suited to the trailers on which it is mounted. Preferably, the means for swivelling the wheel may comprise a motor which is integral with the sleeve; the movement of rotation being transmitted via a means of transmission and reduction to the shaft fitted with a means of longitudinal engagement. In this embodiment, a remote control enables the swivelling of the wheel and the turning thereof to be controlled in such a manner that the trailer may be easily steered. Also in a preferred embodiment, at least one of the driving means comprises an additional power take-off which permits various accessories like a hydraulic pump, a winch or the like to be coupled thereto. The above discussed and other features and advantages of the present invention will be appreciated and understood by those of ordinary skill in the art from the following detailed description and drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Referring now to the drawings, wherein like elements are numbered alike and the several Figures: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a first embodiment of a trailer maneuvering device of the present invention; and FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a second embodiment of a trailer maneuvering device of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring first to FIG. 1, a maneuvering device for trailers is shown in accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention. This maneuvering device comprises a hollow casing 1 mounted on the drawbar of a trailer (not shown) such as a caravan, boat trailer or the like. Hollow casing 1 is slidably received in a sleeve 3 which is integral with the drawbar (not shown) and which is adjusted for height by a conventional rack and pinion assembly 5 shown diagrammatically mounted on casing 1. The bottom end 7 of hollow casing 1 has two wheels 9 mounted on a common axis 11 substantially perpendicular to casing 1. Driving means such as an internal combustion motor followed by a reducer, combined together in a casing 13, is arranged on the top of casing 1. The driving means transmits its turning movement to a pin 2 mounted inside hollow casing 1 and then, in accordance with suitable gearing, movement is transmitted to wheels 9. The maneuvering device of the present invention further comprises means for swivelling wheels 9 in order to be able to steer the trailer in a desired direction. In the case of FIG. 1, this swivelling means is preferably composed of a handle 15 integral with casing 13 which transmits the pivoting movement exerted manually by the operator to the wheels 9. Preferably, the maneuvering device of the present invention is also provided with a safety device which immediately stops the driving means as soon as the operator is no longer in a position to control the device. This safety device may be composed of a conventional declutching lever 17 which the operator must hold at the same time as the handle 15 in a known manner. The maneuvering device of the present invention may also include an auxiliary power take-off 19 which may be engageable with the aid of a lever 21. Power take-off 19 permits various accessories to be coupled thereto. For example, such accessories may consist of a hydraulic pump to work a hydraulic installation, such as a tipping trailer; or a traction winch intended, for example, for boat trailers or trailers intended for vehicle recovery. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, a shaft 1 is arranged in a slideable and adjustable manner in a sleeve 3 made integral with the drawbar 16 of a trailer. Preferably, height adjustment of shaft 1 is made with the aid of a lever 5 whose rotation enables a threaded rod 6 to mesh with an internal thread made in shaft 1. The driving means 13 for the wheel 9 in rotation about its axis 11 is preferably mounted on the end of shaft 1; preferably substantially on the same axis 11 as that of wheel 9. It will be appreciated that the swivelling means for the wheel 9 may also comprise a handle of the abovementioned type. However, it may also comprise a motor 15, preferably an electric motor, followed by a speed reducer which is integral with sleeve 3 and which acts on a longitudinal key 31. Key 31 permits a reducing action over the whole length of shaft 1, that is if shaft 1 is adjusted for height. Of course, other means may also be provided such as a splined shaft together with a toothed belt for accomplishing this reduction in action. This embodiment of FIG. 2 is particulary well suited for a remote control with the aid of a remote control board 33. An extremely simple maneuver is made by the operator on pressing the key according to the easily understood symbols. Thus as shown at 33 in FIG. 2, the control enables the machine to steer the trailer in every direction; forwards, backwards, to the right and to the left, without any effort on the part of the user. It will be appreciated that when the symbol keys "front" and "to the right" are pressed simultaneously, the two motors 13 and 15 are simultaneously actuated. As a result, motor 33 moves the trailer forward and the motor 15 makes the shaft 1 pivot to the right. An advantage of remote control unit 33 is that the user may control the maneuvers of all the positions while having complete visibility about the trailer. It will be further appreciated that the structural details of remote control unit 31 are well known; and that such units are commercially available. In the event that the electric cable which connects remote control 31 to the machine becomes detached, a safety system is switched on, causing the machine to automatically stop. The energy required for the operation of the present invention may be supplied by a 12 or 24 volt automobile type battery (not shown) which is located on the trailer and recharged, for example, by the alternator of the towing vehicle. In an alternative embodiment, electric motor 13 may be replaced by an internal combustion engine of which a second power take-off has to be coupled to reducer 15, possibly with the aid of a flexible drive. The maneuvering device of the present invention has many important features and advantages. For example, when guided by the driver, the present invention is able to push or pull the trailer in all directions without great effort on the part of the driver. In addition, the speed is advantageously adjusted to a value near that of walking pace. It will be appreciated that other accessories may also be provided to the maneuvering device of the present invention such as a headlight 51 (see FIG. 1) or the like. Similarly, the present invention contemplates the use of any suitable and known method for fixing or attaching the maneuvering device of the present invention to the trailer drawbar. While preferred embodiments have been shown and described, various modifications and substitutions may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, it is to be understood that the present invention has been described by way of illustrations and not limitation.

A motorized device for aiding the maneuvering of trailers subsequent to detachment from the towing vehicle is presented which comprises a shaft attachable to the drawbar of the trailer and which is adjustable for height. At least one wheel is mounted at the end of the shaft with the axis of the wheel being perpendicular to the shaft. At least one driving device for driving the wheel in rotation about its axis and a swivelling device for swivelling the wheel are also provided.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a MOS-type integrated circuit for use as an output circuit element of a high breakdown-voltage integrated circuit. 2. Description of the Related Art In the conventional output circuit of a high breakdown-voltage integrated circuit, a p-channel MOSFET having high breakdown voltage and serving as a level shifter, and an n-channel D-MOSFET having high breakdown voltage, are in different island regions of a silicon semiconductor substrate, and are electrically isolated from each other. The structure of this output circuit will be explained, with reference to FIG. 1 showing an essential part thereof. After an oxide (not shown) is deposited on a surface of a p-type silicon semiconductor substrate 50 having boron-concentration of about 5×10 14 /cm 3 , openings are formed in the oxide film at predetermined locations by means of photo lithography. Through the openings, antimony (Sb) is doped in the substrate 50. Then, a layer 51, having a phosphorus concentration of 1×15 15 /cm 3 , is epitaxially formed on the substrate, thus forming buried regions 52 having an antimony concentration of about 10 18 /cm 3 . p-isolating regions 53, having a surface impurity-concentration of about 1×10 19 /cm 3 , are formed in the n--epitaxial layer 51, defining island regions. Further, deep n-regions 54, having a surface impurity-concentration of about 1×10 19 /cm 3 , are formed at the both sides of the buried regions 52. In the upper end portion of the deep n-region 54 of one of the buried regions 52, n-region 55, having a surface arsenic(As)-concentration of about 1×10 20 /cm 3 , is formed such that it is in ohmic contact with an electrode to be formed later. A p--region 56, having a surface boron-concentration of about 1×10 17 /cm 3 , is formed in one of the island regions of the n--epitaxial layer 51. In the p-region 56, n+-regions 57, having a surface As-concentration of about 1×10 20 /cm 3 , are formed. A p+-region 58 is formed between the regions 57. The region 58 has a surface boron-concentration of about 1×10 20 /cm 3 . On the other hand, in the other island region, an n--region 59, having a phosphorus concentration of about 1×10 17 /cm 3 , is formed such that it contacts one of the deep n-regions 54. In the region 59, a p+-region 60 and an n+-region 61 are formed such that they contact each other. The region 60 has a surface boron-concentration of about 1×10 20 /cm 3 , and the region 61 has a surface arsenic-concentration of about 1×10 20 /cm 3 . Moreover a p-region 62 is formed such that it contacts the region 59. The region 62 is formed by doping boron about 5×10 16 /cm 3 , and has a large Xj. In the region 62, a p-region 63 is formed which has a surface boron-concentration of about 1×10 20 /cm 3 . The pn junctions formed of the above-described various impurity regions are exposed in the surface of the layer 51, and are protected by an insulating layer 64. While the layer 64 is shown as one layer in FIG. 1, it is formed of a CVD oxide layer and a thermally oxidized film. Polycrystal silicon layers 65 are buried in the insulating layer 64. A gate electrode 66, a source electrode 67 and a drain electrode 68 made of Al or Al alloy are provided at related openings. Each opening is formed by removing part of the insulating layer 64 above the polycrystal silicon layer 65. A resistor 69 made of polycrystal silicon is formed on the insulating layer 64, and connected to the source and drain electrodes 67 and 68. As is described above, the p-channel MOSFET and n-channel MOSFET are in different island regions of the conventional MOS-type integrated circuit. This structure makes the circuit have a large total parasitic capacitance as much as that of two MOSFETs, since parasitic capacitance is proportional to the area of an element. This being so, an extra amount of current is charged or discharged for the parasitic capacitance during the operation of the circuit, inevitably increasing the power consumption, and also increasing the time required for the charge/discharge and hence decreasing the operation speed. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention has been made to overcome the above-described disadvantages, and therefore intends to save the power consumption of an output circuit having high breakdown voltage and comprising a MOS-type integrated circuit, and also to increase the operation speed of the circuit. To attain the above object, the MOS-type integrated circuit of the present invention comprises: a semiconductor substrate of a first conductivity type; a semiconductor layer of a second conductivity type, formed on the semiconductor substrate; a buried region of the second conductivity type, having high impurity concentration and formed between the semiconductor substrate and semiconductor layer; an annular contact region of the second conductivity type, extending from the buried region to the surface of the second conductivity-type semiconductor layer and having high impurity concentration; and a drain and a gate of a MOSFET of a first conductivity channel type, and a source and a gate of a MOSFET of a second conductivity channel type, the MOSFETs being formed in that region of the second conductivity-type semiconductor layer which is defined by the annular contact regions; wherein the second conductivity-type semiconductor layer is used for sources and drains of the MOSFETs, and a drain electrode of the MOSFET of the first conductivity channel type is connected to a gate electrode of the MOSFET of the second conductivity channel type. According to another aspect of the invention, the MOS-type integrated circuit comprises: a semiconductor substrate of a first conductivity type; a semiconductor layer of a second conductivity type, formed on the semiconductor substrate; a buried region of the second conductivity type, having high impurity concentration and formed between the semiconductor substrate and semiconductor layer; an annular contact region of the second conductivity type, extending from the buried region to the surface of the semiconductor layer and having high impurity concentration; a first region of the second conductivity type, formed in contact with the second conductivity-type annular contact region and having low impurity concentration; a first region of the first conductivity type and a first region of the second conductivity type, which have high impurity concentration and which are formed in contact with each other in the first region of the second conductivity type, having low impurity concentration; a first region of the first conductivity type, having low impurity concentration and formed in contact with the first region of the second conductivity type, having low impurity concentration; a second region of the first conductivity type, having high impurity concentration and formed in the first region of the first conductivity type, having low impurity concentration; a second region of the first conductivity type, having low impurity concentration and formed from the upper surface of the semiconductor layer of the second conductivity type surrounded by the annular contact region; a second region of the second conductivity type, a third region of the first conductivity type, and a third region of the second conductivity type, which have high impurity concentration, and are formed in the second region of the first conductivity type, having low impurity concentration, and which are continuous in the order; an insulating layer covering junctions, which are formed by the regions of different conductivity types, and exposed in the surface of the semiconductor layer of the second conductivity type; a first polycrystal silicon layer buried in the insulating layer at a location corresponding to the first region of the second conductivity type, having low impurity concentration and surrounding the first region of the first conductivity type, having high impurity concentration, and the first region of the second conductivity type, having high impurity concentration; a second polycrystal silicon layer buried in the insulating layer at a location corresponding to the second region of the first conductivity type, having low impurity concentration and surrounding the second region of the second conductivity type, the third region of the first conductivity type, and the third region of the second conductivity type, these three regions having high impurity concentration; a drain electrode electrically connected to the first region of the first conductivity type, having high impurity concentration, and to the first region of the second conductivity type, having high impurity concentration, the drain electrode projecting from the surface of the insulating layer; a source electrode electrically connected to the third region of the first conductivity type, and to the second and third regions of the second conductivity type, these three regions having high impurity concentration, and the source electrode projecting from the surface of the insulating layer; and first and second gate electrodes electrically connected to the first and second polycrystal layers, and projecting from the surface of the insulating layer. The MOS-type integrated circuit of the invention can be made approximately 100 μm long, whereas the conventional circuit is about 200 μm long. Thus, the pn-junction area of the element can be made about 2/3 or less of that in the conventional circuit, which saves about 10% of the power consumption of the entire circuit, and also increases the operating speed of the element by 30% or so. Additional objects and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and obtained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate a presently preferred embodiment of the invention, and together with the general description given above and the detailed description of the preferred embodiment given below, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a sectional view of an essential part of a conventional MOS-type integrated circuit; FIG. 2 is a sectional view of an essential part of a MOS-type integrated circuit according to the present invention; FIG. 3 is a circuit diagram of an output circuit having high breakdown voltage, useful in comparing the structure of the present invention to that of the conventional circuit; and FIGS. 4A through 4M show sectional views explaining the manufacturing process of the MOS-type integrated circuit in order, according to the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT This invention will now be explained with reference to FIGS. 2 to 4 showing an embodiment thereof. The structure shown in FIG. 2 is manufactured by the process shown in FIGS. 4A to 4M. An oxide film 2 having a thickness of 0.1 μm is laminated on a p-type silicon semiconductor substrate 1, which has a boron (B) concentration of 5×10 14 /cm 3 , by steam oxidization at 1100° C. (FIG. 4A). An opening is formed in a predetermined portion of the oxide film 2 by photoetching (FIG. 4B). Subsequently, a predetermined amount of antimony (Sb) is doped and diffused in the surface of the exposed portion of the p-type silicon semiconductor substrate, to thereby form a base of a buried region 3, which has an Sb concentration of 10 18 /cm 3 , as is shown in FIG. 4C. Then, as is shown in FIG. 4D, an n--layer 4, having a phosphorus (P) concentration of about 1×10 15 /cm 3 , is deposited on the substrate 1 and base 3 by means of epitaxial growth method, until it has a thickness of 1.5 μm. Further, an oxide film 5 having a thickness of 0.1 μm is formed on the n--layer 4 by steam oxidization at about 1000° C., which film is to be used as a mask in ion-implantation step, hereinafter referred to. As a result, the buried region 3, having the above-described surface impurity-concentration and a thickness of about 3 μm, is formed between the p-type silicon semiconductor substrate 1 and n--layer 4. As is shown in FIG. 4E, a photo-resist pattern 6 is deposited on the mask oxide film 5, which pattern has an annular opening formed therein at a location corresponding to an annular deep diffusion layer 8 and 8 (hereinafter referred to), to be formed as contacts of the buried region 3. Thereafter, phosphorus is doped in the n--layer 4 by ion-implantation method. Further, after the photo-resist pattern 6 is removed from the layer 4, another photo-resist pattern 7 having opening, for forming isolating region by diffusion, is deposited on the same, through which opening boron is doped in the layer 4 by the ion-implantation method, as is shown in FIG. 4F. The photo-resist pattern 7 is then removed, and the chip is heated in the atmosphere of nitrogen at 1200° C. for an hour, thus making the ion-diffused layer reach the buried region 3 and the boundary between the n--layer 4 and p-type silicon substrate 1, thereby forming the annular deep n-region (i.e., annular contact region) 8 and 8 and isolating region 9 and 9. The deep n-region 8 and isolating region 9 have a surface impurity-concentration of about 1×10 19 /cm 3 . Subsequently, a photo-resist pattern 10 having an opening for forming a high-resist drain region for a p-channel MOSFET, and boron is doped in the layer 4, as is shown in FIG. 4G. Thereafter, the photoresist pattern is removed, and the chip is subjected to slumping process, in which it is heated in the atmosphere of nitrogen at 1200° C. In this process, a drain high-resistance region (i.e., a first region of the first conductivity type) 11, having a low surface impurity-concentration of 5×10 16 /cm 3 and a thickness of 4 μm, is formed, and a thermal oxide film 12 having a thickness of 1 μm is formed by a known method, after the mask oxide film 5 is removed, as is shown in FIG. 4H. A new photo-resist pattern is formed on the oxide film 12, and predetermined portions of the film is removed therefrom by isotropic or aerotropic etching, thereby exposing the n--layer 4 (FIG. 4I). Subsequently, a gate oxide film 13 having a thickness of 0.1 μm is formed on the layer 4 by oxidization with the use of steam of 1000° C. First and second polycrystal silicon layers 14 and 15 having a thickness of 5 μm are deposited by CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition), and patterned. As is shown in FIG. 4J, the polycrystal silicon layer 14 is patterned by photo etching, such that it is provided at a location corresponding to a p-type region 16 (i.e., another region of a first conductivity type) having low impurity concentration, hereinafter referred to. The size of the layer 14 in contact with gate oxide film 13 is substantially equal to the diameter of the p-type region 16 to be formed 1.5 μm thick by implanting and diffusing boron in the n--layer 4. Similarly, the other polycrystal silicon layer 15 is patterned by photoetching such that it is provided at a location corresponding to an n-type region 17, hereinafter referred to. The size of the layer 15 is substantially equal to the diameter of the n-type region 17 to be formed 1.5 μm thick by implanting and diffusing phosphorus in the n--layer 4. The region 17 functions as a back gate, and has an Xj smaller than the drain high-resistance region 11. To dope boron using the layer 14 as a mask, boron is ion implanted after a photoresist pattern, made such that only a portion indicated by A (FIG. 4J) is open, covers the chip. Then the photo-resist is removed. To dope phosphorus using the layer 15 as a mask, phosphorus is ion implanted after a photo-resist pattern, formed such that only a portion indicated by B (FIG. 4J) is open, covers the chip. Then, the photo-resist is removed and the doped materials are diffused for half an hour at 1200° C. in the atmosphere of nitrogen, as is shown in FIG. 4K. Subsequently, another photo-resist pattern is provided thereon, which has openings formed at locations corresponding to an N+ (i.e., the second conductivity type) region 18, a region 21 (corresponding to the region indicated by B in FIG. 4J), a region 19, and a region 20, which are to be formed 0.5 μm thick. Then, arsenic As is doped through the openings by ion implantation, and the chip is subjected to slumping for half an hour at 1000° C. in the atmosphere of nitrogen. Further, to form a region 22, a region 23, and a region 24, which are the first conductivity or p+-type and have a thickness of 0.5 μm, another photo-resist pattern is provided on the chip after the previous pattern is removed, which has openings corresponding to the respective regions, then doping boron by ion implantation method, performing thirty-minite slumping at 1000° C. in the atmosphere of nitrogen, and thus obtaining the chip shown in FIG. 4L. Subsequently, as is shown in FIG. 4M, a silicon oxide layer 25, made of e.g. SiO 2 , is deposited by the CVD, until the layer has a thickness of 1 μm, thereafter forming a contact hole by photo etching, further depositing an Al or Al alloy (Al-Si; Al-Si-Cu) layer about 1 μm thick by the CVD or sputtering, and finally patterning the chip by photo etching to form an electrode 26, as is shown in the completed circuit of FIG. 2. In sintering process, the chip is heated for half an hour at 450° C. in the nitrogen atmosphere. Further, a passivation layer, consisting of a single layer or of a plurality of layers and made of PSG (Phosphor Silicate Glass), silicon nitride or the like, is formed on the surface of the chip in the final process, which process is not shown in the figures. Of course the other semiconductor elements, required for the MOS-type integrated circuit, are incorporated in the other island regions (not explained in the above) of the circuit. The MOS-type integrated circuit, constructed as above, does not require the conventional resistance 69, as can be understood from FIG. 3, and incorporates the n-channel MOSFET having high breakdown voltage and the level-shifting p-channel MOSFET having high breakdown voltage, which are in the same island region. Additional advantages and modifications will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the invention in its broader aspects is not limited to the specific details, and representative devices, shown and described herein. Accordingly, various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the general inventive concept as defined by the appended claims and their equivalents.

In a MOS-type integrated circuit, a source and a gate of a double diffusion MOSFET of an n-channel type and a drain and a gate of a double diffusion MOSFET of a p-channel type are in an island region surrounded by an n-type annular contact region having high impurity concentration. An n epitaxial layer, in each island region, is used for the sources and drains of both MOSFETs. The drain electrode of the p-channel MOSFET is connected to the gate electrode of the n-channel MOSFET. With this structure, the power consumption of the circuit is decreased, and the operating speed thereof is increased.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/496,348, filed Jul. 1, 2009, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/703,358, filed Feb. 5, 2007 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,579,510 on Aug. 25, 2009, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/765,115, filed Feb. 3, 2006. The entire contents of each are incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] This invention generally relates to carbon-carbon coupling and, more particularly, to methods for converting hydrocarbon feedstocks into useful products. [0003] Scientists have long sought efficient ways to convert methane and other hydrocarbons into longer chain hydrocarbons, olefins, aromatic hydrocarbons, and other products. CH bond activation has been the focus of intense research for decades, with mixed results. More efficient processes could create value in a number of ways, including facilitating the utilization of remotely located hydrocarbon feedstocks (such as stranded natural gas) through conversion into more easily transportable and useful fuels and feedstocks, and allowing the use of inexpensive feedstocks (e.g., methane and other light hydrocarbons) for end products often made from higher hydrocarbons. [0004] U.S. Pat. No. 6,525,230 discloses methods of converting alkanes to other compounds using a “zone reactor” comprised of a hollow, unsegregated interior defining first, second, and third zones. Oxygen reacts with metal bromide in the first zone to provide bromine; bromine reacts with the alkane in the second zone to form alkyl bromide and hydrogen bromide; and the alkyl bromide reacts with metal oxide in the third zone to form the corresponding product. In one embodiment, the flow of gases through the reactor is reversed to convert the metal oxide back to metal bromide and to convert the metal bromide back to the metal oxide. The reactor is essentially operated in a cyclic mode. [0005] U.S. Pat. No. 6,452,058 discloses an oxidative halogenation process for producing alkyl halides from an alkane, hydrogen halide, and, preferably, oxygen, using a rare earth halide or oxyhalide catalyst. The alternative of using molecular halogen is also mentioned. Other patents, such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,172,915, 3,657,367, 4,769,504, and 4,795,843, disclose the use of metal halide catalysts for oxidative halogenation of alkanes. Oxidative halogenation, however, has several disadvantages, including the production of perhalogenated products and an unacceptable quantity of deep oxidation products (CO and CO 2 ). [0006] Three published U.S. patent applications, Pub. Nos. 2005/0234276, 2005/0234277, and 2006/0100469 (each to Waycuilis), describe bromine-based processes for converting gaseous alkanes to liquid hydrocarbons. Several basic steps are described, including (1) reacting bromine with alkanes to produce alkyl bromides and hydrobromic acid (bromination), (2) reacting the alkyl bromide and hydrobromic acid product with a crystalline alumino-silicate catalyst to form higher molecular weight hydrocarbons and hydrobromic acid (coupling), (3) neutralizing the hydrobromic acid by reaction with an aqueous solution of partially oxidized metal bromide salts (as metal oxides/oxybromides/bromides) to produce a metal bromide salt and water in an aqueous solution, or by reaction of the hydrobromic acid with air over a metal bromide catalyst, and (4) regenerating bromine by reaction of the metal bromide salt with oxygen to yield bromine and an oxidized salt. Potential drawbacks of the processes include low methane conversions; short space-times and the resulting potential for less than 100% bromine conversion; wasteful overbromination of ethane, propane, and higher alkanes, resulting in the formation of dibromomethane and other polybrominated alkanes, which will likely form coke under the disclosed reaction conditions; comparatively low alkyl bromide conversions; the need to separate the hydrocarbon product stream from an aqueous hydrohalic acid stream; and inadequate capture of halogen during the regeneration of the catalyst to remove halogen-containing coke. In addition, the proposed venting of this bromine-containing stream is both economically and environmentally unacceptable. [0007] The Waycuilis process also apparently requires operation at relatively low temperatures to prevent significant selectivity to methane. The likely result would be incomplete conversion of alkyl bromide species and, because the described process relies on stream splitting to recover products, a considerable amount of unconverted alkyl bromides would likely leave the process with the products. This represents an unacceptable loss of bromine (as unconverted methyl bromide) and a reduced carbon efficiency. [0008] The neutralization of hydrobromic acid by reaction with an aqueous solution of partially oxidized metal bromide salts and subsequent reaction of the metal bromide salts formed with oxygen to yield bromine and an oxidized salt, as disclosed by Waycuilis, also has a number of disadvantages. First, any carbon dioxide present will form carbonates in the slurry, which will not be regenerable. Second, the maximum temperature is limited due to pressure increases which are intolerable above approximately 200° C., thus preventing complete recovery of halogen. Third, although the use of redox-active metal oxides (e.g., oxides of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ce, and Cu) will contribute to molecular bromine formation during the neutralization of hydrobromic acid, incomplete HBr conversion due to the use of a solid bromide salt will in turn result in a significant loss of bromine from the system (in the water phase). Provided an excess of air was used, the bromide salt might eventually be converted to the oxide form, stopping any further loss of HBr in the water discard. [0009] To separate water from bromine, Waycuilis discloses the use of condensation and phase separation to produce semi-dry liquid bromine and a water/bromine mixture. Other means for separating water from bromine, such as using an inert gas to strip the bromine from the water phase or using adsorption-based methods have also been proposed by others; however, such methods are minimally effective and result in a significant overall loss of halogen. [0010] The prior art oxychlorination process first removes the water from HCl (a costly step) and then reacts the HCl with oxygen and hydrocarbon directly. Oxychlorination processes rely on the separation of HCl from the unreacted alkanes and higher hydrocarbon products by using water absorption, and subsequent recovery of anhydrous HCl from the aqueous hydrochloric acid. U.S. Pat. No. 2,220,570 discloses a process and apparatus for the absorption of HCl in water where the heat of absorption is dissipated by contacting the HCl gas with ambient air, and also by the vaporization of water. A process for producing aqueous hydrochloric acid with a concentration of at least 35.5 wt % by absorbing gaseous HCl in water is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,488,884. U.S. Pat. No. 3,779,870 teaches a process for the recovery of anhydrous HCl gas by extractive distillation using a chloride salt. U.S. Pat. No. 4,259,309 teaches a method for producing gaseous HCl from dilute aqueous HCl using an amine together with an inert water-immiscible solvent. [0011] Although researchers have made some progress in the search for more efficient CH bond activation pathways for converting natural gas and other hydrocarbon feedstocks into fuels and other products, there remains a tremendous need for a continuous, economically viable, and more efficient process. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] This invention generally relates to carbon-carbon coupling and, more particularly, to methods for converting hydrocarbon feedstocks into useful products. [0013] An embodiment provides a method comprising providing a halogen stream; providing a first alkane stream; reacting at least a portion of the halogen stream with at least a portion of the first alkane stream to form a halogenated stream, wherein the halogenated stream comprises alkyl monohalides, alkyl polyhalides, and a hydrogen halide; providing a second alkane stream; and reacting at least a portion of the second alkane stream with at least a portion of the alkyl polyhalides to create at least some additional alkyl monohalides. [0014] Another embodiment provides a system for forming hydrocarbons comprising a halogenation reactor, wherein the halogenation reactor receives a quantity of halide and a first quantity of alkane and produces a halogenated product; a reproportionation reactor, wherein the reproportionation reactor receives the halogenated product and a second quantity of alkane and produces at least some alkyl monohalide product and a quantity of hydrogen halide; and a oligomerization reactor comprising a catalyst, wherein the oligomerization reactor receives alkyl monohalide and produces a quantity of hydrocarbon product and a second quantity of hydrogen halide. [0015] Yet another embodiment provides a method comprising providing an alkyl halide stream comprising alkyl monohalides, alkyl polyhalides, and a hydrogen halide; providing a first alkane stream; reacting at least a portion of the first alkane stream with at least a portion of the alkyl halide stream to create at least some additional alkyl monohalides; contacting at least some of the alkyl monohalides and at least some of the additional alkyl monohalides with a catalyst to form a product stream that comprises higher hydrocarbons, hydrogen halide, and any unreacted portion of the first alkane stream; separating the unreacted portion of the first alkane stream from the product stream; providing a halogen stream; and reacting at least some of the unreacted portion of the first alkane stream separated from the product stream with the halogen to form the alkyl halide stream. [0016] Still another embodiment provides a method comprising providing an alkyl halide stream; contacting at least some of the alkyl halides with a catalyst to form a product stream that comprises higher hydrocarbons and hydrogen halide; separating the hydrogen halide from the product stream; and reacting the hydrogen halide with a source of oxygen in the presence of a cerium oxide catalyst to generate a corresponding halogen. [0017] The features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art. While numerous changes may be made by those skilled in the art, such changes are within the spirit of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0018] FIG. 1 is a schematic view of one embodiment of a continuous process for converting methane or natural gas into hydrocarbon chemicals according to the invention; [0019] FIG. 2 is a schematic view of one embodiment of a continuous process for converting methane or natural gas into hydrocarbon fuels according to the invention; [0020] FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a subprocess for reproportionating polyhalides according to an alternate embodiment of the invention; [0021] FIG. 4 is a schematic view of one embodiment of a monobromide separation column, for use in the practice of the invention; [0022] FIG. 5 is a schematic view of one embodiment of an extractive distillation system, for use in the practice of the invention; [0023] FIG. 6 is a simplified block diagram of one embodiment of a continuous process for converting alkanes into hydrocarbon products according to the invention, wherein water is separated from hydrocarbon products; and [0024] FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of one embodiment of a continuous process for converting alkanes into hydrocarbon products according to the invention, wherein water is separated after the alkane bromination step. [0025] FIG. 8 is a graph of bromobenzene conversion and benzene yield as a function of time, for an experiment conducted according to one embodiment of the invention; and [0026] FIG. 9 is a graph of catalyst effectiveness as a function of time, for an experiment conducted according to one embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0027] This invention generally relates to carbon-carbon coupling and, more particularly, to methods for converting hydrocarbon feedstocks into useful products. [0028] The present invention provides a chemical process that enables natural gas and other hydrocarbon feedstocks to be converted into higher molecular weight hydrocarbon products, using molecular halogen to activate C—H bonds in the feedstock. According to one aspect of the invention, a continuous process for converting a hydrocarbon feedstock into one or more higher hydrocarbons comprises the steps of (a) forming alkyl halides by reacting molecular halogen with a hydrocarbon feedstock (preferably a feedstock containing methane), under process conditions sufficient to form alkyl halides and hydrogen halide, whereby substantially all of the molecular halogen is consumed; (b) forming reproportionated alkyl halides by reacting some or all of the alkyl halides with an alkane feed, whereby the fraction of monohalogenated hydrocarbons present is increased; (c) contacting the reproportionated alkyl halides with a first catalyst under process conditions sufficient to form higher hydrocarbons and additional hydrogen halide; (d) separating the higher hydrocarbons from the hydrogen halide; (e) regenerating molecular halogen by contacting the hydrogen halide with a second catalyst in the presence of a source of oxygen, under process conditions sufficient to form molecular halogen and water; (f) separating the molecular halogen from water to allow reuse of the halogen; and (g) repeating steps (a) through (f) a desired number of times. These steps can be carried out in the order presented or, alternatively, in a different order. [0029] According to a second aspect of the invention, a continuous process for converting a hydrocarbon feedstock into one or more higher hydrocarbons comprises the steps of (a) forming alkyl halides by reacting molecular halogen with a hydrocarbon feedstock containing methane in a halogenation reactor, under process conditions sufficient to form alkyl halides and hydrogen halide, whereby substantially all of the molecular halogen is consumed; (b) separating unreacted methane from the alkyl halides and directing it back into the halogenation reactor; (c) forming reproportionated alkyl halides by reacting some or all, of the alkyl halides with an alkane feed containing at least 1% by volume of one or more C2-C5 hydrocarbons, whereby the fraction of monohalogenated hydrocarbons present is increased; (d) contacting the reproportionated alkyl halides with a first catalyst under process conditions sufficient to form higher hydrocarbons and additional hydrogen halide; (e) separating the higher hydrocarbons from the hydrogen halide; (f) regenerating molecular halogen by contacting the hydrogen halide with a second catalyst in the presence of a source of oxygen, under process conditions sufficient to form molecular halogen and water; (g) separating the molecular halogen from water to allow reuse of the halogen; and (h) repeating steps (a) through (g) a desired number of times. [0030] In each of the aspects and embodiments of the invention, it is intended that the alkyl halides formed in step (a) can be all the same (e.g., 100% bromomethane) or, more typically, different (e.g., mixtures of bromomethane, dibromomethane, dibromoethane, etc). Similarly, it is contemplated that the “higher hydrocarbons” formed in step (c) can be all the same (e.g., 100% isooctane) or, more typically, different (e.g., mixtures of aliphatic and/or aromatic compounds). As used herein, the term “higher hydrocarbons” refers to hydrocarbons having a greater number of carbon atoms than one or more components of the hydrocarbon feedstock, as well as olefinic hydrocarbons having the same or a greater number of carbon atoms as one or more components of the hydrocarbon feedstock. For instance, if the feedstock is natural gas—typically a mixture of light hydrocarbons, predominately methane, with lesser amounts of ethane, propane, and butane, and even smaller amounts of longer chain hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, etc.—the “higher hydrocarbon(s)” produced according to the invention can include a C 2 or higher hydrocarbon, such as ethane, propane, butane, C 5+ hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, etc., and optionally ethylene, propylene, and/or longer olefins The term “light hydrocarbons” (sometimes abbreviated “LHCs”) refers to C 1 -C 4 hydrocarbons, e.g., methane, ethane, propane, ethylene, propylene, butanes, and butenes, all of which are normally gases at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. [0031] Nonlimiting examples of hydrocarbon feedstocks appropriate for use in the present invention include alkanes, e.g., methane, ethane, propane, and even larger alkanes; olefins; natural gas and other mixtures of hydrocarbons. In most cases, the feedstock will be primarily aliphatic in nature. Certain oil refinery processes yield light hydrocarbon streams (so-called “light-ends,” typically a mixture of C 1 -C 3 hydrocarbons), which can be used with or without added methane as the hydrocarbon feedstock in one embodiment of the invention. [0032] Representative halogens include bromine (Br 2 ) and chlorine (Cl 2 ). It is also contemplated that fluorine and iodine can be used, though not necessarily with equivalent results. Some of the problems associated with fluorine can likely be addressed by using dilute streams of fluorine (e.g., fluorine gas carried by helium, nitrogen, or other diluent). It is expected, however, that more vigorous reaction conditions will be required for alkyl fluorides to couple and form higher hydrocarbons, due to the strength of the fluorine-carbon bond. Similarly, problems associated with iodine (such as the endothermic nature of certain iodine reactions) can likely be addressed by carrying out the halogenation and/or coupling reactions at higher temperatures and/or pressures. The use of bromine or chlorine is preferred, with bromine being most preferred. [0033] FIGS. 1 and 2 schematically illustrate two nonlimiting embodiments of a process according to the invention, with FIG. 1 depicting a process for making hydrocarbon chemicals (e.g., benzene, toluene, xylenes, other aromatic compounds, etc.), and FIG. 2 depicting a process for making fuel-grade hydrocarbons, e.g., hydrocarbons comprising a predominant amount of C 5 and higher aliphatic hydrocarbons and (optionally) aromatic hydrocarbons. The primary difference in the two embodiments is that the process depicted in FIG. 2 lacks the first separation unit (SEP I) and does not return polybrominated species to the bromination reactor for “reproportionation.” In the scheme shown in FIG. 2 , the amount of polybromides produced is reduced significantly by introducing light gasses into the bromination reactor. The polybromides (from methane bromination) react with the light gasses to form monobromoalkanes. For convenience, the figures depict a bromine-based process. In alternate embodiments of the invention, however, chlorine or other halogens are used. [0034] As shown in FIG. 1 , natural gas (or another hydrocarbon feedstock) and molecular bromine are carried by separate lines 1 , 2 into a heated bromination reactor 3 and allowed to react. Products (HBr, alkyl bromides, optionally olefins), and possibly unreacted hydrocarbons, exit the reactor and are carried by a line 4 into a first separation unit 5 (SEP I), where monobrominated hydrocarbons and HBr are separated from polybrominated hydrocarbons. The polybromides are carried by a line 6 back to the bromination reactor, where they undergo “reproportionation” with methane and/or other light hydrocarbons, which are present in the natural gas and/or introduced to the bromination reactor as described below. [0035] Reproportionation of the polybromides formed during the bromination reaction enriches the outlet stream with monobromides and olefinic species, and reduces the amount of polybrominated hydrocarbons that enter the coupling reactor. This, in turn, reduces the amount of coke that forms during the carbon-carbon coupling reactions. For large scale production of aromatic hydrocarbons, it is possible to employ additional separation units, which can further purify the feed stream to the coupling reactor by separating and recycling the polybromides, thereby reducing the amount of coke and the overall bromine requirement. [0036] Unreacted hydrocarbon feedstock, HBr, monobromides, and (optionally) olefins formed in the bromination reactor are carried by a line 7 , through a heat exchanger 8 , and enter a heated coupling reactor 9 , where the monobromides (and, optionally, any olefins present) react in the presence of a coupling catalyst to form higher hydrocarbons. HBr, higher hydrocarbons, and (possibly) unreacted hydrocarbons and alkyl bromides exit the coupling reactor and are carried by a line 10 , through another heat exchanger 11 , and enter an HBr absorption unit 12 . Water is introduced into the unit through a separate line 13 . HBr is absorbed in this unit, which may be a packed column or other gas-liquid contacting device. The effluent, containing liquid hydrocarbons and aqueous HBr, is carried by a line 14 to a liquid-liquid splitter 15 , which phase-separates liquid hydrocarbons from the aqueous HBr stream. The liquid hydrocarbon products are then carried by a line 16 to a product clean-up unit 17 to yield final hydrocarbon products. [0037] After HBr is separated from the hydrocarbon products and unreacted methane (and any other light hydrocarbons that may be present) in the HBr absorption unit, the methane (and other light hydrocarbons, if any) is carried by a line 18 into a second separation unit 19 (SEP II), which employs pressure- or temperature-swing adsorption, membrane-based separation, cryogenic distillation (preferable for large scale production), or another suitable separation technology. Methane, and possibly other light hydrocarbons, are returned to the bromination reactor via one or more lines 20 , 21 . In the embodiment shown, methane is directed to an upstream region or “zone” of the bromination reactor, while other light hydrocarbons are directed to a mid- or downstream zone of the reactor (the latter to facilitate reproportionation of polybromides). [0038] The aqueous HBr stream that evolves from the liquid-liquid splitter is carried by a line 22 to a bromine generation unit 23 . Oxygen, air, or oxygen-enriched gas is also fed into the unit through a separate line 24 . Bromine is regenerated by reacting HBr with oxygen in the presence of a suitable catalyst. The resulting stream contains water, molecular bromine, oxygen, nitrogen (if air was used as the source of oxygen), and possibly other gases. This product stream is carried by a line 25 through a heat exchanger 26 into a flash vaporization unit 27 , which separates most of the molecular bromine from water, oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases (if any) that are present. Molecular bromine, either as a liquid or vapor (and containing no more than a trace of H 2 O), is carried by a line 28 to a heat exchanger 29 , and then returned to the bromination reactor. [0039] Water from the flash vaporization unit (containing up to 3 wt % of molecular bromine) is sent by a line 30 to a distillation unit 31 , which yields water as the bottoms stream and bromine or bromine-water azeotrope as a distillate. The distillate is returned through a line 32 back to the flash vaporization unit. [0040] The gaseous products of the flash vaporization unit (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, optionally other gases, and no more than a minor or trace amount of bromine) are carried by a line 33 to a bromine scavenging unit 34 , which separates molecular bromine from the other gases. The recovered bromine is then carried by a line 35 through a heat exchanger 29 and reintroduced into the bromination reactor. The amount of bromine entering the scavenger can be further reduced by increasing the amount of bromine recovered in the flash step by employing brine solutions and direct contact cooling to allow the use of temperatures below 0° C. The other gases (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen) can be vented to the atmosphere. [0041] Various embodiments and features of individual subprocesses and other improvements for carrying out the invention will now be described in more detail. [0042] Bromination [0043] Bromination of the hydrocarbon feedstock is carried out in a fixed bed, fluidized bed, or other suitable reactor, at a temperature and pressure such that the bromination products and reactants are gases, for example, 1-50 atm, 150-600° C., more preferably 400-600° C., even more preferably, 450-515° C., with a residence time of 1-60 seconds, more preferably 1-15 seconds. Higher temperatures tend to favor coke formation, while low temperatures require larger reactors. Using a fluidized bed offers the advantage of improved heat transfer. [0044] Alkane bromination can be initiated using heat or light, with thermal means being preferred. In one embodiment, the reactor also contains a halogenation catalyst, such as a zeolite, amorphous alumino-silicate, acidic zirconia, tungstates, solid phosphoric acids, metal oxides, mixed metal oxides, metal halides, mixed metal halides (the metal in such cases being, e.g., nickel, copper, cerium, cobalt, etc.), and/or or other catalysts as described, e.g., in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,935,289 and 4,971,664. In an alternate embodiment, the reactor contains a porous or non-porous inert material that provides sufficient surface area to retain coke formed in the reactor and prevent it from escaping. The inert material may also promote the formation of polyhalogenated hydrocarbons, such as tribromopropane. In still another embodiment, both a catalyst and an inert material are provided in the reactor. Optionally, the reactor contains different regions or zones to allow, in or more zones, complete conversion of molecular bromine to produce alkyl bromides and hydrogen bromide. [0045] The bromination reaction can also be carried out in the presence of an isomerization catalyst, such as a metal bromide (e.g., NaBr, KBr, CuBr, NiBr 2 , MgBr 2 , CaBr 2 ), metal oxide (e.g., SiO 2 , ZrO 2 , Al 2 O 3 ), or metal (Pt, Pd, Ru, Ir, Rh) to help generate the desired brominated isomer(s). Since isomerization and bromination conditions are similar, the bromination and isomerization can be carried out in the same reactor vessel. Alternatively, a separate isomerization reactor can be utilized, located downstream of the bromination reactor and upstream of the coupling reactor. [0046] Reproportionation [0047] In some embodiments, a key feature of the invention is the “reproportionation” of polyhalogenated hydrocarbons (polyhalides), i.e., halogenated hydrocarbons containing two or more halogen atoms per molecule. Monohalogenated alkanes (monohalides) created during the halogenation reaction are desirable as predominant reactant species for subsequent coupling reactions and formation of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. For certain product selectivities, polyhalogenated alkanes may be desirable. Reproportionation allows a desired enrichment of monohalides to be achieved by reacting polyhalogenated alkyl halides with nonhalogenated alkanes, generally in the substantial absence of molecular halogens, to control the ratio of mono-to-polyhalogenated species. For example, dibromomethane is reacted with methane to produce methyl bromide; dibromomethane is reacted with propane to produce methyl bromide and propyl bromide and/or propylene; and so forth. [0048] Reactive reproportionation is accomplished by allowing the hydrocarbon feedstock and/or recycled alkanes to react with polyhalogenated species from the halogenation reactor, preferably in the substantial absence of molecular halogen. As a practical matter, substantially all of the molecular halogen entering the halogenation reactor is quickly consumed, forming mono- and polyhalides; therefore reproportionation of higher bromides can be accomplished simply by introducing polybromides into a mid- or downstream region or “zone” of the halogenation reactor, optionally heated to a temperature that differs from the temperature of the rest of the reactor. [0049] Alternatively, reproportionation can be carried out in a separate “reproportionation reactor,” where polyhalides and unhalogenatated alkanes are allowed to react, preferably in the substantial absence of molecular halogen. FIG. 3 illustrates one such embodiment where, for clarity, only significant system elements are shown. As in FIG. 1 , natural gas or another hydrocarbon feedstock and molecular bromine are carried by separate lines 1 , 2 to a heated bromination reactor 3 and allowed to react. Products (HBr, alkyl bromides) and possibly unreacted hydrocarbons, exit the reactor and are carried by a line 4 into a first separation unit 5 (SEP I), where monobrominated hydrocarbons and HBr are separated from polybrominated hydrocarbons. The monobromides, HBr, and possibly unreacted hydrocarbons are carried by a line 7 , through a heat exchanger 8 , to a coupling reactor 9 , and allowed to react, as shown in FIG. 1 . The polybromides are carried by a line 6 to a reproportionation reactor 36 . Additional natural gas or other alkane feedstock is also introduced into the reproportionation reactor, via a line 37 . Polybromides react with unbrominated alkanes in the reproportionation reactor to form monobromides, which are carried by a line 38 to the coupling reactor 9 , after first passing through a heat exchanger. [0050] In another embodiment of the invention (not shown), where the hydrocarbon feedstock comprises natural gas containing a considerable amount of C2 and higher hydrocarbons, the “fresh” natural gas feed is introduced directly into the reproportionation reactor, and recycled methane (which passes through the reproportionation reactor unconverted) is carried back into the halogenation reactor. [0051] Reproportionation is thermally driven and/or facilitated by use of a catalyst. Nonlimiting examples of suitable catalysts include metal oxides, metal halides, and zeolites. U.S. Pat. No. 4,654,449 discloses the reproportionation of polyhalogenated alkanes with alkanes using an acidic zeolite catalyst. U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,979,541 and 3,026,361 disclose the use of carbon tetrachloride as a chlorinating agent for methane, ethane, propane and their chlorinated analogues. All three patents are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. Using reproportionation in the context of a continuous process for the enrichment of reactive feed stocks for the production of higher hydrocarbons has never been disclosed to our knowledge. [0052] Reproportionation of C1-C5 alkanes with dibromomethane and/or other polybromides occurs at temperatures ranging from 350 to 550° C., with the optimal temperature depending on the polybromide(s) that are present and the alkane(s) being brominated. In addition, reproportionation proceeds more quickly at elevated pressures (e.g., 2-30 bar). By achieving a high initial methane conversion in the halogenation reactor, substantial amounts of di- and tribromomethane are created; those species can then be used as bromination reagents in the reproportionation step. Using di- and tribromomethane allows for controlled bromination of C1-C5 alkanes to monobrominated C1-C5 bromoalkanes and C2-C5 olefins. Reproportionation of di- and tribromomethane facilitates high initial methane conversion during bromination, which should reduce the methane recycle flow rate and enrich the reactant gas stream with C2-C5 monobromoalkanes and olefins, which couple to liquid products over a variety of catalysts, including zeolites. This is a major new process advance. [0053] In another embodiment of the invention, reproportionation is carried out without first separating the polyhalides in a separation unit. This is facilitated by packing the “reproportionation zone” with a catalyst, such as a zeolite, that allows the reaction to occur at a reduced temperature. For example, although propane reacts with dibromomethane to form bromomethane and bromopropane (an example of “reproportionation”), the reaction does not occur to an appreciable degree at temperatures below about 500° C. The use of a zeolite may allow reproportionation to occur at a reduced temperature, enabling species such as methane and ethane to be brominated in one zone of the reactor, and di-, tri-, and other polybromides to be reproportionated in another zone of the reactor. [0054] Bromine Recovery During Decoking [0055] Inevitably, coke formation will occur in the halogenation and reproportionation processes. If catalysts are used in the reactor(s) or reactor zone(s), the catalysts may be deactivated by the coke; therefore, periodic removal of the carbonaceous deposits is required. In addition, we have discovered that, within the coke that is formed, bromine may also be found, and it is highly desirable that this bromine be recovered in order to minimize loss of bromine in the overall process, which is important for both economic and environmental reasons. [0056] Several forms of bromides are present: HBr, organic bromides such as methyl bromide and dibromomethane, and molecular bromine. The invention provides means for recovering this bromine from the decoking process. In a preferred embodiment, a given reactor is switched off-line and air or oxygen is introduced to combust the carbon deposits and produce HBr from the residual bromine residues. The effluent gas is added to the air (or oxygen) reactant stream fed to the bromine generation reactor, thereby facilitating complete bromine recovery. This process is repeated periodically. [0057] While a given reactor is off-line, the overall process can, nevertheless, be operated without interruption by using a reserve reactor, which is arranged in parallel with its counterpart reactor. For example, twin bromination reactors and twin coupling reactors can be utilized, with process gasses being diverted away from one, but not both, bromination reactors (or coupling reactors) when a decoking operation is desired. The use of a fluidized bed may reduce coke formation and facilitate the removal of heat and catalyst regeneration. [0058] Another embodiment of the decoking process involves non-oxidative decoking using an alkane or mixture of alkanes, which may reduce both the loss of adsorbed products and the oxygen requirement of the process. In another embodiment of the decoking process, an oxidant such as oxygen, air, or enriched air is co-fed into the bromination section to convert the coke into carbon dioxide and/or carbon monoxide during the bromination reaction, thus eliminating or reducing the off-line decoking requirement. [0059] Alkyl Halide Separation [0060] The presence of large concentrations of polyhalogenated species in the feed to the coupling reactor can result in an increase in coke formation. In many applications, such as the production of aromatics and light olefins, it is desirable to feed only monohalides to the coupling reactor to improve the conversion to products. In one embodiment of the invention, a specific separation step is added between the halogenation/reproportionation reactor(s) and the coupling reactor. [0061] For example, a distillation column and associated heat exchangers (“SEP I” in FIGS. 1 and 2 ) can be used to separate the monobromides from the polybrominated species by utilizing the large difference in boiling points of the compounds. The polybrominated species that are recovered as the bottoms stream can be reproportionated with alkanes to form monobromide species and olefins, either in the bromination reactor or in a separate reproportionation reactor. The distillation column can be operated at any pressure of from 1 to 50 bar. The higher pressures allow higher condenser temperatures to be used, thereby reducing the refrigeration requirement. [0062] FIG. 4 illustrates one embodiment of a separation unit for separating monobromides from polybrominated species. Alkyl bromides from the bromination reactor are cooled by passing through a heat exchanger 50 , and then provided to a distillation column 51 equipped with two heat exchangers 52 and 53 . At the bottom of the column, heat exchanger 52 acts as a reboiler, while at the top of the column heat exchanger 53 acts as a partial condenser. This configuration allows a liquid “bottoms” enriched in polybromides (and containing no more than a minor amount of monobromides) to be withdrawn from the distillation column. The polybromides are passed through another heat exchanger 54 to convert them back to a gas before they are returned to the bromination reactor (or sent to a separate reproportionation reactor) for reproportionation with unbrominated alkanes. At the top of the column, partial reflux of the liquid from the reflux drum is facilitated by the heat exchanger 53 , yielding a vapor enriched in lighter components including methane and HBr, and a liquid stream comprised of monobromides and HBr (and containing no more than a minor amount of polybromides). [0063] Alternate distillation configurations include a side stream column with and without a side stream rectifier or stripper. If the feed from the bromination reactor contains water, the bottoms stream from the distillation column will also contain water, and a liquid-liquid phase split on the bottoms stream can be used to separate water from the polybrominated species. Due to the presence of HBr in the water stream, it can either be sent to a HBr absorption column or to the bromine generation reactor. [0064] Catalytic Coupling of Alkyl Halides to Higher Molecular Weight Products [0065] The alkyl halides produced in the halogenation/reproportionation step are reacted over a catalyst to produce higher hydrocarbons and hydrogen halide. The reactant feed can also contain hydrogen halide and unhalogenated alkanes from the bromination reactor. According to the invention, any of a number of catalysts are used to facilitate the formation of higher hydrocarbon products from halogenated hydrocarbons. Nonlimiting examples include non-crystalline alumino silicates (amorphous solid acids), tungsten/zirconia super acids, sulfated zirconia, alumino phosphates such as SAPO-34 and its framework-substituted analogues (substituted with, e.g., Ni or Mn), Zeolites, such as ZSM-5 and its ion-exchanged analogs, and framework substituted ZSM-5 (substituted with Ti, Fe, Ti+Fe, B, or Ga). Preferred catalysts for producing liquid-at-room-temperature hydrocarbons include ion-exchanged ZSM-5 having a SiO 2 /Al 2 O 3 ratio below 300, preferably below 100, and most preferably 30 or below. Nonlimiting examples of preferred exchanged ions include ions of Ag, Ba, Bi, Ca, Fe, Li, Mg, Sr, K, Na, Rb, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Ru, Pb, Pd, Pt, and Ce. These ions can be exchanged as pure salts or as mixtures of salts. The preparation of doped zeolites and their use as carbon-carbon coupling catalysts is described in Patent Publication No. US 2005/0171393 A1, at pages 4-5, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. [0066] In one embodiment of the invention a Mn-exchanged ZSM-5 zeolite having a SiO 2 /Al 2 O 3 ratio of 30 is used as the coupling catalyst. Under certain process conditions, it can produce a tailored selectivity of liquid hydrocarbon products. [0067] Coupling of haloalkanes preferably is carried out in a fixed bed, fluidized bed, or other suitable reactor, at a suitable temperature (e.g., 150-600° C., preferably 275-425° C.) and pressure (e.g., 0.1 to 35 atm) and a residence time (.tau.) of from 1-45 seconds. In general, a relatively long residence time favors conversion of reactants to products, as well as product selectivity, while a short residence time means higher throughput and (possibly) improved economics. It is possible to direct product selectivity by changing the catalyst, altering the reaction temperature, and/or altering the residence time in the reactor. For example, at a moderate residence time of 10 seconds and a moderate temperature of 350° C., xylene and mesitylenes are the predominant components of the aromatic fraction (benzene+toluene+xylenes+mesitylenes; “BTXM”) produced when the product of a methane bromination reaction is fed into a coupling reactor packed with a metal-ion-impregnated ZSM-5 catalyst, where the impregnation metal is Ag, Ba, Bi, Ca, Co, Cu, Fe, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Pd, or Sr, and the ZSM-5 catalyst is Zeolyst CBV 58, 2314, 3024, 5524, or 8014, (available from Zeolyst International (Valley Forge, Pa.)). At a reaction temperature of 425° C. and a residence time of 40 seconds, toluene and benzene are the predominant products of the BTXM fraction. Product selectivity can also be varied by controlling the concentration of dibromomethane produced or fed into the coupling reactor. Removal of reaction heat and continuous decoking and catalyst regeneration using a fluidized bed reactor configuration for the coupling reactor is anticipated in some facilities. [0068] In one embodiment, the coupling reaction is carried out in a pair of coupling reactors, arranged in parallel. This allows the overall process to be run continuously, without interruption, even if one of the coupling reactors is taken off line for decoking or for some other reason. Similar redundancies can be utilized in the bromination, product separation, halogen generation, and other units used in the overall process. [0069] Hydrocarbon Product Separation and Halogen Recovery [0070] The coupling products include higher hydrocarbons and HBr. In the embodiments shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 , products that exit the coupling reactor are first cooled in a heat exchanger and then sent to an absorption column. HBr is absorbed in water using a packed column or other contacting device. Input water and the product stream can be contacted either in a co-current or counter-current flow, with the counter-current flow preferred for its improved efficiency. HBr absorption can be carried out either substantially adiabatically or substantially isothermally. In one embodiment, the concentration of hydrobromic acid after absorption ranges from 5 to 70 wt %, with a preferred range of 20 to 50 wt %. The operating pressure is 1 to 50 bar, more preferably 1 to 30 bar. In the laboratory, a glass column or glass-lined column with ceramic or glass packing can be used. In a pilot or commercial plant, one or more durable, corrosion-resistant materials (described below) are utilized. [0071] In one embodiment of the invention, the hydrocarbon products are recovered as a liquid from the HBr absorption column. This liquid hydrocarbon stream is phase-separated from the aqueous HBr stream using a liquid-liquid splitter and sent to the product cleanup unit. In another embodiment, the hydrocarbon products are recovered from the HBr column as a gas stream, together with the unconverted methane and other light gases. The products are then separated and recovered from the methane and light gases using any of a number of techniques. Nonlimiting examples include distillation, pressure swing adsorption, and membrane separation technologies. [0072] In some embodiments, the product clean-up unit comprises or includes a reactor for converting halogenated hydrocarbons present in the product stream into unhalogenated hydrocarbons. For example, under certain conditions, small amounts of C1-C4 bromoalkanes, bromobenzene, and/or other brominated species are formed and pass from the coupling reactor to the liquid-liquid splitter 16 and then to the product clean-up unit 17 . These brominated species can be “hydrodehalogenated” in a suitable reactor. In one embodiment, such a reactor comprises a continuous fixed bed, catalytic converter packed with a supported metal or metal oxide catalyst. Nonlimiting examples of the active component include copper, copper oxide, palladium, and platinum, with palladium being preferred. Nonlimiting examples of support materials include active carbon, alumina, silica, and zeolites, with alumina being preferred. The reactor is operated at a pressure of 0-150 psi, preferably 0-5 psi, and a temperature of 250-400° C., preferably 300-350° C., with a GHSV of 1200-60 hr −1 , preferably about 240 hr −1 . When bromobenzene (e.g.) is passed over such a reactor, it is readily converted to benzene and HBr, with some light hydrocarbons (e.g., C3-C7) produced as byproducts. Although carbon deposition (coking) can deactivate the catalyst, the catalyst can be regenerated by exposure to oxygen and then hydrogen at, e.g., 500° C. and 400° C., respectively. [0073] After HBr is separated from the hydrocarbon products, the unconverted methane leaves with the light gases in the vapor outlet of the HBr absorption unit. In one embodiment of the invention, unconverted methane is separated from the light gases in a separation unit (“SEP II” in the FIGS.), which operates using pressure or temperature swing adsorption, membrane-based separation, cryogenic distillation (preferable for large-scale production), or some other suitable separation process. Low methane conversions in the bromination reactor may result in the coupling products being carried with the light gases, which in turn would necessitate the recovery of these species from the lights gases. Separation technologies that can be employed for this purpose include, but are not limited to, distillation, pressure or temperature swing adsorption, and membrane-based technologies. [0074] In another aspect of the invention, a process for separating anhydrous HBr from an aqueous solution of HBr is provided. HBr forms a high-boiling azeotrope with water; therefore, separation of HBr from the aqueous solution requires either breaking the azeotrope using an extractive agent or bypassing the azeotrope using pressure swing distillation. FIG. 5 illustrates one embodiment of an extractive distillation unit for separating HBr from water. Water is extracted in a distillation column 200 and HBr is obtained as the distillate stream 201 . The distillate stream may also contain small amounts of water. In one embodiment, the distillation column 200 is a tray-tower or a packed column. Conventional ceramic packing is preferred over structured packing Aqueous bromide salt, such as CaBr 2 , is added at the top of the distillation column, resulting in the extraction of water from aqueous HBr. A condenser may not be required for the column. A reboiler 203 is used to maintain the vapor flow in the distillation column. The diluted stream of aqueous CaBr 2 202 is sent to the evaporation section 206 , which, optionally has a trayed or packed section. The bottoms stream from the column is heated before entering the evaporation section. Stream 207 comprising mostly water (and no more than traces of HBr) leaves the evaporation section. [0075] In one embodiment, HBr is displaced as a gas from its aqueous solution in the presence of an electrolyte that shares a common ion (Br − or H + ) or an ion (e.g. Ca 2+ or SO 4 2− ) that has a higher hydration energy than HBr. The presence of the electrolyte pushes the equilibrium HBr aq ⇄HBr gas towards gas evolution, which is further facilitated by heating the solution. [0076] Aqueous solutions of metal bromides such as CaBr 2 , MgBr 2 also KBr, NaBr, LiBr, RbBr, CsBr, SrBr 2 , BaBr 2 , MnBr 2 , FeBr 2 , FeBr 3 , CoBr 2 , NiBr 2 , CuBr 2 , ZnBr 2 , CdBr 2 , AlBr 3 , LaBr 3 , YBr 3 , and BiBr 3 can be used as extractive agents, with aqueous solutions of CaBr 2 , MgBr 2 , KBr, NaBr, LiBr or mixtures thereof being preferred. The bottoms stream of the distillation column contains a diluted solution of the extracting agent. This stream is sent to another distillation column or a vaporizer where water is evaporated and the extracting agent is concentrated before sending it back to the extractive distillation column. Sulfuric acid can be used as an extracting agent if its reaction with HBr to form bromine and sulfur dioxide can be minimized. Experiments carried out to demonstrate the separation of anhydrous HBr from an aqueous solution of HBr are described in Examples 2 and 3. [0077] In another aspect of the invention, various approaches to product clean-up (separation and/or purification) are provided. A number of bromide species may be present in the unpurified product stream: HBr, organic bromides such as methyl bromide and dibromomethane, and bromo-aromatics. In one embodiment of the invention, hydrocarbon products are separated from brominated species by passing the product stream over copper metal, NiO, CaO, ZnO, MgO, BaO, or combinations thereof. Preferably, the products are run over one or more of the above-listed materials at a temperature of from 25-600° C., more preferably, 400-500° C. This process is tolerant of CO 2 that may be present. [0078] In another embodiment, particularly for large-scale production of hydrocarbons, unconverted methane is separated from other light hydrocarbons as well as heavier products (e.g., benzene, toluene, etc.) using distillation. For example, in FIGS. 1 and 2 , methane and other light hydrocarbons exit the absorption column through a gas outlet and are directed to a separation unit (SEP. II). Any unconverted methyl bromide will be removed with the light gases and can be recycled back to the bromination/reproportionation reactor. Heavier hydrocarbons are removed as a liquid distillate. [0079] Molecular Halogen Generation [0080] In one embodiment of the invention, catalytic halogen generation is carried out by reacting hydrohalic acid and molecular oxygen over a suitable catalyst. The general reaction can be represented by equation (1): [0000] [0000] The process occurs at a range of temperatures and mole ratios of hydrohalic acid (HX) and molecular oxygen (O 2 ), i.e., 4:1 to 0.001:1 HX/O 2 , preferably 4:1 (to fit the reaction stoichiometry), more preferably 3.5:1 (to prevent eventual HBr breatkthrough). [0081] Halogen can be generated using pure oxygen, air, or oxygen-enriched gas, and the reaction can be run with a variety of inert nonreacting gases such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, helium, and water steam being present. Any proportion of these gases can be combined as pure gases or selected mixtures thereof, to accommodate process requirements. [0082] A number of materials have been identified as halogen generation catalysts. It is possible to use one type of catalyst or a combination of any number, configuration, or proportion of catalysts. Oxides, halides, and/or oxy-halides of one or more metals, such as Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Ce, V, Nb, Mo, Pd, Ta, or W are representative, more preferably Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, or Ce. The most preferable catalysts are oxides, halides, and/or oxy-halides of Cu. [0083] Although not bound by theory, the following equations are considered representative of the chemistry believed to take place when such materials are used to catalyze halogen formation: [0000] CaO+2HBr→CaBr 2 +H 2 O   (2) [0000] CaBr 2 +½O 2 →CaO+Br 2   (3) [0000] for metal oxides in which the metal does not change oxidation states, and [0000] Co 3 O 4 +8HBr→3CoBr 2 +4H 2 O+Br 2   (4) [0000] 3CoBr 2 +2O 2 →Co 3 O 4 +3Br 2   (5) [0000] for metal oxides in which the metal does change oxidation states. The net reaction for (2)+(3) and (4)+(5) is (7): [0000] [0000] which is equivalent to (1). [0084] In one embodiment of the invention, chlorine is used as the halogenating agent, and ceria (CeO 2 ) is used to catalyze the generation of chlorine from hydrochloric acid. The following equations are considered representative: [0000] CeO 2 +4HCl→CeCl 2 +H 2 O+Cl 2   (8) [0000] CeCl 2 +O 2 →CeO 2 +Cl 2   (9) [0000] for an overall reaction: 2HCl+½O 2 →H 2 O+Cl 2   (10) [0000] which is also equivalent to (1). [0085] This use of ceria is quite novel, as it allows essentially complete consumption of HCl. In contrast, previous reactions of metal oxides, HCl, and oxygen have typically yielded HCl/Cl 2 mixtures. Thus, ceria can advantageously be employed as a halogen regeneration catalyst, particularly where chlorine is used for alkane halogenation, with chlorine's attendant lower cost and familiarity to industry. [0086] In one embodiment of the invention, the halogen generation catalyst(s) are supported on porous or nonporous alumina, silica, zirconia, titania or mixtures thereof, or another suitable support. A range of temperatures can be employed to maximize process efficiency, e.g., 200-600° C., more preferably 350-450° C. [0087] Recovery and Recycle of Molecular Halogen [0088] Halogen generation produces both water and molecular halogen. Water can be separated from halogen and removed before the halogen is reacted with the hydrocarbon feedstock. Where the halogen is bromine, a bromine-water, liquid-liquid phase split is achieved upon condensation of a mixture of these species. For example, in one embodiment of the invention, a liquid-liquid flash unit is used to separate most of the bromine from water, simply and inexpensively. The bromine phase typically contains a very small amount of water, and can be sent directly to the bromination reactor. The water phase, however, contains 1-3 wt % bromine. However, if air is used in the bromine generation step, nitrogen and unconverted oxygen are present with the bromine and water stream that enters the flash. [0089] The gas leaving the flash unit primarily consists of nitrogen and unconverted oxygen, but carries with it some bromine and water. The amount of bromine leaving with the vapor phase depends on the temperature and pressure of the flash. The flash can be operated at temperatures ranging from 0 to 50° C.; however, a lower temperature (ca 2 to 10° C.) is preferred to reduce bromine leaving in the vapor stream. The vapor stream is sent to the bromine scavenging section for bromine recovery. In one embodiment, the operating pressure is 1 to 50 bar, more preferably 1 to 30 bar. Since water freezes at 0° C., it is not possible to substantially reduce the temperature of the flash 19 . However, the vapor stream from the flash can be contacted with a chilled brine solution, at temperatures from −30° C. to 10° C. Chilled brine temperatures lower than that of the flash can substantially reduce the bromine scavenging requirement of the scavenging unit. Vaporizing the bromine by heating the brine can then occur, with further heating employed to facilitate concentration of the brine for re-use. This approach to bromine recovery can be carried out either continuously or in batch mode. [0090] Bromine contained in the water-rich phase leaving the liquid-liquid flash can be effectively recovered by distillation. Other means, such as using an inert gas to strip the bromine from the water phase (described by Waycuilis) and adsorption-based methods, are not very effective, and potentially can result in a significant loss of bromine. The presently described distillation subprocess produces bromine or bromine-water azeotrope as a distillate, which is recycled back to the flash unit. Water is contained in the bottoms stream. Bromine can react reversibly with water to form small amounts of HBr and HOBr. In the distillation scheme, therefore, ppm levels of HBr (and/or HOBr) can be present in the bottoms stream. A side-stream rectifier or stripper can be utilized to reduce the bromine content of the bottoms stream to produce a pure water stream. Other alternatives that can reduce the bromine content of the water to below 10 ppm range include, but are not limited to, the addition of acids such as sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and phosphoric acid, in very small quantities to reduce the pH of the water stream. Lowering the pH drives the HBr and HOBr stream back to bromine and water, thereby substantially reducing the loss of bromine in the water stream. HBr present in the water stream can also be recovered using ion-exchange resins or electrochemical means. [0091] Recovery of All Halogen for Reuse [0092] For both economic and environmental reasons, it is preferred to minimize, if not completely eliminate, loss of halogen utilized in the overall process. Molecular bromine has the potential to leave with vented nitrogen and unconverted oxygen if it is not captured after Br 2 generation. Bromine scavenging can be carried out in a bed containing solid CuBr or MnBr 2 , either loaded on a support or used in powder form, to capture Br 2 from a gas stream that may also contain H 2 O, CO 2 , O 2 , methane &/or N 2 . In one embodiment of the invention, bromine scavenging is performed within a range of temperatures, i.e., from −10° C. to 200° C. When bromine scavenging is complete, molecular bromine can be released from the bed by raising the temperature of the bed to 220° C. or higher, preferably above 275° C. It is important that there be little if any O 2 in the bed during bromine release, as O 2 will oxidize the metal and, over time, reduce the bromine-scavenging capacity of the bed. [0093] Construction of Critical Process Elements with Unique Corrosion-Resistant Materials [0094] Corrosion induced by any halogen-containing process, whether in the condensed phase or the vapor phase, presents a significant challenge in the selection of durable materials for the construction of reactors, piping, and ancillary equipment. Ceramics, such as alumina, zirconia, and silicon carbides, offer exceptional corrosion resistance to most conditions encountered in the process described herein. However, ceramics suffer from a number of disadvantages, including lack of structural strength under tensile strain, difficulty in completely containing gas phase reactions (due to diffusion or mass transport along jointing surfaces), and possibly undesirable thermal transport characteristics inherent to most ceramic materials. Constructing durable, gas-tight, and corrosion resistant process control equipment (i.e. shell and tube type heat-exchangers, valves, pumps, etc.), for operation at elevated temperatures and pressures, and over extended periods of time, will likely require the use of formable metals such as Au, Co, Cr, Fe, Nb, Ni, Pt, Ta, Ti, and/or Zr, or alloys of these base metals containing elements such as Al, B, C, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, H, Ha, La, Mn, Mo, N, Nb, Ni, 0, P, Pd, S, Si, Sn, Ta, Ti, V, W, Y, and/or Zr. [0095] According to one embodiment of the invention, the process and subprocesses described herein are carried out in reactors, piping, and ancillary equipment that are both strong enough and sufficiently corrosion-resistant to allow long-term continued operation. Selection of appropriate materials of construction depends strongly on the temperature and environment of exposure for each process control component. [0096] Suitable materials for components exposed to cyclic conditions (e.g. oxidizing and reducing), as compared to single conditions (oxidizing or reducing), will differ greatly. Nonlimiting examples of materials identified as suitable for exposure to cyclic conditions, operating in the temperature range of from 150-550° C., include Au and alloys of Ti and Ni, with the most suitable being Al/V alloyed Ti (more specifically Ti Grd-5) and Ni—Cr—Mo alloys with high Cr, low Fe, and low C content (more specifically ALLCOR®, Alloy 59, C-22, 625, and HX). Nonlimiting examples of materials identified as suitable for exposure to either acid halide to air, or molecular halogen to air cyclic conditions, in the temperature range 150-550° C., either acid halide to air, or molecular halogen to air include alloys of Fe and Ni, with the most suitable being alloys of the Ni—Cr—Mo, and Ni—Mo families. Nonlimiting examples of materials identified as suitable for single environment conditions, in the temperature range 100° C.-550° C., include Ta, Au, and alloys of Fe, Co, and Ni. For lower temperature conditions (<280° C.), suitable polymer linings can be utilized such as PTFE, FEP, and more suitably PVDF. All materials may be used independently or in conjunction with a support material such as coating, cladding, or chemical/physical deposition on a suitable low-cost material such as low-alloy steels. [0097] FIG. 6 schematically illustrates an alternate mode of operation for a continuous process for converting methane, natural gas, or other alkane feedstocks into higher hydrocarbons. Alkanes are brominated in the bromination section in the presence of water formed during bromine generation, including recycled water. The bromination products pass either through a reproportionation reactor or through the reproportionation section of the bromination reactor, where the light gases are reproportionated to form olefins and alkyl bromides by using the polybromides as brominating agents. The reproportionation products, which include olefins, alkyl monobromides, some polybromides, and HBr, along with any unreacted alkanes, are then sent to the coupling reactor. The coupling products are sent to a vapor-liquid-liquid flash. Higher hydrocarbon products are removed as an organic phase from the vapor-liquid-liquid flash, while aqueous HBr is removed as the heavier phase. The gas stream from the flash is sent to a separation system to recover methane and light gases, which are recycled back to the bromination and reproportionation sections, respectively. [0098] Nitrogen must be removed from the gas recycle stream if air is used as an oxidant in bromine generation. The aqueous HBr stream coming out of the vapor-liquid-liquid flash is sent to the HBr/water separation system, where water is recovered. The separation can be carried out in a distillation column, where pure water is taken out as a distillate and the bottoms stream is an aqueous solution of HBr (having a higher concentration of HBr than the feed to the distillation column). The aqueous HBr stream is sent back to the bromine generation section, where bromine is generated from aqueous HBr in the presence of air or oxygen. [0099] Alternatively, extractive distillation is used to separate HBr from water. The separated HBr is sent to the bromine generation reactor and bromine is generated from aqueous HBr in the presence of air or oxygen. Complete conversion of HBr is not necessary in the bromine generation reactor. Periodic decoking can be carried out for the bromination, reproportionation, and/or coupling reactors, with the bromine-containing decoking product stream being routed to the bromine generation reactor. [0100] Another continuous process alternative is shown in FIG. 7 . Alkanes are brominated in the bromination section in the presence of water formed during bromine generation, including recycled water. The bromination products (which include monobromides and polybromides) pass through either a reproportionation reactor or the reproportionation section of the bromination reactor, where the light gases are reproportionated to form alkyl bromides, using the polybromides as brominating agents. The reproportionation products—alkyl monobromides, olefins, a small amount of polybromides, and HBr—and any unreacted alkanes are then sent to a separation unit where aqueous HBr is separated from the alkyl bromides. Monobromides in the alkyl bromide stream are separated from the polybromides. The polybromides are recycled to the reproportionation section where polybromides react with the recycle gases to form olefins and monobromides. [0101] The aqueous HBr separation from the alkyl bromides can be carried out in a distillation column coupled with a liquid-liquid flash. The alkyl bromide stream can contain HBr. The monobromides are fed into the coupling section, and the products are sent to a water absorption column where HBr produced in the coupling reactor is removed from the products and unconverted gas. The liquid outlet of the absorption column is fed to a vapor-liquid-liquid flash separation unit, where higher hydrocarbon products are removed as an organic phase and aqueous HBr is removed as the heavier phase. The gas outlet from the absorption column is sent to a separation system to separate methane from the light gases. The recovered methane is recycled back to the bromination section, while the light gases are recycled to the reproportionation section. [0102] Nitrogen must be separated before the gases are recycled if air is used as an oxidant in bromine generation. The aqueous HBr stream from the vapor-liquid-liquid flash is combined with the aqueous HBr stream from the alkyl bromide separation section and sent to the HBr/Water separation system. The separation can be carried out in a distillation column, where pure water is taken out as a distillate and the bottoms stream is an aqueous solution of HBr having a higher concentration of HBr compared with the feed to the distillation column. The aqueous HBr stream is sent back to the bromine generation section, where bromine is generated from aqueous HBr in the presence of air, oxygen or enriched air. [0103] Alternatively, extractive distillation is used to separate HBr from water. The separated HBr is sent to the bromine generation reactor, where bromine is generated from aqueous HBr in the presence of air, oxygen, or enriched air. Complete conversion of HBr to bromine is not required during bromine generation. Periodic decoking of the bromination, reproportionation and coupling reactors can be carried out, with the bromine-containing decoking product stream being routed to the bromine generation reactor. [0104] To facilitate a better understanding of the present invention, the following examples of certain aspects of some embodiments are given. In no way should the following examples be read to limit, or define, the scope of the invention. EXAMPLE 1 Reproportionation of Dibromomethane with Propane [0105] Methane (11 sccm, 1 atm) was combined with nitrogen (15 sccm, 1 atm) at room temperature via a mixing tee and passed through a room temperature bubbler full of bromine. The CH 4 /N 2 /Br 2 mixture was plumbed into a preheated glass tube at 500° C., and bromination of the methane took place with a residence time (“t res ”) of 60 seconds, producing primarily bromomethane, dibromomethane, and HBr. The stream of nitrogen, HBr, and partially brominated hydrocarbon was combined with propane (0.75 sccm, 1 atm) in a mixing tee and passed into a second glass reactor tube at 525° C. with a residence time (“t res ”) of 60 s. In the second reactor tube, polybrominated hydrocarbons (i.e. CH 2 Br 2 , CHBr 3 ) react with the propane to produce bromopropanes. The reproportionation is idealized by the following reaction: [0000] CH 2 Br 2 +C 3 H 8 →CH 3 Br+C 3 H 7 Br [0106] As products left the second reactor, they were collected by a series of traps containing 4 M NaOH (which neutralized the HBr) and hexadecane (containing octadecane as an internal standard) to dissolve as much of the hydrocarbon products as possible. Volatile components like methane and propane were collected in a gas bag after the HBr/hydrocarbon traps. All products were quantified by gas chromatography. The results (“Ex. 1”) are summarized in Table 1. For comparison, the reactions were also run with two reactors, but without reproportionation with propane (“Control A”), and with only the first reactor and without propane (“Control B”). [0000] TABLE 1 Reproportionation of Dibromomethane Ex. 1 (bromi- Control Control nation/repro- A (bromi- B (bromi- portionation) nation) nation) Bromination t res 60 60 60 Reproportionation t res 60 60  0 CH 4 conversion 40% 47% 45% CH 3 Br/(CH 3 Br + CH 2 Br 2 ) 93% 84% 74% C 3 H 8 conversion 85% N/A N/A Carbon balance 96% 97% 96% EXAMPLE 2 Separation of Anhydrous HBr [0107] 20 ml stock HBr aqueous solution were added to 20 g CaBr 2 H 2 O followed by heating to 70° C. A significant evolution of HBr gas was observed (determined by AgNO 3 precipitation and the NH 3 fuming test). The released HBr was not quantified as the reaction was carried out in an open vessel. EXAMPLE 3 Separation of Anhydrous HBr [0108] Dehydration with H 2 SO 4 was attempted by adding a conc. solution of H 2 SO 4 to HBr. Qualitative tests were conducted in which different concentration of H 2 SO 4 were added to HBr for determination of the threshold concentration where oxidation of HBr no longer occurs: [0000] 2HBr+H 2 SO 4 →Br 2 +SO 2 +2H 2 O [0109] It was determined that the H 2 SO 4 concentration below which no oxidation is apparent is about 70 wt. %. 30 ml 70% H 2 SO 4 was added to 30 ml stock HBr azeotrope (48 wt. %) and the mixture was heated to boiling. The HBr content was determined quantitatively by AgNO 3 precipitation and gravimetric determination of AgBr from a solution aliquot at the moment of mixing, after 15 min and after 30 min. boiling. EXAMPLE 4 Metathesis of Brominated Methane Over Selected Catalysts [0110] A series of experiments were conducted in which methane was brominated in a manner substantially the same as or similar to that described in Example 1 (10 sccm methane bubbled through room temperature bromine, followed by passage of the mixture through a reactor tube heated to 500° C.), and the bromination products were then passed over various metal-ion exchanged or impregnated zeolite catalysts, at atmospheric pressure (total pressure), at a temperature of from 350 to 450° C., with a residence time of 40 seconds. Table 2 summarizes the distribution of metathesis products. Catalysts are denoted by metal ion (e.g., Ba, Co, Mn, etc.) and by type of Zeolyst Int'l. zeolite (e.g., 5524, 58, 8014, etc.). The mass (mg) of each product, as well as the total mass of products is given for each run. The abbreviations, B, PhBr, T, X, and M refer to benzene, phenyl bromide, toluene, xylene, and mesitylene, respectively. [0000] TABLE 2 Metathesis of Brominated Methane Over Selected Catalysts Total T (C.) Catalyst B PhBr T X M (mg) 350 Ba 5524 0.25 0 0.96 2.58 3.14 6.93 350 Ba 58 0.31 0 1.48 3.2 3.11 8.11 350 Ba 8014 0.3 0 1.3 2.87 3.15 7.6 350 Ca 58 0.2 0 0.81 2.44 3.09 6.53 350 Co 2314 1.22 0.02 3.05 2.18 0.56 7.04 350 Co 3024 0.36 0 2.06 4.21 3.47 10.1 350 Co 58 0.2 0 1.05 2.91 3.34 7.5 350 Mg 3024 0.31 0 1.53 3.59 3.89 9.32 350 Mg 58 0.28 0 1.41 3.3 3.43 8.42 350 Mn 2314 1.07 0.03 2.86 2.26 0.65 6.86 350 Mn 3024 0.53 0 2.92 4.8 3.02 11.27 350 Mn 58 0.17 0 0.88 2.7 3.62 7.37 350 Ni 2314 1.12 0.05 2.94 2.44 0.74 7.29 350 Ni 3024 0.61 0 2.82 3.85 2.13 9.41 375 Ba 5524 0.32 0 1.32 2.82 2.57 7.04 375 Ba 58 0.4 0 1.84 2.93 2.4 7.57 375 Ba 8014 0.32 0 1.23 2.84 2.95 7.34 375 Ca 58 0.2 0 0.96 2.55 2.93 6.64 375 Co 3024 0.47 0 2.3 3.52 2.18 8.48 375 Co 58 0.3 0 1.54 2.83 2.42 7.1 375 Mg 3024 0.37 0 1.81 3.26 2.78 8.22 375 Mg 58 0.34 0 1.67 3.04 2.74 7.8 375 Mn 3024 0.62 0 2.91 3.9 2.17 9.59 375 Mn 58 0.22 0 1.18 2.71 2.83 6.94 375 Pd 2314 1.54 0 3.1 1.83 0.37 6.85 400 Ba 5524 0.46 0 2.37 4.16 2.95 9.94 400 Ba 58 0.7 0 3.15 3.91 2.7 10.47 400 Ba 8014 0.38 0 1.57 3.81 3.77 9.53 400 Ca 58 0.41 0 1.89 3.43 2.81 8.54 400 Co 3024 0.78 0 3.42 4.14 2.26 10.6 400 Co 58 0.62 0 2.71 3.36 2.31 8.99 400 Mg 3024 0.76 0 3.26 4.11 2.64 10.76 400 Mg 58 0.71 0 3.04 3.74 2.59 10.08 400 Mn 3024 0.98 0 4.1 4.38 2.06 11.52 400 Mn 58 0.48 0 2.26 3.44 2.64 8.82 400 Ni 3024 0.81 0 3.15 3.35 1.72 9.04 400 Pb 2314 1.2 0.03 3.25 3.27 1.2 8.94 400 Pb 3024 1.07 0.04 2.77 3.63 1.66 9.17 400 Pd 2314 2.44 0 3.16 1.22 0.18 7.01 400 Sr 2314 2.13 0.01 4.05 2.29 0.46 8.94 400 Sr 3024 1.93 0.05 4.03 2.67 0.65 9.32 425 Ag 3024 2.79 0.02 4.16 1.78 0.29 9.04 425 Ag 8014 3.09 0.02 3.52 1.09 0.16 7.88 425 Ba 5524 0.54 0 2.67 3.67 2.33 9.22 425 Ba 58 0.79 0 3 2.94 1.75 8.48 425 Bi 2314 3.13 0.03 4.47 1.61 0.23 9.48 425 Co 2314 3.39 0.03 4.34 1.59 0.25 9.6 425 Co 3024 1.07 0 3.42 2.79 1.09 8.38 425 Cu 2314 2.89 0.02 4.74 2.13 0.37 10.15 425 Li 5524 1.51 0.04 3.31 3.27 1.12 9.24 425 Mg 3024 0.99 0 3.28 2.85 1.37 8.48 425 Mg 58 0.81 0 2.62 2.16 1.11 6.7 425 Mn 3024 1.22 0 3.9 3.01 1.14 9.27 425 Mo 2314 3.06 0.04 4.02 1.46 0.24 8.82 425 Ni 3024 0.97 0 3.38 2.85 1.32 8.51 425 Sr 3024 2.53 0.02 4.36 2.22 0.43 9.56 450 Ag 3024 3.84 0.02 4.27 1.36 0.18 9.67 450 Bi 2314 3.9 0.01 3.59 0.67 0.06 8.23 450 Ca 2314 3.64 0.02 4.1 1 0.16 8.92 450 Co 2314 4.12 0.01 3.77 0.77 0.08 8.75 450 Cu 2314 3.65 0 4.3 1.1 0.14 9.19 450 Fe 2314 4.42 0.02 3.43 0.74 0.09 8.69 450 Fe 3024 3.61 0.01 2.96 0.63 0.08 7.28 450 Fe 5524 3.99 0.03 3.63 0.85 0.11 8.6 450 La 2314 3.48 0.01 3.81 0.87 0.12 8.29 450 Li 8014 1.74 0.02 2.61 2.67 0.84 7.89 450 Mg 2314 4.2 0.02 3.84 0.76 0.1 8.92 450 Mn 2314 3.78 0.02 3.9 0.88 0.12 8.7 450 Mo 2314 3.88 0.01 3.26 0.58 0.06 7.79 450 Ni 2314 4.39 0.01 3.12 0.44 0.03 8 450 Pb 2314 2.58 0.01 4.68 2.31 0.45 10.02 450 Pb 3024 2.08 0.01 4.44 2.87 0.7 10.1 450 Pb 5524 1.89 0.02 3.58 2.71 0.73 8.93 450 Pd 2314 4.03 0 1.58 0.14 0 5.76 450 Sr 2314 3.71 0 4.78 1.68 0.21 10.39 450 Sr 3024 2.51 0.01 3.76 1.61 0.26 8.14 EXAMPLE 5 Hydrodehalogenation of Bromobenzene, and Catalyst Regeneration [0111] A test solution (1.5 ml/hr), which includes 1.9 wt % bromobenzene (PhBr) dissolved in dodecane, diluted by N 2 (1.1 ml/min) was fed into a tubular quartz reactor in which 3.6 g of highly dispersed precious metal catalyst (Pd/Al 2 O 3 , 0.5 wt %) was loaded. The reaction was carried out at 325° C. with a residence time of 15 s. The reaction effluent was trapped in a bubbler with 8 ml 4M NaOH solution pre-added. The carrier gas as well as the gaseous product were collected in a gas bag. All of the carbon-based products in the gas phase and oil phase in the liquid product were subjected to GC analysis. For the base trap solution, the HBr concentration was measured with an ion-selective electrode. Based on all of these measurements, carbon and bromine balances were calculated. [0112] The experiment was continuously run for over 300 hours until the conversion of PhBr dropped from 100% in the initial 70 hrs to below 30% ( FIG. 8 ). Hydrodebromination of PhBr took place over the catalyst bed with the formation of benzene (“BZ”) and HBr as the major products, accompanied with some light hydrocarbons (C 3 -C 7 ) being detected as byproducts, which originated from solvent decomposition. Carbon deposition was recognized as the primary reason for deactivation of the catalyst. The catalyst proved to be re-generable via decoking at 500° C. with O 2 oxidation (5 ml/min) for 10 hrs, followed by H 2 reduction (20 ml/min) at 400° C. for 3 hrs. The regenerated catalyst was identified to be as effective as the fresh catalyst, as confirmed by its ability to catalyze the same hydrodebromination reaction without activity loss in the first 70 hours ( FIG. 9 ). [0113] The invention has been described with references to various examples and preferred embodiments, but is not limited thereto. Other modifications and equivalent arrangements, apparent to a skilled person upon consideration of this disclosure, are also included within the scope of the invention. For example, in an alternate embodiment of the invention, the products 25 from the bromine generation reactor are fed directly into the bromination reactor 3 . The advantage of such a configuration is in eliminating the bromine holdup needed in the flash unit 27 , thereby reducing the handling of liquid bromine. Also, by eliminating the bromine scavenging section including units 26 , 27 , 31 and 34 , the capital cost for the process can be reduced significantly. For energy efficiency, it is desirable to have the outlet of bromine generation be equal to the bromination temperature. For bromine generation, cerium-based catalysts are therefore preferred over copper-based catalysts in this embodiment, since cerium bromide has a higher melting point (722° C.) than copper (I) bromide (504° C.). The presence of oxygen in bromination and coupling reduces the selectivity to the desired products; therefore, the bromine generation reactor must consume all of the oxygen in the feed. In this embodiment, the monobromide separation 5 must be modified to remove water using a liquid-liquid split on the bottoms stream of the distillation column 51 . The water removed in the liquid-liquid split contains HBr, which can be removed from water using extractive distillation (see, e.g., FIG. 5 ), and then recycled back to the bromine generation section. [0114] Therefore, the present invention is well adapted to attain the ends and advantages mentioned as well as those that are inherent therein. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the present invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular illustrative embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the present invention. While compositions and methods are described in terms of “comprising,” “containing,” or “including” various components or steps, the compositions and methods can also “consist essentially of or “consist of the various components and steps. All numbers and ranges disclosed above may vary by some amount. Whenever a numerical range with a lower limit and an upper limit is disclosed, any number and any included range falling within the range is specifically disclosed. In particular, every range of values (of the form, “from about a to about b,” or, equivalently, “from approximately a to b,” or, equivalently, “from approximately a-b”) disclosed herein is to be understood to set forth every number and range encompassed within the broader range of values. Also, the terms in the claims have their plain, ordinary meaning unless otherwise explicitly and clearly defined by the patentee. Moreover, the indefinite articles “a” or “an”, as used in the claims, are defined herein to mean one or more than one of the element that it introduces. If there is any conflict in the usages of a word or term in this specification and one or more patent or other documents that may be incorporated herein by reference, the definitions that are consistent with this specification should be adopted.

A method comprising providing a halogen stream; providing a first alkane stream; reacting at least a portion of the halogen stream with at least a portion of the first alkane stream to form a halogenated stream, wherein the halogenated stream comprises alkyl monohalides, alkyl polyhalides, and a hydrogen halide; providing a second alkane stream; and reacting at least a portion of the second alkane stream with at least a portion of the alkyl polyhalides to create at least some additional alkyl monohalides.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/268,988 filed Nov. 9, 1988, now abandoned. FIELD OF THE INVENTION AND RELATED ART STATEMENT The present invention relates to a method for analyzing samples and to an automatic processor for analyzing samples and, more particularly, to an automatic processor which is capable of conducting various analyzing operations with different times required for the reaction between the sample and a reagent to be completed, that is, or different reaction times. There has been proposed a single reaction line-multianalyzing apparatus, as disclosed in Japanese Patent Examined Publication No. 55-21303. This apparatus has a reagent supply section, an analysis section provided with a multiwave photometer, and a single reaction line extending between these two sections. A plurality of reaction chambers are arranged on the single reaction line. The reaction chambers in which different reactions are effected separately are forwarded successively to the analysis section. In the analysis section, a reaction solution in each of the reaction chambers is analyzed by means of the multiwave photometer. This technique makes it possible to reduce the size of the apparatus. In general, the reaction time varies according the analysis items. Namely, the time required for the reaction chamber to be moved from a reagent adding position to an analyzing position must be adjusted in accordance with the analysis items (reaction times). For this reason, in the above-described prior art, the reagent adding position is changed in accordance with the analysis items so as to adjust the reaction time. Therefore, it is necessary to provide a large number of reagent adding mechanisms (or various reagent adding positions). Meanwhile, there is disclosed a reagent pipetting device in Japanese Patent Examined Publication No. 59-22905. This device enables the addition of many kinds of reagents to be ensured with a simple construction. According to this device, however, every reagent is needed to be added into the reaction chamber at the same position on the single reaction line. Therefore, this device can be applicable to analysis items having the reaction times which are identical with each other but cannot be applied to analysis items having reaction times which are different from each other. OBJECT AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore one object of the present invention to provide a method for analyzing samples in which the reagent is added to the sample at the same position on a reaction line even if the reaction times for the respective analysis items are different from each other. Further, it is another object of the present invention to provide an automatic processor which is capable of performing the above method. To this end, according to the present invention, provided is an automatic processor in which reaction chambers in each of a plurality of reaction chamber groups are made to circulate successively to pass through a sample pouring position, a reagent adding position and an analyzing position in the mentioned order, in accordance with the reaction times of the reaction solution in the reaction chambers of the reaction chamber groups. Other objects, effects and functions of the present invention will become more clear from the following description of the preferred embodiments with referring to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing the whole of an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 2A to 2D are charts illustrating the procedure for the pouring of the sample into the reaction vessels of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1; and FIG. 3 is a time chart showing the relationship between the timing of pouring of the sample into the reaction vessels and the timing of washing of the reaction vessels. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring to FIG. 1, an automatic processor of an embodiment of the present invention comprises a sample disk 1, a reaction disk 2, and a reagent disk 3. A plurality of sample cups 11 are disposed in the sample disk 1. The sample cups 11 accommodate samples therein. Also, a plurality of reagent cups 31 are disposed in the reagent disk 3. Different reagents are accommodated in the reagent cups 31 separately. One hundred and twenty (120) reaction vessels 21 are arranged circularly in the reaction disk 2. The reaction vessels 21 are divided or classified into thirty (30) reaction vessel groups I-XXX, each of which includes four (4) reaction vessels 21. Temperature of the respective reaction vessels 21 is maintained at 37° C. by a constant temperature bath 22. A CPU 4 sends a command signal to a drive motor M for the reaction disk 2 through an interface 41 to rotatively drive the disk 2 in a controlled manner. The CPU 4 also sends command signals to the disks 1 and 3 to rotate them. In association with the sample disk 1, a sample pipetting arm 12 having a pipetting nozzle 13 is provided so as to be swingable about an axis thereof so that it is allowed to move in a swinging motion between the sample cup 11 in the sample disk 1 and the reaction vessel 21 in the reaction disk 2, which is located at the sample receiving position. A pump 14 is connected to the pipetting arm 12 to cause the latter to draw the sample from the sample cup 11 and then pour the same into the reaction vessel 21. The swinging motion of the sample pipetting arm 12 and the operation of the pump 14 are controlled by the CPU 4. A reagent pipetting arm 32 is provided, in association with the reagent disk 3, so as to be swingable about an axis thereof so that it is allowed to move in swinging motion between the reagent cup 31 in the reagent disk 3 and the reaction vessel 21 in the reaction disk 2, which is located at the reagent receiving position. A pump 33 is connected to the reagent pipetting arm 32 so as to cause the latter to draw the reagent from the reagent cup 31 and then add the same into the reaction vessel 21. The swinging motion of the reagent pipetting arm 32 and the operation of the pump 33 are controlled by the CPU 4. Next, operation of the automatic processor having the above-described arrangement will be described hereinunder. First, the sample pipetting arm 12 draws a sample from the sample cup 11 in the sample disk 1. Then, the sample pipetting arm 12 moves in swinging motion to the sample pouring position and pours the sample into a reaction vessel 21A of a first reaction vessel group I of the reaction disk 2. After one cycle time (thirty (30) seconds, in this embodiment) has elapsed, the reaction disk 2 is rotated counterclockwise such that one of the reaction vessels 21 of a second reaction vessel group II adjacent to the first reaction vessel group I is located at the sample pouring position. After four cycle times (two (2) minutes) have elapsed, the reaction vessel 21A of the first reaction vessel group I reaches the reagent adding position. In advance of this the reagent pipetting arm 32 has sucked a reagent, which is associated with the sample in the reaction vessel 21A, from one of the reagent cups 31 in the reagent disk 3 and, then, swung to the reagent adding position. When the reaction vessel 21A of the first reaction vessel group I arrives at the reagent adding position, the reagent pipetting arm 32 is operated to add the reagent into the reaction vessel 21A. After five cycle times (two (2) minutes and thirty (30) seconds) have elapsed, the reaction disk 2 is further rotated so that the reaction vessel 21A arrives at a stirring position. At this position, the reaction solution in the reaction vessel is stirred by a stirrer 23 so as to be made uniform. Thereafter, the reaction vessel 21A reaches an analyzing position. At the analyzing position, the reaction solution in the reaction vessel 21A is analyzed by a multiwave photometer 5. A signal indicative of the quantity of transmitted light read by the multiwave photometer 5 is digitalized on an absorbancy scale by means of a Log converter/AD converter 51. A digital signal from the Log converter/AD converter 51 is read into the CPU 4 through the interface 41. The CPU 4 operates to convert the read digital signal indicative, of the absorbancy into concentration data. Output of this data is provided to a printer 52 or a CRT 53. In addition, the data can also be stored in a microdevice 54 according to the operation of a keyboard 55. At a washing position beyond the analyzing position, in the case that the reaction in the reaction vessel has been completed, the reaction solution in the reaction vessel is discharged. The reaction vessel is washed by a washing device 6 constituted by a washing pump 61 and a washing nozzle 62 and then placed at the service of the coming reaction. However, in the case that the reaction in the reaction vessel has not been completed during the movement of the reaction vessel from the reagent adding position to the analyzing position (such condition can be foreseen by the CPU 4 from the kind of the reagent to be added), the CPU 4 operates to render the washing pump 61 inoperative through the interface 41. Therefore, discharge of the reaction solution and washing of the reaction vessel are not performed. In this case, the reaction vessel which contains the reaction solution is moved to reach again the sample pouring region. Upon the confirmation of the fact that the reaction has not been finished in the reaction vessel, the CPU 4 operates the drive motor M to rotate the reaction disk 2 such as to allow another empty reaction vessel of the reaction vessel group to be located at the sample pouring position, which group includes the thus confirmed reaction vessel. The operations described hereinabove are repeated for each reaction vessel group. The above-described procedure for pouring of the sample will be explained in detail hereinunder with reference to FIGS. 2A to 2D. Referring to FIG. 2A, a hundred and twenty (120) reaction vessels on the reaction disk are divided or classified into thirty (30) reaction vessel groups I to XXX each having four reaction vessels and distinguished from one another. References A, B, C and D are separately put to the four reaction vessels of each reaction vessel group to discriminate them from each other. As the reaction disk 2 is rotated, samples used for the reactions, the reaction times for which are different from each other, are poured into the separate reaction vessels A to C in one of the reaction vessel groups one by one at the sample pouring position S (see FIGS. 2A to 2C). First, a sample is poured into a reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group I, for example (see FIG. 2A). Then, the reaction disk 2 is rotated counterclockwise so that a reaction vessel A of the next reaction vessel group II is located at the sample pouring position S. A sample is poured into the reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group II as well. A period of time required between the pouring of the sample into the reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group I and the pouring of the sample into the reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group II is referred to as one cycle time. In this case, such period is thirty (30) seconds. With the rotation of the reaction disk 2, a reagent α related to a reaction time corresponding to the time duration of three rotations of the disk 2, i.e. about forty-five minutes, is added into the reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group I at the reagent adding position, and the reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group I is further moved to the analyzing position. Since the time required for the reaction vessel A to move from the reagent adding position to the analyzing position is less than fifteen minutes, the reaction in the reaction vessel A has not been completed. Therefore, the reaction disk 2 is further rotated to make the reaction vessel A return again to the sample pouring region without being subjected to analysis and washing. Since the CPU recognizes that the reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group I contains the reaction solution, the CPU operates to control the rotation of the reaction disk in such a manner that an empty reaction vessel of the reaction vessel group I or a reaction vessel B, for example, is located at the sample pouring position S (see FIG. 2B). Then, a sample is poured into the reaction vessel B of the reaction vessel group I as well. A reagent β related to a reaction time corresponding to the time duration of two rotations of the disk 2, i.e. about thirty minutes, is added into the reaction vessel B at the reagent adding position. The time required for the reaction vessel B to move from the reagent adding position to the analyzing position is also less than fifteen minutes so that the reactions in the reaction vessels A and B have not been completed. Therefore, the reaction disk 2 is further rotated to make the reaction vessels A and B return again to the sample pouring region without being subjected to analysis and washing. Since the CPU recognizes each of the reaction vessels A and B of the reaction vessel group I contain the reaction solution, the CPU operates to control the rotation of the reaction disk in such a manner that an empty reaction vessel of the reaction vessel group I or a reaction vessel C, for example, is located at the sample pouring position S (see FIG. 2C). Then, a sample is poured into the reaction vessel C of the reaction vessel group I as well. A reagent γ related to a reaction time corresponding to the time duration of one rotation of the disk 2, i.e. about fifteen minutes is added into the reaction vessel C at the reagent adding position. During the time required for the reaction vessel C to move from the reagent adding position to the analyzing position, all of the reactions in the reaction vessels A, B and C are completed simultaneously. Namely, the reaction times in connection with the reagents α and β are equal to integral multiples of the reaction time in connection with the reagent γ. After all of the reactions have been completed, these reaction vessels A, B and C are forwarded to the analyzing position where the respective reaction solutions are analyzed. Thereafter, these reaction vessels A, B and C are moved to the washing position and subjected to washing to be prepared for the coming reaction. FIG. 2D shows the state of the empty reaction vessel A of the reaction vessel group I returned back to the sample pouring position S. As has been described hereinabove, it is designed according to the present invention that, although each reaction vessel group including four reaction vessels repeats movement and stops as a unit for every cycle time, an empty reaction vessel in the subjective reaction vessel group is selected and is allowed to be located at the sample pouring position. In consequence, it is possible to process a plurality of reaction systems with different reaction times. A method according to which analyzing operations with different reaction times can be conducted on a single reaction line is called "a single reaction line-random access method". FIG. 3 is a time chart showing the relationship between the timing of pouring of the sample into the reaction vessels and the timing of washing of the reaction vessels. References A to C denote the reaction vessels respectively, a reference S denotes the timing of pouring of the sample, and a reference W denotes the timing of discharge of the reaction solution from the reaction vessel and washing of the reaction vessel. Each time the reaction disk makes one rotation, the sample is poured into the empty reaction vessel for each of the reaction vessel groups. In the above-described embodiment, since the reaction times for the respective reaction vessels in the same reaction vessel group are set to be equal to integral multiples of the minimum one among them, all of the reactions can be completed simultaneously. Therefore, discharge of the reaction solutions and washing of the reaction vessels can be carried out simultaneously. This contributes to easy handling of the apparatus. Next, description will be given of another embodiment. In the above-described embodiment, it is designed that, upon the confirmation of the empty reaction vessel of each reaction vessel group, the CPU 4 operates to control the rotation of the reaction disk so as to allow the empty reaction vessel to be located at the predetermined sample pouring position. However, in this another embodiment, the reaction vessels of each reaction vessel group are located in the predetermined sample region and the pipetting nozzle 13 of the sample pipetting arm 12 is controlled to be moved toward an empty reaction vessel of such reaction vessel group which has recognized by the CPU 4. Namely, in this another embodiment, the sample pouring region is not changed but the sample pouring position is changed in accordance with the location of the empty reaction vessel. Since the sample pouring region is stationary (that is, the time duration of stoppage of the, reaction disk at the sample pouring position is not changed), other operations (such as addition of the reagent, stirring, analysis and washing) can be positively carried out during such time duration. Next, description will be given of still another embodiment. In this embodiment as well, the construction thereof is the same as that of the above-described two embodiments. In this embodiment, it is designed that, after the sample is poured into the reaction vessel of the reaction vessel group I, the reaction disk is caused to make one rotation and, further, rotate slightly in the same direction such as to allow the reaction vessel of the adjacent reaction vessel group II to be located at the sample pouring position within one cycle time (which is very long as compared with the aforementioned one cycle time). Alternatively, after the sample is poured into the reaction vessel of the reaction vessel group I, the reaction disk is caused to rotate in a manner to be short of a full rotation within one cycle time so that one reaction vessel of the adjacent reaction vessel group XXX is located at the sample pouring position. Accordingly, all of the reaction vessels are made to pass through the analyzing position within one cycle time. In consequence, it is possible to know the change with the lapse of time of the reaction in each of the reaction vessels until the reaction is completed. The present embodiment is suitable for use particularly in investigation of the reaction speed of an enzyme.

An automatic processor for analyzing reaction solutions has a large number of reaction vessels arranged in a circle on a disk, a disk driver for circulating the reaction vessels successively to pass through a sample pouring position, a reagent adding position and an analyzing position in order, sample pouring pipet nozzle for pouring a sample into each of the reaction chambers at the sample pouring position, reagent adding pipet nozzle for adding a reagent into each of the reaction chambers at the reagent adding position, and analyzer for analyzing a reaction solution in each of the reaction vessels at the analyzing position. A large number of reaction vessels are divided into a plurality of reaction vessel groups each of which has a plurality of reaction vessels. The disk driver circulates each of the reaction vessel groups in a predetermined time in accordance with the reaction times of the reaction solutions in the reaction vessels of the same reaction vessel group.

BACKGROUND [0001] 1. Technical Field [0002] The present disclosure relates to an antenna clip and an electronic device employing the antenna clip. [0003] 2. Description of Related Art [0004] Electronic devices such as mobile phones have mounted antennas therein. The antenna is made of copper or aluminum material. In some electronic devices, the antennas are mounted on a motherboard of the electronic device and are directly electrically connected to the motherboard to feed signals. However, the antennas mounted on the motherboard occupy a large space of the motherboard. In some other electronic devices, the antennas are electrically connected to the motherboard via cables. The cables are secured to a housing by glue or hot melting. However, the secured antennas are undetachable, thus can be difficult to replace. Therefore, the efficiency of the manufacturing may be affected and the cost may be increased. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0005] Many aspects of the disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following figures. The components in the figures are not necessarily drawn to scale, the emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the disclosure. Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views. [0006] FIG. 1 is an exploded view of an exemplary embodiment of an electronic device employing an antenna and at least one antenna clip. [0007] FIG. 2 is an isometric view of the antenna clip of the electronic device shown in FIG. 1 . [0008] FIG. 3 is another isometric view of the antenna clip of FIG. 2 . [0009] FIG. 4 is an assembled view of the electronic device shown in FIG. 1 . [0010] FIG. 5 is a schematic view of cables of the antenna mounted in the antenna clip shown in FIG. 1 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0011] FIG. 1 shows an electronic device 100 according to an exemplary embodiment. In the embodiment the electronic device 100 can be a mobile phone or a tablet computer. The electronic device 100 includes a housing 10 , a main circuit board (not shown), an antenna 20 , a subsidiary circuit board 30 , and at least one antenna clip 40 . The antenna 20 is mounted in the housing 10 and is secured by the antenna clip 40 . The antenna 20 is electronically connected to the main circuit board to feed signals and be grounded. [0012] The housing 10 includes a bottom wall 11 , two opposite sidewalls 12 , and two opposite end walls 13 . The two end walls 13 are connected to the two sidewalls 12 respectively. The sidewalls 12 and the end walls 13 cooperatively surround a peripheral edge of the bottom wall 11 . The housing 10 further defines a rectangular groove for receiving a battery, two first partition walls 111 parallel with the sidewalls 12 and two second partition walls 112 parallel with the end walls 13 . The two first partition walls 111 and the two second partition walls 112 cooperatively surround the rectangular groove. A receiving groove 14 is formed between one second partition wall 112 and one end wall 13 adjacent the second partition wall 112 . A mounting groove 15 is formed between one first partition wall 111 and one sidewall 12 adjacent the first partition wall 111 . The first partition wall 111 defines two recesses 113 therein, and a plurality of posts 114 protruding from a bottom surface of the recesses 113 . The two recesses 113 are adjacent to each other, and are recessed towards the bottom wall 11 . There are two posts 114 disposed in each recess 13 . [0013] The antenna 20 includes a main portion 21 and two cables 22 . The antenna 20 is electrically connected to the subsidiary circuit board 30 and received in the receiving groove 14 together with the subsidiary circuit board 30 . The two cables 22 are juxtaposed and received in the mounting groove 15 . The two cables 22 include two opposite ends (not labeled), one end of the cables 22 are electrically connected to the subsidiary circuit board 30 to electrically connect to the main portion 21 . The other end of the cables 22 are electrically connected to the main circuit board (not shown). Each cable 22 includes several metal rings 221 spaced with each other. [0014] FIGS. 2 and 3 show an exemplary embodiment of the antenna clip 40 . In the present embodiment, the electronic device 100 includes two antenna clips 40 . Each antenna clip 40 is integrally made of metal sheet by stamping procedure. Each antenna clip 40 includes a clip body 41 and a fixing body 42 integrally connected to each other. The clip body 41 includes a base 410 , a sheet-shaped first wall 411 and a sheet-shaped second wall 412 . The clip body 41 is U-shaped, and the first wall 411 and the second wall 412 are integrally connected to opposite sides of the base 410 , opposite to each other. The base 410 is an arcuate portion, and provides tension force between the first wall 411 and the second wall 412 . [0015] The first wall 411 includes a limiting end 414 and a first resisting arm 415 . The second wall 412 includes a connecting end 416 and a second resisting arm 417 . An opening 413 is formed between the limiting end 414 and the connecting end 416 , opposite to the base 410 . The opening 413 can be expanded by stretching the limiting end 414 of the first wall 411 apart from the connecting end 416 of the second wall 412 . The limiting end 414 is bent towards the second wall 412 . The first resisting arm 415 is formed by cutting off a central portion of the first wall 411 and is protruding from the first wall 411 towards the second wall 412 . The first resisting arm 415 is a rectangular bent piece. The first resisting arm 415 has a side integrally connecting to the first wall 411 and an opposite side extending towards the second wall 412 , thus cooperatively defining a receiving space with the limiting end 414 to receive cable. The second resisting arm 417 is formed by cutting off a central portion of the second wall 412 and is protruding from the second wall 412 towards the first wall 411 . The second resisting arm 417 is a rectangular bent piece. The second resisting arm 417 has a side integrally connecting to the second wall 412 and an opposite side extending towards the first wall 411 . The second resisting arm 417 is spaced away from the first resisting arm 415 , and thus forms a receiving space in the clip body 41 divided into several partitions by the first resisting arm 415 and the second resisting arm 417 for respectively receiving cables therein. Therefore, the first resisting arm 415 and the second resisting arm 417 are located between the first wall 411 and the second wall 412 . [0016] The fixing body 42 is bent extending outwardly from the connecting end 416 , and has two positioning holes 421 defined in opposite ends. The fixing body 42 defines a cutout 423 between the two opposite ends. A connecting arm 43 is positioned in the cutout 423 . The connecting arm 43 includes one end connecting to the fixing body 42 , and an opposite end tilting and extending towards to the end of the fixing body 42 . The fixing body 42 and the connecting arm 43 are for mounting the antenna clip 100 to other elements of the electronic device 100 , such as a cover (not shown). The connecting arm 43 and the clip body 41 are disposed on opposite sides of the fixing body 42 , and are extending in opposite directions. [0017] FIGS. 4 and 5 show that the two antenna clips 40 are mounted in the mounting groove 15 , the positioning holes 421 of the antenna clips 40 are engaged with the posts 114 on the first partition wall 111 and fixed by hot melting technology. Thus, the antenna clip 40 is secured on the housing 10 , with the second wall 412 adjacent to the first partition wall 111 . The main portion 21 and the subsidiary circuit board 30 are received in the receiving groove 14 . The two cables 22 are routed via the receiving groove 14 and the mounting groove 15 to electronically connect the antenna 20 to the main circuit board. The first wall 411 is stretched to open the opening 413 . One cable 22 is moved through the opening 413 and then is clamped by the first wall 411 and the second wall 412 , with the metal ring 221 resisting against the first and second resisting arm 415 , 417 . The other cable 22 is placed between the first resisting arm 415 and the limiting end 414 , with the metal ring 221 resisting against the first resisting arm 415 and the limiting end 414 . Then, the first wall 411 is released, the cables 22 are elastically clamped by the first wall 411 and the second wall 412 , and the cable 22 adjacent to the opening 413 is retained in the clip body 41 by the limiting end 411 , thus preventing the cables 22 sliding out from the opening 413 . The connecting arm 43 is connected to a ground portion of the main circuit board, the metal rings 221 of the cables 22 are electronically connected to the metal antenna clip 40 , therefore the antenna 20 is connected to ground. [0018] The electronic device 100 detachably mounts the cables 22 of the antenna 20 via the antenna clips 40 , thus simplifies the process of mounting the antenna 20 to the housing 10 and reduces manufacturing time. When needs to detach the antenna 20 , the first wall 411 can be manually stretched to detach the cables 22 , which is easy. [0019] In another embodiment, the cable 22 can also be received between the second resisting arm 417 and the base 410 . [0020] In another embodiment, the quantity of the first resisting arm 415 and the second resisting arm 417 can be increased when needed. [0021] In another embodiment, the first resisting arm 415 and the second resisting arm 417 can be in other shapes. [0022] It is believed that the exemplary embodiment and its advantages will be understood from the foregoing description, and it will be apparent that various changes may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure or sacrificing all of its advantages, the examples hereinbefore described merely being preferred or exemplary embodiment of the disclosure.

An antenna clip includes a clip body and a fixing body extended from the clip body. The clip body includes a first wall and a second wall formed by bending and extending the first wall. The first wall is corresponded to the second wall and stretches relative to the second wall. The first wall includes at least one first resisting arm located between the first wall and the second wall. An electronic device employing the antenna clip is also disclosed.

RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/813,766, filed Jun. 14, 2006, the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The present invention relates to securing message traffic in a data network using a protocol such as IPsec, and relates more particularly to how security policies are distributed in the network. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0000] The following definitions are used in this document: [0000] “Securing” implies both encryption of data in transit as well as authenticating that the data has not been manipulated in transit. A “secure tunnel” between two devices ensures that data passing between the devices is secure. A “key” for a secure tunnel is the secret information used to encrypt and decrypt (or authenticate and verify) the data in one direction of traffic in the secure tunnel. A “Policy Enforcement Point” (PEP) is a device that secures the data based on the policy. Existing Network Security Technology [0007] According to the most commonly used computer networking protocols, network traffic is normally sent unsecured without encryption or strong authentication of the sender and receiver. This allows the traffic to be intercepted, inspected, modified, or redirected. As a result, either the sender or receiver can falsify their identity. In order to allow private traffic to be sent in a secure manner, a number of security schemes have been proposed and are in use. Some are application dependent, as with a specific program performing password authentication. Others, such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), are designed to provide comprehensive transport layer security such as the HTTP (web) and FTP (File Transfer Protocol) level. [0008] Internet Security (IPsec) was developed to address a broader security need. As the majority of network traffic today is over Internet Protocol (IP), IPsec was designed to provide encryption and authentication services to this traffic regardless of the application or transport layer protocol. This is done, in IPsec tunnel mode, by encrypting a data packet (if encryption is required), performing a secure hash (authentication) on the packet, then wrapping the resulting packet in a new IP packet indicating it has been secured using IPsec. [0009] The secret keys and other configuration data required for this secure tunnel must be exchanged by the parties involved to allow IPsec to work. This is typically done using Internet Key Exchange, IKE. IKE key exchange is done in two phases. [0010] In a first phase (IKE Phase 1 ), a connection between two parties is started in the clear. Using public key cryptographic mechanisms, where two parties can agree on a secret key by exchanging public data without a third party being able to determine the key, each party can determine a secret for use in the negotiation. Public key cryptography requires each party either share secret information (pre-shared key) or exchange public keys for which they retain a private, matching, key. This is normally done with certificates (Public Key Infrastructure or PKI). Either of these methods authenticates the identity of the peer to some degree. [0011] Once a secret has been agreed upon in IKE Phase 1 , a second phase (IKE Phase 2 ) can begin where the specific secret and cryptographic parameters of a specific tunnel are developed. All traffic in phase 2 negotiations are encrypted by the secret from phase 1 . When these negotiations are complete, a set of secrets and parameters for security have been agreed upon by the two parties and IPsec secured traffic can commence. [0012] When a packet is detected at a Security Gateway (SGW) with a source/destination pair that requires IPsec protection, the secret and other security association (SA) information are determined based on the Security Policy Database (SPD) and IPsec encryption and authentication is performed. The packet is then directed to an SGW that can perform decryption. At the receiving SGW, the IPsec packet is detected, and its security parameters are determined by a Security Packet Index (SPI) in the outer header. This is associated with the SA, and the secrets are found for decryption and authentication. If the resulting packet matches the policy, it is forwarded to the original recipient. [0000] General Limitations of IPsec [0013] Although IPsec tunnel mode has been used effectively in securing direct data links and small collections of gateways into networks, a number of practical limitations have acted as a barrier to more complete acceptance of IPsec as a primary security solution throughout industry. [0014] Configuration of Policies—Each SGW must be configured with each pair of source and destination IP addresses or subnets that must be secured (or allowed in the clear or dropped). If there are 11 SGW units fully meshed, each protecting 10 subnets, this requires 1000 policies in the SPD. This is a challenge in terms of the user setting up the policies, the time required to load the policies, the memory and speed difficulties in implementing the policies, and the increase in network time spent performing negotiations and rekey. The time for initial IKE negotiations in this example might be 10 minutes or more. [0015] In addition, even for smaller networks, it requires the user to have a complete knowledge of all protected subnets and their security requirements. Any additions or modifications must be implemented at each gateway. [0016] Certificate/PKI Management—PKI can become complex and difficult to manage. At minimum, it is intimidating to many network managers. However, strong PKI implementation is at the heart of effective security using IPsec (or TLS for that matter). The SGW should make this aspect as easy as possible for the network manager. [0017] Multicast/Broadcast Traffic—IPsec in its present configuration cannot secure multicast or broadcast traffic. This is because keys are established between two entities and multicast or broadcast involves sending traffic from one source to many destinations at once. [0018] The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has a couple of Requests for Comments (RFCs) in place or in process to address group domain of interpretation (GDOI), or group secure association key management protocol (GSAKMP). GDOI is generally available, for example, on Cisco devices. [0019] Load Balancing—Many large network implementations require load balancing or other Quality of Service (QOS) techniques where traffic to a particular address may take one of a number of paths. If a set of SGW units must be placed along these parallel paths, there might be no way to assure which SGW traffic sees. As IKE provides secrets only between a pair of SGW units (remote and local), traffic to the second SGW would require a different set of secrets. In the existing IPsec implementations, this is impossible. The result is a limitation in the placement of SGW units in the network which may not be possible in certain situations. [0020] Network Address Translation (NAT)—There are various forms of NAT, all of which cause problems for IPsec. [0021] With Static NAT, a source IP address on an outgoing packet is replaced with an assigned replacement IP address. If the SGW exists before the static NAT device, the original source IP address will still exist in the encrypted packet and will be exposed on decryption. This would likely create problems on the receiving network or on the return packet. Dynamic NAT (which is rarely used) is similar except that the replacement IP address comes from an available pool. In either case, the SGW must be placed outside the NAT device. [0022] In masquerading dynamic NAT (NAPT), the source IP address of a packet is replaced with a new source IP address and the port number is changed to identify the original source IP address and port. This might be done to provide a single IP address to the wide area network (WAN) for a large number of IP addresses in the local area network (LAN). [0023] Unfortunately, if the SGW is behind the NAT device, IPsec hides the port and IP address on the original packet and does not provide a port on the outer header. The NAPT protocol is broken without a port to modify. A mechanism called NAT-Traversal (NAT-T) had been added to IPsec to address this problem. This can also be addressed by placing the SGW outside the NAT devices. Normally this cannot be done in cases of remote access by a home user running the IPsec gateway on their computer. [0024] Further variations of NAT can be combined with load balancing, creating virtual servers, or providing QOS which combines the problems of NAT with the load balancing problem described above. [0025] Firewalls/Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)—A firewall or IDS can create conflict with IPsec as they may require inspection of the packet beyond the outer header (Layer 3). Firewall rules are often set to manage connections based on port or protocol, but this information is stored in the encrypted packet under IPsec. An IDS normally does deep packet inspection for viruses, worms, and other intrusion threats. Again, this information is encrypted under IPsec. Many firewall functions can be implemented using well written IPsec policies, although this can complicate the SPD entries. If the SGW is on the WAN side of the firewall and IDS, this problem is eliminated. [0026] Path Maximum Transfer Unit (PMTU) and Fragmentation—The PMTU specifies the maximum IP packet size that can be sent. Above that size, packets must be fragmented to be sent in smaller sizes. A protocol for PMTU discovery permits a device to send larger and larger packets with a Do Not Fragment bit set. This continues until a device with a path limitation sends back a message that the packet is too large. Other networks simply set the PMTU to a specific value. [0027] In IPsec, however, the packet is made larger by the IPsec header information. If the devices behind the SGW uses the largest packet size, the SGW must either fragment the packet, which can be slow and certainly reduces network efficiency, or ignore the PMTU. To avoid this problem, networks must employ PMTU discovery or set the PMTU for devices behind the SGW smaller than for the main network. [0028] Resilient Network Traffic—If the network is implementing resiliency, it will likely require the secure solution be resilient as well. This can be accomplished with a virtual router redundancy protocol (VRRP), but a switchover would result in the need to rekey all traffic. In a fully meshed situation, this could be a significant interruption. If fast switchover is required, a resilient gateway with shared state may be needed. [0029] In addition, one of the most significant barriers to general acceptance of IPsec as a security solution is the challenge of securing the data as it leaves on computer to where it enters the remote computer. This level of security, combined with authentication and authorization on each side, would extend security from just covering the WAN (e.g., the internet) to protecting data from unauthorized internal access. Some of the general limitations of IPsec are exacerbated by end-to-end deployment. For example, the IPsec implementation cannot be place on the WAN side of the firewall, IDS, NAT device, or any load balancing between virtual servers. There are a number of hurdles to true end-to-end security in addition to the general limitations described above: [0030] Installation of an IPsec/IKE Stack on Individual PCs—With the variety of available operating systems (Windows XP, XP Service Pack 1 and 2, Linux and all it's kernel releases, etc.) and hardware platforms, a software implementation of the IPsec stack, which is dependent on both of these, must be designed, compiled, tested, and supported for each implementation. [0031] Hardware solutions, such as IPsec on a NIC, provide some separation from these issues, but preclude automated remote installation of the IPsec stack. In addition, the computer with the installation must be configured with the user certificate and the policy configuration. Ideally, the user would be identified in some way other than a machine based certificate. Unfortunately, all existing implementations require the computer to be configured directly, normally by a network security manager. IKE offers methods for remote access using certificate based authentication combined with RADIUS and XAUTH for the user ID as well as mode configuration to supply the user with a local network identification. [0032] Limitation in Ability to Provide High-Speed, Low Latency, and High Number of SAs and Policies—A software solution on a computer (or mobile device) would be unable to provide high speed encryption or latency as low as on the existing SGW. In some cases this doesn't matter, but in situations with a high speed connection or involving streaming data, this may be significant. A hardware solution may suffer this limitation as well due to heat, space, or power considerations. [0033] Either solution may be limited in the number of SAs or policies that are supported. This could be critical in a large, meshed security situation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0000] A. Division of Security Policy Definition, Key Definition, and Their Distribution [0034] Implementation of a SGW requires policy management, IKE key generation and exchange, and IPsec policy enforcement. By dividing these functions into separate components and combining them in new ways, one can solve some of the limitations of existing IPsec approaches and offer approaches to resolving some others. One approach used by the present invention herein is the logical separation of IKE and IPsec functionality, with distribution of policies over secure tunnels. The functions provided are by modules of the system of the present invention as the following: Policy Enforcement Point (PEP), Key Generation Layer, Local and Remote Policy Definitions, Policy Linkage, Policy Distribution, and other relevant modules. Detailed description of the functions of these modules are to follow. [0035] It should be noted that, in general, all traffic between the modules described above should either be local (within a single device) or protected by a secure tunnel. Management of each device should also be done via a secure tunnel and with secure user authentication. Also, if a highly resilient implementation is required, each module must be resilient and, if state is stored, a method for exchanging state and performing switch over implemented. [0000] B. Problem Solution Using Distributed Policy and Key Generation, Shared Keying, and Secure Policy Dissemination [0036] The present invention is a method for securing message traffic in a data network by distributing security policies. A security policy is identified to a first key generation and distribution point (KGDP) located at a first location. The security policy is a policy to be applied to a network connection, and include at least an identification of a first security group and a network device that is assigned to the first security group at the first location. [0037] The communication network includes, in different embodiments, an Ethernet, an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), one or more inter-networking devices (i.e. a router or a switch), or a wireless communication network. [0038] The security policy is forwarded from the first KGDP to a first security policy manager (SPM) device. The first SPM is also located at the first location. The first SPM device stores an association between the first security policy and an identifier for the KGDP at the first location. [0039] The first SPM then sends a message to a central security policy manager (cSPM) indicating that the first SPM has information pertaining to a security group that pertains to the first KGDP. [0040] The cSPM, then stores a representation of the first SPM that sent the message and the first security group, optionally including an identifier for the first KGDP. [0041] Upon receiving similar messages from other SPMs, the cSPM can then make and report associations between devices and security groups. This is done without the cSPM actually having to know network device configurations or keys. [0042] The present invention relates novel ways to secure IP traffic using IPsec where the security policies, which define traffic to be secured and the security parameters for that traffic, and the keys, the secret information used to encrypt and authenticate traffic, are generated in a distributed manner. This distribution can be done in either by central control or in a hierarchical manner. In addition, the keys are shared over a number of devices, and dissemination of the security policies and keys is sent and received via secure tunnels. Finally, because of the shared keying and distributed security policies, the non-secure part of the packet, the outer header, can use the original IP source and destination address. [0043] One embodiment of the present invention is a system for securing Internet Protocol (IP) traffic. The system includes a first location. The first location includes a communication network with which the components of the system interface. The components includes a first group of end nodes, of which at least some end nodes of the first group are defined as a security group. Furthermore, the components include a first that is configured to apply a security policy to a network connection, and a first distribution point that is configured to store the security policy and to forward the security policy to a first managing module. The first managing module is configured to receive the security policy from the distribution point and to record an association between the security policy and an identifier for the for the first distribution point, and to perform a policy linkage when the definition of the security group is updated. The security policy includes at least the definition of the security group. [0044] In a first preferred embodiment, the communication network includes, in different embodiments, an Ethernet, an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), one or more inter-networking devices (i.e. a router or a switch), or a wireless communication network. [0045] In a second preferred embodiment, the first managing module is further configured to send first information to a central managing module, which is configured to generate a security group database entry based on the first information. Furthermore, the first information indicates that the first managing module has stored the definition of the security group associated with the first distribution point. In a more preferred embodiment to the second preferred embodiment, the first managing module and the central managing module are in a hierarchy. The hierarchy comprises at least a second managing module, which is located in a second location and configured to send a message to the central managing module that indicates the second managing module has additional information associated with the definition of the security group. [0046] Another embodiment of the present invention is a method for securing message traffic in a data network by distributing security policies. The method comprises the steps at a first distributing point of a first location of determining a security policy to be applied to a network connection, and forwarding the security policy from the first distribution point to a first controlling module. The security policy include the steps at a first managing module including least a definition of a security group and a network device that is assigned to the security group. The method further comprises the steps at a first managing module of receiving the security policy from the first distribution point, recording a first association between the first security policy and an identifier for the first distribution point, and sending a message to a central managing module indicating that the first managing module has stored the definition of the security group associated with the first distribution point. The method yet further comprises the steps at the central managing module of receiving the first message and generating a security group database entry based on the first message. In a preferred embodiment, the method further includes the step at the central managing module of receiving additional messages associated with definitions of additional security groups from two or more additional managing modules, and generating additional security group databases entry based on the additional information. In a more preferred embodiment, the method further include the step at a second managing module in a second location of recording a second association between the security policy and an identifier for a second distribution point. The second location includes a second distribution point. [0047] One embodiment is a computer readable medium having computer readable program codes embodied therein for securing message traffic in a data network by distributing security policies. The computer readable medium program codes performing functions comprises a routine for determining a security policy to be applied to a network connection at a first distributing point located at a first location, a routine for forwarding the security policy from the first distribution point to a first controlling module, a routine for receiving at a first managing module the security policy from the first distribution point, a routine for recording at the first managing module a first association between the first security policy and an identifier for the first distribution point, a routine for sending a message from the first managing module to a central managing module indicating that the first managing module has stored the definition of the security group associated with the first distribution point, a routine for receiving the first message at the central managing module; and a routine for generating a security group database entry based on the first message at the central managing module. The security policy includes at least a definition of a security group and a network device that is assigned to the security group. [0048] While a considerable amount of work has been done in the area of data security in general, particularly in IP security, the disclosed methods and apparatus are unique and useful to solve specific network needs that are lacking in the limitations and problems described above. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0049] The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of preferred embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. [0050] FIG. 1 is a system level diagram illustrating of a distributed policy scenario using Key Generation and Distribution Points (KGDP's), Policy Enforcement Points (PEPs), Security Managers (SM), and Security Policy Managers (SPMs), and Central SPMs (cSPMs). [0051] FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a SGW that may be used with the present invention. [0052] FIG. 3 is a flow chart of steps performed by the system of FIG. 1 . [0053] FIG. 4 is a system level diagram illustrating key exchange between two KGDPs. [0054] FIG. 5 illustrates a hierarchy of SPMs and cSPMs. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0055] A description of a preferred embodiment of the invention follows. An environment as shown in FIG. 1 , in which the invention may be implemented generally has a number of data processors and functions including end nodes 10 , a managing module (i.e. Security Manager (SM) 12 ), a distribution point (i.e. a Key Generation and Distribution Point (KGDP) 14 ), and a security module (i.e. Secure Gateways (SGWs) 22 ), connected by interfacing a communication network such as at least two inter-networking devices 16 (i.e. such as routers/switches). One or more of the SGWs 22 has an associated Policy Enforcement Point (PEP) function 20 . PEP is a software module that executes in a SGW on the data path that performs packet encryption and decryption as well as IPsec header generation on packets requiring security. It also passes or drops packets, and may be configured to perform additional functionality such as Static NAT or fragmentation. It is typically configured with security policies and SAs with security parameter indices (SPIs), and keys for encrypting and decrypting inbound and outbound packets. [0056] The end nodes 10 can be typical client computers such as personal computers (PCs), workstations, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), digital mobile telephones, wireless network enabled devices and the like. The nodes 10 can also be file servers, video set top boxes, other data processing machines, or indeed any other networkable device from which messages originate and to which message are sent. The message traffic typically takes the form of data packets in the well known Internet Protocol (IP) packet format. As is well known in the art, an IP packet may typically be encapsulated by other networking protocols such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), or other lower level and higher level networking protocols. [0057] The security manager (SM) 11 is a data processing device, typically a PC or workstation, through which an administrative user can input and configure security policies 12 . The SM 11 also acts as a secure server to store and provide access to such policies 12 by other elements of the system. As will be explained more fully below, the Key Generation and Distribution Points (KGDP) 14 and Policy Enforcement Points (PEPs) 20 cooperate to secure message traffic between the end nodes 10 according to policies 12 . [0058] More particularly, a KGDP 14 is responsible for generating and distributing “secret data” known as encryption keys upon request. The keys are then used as a basis to derive other keys that actually secure transmission of traffic from one end node 10 -A- 1 to another end node 10 -B- 1 , to perform authentication, and other functions. [0059] The PEPs 20 are located on the data path, and can typically be instantiated as a process running on a Secure Gateway (SGW) 22 . The PEPs 20 have a packet traffic or “fast path” interface on which they receive and transmit the packet traffic they are responsible for handling. They also have a management interface over which they receive configuration information, and other information such as policies 12 and encryption keys. [0060] In general, traffic between the modules described above is either local (within a single device) or protected by a secure tunnel in network 24 . Management of each device is also via a secure tunnel and with a secure user authentication. Also, and for highly resilient implementation is required, each module must itself be resilient and if a state is stored, a method for exchanging state and performing switch over must be implemented. [0061] The PEPs 20 are responsible for a number of tasks. They are principally responsible for performing encryption of outbound packets and decryption of inbound packets received on the fast path interface. The PEPs 20 can thus identify packets that need to be secured according to configured policies 12 . The PEPs 20 can also typically be programmed to pass through or drop such packets according to such policies 12 . [0062] The PEPs 20 are also configured to perform IPsec tasks such as handling Security Association (SA) information as instructed by the SM 12 , to store and process Security Packet Index (SPI) data associated with the IPsec packets, and the like. The PEPs 20 thus perform many (if not all) of the IPsec security gateway functions as specified in IPsec standards such as Internet Request for Comments (RFCs) 2401-2412. [0063] The SGW 22 in which the PEPs 20 run can be configured to perform additional functions typically of IP network gateways such as Network Address Translation (NAT), packet fragmentation handling, and the like. It should be understood that the PEPs 20 may also be installed on other internetworking devices, and that the choice of an SGW 22 in the illustrated embodiment is but one example. [0064] FIG. 2 is a high-level block diagram of an SGW 200 that may be used with the present invention. SGW 200 comprises one or more network interfaces 210 , a processor 230 , a policy content-addressable memory (CAM) 500 and a memory 220 . The network interfaces 210 are conventional network interfaces configured to interface the SGW 200 with the network 100 and enable data (packets) to be transferred between the SGW 200 and the network 100 . To that end, the network interfaces 210 comprise conventional circuitry that incorporates signal, electrical, and mechanical characteristics and interchange circuits, needed to interface with the physical media of the network 100 and the protocols running over that media. [0065] The processor 230 is a conventional processor which is configured to execute computer-executable instructions and manipulate data in the memory 220 and the policy CAM 500 . The processor 230 may be a network processing unit (NPU) or may comprise a collection of interconnected processors configured as a mesh or series of processors. The policy CAM 500 is a conventional CAM device that is configurable by processor 230 and, as will be described further below, contains information that the processor uses to process packets received by the SGW 200 in accordance with aspects of the present invention. [0066] The memory 220 is a conventional random access memory (RAM) comprising, e.g., dynamic RAM (DRAM) devices. The memory 220 includes an operating system (OS) 222 , security services 224 , a security association table (SAT) 300 , a security association database (SAD) 400 and a security policy database (SPD) 600 . The operating system 222 is a conventional operating system that comprises computer-executable instructions and data configured to implement various conventional operating system functions that support the execution of processes, such as security services 224 , on processor 230 . These functions may include functions that, e.g., enable the processes to be scheduled for execution on the processor 230 as well as provide controlled access to various services, such as memory 220 . The security services 224 is illustratively a process comprising computer-executable instructions configured to enable processor 230 to implement various functions associated with PEP's as well as perform functions that enable the processing of packets in accordance with aspects of the present invention. [0067] The SAT 300 is a data structure that contains information that may be used to locate security associations associated with packets processed by the SGW 200 . A security association, as used herein, relates to security information that describes a particular kind of secure connection between one device and another. This security information may include information that specifies particular security mechanisms that are used for secure communications between the two devices, such as encryption algorithms, type of authentication and the like. The operation of SGW is illustrate in a copending patent application entitled S ECURING N ETWORK T RAFFIC B Y D ISTRIBUTING P OLICIES I N A H EIRARCHY O VER S ECURE T UNNELS, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/813,766, filed Jun. 14, 2006, assigned to CipherOptics, Inc., and which is hereby incorporated by reference. [0068] Returning to FIG. 1 , the SM 11 , the PEP 20 and KDP 14 perform and/or participate in several security related functions including: [0069] key generation [0070] key distribution [0071] policy generation [0072] local and remote policy definition [0073] policy distribution (local and remote) [0074] policy linkage [0075] These functions are now discussed briefly, before continuing with detailed examples of how policy distribution is implemented according to the present invention. [0076] Key Generation. This module creates keys to secure a given tunnel. As in IKE this is done in coordination with a single peer as each side agrees on outbound and inbound keys. However, in the embodiment of the present invention, this might also be a single unit that generates keys for traffic between a number of units. It may also be embodied in a single PEP generating a key for outbound traffic on a given tunnel. [0077] Key Distribution. This module ensures that all connections to the tunnel have keys necessary to decrypt and encrypt data between the end points. As mentioned previously, this is done in standard IKE as part of the “Phase 2” key exchange between two peers. However, in the present invention, as will be described in several detailed examples shortly, this is performed by the PEPs exchanging keys in other ways. With these techniques, key distribution is still securely protected to prevent eavesdropping, tampering, and to ensure that the exchange occurs with an authorized party. [0078] The Key Generation and/or Key Distribution modules may be located on individual stand alone machines, or may be incorporated together within a Key Generation and Distribution Point (KGDP). In addition, Key Distribution may be co-located with the PEP 20 in other architectures. [0079] Local Policy Definition (also called “Policy Generation” herein). This module maintains information on IP addresses, subnets, ports or protocols protected by the PEP. This may be part of a complete security policy definition 12 for many different nodes 10 in the network as specified by the SM 11 . The policy definition can also be limited to a collection of subnets protected by a certain PEP. Or it can simply relate to and be stored at a single IP address, such within the network software on a remote access client 10 (for example, Microsoft Windows and other operating systems provide certain tools for specifying security policies). The policy definition can also occur via a discovery process performed by a PEP. If a complete security policy definition is not present, it should also include information to link the protected local traffic to its secure destinations. [0080] Local Policy Definition—This module maintains information on IP addresses, subnets, ports or protocols protected by the SGW. This might be part of a complete policy definition, as provided to the system. It might be a single IP address on a remote access client. It could be a discovery process done by a SGW. It might be a collection of subnets protected by the SGW. If the complete policy definition is nor present, it must also include information to link the protected local traffic to its secure destinations. [0081] Remote Policy Definition—This module maintains information on IP addresses, subnets, ports or protocols that are remote to the protected region which require protection of traffic with the local region. Definitions are as with the local policy definition. This function may be locally defined or distributed throughout the network. [0000] Policy Distribution [0082] The present invention relates more particularly to policy distribution. Note that in the illustrated system, a number of data processing machines are associated with a first location 20 - a including first host 10 - a - 1 , second host 10 - a - 2 , a first security manager (SM) 11 - a , a first Key Generation and Distribution Point (KGDP) 14 - a , one or more internetworking devices 16 - a , and a first Policy Enforcement Point (PEP) 20 - a. [0083] In addition, a first Security Policy Manager, (SPM) 30 - 1 , which may or may not be physically located within the confines of location 20 - a , is responsible for distributing policies 12 to and from location 20 - a in a manner that will be described below. [0084] Similarly, a second location 20 - b has other data processing machines such as a first server 10 - b - 1 , second server 10 - b - 2 , an associated Security Manager (SM) 11 - b , KGDP 14 - b , and internetworking devices 16 - b . Location 20 - b may, for example, be a high availability web and/or storage server and thus has multiple PEPs 20 - b - 1 and 20 - b - 2 . As with location 20 - a , a second Security Policy Manager (SPM) 30 - 2 is associated with and responsible for policies distributed to and from location 20 - b. [0085] Locations 20 - a and 20 - b may be subnets, physical LAN segments or other network architectures. What is important is that the network locations 20 - a and 20 - b are logically separate from one another and from other locations 20 . For example, a location 20 may be a single office of an enterprise that may have only several computers, or a location 20 may be a large building, complex or campus that has many, many different machines installed therein. For example, location 20 - a may be in a west coast headquarters office in Los Angeles and location 20 - b may be an east coast sales office in New York. [0086] The policy managers 30 , including first SPM 30 - 1 and second SPM 30 - 2 communicate with a central SPM (cSPM) 32 through network 24 . [0000] Policy Linkage [0087] This module provides linkage of the Local and Remote Policy Definitions for a specific gateway. This may be automatic as in the complete policy definition currently used or it may be distributed across a network. The PEP could establish a secure tunnel with a Policy Distribution Point (PDP, not shown) with authorization performed in both directions. The PEP could either have the policy distribution done as the various units are configured and come on line or upon receiving a packet at the PEP for which no policy definition exists at the PEP. Policy distribution could be done in one of various ways. [0088] For example, the local policy definition could be defined on the PEP along with a security group (SG) identification. The PEP could send the policy and SG to the PDP. The PDP could establish a secure tunnel with a SPM with authorization performed in both directions. The PDP would then send the policy and SG information to the SGC. The SGC would perform policy linkage with information from other SPM or PDP units. Policy linkage would be performed on matching SG identities. The corresponding remote portions of the policy would be sent to the PDP which would then forward the complete policy to all appropriate PEP units. There could either be a single SPM unit over the entire secure network, an SPM unit associated with various domains that communicate with each other and their domain's PDP units over secure tunnels, or a hierarchy of SGC units with domain SGCs communicating over secure tunnels to regional SGC units. Alternately, the PDP could communicate directly with peer PDP units that have been configured and could exchange local and remote policy information based on the security group. [0089] The above approach could be taken with the local policy definition loaded on either the PDP or the SGC. Furthermore, the PDP could be configured with the complete policy definition. This could then be communicated to the PEP via a secure tunnel when required. [0090] The reader will recall that “security policies” 12 can define traffic to be secured by source and destination, IP address, port and/or protocol. A security policy 12 also defines the type of security to be applied to a particular connection. The SPMs 30 define policies 12 by a function module known as local policy definition module. This module maintains information on IP addresses, subnet supports or protocols to be protected by a specific SPM 30 . Each policy definition 12 can, in a preferred embodiment, be limited to a certain collection of subnets such as those at first location 20 - a that are under control of a local administrator there. [0091] The policy definitions 12 can be created by a user entering the pair of IP addresses via an administrative user command interface. However, policies 12 can also be defined using certain features of Microsoft Windows and similar operating systems that provide certain tools for specifying security policies for each node 10 . [0092] As the PEP's must carry out policies 12 in handling the traffic they see, the PEP's need to have access to policies in some manner, including not only policies for their respective local traffic, but also remote traffic. The present invention provides a scheme for distributing policy information not only to a local PEP 20 - a that is local to a corresponding SPM 30 - a , but also to distribute policy information to remote PEPs 20 - b - 1 and 20 - b - 2 . The invention accomplishes this with limited or no involvement of the local security manager 11 in maintaining information about remote location policies, thus freeing each local security manager 11 from having to be updated with the same. [0093] The specific process for doing so is shown in FIG. 3 . In a first step 300 , an SM 11 - a assigns a first (local) policy 12 . For example, policy 12 may specify that a host 10 - a - 1 is assigned to a first security group SG 1 . It may also define another policy 12 - 2 that specifies host 10 - a - 2 is assigned to a second security group SG 2 . [0094] This assignment of hosts to security groups is then communicated from SM 11 - a to its local KGDP 14 - a ; this communication may take place via a secure tunnel over a management interface, such as provided through local internetworking equipment 16 - a. [0095] In a next step 302 , KGDP 14 - a then eventually establishes a secure connection to a SPM 30 - 1 . Over this secure connection (which may also be a secure tunnel) KGDP 14 - a sends a request to add host 10 -A- 1 to security group 1 (SG 1 ) and host 10 -A- 2 to security group 2 (SG 2 ). At this point, SPM 30 - 1 enters the two security group entries in its database. However, these security group definitions will at this point only have host Al associated with them and thus will be incomplete. [0096] In a next step 304 , SPM 30 - 1 will eventually establish a secure connection to a central SPM 30 - 2 . (Connections are attempted according to a schedule, so that the SPMs and cSPM 30 , 32 remain updated). This connection is then used to distribute information about the new security groups (not necessarily the policies themselves), allowing central cSPM 32 to update its own database with a definition for a new security group. However the new security group definition will not necessarily include any specific details for any particular policies 12 , and will not contain specific detailed information such as the nodes or addresses that participate in the security group(s). The security group database entry at cSPM 32 need only identify that the location SPM 30 - 1 has a policy called SG 1 and, that policy SG 1 can be or is controlled by KGDP 14 - a . Therefore, KGPD 14 - a , for example, can regulated, altered or updated the policy SG 1 as the definition of SG 1 is changed, supplemented or subtracted. Similarly, an entry is made in cSPM 32 that SPM 30 - 1 has defined a security group policy SG 2 using KGDP 14 - a. [0097] At this point at step 306 , central SPM 32 will check its existing database, seeing that no peers have yet been associated with SPM 30 - 1 or KGDP 14 - a , it will thus reply to KGDP 14 - a that there are no peers to report at the present time. [0098] After a period of time, in step 308 the security manager for the second location (SM 11 - b ) receives a security policy 12 input assigning server 10 -B- 1 and server 10 -B- 2 to security group SG 1 . This information is then passed to KGDP 14 - b via a secure tunnel between SM 11 - b and KGDP 14 - b. [0099] In step 310 , KGDP 14 - b establishes a secure connection to its local (the second) SPM 30 - 2 and with a request to add subnet B to SG 1 . Thus, it should be understood that participants in secure connection normally can be identified by particular end node identifiers, but also by their subnet identification as well. [0100] In step 312 , SPM 30 - 2 then establishes a secure connection to central SPM 32 . SPM 30 - 2 will then send a message that SPM 2 has a security group 1 policy using KGDP 14 -B. Again, the details of that policy are not communicated to the central SPM —merely information that SPM 30 - 2 has a security policy associated with KGDP 14 - b. [0101] At this point, checking its database, central SPM 32 will note that there has already been a SG 1 policy defined. Thus, in step 314 central SPM 32 will reply to SPM 30 - 2 that there is another SPM (namely the first SPM 30 - 1 ) that also has policy, and that that SG 1 policy is using KGDP 14 - a . Note, however, that the details of the configuration of the policy (for example which end nodes are associated with it) need not be shared between SPM and central SPM 32 . [0102] In step 316 SPM 30 - 2 may then contact its own local KGDP 14 - b instructing it to add KGDP 14 -A to its SG 1 list. The central SPM in step 318 will similarly send a message to SPM 1 30 - 1 informing it that SPM 2 has a security group policy in KGDP 14 -B. [0103] In step 320 , upon receipt of such a message, SPM 30 - 1 will check its database noting that it has a complete security group policy for SG 1 . Thus it will inform KGDP A to add KGDP 14 -B to its own SG 1 list. [0104] Again, after the expiration of some time, as shown in FIG. 4 , in step 322 KGDP 14 -B may establish a secure tunnel with KGDP 14 - a and request if it can trade keys for SG 1 . If the answer is affirmative, then KGDP 14 - a in step 324 will reply with key KA 1 that is associated with host 10 - a - 1 . In step 326 , KGDP 14 -B will reply with its keys KB associated with outbound transmissions for subnet B. [0105] The key exchange between KGDPs still requires distribution of keys to the respective PEPs 20 that will be handling the traffic. This can be done in a number of different ways as described in a copending patent application entitled SECURING NETWORK TRAFFIC USING DISTRIBUTED KEY GENERATION AND DISSEMINATION OVER SECURE TUNNELS, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/756,765, filed Jan. 6, 2006, assigned to CipherOptics, Inc., and which is hereby incorporated by reference. [0106] However, in one preferred embodiment as shown in step 328 , KGDP 14 - a establishes a secure connection with its local nodes 10 - a - 1 and sends its keys to be used. Namely to use key KA 1 as an outbound key when communicating with subnet B, and to use key KB when communicating as an inbound key with messages received from subnet B. [0107] KGDP 14 -B in step 330 similarly establishes a secure tunnel with its local server B 1 , telling it to use key KB as an outbound key when communicating with host 10 -A- 1 . [0108] In step 334 , traffic can now flow in an encrypted fashion from host 10 -A- 1 to server 10 -B- 1 and/or server 10 -B- 2 , being secured using key KA 1 as well as from server 10 -B- 1 or 10 -B- 2 to host 10 -A- 1 secured using key KB. [0109] It should be understood now that the SPMs 30 and central SPM 32 form a hierarchy. As shown in FIG. 5 , instead of there being a single central SPM 32 there may also be a hierarchy thereof which will in turn communicate requests up and down the chain. The hierarchy of SPMs may also communicate with their neighbor in the hierarchy, such that a change in policies and identifiers for machines to which requests to establish the policies should be directed. [0110] The invention provides several advantages over prior art policy distribution schemes. It avoids polling that would otherwise be necessary for KGDPs 14 to themselves discover peers in the network and/or PEPs 20 . It is also more secure, in that not every device needs to know everything about security. Thus, SPM devices are essentially associated with distributing policy information in KGDPs 14 are associated with their local subnets, but not necessarily associated with actually applying keys or encrypting or decrypting traffic. [0111] SPMs 30 and 32 also need not be aware of local security policies—only how to identify where such definitions can be found by peers in the hierarchy. [0112] It should be understood that the association between security groups and hosts could take place in ways other than just the SM sending the information to the KGDP. In particular, the SM might send the association to any SPM in the hierarchy and the KGDP could make an inquiry via the SPM. Alternately, the KGDP and/or SPM could access this data from an independent database interface, such as Active Directory, to perform authentication and obtain group association. [0113] While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.

A technique for securing message traffic in a data network using a protocol such as IPsec, and more particularly various methods for distributing security policies among peer entities in a network while minimizing the passing and storage of detailed policy or key information except at the lowest levels of a hierarchy.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Technical Field [0002] The present invention relates generally to communication networks, and more particularly to the management of packet transmission errors. [0003] 2. Related Art [0004] There is a continuously growing need to exchange information via communication networks in order to transmit larger and larger data files. This phenomenon is accentuated with the development of the multimedia applications. This explains why the variety of communication networks now available has a common objective: rapidity and efficiency of the transmission. Actually, these characteristics are required in order to consume less transmission resource and thus to allow more and more users to communicate through any communication network and to transmit increasing volumes of data. In addition, reliability of the transmission appears to be a key characteristic. On the other hand, the transmission error rate depends on the type of medium used by communication networks. In particular, wireless medium is generally not very reliable. Indeed, these wireless networks are prone to relatively high error levels. [0005] As a result, this type of networks integrates an Error Control (EC) entity to deal with their intrinsic high transmission error levels. In usual networks based on communication protocols stack according to the OSI (“Open System Interconnect”) model of ISO (“International Standardization Organization”), an EC entity is included in the Data Link Layer (LL) in order to manage retransmissions of corrupted packets. In the following description, the term “resource” will be referred to as “transmission resource”. [0006] Classically, an EC entity is in charge of guaranteeing correct packet transmission. Stated otherwise, an EC entity manages the retransmission of corrupted or missing packets in case of transmission errors. Many types of EC entities have heretofore been proposed for many types of networks. However, in the following description, will only be considered wireless networks because they are the most critical networks due to their not really reliable transmission medium. Moreover in such networks, the transmission resource is limited. As a result, the efficiency of an EC entity becomes a key aspect. Regarding the foregoing, an efficient Medium Access Control (MAC) layer is required to share the resource provided by the PHYsical (PHY) layer without adding too much signalling overhead. [0007] The following will consider the types of EC entity already available in the prior art. The direction used to transmit data will be referred to as “Forward direction”, whereas the reverse direction used to return feedback information will be referred to as “Backward direction”. An EC entity based on an Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) protocol is usually used to perform a data transmission providing an error-free service to the upper layer. An ARQ protocol is used in an EC entity for data packets transmission in which the receiver can detect a transmission error and then automatically transmits a repeat request to the transmitter. As a result, the transmitter retransmits the corresponding data packets until they are either correctly received or the number of retransmission attempts exceeds a predetermined threshold. [0008] Generally, the ARQ protocols rely on a packet identification scheme common to the transmitter and the receiver, so that the receiver can indicate to the transmitter, which packets are not correctly received through a feedback information message. The packet identification is typically an incremental Sequence Number (SN) identifier. In order to avoid stopping the transmitter to send data while waiting for feedback information each time a packet is transmitted, a sliding window mechanism, well known in the art, is implemented. [0009] In some implementations of this type, in case of transmission error, the transmitter retransmits all packets comprised in the sliding window even if some of them have been correctly received, well known as “Go-back-N” algorithms. As a result, a data packet overhead is generated by packet retransmissions. A solution to limit resource used by packet retransmissions consists in implementing a Selective Repeat scheme. In such a scheme, the feedback information message typically comprises the identifiers of incorrectly received packets, consequently only the incorrectly received packets are retransmitted by the transmitter. The Selective Repeat ARQ scheme can efficiently support data transmission with high throughputs and minimises the number of packet retransmission. However, an ARQ function on a receiver shall be able to periodically send feedback information messages to an ARQ function on a transmitter so that the sliding window can progress even when all packets are received correctly. Consequently, the amount of resource required for the feedback information messages transmission depends directly on the packet error rate since the amount of information sent in the feedback information messages, in this case, is function of the number of corrupted packets. At last, the amount of resource required for packets retransmission is proportional to the number of corrupted packets indicated in the feedback information messages. This type of scheme can be profitable to reduce the mean transmission delay as experienced by the upper layer. However, the resource consumed by the feedback information messages can be very important, mainly in case of transmission error bursts, above all when a Selective Repeat ARQ scheme is implemented. Consequently, another important aspect is to control the resource allocated for feedback transmission and the signalling overhead generated by the signalling protocol used to request a feedback resource allocation, as will be detailed in the following. [0010] In a centralised resource allocation scheme, a specific device, called RRM unit, allocates the resource based on the received Resource Request messages sent by the different devices. A centralised Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) MAC protocol based on a fixed MAC Frame Time Interval (FTI) is preferably adopted in such a scheme. When the transmitter ARQ function and the receiver ARQ function are not co-located within the RRM unit, an important signalling overhead may be generated by the EC entities. Indeed, the RRM unit first allocates a resource for the transmitter to allow the transmission of the Resource Request message from the transmitter to the RRM unit. Then, the RRM unit allocates a resource for data transmission from the transmitter to the receiver. Finally, the RRM unit allocates a resource for a feedback information transmission from the receiver to the transmitter. [0011] To simplify this scheme and to limit the overhead generated by an ARQ scheme in order to save resource, the RRM unit can implicitly allocate resource in the backward direction, i.e. without exchanging any signalling messages. However, the RRM unit does not have knowledge of the state of the receiver ARQ function and consequently the resource allocation for feedback information messages performed by the RRM unit is not based on the transmission error detection. This solution can only be efficiently implemented when the RRM unit is co-located with the receiver ARQ function. If not, it may lead to either a lack of resource for feedback information messages when a burst of errors occurs, inducing an undetermined retransmission delay, or a waste of resource when all packets are correctly received. This signalling overhead can be accentuated with some operations performed by the PHY layer for synchronisation and channel estimation purposes, even if the size of transmitted data payload is small, which is generally the case for an ARQ signalling message. Moreover, the overall PHY layer overhead size depends, in the best case, on the number of transmitters in a given FTI. The PHY layer overhead can be significantly reduced if the number of transmitters in each FTI is reduced. FIG. 1 illustrates a feedback resource allocation scheme which is not implicitly performed. In case of transmission error detection, the transmitter ARQ function, respectively the receiver ARQ function sends a Resource Request message for data transmission 11 , respectively a resource request message for signalling 12 , to the RRM unit. The transmitter ARQ function retransmits data packets 14 to the receiver. Then, the receiver ARQ function sends a feedback information message to the transmitter via the resource 13 allocated by the RRM unit. FIG. 2 illustrates a usage of resource within the FTIs FTI# 1 , FTI # 2 and FTI # 3 . In the FTI FTI# 1 , the transmitter ARQ function transmits a Resource Request message 21 . Upon reception of this message 21 , the RRM unit allocates in the next FTI which is the FTI FTI# 2 , the resource to the transmitter used to send a data packet 22 . In the FTI FTI# 2 , the transmitter ARQ function sends another Resource Request message 23 to the RRM unit and then it is allocated a resource in the next FTI which is the FTI FTI# 3 . This resource is used by the transmitter to send a data packet 24 . On the other hand, the receiver ARQ function sends a Resource Request message 26 to the RRM unit in the FTI FTI# 2 in order to request a feedback resource. Consequently, the RRM unit allocates in FTI FTI# 3 a resource to the receiver, used to send a feedback information message 27 . The receiver ARQ function requests a feedback resource in the FTI FTI# 3 via a Resource Request message 28 to be able to transmit the feedback information message in a next FTI. In such a feedback resource allocation scheme, the receiver ARQ function periodically requests some feedback resource via signalling messages. [0012] Summarizing the preceding, an EC entity is very useful, mainly within networks using unreliable medium, such as wireless networks. But these types of networks manage a scarce resource and the known mechanisms required by an EC entity consume a lot of resource as it has been explained above. Actually, an EC entity requires feedback information messages, packets retransmission messages and consequently a feedback resource allocation scheme. It is to be noted here that a feedback resource allocation scheme consumes resource using specific resource allocation signalling messages when the allocation is not implicitly performed. Moreover, when a given EC scheme is designed to support high error rates, it generates resource waste in free-error transmission. As opposed to that, when a given EC scheme is designed to support to a low error rate, it is not adapted to high error rates, as it has been explained above. Stated otherwise, these types of EC schemes generate signalling overhead and/or packet retransmission overhead. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0013] In view of the foregoing, mainly in a system based on TDMA scheme; there is a need for an EC entity guaranteeing the retransmission of corrupted or missing packets, while decreasing the signalling overhead generated for the feedback resource allocation, and very adapted in case of reliable medium as well as in case of unreliable medium. Stated otherwise, there is a need for an EC entity being efficient in case of high as well as low transmission error rates. The present invention proposes such an EC scheme. [0014] In a first aspect, the invention proposes a method of controlling transmission errors in a network comprising at least one transmitter, at least one receiver, a Radio Resource Management (RRM) unit for allocating transmission resource dedicated to the transmitter and/or receiver, and a FeedBacK (FBK) function comprising a transmitter FBK instance and a receiver FBK instance for managing transmission of feedback information which is transmitted by the receiver to the transmitter to indicate transmission errors, the method comprising the following steps: a) the transmitter FBK instance transmits Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the receiver FBK instance; b) the FBK function monitors transmission errors on the receiver FBK instance side and/or on the transmitter FBK instance side to determine a transmission quality level out of a set of given transmission quality levels; c) the FBK function selects one feedback operational mode out of a predetermined list of feedback operational modes based on the determined transmission quality level, each one of the feedback operational modes defining a feedback resource allocation scheme for the transmitter FBK instance and the receiver FBK instance; d) the receiver FBK instance transmits to the transmitter FBK instance feedback information via a resource allocated based on the selected feedback operational mode. [0019] A second aspect of the invention relates to a device for controlling transmission errors comprising means for carrying out the method according to the first aspect. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0020] Further features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the description below. The latter is given purely by way of illustration and should be read in conjunction with the appended drawings, of which: [0021] FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 illustrate an ARQ scheme of the prior art. They have been already described. [0022] FIG. 3 illustrates a sliding window according to one embodiment of the present invention. [0023] FIG. 4 shows a state machine in the transmitter FBK instance illustrating the switching conditions between two feedback operational modes according to one embodiment of the invention. [0024] FIG. 5 shows the network entities exchanging signalling messages according to one embodiment of the invention. [0025] FIG. 6 illustrates the transition between both RFA and NFA operational modes depending on data corruption detection by the receiver FBK instance according to one embodiment of the present invention. [0026] FIG. 7 illustrates a usage of the T Tx, Fb timer as a triggering event for a feedback resource allocation in one embodiment of the present invention. [0027] FIG. 8 illustrates the usage of the T Rx, Fb timer after an operational mode switching from the NFA to the RFA mode according to one embodiment of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0028] One exemplary embodiment of the present invention takes place in a network comprising STAtions (STAs) including a communication protocols stack based on the OSI model of ISO. More particularly, a preferred embodiment of the invention is described here in one exemplary network as it is described below. Of course the scope of the invention encompasses applications to any stack of communication protocol layers and to other types of networks. [0029] The STAs which are able to communicate between themselves are grouped together in a cell. A centralised TDMA MAC protocol based on a FTI is a scheme preferably adopted. A Radio Resource Management (RRM) unit is in charge of distributing the resource provided by the PHY layer among the STAs within the cell. In a TDMA scheme, a resource allocated to a given STA is a reserved time interval referred to as “dedicated access resource” in which the STA can transmit data over the medium. Preferably, a dedicated access resource may have a variable duration and may be dynamically granted on a per FTI basis according to the requirements of the STAs. At the MAC layer level, a STA can transmit in a dedicated access resource the data traffic received from an upper layer of its protocol stack. In addition, it can also transmit signalling messages generated by the different entities of the LL, such as a MAC entity or an EC entity, to a destination STA or to the RRM. STAs indicate their resource requirements to the RRM unit through specific MAC signalling messages which will be referred to as “Resource Request messages”. In one embodiment of the present invention, according to those requirements, the RRM unit distributes the resource contained within each FTI and indicates the FTI composition to the STAs through specific MAC signalling messages typically sent at the beginning of the FTI. Such a protocol allows the RRM unit to adjust to the variable requirements of the STAs. Preferably, the RRM unit further provides some contention access resource in the FTIs which is resource available for all STAs of the cell via a contention access. Consequently, the STAs which do not have dedicated access resource in FTIs can still have a chance to access the medium. Preferably, the contention access resource is split into fixed duration slots used to send signalling messages fitting in those slots. The access to this contention access resource may be performed by respecting a Slotted Aloha procedure. [0030] One STA will be referred to as a transmitter FBK instance and another one will be referred to as a receiver FBK instance. The LL layer of the transmitter FBK instance receives packets referred as LL Service Data Unit (LL-SDU) packets locally from an upper layer. Packets exchanged between two LL entities in the network are encapsulated in MAC Protocol Data Unit (MAC-PDU) packets, which are transmitted over the PHY layer. In one embodiment of the invention, each packet will be identified by a Sequence Number (SN) identifier. Of course any type of identifier may be used in the invention. Such a SN identifier is contained in a MAC-PDU header. A MAC-PDU further comprises a received LL-SDU packet as data payload. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, a Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC) information, which protects the complete MAC-PDU, is used to detect a data corruption linked to a transmission error. Of course, the present invention encompasses any other method of data corruption detection. Preferably, the FBK function is dispatched in the network into several instances, a transmitter having a transmitter FBK instance and a receiver having a receiver FBK instance. Of course, the present invention encompasses any location of the FBK function in the network. Furthermore, each FBK function can comprise several dedicated transmitter and receiver FBK instances, each dedicated FBK instance handling a given specific data flow. A given data flow can be defined considering some characteristics such as priority or other Quality of Service parameters. For the sake of better understanding, the description considers only one type of data flow which is composed by a set of MAC PDUs sent by a transmitter to a receiver in the network. As before, the direction from the transmitter FBK instance to the receiver FBK instance is referred to as “Forward direction” and the direction from the receiver FBK instance to the transmitter FBK instance is referred to as “Backward direction”. Of course in the following section, a feedback message is always transmitted in the backward direction, by the receiver FBK instance to the transmitter FBK instance. [0031] Each FBK instance is based on a set of state variables and a memory structure to implement a feedback message transmission and a packet retransmission scheme. One embodiment of the invention is based on a sliding window scheme. An image of a FBK sliding window is preferably maintained on both transmitter FBK instance and receiver FBK instance. The size of the FBK sliding window, referred to as K W , is preferably defined as a fixed size and negotiated between the transmitter and receiver FBK instances. The following sections describe at first the management of the sliding window and basic principles applied on the transmitter FBK instance side and then on the receiver FBK instance side. [0032] In the transmitter FBK instance, the FBK sliding window comprises a Bottom of Window (Tx-BoW) and a Top of Window (Tx-ToW), which are respectively the first MAC PDU not positively acknowledged by the receiver FBK instance through a feedback message and the MAC PDU with the greatest SN that can be transmitted in accordance with the following rule: [0033] SN Tx-Tow =SN Tx-Bow +K W −1; SN Tx-Tow being the SN of the Tx-ToW packet and SN Tx-Bow being the SN of the Tx-BoW packet. [0034] The transmitter FBK instance sends by increasing SN order MAC-PDUs which are within the FBK sliding window. [0035] As a result, when the transmitter FBK instance transmits a MAC-PDU with a SN corresponding to SN TX-ToW , the FBK sliding window is said closed. In such a condition, the transmitter FBK instance no longer transmits any MAC-PDU until reception of a feedback information message that lets the Tx-BoW progress. Of course, it is not desirable to have a closed sliding window on the transmitter FBK instance side. In addition, a preferred embodiment of the invention proposes to handle another reference in the window which is a transmitter FBK instance Last in Window (Tx-LiW). The latter refers to the transmitted MAC PDU, belonging to the window, with the highest SN. [0036] In parallel, a Time To Live (TTL) timer is maintained for each MAC-PDU. The TTL timer is initialised based on information specified by the upper layer upon the LL-SDU reception. This type of timer is classically used and generally, upon a TTL timer expiration, the corresponding MAC PDU is not retransmitted even if an error transmission is detected. For that purpose, some ARQ implementations force the transmitter ARQ function to transmit a specific signalling message in order to force a sliding window progression and thus avoiding window closing effects, especially when the underlying transport is particularly prone to errors. This mechanism is commonly called “discard” and leads to upper layer packet loss. The present invention proposes an advantageous usage of this timer as it will be disclosed below. [0037] On the receiver FBK instance side, the Bottom of Window (Rx-BoW) refers to the first MAC-PDU which has not been received yet or incorrectly received by the receiver FBK instance. The highest SN of the correctly received MAC-PDUs is referred to as a Last in Window (Rx-LiW). The receiver FBK instance detects a corrupted packet by calculating a CRC and is able to detect a missing packet when a MAC PDU with a SN greater than the SN of the missing packet has been correctly received. [0038] Based on the technical principles disclosed above, an embodiment of the present invention proposes a method of error control for data transmission, which is advantageously adapted to handle high transmission error rate as well as an error-free transmission. It relies on the use of different feedback operational modes for feedback allocation resource, depending on the transmission errors detected. In one preferred embodiment, it relies on two feedback operational modes, a Reduced Feedback resource Allocation (RFA) and a Normal Feedback resource Allocation (NFA). The RFA mode is preferably selected during error-free periods in order to save PHY resource. Resource allocation for feedback is based on TTL timer information supplied by the upper layer, and the sliding window state. The NFA is preferably selected during period with bursts of errors and provides fast retransmission capability during such periods. The FBK function is in charge of selecting one of two feedback operational modes and performs this selection based on information returned by the receiver FBK instance as it is described below. In a classical ARQ scheme applied to a centralised resource allocation network, wherein an RRM unit is in charge of resource allocation, the receiver FBK instance detecting transmission errors requests a resource to the RRM unit to transmit corresponding feedback information to the transmitter FBK instance, as it has been already described. This step of resource request generates a signalling overhead. An embodiment of the invention allows to reduce this type of signalling overhead in that the resource for feedback is requested by the transmitter FBK instance instead of the receiver FBK instance. In order to accelerate the transition from RFA to NFA feedback operational mode, one embodiment of the invention uses contention access resource whenever this access method is provided by the MAC layer and an EC entity is located at the LL level. In that case, the MAC layer is in charge of guarantying the correct delivery of signalling messages sent via a contention slot. For instance, in a Slotted Aloha scheme, this function is performed by repeating the message after a random back-off period if the packet is not acknowledged by the receiver FBK instance. Anyway, this particular mechanism is out of the scope of the present invention. [0039] In the following description, the transmitter FBK instance and the receiver FBK instance are different from the RRM unit. When one of the FBK instances is co-located with the RRM unit, some message exchanges can be internally performed which can improve the mechanism by reducing the overhead signalling and protocol latency. [0040] Siqnalling Messages [0041] One embodiment of the invention defines two types of feedback information messages, which are sent by the receiver FBK instance to the transmitter FBK instance: a Short Feedback (SF) message and a Detailed Feedback (DF) message. The SF message contains following information: the SN of the Rx-BoW; the SN of the Rx-LiW; the number N RTx of corrupted or missing PDUs which SN is included between Rx-BoW (not included) and Rx-LiW. [0045] When the receiver FBK instance does not receive any MAC-PDU beyond the Rx-BoW, the Rx-LiW is equal to the Rx-BoW and the number N RTx is equal to 0. The receiver FBK instance can send a SF message through the MAC protocol by using either a dedicated access resource or a contention access resource. On reception of a SF message, the transmitter FBK instance is able to retransmit the Tx-BoW and all the PDUs between the Rx-LiW specified in the SF message and the Tx-LiW. However, the transmitter FBK instance is not able to retransmit only the corrupted PDUs located between the Rx-BoW and the Rx-LiW. The DF message contains the same information as the SF message and further comprises a list of identifiers of corrupted or missing PDUs, the identifiers being preferably the SNs of the MAC-PDUs as described above. The corresponding SNs are comprised between the specified SN Rx-BoW (not included) and the specified SN Rx-LiW . The DF messages have a variable length. They are sent by the MAC layer preferably only via a dedicated access resource. When a resource allocated to the receiver FBK instance does not allow to transmit a complete list of SN in the corresponding DF message, especially when the list of SNs is long, the N RTx information contains the number of PDUs that remains to be listed in a next DF message. From this information, further resource for feedback can be requested and then allocated, and one or more next DF messages containing the remaining part of the list are transmitted. This case can occur particularly in a resource allocation system where the amount of resource allocated by the RRM has a variable length, as it has been described above. The PDUs should be preferably listed by increasing SN order in order to improve the performance. [0046] FIG. 3 illustrates a sliding window where corrupted or missing packets are represented in blank and correct packets are represented as shading. In this example, the transmitter FBK instance has transmitted PDUs not yet acknowledged until the level of the Tx-LiW. The receiver FBK instance detects a number N RTx equal to 4 of corrupted or missing packets between the Rx-BoW and the Rx-LiW. Upon reception of the next feedback message, the transmitter FBK instance is able to retransmit Rx-BoW and all PDUs between the Rx-LiW (not included) and the Tx-LiW if it is a SF message. If it is a DF message, the transmitter FBK instance is able to retransmit, in addition, the MAC-PDUs specified in the message between the Rx-Bow and the Rx-LiW. [0047] In one embodiment of the invention two main methods are described to force the receiver FBK instance to transmit feedback information via a dedicated access resource allocated to the receiver FBK instance. A first one, referred to as an Explicit feedback reply method, is based on the transmission of a Request for FeedBack (RFB) message by the transmitter FBK instance to the receiver FBK instance but this method presents the disadvantage of generating signalling overhead. A second one, referred to as an Implicit feedback reply method, requires that the receiver FBK instance transmits feedback information each time a dedicated access resource is allocated. The present invention encompasses both preceding methods. For the sake of understanding, the following section describes the second one, the first being easily deduced from the second one. [0048] A Resource Request for Signalling (RRS) message is a message transmitted by the transmitter FBK instance to the RRM unit in order to request resource for feedback information for the receiver FBK instance. Preferably, this message specifies both receiver FBK instance and transmitter FBK instance identifiers, and the amount of requested resource. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the receiver FBK instance does not directly send any messages to the RRM unit. [0049] RFA feedback operational mode [0050] As already described above, the RFA feedback operational mode is selected advantageously while no error is detected on received PDUs. During this feedback operational mode, the receiver FBK instance transmits feedback information only when one of the following conditions occurs: a) on the transmitter FBK instance side, the TTL timer of the Tx-BoW PDU becomes lower than a defined threshold T TTL . This threshold will be fixed according to the time elapsed between an error detection in the receiver FBK instance and an effective packet retransmission by the transmitter FBK instance; b) on the transmitter FBK instance side, the distance between Tx-BoW and Tx-LiW has exceeded a given threshold W. This threshold shall be fixed according to the mean or instant throughput of the data flow in order to avoid a sliding window closing in the transmitter FBK instance; c) on the receiver FBK instance side, a corrupted or missing PDU has been detected. [0054] Regarding the conditions a) and b), the transmitter FBK instance shall request some resource to the RRM unit for feedback information. If the Explicit feedback reply method is implemented in the receiver FBK instance, the transmitter FBK instance transmits a RFB message to the receiver FBK instance. In Explicit or Implicit feedback reply method, the receiver FBK instance sends a SF message as soon as the RRM unit allocates a dedicated access resource for the receiver FBK instance. The condition b) prevents the transmitter FBK instance window from closing, and guaranties the SN coherency in the receiver FBK instance. [0055] Regarding the condition c), the receiver FBK instance transmits a SF message via a contention access resource to the transmitter FBK instance after the detection of corrupted or missing PDUs. A sufficient number of contention access resources are preferably allocated by the RRM unit so that the MAC layer in the receiver FBK instance is able to correctly transmit these messages to the transmitter FBK instance without too many collisions. The transmitter FBK instance listens to the contention access resource during the RFA feedback operational mode. Upon reception of a SF message that indicates one or more corrupted PDUs, the transmitter FBK instance switches to the NFA feedback operational mode. [0056] When the transmission of feedback information via a contention access resource, described in the condition c), fails because of collisions, the condition a) allows to switch to the NFA feedback operational mode. Consequently, the retransmission of the corrupted PDUs is guarantied before the expiration of the corresponding TTL timers. [0057] NFA feedback operational mode [0058] The NFA feedback operational mode is mainly used during periods of errors. In such a mode, the receiver FBK instance transmits a SF or DF message to the transmitter FBK instance via a dedicated access resource granted by the RRM unit. The resource for feedback is requested by the transmitter FBK instance based on the N RTx information received in the last feedback information message. The corresponding resource allocation can partially or totally be performed by the RRM unit within a maximum delay, so that the receiver FBK instance is able to list the missing or corrupted PDUs in one or more DF messages. If the Explicit feedback reply method is implemented, the transmitter FBK instance will transmit a RFB message. The transmitter FBK instance manages a timer on feedback reception to protect the FBK function against signalling message loss. [0059] FIG. 4 illustrates a state machine indicating the triggering events of switching between the RFA mode and the NFA mode in the transmitter FBK instance. A switching from the RFA mode into the NFA mode is triggered by the reception of a feedback information message indicating that at least one corrupted or missing PDU has been detected on the receiver FBK instance side. On the other hand, a switching from the NFA mode into the RFA mode is triggered by the reception of a given number N of consecutive feedback information messages indicating no transmission error. [0060] At this step of the description, a list of signalling messages and both feedback operational modes have been described. Next sections will detail the operations performed respectively by the transmitter FBK instance, the receiver FBK instance and the RRM unit. [0061] Transmitter FBK instance operations [0062] The operations are described for the Implicit feedback reply method only. They can be easily extended for the explicit feedback reply method by supposing that the transmitter FBK instance transmits a RFB message to the receiver FBK instance when a feedback information message is expected. [0063] Preferably, the following variables are handled by the transmitter FBK instance: a N BwdReq state variable which represents the number of resource needed in the backward direction. This variable is used each time a RRS message is sent by the transmitter FBK instance to the RRM unit in order to request resource in the backward direction; a S FAP state variable which is the current feedback operational mode used by the transmitter FBK instance and that is determined from the state machine illustrated in FIG. 4 , as described below; a T Tx,Fb variable which is a transmitter timer used to measure the time elapsed between the reception of successive feedback messages in the NFA operational mode only and which is armed or re-armed with the static value T Tx,MaxFb , this static value being preferably greater than the RRM maximum allocation delay (i.e. time between resource request and the corresponding resource allocation). [0067] The transmitter FBK instance operating in the RFA mode, i.e. when the variable S FAP is equal to RFA, transmits an RRS to the RRM unit when the conditions a) or b) are met, which RRS preferably specifies an amount of resource corresponding to an SF. Consequently, the RRM unit allocates a dedicated access resource to the receiver FBK instance and then the receiver FBK instance is able to transmit a SF. [0068] On reception of a SF message indicating a corrupted or lost PDU, the N BwdReq variable is updated based on the N RTx information included in the SF message. When the feedback operational mode changes to NFA, the variable S FAP becomes equal to NFA and the transmitter FBK instance transmits a RRS message to the RRM unit in order to request resource in the backward direction. The timer T Tx,Fb is armed. [0069] The transmitter FBK instance operating in the NFA mode, i.e. when the variable S FAP is equal to NFA, updates the N BwdReq variable upon reception of each feedback information message, based on the corresponding N RTx information. In addition, the transmitter FBK instance transmits a RRS message to the RRM unit in order to request resource in the backward direction and the timer T Tx,Fb is re-armed. [0070] The operational mode changes to RFA after the reception of a given number N RFA of consecutive feedback information messages indicating that no PDUs have been detected as corrupted or missing on the receiver FBK instance side. [0071] On the expiration of the T Tx,Fb timer, the transmitter FBK instance transmits a RRS message to the RRM unit in order to request resource in the backward direction based on the current value of the N BwdReq variable. Then, the T Tx,Fb timer is re-armed. [0072] As already mentioned above, the N BwdReq state variable is updated based on the N RTx information received in each feedback message. For a given number N RTx greater than 0, the N BwdReq variable reflects the amount of resource required to transport a DF message that contains a list of N RTx SNs of corrupted or missing PDUs. For a given number N RTx equal to 0, N BwdReq reflects the amount of resource required to transport a SF message. [0073] Receiver FBK instance Operations [0074] After the description of the transmitter FBK instance operations proposed above, this section details the operations performed by the receiver FBK instance. The latter handles a timer T Rx,Fb to improve the robustness of the feedback information transmission by triggering a feedback information transmission via a contention access resource. The timer is preferably armed or re-armed with the static value T Rx,MaxFb greater than T Tx,MaxFb timer value. [0075] The receiver FBK instance transmits a feedback message to the transmitter FBK instance upon different events. In the explicit method, a feedback message is transmitted when a dedicated access resource is granted in the backward direction and when a RFB message has been received from the transmitter FBK instance. In the implicit method, a feedback message is transmitted each time a dedicated access resource is granted in the backward direction. In both methods, the receiver FBK instance uses the allocated resource to list the SNs of the corrupted or missing PDUs through a DF message. If the granted resource is not sufficient to describe all those PDUs, only a sub-set of those PDUs is listed in the DF message and the N RTx information contains the number of PDUs that remains to be listed. If the sub-set is empty due to a lack of granted resource or absence of corrupted PDUs, a simple SF message is sent by the receiver FBK instance. [0076] A SF message is sent to the transmitter FBK instance via a contention access resource when the T Rx,Fb timer expires and at least one corrupted or missing PDU is detected. If a collision occurs during this feedback transmission, a back-off mechanism defined by a contention access procedure allows to repeat the SF message. In this case, the information in the SF message is updated taking into account the current state of the receiver FBK instance. During this repetition procedure, the T Rx,Fb timer is frozen so that there is no interference between back-off and timer expiration. Each time a feedback message is transmitted via a dedicated access resource, the T Rx,Fb timer is re-armed. When a feedback message is transmitted via a contention access resource, the T Rx,Fb timer is re-armed upon successful contention access. [0077] RRM operations [0078] This section details the operations performed by the RRM unit. The RRM unit maintains a variable N Req that contains the number of requested resource that have not been granted yet, for each couple composed by a transmitter FBK instance and a receiver FBK instance. On reception of an RRS message, the RRM updates this variable N Req with the RSS message field that indicates the number of requested resource. [0079] The RRM unit shall allocate the requested resource along the successive FTIs by taking into account the requirements of all STAs of the cell. [0080] The following sections will disclose some exemplary applications of one embodiment of the present invention, where the implicit feedback reply method is applied. However, as it has been already explained, it is easy to extend the same examples in the case of the explicit feedback reply method. [0081] FIG. 5 is a view of message exchanges between the network entities considered herein, where only the transmitter FBK instance requests resource for data and requests resource for feedback of the receiver FBK instance by respectively sending a Request Resource for Data (RRD) message and a RRS message to the RRM unit. [0082] FIG. 6 illustrates the transition between both operational modes when a transmission error is detected by the receiver FBK instance. In this example, the number N RFA of the consecutive feedback messages indicating no transmission error needed to switch from the NFA mode to the RFA mode is equal to 1. Initially, the FBK function has selected the RFA mode. The transmitter FBK instance transmits PDUs 601 to the receiver FBK instance. The receiver FBK instance detects an error in the received packet 602 . The receiver FBK instance operates in the RFA mode. As the T Rx, Fb timer has expired and a transmission error is detected, the receiver FBK instance transmits a SF message 603 to the transmitter FBK instance via a contention access resource. This message indicates that 10 packets have been received corrupted or have not been received. The transmitter FBK instance transmits to the RRM unit a RRS message 604 on the reception of this SF message. Consequently, the RRM unit allocates a given dedicated access resource to the receiver FBK instance 605 . The receiver FBK instance transmits a DF message 606 via the given resource. This DF message informs about the number of 5 corrupted or missing PDUs 607 . On reception of this DF message, the transmitter FBK instance transmits a RRS message 608 to the RRM unit. The RRM unit allocates a given resource to the receiver FBK instance. A DF message 609 is transmitted via this given resource to inform the transmitter FBK instance about the latest corrupted packet identifiers. As no transmission error has been detected, this DF message indicates that no extra resource is required for a further DF message. Consequently, the transmitter FBK instance requests again a feedback resource 610 intended for the receiver FBK instance for an SF message transmission. As the SF message 611 indicates again that no transmission error has been detected and as the N RFA is equal to 1, the operational mode is switched to RFA. [0083] FIG. 7 illustrates a usage of the T Tx, Fb timer as a triggering event for a feedback resource allocation in one embodiment of the present invention, especially in case of loss signalling message. At the beginning of the example, the RFA mode has been selected by the FBK function. The transmitter FBK instance transmits to the receiver FBK instance a data packet message 701 . Upon reception of this message 701 , the receiver FBK instance detects that the received data packet is corrupted 702 . As the RFA mode is selected, the receiver FBK instance transmits a SF message to the transmitter FBK instance via a contention access resource 703 . The transmitter FBK instance receiving the SF message 703 starts the T Tx, Fb timer 704 and transmits a RRS message 705 to the RRM unit. As a result, the RRM unit allocates a dedicated access resource to the receiver FBK instance. Then, the receiver FBK instance is able to transmit a DF message 706 via the dedicated access resource. Upon reception of the DF message 706 , the transmitter FBK instance restarts the T Tx,Fb timer 707 and transmits a RRS message 708 to the RRM unit. A transmission error 709 occurs during the transmission of this message preventing the RRM unit from handling this request. The transmitter FBK instance continues to transmit data packet messages 710 and 711 . Then the T Tx, Fb timer expires. Consequently, the transmitter FBK instance transmits a new RRS message 712 to the RRM unit. AS a result, the RRM unit allocates a dedicated access resource to the receiver FBK instance and the receiver FBK instance is able to send a DF message to the receiver FBK instance. [0084] FIG. 8 illustrates the usage of the T Rx,Fb timer after an operational mode switching form the NFA to the RFA. In this case, a feedback information message is transmitted via a contention access resource upon the expiration of the timer T Rx,Fb . Besides, the T Rx,Fb timer is reset when the contention transmission is succeeded, preferably when the transmitter FBK instance has acknowledged the contention access resource. The following section details this example. At the beginning of the example, the operational mode selected is the NFA mode. The transmitter FBK instance sends a RRS message 801 to the RRM unit and then the receiver FBK instance is able to send a DF message 804 via the corresponding dedicated access resource. Upon transmission of the DF message 804 the receiver FBK instance starts the T Rx,Fb timer 803 and upon reception of the DF message 804 , the transmitter FBK instance starts the T Tx,Fb timer 805 and sends a RRS message 806 to the RRM unit. The transmitter FBK instance continues to transmit data packets 802 and 807 while the sliding window is not closed. When a resource requested via the RRS message 806 is allocated to the receiver FBK instance, the receiver FBK instance sends a DF message 809 to the transmitter FBK instance. Unfortunately, the transmitter FBK instance is not able to handle this message due to a transmission error. However, the sliding window allows a new data packet transmission 810 . But the T Tx,Fb timer expires because the last DF message 809 has not been handled. The expiration of the T Tx,Fb timer triggers a RRS message transmission 812 to the RRM unit. The receiver FBK instance using the corresponding resource sends a DF message 814 while the T Rx,Fb timer is restarted 813 . Receiving the DF message 814 , the transmitter FBK instance restarts its T Tx,Fb timer 815 and sends a RRS message 817 . Again, the receiver FBK instance uses the corresponding dedicated resource to send a DF message 819 while the T Rx, Fb timer is restarted 818 . Upon reception of the DF message 819 indicating that no transmission error has occurred, the FBK function switches from the NFA mode into the RFA mode. Then the T Tx,Fb timer is no longer handled 820 . The transmitter FBK instance continues to send data packets 821 , 822 and 823 . Unfortunately the data packet 822 is detected as corrupted by the receiver FBK instance. As the operational mode is the RFA mode, the receiver FBK instance waits for the expiration of the T Rx,Fb 824 before sending a SF message 825 via a contention access resource. Upon reception of the SF message 825 , the FBK function switches from the RFA mode into the NFA mode again. [0085] Some enhancements may be provided with the fact that one of the transmitter FBK instance and the receiver FBK instance is co-located with the RRM unit. When the transmitter FBK instance is co-located with the RRM unit, the RRS message transmitted by the transmitter FBK instance becomes an internal request. Consequently, the latency of resource allocation for feedback is reduced of the duration of one FTI. By supposing the RRM unit is able to grant the resource in the FTI following the request, a feedback message can be transmitted in each FTI when in NFA policy. [0086] When the receiver FBK instance is co-located with the RRM unit, the RRS message transmitted by the transmitter FBK instance becomes useless and the following steps are performed, depending on the operational mode. When the FBK function has selected the RFA mode, and when the condition a) or b) is met, a RFB message is sent by the transmitter FBK instance to the receiver FBK instance. Upon reception of the RFB message, the receiver FBK instance will perform an internal RRS request and send a SF message to the transmitter FBK instance. When the condition c) is met, since a RRS request can be internally performed, the RRM unit may grant some dedicated access resource. Consequently, a contention access resource can be avoided. In that case, a DF message is preferably transmitted instead of a SF message. [0087] When the FBK function has selected the NFA mode, the receiver FBK instance requests internally some signalling resource so that it can send the corresponding DF message to the transmitter FBK instance. Moreover, the transmitter FBK instance will send a RFB message to the receiver FBK instance each time the T Tx,Fb expires until the operational mode is switched into the RFA mode. [0088] One embodiment of the present invention can be applied to any type of data transmission whatever the network topology is. It can be applied in a cellular network where data flows are transmitted from or toward an Access Point (AP) that integrates the RRM unit. But it can also be applied to networks that support direct communications between devices such as in wireless ad-hoc networks. [0089] By using two feedback operational modes preferably determined by the transmitter FBK instance FBK function, one embodiment of the invention can reach a very low resource usage dedicated to feedback information transmission when the PHY layer provides an error-free service. However, when some packets are corrupted, the feedback operational mode can be quickly switched from one another, allowing to provide a sufficient and adequate amount of resource for feedback in order to allow fast retransmission. This feature helps decreasing the mean transmission delay provided to any applications. In addition, one embodiment of the invention is able to guaranty a maximum delay for real-time applications, through the usage of the TTL timer, which avoids packet loss due to eventual discard mechanism. The use of timers in the transmitter FBK instance and the receiver FBK instance provides robustness against signalling message loss. The feedback operational mode that is preferably determined by the transmitter FBK instance does not require to be communicated to the receiver FBK instance. Consequently, for that latter purpose, specific signalling messages or specific fields in the feedback messages are not required. [0090] An embodiment of the present invention can be adapted to any defined standard. [0091] Moreover, such a method according to one embodiment of the invention can be easily implemented and can contribute to reduce power consumption in embedded applications. In broadband wireless networks, transmission operations are more expensive in terms of consumed power. On a wireless links, most of the errors generated by the PHY layer are often grouped into bursts. Outside these bursts, the PHY layer often provides an error-free service. Therefore, the RFA operational mode can be selected preferably and can contribute to efficiently decrease the power consumption of the receiver FBK instance. [0092] Finally, a preferred embodiment of the present invention can be profitably adapted to a network that implements a centralised MAC protocol and an EC entity based on a Selective Repeat ARQ scheme. Broadband wireless or Power Line Communications (PLC) networks are realistic examples since they are based on unreliable PHY layer, they support a high number of concurrent applications with variable requirements along the time. The invention is particularly valuable in a Home environment where several devices directly communicate between themselves. It is also efficient for a high throughput system that support a large number of unidirectional data flows such as multimedia streaming (VHS quality video (512kb/s), MP3 streaming (128kb/s), . . . ).

There is disclosed a method and a device of controlling transmission errors in a network comprising at least one transmitter, at least one receiver and a Radio Resource Management (RRM) unit for allocating transmission resource dedicated to the transmitter and/or the receiver. A FeedBacK (FBK) function is introduced to manage transmission of feedback information which is transmitted by the receiver to the transmitter to indicate transmission errors. The FBK function comprises a transmitter FBK instance and a receiver FBK instance. At first, the transmitter FBK instance transmits Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the receiver FBK instance. The FBK function monitors transmission errors on the receiver FBK instance side and/or on the transmitter FBK instance side to determine a transmission quality level out of a set of given transmission quality levels. The FBK function selects one feedback operational mode out of a predetermined list of feedback operational modes based on the determined transmission quality level, each one of feedback operational modes defining a feedback resource allocation scheme for the transmitter FBK instance and the receiver FBK instance. The receiver FBK instance transmits to the transmitter FBK instance feedback information via a resource allocated based on the selected feedback operational mode.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to process controllers and more particularly to an intelligent programmable process control system. Process controllers have been utilized in recent years for controlling processing machines and manufacturing lines and the like. The systems operate on boolean logic which is programmed into the controller by means of a stored program supplied by the user. The program may be stored in a permanent or removable read-only memory (ROM) to control a particular process or machine in the same manner continuously (or until a new ROM is supplied) or, the program may be stored in a random access memory (RAM) which program may be changed at will. The industrial process controller, following the stored set of boolean equations receives inputs from sensors (photodiodes, pressure switches, etc.) located throughout the processing or manufacturing equipment as well as inputs from timers, etc., and in response thereto, generates signals for controlling the various operating devices of the processing or manufacturing equipment such as solenoids, motors, valves, etc. See, for example, U.S. Patents to Henry et al (U.S. Pat. No. 3,938,104) "System for Modifying a Logic Controller Instruction Set"; Naud (U.S. Pat. No. 3,924,242) "System for Building Op Codes"; Burkett et al (U.S. Pat. No. 3,953,834) "Programmable Logic Controller With Push Down Stack" Burkett et al (U.S. Pat. No. 4,030,080) "Variable Module Memory"; Burkett et al (U.S. Pat. No. 4,092,730) "Data Processor With Read Only Memory Processor and Partial Solution Push-Down Stack"; and, Burkett et al (U.S. Pat. No. 3,982,230) "Programmable Logic Controller With Flag Storage", each being assigned to the assignee of the present invention, as well as the prior art of record with respect to each of said patents. These process control systems are all hard-wired logic systems. With the recent widespread commercialization of the microprocessor, the ability of replacing the hard-wired logic of industrial controllers with a microprocessor has greatly simplified the circuitry of the industrial controller as well as provided a degree of "intelligence", the ability of the controller not only to control process parameters, but also to mathematically compute parameters as well. The present invention has gone many steps further in increasing the ability and efficiency of a microprocessor-based intelligent process controller. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an improved intelligent programmable process control system. Another object of the present invention is to provide a microprocessor-based process control system with intelligent parameter computation ability as well as boolean logic parameter control. It is another object of the invention to provide an improved process controller with both analog and digital input/output capability. It is still a further object of the invention to provide a process controller with a capability of making complex mathematical computations. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide a process controller with multiple process control loops. Still another object of the invention is to provide an improved process controller having each of the above features in one compact system. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION These and other objects are accomplished in accordance with the present invention in which an intelligent programmable process control system includes a uniquely configured pair of cooperating microprocessors. A first multi-bit control microprocessor is utilized for computation and for sensing and controlling the analog portion of the processing equipment, and a second single-bit microprocessor is utilized for sequencing and for sensing and controlling the states of on-off devices. The control microprocessor has overall supervisory control. An arbitration circuit for resolving simultaneous or phased access to memory by the two microprocessors is provided. In addition, a circuit is provided for accomplishing parallel digital input/output operations and analog input/output operations, again accessible by both microprocessors. In one embodiment, means for linking arithmetic functions and non-arithmetic (logic) functions within a boolean-type instruction set is provided. This allows a process on/off state to be controlled, for example, in accordance with computed statistical criteria. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Still further objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the detailed description and claims when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the components comprising one embodiment of an intelligent programmable process control system according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the control system of FIG. 1; FIGS. 3a-3f are logic circuit diagrams of the sequencer module of FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is a logic circuit diagram of the memory control unit of the central memory unit of FIG. 3d. FIG. 5 is a logic circuit diagram of the I/O module of FIG. 1. FIGS. 6a-6e are logic circuit diagrams of the AIM (auxiliary input output module) I/O system of FIGS. 1 and 2. FIG. 7 is a diagram of the PLC memory expansion socket. FIG. 8 is a diagram of the general form of an analog control loop. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring then to the drawings, and particularly to FIG. 1, an intelligent programmable process control system in accordance with the present invention is illustrated. The system is comprised of sequencer module 10 which controls analog loops sensing and controlling of the on/off states of sensors and controlled devices, respectively, located along the process. Analog loop control is accomplished via (AIM) auxiliary input output module (AIM) 11. AIM unit 11 also provides parallel digital inputs and outputs to the system. The single bit on/off states are sensed and controlled by plug-in modules of I/O module 12. Loop access module 13 provides limited input and output capability for control to operator to the analog loop control functions. Timer/counter module 14 provides limited input and output capability for the operator to control a series of process control timers and counter. The major source of data and instruction entry and display for the system is provided by read/write (R/W) programmer module 15. The system is powered by power supply module 161. Referring to the block diagram of FIG. 2, sequencer 10 is comprised of 9900 microprocessor based central processing unit (CPU) 18 illustrated in detail in FIG. 3a, 9514 microprocessor based programmable logic control unit (PLC) 19 illustrated in detail in FIG. 3b, image register unit 17 through which the on/off states of the sensed input bits and the on/off states of the controlled output, AIM unit 21 through which analog and digital functions are input and output bits are stored as well as a series of flag bits and memory contained in units 16 and 20. The image register (IR) of image register unit 17 is in effect an image of the serial communications register of I/O unit 22 contained in module 12. I/O unit 22 will henceforth be discussed in detail with respect to FIG. 5. Another unit contained in sequencer module 10 is central memory unit (CMU) 20 which will be discussed in detail with respect to FIG. 3d. Central memory unit 20 provides random access memory for both 9900 CPU 18 and 9514 PLC unit 19 and provides a means of communication between the two microprocessors. UART/PMEM unit 16 provides additional RAM, as well as a large block of ROM memory, for 9900 CPU 18. In addition, UART/PMEM unit 16 provides two asychronous serial data interface ports for communicating with serial devices such as teletype units and the like. UART/PMEM unit 16 is later described in detail with respect to FIG. 3e. In accordance with a unique feature of the present system, both the 9900 CPU 18 and 9514 PLC 19 access auxiliary input/output module (AIM) 21 as an addressable extension of central memory unit 20. AIM unit 21, which is later described in detail with reference to FIGS. 6a-6e, provides digital parallel I/O ports as well as analog I/O ports which are utilized in conjunction with the analog loop control functions. A priority circuit contained in central memory unit 20 resolves simultaneous or phased accesses of central memory unit 20 and/or AIM unit 21 by microprocessors 18 and 19. Referring to FIG. 2, 9900 central processor unit 18 and 9514 programmable logic control unit 19, both have access to central memory unit 20. Central memory unit 20 is addressed by a 13 bit address (CMUA02-CMUA14) and data is either transferred into or out of microprocessor 18 or 19 depending upon which of the microprocessors has requested access to memory unit 20 via request signals (CMU99RQST) or (PMEMEN). Simultaneous requests for memory unit 20 and/or AIM unit 21 are handled by an arbitration circuit which will later be discussed in detail with respect to FIG. 4. A data-bus-in flag signal (DBIN or PDBIN) from the requesting microprocessor indicates whether the microprocessor is requesting to read or write information into memory unit 20 and controls the data buses accordingly as well as providing the proper read/write control for the RAM memories. Central memory unit 20 responds to the requesting microprocessor by a ready flag (CMUREADY or PREADY) indicating that the central memory unit is ready to accept or output data to such microprocessor and provides a data bus enable signal (CMU99AEN or CMU95AEN, respectively). The data is then transferred over the 16 bit data bus CMUD00-CMUD15. As discussed above, AIM unit 21 is addressed as extension of central memory unit 20. AIM unit 21 contains, in the present embodiment, eight module plug-in sockets which are addressed as a central memory unit address CMUA03-CMUA14, as if such sockets were 16 bit registers of central memory unit 20. Any combination of digital parallel input units, digital parallel output units, analog input units and analog output units may be plugged into the eight sockets as will later be described in detail with respect to FIGS. 6a-6e. Data is either read into or out of the unit plugged into the addressed socket of AIM unit 21 depending upon flag signals AIMDBIN and AIMWE generated by central memory unit 20 in accordance with the flag signals DBIN and PDBIN provided by the requesting microprocessor. Data is read into or out of AIM unit 21 over data bus CMUD00-CMUD15. Image register unit 17 is addressed by microprocessor 18 via address bus MA05-MA14 and by microprocessor 19 via address bus PA05-PA14. The IR9900 R/W and IR9514ST flag signals indicate to image register unit 17 whether the 9900 CPU 18 or 9514 PLC 19 is reading from or writing into image register unit 17. The image register unit 17 is controlled by the SOP and EOS flag signals from PLC 19 and the OKTOIO flag signal from 9900 CPU 18. Image register unit 17 is paged by 9900 CPU 18 by IRPAGE1 or IRPAGE0 signal while image register unit 17 is paged by 9514 PCU 19 by address signals PA03 and PA04. The states of IRPAGE1 and IRPAGE0 or PA03 and PA04 determine which of four 1024 bit pages of the image register is being addressed. Data is transferred one bit at a time from image register unit 17 to CPU 18 or PLC unit 19 via IROUT. Data is selectively transferred from CPU 18 via CRUOUT and from PCU unit 19 via PIRDOT into image register unit 17. Data is also transferred serially between image register unit 17 and I/O unit 22. The on/off states of the sensor devices along the process being controlled are thus transferred to the image register and the on/off states of controlled devices along the process being controlled and transferred from the image register. Data is transferred from image register unit 17 via OTDAIN to I/O unit 22 and data is transferred from I/O unit 22 to image register unit 17 via INDATA as controlled by the IOLATCH flag signal and the IOCLOCK clock signal generated by image register unit 17. UART/PMEM unit 16 is addressed by address signals from CPU 18 on address bus MA00-MA14. The MEMEN flag signal requests access to memory unit 16 and the BWE Flag signal indicates whether the operation is a read or write. When memory unit 16 is ready for data transfer, this is indicated by the UARTREADY flag signal to CPU 18 and data is then transferred over 16 bit data bus MB00-MB15. With reference to FIGS. 3a-3f, units 16-20 comprising sequencer module 10 will now be described in detail. Referring then to FIG. 3a, 9900 contral processing unit 18 is shown in detail. CPU 18 is comprised of a TMS9900 microprocessor (9900) manufactured and sold as a standard product by Texas Instruments Incorporated, assignor of the present invention. The TMS9900 microprocessor, which is a 16 bit microprocessor, is widely used in industry and described in detail in the product data sheet available from Texas Instruments Incorporated. The input and output terminals of the TMS 9900 chip are described in Table I below. TABLE I__________________________________________________________________________TMS 9900/TMS 9514 TERMINALS__________________________________________________________________________D0-D15 DATA BUSA0-A14 ADDRESS BUSDBIN INDICATES DATA BUS SET TO READ DATA INMEMEN INDICATES A MEMORY CELL REQUESTWE INDICATES DATA AVAILABLE TO BE WRITTEN IN MEMORYCRUCLK COMMUNICATIONS REGISTER UNIT CLOCK SIGNAL INDICATES DATA TO BE SAMPLED ON CRUOUT OR A0-A2CRUIN COMMUNICATIONS REGISTER UNIT DATA IN - MAY BE WRITTEN IN CRU BIT SPECIFIED BY A3-A14CRUOUT SERIAL OUTPUT DATAINTREQ INTERRUPT REQUESTIC0-IC3 INTERRUPT PRIORITY CODE - SAMPLED DURING INTERRUPT REQUEST TO DETERMINE IF HIGH ENOUGH PRIORITY TO BE ACCEPTED FOR INTERRUPTHOLD WHEN ACTIVATED, INDICATES TO PROCESSOR THAT EXTERNAL DEVICE DESIRES TO TRANSFER DATA TO/FROM MEMORY VIA PROCESSOR BUSESHOLDA INDICATES PROCESSOR IS IN HOLD STATE FOR TRANSFER OF DATA TO/FROM MEMORY BY REQUESTING DEVICEREADY INDICATES TO PROCESSOR THAT MEMORY READY TO READ READ/WRITE DATA ON NEXT CLOCK CYCLEWAIT INDICATES THAT PROCESSOR WAITING FOR READY CONDITION FROM MEMORYIAQ INDICATES PROCESSOR IS RECEIVING AN INSTRUCTION FROM MEMORYLOAD WHEN ACTIVATED, CAUSES PROCESSOR TO EXECUTE A SPECIAL NON-MASKABLE INTERRUPTRESET WHEN ACTIVATED, CAUSES PROCESSOR RESETφ 1-φ4 4 PHASE CLOCK__________________________________________________________________________ Microprocessor 9900 receives interrupt requests from PLC unit 19, AIM unit 21 and Image register 17, as well as timer 43 and data selector 52 which are part of CPU 18. These interrupt requests are stored in interrupt request register 45 and prioritized by priority encoder 44. Priority encoder 44 provides a priority request signal to the interrupt request INTREQ terminal and a corresponding priority code to terminals IC1-IC3 of micoprocessor 9900. The IC1-IC3 terminals are sampled during an interrupt request to determine if the request has high enough priority to be accepted for interrupt. Timer 43 controlled by ITINTREN and ITCEN flag signals from output data selector 52 provides a 100 millisecond timer for PLC unit 19 and a two millisecond timer which is available to microprocessor 9900. When the two millisecond time has elapsed timer 43 provides an interrupt signal to interrupt register 45. Microprocessor 9900 has access to central memory unit 20 via data bus CMUD00-CMUD15. It also has access to AIM unit 21 via this same data bus and access to UART/PMEN unit 16 via data bus MB00-MB15. Central memory unit 20 and AIM unit 21 are addressed via address bus CMUA00-CMUA14 while UART/PMEM unit 16 is addressed via address bus MA00-MA14, both being coupled to the A0-A14 address terminals of microprocessor 9900. Memory control is provided by external memory I/O control logic 47. A central memory or AIM request is provided via NAND gate 48 when a MEMEN signal is present along with a selected decoding of the A0 and A1 address bits from microprocessor 9900 to generate a CMU99RQST flag signal to central memory unit 20. The DBIN flag signal derived from the DBIN terminal of microprocessor 9900 indicates whether the request is a memory read or memory write operation. When the central memory unit 20 is ready, a READY flag signal is provided via NOR gate 46 to memory logic 47 which in turn provides a READY flag signal to READY terminal of microprocessor 9900. Microprocessor 9900 also controls UART/PMEM unit 16 by means of memory control logic 47. Memory requests to UART/PMEM unit 16 are made from the memory enable flag signal MEMEN. The BWE write-enable flag signal and the DBIN data-bus-in flag signal transferred from the WE and DBIN terminals of microprocessor 9900, respectively control whether the memory operation is a read or write. When UART/PMEM unit 16 is ready for data transfer, the UART READY flag signal provided to memory control logic 47 via NOR gate 46, causes memory control logic 47 to generate a READY flag signal to the READY terminal of microprocessor 9900. Serial data and single bit flag signals are input via the CRUIN terminal of microprocessor 9900. The flags, include status flags from image register unit 17 and 9514 PLC unit 19 as well as a parity bit CMUPE. The particular flag to be tested selected by input data selector 49 in accordance with the states of address terminals A12-A14 as decoded by address decoder 55. Serial data IROUT is transferred one bit at a time from image register unit 17 via transfer gate 50. Transfer gate 50 is enabled and input data selector 49 disabled by a decoding of address bits A3 and A4 by address decoder 56. Serial data is output from the CRUOUT terminal of microprocessor 9900 as well as single bit status flags. Serial data is transferred one bit at a time from the CROUT terminal of microprocessor 9900 to image register unit 17 via buffer gate 51. Output flags utilized for controlling the operation of PLC 19, image register unit 17, timer 43 and an interrupt request 6 are also provided at the CRUOUT terminal of microprocessor 9900. A single bit flag is provided from CRUOUT to one of the selected flag signal lines by means of output data selector 52 which selects the flag line according to a decoding of address lines A10-A14 by means of address decoders 53 and 54. Microprocessor 9900 provides a read write clock signal IR9900R/W for reading or writing data from image register 17 by decoding the signal generated at the CRUCLK clock terminal of microprocessor 9900 and the A3 and A4 address bits by means of address decoder 57. Referring to FIG. 3b, 9514 programmable logic unit 19 is shown in detail. PLC unit 19 is comprised of a modified TMS9900 microprocessor, the TMS9514, also manufactured and sold as a standard product by Texas Instruments Incorporated, assignor of the present invention. The TMS 9514 is structurally identical to the 9900 with the exception that the control program stored in the control ROM of the microprocessor controls the microprocessor to operate in the manner henceforth to be described in detail herein. The input/output terminals of microprocessor 9514 are as set forth in Table I. Referring to FIG. 3b then, microprocessor 9514 is illustrated. The prioritized interrupts are not utilized and are hence not shown. Programmable logic control unit 19 basically operates in a continuous scan mode, scanning through the instruction set provided by the user and controlling the controlled process through image register unit 17 and hence I/O unit 22. Microprocessor 9514 has access to central memory unit 20 via data bus CMUD00-CMUD15. At least some of central memory is commonly accessible by CPU 18 and PLC unit 19 thereby providing one communication link between the two microprocessors. Central memory unit 20 is addressed via address bus CMUA02-CMUA14 coupled to the address terminals A0-A14 of microprocessor 9514. Memory requests are made via the PMEMEN memory enable flag signal. PDBIN flag controls the data-bus-in and read/write control of central memory unit 20. When central memory unit 20 is ready to read or write data from microprocessor 9514 the PREADY flag is set to indicate this to the READY terminal of microprocessor 9514 thereby enabling the memory transfer. A PHOLD flag from output data selector 52 of CPU 18 indicates that microprocessor 9900 has control of central memory unit 20 and the Image Register 17. When microprocessor unit 9514 has control of memory, this is indicated by the PHOLDA flag signal provided to microprocessor 9900 via input data selector 49. Serial data IROUT from image register unit 17 and bit flags are provided to the CRUIN terminal of microprocessor 9514 by multiplexer 32a. Multiplexer 32a is controlled by the decoding of several bits of the instructions transferred to microprocessor 9514 via data bus CMUD00-CMUD15. The decoding is performed by partial instruction decoder logic 40. Image register data IROUT is input to the CRUIN terminal of microprocessor 9514 via exclusive OR gate 31 and multiplexer 32a one bit at a time. A 100 millisecond pulse provided by timer 43 to timer logic 30 provides an OKTOTM bit flag to CRUIN input selected by multiplexer 32a. The OKTOTM flag indicates to microprocessor 9514 that a 100 millisecond time delay HMSC has expired. In addition, flip flop 33 is set at the end of each scan providing an end-of-scan flag signal EOS which is also selectively input to the CRUIN terminal of microprocessor 9514 via multiplexer 32a. An OK-to-scan flag signal OKTOSCN applied by microprocessor 9900 to the clear input of flip flop 33 indicates to microprocessor 9514 that it can begin rescanning the user process control instruction set. The end of scan flag signal EOS is also applied to image register unit 17 to indicate to image register unit 17 that EOS data may be transferred between image register unit 17 and IO unit 22. The end-of-scan flag signal is derived from the CRUCLK terminal of microprocessor 9514 via NOR gate 42. The output from the CRUCLK terminal is demultiplexed in accordance with a decoding of selected bits of the instruction on data bus CMUD00-CMUD15 thereby transfering the CRUCLK clocked output to end-of-scan flip flop 33 as discussed above, providing an image register access request flag IR9514ST to image register unit 17, or providing a special function request flag in flip flop 34 to indicate to microprocessor 9900 that the 9514 is requesting the 9900 to perform a special function subroutine for it. Basically, a special function is one which, because of the limited programming available in the on-chip control ROM of the 9514 microprocessor, is executed by the 9900 microprocessor which has access to complex arithmetic and statistical subroutines stored in the ROM (or RAM) of UART/PMEM unit 16. Special functions will be described in detail in a later section of this application. When microprocessor 9900 has completed queuing-up of the special function requested by microprocessor 9514, microprocessor 9900 provides a PLOADST interrupt signal to the LOAD unprioritized interrupt terminal of microprocessor 9514 via flip flop 36. A PLOADST interrupt signal also resets special function request flip flop 34 via AND gate 35. As discussed above, serial data IROUT is transferred from image register unit 17 to microprocessor 9514 via exclusive OR gate 31 and multiplexer 32a. When instruction decoder 40 indicates that serial data is to be received from instruction register unit 17, multiplexer 32a is controlled to allow the bits received to be input to the CRUIN terminal of microprocessors 9514. Serial data is output from microprocessor 9514 via the CRUOUT output terminal thereof. The transfer of output data PRIDOT to image register unit 17 is controlled by AND gate 37 and NAND gate 38 in accordance with a partial address decode by NOR gate 39 and decoder 40. The output as well as the input data is transferred one bit at a time to or from image register unit 17 in accordance with the bit location address PA03-PA14 provided at address terminals A03-A14 of microprocessor 9514. Also included in the PLC unit 19 is parity logic circuit 41 which checks the parity of data transferred via data bus CMUD00-CMUD15. The parity check is enabled by the CMUPEEN flag from output data selector 52 of CPU 18 and the parity bit CMUPE is provided to CPU 18 via input data selector 49. Image register unit 17 is next described in detail with reference to 3c. It is of an advantage for a programmable logic controller to have all inputs latched up for some period of time so that an input may not change in this period of time. This is the basic function of image register 73 operating in conjunction with I/O module 12. Such function is described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,953,834 referenced above. Imager register 73 is broken up into three distinct areas: the first is a 256 bit segment used for all 256 allowable inputs; the second is a 512 bit segment assigned to the control flags (CR's); and, the last 256 bit segment is provided for control of all 256 allowable outputs. These three areas fit into a 1k×1 random access memory (RAM), or, as will later be discussed with respect to the special function feature, 1024 bits of a 4k memory. The random access memory comprising image register 73 is addressed by a CPU address MA05-MA14 or a PLC unit address PA05-PA14 depending upon the outputs of AND gates 65a and 65b which are responsive to flag signals 9514 RESET, SOP, PHOLDA, OKTOIO and EOS provided by CPU 18 and PLC unit 19. PLC unit 19 may ordinarily access Image register 73 unless placed in a hold condition by PHOLD from CPU 18. PLC unit 19 acknowledges the PHOLD flag signal by providing the PHOLDA flag signal which allows CPU 18 to access image register 73. Image register unit 17, which is external to PLC unit 19, is the source and destination of most all 9514 microprocessor communications register I/O operations. The 1024 bit page used for storing the input, output and CR flag bits, or the 3072 bits utilized for the special function, are selected by data selector 67a and 67b via OR gate 69a and 69b from flag signals provided by PCU 18 (IRPAGE1, IRPAGE0) and from PLC19 (PA03, PA04). Data selectors 67a and 67b are controlled by IRASB and the image register decrement signal PSIRDCD from microprocessor 9514. Image register 73 is controlled to read or write data according to the read/write control signal IR9514ST or IR9900W/R applied by PLC unit 19 or CPU 18, respectively to the read/write control terminal W of image register 73 via AND gate 71. At the end of each scan of PLC unit 19, if it is okay to input/output (OK to I/O) according to the output of AND gates 65a and 65b, data is transferred in serial fashion between image register 17 and the communications register comprising I/O unit 22. The data is clocked by I/O clock 68 when the IOLATCH flag is set by AND gate 65b via NOT gate 70. The data is transferred from the Q terminal of random access image register memory 73 via NOT gate 74 and NOR gate 75 (OTDAIN). INDATA is transferred from I/O unit 22 to image register unit 17 via multiplexer 66 to the D data terminal of random access image register memory 73. When image register 17 is not in a I/O mode, data is transferred into image register 73 from CPU 18 (CRUOUT) or from PLC unit 19 (PIRDOT) via multiplexer 66, as selected by AND gates 65a and 65b, to the D data terminal of image register 73. Data is output from image register 73 from the Q terminal (IROUT) to PLC unit 19 and CPU 18 which both have access to data on the IROUT line. In addition, image register unit 17 includes magnitude comparator 64 which compares the ten bit address from PLC 19 PA05-PA14 and ten bits of data on data bus CMUD03-CMUD14 which is stored in register 63. Magnitude comparator 64 generates a PFLO flag signal when the magnitudes are equal. Referring to FIG. 3d, central memory unit 20 is illustrated in detail. Central memory unit 20 is comprised of integrated circuit random access memories which are organized to provide four pages 61a-61d, selectable in accordance with address bits CMUA02-CMUA06 by CMU control unit 60. The selected page is addressable by CMUA05-CMUA14 address bits to input or output a 16 bit word on data bus CMUD00-CMUD15 available to both CPU 18 and PLC unit 19. Access request to central memory unit 20 by CPU 18 is made by CPU 18 setting the request flag bit CMU99RQST and by PLC unit 19 is made by PLC 19 setting the request flag bit PMEMEN. CPU 18 controls memory operations as read or write operations by setting the DBIN data-bus-in flag bit and PLC unit 19 controls memory operations as read or write operations by setting the PDBIN flag bit. DBIN and PDBIN are gated by CPU control circuit 60 to provide a read/write control signal CMUW/R to the write enable terminals W of random access memories 61a-61d. As previously discussed, AIM unit 21 is addressed as an extension of central memory unit 20. Accordingly, AIM unit 21 is addressed if an address on address bus CMUA02-CMUA14 is one of the addresses dedicated to a socket location of AIM unit 21. Data is read into or out of AIM unit 21 via data bus AIMD00-AIMD15. In such instance, CMU control unit 60 provides an AIMDBIN and AIMWE read/write enable control signals which control AIM unit 21 as will later be discussed in detail. CMU control unit 60 contains a priority circuit which will next be discussed in detail with respect to FIG. 4. The priority circuit receives the requests CUM99RQST and PMEMEN from CPU 18 and PLC unit 19, respectively, and resolves all simultaneous or phased accesses of units 18 and 19 to central memory unit 20. CPU 18 is given access to central memory by CMU control unit 60 providing a CMUREADY flag signal to the READY input of microprocessor 9900 via memory I/O logic control 47 and an address bus enable signal CMU99AEN to the address bus from CPU 18. PLC unit 19 is given access to central memory for data transfer when CMU control unit 60 provides a PREADY flag signal to the READY input of microprocessor 9514 and an address bus enable signal CMU95AEN to the address bus from PLC unit 19. Referring then to FIG. 4, the page selection circuit and priority circuit of CMU control unit 60 is next described in detail. Address decoder 85 receives address bits CMUA02-CMUA07 from either CPU 18 or PLC unit 19 according to the enable signals CMU99AEN and CMU95AEN. In accordance with these address bits, address decoder 85 selects one of four pages 61a-61d of memory 20 or one of two pages of AIM unit 21 by providing selection signals MSEL, KSEL, PLCOSEL, PLC1SEL, AIMR0SEL or AIMR1SEL. If either of the AIM unit selection signals SIMR0SEL or AIMR1SEL are present, as detected by NAND gate 98, AIMDBIN and AIMWE read/write enable signals are generated along with AIM data bus control signals from NOR gate 99 and OR gate 100 and AIM address bus control signals from NAND gate 98. Memory Access requests from PLC unit 19 (PMEMEN) are stored in flip flop 80 and memory access requests from CPU 18 (CMU99RQST) are stored in flip flop 82. In the present embodiment, memory requests by PLC unit 19 are always given priority over simultaneous or later received requests from CPU 18. If memory unit 20 is not already engaged in a memory request, a memory request by either CPU 19 or PLC unit 19 provides a logic 1 output from NAND gate 81 which is stored in busy flip flop 103 indicating that the memory is busy. The output of flip flop 103 causes either CMU95AEN or CMU99AEN address bus enable signals to be output from NAND gate 87 or 89, respectively, thereby enabling the respective address bus from PLC unit 19 or CPU 18. If a memory request is received from PLC unit 19, NAND gate 86 provides ready flag signal PREADY to PLC unit 19 as indicated in Example I of Table II below. TABLE II__________________________________________________________________________ EXAMPLE I EXAMPLE II EXAMPLE III t0 t1 t0 t1 t0 t1__________________________________________________________________________ ##STR1## active(0) active(0) inactive(1) inactive(1) active(0) active(0) ##STR2## inactive(1) inactive(1) active(0) active(0) active(0) active(0)PREADY active(1) inactive(0) active(1) ##STR3## inactive(1) active(0) inactive(1) ##STR4## inactive(0) active(1) inactive(0) ##STR5## active(0) inactive(1) active(0) ##STR6## inactive(1) active(0) inactive(1)__________________________________________________________________________ When PMEMEN and CMU99RQST are both inactive, CMUREADY remains active. As indicated in Example II of Table II, if the memory request is from CPU 18, NAND gate 88 provides an active ready flag signal CMUREADY to CPU 18, so long as a PLC unit request is not pending (as indicated by the 9514RPMENEN output of flip flop 80). Simultaneous memory requests by both PLC unit 19 and CPU 18 are, as controlled by the logic circuit of the present embodiment, always decided in favor giving access to PLC unit 19 as indicated in Example III of Table II. This occurs because the output of flip flop 80 and the PMEMEN signal cause NAND gate 86 to provide an active PREADY signal, while causing the CMUREADY output of NAND gate 88 to be inactive. In addition to the address bus enable signals CMU95AEN and CMU99AEN, CMU control unit 60 provides enable signals for the respective data buses. Flip flop 83 stores a data-bus-in flag signal DBIN from CPU 18. These flag signals indicate to control unit 60 whether the memory operation is a read or write. When the PLC unit 19 address bus is enabled, as indicated by an active CMU95AEN enable signal provided by NAND gate 87, a 9514 data bus write-enable-signal is provided by OR gate 90 or a 9514 data bus read-enable-signal is provided by NOR gate 91, depending upon the state of flip flop 83. When the CPU 18 address bus is enabled, as indicated by an active CMU99AEN enable signal provided by NAND gate 89, a 9900 data bus write-enable-signal is provided by OR gate 96 or a 9900 data bus read-enable-signal is provided by OR gate 97, depending upon the state of flip flop 84. If the request is a request for access to AIM unit 21, AND gates 92-95 and OR gates 101 and 102 provide AIM control signals AIMDBIN and AIMWE, as previously discussed, in accordance with the states of flip flops 83 and 84. As described above, CMU control unit 60 resolves simultaneous memory requests in favor of PLC unit 19. It is contemplated that in another embodiment of the system, simultaneous memory requests may be resolved in favor of CPU 18. This is accomplished utilizing the same circuit by reversing the PMEMEN and CMU99RQST request input flags to the circuit of FIG. 4 and reversing the respective output control signals PREADY and CMUREADY as well as the respective data and address bus enable signals. As previously discussed, UART/PMEM unit 16 provides read only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM) and universal asynchronous data interfaces (ACIA) for CPU 18. UART/PEM unit 16 will next be described in detail with respect to FIG. 3e. Referring then to FIG. 3e, UART/PEM unit 16 is coupled to CPU 18 by data bus MB00-MB15 and address bus MA00-MA14. Address bits MA00-MA04 are received by ACIA and RAM control logic 77a and address bits MA00-MA03 are reached by ROM control logic 77b. ACIA and RAM control logic 77a also receives control flags, WAIT, MEMEN and DBIN from CPU 18 and ROM control logic 77b receives control flag MEMEN from CPU 18. The address bits MA00-MA04 are utilized by control logic 77a to select RAM 72 (PRAMEN) or one of the asychronous data interface circuits 78a or 78b (ACIAEN and ACIASEL); aternatively, the address bits MA00-MA03 are used by control logic 77b to select one of six ROM pages 79a-79f. The BWE read/write control signal provided by CPU 18 controls whether the access to RAM 72 is a read or write operation and DBIN control is input/output control of circuits 78a and 78b. Data is input and output from RAM 72 as 8 bit words transferred to CPU 18 over data bus MB08-MB15. Asychronous serial data is input to or output from universal asychronous serial data interface circuits 78a and 78b. Eight bits of parallel data is transferred over bus MB08-MB15 between CPU 18 and interface circuits 78a and 78b. Circuits 78a and 78b are clocked by flip flop 77e controlled by phase PH3 of the clock signal. Data and instructions are read from the addressed ROM as 16 bit words which are transferred to CPU 18 over data bus MB0-MB15. CPU 18 and PLC 19 are controlled by a four phase clock PH1-PH4 generated by the clock circuit illustrated in FIG. 3f. Selective of the phases PH1-PH4 are also utilized for controlling image resister unit 17, central memory unit 20 and UART/PMEM unit 16 which comprise sequencer module 10. In addition, clocking signals are available to AIM I/O system 11, I/O module 12, and other modules which are connectable to sequencer module 10 for synchronization of these units with sequencer module 10. Referring to FIG. 3f, the four phase clock generator is comprised of a count-to-four counter 76 which receives clocking signal f of selected frequency and divides it into the four phases PH1-PH4. Referring to FIG. 5, a logic diagram of input output module 12 is illustrated. The details of I/O module 12 are shown and described in the above referenced U.S. Pat. No. 3,953,834. Basically, input bits from various sensors located along the process being controlled are received as on-off signals by high voltage switching devices 151 to provide input bits 1-N which are transferred in parallel to shift register 150. Output data bits 1-N are provided in parallel by shift register 150 to a series of high voltage switching devices 151 for controlling the various controller devices located along the process being controlled. In addition, shift register 150, acts as a communication register to provide single bit control flags (CR's). All of these bits, 256 allowable input bits, 256 allowable output bits and 512 communication register control flags are transferred from image register unit 17 (OTDAIN) and transferred from shift register 150 to image register unit 17 (INDATA) in serial fashion as controlled by the IOCLOCK clock during an input/output cycle. In normal operation, PLC 19 unit is utilized to provide the 1- N output bits and is the recipiant of the 1-N input bits, while both PLC unit 19 and CPU 18 provide and utilize the communication register control flags CR's via image register unit 17. PLC unit 19 and CPU unit 18 also both have access to AIM unit 21. AIM unit 21 will next be described in detail with respect to FIG. 6a-6e. As previously discussed AIM unit 21 is addressed as an extension of central memory unit 20. Referring to FIG. 6a, if AIM unit 20 is accessed, as indicated by AIMDBIN and AIMWE, address bits AIMA07-AIMA09 are decoded by selector circuit 106 to select one of eight plug-in-sockets 105a-105h respectively selected by output signals MODSEL0-MODSEL7. Each of sockets 105a-105h is connected to a common address bus AIMA10-AIMA14 and a common data bus AIMD00-AIMD15. Into each of these sockets may be plugged any combinaion of a parallel digital data output module, a parallel digital data input module, an analog input module or an analog output module. The parallel output module is illustrated in detail in FIG. 6b. Basically, the parallel output module is comprised of 16 bit data register 107 which is controlled by an active AIMWE enable signal in conjunction with selection of the socket MODSEL by one of the eight module selection signals MODSEL0-MODSEL7. The active write enable signal AIMWE causes 16 bits of data contained on the AIM data bus AIMD00-AIMD15 to be stored in 16 bit data register 107. The data stored in data register 107 are provided as 16 parallel data bits D00-D15 at the Q output of data register 107. A parallel input module is illustrated in detail in FIG. 6c. Basically, the parallel input module is controlled by an active AIMDBIN enable signal in combination with selection of the socket into which the parallel input module is plugged by the respective selection signal MODSEL0-MODSEL7. When enabled, the parallel input module stores 16 parallel input bits D00-D15 in 16 bit data register 108 and provides these 16 bits at the Q output of data register 108 to be read on AIM data bus AIMD00-AIMD15. Each analog input module, as illustrated in 6d, has four channels Channel 0-Channel 3 each of which receive a variable analog voltage. Analog input selector 114 selects each channel, in turn, and converts it to a 12 bit digital number which is stored in a respective 12 word register of four word by 12 bit register file 116. The digital signals from the four channels may then be read out over AIM data bus AIMD01-AIMD12 as controlled by an active AIMDBIN enable signal in conjunction with selection of the plug in module by the respective selection signal MODSEL0-MODSEL7. In reading data from file 116, channel selection is provided by AIM address bits AIMA13 and AIMA14. The analog output modules are as illustrated in FIG. 6e. The analog output modules provide four variable analog voltage output channels, Channel 0-Channel 3. Ten bits of digital data corresponding to each of these channels is stored in a respective word of a four word by 10 bit register file 109. The ten bits are read in over AIM data bus AIMD01-AIMD10 and stored in the register word selected by AIM address bits AIMA13 and AIMA14 when the module enabled by an AIMWE enable signal in conjunction with selection of the module by the respective selection signal MODSEL0-MODSEL7 from selector 106 via NAND gate 113. The four words of register file 109, corresponding to the four channels Channel 0-Channel 3, are read out in sequence as controlled by clock selector 110 and stored in a respective 10 digit data register 111a-111d. The ten bit digital words stored in registers 111a-111b are then separately converted by digital to analog converters 112a-112d, respectively, into analog voltages Channel 0-Channel 3. As previously mentioned, the user process control program is stored in central memory unit 20. In the present embodiment, central memory unit 20 is organized as 4096 words of 16 bits. Referring again to FIG. 3d, each 1024 word page 61a-61d of memory unit 20 is dedicated to a specific use. The first M area or page provides 1024 words of RAM for use by both microprocessor the second K area can be either 1024 words of RAM or ROM memory, for use by both microprocessors, the third PLC0 area, which can be either 1024 words of RAM or ROM is dedicated to user program storage and the PLC1 area, which can also be either 1024 words of RAM or ROM is dedicated to user program storage. These memory areas are selected by the page select signals KSEL, MSEL, PLC0SEL, and PLC1SEL, respectively. In addition to the 2048 words of PLC user program area in central memory unit 20, an additional 2048 words of expansion memory may be added to the basic system. The expansion memory may either be RAM or ROM memory which is plugged into memory expansion board socket 187 illustrated in FIG. 7. The expansion memory, which comprises two 1024-word pages, are selected by the the EXPLC0SEL and EXPLC1SEL page selection signals. In accordance with a unique feature of the present system, the presence or absence of the expansion memory board in socket 187 is detected by the 2K/4K line connected to socket 186. Referring again to FIG. 3b, when the state of the 2K/4K indicates that only 2K of memory is present (socket 187 unused) and address bits A2 and A3 indicate that the addressed PLC program word exceeds the 2048 dedicated user program words contained in central memory unit 20, an end of scan EOS signal is generated by AND logic circuit 186. AND logic circuit 186 may be comprised of an AND gate, a plurality of logic gates providing an AND function or a selector circuit which selects the 2K/4K signal to provide the end of scan signal EOS whenever it is indicated by the A2/A3 address bits. In this manner, whenever a memory expansion board is absent from socket 187, an end of scan signal is automatically generated after the 2048 step of the user program. With a memory expansion board plugged into socket 187, the scanning process may proceed through 4096 steps of a user program. As previously discussed, microprocessor 9514 comprising PLC unit 19 of FIG. 3b is basically a 9900-type microprocessor which has had the control program stored in its internal control ROM modified to cause the microprocessor to function as a programmable logic controller rather than a general purpose microprocessor. The operation of microprocessor 9514 and PLC unit 19 will next be described in detail. PLC unit 19 is a boolean processor that performs most of its operations and makes most of its decisions on a central bit designated the "power flow bit" PF. Power flow bit PF is analagous to the accumulator that provides the central register of a multibit processor. Any output of the programmable logic controller is from the PF, any input goes to the PF and all logic operations involve the PF. A push down stack (PDS) is utilized to save previous values of PF when, for example, a series of functions are performed during a boolean operation. Push down stacks are described in detail in above referenced U.S. Pat. No. 3,953,834. The PF and push down stack are implemented by microprocessor 9514 in its internal RAM. As previously discussed with respect to FIG. 3c, instruction register 72 comprising instruction register unit 17 is the source/destination of most all communications register CRU operations of microprocessor 9514. Also as previously discussed, the instruction register is divided into four segments or fields which, for the purpose of discussing user program instructions, are designated as follows: "X" 256 input bits, "CR" and "CRL" each 256 communication register bit flags and "Y" 256 output bits. Microprocessor 9514 responds to four distinct classes of highly specialized user program instructions, and nearly all involve PF in some manner. The first class is of a type which involves PF and the instruction register IR. AND, OR, OUT, and STR fall into this first class. The second class involves PF and PDS1 is the top bit in the push down stack next to the PF bit). OR STR, OR STR NOT, AND STR, and AND STR NOT comprise this class. In executing each instruction of the second class, PDS1 is destroyed (stack popped) and PF takes on the defined logic result. The third class is comprised of two instructions that modify the output instructions. MCR (master control relay) and JMP (jump over output) are these two instructions. The fourth class involves word operations these include timer, counter, add, subtract, move, compare arithmetically, SF and end of scan. The modified control ROM program of microprocessor 9514 redefines the internal RAM of microprocessor 9514 such that T1 is a temporary register, PF and PDS are assigned to one of the 15-bit internal RAM words and the "number of successive outputs to be modified" is assigned to another 15-bit internal RAM word. The operations of microprocessor 9514 are described in detail in Table III below. TABLE III__________________________________________________________________________TMS 9514 INSTRUCTION SET16-BIT INSTRUCTION CODE MNEUMONIC OPERATION__________________________________________________________________________0010 11YY XXXX XXXX STR Stores contents of PF register in PDS.sub.1 (first bit of the push down stack) PDS "pushes" down one bit. An addressed operand bit in the image register IR (YY XXXX XXXX defines the image register address) is trans- ferred to the PF register.0011 00YY XXXX XXXX STR NOT Stores contents of PF register in PDS.sub.1 as PDS "pushes" down one bit. The complement of the ad- dressed operand bit from the image register is transferred to the PF register.0100 00YY XXXX XXXX OR The operand bit addressed in the image register is logically "ORed" with the contents of the PF regis- ter and the resultant bit replaces the PF register contents.0101 00YY XXXX XXXX OR NOT The operand bit addressed in the image register IR is inverted and then logi- cally "ORed" with the con- tents of the PF register. The resultant bit replaces The PF register contents.0010 10YY XXXX XXXX AND The operand bit addressed in the IR is logically "ANDed" with the contents of the PF register and the resultant bit replaces the PF register contents.0001 01YY XXXX XXXX OUT If neither a JMP or MCR is active, the contents of the PF register is placed into the addressed bit location of the IR. The PF register remains unchanged. If a JMP is active, nothing is done to the selected out- put, but the count of successive outputs to be jumped over is decremented. PF in the PDS remains un- changed; however, PF that is presented to the PF Indicator takes on the state of the output bit that was addressed in the IR. If an MCR is active, the IR bit addressed by the modifier is set to zero; then, the count of successive output instruc- tions requiring an MCR operation is decremented. PF in the PDS remains un- changed, but PF as presen- ted to the PF indicator is always 0. JMP and MCR are mutually exclusive within the range of the modifier; that is, they may never be active simultaneously. A JMP or MCR requested within the range of a previous JMP or MCR is treated as a NOP.0011 10YY XXXX XXXX OUT NOT The compliment of PF is placed into the addressed bit location of the image register. The PF register remains unchanged. If JMP or MCR is active, see above. MCR on OUT NOT does not place a "1" in the IR.0000 0010 0010 0000 OR STR Logically OR the contents of the PF register with the contents of PDS.sub.1 and the PDS is "popped" up one bit. The resultant bit replaces the contents of the PF register.0000 0010 0110 0000 AND STR The contents of the PF register is logically "ANDed" with the contents of PDS.sub.1 and the PDS is "popped" up on bit. The resultant bit replaces the contents of the PF register.0000 0010 1100 0000 EOSu Execute "End of Scan". The PC, PDS, JMCR and SCCE re- gisters are set to zero. The 9514 is held in RESET until the I/O cycle is com- plete and/or the 9900 allows the 9514 to restart scan.1000 00XX XXXX XXXX JMP If PF=0 and neither a JMP nor MCR is presently active, put 10-bit modifier (XX XXXX XXXX) in JMCR counter (# of successive outputs to be skipped) and set the JMP ACTIVE flag (SCCE=1); other- wise, JMP functions as NOP. In all cases, PF and PDS are left undisturbed.0010 00XX XXXX XXXX MCR IF PF+0 and neither a JMP nor MCR is presently active, the 10-bit modifier is placed in the JMCR counter (# of successive outputs to be zeroed) and set the MCR flag (SCCE=0); otherwise, MCR functions as NOP. In all cases, PF and the PDS are left undisturbed.0000 0011 1010 0000 TMR The timer is a 3-word instruction that is a func- tion of PF, PDS.sub.1 and OK to time. PRESET word is static CURRENT word counts down from PRESET word. PF is the reset which, when zero, forces the CURRENT word to the PRESET value. PDS.sub.1 is the event to be timed. Time is accumulated when PDS.sub.1 =1. The OK to time register indicates when 100 mS has been accumulated, at which point the current word may be decremented. PF is set to one when the CURRENT word equals zero. The present system accumulates approximately 54 minutes. Maximum for one timer.0000 0011 1000 0000 CTR The counter instruction is2nd Word: PRESET Word Address a function of three varia-3rd Word: CURRENT Word Address bles: PF, PDS.sub.1 and PDS.sub.2. PF is the reset variable; i.e., when PF=0, the cur- rent word is set to zero. If PF=1, the CTR will in- crement the current word if the event to be counted has occurred since the last scan. The event represents the closure of a switch or re- lay, or a 0 to 1 transition of the PDS.sub.1. Each time the 9514 encounters a CTR in- struction, the state of PDS.sub.1 is stored as a bit in the image register to be compared with PDS.sub.1 on the next scan. Thus, state transitions are detected. PF is set to 1 when the counter current word equals its preset value; otherwise, it is a zero.0000 0010 1110 0000 ADD If PF=1, perform the addi-2nd Word: ADDER Address tion and store the sum at3rd word: ADDEND Address the address given. The ADD4th word: SUM Address instruction handles signed integer numbers, and PF is set to zero if the intended sum is greater than +32,767 or less than -32,768. If PF=0, ADD is a NOP.0000 0011 0000 0000 SUB If PF=1, perform the sub-2nd Word: MINUEND Address traction and store the3rd Word: SUBTRAHEND Address difference at the address4th Word: DIFFERENCE Address given. The SUB instruction handles signed integer num- bers, and PF is set to zero if the intended difference is greater than +32,767 or less than -32,768. If PF=0, SUB is a NOP.0000 0010 1010 0000 MOC If PF=1, the contents at2nd Word: SOURCE Address the SOURCE address is dup-3rd Word: DESTINATION Address licated in the DESTINATION address; otherwise, MOV is a NOP. PF remains unchanged.0000 0011 0110 0000 CMP The compare instruction makes its comparison with two's complement subtract, and is divided into two types of compare depending on PF. If PF=0, an equality test is performed. PF takes on the value of the equality test; i.e., if A=B, PF=1. If PF=1, a ≦test is per- formed, and if A ≦B, PF=1; otherwise PF=00000 0011 0100 0000 SF The Special Function instruction is used to ex- pand the realm of the PLC instruction set. When an operation beyond the scope of the 9514 is required, the Special Function passes this request along to the 9900. The Special Function employs three bits to work asyn- chronously with the 9900. Two of these bits are stored externally and are accessi- ble to both the 9900 and the 9514. The Q bit indicates the status of the request within the 9900 task queue. The Busy bit (BZ) is used to determine when the operation is complete. The third bit is PFI used once again as the reset line to terminate the Special Function request. The 9514 has no direct means of setting or resetting the Q and BZ bits; this is han- dled by the 9900. The 9514 reads the bits to determine its proper course of action. When PFI=1 and the task is not queued up (Q=0), the 9514 interrupts the 9900 and goes into an idle mode. The 9900 must restart the 9514 after the request. If the task is queued up (Q=1), the 9514 tests the BZ bit. If BZ=1, the 9900 has not completed the request and PFO is set to zero. When BZ=0, the task is complete and PFO is set to 1. The reset path (PFI=0) always sets PFO=0. The Q bit is tested to see if action has yet been taken to remove the request from the task queue. If Q=1, the 9900 is interrupted to request that the task be dropped from the queue. IQ=0, no action is taken.0000 0010 1000 0000 EOSc If PF=1, End of Scan is executed according to the EOS.sub.u instruction. If PF=0, the instructions as a NOP.__________________________________________________________________________ Some examples of user control programs follow: (1) Sequential logic--Output Y1 of I/O module 10 is turned on when switches X1 and X2 are closed; remains on until switch connected to X5 is opened. Program STR X1 AND X2 OR Y1 AND NOT X5 OUT Y1 (2) Timers--X1 and X2 are closed; output Y5 turns on after a timed period which is determined by the value stored in memory location C33. Program STR X1 STR X2 TMR C33 V13 OUT Y5 (3) Math--After X10 closed, the value stored in location V13 is added to the value stored in location C3; the result is stored in V21. Program STR X10 V13 + C3 V21 OUT CR 30 As indicated above, the present intelligent programmable process control system is capable of executing special functions which are arithmetic or other complex subroutines beyond the capability of microprocessor 9514. When, during execution of a user control program, microprocessor 9514 of PLC unit 19 encounters a special function instruction, generally of the form SFi (where i is an integer which identifies the requested special instruction interrupt flag SOP indicating to CPU 18 that the special function should be queued-up and the appropriate subroutine executed by microprocessor 9900. Microprocessor 9514 then goes into an idle state. The subroutine is contained in the 9900 microprocessor ROM or RAM of UART/PMEM unit 16. The SOP interrupt flag signal to CPU 18 is prioritized; accordingly, the interrupt is not executed by microprocessor 9900 until microprocessor 9900 reaches a point in its processing at which the special function interrupt can be handled. When microprocessor 9900 accepts the special function interrupt, microprocessor 9900 determines the precise point in the user control program at which the 9514 microprocessor reached the special function instruction. This is determined by the contents of the 9514 micrprocessor's internal program counter which is provided as the 9514 microprocessor address output PA00-PA14. The PA00-PA14 address is compared to addresses in magnitude comparator 64 of image register unit 17 until the program counter address is deferred. Once the 9900 microprocessor has determined the address of the special function instruction which caused microprocessor 9514 to generate the SOP interrupt signals, the 9900 microprocessor determines what subroutine must be executed and queues-up such subroutine in its task queue. The ADDRESS, shown as the second word of the special function instruction, is a matter of communication between microprocessor 9900, microprocessor 9514 and R/W programmer 15. Two single bit flag registers are reserved in the 3072 bits of the special function pages of the 4K image register for each possible address at which a special function instruction may be encountered in the instruction sequence processed by PLC unit 19. These two bits are utilized for transmitting messages regarding the status of special function request and execution: (1) the Queue bit flag which is set by microprocessor 9900 to indicate that the 9900 microprocessor has received the requested special function interrupt and placed the special function subroutine in its task queue and (2) the BUSY bit flag which is set by microprocessor 9900 to indicate that it is "busy" and has not yet completed execution of the requested special function subroutine. Once microprocessor 9900 has queued-up the special function subroutine and set the QUEUE and BUSY flag bits in the image register, CPU 18 generates an interrupt signal PLOADST to the unprioritized LOAD interrupt input of microprocessor 9514 to restart microprocessor 9514. Microprocessor 9514 then continues in its sequential exection of the user control program from the point at which it left off, even though microprocessor 9900 has not yet completed execution of the special function subroutine. Each time the 9514 microprocessor encounters the same special function instruction in its instruction sequence if PF is active, it first checks the QUEUE bit flag to determine whether or not it has already, in a previous scan of the user control program, sent an interrupt signal requesting the special function be queued-up. If the QUEUE bit is "1", this indicates that the special function is already in the 9900 microprocessor queue while if the QUEUE bit is "0", this indicates that the special function is not in the 9900 microprocessor queue and an interrupt signal SOP must be sent to microprocessor 9900 to queue-up the special function. Once it is determined that the special function request is in the 9900 microprocessor queue (QUEUE="1") the 9514 microprocessor checks the BUSY flag bit to determine whether the 9900 microprocessor has completed execution of the requested special function subroutine. If the BUSY bit flag is set to "1", this indicates that the 9900 microprocessor has not completed execution of the requested special function subroutine; if the BUSY bit flag is set to "0", this indicates that execution of the requested special function subroutine is complete and the 9514 microprocessor may obtain the results of the computation or subroutine execution from the preselected memory locations of central memory unit 20. Microprocessor 9514 may terminate a previously requested special function. In order to accomplish this, the 9514 microprocessor first determines from the QUEUE bit flag that the special function instruction is in the 9900 microprocessor queue (QUEUE="1"). An SOP interrupt flag signal sent by microprocessor 9514 to microprocessor 9900 at this point (while QUEUE="1") terminates the special function request in the 9900 microprocessor and the QUEUE bit flag is reset accordingly. Some examples of a special function in user control programs are as follows: (1) BINARY TO BCD CONVERSION--After X20 closes, the special function #1 (Binary to BCD Conversion) is Queued up for execution. CR10 is energized upon completion; Program STR X20 SF1 X125 OUT CR10 (2) BINARY TO BCD CONVERSION--SF1 stored in location V125, converts the Binary Number stored in location V21 to BCD and energizes the BCD display connected to AIM unit 21 Module A01. Program CLR V125 SF1 V21 A01 CR511 Analog feedback control loops are implemented by execution of instructions in microprocessor 9900. The loop control equations are provided for the user in ROM 74a-74f of UART/PNEM unit 16 as preprogrammed subroutines. The user is required only to key in, via read write programmer 15, the parameters listed in TABLE IV, and enable the loop from the PLC logic control provided. The present system provides for controlling up to eight loops of the general form illustrated in FIG. 8. Control loops featuring proportional only, proportional plus integral, proportional plus integral plus derivative, proportional plus derivative, and ratio are provided. Control is implemented as integro-differential equations of the form ##EQU1## Since the 9900 microprocessor system is a digital processor, and calculates a new value of output (m) for a given loop only once each cycle (sampling period defined by parameter #14), it does not solve differential equations. Instead, the above differential equation is solved by a digital algorithm which is a difference equation. The corresponding difference equation is ##EQU2## The subscript η designates the present value of the indicated variable, while η-1 is its value at the time of the last previous sample. TABLE IV__________________________________________________________________________LOOP CONTROL PARAMETER ARRAYPARAMETER# PARAMETER__________________________________________________________________________1 LOOP ENABLE/DISABLE Used by PLC logic to enable or disable a given loop.2 LOOP TYPE IDENTIFIER Proportional (P), Proportional plus Reset (PE), Pro- portional plus Reset plus Deriva- tive (PID), Propor- tional plus Deriva- tive PD, or Ratio.3 PROPORTIONALITY BAND (%) A constant between 2 and 2000%. This is the P term in the integro- differential equa- tion.4 RESET TIME Reset time from 0.01 to 100 min. It is the R term in the equation of the integro- differential equa- tion.5 DERIVATIVE TIME Derivative time ranges from 0.01 to 1100 min. It is the D term in the integro-differential equation.6 ADDRESS OF INPUT Address of the location in memory where the process input variable is stored. Analog in- puts and outputs for the system are 4 to 20 ma. An in- put, for example, of 4 ma. would be converted by the A/D converter to a binary number. It is this number which is used in calculations, etc. The REP panel dis- plays in units of the process. A 4-ma input may represent 50 psi, where 20 ma repre- sents 250 psi. The REP panel will dis- play the numbers 50 and 250 as the sig- nal extremes.7 4 ma EQUIVALENT DEFINITION The user specifies INPUT the numbers for8 20 ma EQUIVALENT DEFINITION conversion to dis- play parameter in units of the pro- cess. The parameter may be displayed as a percentage by entering 0 for the 4-ma equivalent and 100 for the 20-ma equivalent.9 ADDRESS OF OUTPUT Address of the loca- tion in memory where the process output variable is stored.10 4-ma EQUIVALENT DEFINITION The user specifies OUTPUT the numbers for11 20-ma EQUIVALENT DEFINITION conversion to dis- play parameter in units of the pro- cess. The parameter may be displayed as a percentage by entering 0 for the 4-ma equivalent and 100 for the 20-ma equivalent.12 INTEGRAL RESIDUE STORAGE The basic loop con- trol equation in- volving reset (integral) function involves an infin- ite summation to solve the integral. It takes the form 1/R(e dt) where R is the reset time. The parameter e is the difference between process variable input (addressed by parameter #6) and the setpoint (parameter #13).13 SETPOINT The process set point.14 SAMPLING INTERVAL, COUNT DOWN The sampling inter- CELL val represents or controls Δt in the difference equation. It is in units of half seconds, and different update rates may be used for each loop, with no loop being up- dated more frequent- ly than every half second.15 HIGH/LOW RED CAUTION LIMITS Tell how far from the setpoint the16 HIGH/LOW ORANGE CAUTION LIMITS process variable input deviates be- fore panel lights give warning.17 GREEN BAND LIMITS This limit speci- fies a + and - band about the setpoint within which the process variable input minus the set- point can drift be- fore the orange or red caution warning light turns on.18 HIGH ALARM LIMIT (See #21)19 LOW ALARM LIMIT (See #21)20 INCREASE/DECREASE DIRECTION Depending on the SWITCH user process, the output variable needs to increase for increasing error term. In other processes, the output should decrease when the error increases. This parameter allows the user to specify increase- decrease for each loop.21 ADDRESS OF REFERENCE VARIABLE The high alarm FOR HIGH/LOW ALARM (parameter #18) and low alarm (para- meter #19) limits can be specified as separate values; and can be refer- enced to any memory location. The ref- erence could be specified as an in- put variable, out- put variable, or a constant in memory.22 OUTPUT BIAS Proportional only control follows the equation ##STR7## Where b is the bias term Hence this term is included to handle the case where a loop is called upon to act as a propor- tional only or PD controller.23 RATIO ADJUSTMENT COEFFICIENT This parameter is used only with RATIO control.24 ADDRESS OF RATIO "CONTROLLED" VARIABLE25 ADDRESS OF RATIO "CONTROLLING" VARIABLE26 PREVIOUS ERROR VALUE__________________________________________________________________________ The loops are set up and turned through the loop array. The user enters appropriate data into the loop array prior to enabling the loop. Proportionally only control (P) affects control through the equation: ##EQU3## The user selects PI control by selecting the loop type indentifier word for the desired loop on read write programmer panel 15 and depressing the PI key. Proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID) control is implemented using the equation: ##EQU4## Where P=proportionality band, e=difference between process variable and setpoint, D=Derivative time, P is parameter 3, R is parameter 4 D is parameter 5 dt is parameter 14 Placing the PID code into parameter #2 by the programmer causes the select loop to act as a PID controller. Proportional Plus Derivative (PD) control affects control via the equation: ##EQU5## where b is the proportional bias term. PD Mode control is selected through the programmer as in P, PI, and PID. With ratio control, the controlled variable is based on the ratio of two measured variables. One of these two variables, say X or Y, is the controlled variable, while the other is used to generate the set point. If X were the controlled variable, then the set point would be calculated as KY where K is an adjustable coefficient listed in the loop control parameter array (parameter #23). In this case, the difference between the set point and the "process variable" is e+KY-x and the final equation solved is M=(100/P) (Ky-x)+b Ratio control is set up through the read write programmer 15 in a manner similar to the other loop control modes. The system provides for automatic programmed control of up to eight loops. The user must indicate to the sequencer to perform as a proportional only loop and loop #3 to act as a full PID loop. The loop parameters in TABLE IV must be entered by the user via read write programmer panel 15 before he sets a loop into operation. Some parameters define the equation for the loop. Others relate to how the analog inputs and outputs will be handled. Still others specify limits of operation for the indicator lights. The user can, in his control program, enable or disable a given loop by using the MOV instruction to place a non-zero number into this location to enable the loop, and a zero to disable it. This gives the user the ability to conditionally enable or disable loops. For example: When X1 is closed, the first line moves a non-zero constant, stored in location M1, into location M2 (which is the enable disable word of this array), thus enabling the loop. In like manner, when X1 opens, the bottom line moves a zero value from location M3 into the enable/disable word, disabling the loop. Two loops can be cascaded by the system logic control. The user can specify, via parameter #6 (address of input) in the loop array, the output of one loop as the input of another loop. An example of 3 Mode Control is as follows: 3 Mode temperature control loop controls steam valve connected to AIM an analog output A0200. Temperature setpoint comes from thumbwheel switches connected to AIM parallel input module A0300. Temperature measurement comes from temperature transmitter connected to AIM analog input module A0100. R/W programmer is: ______________________________________Promptingmessage Program______________________________________ReadyLoop No. = Loop 1Sample Rate= 5Loop Flags→ YesLoop Flags: CR10PV ADR: A0L00SPADR: A0300Out ADR: A0200Gain (%%) = 3.2Reset (min)= 50Rate (Min)= 10High Alarm= 200End of Loop STR CR10 OUT Y10______________________________________ The system incorporating the novel features of the present invention have now been described in detail. Since it is apparent that these details may be modified without departing from the nature and spirit of the invention, the invention is not to be limited to said details except as set forth in appended claims.

An intelligent programmable process control system for controlling industrial processing and manufacturing equipment and the like utilizes a unique system of cooperating multiple microprocessors. A multi-bit microprocessor is utilized for controlling the analog portion of the processing equipment, and a single-bit microprocessor is utilized for sequencing. The control processor has overall supervisory control. An arbitration circuit for resolving simultaneous or phased access to memory by the two microprocessors is provided. In addition, a circuit is provided for accomplishing parallel I/O, again accessible by both microprocessors. In one embodiment, means for linking arithmetic functions and non-arithmetic (logic) functions within a boolean-type instruction set is provided.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] This invention relates to a connector for use with electric and electronic appliances such as factory automation appliances, office automation appliances, cellular or mobile phones, and the like, and more particularly to a contact for use in connectors which are superior in connection stability and reduced overall height of the connectors. [0002] In general, hitherto used contacts for connectors each have a contact portion adapted to contact a first connecting object, a fixed portion held in an insulator, and a connection portion to be connected to a second connecting object. The first connection object includes a mating connector, substrate, flexible printed circuit board, flexible flat cable, and the like. The second connecting object includes a substrate, flexible printed circuit board, flexible flat cable, and the like. [0003] As the contact portion adapted to contact the first connecting object is required to stably contact the connecting object, quite frequently, two contact portions are provided one on each side of the inserting direction of the first connecting object. In order to improve the connection stability, there are cases that the number of the contacts is further increased as disclosed in the following parent literatures. [0004] Six patent literatures are shown hereafter, which are Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2007-73,296 proposed by the applicant of the present case (Patent Literature 1), Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2002-270,290 (Patent Literature 2), Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2003-17,167 (Patent Literature 3), Japanese Patent Application No. 2008-72,701 proposed by the applicant of the present case (Patent Literature 4), Japanese Patent Application No. 2008-114,696 proposed by the applicant (Patent Literature 5), and Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2007-234,525 (Patent Literature 6). [0005] Patent Literature 1 [0006] According to the abstract of the Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2007-73,296 proposed by the applicant of the present case, the invention has an object to provide an electrical connector for a flexible printed circuit board, which enables contacts to be detachably fitted therein so that even if the contacts are failed, they can be easily replaced with new ones. Disclosed is an electrical connector including contacts 1 each having a junction 4 to be electrically connected to another substrate and a pair of contact portions 5 a and 5 b bifurcated and extending from the junction 4 to form a bearing space 10 therebetween; an array plate 2 for forming thereon a contact group by aligning a plurality of the contacts 1 in a particular direction (Y direction); and a cam shaft 3 positioned and rotatably held within the bearing spaces 10 of the contacts 1 aligned with one another on the array plate 2 to form a contact group and having a major axis portion 11 and a minor axis portion 12 different in size such that former is larger and the latter is smaller than the width W of the bearing spaces 10 so that the cam shaft 3 is axially insertable into and retractable from the bearing spaces 10 of the contacts 1 forming the contact group. [0007] Incidentally, claim 1 of the Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2007-73,296 recites an aligned contact group comprising contacts each including a junction to be electrically connected to another substrate and a pair of contact portions bifurcated and extending from said junction and each having at a tip at least one electric contact adapted to be electrically connected to an electrode formed on a surface of an inserted flexible substrate, and an array plate for forming thereon a contact group by substantially aligning a plurality of said contacts in a particular direction, and each of the contacts forming said contact group having a bearing space located between both the contact portions nearer to the junction than do the electric contacts, the bearing space for rotatably positioning and holding therein a cam shaft in the form of bar which is axially insertable into and retractable from the bearing space. Claim 2 recites the aligned contact group as claimed in claim 1 , wherein the cam shaft has a major axis portion and a minor axis portion different in size such that the former is larger and the latter is smaller than the width of said bearing spaces. Claim 3 recites the aligned contact group as claimed in claim 1 or 2 , wherein said contacts are made of an elastic conductive material, wherein when inserting the flexible substrate into spaces between both the contact portions of the contacts forming said contact group, said cam shaft is rotated within said bearing spaces and said major axis portion of the cam shaft is held in a position where said major axis portion is facing to both the contact portions so that both the contact portions of the contacts forming said contact group are spread by the action of the outer surfaces of the cam shaft so as to widen spacing between said electric contacts of both the contact portions to be wider than the thickness of said flexible substrate, thereby enabling the flexible substrate to be inserted between the electric contacts without requiring any insertion force, and wherein when electrically connecting electrodes of the inserted flexible substrate to the electric contacts of the contacts forming said contact group, said cam shaft is rotated within said bearing spaces to a position where the minor axis portion of said cam shaft is facing to both the contact portions so that both the contact portions of the contacts forming said contact group are elastically restored such that the spacing between the electric contacts of said contact portions becomes smaller than the thickness of said flexible substrate, thereby electrically connecting the electrodes of the flexible substrate and the electric contacts of said respective contacts. Claim 4 recites an electrical connector for the flexible substrate as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 3 , wherein said cam shaft is provided at one end with a detachable operating lever for rotating the cam shaft. Claim 5 recites an electrical connector for the flexible substrate as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 4 , wherein said contacts are each provided with a projection at the portion defining said bearing space for preventing the cam shaft from moving in longitudinal direction of said contact portion. Claim 6 recites an electrical connector for a flexible substrate comprising contacts each including a junction to be electrically connected to another substrate and a pair of contact portions bifurcated and extending from said junction and each having at a tip at least one electric contact adapted to be electrically connected to an electrode formed on a surface of the inserted flexible substrate, and said contacts each further including a bearing space located between these contact portions nearer to said junction than do said electric contacts, an array plate for forming thereon a contact group by substantially aligning a plurality of said contacts in a particular direction, and a cam shaft in the form of a bar rotatably positioned and held within said bearing spaces of said contacts aligned with one another on said array plate to form a contact group, and having a major axis portion and a minor axis portion different in size such that the former is larger and the latter is smaller than the width of said bearing spaces of both the contact portions, and said cam shaft being axially insertable into and retractable from said bearing spaces of said contacts forming said contact group. [0008] Patent Literature 2 [0009] According to the abstract of the Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2002-270,290, this invention has an object to provide a reduced overall height connector having an actuator which is actuated by a slight operating force and capable of enlarging moving distances of contacts to securely perform electrical connection. Disclosed is a connector comprising an actuator 30 having cam portions 31 and an actuating portion 33 , between both the portions being formed with relief grooves 32 into which proximities 14 a of tips of spring portions 14 of the contacts 10 are inserted and removed, so that when the actuator is rotated about its fulcrum 31 a through 90° in a clockwise direction, the cam portions cause the spring portions and connecting spring portions 13 of the respective contacts to be elastically deformed to embrace a flexible printed circuit board 50 between projections 11 a and 11 b of the contact portions 11 and projections 12 a and 12 b of the contact portions 12 , with the result that patterns of the flexible printed circuit board 50 are connected to a printed substrate 60 through terminals 17 of the respective contacts, and an insulator 20 having a ceiling portion 22 covering the contact portions 11 of the respective contacts and formed in the lower portion of the front side of the ceiling portion with a guide portion 22 a for inserting the flexible printed circuit board into the connector. [0010] Incidentally, claim 1 of the Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2002-270,290 recites a connector including contacts, an insulator holding said contacts, and an actuator rotatably mounted on said insulator and enabling said contacts to be elastically deformed to bring them into contact with a connecting object, wherein said contacts each comprise a first beam having on one side a contact portion adapted to contact said connecting object and on the other side an actuated portion to be actuated by said actuator, a second beam having on one side a contact portion adapted to contact said connecting object and on the other side a terminal portion to be connected to a printed substrate, and a jointing spring portion connecting said first and second beams, and wherein said insulator includes a ceiling portion for covering at least ones of the contact portions from the fitting side and said ceiling portion is formed with a guide portion for guiding the insertion of said connecting object. Claim 2 recites the connector as claimed in claim 1 , wherein at least ones of the contact portions are each provided with an inclined portion inclined toward said connecting object in the proximity of said jointing spring portion. Claim 3 recites the connector as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said actuator comprises an actuating portion, cam portions for actuating said actuated portions of said contacts, and relief grooves between said actuating portion and said cam portions so that said actuated portions can be inserted into said relief grooves before the connector is connected to said connecting object. Claim 4 recites a connector including contacts, an insulator holding said contacts, and an actuator rotatably mounted on said insulator and enabling said contacts to be elastically deformed to bring them into contact with a connecting object, wherein said contacts each comprise a first beam having on one side a contact portion adapted to contact said connecting object and on the other side an actuated portion to be actuated by said actuator, a second beam having on one side a contact portion adapted to contact said connecting object and on the other side a terminal portion to be connected to a printed substrate, and a jointing spring portion connecting said first and second beams, and wherein the contact portions of said first beams each include a first protrusion and a second protrusion arranged side by side one on each side of the inserting direction of said connecting object and extending toward said connecting object, and the contact portions of said second beams each include a third protrusion and a fourth protrusion arranged side by side one on each side of the inserting direction of said connecting object and extending toward said connecting object so that said third protrusion is positioned between said first protrusion and said second protrusion or said first protrusion is positioned between said third protrusion and said fourth protrusion with the result that said first and second protrusions or said third and fourth protrusions become in contact with said connecting object. [0011] Patent Literature 3 [0012] According to the abstract of the Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2003-17,167, this invention has an object to provide a connector having a pivotal actuator for a flexible printed circuit board or flexible flat cable, having pivotal movement operability and high contact pressure in a balanced manner. Discloses is a connector for a flexible printed circuit board or flexible flat cable, includes a plurality of contacts each having a contact leg adapted to contact the circuit board or flat cable and a stabilizer leg corresponding to the contact leg, said contacts consisting of a front group of contacts each having the contact leg on the front side and a rear group of contacts, and an actuator formed with spring receiving portions and insertion protrusions arranged alternately at every other positions corresponding to the respective stabilizer legs of the rear and front contacts, wherein the stabilizer legs of the rear group of contacts are formed as elastically deforming legs which engage the spring receiving portions of the actuator to be elastically deformed, and the stabilizer legs of the front group of contacts are formed as fixed legs so that when the actuator is pivotally moved into a locked position, its insertion protrusions are inserted between said stabilizer legs and the circuit board or flat cable so as to generate contact pressures between the circuit board or flat cable and the contact legs of both the groups of the contacts. [0013] Incidentally, claim 1 of the Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2003-17,167 recites a connector for a flexible printed circuit board or flexible flat cable, including an insulator having a plurality of contacts adapted to contact the circuit board or flat cable; and an actuator pivotally actuated between a locking position and an unlocking position relative to the insulator and in the locking position subjected to contact pressures of the elastically deformed contacts and the circuit board or flat cable, wherein said plurality of the contacts each comprise a contact leg adapted to contact the circuit board or flat cable and a stabilizer leg corresponding to the contact leg to form inserting grooves for the circuit board or flat cable, said plurality of contacts consisting of a first group of the contacts and a second group of the contacts arranged in parallel with each other, said first and second groups of the contacts being front group of the contacts and rear group of the contacts alternately aligned at every other position on front and rear sides with respect to the inserting direction of the circuit board, wherein said actuator comprises spring receiving portions and insertion protrusions formed alternately at every other positions corresponding to the respective stabilizer legs of the rear group of the contacts and of the front group of contacts, and wherein when the actuator is pivotally moved between the locking position and the unlocking position, the stabilizer legs of said rear group of the contacts engage said spring receiving portions of the actuator to be elastically deformed so that these stabilizer legs serve as elastically deforming legs, and when the actuator is pivotally moved into the locking position and the insertion protrusions of the actuator are inserted into between said stabilizer legs and the circuit board or flat cable, the stabilizer legs of said front group of the contacts are subjected to forces from the elastically deformed contact legs of both the groups of the contacts to cause contact forces with the circuit board or flat cable so that these stabilizer legs serve as fixed legs. Claim 2 recites the connector for a flexible printed circuit board or flexible flat cable, as claimed in claim 1 wherein the actuator has pushing projections for pushing the circuit board or flat cable when the actuator is pivotally moved from the pivoted end of unlocking toward the locking, and when the pushing projections push the circuit board or flat cable to cause it to be deformed toward the contact legs to the maximal extent, said spring receiving portions cause the elastically deforming legs of the rear group of the contacts to be elastically deformed to the maximal extent and cause the elastically deformed amounts to be reduced before and after the maximal deformation. Claim 3 recites the connector for a flexible printed circuit board or flexible flat cable as claimed in claim 2 , wherein the locking position of the actuator is a position where the actuator is substantially parallel to the insulator, and the pivoted end of the unlocking is a position where said actuator crosses over the position where the actuator is perpendicular to the insulator, while the maximal displacement of the elastically deforming legs of said rear group of the contacts occurs in a position where the actuator has been pivoted toward the locking position over the position where the actuator is perpendicular to the insulator to cause the actuator to produce a click pivoting force toward the locking position. Claim 4 recites the connector for a flexible printed circuit board or flexible flat cable as claimed in claim 1 , wherein the spring receiving portions of the actuator each comprise a cam portion which causes the actuator to generate a click pivoting force in the locking direction by causing the elastically deforming legs of the rear group of the contacts to be elastically deformed once to the maximal extent at a position where the actuator has been pivoted toward the locking position over the position where the actuator is perpendicular to the insulator when the actuator is pivotally moved from the pivoted end of unlocking into the locking direction, and thereafter by decreasing the elastically deformed amounts. [0014] Patent Literature 4 [0015] According to the abstract of the Japanese Patent Application No. 2008-72,701 previously proposed by the applicant of the present case, this invention has an object to provide contacts 20 enabling a stable connection without increasing fitting and inserting forces even if a great number of contacts are used. Disclosed is a contact 20 having contact portions 22 adapted to contact a first connecting object 50 and arranged facing to each other one on each side of the inserting direction of a first connecting object 50 , a fixed portion 24 held in an insulator 12 , and a connection portion 26 to be connected to a second connecting object 60 , the contact 20 comprising at least four independent elastic pieces 28 extending in at least one direction of the inserting direction of the first connecting object 50 and the opposite direction therefrom, and the elastic pieces 28 each provided at a predetermined position with at least one contact portion 22 arranged to embrace the first connecting object 50 by the contact portions 22 facing to each other of the elastic pieces 28 . [0016] Incidentally, claim 1 of the Patent Application No. 2008-72,701 recites a contact having contact portions adapted to contact a first connecting object and arranged facing to each other one on each side of the inserting direction of the first connecting object, a fixed portion to be held in an insulator, and a connection portion to be connected to a second connecting object, the contact comprising at least four independent elastic pieces extending in at least one direction of the inserting direction of said first connecting object and opposite direction therefrom, and said elastic pieces each provided at a predetermined position with at least one of said contact portions arranged to embrace said first connecting object by the contact portions facing to each other of the elastic pieces. Claim 2 recites the contact as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said elastic pieces are arranged symmetrically with respect to the inserting direction of said first connecting object or in the direction perpendicular to the inserting direction. Claim 3 recites the contact as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said elastic pieces are arranged asymmetrically with respect to the inserting direction of said first connecting object or in the direction perpendicular to the inserting direction. Claim 4 recites the contact as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 3 , wherein said elastic pieces are each provided at its tip with the contact portion adapted to contact said first connecting object. Claim 5 recites the contact as claimed in any one of claims 2 to 4 , wherein the two respective elastic pieces are arranged symmetrically with respect to the inserting direction of said first 30 connecting object, and said elastic pieces are each provided at its tip with the contact portion. Claim 6 recites the contact as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 5 , wherein the elastic length of said elastic pieces is 1.0 to 50. Claim 7 recites a connector having the contacts of claims 1 to 6 arranged and held in an insulator. [0017] Patent Literature 5 [0018] According to the abstract of the Patent Application No. 2008-114,696, this invention has an object to provide contacts 20 enabling a stable connection without increasing fitting and inserting forces, a reduced overall height and a miniaturization in the inserting direction of a connector even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector. Disclosed is a contact having at least one contact portion 22 adapted to contact a first connecting object, a fixed portion 34 to be held in an insulator 12 , and a connection portion 36 to be connected to a second connecting object, wherein the free end of the contact portion is extended to form an extension portion 44 which is folded back in the inserting direction of the first connecting object and further in the direction of the thickness of the first connecting object, and the folded extension portion 44 is provided with at least one new contact portion (second contact portion) 24 . [0019] Incidentally, claim 1 of the Japanese Patent Application No. 2008-114,696 recites a contact having at least one contact portion adapted to contact a first connecting object, a fixed portion to be held in an insulator, and a connection portion to be connected to a second connecting object, wherein the free end of said contact portion is extended to form an extension portion which is bent back in the inserting direction of said first connecting object and further in the direction of the thickness of the first connecting object, and the folded extension portion is provided with at least one new contact portion. Claim 2 recites the contact as claimed in claim 1 , wherein at least one contact portion is further provided at a position facing to said contact portion and said new contact portion. Claim 3 recites the contact as claimed in claim 2 , wherein the free end of the contact portion further provided at the position facing to said contact portion and said new contact portion is extended to form a second extension portion which is bent back in the inserting direction of said first connecting object and further in the direction of the thickness of the first connecting object, and the folded extension portion is also provided with at least one new contact portion. Claim 4 recites the contact as claimed in claim 3 , wherein said contact portion is named a first contact portion, and one new contact portion is provided as said at least one new contact portion, which is named a second contact portion, and said first contact portion and said second contact portion are arranged at the same distances from the folded portion, and wherein the contact portion further provided at the position facing to said contact portion and said new contact portion is named a third contact portion and the contact portion provided on said second extension portion is named a fourth contact portion, and said third contact portion and said fourth contact portion are arranged at the same distances or at different distances from the folded portion. Claim 5 recites the contact as claimed in claim 3 , wherein said contact portion is named a first contact portion, and one new contact portion is provided as said at least one new contact portion, which is named a second contact portion, and said first contact portion and said second contact portion are arranged at the different distances from the folded portion, and wherein the contact portion further provided at the position facing to said contact portion and said new contact portion is named a third contact portion and the contact portion provided on said second extension portion is named a fourth contact portion, and said third contact portion and said fourth contact portion are arranged at the same distances or at different distances from the folded portion. Claim 6 recites a connector having the contacts claimed in claims 1 to 5 arranged and held in an insulator. [0020] Patent Literature 6 [0021] According to the abstract of the Japanese Patent Application Opened No. 2007-234,525, this invention has an object to provide a connector for a circuit board connecting member, and to provide a multilayer printed circuit board and a method for producing a circuit board connecting structure, these enabling a printed circuit board to be securely and detachably connected to the circuit board connecting member and enabling an area and a volume required for connection to be minimal. A flexible circuit board connector 1 comprises a housing 11 made of a molded resin in the form of a U-shape and having an opening 11 a, and contact pins 6 arranged at predetermined intervals in the opening 11 a of the housing 11 . The contact pins 6 are formed from an elastic metal so as to have a bent portion. The housing 11 comprises engaging portions 11 b in the proximities of both inner ends in the opening 11 a, the engaging portions 11 b being formed to be elastically deformable and each having a recess, and loading portions 11 c on both outer sides of the engaging portions 11 b. There is a predetermined space between the engaging portion 11 b and the loading portion 11 c so that the engaging portion 11 b can be elastically deformed by a given amount toward the loading portion 11 c. [0022] Incidentally, claim 1 of the Patent Application Opened No. 2007-234,525 recites a connector for a circuit board connecting member, the connector to be connected to the circuit board connecting member inserted from the outside into a multilayer printed circuit board through an opening and the connector being arranged in inner layers of the multilayer printed circuit board communicating with the outside through the opening, said connector comprising a housing having a connector opening for inserting said circuit board connecting member and having in said connector opening a plurality of connecting pins at predetermined intervals to be connected to the inner layers of said multilayer printed circuit board, and engaging members positioned in said connector opening and adapted to engage and fix said circuit board connecting member in a state that connecting terminals of said circuit board connecting member are connected to said connecting pins, and said housing comprising loading portions to be embraced between the inner layers of said multilayer printed circuit board. Claim 2 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said housing comprises an exposing opening formed so as to communicate with said connector opening and so as to expose inner layers of said multilayer printed circuit board positioned on the other side of said inner layers to be connected to said respective connecting pins. Claim 3 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said connector comprises said two engaging members positioned on both sides of receiving portions for said connecting pins in said connector opening and having recesses or protrusions adapted to engage engaged portions formed on said circuit board connecting member so that said two engaging members engage said engaged portions from the both sides of said circuit board connecting member, and said respective engaging members are elastically deformable outwardly of both sides of said circuit board connecting member in response to connecting and disconnecting of said circuit board connecting member to and from said connector for the circuit board connecting member. Claim 4 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 3 , wherein said engaged portions are formed to have recesses or protrusions to be engaged with said engaging members at the inner layers and both edges in horizontal directions when inserted portions of said circuit board connecting member are inserted into the connector for the circuit board connecting member. Claim 5 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 3 , wherein said loading portions are formed to be thicker by a predetermined thickness in the laminating direction of said multilayer printed circuit board than the respective engaging members, and said respective engaging members are arranged on the inner side of both the ends of said loading portions with respect to the laminating direction of said multilayer printed circuit board. Claim 6 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein there are provided, in said connector opening, engaging members each having a recess or protrusion adapted to engage an engaged portion formed on said circuit board connecting member and being elastically deformable in the direction of said inner layers to be connected to said respective connecting pins in response to connecting and disconnecting of said circuit board connecting member to and from the connector. Claim 7 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 6 , wherein said engaged portions are each formed to have a recess or protrusion to engage said engaging member, said recess or protrusion being on the side of said inner layers adapted to be connected to said respective connecting pins of the inserted portions when said circuit board connecting member is inserted into the connector for the circuit board connecting member. Claim 8 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein a resin is molded around said housing and said engaging members to form an integral resin molded unit. Claim 9 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said housing is molded from a resin, and said engaging members are made of a metal and embedded in said housing. Claim 10 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein the connector is provided with guide members for preventing said circuit board connecting member from contacting contact locations between said respective connecting pins and said inner layers, when said circuit board connecting member is inserted into said connector opening. Claim 11 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said respective connecting pins are elastically deformable toward said inner layers to which said respective connecting pins are connected, in response to the connecting and disconnecting of said circuit board connecting member to and from the connector for the circuit board connecting member. Claim 12 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 11 , wherein said respective connecting pins each comprises a plurality of linear portions formed substantially in parallel with the inserting direction of said circuit board connecting member, a plurality of semicircular arc portions formed in the form of a semicircular arc whose both ends are connected to ends of said linear portions and whose apexes are positioned in substantially perpendicular to said inner layers to which said respective connecting pins are connected, said semicircular arc portions each comprising a first semicircular arc portion adapted to abut against said circuit board connecting member when said circuit board connecting member is inserted into said opening, and a second semicircular arc portion which is a predetermined size smaller than said first semicircular arc portion, and at least said linear portion positioned nearest to said connector opening is connected to said inner layers. Claim 13 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said circuit board connecting member is a flexible circuit board. Claim 14 recites the connector for a circuit board connecting member as claimed in claim 1 , wherein said circuit board connecting member is a wire harness formed by binding up a plurality of cables. Claim 15 recites a multilayer printed circuit board having inner layers communicating with the external through an opening and having a connector for a circuit board connecting member arranged in said inner layers and to be connected to the circuit board connecting member inserted from the external through said opening, wherein said connector for the circuit board connecting member comprises a housing having the connector opening into which said circuit board connecting member is inserted, a plurality of connecting pins being received in said connector opening at predetermined intervals and being connected to said inner layers of said multilayer printed circuit board, said housing having loading portions embraced between the inner layers of said multilayer printed circuit board, and said connector further comprises engaging members located in said connector opening and adapted to engage and fix said circuit board connecting member under a condition that connecting terminals of said circuit board connecting member are connected to said connecting pins. Claim 16 recites the multilayer printed circuit board as claimed in claim 15 , wherein said housing comprises an exposing opening formed to be in communication with said connector opening and serving to expose inner layers located on the other side of said inner layers of said multilayer printed circuit board being connected to said respective connecting pins, and said circuit board connecting member inserted in said connector opening is held by said respective connecting pins and said inner layers exposed by said exposing opening. Claim 17 recites a method for producing a circuit board connecting structure formed by connecting a circuit board connecting member and a connector for the circuit board connecting member, said connector for the circuit board connecting member being inserted into inner layers of a multilayer printed circuit board, said inner layers communicating with the external through an opening, and said circuit board connecting member being inserted through said opening from the external, said method comprising steps of bonding a reinforcing plate to an end of a conductor assembly consisting of a plurality of wire conductors, and punching the end of said reinforcing plate and said conductor assembly bonded thereto by the use of image-recognition technique to form inserted portions to be inserted into said circuit board connecting member having engaged portions adapted to be engaged with engaging members of said connector for a circuit board connecting member, thereby producing said circuit board connecting member. [0023] The contact having the two contact portions one on each side of the inserting direction of the first connecting object as is the case of the prior art can securely improve the contact reliability. In this case, however, the inserting force for the first connecting object would become great, and particularly the fitting force would become great in the event of a great number of contacts. [0024] With the contact provided with three contact portions as disclosed in the Patent Literature 1 proposed by the applicant of the present case, the contact portion on the rear side, on which two connection portions are arranged, has to be higher than the contact portion on the front side so that the inserting force would become greater and there would be a risk of the connecting object being deformed. [0025] With the case of the low inserting force type connector as disclosed in the Patent Literature 2, the inserting force would become greater and there would be a risk of the connecting object being deformed in the similar way. While, with the zero insertion force type connector, there would be the tendency for irregularities in contact pressure to occur at respective contacts. [0026] In the Patent Literature 3, although it looks like that the independent elastic piece is provided at its tips with (upper and lower) contact portions, the upper protrusion 40 d is adapted to engage the actuator 20 but not adapted to contact the mating object. In the construction of the Patent Literature 3, if the upper protrusion 40 d is used as a contact portion adapted to contact the mating object, a stable connection could not be obtained. [0027] In order to solve the problems in the Patent Literatures 1 to 3, the applicant of the present case has proposed the Patent Literature 4. However, it does not comply with the requirement for reduced overall height of a connector, although it has the luxury of a longitudinal length. Moreover, it is difficult to achieve the miniaturization of the connector in the inserting direction of the connecting object, because the length of the elastic pieces more than a certain extent is required in order to obtain a stable electrical connection. [0028] Further, the applicant of the present case has proposed that as disclosed in the Patent Literature 5 in order to comply with the requirement for a reduced overall height of connector having the luxury of a longitudinal length. However, the connector disclosed in the Patent Literature 5 has a long longitudinal length, which does not achieve an arrangement of contacts with very narrow pitches. [0029] With the contacts disclosed in the Patent Literature 6 ( FIGS. 17 and 18 ), they are supported at both the ends so that a greater fitting force is required than those in the examples of the prior art and in the Patent Literatures 1 to 3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0030] The invention has been completed in view of the problems of the prior art, and the invention has an object to provide a contact to be used in a connector which enables stable electrical connection without requiring large forces for inserting and fitting a connecting object even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector, and which further achieves extremely narrow pitches of the contacts, a reduced overall height of the connector, and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0031] The object is accomplished by the contact 20 according to the invention claimed in claim 1 having at least one contact portion 22 adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion 36 to be connected to a second connecting object, said contact 20 is provided with an protruded contact portion 24 positioned between said contact portion 22 provided at a free end of said contact and said connection portion 36 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 22 . [0032] The invention claimed in claim 2 lies in the contact constructed in that a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 . [0033] The invention claimed in claim 3 lies in the contact 20 constructed in that a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and when said first connecting object is pushed by said pushing portion 26 , said protruded contact portion 24 is pushed by said first connecting object in its pushed direction, as a result of which said contact portion 22 is pushed against said first connecting object owing to an action of said protruded contact portion 24 as a fulcrum. [0034] The invention claimed in claim 4 lies in the contact 20 constructed in that a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is formed integrally with said contact 20 so that said pushing portion 26 is facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and the tip of said pushing portion 26 is extended and its extended end is provided at a position facing to said contact portion 22 with a second contact portion 28 adapted to contact said first connecting object. [0035] The invention claimed in claim 5 lies in the contact 20 constructed in that a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and said member 15 is formed with a slit 27 on the side of said pushing portion 26 opposite from said first connecting object so that said pushing portion 26 becomes an independent elastic piece. [0036] The invention claimed in claim 6 lies in the contact 20 comprising a first piece 30 having at one end said contact portion 22 and at the other end said connection portion 36 ; a second piece 32 having at one end a second contact portion 28 adapted to contact said first connecting object and a pushing portion 26 in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 between said second contact portion 28 and the other end for pushing said first connecting object; and an elastic jointing portion 38 for connecting said other end of the second piece 32 and the substantially mid portion of said first piece 30 . [0037] The invention claimed in claim 7 lies in the contact 20 comprising a first piece 30 having at one end said contact portion 22 and at the other end said connection portion 36 ; a second piece 32 having at one end a second contact portion 28 adapted to contact said first connecting object, at the other end a pressure receiving portion 40 , and a pushing portion 26 in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 between said second contact portion 28 and said other end for pushing said first connecting object; and an elastic jointing portion 38 for connecting substantially mid portions of said first and second pieces 30 and 32 . [0038] The invention claimed in claim 8 lies in the contact 20 constructed in that a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and said pushing portion 26 is used as a contact portion adapted to contact said first connecting object as well. [0039] The invention claimed in claim 9 lies in the connector 10 using said contacts 20 claimed in any one of claims 1 to 8 , which are arranged and held in an insulator 12 . [0040] The invention claimed in claim 10 lies in the connector 10 constructed in that a pivoting member 14 is mounted on said insulator 12 , said pivoting member 14 having second pushing portions 52 pivotally moving between said pressure receiving portions 40 and said connection portions 36 so that said pressure receiving portions 40 are pushed. [0041] The invention claimed in claim 11 lies in the connector 101 including. contacts 201 each having at least one contact portion 221 adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion 361 to be connected to a second connecting object, and an insulator 12 for arranging and holding said contacts 201 , constructed in that said contacts 201 each comprise an protruded contact portion 24 positioned between said contact portion 221 provided at a free end of said contact 201 and said connection portion 361 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 221 , and a pushing portion 261 located in a fitting opening 18 of said insulator 121 so as to face to said protruded contact portion 24 of the contact 201 . [0042] The invention claimed in claim 12 lies in the connector 101 constructed in that when said first connecting object is pushed by said pushing portion 261 , said protruded contact portion 24 is pushed by said first connecting object in its pushed direction, as a result of which said contact portion 221 is pushed against said first connecting object owing to an action of said protruded contact portion 24 as a fulcrum. [0043] The invention claimed in claim 13 lies in the connector 102 including contacts 202 each having at least one contact portion 222 adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion 362 to be connected to a second connecting object, an insulator 122 for arranging and holding said contacts 202 , and a pivoting member 142 pivotally movably mounted on said insulator 122 on the side of its fitting opening 18 , constructed in that said contacts 202 each comprise an protruded contact portion 24 positioned between said contact portion 222 provided at a free end of said contact 202 and said connection portion 362 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 222 , and said contacts 202 each have at one end an engaging portion 58 adapted to engage said pivoting member 142 to permit the pivotal movement of the pivoting member 142 and at the other end an elastic jointing portion 382 connected to the proximity of said connection portion 362 , and that said pivoting member 142 comprises anchoring holes 542 adapted to engage the engaging portions 58 of said contacts 202 , and pushing portions 262 at locations facing to the protruded contact portions 24 of said contacts 202 . [0044] The invention claimed in claim 14 lies in the connector 102 constructed in that when said first connecting object is pushed by said pushing portion 262 , said protruded contact portion 24 is pushed by said first connecting object in its pushed direction, as a result of which said contact portion 222 is pushed against said first connecting object owing to an action of said protruded contact portion 24 as a fulcrum. [0045] As can be seen from the explanations described above, the contact 20 and the connector 10 using the contacts 20 can bring about the following significant functions and effects. [0046] (1) A contact 20 claimed in claim 1 has at least one contact portion 22 adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion 36 to be connected to a second connecting object, said contact 20 is provided with a protruded contact portion 24 positioned between said contact portion 22 provided at a free end of said contact and said connection portion 36 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 22 . Therefore, the contact according to the invention can realize a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the contact according to the invention enables a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0047] (2) In the contact 20 claimed in claim 2 , a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 . Accordingly, the contact according to the invention can provide a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the contact according to the invention enables a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0048] (3) In the contact 20 claimed in claim 3 , a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and when said first connecting object is pushed by said pushing portion 26 , said protruded contact portion 24 is pushed by said first connecting object in its pushed direction, as a result of which said contact portion 22 is pushed against said first connecting object owing to an action of said protruded contact portion 24 as a fulcrum. Consequently, the contact according to the invention can provide a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the contact according to the invention realizes a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0049] (4) In the contact 20 claimed in claim 4 , a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is formed integrally with said contact 20 so that said pushing portion 26 is facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and the tip of said pushing portion 26 is extended and its extended end is provided at a position facing to said contact portion 22 with a second contact portion 28 adapted to contact said first connecting object. Therefore, the contact according to the invention can provide a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the contact according to the invention enables a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0050] (5) In the contact 20 claimed in claim 5 , a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and said member 15 is formed with a slit 27 on the side of said pushing portion 26 opposite from said first connecting object so that said pushing portion 26 becomes an independent elastic piece. Accordingly, the contact according to the invention can provide a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts with the aid of the elasticity of the pushing portion 26 . Moreover, as the pushing portion 26 is elastic, the contact according to the invention accomplishes more reliable connection stability and enables a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0051] (6) The contact 20 claimed in claim 6 comprises a first piece 30 having at one end said contact portion 22 and at the other end said connection portion 36 ; a second piece 32 having at one end a second contact portion 28 adapted to contact said first connecting object and a pushing portion 26 in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 between said second contact portion 28 and the other end for pushing said first connecting object; and an elastic jointing portion 38 for connecting said other end of the second piece 32 and the substantially mid portion of said first piece 30 . Therefore, the contact according to the invention can provide a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the contact according to the invention enables a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0052] (7) In the contact 20 claimed in claim 7 , said contact 20 comprises a first piece 30 having at one end said contact portion 22 and at the other end said connection portion 36 ; a second piece 32 having at one end a second contact portion 28 adapted to contact said first connecting object, at the other end a pressure receiving portion 40 , and a pushing portion 26 in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 between said second contact portion 28 and said other end for pushing said first connecting object; and an elastic jointing portion 38 for connecting substantially mid portions of said first and second pieces 30 and 32 . Accordingly, the contact according to the invention can provide a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the contact according to the invention enables a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0053] (8) In the contact 20 claimed in claim 8 , a member 15 having a pushing portion 26 for pushing said first connecting object is so arranged that said pushing portion 26 is in a position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 , and said pushing portion 26 is used as a contact portion adapted to contact said first connecting object as well. Consequently, the contact according to the invention can provide a connector using the contacts which enable a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the contact according to the invention enables a connector using the contacts to achieve an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and to achieve a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0054] (9) A connector 10 claimed in claim 9 uses said contacts 20 claimed in any one of claims 1 to 8 , which are arranged and held in an insulator 12 . Therefore, the connector according to the invention enables a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts. Moreover, the connector according to the invention achieves an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and achieves a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0055] (10) In the connector 10 claimed in claim 10 , a pivoting member 14 is mounted on said insulator 12 , said pivoting member 14 having second pushing portions 52 pivotally moving between said pressure receiving portions 40 and said connection portions 36 so that said pressure receiving portions 40 are pushed. Accordingly, the connector according to the invention enables a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts by merely pivotally moving the pivoting member 14 . Moreover, the connector according to the invention achieves an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and achieves a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0056] (11) The connector 101 claimed in claim 11 includes contacts 201 each having at least one contact portion 221 adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion 361 to be connected to a second connecting object, and an insulator 12 for arranging and holding said contacts 201 , and said contacts comprising an protruded contact portion 24 positioned between said contact portion 221 provided at a free end of said contact 201 and said connection portion 361 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 221 , and a pushing portion 261 located in a fitting opening 18 of said insulator 121 so as to face to said protruded contact portion 24 of the contact 201 . Therefore, the connector according to the invention enables a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts by merely pivotally moving the pivoting member 14 . Moreover, the connector according to the invention achieves an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and achieves a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0057] (12) In the connector 101 claimed in claim 12 , when said first connecting object is pushed by said pushing portion 261 , said protruded contact portion 24 is pushed by said first connecting object in its pushed direction, as a result of which said contact portion 221 is pushed against said first connecting object owing to an action of said protruded contact portion 24 as a fulcrum. Accordingly, the connector according to the invention enables a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts by merely pivotally moving the pivoting member 14 . Moreover, the connector according to the invention achieves an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and achieves a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0058] (13) A connector 102 includes contacts 202 each having at least one contact portion 222 adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion 362 to be connected to a second connecting object, an insulator 122 for arranging and holding said contacts 202 , and a pivoting member 142 pivotally movably mounted on said insulator 122 on the side of its fitting opening 18 , said contacts 202 each comprising an protruded contact portion 24 positioned between said contact portion 222 provided at a free end of said contact 202 and said connection portion 362 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 222 , and said contacts 202 each have at one end an engaging portion 58 adapted to engage said pivoting member 142 to permit the pivotal movement of the pivoting member 142 and at the other end an elastic jointing portion 382 connected to the proximity of said connection portion 362 , and said pivoting member 142 comprising anchoring holes 542 adapted to engage the engaging portions 58 of said contacts 202 , and pushing portions 262 at locations facing to the protruded contact portions 24 of said contacts 202 . Therefore, the connector according to the invention enables a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts by merely pivotally moving the pivoting member 14 . Moreover, the connector according to the invention achieves an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and achieves a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0059] (14) In the connector 102 claimed in claim 13 , when said first connecting object is pushed by said pushing portion 262 , said protruded contact portion 24 is pushed by said first connecting object in its pushed direction, as a result of which said contact portion 222 is pushed against said first connecting object owing to an action of said protruded contact portion 24 as a fulcrum. Consequently, the connector according to the invention enables a connecting object to be inserted into the connector with a slight inserting force even if a great number of the contacts are arranged in the connector to ensure more sufficient connection stability without any deformation of the contacts by merely pivotally moving the pivoting member 14 . Moreover, the connector according to the invention achieves an arrangement of the contacts with extremely narrow pitches in the connector, and achieves a reduced overall height of the connector and a miniaturization of the connector particularly in the inserting direction of the connecting object. [0060] The invention will be more fully understood by referring to the following detailed specification and claims taken in connection with the appended drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0061] FIG. 1A is a perspective view of the contact according to the invention; [0062] FIG. 1B is a perspective view of a connector using the contacts shown in FIG. 1A ; [0063] FIG. 1C is a sectional view of the connector shown in FIG. 1B , taken along one contact; [0064] FIG. 2 is a sectional view of a connector using members and contacts according to the invention, taken along one contact; [0065] FIG. 3A is a perspective view of an insulator viewed from the above on the side of its fitting opening; [0066] FIG. 3B is a perspective view of the insulator viewed from the above on the side of its connection side; [0067] FIG. 4A is a perspective view of a pivoting member viewed from the side of its anchoring holes; [0068] FIG. 4B is a perspective view of the pivoting member viewed from the side of its actuating portion; [0069] FIG. 5 is a sectional view of a connector of a non-zero insertion force type according to the invention, taken along one contact; [0070] FIG. 6 is a connector of a front lock type according to the invention, taken along one contact; and [0071] FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a contact constructed by forming a slit in a contact similar to that shown in FIG. 1A . DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS [0072] The subject feature of the invention lies in the contact having at least one contact portion adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion to be connected to a second connecting object, the contact comprising an protruded contact portion which is positioned between the contact portion provided at a free end of the contact and the connection portion and curved and substantially aligned with the contact portion, and further comprising a member having a pushing portion located in a position facing to the protruded contact portion for pushing the first connecting object. [0073] Namely, when the first connecting object is pushed by the pushing portion, the protruded contact portion is pushed by the pushed first connecting object downwardly (in the pushing direction), with the result that the protruded contact portion defines a fulcrum to cause the contact portion to be pushed to the first connecting object. [0074] There are three configurations for carrying out the invention. The first configuration is a so-called rear lock type in which a pivoting member is mounted on a housing on the side opposite from a fitting opening into which a first connecting object is inserted. The second configuration is a so-called non-zero insertion force (N-ZIF) type or low insertion force (LIF) type in which by merely inserting a connecting object, it comes immediately into contact with contacts. The third configuration is a so-called front lock type in which a pivoting member is mounted on the side of a fitting opening of an insulator into which a first connecting object is inserted. [0075] First, contacts 20 according to the invention and a connector 10 of the rear lock type using the contacts 20 will be explained with reference to FIGS. 1A to 1C , FIGS. 3A and 3B , and FIGS. 4A and 4B . FIG. 1A is a perspective view of the contact according to the invention, while FIG. 1B is a perspective view of the connector using the contacts shown in FIG. 1A and FIG. 1C is a sectional view of the connector shown in FIG. 1B , taken along one contact. FIG. 2 is a sectional view of a connector using members and contacts, taken along one contact. FIG. 3A is a perspective view of an insulator viewed from the above of the fitting opening, and FIG. 3B is a perspective view of the insulator viewed from the above of the connection side. FIG. 4A is a perspective view of a pivoting member viewed from the side of its anchoring holes, while FIG. 4B is a perspective view of the pivoting member viewed from the side of its actuating portion. FIG. 5 is a sectional view of a connector of the non-zero insertion (N-ZIF) type, taken along one contact. FIG. 6 is a sectional view of a connector of the front lock type, taken along one contact. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a contact constructed by forming a slit in a contact similar to the contact shown in FIG. 1A . [0076] At the beginning, the contacts 20 according to the invention will be explained. The contacts 20 are made of a metal and formed by means of the press-working of the known technique. Preferred metals from which to form the contacts 20 include brass, beryllium copper, phosphor bronze and the like which comply with the requirements as to springiness, electric conductivity, and the like. The contact 20 in the embodiment is substantially H-shaped as shown in FIG. 1A , and comprises at least a first piece 30 having at one end as a free end a contact portion 22 adapted to contact a first contacting object and at the other end a connection portion 36 to be connected to a second connecting object, an protruded contact portion 24 positioned on the first piece 30 between the contact portion 22 and the connection portion 36 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 22 , a second piece 32 having at one end as a free end a second contact portion 28 adapted to contact the first contacting object and at the other end a pressure receiving portion 40 , a pushing portion 26 located at a position facing to the protruded contact portion 24 for pushing said first contacting object, and an elastic jointing portion 38 (including an elastic portion 46 and a fulcrum portion 48 in this case) for connecting said first piece 30 and said second piece 32 . The respective parts of the contact will be explained hereinafter. [0077] First, the contact portion 22 will be explained. The contact portion 22 is provided at the one end as the free end of said first peace 30 and adapted to contact said first connecting object (a flexible printed circuit board 70 in this case). As said first connecting object, there may be a mating connector, the flexible printed circuit board 70 , flexible flat cable, or the like. Said contact portion 22 may be suitably designed so as to match a contacting object in consideration of contact stability, contact pressure, inserting force, deformation of the contact 20 , and the like. The contact portion 20 is in the form of a protrusion in the illustrated embodiment. [0078] The protruded contact portion 24 will then be explained. The protruded contact portion 24 is provided on said first peace 30 between said contact portion 22 and said connection portion 36 and positioned substantially aligned with said contact portion 22 . Said protruded contact portion 24 is curved so as to extend onto the side of the flexible printed circuit board inserted thereinto because the protruded contact portion 24 has to contact the inserted circuit board and has to perform the following functions. [0079] The second contact portion 28 will then be explained. The second contact portion 28 is provided at the one end as the free end of the second piece 32 and adapted to contact the first connecting object (the flexible printed circuit board 70 in this case). Said second contact portion 28 may be suitably designed so as to match the contacting object taking into account contact stability, contact pressure, inserting force, deformation of the contact 20 , and the like. The second contact portion 28 is in the form of a protrusion in the illustrated embodiment. [0080] The pushing portion 26 will then be explained. Said pushing portion 26 is located in the position facing to said protruded contact portion 24 and serves to push the first connecting object and to perform the following functions. Therefore, the pushing portion 26 is in the form of a protrusion extending toward the inserted flexible printed circuit board 70 . Moreover, said pushing portion 26 may also be used as a contact portion simultaneously. [0081] At this moment, operations of the protruded contact portion 24 and the pushing portion 26 will be explained. After the flexible printed circuit board 70 has been inserted, when said circuit board 70 is pushed by the pushing portion 26 , said protruded contact portion 24 is pushed downwardly by the circuit board 70 (into the pushing direction of the circuit board), with the result that said protruded contact portion 24 itself defines a fulcrum to cause said contact portion 22 to be pushed against the circuit board 70 . In other words, the contact portion 22 is pushed against the circuit board 70 owing to an action of the protruded contact portion 24 as a fulcrum. The shapes and sizes of said protruded contact portion 24 and said pushing portion 26 may be suitably designed in consideration of these functions, contact stability, workability, miniaturization of the connector 10 , and the like. [0082] In order to ensure such a function of the pushing portion 26 , the contact is preferably formed with a slit 27 on the rear side of the pushing portion 26 (on the side of the pushing portion 26 opposite from the inserted first connecting object), whereby the pushing portion 26 becomes an independent elastic piece as shown in FIG. 7 . [0083] Said first piece 30 and said second piece 32 are connected to each other substantially at their mid portions by said elastic jointing portion 38 (including the elastic portion 46 and the fulcrum portion 48 ). Said elastic jointing portion 38 (including the elastic portion 46 and the fulcrum portion 48 ) and said pressure receiving portion 40 provided at the other end of the second piece 32 serve to perform the following functions. After said flexible printed circuit board 70 has been inserted into the fitting opening 18 of the insulator 12 , when second pushing portions 52 of the pivoting member 14 are pivotally moved between the connection portions 36 and the pressure receiving portions 40 of said contacts 20 , the pressure receiving portions 40 are raised by said second pushing portions 52 , with the result that the elastic portions 46 of said contacts 20 are tilted toward the pushing portions 26 of said second pieces 32 about the fulcrum portions 48 of said contacts 20 , thereby enabling said pushing portions 26 and the second contact portions 28 to be pushed against said circuit board 70 . Sizes and shapes of said fulcrums 48 , said elastic portions 46 , and said pressure receiving portions 40 may be suitably designed so as to achieve such functions. [0084] The functions of said protruded contact portion 24 , said pushing portion 26 , said pressure receiving portion 40 , and said elastic jointing portion 38 (including said elastic portion 46 and said fulcrum portion 48 ) are wholly summarized as follows. After said flexible printed circuit board 70 has been inserted into the fitting opening 18 of the insulator 12 , when second pushing portions 52 of the pivoting member 14 are pivotally moved between the connection portions 36 and the pressure receiving portions 40 of said contacts 20 , the pressure receiving portions 40 are raised by said second pushing portions 52 , with the result that the elastic portions 46 of said contacts 20 are tilted toward the pushing portions 26 of said second pieces 32 about the fulcrum portions 48 of said contacts 20 . As a result, said circuit board 70 is pushed by said pushing portions 26 and further said protruded contact portions 24 are pushed downwardly (in the pushing direction) by the pushed circuit board 70 so that the downwardly pushed protruded contact portions 24 define fulcrums, respectively, to cause said contact portions 22 to be pushed to said circuit board 70 . [0085] The fixed portion 34 will then be explained. The fixed portion 34 is held in the insulator 12 by press-fitting in the illustrated embodiment. In more detail, the fixed portion 34 is fixed in the insulator 12 with interferences in width directions of the fixed portion 34 . [0086] The connection portion 36 will be finally explained. Said connection portion 36 is to be connected to the second connecting object which may be a substrate 80 , flexible printed circuit board, flexible flat cable, or the like. The connection portion 36 may be suitably designed so as to mach the object to be connected. As the connection portion 36 is connected to the substrate 80 in the illustrated embodiment, the connection portion 36 is of a surface mounting type (SMT) in consideration of ability for mounting the conductors, occupied area, high density of the conductors, and the like. In the case of a flexible flat cable, the connection portion 30 is suitably designed in consideration of the same factors as in the case of the substrate and the flexible printed circuit board. [0087] The insulator 12 will then be explained. The insulator 12 is formed from an electrically insulating plastic material by means of the injection molding of the known technique. The materials for the insulator 12 may be suitably selected in consideration of dimensional stability, workability, manufacturing cost, and the like, and generally include polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyamide (66PA, 46PA, or PA9T), liquid crystal polymer (LCP), polycarbonate (PC), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), and the like and combination thereof. [0088] Said insulator 12 is formed with inserting holes 16 for installing a required number of the contacts therein, respectively, which are fixed in the respective inserting holes 16 by press-fitting, hooking (lancing), welding or the like. Said inserting holes 16 need only be able to receive the contacts 20 and may be suitably designed taking into account holding force, strength, workability, and the like. [0089] Moreover, said insulator 12 is provided with the fitting opening 18 into which the flexible printed circuit board 70 is inserted. The fitting opening 18 need only be able to receive the circuit board 70 and may be suitably designed in consideration of the size of the flexible printed circuit board 70 , contact pressure with the contacts 20 , connection stability, and the like. [0090] The pivoting member 14 will then be explained. The pivoting member 14 is formed from an electrically insulating plastic material by means of the injection molding of the known technique. The materials for the pivoting member 14 may be suitably selected in consideration of dimensional stability, workability, manufacturing cost, and the like, and generally include polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyamide (66PA or 46PA), liquid crystal polymer (LCP), polycarbonate (PC), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), and the like and combination thereof. [0091] The pivoting member 14 mainly comprises an actuating portion 50 , axles 56 adapted to be fitted in the insulator 12 for pivotably mounting the pivoting member 14 on the insulator 12 , second pushing portions 52 for pushing the pressure receiving portions 40 of said contacts 20 , and anchoring holes 54 adapted to engage extended portions 42 of said contacts 20 . Said axles 56 are fulcrums for pivotal movements of said pivoting member 14 and suitably fitted in the longitudinal ends of said insulator 12 to permit the pivoting member 14 to be pivotally moved. The pivoting member 14 is further provided at longitudinal ends with locking portions adapted to engage the insulator 12 for preventing the pivoting member 16 from being lifted (in the upward direction in the drawing) when the pressure receiving portions 40 of said contacts 20 are pushed by the second pushing portions 52 of the pivoting member 14 . Shapes and sizes of the locking portions need only be able to engage said insulator 12 and may be suitably designed in consideration of the functions described above, the size and strength of the connector 10 , and the like. [0092] Said second pushing portions 52 serve to push the pressure receiving portions 40 of said contacts 20 and their shape is preferably an elongated shape, particularly elliptical in the illustrated embodiment. With such an elliptical shape, when the pivoting member 14 is pivotally moved in the direction shown by an arrow A in FIG. 1B so as to rotate its second pushing portions 52 in the space between the pressure receiving portions 40 and the connection portions 36 of said contacts 20 , the pressure receiving portions 40 of said contacts 20 are moved upwardly with the aid of variation in contacting height owing to the elliptical shape of the second pushing portions 52 , thereby pushing the contact portions 22 of said contacts 20 against flexible printed circuit board 70 . The second pushing portions 52 may be formed in any shape insofar as they can rotate between the pressure receiving portions 40 and the connection portions 36 of said contacts 20 , and the pressure receiving portions 40 of said contacts 20 can be raised with the aid of the variation in contacting height owing to, for example, difference in major and minor axes of an ellipse. [0093] The pivoting member 16 is further provided with anchoring holes 54 independent from one another, which are adapted to engage extended portions 42 of said contacts 20 for the purpose of preventing the pivoting member 14 from being deformed at the middle in a direction shown by an arrow B in FIG. 1C . The anchoring holes 54 provided independently from one another serve to maintain the strength of the pivoting member 14 and to prevent it from being deformed when pivotally moving. [0094] At this moment, a member 15 formed as a separate part of the pushing portion 26 for the so-called non-zero insertion force type, and a contact 20 will be explained with reference to FIG. 2 . The member 15 and the contact 2 are substantially I-shaped as shown in FIG. 2 . The member 15 is made of a metal and formed by means of the press-working of the known technique. Preferred metals from which to form said member 15 include brass, beryllium copper, phosphor bronze and the like which comply with the requirements as to springiness, electric conductivity, and the like. The metals for the contacts are similar to those described above. Operations of said pushing portion 26 and protruded contact portion 24 are similar to those described above, and different features only will be described. [0095] A fundamental difference lies in the feature of forming the part having the pushing portion 26 as a separate part of the contact. As said pushing portions 26 extend into the fitting opening 18 , when the flexible printed circuit board 70 is inserted into the fitting opening 18 , the circuit board 70 is consequently pushed by the pushing portions 26 . Upon the circuit board 70 being pushed, the protruded contact portions 24 of the contacts 20 are pushed downwardly by the pushed circuit board 70 so that the functions described above are performed. The distances to which the pushing portions 26 extend into the fitting opening 18 may be suitably designed in consideration of such functions, connection stability, contacting property when the pushing portions 26 are used as contact portions, and the like. [0096] Now, a so-called non-zero insertion force type connector 101 will be explained with reference to FIG. 5 . The connector 101 comprises at least an insulator 121 and contacts 201 . The materials of the insulator 121 and the contacts 201 are similar to those described above. [0097] The contact 201 is substantially U-shaped and comprises at least a first piece 301 having at one end as a free end a contact portion 221 adapted to contact a first connecting object and at the other end a connection portion 361 to be connected to a second connecting object, an protruded contact portion 24 positioned on the first piece 301 between the contact portion 221 and the connection portion 361 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 221 , a second piece 321 having one end as a fixed end to be inserted in the insulator 121 and a fixed portion 341 in the proximity of the other end to be fixed to the insulator 121 , and an elastic jointing portion 381 for connecting proximities of the connection portion 361 of said first piece 301 and of the fixed portion 341 of said second piece 321 . The contact portion 221 , the protruded contact portion 24 , the connection portion 361 , and the fixed portion 341 are similar to those described above. The elastic jointing portion 381 serves only to joint the first piece 301 and the second piece 321 as is not the case with the elastic jointing portion previously described. [0098] The insulator 121 has a plurality of inserting holes 16 into which contacts 201 are inserted, respectively, which is similar to the insulator 12 . A different feature is to provide in the insulator 121 with pushing portions 261 located in the fitting opening 18 at positions facing to the protruded contact portions 24 of said contacts 201 . The pushing portions 261 also perform the same functions described above. [0099] A connector 102 of a so-called front lock type will then be explained with reference to FIG. 6 . The connector 102 comprises at least an insulator 122 , contacts 202 , and a pivoting member 142 . Materials of the insulator 121 , the contacts 202 , and the pivoting member 142 are similar to those described above. [0100] The contact 202 is substantially U-shaped and comprises at least a first piece 302 having at one end as a free end a contact portion 222 adapted to contact a first connecting object and at the other end a connection portion 362 to be connected to a second connecting object, an protruded contact portion 24 positioned on the first piece 302 between the contact portion 222 and the connection portion 362 and curved and substantially aligned with said contact portion 222 , a second piece 322 having one end as a free end an engaging portion 58 adapted to engage an anchoring hole 542 of the pivoting member 142 and at the other end a fixed portion 342 to be fixed to the insulator 122 , and an elastic jointing portion 382 for connecting proximities of the connection portion 362 of said first piece 302 and of the fixed portion 342 of said second piece 322 . The contact portion 222 , the protruded contact portion 24 , the connection portion 362 , and the fixed portion 342 are similar to those described above. The elastic jointing portion 382 serves only to joint the first piece 302 and the second piece 322 , which is different from the elastic jointing portion 38 described above. The shape and size of said engaging portion 58 may be suitably designed to make it possible to pivotally move the pivoting member 142 and to push the flexible printed circuit board 70 by the pushing portions 262 of the pivoting member 142 . [0101] The insulator 122 has also a plurality of inserting holes 16 into which the contacts 202 are inserted, respectively, as is also the case of the insulator 12 described above. There is no particular difference between these insulators. [0102] The pivoting member 142 mainly comprises an actuating portion 502 , axles for pivotally mounting the pivoting member 142 on the insulator 122 , anchoring holes 542 adapted to engage the engaging portions 58 of said contacts 202 , and pushing portions 262 for pushing the flexible printed circuit board 70 . Said axles are fulcrums for the pivotal movement of said pivoting member 142 and suitably fitted in the longitudinal ends of said insulator 122 to permit the pivoting member 142 to be pivotally moved. Said pushing portions 262 serve to push the circuit board 70 and are preferably of an elongated shape, particularly elliptical in the illustrated embodiment. With such an elliptical shape, when the pivoting member 142 is pivotally moved, the flexible printed circuit board 70 is pushed toward the contact portions 222 of said contacts 202 with the aid of variation in contact height owing to the elliptical shape of the pushing portions 262 . Moreover, the pivoting member 142 is provided with anchoring holes 542 independent from one another, which are adapted to engage the engaging portions 58 of said contacts 202 . The anchoring holes 542 provided independently from one another serve to maintain the strength of the pivoting member 142 and to prevent it from being deformed when pivotally moving. [0103] Examples of applications are connectors for use with electric and electronic appliances such as office automation appliances, factory automation appliances, cellular or mobile phones, and the like, and particularly contacts for use in connectors which are superior in connection stability and reduced overall height of the connectors. [0104] While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to the preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the foregoing and other changes in form and details can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

A contact has at least one contact portion adapted to contact a first connecting object and a connection portion to be connected to a second connecting object. The contact is provided with an protruded contact portion positioned between the contact portion provided at a free end of the contact and the connection portion and curved and substantially aligned with the contact portion. A member having a pushing portion for pushing the first connecting object is so arranged that the pushing portion is in a position facing to the protruded contact portion. With the contacts thus constructed, even if a great number of the contacts are arranged, large forces are not required for inserting and fitting a connecting object in a connector using the contacts, thereby achieving a stable electrical connection. Moreover, the contacts can be arranged with extremely narrow pitches in a connector, and using the contacts, it is possible to construct reduced overall height connectors, and connectors miniaturized particularly in the inserting direction of a connecting object.

This invention is directed to a faucet-mateable structure for washing-out the eyes by water-bathing thereof. BACKGROUND Prior to the present invention, there has not existed any suitable device for use by either an opthomologist or patients or non-patients for easy and safe and tidy bathing the eye(s) of the person. The bathing of the eye(s) is necessary and required under a variety of different circumstances. One, for example, is when certain tear duct(s) and/or tear gland(s)--known as lachrymal glands, either or both under-function or mal-function, or are susceptable abnormally to become clogged or inflamed, it is important for such person to periodically wash out the eye(s) with warm or hot water under sanitary conditions in order to cleanse the eye(s) of crystals, thickened oil-secretions, as well as dust or other particles from the air trapped by the eyelashes and/or adhered to the eyelashes in-whole or in-part. Also, whenever an eyelash or other foreign particle or foreign-matter is in the eye and/or under the eyelid, causing discomfort and/or irritation to the tissues of the eye and/or eyelid, the washing-out of the eye as noted-above can be desirable or required. Accordingly, for numerous persons, such eye conditions occur frequently unless prophylactically the eyes are cared for typically by the washing-out of the eye(s), and there has existed a great need for the present invention, suitable for use at home or in the office of a doctor equally well. THE OBJECTS Accordingly, objects of the invention include the overcoming of difficulties and problems hetertofore faced as noted-above. Another particular object is to obtain an eye-bathing device adapted for mating with a faucet, for washing-out eye(s). Another object is to provide an eye-flushing device having one or a pair of water-outlets of substantially oval shape. Another object is to provide and obtain a flushing-mechanism providing for continuous flow of water of predetermined substantially unchanging temperature exiting continuously from the water-outlet(s). Another object is to obtain such a device having a shape and spacing-apart of a predetermined distance as to be adaptable to the distance between eyes of an average person, for the concurrent or simultaneous washing of both eyes therewith. Another object is to obtain such device with the water-outlet(s) thereof for the continuously-flowing mechanism, being of diverging shapes such as conical such that rate and pressure of flow at the outlet(s) are reduced on an increased cross-sectional area basis as compared to rate and pressure of flow from a faucet onto which an inlet-end thereof is mated, during flow of water through conduit space thereof; accordingly, any flared-shape widening of area of application to the eye for each water outlet during washing-out of the eye(s) reduces pressure at the outlets. Another object is to obtain an eyes-washing device in which the one or more water-outlets are positionable and repositionable adjustably angularly from an upright or vertical position to a horizontal position or to any point therebetween as desired or required by the person using the device for washing-out the eye(s). Another object is to obtain an eye-washing device easily susceptable to easy maintenance in a clean and sanitary state. Another object is to obtain an eye-washing device having paired spaced-apart water-outlets adjustable of distance therebetween to greater or lesser distances as desired or necessary by the user thereof. Another object is to obtain an eye-washing device of a composition not readily conductable of heat, and of durable and strong physical characteristics. Another object is to obtain such a device susceptable and structured to be optionally mated with any one of diversely shaped and different types of faucets. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One or more of the above objects are obtained by one or more embodiments of the invention, as follow. In one embodiment, there is provided a tubular structure having a water-inlet end and having one or more water-outlet ends interconnected to the water-inlet end by tubular space, providing for water flow from the inlet end to and out-of the water-outlet ends. The water-inlet end includes a mechanism for mating with a water-faucet outlet structure, such that water from the faucet flows into the tubular space. The water-outlet ends are in this embodiment of a substantially oval cross-section shape in definition of the outlet-space thereof such that the substantially oval outlet-circumscribing walls may be placed easily below the brow of a person into close proximity to the eyeball or pressed lightly and loosely against the skin above the cheek and below the eyebrow to facilitate ease and thoroughness of bathing of the eye(s). For this embodiment there are a number of preferred embodiments thereof, such as flared or conically-shaped water-outlets, and paired spaced-apart water-outlets, and for a device having paired water-outlets the structures thereof being separate and adjustable variably of spaced-apart distance therebetween, and the one or more water-outlet(s) being angularly adjustable to any desired position between upright and horizontal, and being of the preferred thermoplastic composition, preferably polyvinyl chloride plastic. In a second distinct broad embodiment, a conduit structure has the above-noted water-inlet end and structure thereof, and has two of the above-noted water-outlet ends and structures thereof, interconnected by through-space passable of water from the inlet end to and out-of the outlet(s), the two water-outlets being a pair of spaced-apart outlets spaced-apart a predetermined distance such that they are substantially alignable with the paired eyes of an individual concurrently washing both eyes with water flowing from the outlet-spaces of the spaced-apart outlets of the pair. Likewise, for this embodiment, there are the above-noted preferred embodiments thereof. THE FIGURES FIG. 1 illustrates a typical preferred embodiment of the invention, shown in a front view thereof with the water-inlet and water-outlets all extending uprightly or vertically, illustrated in partial cut-away of the water-outlet ends and of the water-inlet and T-section and joining-portions thereof to the separate and pivotally and axially-slidably mounted water-outlet portions of the structure, such being a diagrammatic illustration not intended to be exactly to scale. FIG. 2 illustrates a typical appearance of the water-outlets and outlet space thereof as viewed looking upwardly as taken along line 2--2 of FIG. 1 embodiment. FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B each diagrammatically represent a side view of the embodiment of FIG. 1, the FIG. 3A being a view typically taken along line 3A--3A of FIG. 1, and FIG. 3B being a view at the same observation point but with the water-outlet ends being angularly adjusted to about a 45 degree angle as measured from a horizontal, showing the FIG. 3A position in phantom. FIG. 4 illustrates a view substantially comparable to that of FIG. 1, but of an alternate embodiment in which the entire device is a single unitary molded structure, and is merely diagrammatic. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIGS. 1, 2, 3A and 3B represent a common embodiment of the invention illustrated therein and accordingly all indicia shown correspond among these four figures. In FIG. 4, an alternate illustrated embodiment utilizes modified but related indicia that accordingly correspond to comparable parts or elements identified possibly previously in the embodiment of FIGS. 1, 2, 3A and 3B. Once a part has been identified or discussed, a corresponding part or element in a different figure will not be repeated, except for purposes of clarity and/or further discussion. Accordingly in FIGS. 1, 2, 3A and 3B, the following observations can be made to the viewer, for that embodiment 5. The uprightly or vertically-positioned separate portions 6a and 6b respectively having water-outlet ends 6aa and 6bb respectively with their water-outlet spaces 6c and 6d respectively, have through-space therethrough continuous with through-space of the inverted-T member 8 and its inlet-port space 12a formed in the neck-structure (not numbered) that mounts the flexible faucet-mating structure 9 that has its inlet-port space 9a. Space 12a is continuous with inlet-port space 9a. Inside the horizontal portion of water-outlet end 6a is positioned with a slidable friction-fit an inner tubular element 10a that similarly extends into the horizontal portion of inverted-T member 8, providing axial sliding movement outwardly from the T-member when slight pressure is applied laterally while moving the end 6a angularly backwardly and forwardly in motions 7a and 7b. Thereby, the distance laterally outwardly from the other end 6b may be increased, or moved back to the illustrated minimal distance. Likewise the end 6b is frictionally mounted on tubular element 10b that also extends into the tubular space by friction fit (or fused thereto) of the inverted-T member 8, and is in like manner movable laterally to alter distance from end 6a. It should be noted that substantially equivalent benefits are obtainable when merely one of the ends 6a and 6b is movable laterally away from the other, with the remaining one thereof being fused or non-slidable laterally. Additionally, however, as noted above, these joint connections above-described provide the benefit of permitting the ends 6a and 6b to be positioned as desired by the user to different and/or desired angles such as either 7a or 7b, to typically a position such as shown in FIG. 3B. Optional but preferred gasket elements 11'a and 11'b provide for improved pivotal action, as well as for locking-in the joints to one-another, requiring greater pressure laterally to initially unlock to move an end 6a or 6b laterally, at the joints 11a and 11b respectively. In the uprightly-positioned neck structure of the inverted-T element 8, forming inlet-space 12a, there is mounted the flexible faucet-mating structure 9 having its water-inlet port 9a, which structure 9 is symbolic of conventional commercially-available or other desired faucet mount that is designed/shaped and/or semi-rigid or flexible structure such that it is mountable on any one of a variety of conventional faucet outlet structures. It should be noted that while this invention as disclosed illustrates merely a single inlet structure for the water, being illustrated for the typical modern situation and equipement in which hot and cold water feed outwardly from a common faucet structure, i.e. a single faucet with separate hot and cold levers, or with a single lever controlling and providing for adjustment of relative amounts of flow from hot and cold water lines, it is within the scope of the invention to have the illustrated structures modified to include spaced-apart water-inlet ends feeding commonly to a T-member that feeds the water-outlet ends. Such may also be provided as a separate accessory, for connecting to separate faucets and with an outlet connectable to the member 9 or directly to the neck-structure of the inverted-T member 8. FIG. 2 illustrates best the oval shapes characteristic of the water-outlet spaces(ports) 6d and 6c respectively, the view of FIG. 2 being specifically of the structure 6bb and space/port 6d. Significance and importance of this shape arises from the fact that a substantially circular outlet-structure will not normally fit well into space between a person's cheek bone and the bone of the eyebrow, making it difficult to get such a round (circular) structure into a proper washing position. On the other hand, an oval or other irregularly-shaped(substantialy oval shaped)outlet-structure is easily positioned close to the eye comfortably, for greater ease and improved efficiency in washing-out the eye by bathing with water from the outlet ports(spaces). FIG. 3A in its side view, illustrates that the arms/outlet end structure(s) 6a and 6b may be pivotally moved in alternately directions 7a or 7b, and the friction fit previously described will result in the end structures 6a and/or 6b staying wherever positioned until repositioned by pivotal force. Accordingly, FIG. 3B illustrates an angularly repositioned state in which both end portions/structures 6a and 6b have been repositioned from the upright position shown by phantom-image 6 to that shown for end structure 6b, the end structure 6a being behind end structure 6b in this FIG. 3B side view and therefor the end structure 6a being present but not visible in FIG. 3B. FIG. 4 illustrates an alternate embodiment described above, in which typically it would be molded from a thermoplastic such as polyvinyl chloride plastic, and the upright portions of the outlet structures bent to that position by heating and bending subsequent to the molding. In this embodiment, the faucet mounting structure is of the same substantially flexible structure as the remainder of the device. Thus the T-neck structure 8 includes neck structure 12' which is continuous with the faucet-mounting structure 9' defining its inlet space and port 9'a. It is important to point-out that an embodiment such as FIG. 4 embodiment may, however, have an inlet-structure at its neck of the T-shaped structure(inverted) of FIG. 1, and likewise may utilize a separate mateable flexable mounting structure 9 thereon. An advantage to the embodiment of FIG. 4 is that there are no cracks or creases or joints into which grease or grime or dirt or other matter may collect that by collection could produce conditions susceptable of bacteria growth, causing an unsanitary condition. Accordingly, while the embodiment of FIGS. 1, 2, 3A and 3B have various advantages described above, such embodiment will require also greater care in disassemblying and cleaning periodically, preferably, to prevent the possibility of unsanitary conditions. Each of FIGS. 3B and 4 illustrate with arrows the directions of flow of water therethrough when mated with a faucet(not shown). Whereas in the embodiment of FIG. 4 the faucet-making structure is integral with the other structure of the device, a thermoplatic such as polypropylene may optimally be utilized since such is flexible and increases in strength each time flexed, providing thus good and appropriate flexible and sturdy faucet mounting structure. It is within the scope of the invention to make variations and modifications, and substitutions of equivalents within the skill of an ordinary artisan. With regard to prior art, no relevant art is known. However, U.S. Pat. No. 3,925,829 to Bost discloses a water-fountain having a circular single water-outlet structure and port thereof, such not being for nor suggesting a faucet-mounting and negatively teaching solely a single water-outlet and that outlet being negatively circular in the cross-sectional space of its outlet port. The device of U.S. Pat. No. 2,910,064 to Brangaitis clearly is not of a type that is readily-portable and does not provide nor suggest a device that may be intermittently attached and detached as a mode of ordinary usage-practice, and does not disclose paired outlets, negatively disclosing solely one which is apparently of circular shape in the cross-section of space of outlet port of eye piece 30, and not recognizing the benefits to be achieved by non-circular outlet port. U.S. Pat. No. 143,928 to Potter likewise has no provisions for and no suggestion of use with or on a faucet, as well as negatively teaching solely a single water-outlet and having negatively solely a circular outlet port-space for small vessel C. None of the objects and embodiments of Applicant's invention are disclosed nor made obvious by any one or more of such non-teaching references. With regard to Applicant's water-outlets of diverging or flaring conical shape, such serves to reduce pressure and to widen the area of surface-contact of the eye with the water being flowed through the outlet port, pressure reduction being of particular importance where as here the present invention utilizes water from a faucet source where pressure can be normally or accidentally high or elevated, and/or where exact adjustment of pressure by some faucets is difficult or impossible.

This invention is directed to a device which in a preferred embodiment thereof includes a pair of spaced-apart eye-bathable water-outlets adjustable of both the distance spaced-apart and the positioning between vertical and horizontal of the pair, with the water-outlets being of diverging conical shape having outer circumscribing walls thereof of substantially oval shape, water-conducting conduit structure, being of polyvinyl chloride plastic to a major extent, and the water-inlet thereof being mateable on any one of faucets of diverse shapes and structures by virtue of the water-inlet end being or including a flexible multi-purpose mating structure.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field of the Invention This invention relates to preventing timeout. More particularly, it relates to preventing timeout of a browser in a client/server system. 2. Background Art Java Servlets are used in conjunction with web browsers. The web browser acts as the client. The servlet resides on the server side. When an event occurs on a web page, such as clicking on a “submit” button, user-entered data on the page, such as information to make an on-line purchase of goods, may be sent to the servlet for processing. The servlet then receives that data and takes appropriate actions, such as verifing the credit card number and checking inventory to make sure the purchase can be fulfilled. If the servlet takes a lengthy period of time to process that data, the web browser may time-out and show an error message to the effect that the page being requested can not be obtained or that communication was lost with the web server. The servlet will eventually finish processing the user's data, but because of the timeout, the web page that the servlet returns to the browser after the data has been processed will go undisplayed. Even if the data is able to be processed within the time-out period enforced by the browser, the processing may still be lengthy. Without a monitoring system that uses words and/or a pictorial to indicate the progress of the data processing to the user, the user would only see an hourglass while the mouse is hovering over the browser. This has been a source of frustration for users encountering this phenomenon. It is an object of the invention to provide a system and method for avoiding premature timeout of a browser while awaiting completion of an application. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A system and method for preventing timeout by initializing an application for execution; initializing a client state with a refresh attribute, the refresh attribute specifying a time interval for posting state refresh requests; responsive to the state refresh request from the client, returning to the client a refreshed application state selectively including a refresh attribute while the application is executing and not including the refresh attribute upon said application completing execution or going into an error state. Other features and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of the presently preferred embodiment of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 represents a server/client system in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic representation of the threads of FIG. 1 . FIGS. 3A-3C are a flow chart of an exemplary embodiment of the method of the invention. FIG. 4 is class diagram illustrating thread I of FIG. 2 . DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention, a system and method for monitoring task progress in a Java servlet is used to avoid premature timeout of a browser. In an exemplary embodiment, on periodic request from the browser, a bar graph representation of percentage of the task completion is returned from the servlet in a hypertext language markup, such as a JavaScript/HTML markup, on short time intervals (i.e., every 5 seconds). This bar graph can also be accompanied by text displaying any pertinent progress information. The instruction to request an updated representation of the progress is received by the browser in a meta tag from the servlet. This time interval is set to be less than the browser time-out value, so the browser will never time-out. The progress representation allows the user to see and understand how much progress has been made in completing the task, the browser does not timeout, and the user can estimate when the task will be completed. Referring to FIG. 1 , server 20 and client 30 are coupled through a network 22 . Server 20 has a servlet 24 running in thread I and an application task 26 running in thread II. Client 30 has a browser, in which progress bar 34 may be displayed responsive to servlet 24 indicating the state of completion of application task 26 in thread II. In accordance with the preferred embodiment of the invention, a meta tag is sent by servlet 24 in a first thread to keep a browser 32 from timing out during execution of application task 26 in a second thread. A meta tag is a piece of html markup that describes a document, and can define an interval that sets a refresh interval: after that interval, a client returns to the server to get a new copy of the page being displayed at client. This meta tag is an existing part of html, and is used by the preferred embodiment of the present invention to refresh an html page with information from a Java servlet. HTML and JavaScript at client browser displays progress bar/text at browser. Each time interval t the client goes to the server servlet 24 for an update for the progress bar 34 . That progress bar is tracking the progress of an application on a separate thread II. Servlet 24 responds by building a new HTML page with JavaScript to send back to client 30 a new display for browser display 32 with progress bar 34 updated to reflect current progress of application 26 . When application 26 on thread II completes or goes to error state, the response from servlet 24 does not include the meta tag—so the page is done and no further refreshing is done in response to a meta tag. Referring to FIG. 2 , application 28 runs in thread II 26 , and as is represented by line 35 periodically posts its status (completion or error state) to task status 23 , which runs in thread 124 . Thread I also includes user interface 25 . As is represented by line 36 , user interface accesses task status 23 to ascertain the current status of application 28 . As is represented by line 37 , user interface initializes user 31 to an initial state which includes a meta tag having a refresh attribute t. As is further represented by line 37 , user 31 , responsive to that refresh attribute t, periodically posts a refresh request to user interface 25 , which responds with a new state including an updated representation of the status of application 28 . Until application 28 posts completion or error to task status 23 , user interface 25 will respond to refresh requests from user 31 with a state refresh that includes the refresh attribute. Upon task status 23 being posted by application 28 to error or complete state, the response from user interface 25 to user 31 will not include the refresh attribute t and user 31 ceases posting periodic refresh requests to user interface 25 . Refresh attribute t is set at a time interval less than the timeout period for user 31 so that, as long as user 31 receives and responds to a state refresh including the meta tag, user 31 will not timeout. Referring to FIGS. 3A-3C in connection with FIG. 1 , an exemplary embodiment of the invention is presented. In step 40 , a Java user interface class presents a series of HTML screens (a wizard) to the user, each for collecting data from him for setting up an application task 28 in thread II. Between each screen, in step 42 , the data on the page is submitted to the Java Servlet 24 and is stored in this Java class. In an exemplary embodiment, this servlet class 24 is represented by B2BCatalogPublishWizardForm. Once all data has been collected from the user, in step 44 , a subclass of ProgressBarTask is created (in this example, PublishTask). All data needed to perform the publish task is passed on to this newly created object. In step 46 , the new ProgressBarTask creates a TaskStatus object, which holds the percentage complete of the task to run, and some message text set by the object user. The ProgressBarTask also owns a ProgressBar object. Once all data is sent to the ProgressBarTask subclass (i.e. PublishTask) from the user interface class, the actual long task (such as a publishing application 28 ) is ready to be run. In step 48 , application task 28 is run in a separate thread II from servlet 24 , which runs in thread I. The ProgressBarTask subclass object is sent to the classes handling the long operation (publish) in that separate thread. Those classes are in charge of using the PublishTask object to set the TaskStatus that it owns with new percentages and messages when it reaches specific milestones. In step 50 , updates to task status are periodically posted to the progress bar object by progress bar task. This is the data that will be read every t seconds when an update is required. In step 52 , servlet 24 sends to browser 32 an HTML page with progress indicator 34 (initially set to 0% completion) and a meta tag with a refresh attribute of t. In step 54 , browser 32 displays progress bar 34 . In step 56 , periodically, such as when an update is required to the HTML page with progress indicator 34 , the ProgressBar task takes the data from the TaskStatus object, and gives it to the ProgressBar object. The ProgressBar object uses that data to create a new HTML page to be returned in step 60 by the Java Servlet 24 to browser 32 . In step 60 , this HTML page contains a meta tag with a refresh attribute set to a default of t seconds. This will cause in step 54 a post to the Java Servlet 24 in t seconds, causing in step 56 the user interface class (i.e. B2BCatalogPublishWizardForm) to ask the ProgressBarTask subclass to get a new HTML page from ProgressBar. The meta tag with the refresh attribute is returned in step 60 in the HTML markup until in step 58 an error in or completion of task 26 is detected and, at that time, in step 62 the interface returns the HTML markup without the meta tag. This prevents an infinite refresh of the progress HTML page. When all updates are finished, in step 64 a button is presented on the HTML page that takes the user to another page so that he can continue with his use of the browser. Summarizing, in this embodiment of the invention, a ProgressBarTask subclass is shared between two threads I and II. Thread I consumes the TaskStatus data from it, and user interface thread II updates it. Thread I is the user interface class which can make calls to get a new HTML page to show the user the current task status, and the thread II is the class or classes performing the actual task 26 . The object model of FIG. 4 and Tables I-IV illustrate how a progress indicator meta tag having a refresh attribute is used to prevent browser time-out during application execution when publishing large electronic catalog in Connect for the IBM iSeries. All objects of FIG. 4 reside within Java servlet 24 (iSeries Connect is one Java Servlet). The Java code of Tables I-IV illustrate an exemplary embodiment of the invention for iSeries Connect. Referring to FIG. 4 , a class diagram illustrates progress bar task 10 (Table I), task status 12 (Table II), progress bar 14 (Table III), publish task 16 (Table IV), and application wizard 18 . As is represented by line 11 , progress bar task class 10 has a progress bar class 14 . As is represented by line 13 , progress bar task class 10 has a task status class 12 . As is represented by line 15 , publish task 16 extends progress bar task class 10 . As is represented by line 17 , application wizard class 18 has a publish task class 16 . Progress bar task class 10 returns html to browser 32 which contains progress bar 34 information. Table I sets forth a Java code statement of an exemplary progress bar task class 10 . TABLE I PROGRESSBAR TASK #status:TaskStatus #progressBar:ProgressBar #m_taskException:B2BCatalogExeption=null #m_trace:B2BServletTraceLogger #m_catBundle:CatalogResourceBundle #ProgressBarTask( ) #ProgressBarTask(refreshRate:int) +getProgressHTML( ):String +getProgressHTMLForError( ):String +getStatus( ):TaskStatus +getTaskException( ):B2BCatalogException +setTaskException(taskException:B2BCatalogException) Task status class 12 contains information on how complete is thread II 26 , or its error state. A Java code representation of an exemplary task status class 12 is set forth in Table II. TABLE II TASKSTATUS −m_statusMsg:String=“” −m_percentComplete:Integer −m_onLastStep:Boolean −m_catBundle:CatalogResourceBundle +TaskStatus( ) +setTaskStatus(statusMsg:String.percentComplete:int):void +onLastStep( ):boolean statusMsg:String percentComplete:int onLastStep:boolean Progress bar class 14 is a data holder for the refresh rate on the meta tag of browser 32 , and is also used as an interface to update application task 28 thread II 26 progress. A Java code representation of an exemplary progress bar class 14 is set forth in Table III. TABLE III PROGRESS BAR −REFRESH_URL:String=B2BPaths.getServletURLpath( )+“/Content” −m_refreshRate:Int=5 −m_trace:B2BServletTraceLogger −m_catBundle:CatalogResourceBundle −progressHTMLStr:String +ProgressBar( ) +ProgressBar(refreshRate:int) +updateProgress(percentComplete:int,statusMsg:String,   isFinalStep:boolean):String +updateProgress(percentComplete:int,statusMsg:   String,errorOccurred:boolean,isFinalStep:boolean) refreshRate:Int Publish task class 16 is an extended class of progress bar task class 10 with specific information for application task 28 thread II 26 (what is it and what kind of data does it need.) A publish task is a subclass of progress bar task. It is needed because a publish is a long operation that needs to be monitored by a progress bar. The kind of data it needs, for example, is the catalog format that will be published, who the catalog supplier is, if it is a local or remote catalog, etc. Table IV contains a Java code representation of an exemplary publish task class 16 . TABLE IV PUBLISH TASK −m_mpFormat:MarketplaceFormat=null −m_result:PublishResult=null −m_catalog:Catalog=null −m_associateMP:B2BSupplierMarketplaceAssociationElemen... −m_priceProfiles:Vector=null −m_destination:PublishDestination=null −m_localOrRemote:int −resultsSet:Boolean −resultIsSet:Boolean −m_catBundle: CatalogResourceBundle +PublishTask(mpFormat:MarketplaceFormat) +publish(catalog:Catalog,associateMP:   B2BSupplierMarketplaceAssociation) +run( ):void publishResult:PublishResult Application wizard class 18 is a method for starting application task 28 thread II 26 . Upon completing, application wizard class 18 induces progress bar 34 . Class 18 is a wizard that interacts with the user to obtain information on how to publish, for example, an electronic catalog. At the end of the wizard, when a finish button is clicked, publish task class 16 is instantiated. An example of such a wizard is the B2BCatalogPublishWizardForm at com.ibm.connect.config.B2BWizardForm. for the IBM iSeries Connect product, a product that allows suppliers to operate in secure market places to leverage the Internet. In publish task class 16 , the statement +run( ):void is what spawns thread II 26 . When publish task class 16 is created, progress bar class 10 gets created as a consequence (publish task class 16 is a sub class of progress bar task 10 ). When progress bar task 10 is created, task status class 12 gets created as a consequence with an initial progress state of null. In publish task class 16 , there is a run statement +run( ):void that spawns application task 28 in thread II 26 (the task that will take a long time (that is, a time longer than the timeout time of client browser 32 ), the progress of which will be displayed in progress bar 34 .) At this point there exists a task (progress bar task 10 ) in application task 28 thread II 26 , which has a reference to task status class 12 in a separate thread which updates task status whenever it is necessary. Both servlet thread 24 and application task 28 have access to task status class 12 , with thread 24 being the consumer and thread 26 being the maintainer of task status class 12 . Thread II 26 , once spawned, sets/resets its progress bar by executing the Java code +setTaskStatus(statusMsg:String.percentComplete:int):void on the task status class 12 . When task status class 12 is set up, no progress is complete, and a status bar 34 with zero complete is returned to client 30 by servlet thread 124 which includes the metatag to refresh the page. This metatag is contained in progress bar task class 10 at +getProgressHTML( ): String Application task 28 on thread II updates task status class 12 , and progress bar task class 10 builds an HTML response to client 30 showing in the statement +getProgressHTML( ):String the new state of progress which had been set in task status class 12 by thread II 26 at +setTaskStatus(statusMsg:String.percentComplete:int):void That new +getProgressHTML( ):String includes a new meta tag which instructs client 30 to refresh again in time t. If application task 28 on thread II is 100% complete or in error state, progress bar task class 10 returns HTML without the refresh meta tag and a progress bar which shows a completion or stopped state. Advantages over the Prior Art It is an advantage of the invention that there is provided a system and method for avoiding premature timeout of a browser while awaiting completion of an application. Alternative Embodiments It will be appreciated that, although specific embodiments of the invention have been described herein for purposes of illustration, various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. In particular, it is within the scope of the invention to provide a computer program product or program element, or a program storage or memory device such as a solid or fluid transmission medium, magnetic or optical wire, tape or disc, or the like, for storing signals readable by a machine, for controlling the operation of a computer according to the method of the invention and/or to structure its components in accordance with the system of the invention. Further, each step of the method may be executed on any general computer, such as IBM Systems designated as zSeries, iSeries, series, and pseries, or the like and pursuant to one or more, or a part of one or more, program elements, modules or objects generated from any programming language, such as C++, Java, Pl./1, Fortran or the like. And still further, each said step, or a file or object or the like implementing each said step, may be executed by special purpose hardware or a circuit module designed for that purpose. Accordingly, the scope of protection of this invention is limited only by the following claims and their equivalents.

A system for preventing timeout of a client interface accessing a main Java Servlet executing in a first thread which monitors an application executing in a second thread. A task status object is accessed by the application to post its completion state and by the client interface responsive to a state refresh request to post a state refresh response including the completion state to the client. The state refresh response selectively includes a refresh attribute instructing the client to periodically post the state refresh request. Upon the application going to completion or error state, subsequent state refresh responses do not include the refresh attribute.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to power window controls for automotive vehicles and, more particularly, to a control circuit for such devices. For safety, the motor of window lifter installations in motor vehicles must be switched off immediately, or its direction of rotation has to be reversed, when the window meets an obstacle. In known versions this is ensured by a current supervising stage which responds as soon as the motor current exceeds a given threshold value determined experimentally. On the other hand, the motor must be able to bring a tight window home into the end position. The torque reserve necessary for it in most installations is greater than the admissible torque for safety considerations. Known circuit arrangements with a static evaluation of the motor current proportional to the torque of the motor are not successful in practice, because these conflicting requirements could not be complied with. The invention is based on the problem to develop a circuit arrangement for such an actuating drive, by which the danger of injury is effectively avoided, but in spite of this the movable element is driven with a sufficient torque in particular cases. This problem is solved by the features of the present invention. The invention is thereby based on the knowledge that a continuous change in the torque and in the current may be measured, when the movable element enters the end position, thus when for instance a window enters the upper window guidance, whereas in contrast thereto a change in torque or in the current is very rapidly effected, when the movable element meets an obstacle. While in known installations the current supervising stage alone responds to the instantaneous value of the motor current, in a circuit arrangement according to the invention a dynamic current control is effected. Thereby it is simultaneously achieved that the current supervising stage does not respond, when the movable element is continuously tight, because a rapid change in current is not effected. Thus dimensioning of the circuit arrangement is less critical and in this case the maximum torque of the motor can be used to drive the movable element. According to an advantageous improvement of the invention it is provided that the current supervising stage responds in addition--as in itself known--to a given static current threshold value. The combination of the static and dynamic current control improves the operating reliability and above all is more accident-proof, because the motor switches off too and reverses its direction of rotation respectively, when during a gradual current increase to a value near the short-circuit current a current increase releasing the response of the current supervising stage is no longer possible. It became apparent that it is of advantage to drive the movable element by a motor the maximum torque and the short-circuit current of which respectively considerably exceeds the value which under the most unfavorable operating conditions is necessary to adjust the movable element, because in this case, where the dimensions of the dynamic response threshold of the current supervising stage are adapted to a relatively rapid current increase in time, the current supervising stage reacts rapidly on extremely high values, also after a gradual current increase. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The combination of a static and a dynamic current sensing is embodied in the present invention. In order to prevent that the current supervising stage responds to the load inrush current of the motor current a capacitor is provided for damping purposes. A bistable toggle stage is provided to prevent that the motor current is periodically switched on and off and said bistable toggle switch only by the operating switch is again brought into the condition which allows sensing of the motor current. Thus it is ensured that the motor remains switched off after the motor current supervising stage responded until the operating switch is actuated anew, which is necessary on grounds of safety. However, on grounds of safety a solution will be preferred in which the direction of rotation is changed after switching off of the motor and the movable element automatically returns to its end position. An improvement of the invention serves this purpose. In order to provide that the movable element returns to the end position too, when the operating switch is opened, the second switching element is controlled via a storage which is quenched only, when the current supervising stage responds again. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING The invention is described below in detail by way of two circuit arrangements depicted in FIGS. 1 and 2. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In FIG. 1 the electric motor which is fed out of a voltage source 11 is designated by 10. Two switching elements 12 and 13 designed as changeover relays actuate the respective changeover contacts 12' and 13' via which the motor 10 may be short-circuited or its direction of rotation may be reversed. The circuit arrangement is controlled by an operating switch 14. It is assumed that the window pane of a motor vehicle driven by the electric motor is moved upwards, when the relay 13 is energized, while the window pane is moved downwards, when the relay 12 is energized. The current supervising stage 20 contains a measuring resistor 21 in the motor circuit, to which a voltage divider consisting of the resistors 22 and 23 is switched in parallel, whereby to the preferably variable resistor 23 a capacitor 24 is connected in parallel. In the tapping 25 of said voltage divides a reset signal may be measured which depends on the motor current. The capacitor 26 and the resistor 27 form a timing element to compensate current peaks during the starting process of the motor. The transistors 31 and 32 form a bistable toggle stage 30, for the output signal of the transistor 32 is fed back to the input of the transistor 31 via resistor 33, diode 34 and lead 35. The resistor 36 serves as an operating resistor for the transistor 31 and conducts control voltage to the other transistor 32, so that it is prepared for the conductive condition. The diode 37 serves as decoupling diode, the diode 38 as quenching diode for the relay 13. The circuit arrangement described until now serves for the purpose of switching off the motor as soon as the movable element is running against an obstacle and the motor current increases. In the rest condition the transistor 31 is blocked, because no reset signal can be measured on the measuring resistor 21 and thereby on the tapping 25 of the voltage divider, when the motor 10 is short-circuited and separated from the voltage source 11. Base current flows into the transistor via the resistor 36 which thereby becomes conductive as soon as the operating switch is changed over. The relay 13 is energized via the diode 37 and the collector-emitter-path of the transistor 32. The contact 13' is changed over and the motor is started in one direction of rotation, whereby the window pane is moved upwards. The current increase in time during the starting process indeed is relatively high, but the transistor 31 remains blocked, because at first the capacitor 26 would have to be recharged. For this purpose the load inrush current is, however, not sufficient. During the normal continuous operation a voltage of 0.4 volt is applied on the base of the transistor 31, so that the diode 34 is blocked as long as the saturation voltage may be measured on the conductive transistor 32. If the motor current increases rapidly, when the window pane meets an obstacle, the increase potential on the measuring resistor 21 is conducted to the tapping 25 of the voltage divider via the capacitor 24. Thereby the transistor 31 is switched to the conductive switching condition and the transistor 32 is blocked, so that the relay 13 is deenergized and the motor 10 is short-circuited again. The high output voltage of the transistor 32 which is fed back to the base of the transistor 31 holds the latter in conductive condition, also if the reset signal is quenched again, when the motor 10 is short-circuited. The toggle stage with the transistors 31 and 32 can only be switched over to the other switching condition by returning the operating switch into the neutral position shown in the drawing. If, during operation, the motor current rises only gradually the capacitor 24 practically has no effect. Then the transistor 31 responds only at the time, when the static voltage on the tapping 25 of the voltage divider exceeds the base-emitter threshold voltage of the transistor 31. This means for the concrete case of application that upon relatively quick changes in torque and thereby changes in current, thus when the pane is meeting an obstacle, the changeover is effected immediately, when the momentary current value is low, but on the other hand, when the torque changes slowly, that means when the pane moves into the upper guidance, a switching off is only effected by a very high static motor current. The just described mode of operation is given too, when the operating switch is switched over to the other operating position in which the relay 12 is energized. On grounds of safety it is now necessary not only to switch off the motor in case of trouble, but to drive to its other end position to release a squeezed-in body. Thereby this process is to be effected independently of a switching process of the operating switch always, when the current supervising stage responds at first. A transistor switching stage 40 with the transistor 41, the capacitor 42 and the resistor 43 evaluates the motor current too. The collector of said transistor 41 is connected to the relay 13 via a resistor 44, so that this transistor can only receive collector voltage, when the operating switch 14 occupies the right-hand switching position for upward operation. The capacitor 43 absorbs the peaks of the inrush current after the reverse of the electric motor 10. The control circuit of the second switching element, namely the relay 12, is formed by two switches in the shape of the transistors 51 and 52 which form a storage 50, for the output voltage of the transistor 51 is conducted via the resistor 53 to the base of the transistor 52 and the output voltage of the latter is conducted to the base of the first transistor 51 via the resistor 54. The resistors 55 and 56 serve for depletion of the base, the capacitor 57 filters out parasitic voltages. The capacitor 56 also serves for the purpose of deriving undesired current from the feedback via the resistors 70 and 53. The transistor 51 in series with a decoupling diode 58 bridges the operating switch 14. The transistor 52 in series with a further decoupling diode 59 can take over the current via the relay 13, which originally was conducted by the transistor 32. Thus it can be ensured by this supplemented circuit that the motor is moved downwards, also when the operating switch 14 occupies the neutral position. This storage with the transistors 51 and 52 can only be set, if the operating switch occupies the right-hand position for upward operation and the transistor 32 of the toggle stage 30 is blocked. Only then the base of the transistor 52 is applied to a sufficiently positive potential via operating switch 14, relay 13 and resistor 44 as well as via the lead 60. This is the case, if during upward operation the current supervising stage responded. Thus the transistors 51 and 52 are conductive, so that shortly after the motor was short-circuited the contact 12' is changed over and the polarity of the motor is reversed. The transistors 51 and 52 hold themselves via the feedback resistors 53 and 54. The storage 50 with the transistors 51 and 52 can only be reset, if the transistor 41 becomes conductive, because the collector-emitter voltage of the transistor can nearly short-circuit the base-emitter voltage of the transistor 52. The transistor 41 becomes conductive as soon as the motor current supervising stage responds again. This means in practice that the motor 10 is at first switched off via the toggle stage 30, when the movable element meets an obstacle, thereafter the polarity of the motor 10 is reversed, when the relay 12 responds and the pane is moved upwards until in the lower end position the current supervising stage responds again. Furthermore, a feedback from the storage 50 to the base of the transistor 31 via resistor 70 and lead 35 is essential in this circuit arrangement. By said feedback it is prevented that the two relays 12 and 13 are responding simultaneously. When the transistor 51 is conductive via said feedback branch nearly positive operating voltage is switched on the base of the transistor 31, so that this transistor remains conductive independent of the momentary motor current and blocks the transistor 32. When the upward movement of the pane is blocked at first both transistors 31 and 41 are switched over to the conductive position. The transistor 31 effects a blocking of the transistor 32 and thereby a short-circuit of the motor via the relay 13. The current supervising stage is dead, so that the transistor 41 is blocked again. Thus the storage 50 with the transistors 51 and 52 is set which in turn hold the transistor 31 conductive. When the current input rises again, this affects only the transistor 41 which then becomes conductive again and quenches the storage 50. In order to prevent that the polarity of the motor is reversed during the upward movement a feedback switch 80 is provided which for instance closes when the pane has such a small spacing from the end position that squeezing will have no longer to be feared. Said feedback switch 80 prevents a setting of the storage 50 by short-circuit of the control input of the transistor 52. It would be also imaginable to switch off the circuit to the capacitor of the current supervising stage or to bridge the measuring resistor 21, so that the pane can be brought into the upper rest position with full torque. FIG. 2 shows a modification of the circuit arrangement according to FIG. 1 in which the output voltage of the current supervising stage only affects a transistor 100. The transistors 31 and 32 again form a toggle stage which, however, is controlled via transistor 100, diode 101 and voltage divider 102, 103 on the base of the transistor 32. The quenching signal for the storage 50 is tapped from the collector of the transistor 100 via the diode 104. Compared to the embodiment according to FIG. 1 this version has the advantage that to the current supervising stage two transistor switching stages are not connected in parallel, the threshold voltages of which have to be adjusted to each other by means of the resistors 26, 27. An essential functional difference does not exist. In the circuit arrangement according to FIG. 2 a further switch 80' in the circuit of the capacitor 24 of the current supervising stage 20 is actuated by the movable element and the electric motor 10 respectively, through which switch the dynamic current sensing may be switched off. It is of course imaginable to realize the switch 80' by electronic methods, for instance via switch diodes and/or transistors, which is also controlled by the switch 80. Besides, it can be necessary to connect a resistor in series with the capacitor 24, whereby said resistor effects that only a rapid change in current to a given value available for a given time is sufficient to connect through the transistor 31. In this manner it is achieved that a blocking of the movable element for only a short time will not result in switching off the electric motor 10.

This invention refers to a circuit arrangement for a motor for the purpose of driving a window in motor vehicles comprising a motor current supervising stage for switching the motor in case of blocking, wherein the motor current supervising stage responds to a change in time of the motor current. The dynamic supervising of the motor current offers a greater reliability than the known static supervising of the motor current. The circuit senses a rapid change in motor current to indicate that the window has met an undesired (e.g a human) obstacle.

This is a Divisional application Ser. No. 08/725,572 filed on Oct. 3, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,813,021, which is a further divisional of application Ser. No. 08/365,366 filed on Dec. 28, 1994, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,885,016. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a method of editing text data to be printed in a plurality of lines as well as to a printing device for printing the edited text data in the plurality of lines. 2. Description of the Related Art Among a variety of printing devices generally known, there are small-sized printing devices for printing desired text data on a surface of an adhesive tape having an adhesive rear face. With such a tape printing device, a desirable title or name is printed on a label (cut piece of a tape) through simple operation. These labels with an adhesive are applied in both domestic and business fields, for example, on the spine of business files or the back of video tapes. A high-functional, value-added printing device has been developed to allow text data to be printed in a plurality of lines on the tape. Tape cartridges used for the printing device may accommodate transferable tapes and those of various colors and widths other than the conventional adhesive tapes. The value-added function of printing text data in a plurality of lines, however, leads to increase the size of the device undesirably, thereby damaging the advantages of the portable printing device. The size increase of the high-functional printing device is mainly attributable to a large display unit for editing text data of plural lines. Simple down-sizing of the display makes it difficult to check and observe information and data on the display. Another possible structure for the down-sizing shows only part of text data to be edited. This deteriorates the efficiency of editing procedures and may result in waste of the tape since mistakes are often found after the printing on the tape. There is a known function applicable to the printing device, which calculates a required length for input text data and displays the required length of the tape. A fixed unit of length is, however, confusing since some nations adopt the metric system whereas other nations use the inch-yard system. Calculation results of the required length based on the input text data may cause display of rather complicated numbers with decimal point. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One object of the invention is accordingly to provide a printing device having a small display unit which allows the user to easily check and observe data and information without deteriorating the efficiency of editing procedures. Another object of the invention is to provide a method of editing data with such a printing device. The above and other related objects are realized by a tape printing device for editing data of up to ‘n’ lines, where ‘n’ is an integer at least 2, and printing the edited data in ‘m’ lines, where ‘m’ is an integer between 1 to the maximum line number ‘n’. In the tape printing device of the invention, the edited data are displayed on a main display unit in ‘p’ lines, where ‘p’ is an integer between 1 to ‘n’−1. A line currently edited is displayed as a digit on an auxiliary display unit. The data which occupies a relative large display area and includes data of the line currently edited are displayed on the main display unit while the current editing position is indicated on the auxiliary display unit. The invention is also directed to another tape printing device for editing data of up to ‘n’ lines, where ‘n’ is an integer at least 2, and printing the edited data in ‘m’ lines, where ‘m’ is an integer between 1 to ‘n’. In the tape printing device of the invention, the edited data are displayed on a display unit in ‘p’ lines, where ‘p’ is an integer between 1 and the maximum line number ‘n’. The data displayed on the display unit can be scrolled along each line. A digit representing a line number at a head of the data displayed on the display unit is indicated in either of the following forms. When the data is scrolled to make the head of the data reach an end of the display unit and further scrolled to be out of a display area of the display unit, the digit representing a line number is indicated at a fixed position on the end of the display unit. When the data is scrolled to make the head of the data reach the end of the display unit and further scrolled to be within the display area of the display unit, the digit representing a line number is indicated at the head of the data. According to another aspect of the invention, a tape printing device for printing data on a tape or recording medium inputs data, prints the input data on the tape, and cuts the tape with the data printed thereon at a specified length. The specified length of the tape with the data printed thereon is displayed together with a unit of length on the display unit prior to the printing procedures. The unit of length can be selected among a plurality of choices. In another aspect of the present invention, a method is provided for displaying edited input data of up to ‘n’ lines, where ‘n’ is a maximum line number and an integer of at least 2, which are to be printed on an elongated tape or elongated recording medium. The method includes the steps of: (A) providing a main display unit configured to display at least a portion of the edited input data in ‘p’ lines, where ‘p’ is an integer between 1 to at most ‘n’−1; and (B) controlling the editing procedure of the input data. This controlling step further includes displaying at least a portion of the input data, including displaying at least a portion of the input data of a line currently edited on the main display unit. This method of the present invention further includes the step of (C) indicating in digits the line currently edited on an auxiliary display unit positioned proximate to the main display unit. The present invention also includes the another method of displaying edited input data of up to ‘n’ lines, where ‘n’ is a maximum line number and an integer, to be printed on an elongated tape or elongated recording medium. In this embodiment, the method first includes the step of: (A) providing a main display configured to display on a display area thereof at least a portion of the edited input data in ‘p’ lines, where ‘p’ is an integer between 1 to the line number ‘n’. The next step includes (B) controlling the editing procedure of the input data and displaying at least a portion of the input data, including displaying at least a portion of the input data of a line currently edited on the display area. Finally, this present invention method includes the step of (C) indicating in a digit a line number indicator corresponding to a respective line of edited input data displayed on the main display. The line number indicator is positioned proximate and adjacent to the respective line on the main display and is formed to display the corresponding digit in either one of the following two forms. The first form pertains to (i) displaying in the display area the line number indicator proximate to and moving with a selected portion of the respective input data of the respective line during scrolling thereof across the main display when the selected portion is positioned within the display area during scrolling of the input data. The other form pertains to (ii) displaying the line number indicator at a fixed location relative the display area and proximate to an end thereof, adjacent to the respective line on the main display, when the selected portion of the respective input data is scrolled beyond the end and out of display of the display area. These and other objects, features, aspects, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a plan view illustrating a tape printing device 1 embodying the invention; FIG. 2 is a right side view of the tape printing device 1 ; FIG. 3 is a plane view showing assembly of a tape cartridge 10 attached in the tape printing device 1 ; FIG. 4 is a perspective view illustrating a structure of a tape cartridge holder unit 50 A; FIG. 5 is a perspective view illustrating a gear train structure and a function of moving a printing head 60 between a printable position and a rest position; FIG. 6 is a decomposed perspective view showing the printing head 60 ; FIG. 7 is a block diagram showing an electric structure including a CPU 110 ; FIG. 8 shows an exemplified arrangement of keys on an input unit 50 C; FIG. 9 shows a typical structure of a display unit 50 D; FIG. 10 is a flowchart showing a process routine executed by the tape printing device 1 ; FIG. 11 is a flowchart showing detailed steps of the data displaying process of FIG. 10; FIGS. 12A and 12B show exemplified displays on the display unit 50 D according to the text data displaying process; FIG. 13 is a flowchart showing detailed steps of a part of the processing in the printing information specification mode; FIG. 14 is a flowchart showing detailed steps of another part of the processing in the printing information specification mode; FIGS. 15 through 22 show various application forms applicable to the processing of FIG. 14; FIG. 23 shows a process of registering certain text data into a list of abbreviations by assigning a specific abbreviation thereto; FIG. 24 shows a process of inputting the specific abbreviation to display the corresponding text data; FIG. 25 shows a process of deleting the specific abbreviation from the list of abbreviations; FIG. 26 shows a typical structure of a display unit 750 D in a second embodiment according to the invention; FIG. 27 is a flowchart showing a display control routine executed in the second embodiment; FIGS. 28A through 28D show exemplified displays according to the display control process of FIG. 27; FIG. 29 is a flowchart showing a shifting process routine executed at step S 830 in the flowchart of FIG. 27; FIG. 30 is a plan view showing appearance of a tape printing device 900 as a third embodiment according to the invention; FIG. 31 is a block diagram showing electric constituents of the tape printing device 900 ; FIG. 32 is a flowchart showing a process routine executed by the tape printing device 900 of the third embodiment; FIG. 33 shows a menu where the unit ‘cm’ is highlighted; FIG. 34 shows a menu where the unit ‘inch’ is highlighted; FIG. 35 is a flowchart showing a printing process in the third embodiment; FIG. 36 shows an exemplified display by ‘cm’; FIG. 37 shows an exemplified display by ‘inch’; FIG. 38 shows a conversion table between the dot number, ‘inch’, and ‘cm’; and FIG. 39 is a flowchart showing another process of setting the unit of length. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Structure and functions of the present invention will become more apparent through description of the following preferred embodiments of the invention. A tape printing device of a first embodiment, in which a plurality of tape cartridges are detachably and replaceably attached, prints text data on a tape accommodated in each tape cartridge. Both an ink ribbon and a tape on which text data are printed with the ink ribbon are accommodated in one cartridge in this embodiment. This cartridge for the ink ribbon and the tape is hereinafter referred to as the tape cartridge. A. Hardware Configuration As illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2, the tape printing device 1 includes a casing 50 H for accommodating a variety of constituents, an input unit 50 C having sixty-two keys, a freely openable cover 50 K, a display unit 50 D arranged visibly through a window 50 M formed on the cover 50 K for displaying a series of text data and required information, and a tape cartridge holder unit 50 A (not shown in FIG. 1) which is disposed on a left upper portion of the device 1 and detachably and replaceably receives a tape cartridge 10 . The cover 50 K is provided with another window 50 L for checking attachment of the tape cartridge 10 as well as the window 50 M through which the display unit 50 D is observable. Both the windows 50 L and 50 M are covered with transparent plastic plates. A detection switch 55 (see FIG. 7) monitors opening and closing operations of the cover 50 K. Operation of the tape printing device 1 thus constructed is described briefly. An operator first opens the cover 50 K and attaches the tape cartridge 10 into the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A. After closing the cover 50 K, the operator actuates a head shift lever 63 C (see FIG. 4 described later) to shift a head to a printable position and subsequently presses a power switch button 50 J to supply electric power. The device 1 is now ready for an input of letters or characters. The operator then operates the keys on the input unit 50 C to input a desirable series of letters or characters to be printed. The series of letters may be input directly as text data or otherwise converted to specific characters such as Chinese characters, symbols, or words according to the requirements. In response to a printing instruction through a specific key operation, the tape printing device 1 drives a thermal transfer printer unit 50 B (described later) to start printing on a tape T fed from the tape cartridge 10 . The tape T with the letters and characters printed thereon is fed out of a tape outlet 10 A disposed on a left side wall of the tape printing device 1 . The tape T used in the embodiment has a printing surface specifically processed to ensure favorable ink-spread properties by thermal transfer, and an adhesive rear face which a peel tape is closely applied on. After the printed tape T is cut to a label of a desirable length with a built-in blade cutter and the peel tape on the rear face of the tape T is peeled off, the label with characters and symbols printed thereon is applied onto any desirable place. The tape printing device 1 is further provided on a bottom face thereof with a battery holder unit (not shown) for receiving six SUM-3 cells working as a power source of the whole device 1 . The required power is alternatively supplied by inserting an AC power cord (not shown) into a jack 50 N on the right side wall of the device 1 . Structure and functions of the tape cartridge 10 are described mainly based on the plan view of FIG. 3 . The tape cartridge 10 includes a tape core 20 which a long tape T is wound on, an ink ribbon core 22 which an ink ribbon R used for printing is initially wound on, a ribbon winding core 24 which the ink ribbon R is wound up, and a platen 12 . The tape T is held between the platen 12 and a printing head 60 for the printing procedures. The tape cartridge 10 can receive tapes of different widths in similar configurations. In the embodiment, five tape cartridges respectively accommodating tapes of 6 mm, 9 mm, 12 mm, 18 mm, and 24 mm in width are prepared in the embodiment. The platen 12 is a hollow cylindrical member covered with a platen rubber 14 of a predetermined width corresponding to the width of the tape T. The platen rubber 14 improves contact of the tape T and the ink ribbon R with the printing head 60 for desirable printing. In the embodiment, two types of platen rubber 14 are used; a 12 mm wide platen rubber for 6 mm, 9 mm, and 12 mm tapes, and a 18 mm wide platen rubber for 18 mm and 24 mm tapes. The platen 12 is fitted in apertures formed on a top wall and a bottom wall of the tape cartridge 10 to allow pivotal movement of the platen 12 . As described previously, the tape T on the tape core 20 and the ink ribbon R on the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 are arranged in a compact manner in the tape cartridge 10 . The ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 are also fitted in apertures formed on the top wall and the bottom wall of the tape cartridge 20 to allow pivotal movement of the respective cores 22 and 24 . The tape cartridge 10 further includes a printing head receiving hole 32 which the printing head 60 goes in and out. The printing head receiving hole 32 is defined by a guide wall 34 . The tape core 20 is a hollow, large-diametral cylindrical reel having a configuration to receive the long tape T in a relatively small space. This structure allows even a tape T having a small curvature and small resistance against the bending stress to be accommodated under preferable conditions. The tape wound on the tape core 20 runs to the platen 12 via a tape guide pin 26 projecting upright from the bottom wall 18 of the tape cartridge 10 and is further led to a tape outlet 10 A of the tape cartridge 10 . As shown in FIG. 3, substantially L-shaped engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H are formed on the bottom wall 18 of the tape cartridge 10 to be positioned in the vicinity of the lower ends of the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 . The engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H are formed by cutting specific portions of the bottom wall 18 of the tape cartridge 10 (hatched portions designated as X and Y in FIG. 3 ). Resilience of the material of the bottom wall 18 allows respective free ends of the engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H to be movable around base portions 18 E integrally formed with the bottom wall 18 and along the plane of the bottom wall 18 . Upon condition that no force is applied onto the engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H, the free ends of the engagement pieces 18 D are respectively positioned inside the circumferences of the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 . The respective free ends accordingly engage with any of six engagement fingers formed on the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 movably fitted in the apertures, so as to prevent unintentional rotations of the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 . The engagement of the ink ribbon core 22 with the engagement piece 18 D and that of the ribbon winding core 24 and the engagement piece 18 H are released by attaching the tape cartridge 10 in the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A. The releasing mechanism will be described later with the structure of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A. The ink ribbon R wound on and pulled out of the ink ribbon core 22 is guided by a ribbon guide roller 30 and is fed with the tape T to the platen 12 . The ink ribbon R is further led to the ribbon winding core 24 via the guide wall 34 formed on the circumference of the printing head receiving hole 32 which the printing head 60 goes in and out. In the drawing of FIG. 3, p and q show the running conditions of the ink ribbon R when the tape cartridge 10 is new and unused, that is, when only a starting end of the ink ribbon R is on the ribbon winding core 24 , and when the whole ink ribbon R is wound on the ribbon winding core 24 , respectively. The ink ribbon R wound up the ribbon winding core 24 is a thermal transfer ribbon having a specific width determined according to the width of the tape T on which characters are printed. In this embodiment, a 12 mm wide ink ribbon R is used for 6 mm, 9 mm, and 12 mm wide tapes T, a 18 mm wide ink ribbon R for a 18 mm wide tape T, and a 24 mm wide ink ribbon R for a 24 mm wide tape T. As described previously, five tape cartridges 10 of different tape widths are applicable to the tape printing device 1 of the embodiment. A printable range of the tape T differs according to the width of the tape T, and it is thus required to detect the type of the tape cartridge 10 . The tape cartridge 10 of the embodiment has first through third detection holes 18 K a , 18 K b , and 18 K c , which are formed on the bottom wall 18 to allow discrimination of the tape cartridges 10 . Namely, depths of the three detection holes 18 K a , 18 K b , and 18 K c are varied according to the width of the tape T accommodated in the tape cartridge 10 . A sensor arranged at a suitable position detects the widths of the respective detection holes 18 K to distinguish the maximum of seven tape cartridges 10 from one another. The tape cartridge 10 thus constructed is attached in the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A of the tape printing device 1 . Mechanical constituents of the tape printing device 1 are described below. FIG. 4 is a perspective view illustrating a typical structure of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A and the peripheral elements, where a cutter button 96 for cutting the printed tape T is shown by the broken line. FIG. 5 is a perspective view illustrating a fundamental structure of a driving mechanism 50 P for driving the platen 12 and other elements by means of power of a stepping motor 80 in solid lines as well as a rotational frame 62 rotating around a head-rotating shaft 64 in response to a pivotal operation of the head shift lever 63 C in broken lines. The tape cartridge holder unit 50 A is arranged behind the input unit 50 C and on the left of the display unit 50 D on the tape printing device 1 and defines an attachment space corresponding to the shape of the tape cartridge 10 as shown in FIG. 4. A platen-driving shaft and a ribbon winding core-driving shaft respectively engaging with the hollow members of the platen 12 and the ribbon winding core 24 as well as the printing head 60 are disposed upright in the attachment space of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A. A base board 61 is attached to the lower portion of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A with a screw. A tape cutter 90 (see FIG. 4) and the driving mechanism 50 P for transmitting rotations of the stepping motor 80 to the platen 12 and other elements as illustrated in FIG. 5 are mounted on the base board 61 . Under the normal conditions, the base board 61 is parted by the housing of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A, so that the driving mechanism 50 P is not directly observable by simply opening the cover 50 K. FIG. 5 illustrates the driving mechanism 50 P with the casing omitted. The rotational frame 62 for moving a head member 65 between a printable position and a rest position in response to operations of the head shift lever 63 C is shown by the broken lines in FIG. 5 . The tape cartridge 10 is replaceably attached in the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A while the cover 50 K is open. When a slide button 52 (see FIG. 1) disposed before the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A is slid rightward (in the drawing), engagement of the cover 50 K with the main body of the device 1 is released, so that the cover 50 K rotates about a cover hinge 54 mounted on a rear portion of the device 1 to be opened. As described previously, the engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H formed on the bottom wall 18 of the tape cartridge 10 attached in the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A engage with the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 so as to prevent unintentional rotations of the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 . The engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H are formed respectively by cutting the specific portions of the bottom wall 18 (hatched portions designated as X and Y in FIG. 3 ). The tape cartridge holder unit 50 A has two wedge-like contact projections 70 A and 70 B disposed at positions substantially in the middle of the hatched portions X and Y as shown in FIG. 4 . When the tape cartridge 10 is attached in the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A, the contact projections 70 A and 70 B are respectively fitted in the hatched portions X and Y of the bottom wall 18 of the tape cartridge 10 to press the engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H in directions away from the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 . This pressing movement releases the engagement of the engagement pieces 18 D and 18 H with the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 , thus allowing rotations of the ink ribbon core 22 and the ribbon winding core 24 . A transmission mechanism for transmitting rotations of the stepping motor 80 to a platen-driving shaft 72 of the platen 12 is described in detail. As shown in FIG. 5, a first gear 81 is attached to a rotational shaft 80 A of the stepping motor 80 whereas a clutch arm 80 B is fixed to the rotational shaft 80 A with a certain friction. A second gear 82 engaging with the first gear 81 and a third gear 83 (shown by the broken line in FIG. 5 ), which is integrally and concentrically formed with the second gear 82 and disposed below the second gear 82 , are attached to the clutch arm 80 B. The clutch arm 80 B, the second gear 82 , the third gear 83 , and a largest-diametral fourth gear 84 engaging with the third gear 83 constitute a one-way clutch. When the stepping motor 80 is rotated in a direction shown by the arrow C in FIG. 5, the friction between the rotational shaft 80 A and the clutch arm 80 B rotates the clutch arm 80 B with the second gear 82 and the third gear 83 in the direction of the arrow C to engage with the fourth gear 84 . Rotations of the stepping motor 80 are consequently transmitted to the fourth gear 84 . Functions of the one-way clutch will be described more in detail below. The rotation of the fourth gear 84 rotates a fifth gear 85 , which is formed concentrically with the fourth gear 84 , in the same direction. The rotational force of the fifth gear 85 is then transmitted to a six gear 86 and a seventh gear 87 . A rotational shaft of the sixth gear 86 is coupled with a ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 , which winds up the ink ribbon R in response to the rotations of the stepping motor 80 . A rim 74 A actually driving the ribbon winding core 24 is provided on the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 with a certain friction. Under normal operating conditions, the rim 74 A rotates integrally with the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 , which is actuated by the stepping motor 80 . When the ribbon winding core 24 is made unrotatable, for example, due to completed winding of the ink ribbon R, on the other hand, the rim 74 A slips against the rotation of the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 . The rotation of the seventh gear 87 is further transmitted to a ninth gear 89 via an eighth gear 88 , which is formed concentrically with the seventh gear 87 , thus rotating the platen-driving shaft 72 . The platen driving shaft 72 has a rim 72 A which engages with an uneven inner face of the platen 12 to actuate the platen 12 . Rotations of the stepping motor 80 transmitted to the fourth gear 84 by means of the one-way clutch thus eventually rotate the platen-driving shaft 72 as well as the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 . As a result, the tape T held between the platen rubber 14 arranged on the circumference of the platen 12 and the head member 65 of the printing head 60 is continuously fed with progress of printing while the ink ribbon R is wound on the ribbon winding core 24 synchronously with the feeding of the tape T. The platen-driving shaft 72 has, on an outer surface thereof, three engagement projections 72 B which are formed at the equal intervals to engage with engagement grooves formed on the inner surface of the platen 12 . The ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 also has three engagement projections 74 B which are formed at the equal intervals on an outer surface thereof to engage with engagement grooves formed on the inner surface of the ribbon winding core 24 . When the platen-driving shaft 72 and the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 are rotated at a predetermined rate by the stepping motor 80 , the tape T and the ink ribbon R are respectively pulled by a predetermined amount out of the tape core 20 and the ink ribbon core 22 to overlap each other and go through a space between the platen rubber 14 and the printing head 60 . Specific dot elements on the printing head 60 are heated with the power supplied to the printing head 60 to melt ink of the ink ribbon R corresponding to the heated dot elements. The melted ink is then thermally transferred to the tape T to complete printing on the tape T. After the printing, the tape T with the print thereon is fed from the tape cartridge 10 while the ink ribbon R used for printing is wound on the ribbon winding core 24 . The tape T conveyed with progress of printing is finally discharged from the tape outlet 10 A formed in the left side wall of the tape printing device 1 . The tape T with the print thereon is normally cut with a cutting mechanism (described later). The user may, however, forcibly pull out the tape T prior to cutting. Under the printable condition on the tape T when the printing head 60 presses the tape T against the platen rubber 14 of the platen 12 , the forcible pull-out of the tape T makes the platen-driving shaft 72 rotate. The down-geared platen-driving shaft 72 and a certain amount of retaining torque of the stepping motor 80 prevent rotations of the platen-driving shaft 72 and the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 in a conventional driving mechanism. The forcible pull-out of the tape T leads to unintentional pull-out of the ink ribbon R, accordingly. When the tape T is cut with the cutting mechanism under such conditions, the pulled-out portion of the ink ribbon R is also cut undesirably. In order to solve the above problem, the structure of the embodiment has the one-way clutch including the clutch arm 80 B and the second through fourth gears 82 through 84 . Upon condition that the user forcibly pulls out the tape T, the platen-driving shaft 72 rotates with the platen 12 . The rotation of the platen-driving shaft 72 is transmitted to the fourth gear 84 via the gear train to rotate the fourth gear 84 counterclockwise. The rotation of the fourth gear 84 acts to rotate the third gear 83 . However, since the rotational shaft 80 A of the stepping motor 80 does not rotate, the rotational force of the fourth gear 84 presses the clutch arm 80 B supporting the third gear 83 to release the engagement of the third gear 83 with the fourth gear 84 . The release of engagement results in separating the fourth through ninth gears 84 through 89 from the stepping motor 80 . The rotation of the platen-driving shaft 72 accompanied with the pull-out movement of the tape T accordingly rotates the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 . The rotation of the ribbon winding core-driving shaft 74 allows the ink ribbon R to be wound up on the ribbon winding core 24 in response to the pull-out movement of the tape T, thus effectively preventing unintentional pull-out of the ink ribbon R with the tape T. When the stepping motor 80 starts rotating, the clutch arm 80 B is shifted again towards the fourth gear 84 to re-engage the third gear 83 with the fourth gear 84 . The movement of the clutch arm 80 B is defined to a favorable amount by an opening 80 C which is formed on the base board 61 and receives the free end of the clutch arm 80 B. The tape T with the print thereon is fed leftward out of the tape cartridge 10 and cut with the cutting mechanism shown in FIG. 4. A cutter-support shaft protruded from the bottom of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A holds a substantially L-shaped, pivotally movable tape cutter 90 and a spring (not shown). The resilient force of the spring keeps the tape cutter 90 under such condition that a counterclockwise rotational force is applied onto the tape cutter 90 as shown by the arrow D in FIG. 4 . With this counterclockwise rotational force, a right end 90 A of the tape cutter 90 presses the cutter button 96 upward. The right end 90 A of the tape cutter 90 is forked to receive a pin 96 A formed on a rear face of the cutter button 96 . When the cutter button 96 is pressed downward, a left end 90 A of the tape cutter 90 shifts downward, accordingly. The left end 90 B of the tape cutter 90 has a movable blade 98 for cutting the tape T, which is arranged at a predetermined angle apart from a fixed blade 91 attached to a side face of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A. A press of the cutter button 96 rotates the tape cutter 90 clockwise in FIG. 4 against the spring force, so that the movable blade 98 and the fixed blade 91 cooperate to cut the tape T. A tape support finger (not shown) moves in response to a press of the cutter button 96 to fix the tape T at a suitable position prior to the cutting of the tape T with the movable blade 98 and the fixed blade 91 . A shift of the tape support finger is detected by a detection switch 99 (see FIG. 7 ), which generates a detection signal to interfere with the printing procedure while the tape T is being cut. The printing head 60 functioning to print letters and characters on the tape T accommodated in the tape cartridge 10 moves between a printable position and a rest position by a head driving mechanism described below. The printing head 60 is positioned in proximity to the platen-driving shaft 72 at the printable position and apart from the platen-driving shaft 72 at the rest position to allow attachment and detachment of the tape cartridge 10 into and from the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A. As illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6, the printing head 60 has the head member 65 , which is attached via a radiator plate 65 b to an upright member 62 A of the rotational frame 62 rotatably supported on the head-rotating shaft 64 projecting from the base board 61 . The rotational frame 62 shown by the broken line in FIG. 5 is pressed strongly in the direction of the dotted arrow E by a spring (not shown) and is stably in contact with a cam member 63 A. While the rotational frame 62 is under the stable condition, the upright member 62 A of the rotational frame 62 , which can pivot about the head-rotating shaft 64 , is at the closest position to the platen-driving shaft 72 . The printing head 60 attached to the upright member 62 A of the rotational frame 62 is accordingly kept at the printable position to start printing characters on the tape T. A rotational shaft 63 A a of the cam member 63 A is coupled with a lower end of a lever rotating shaft 63 B, which goes through a cylindrical member 50 A a projecting upright from the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A shown in FIG. 4 . The head shift lever 63 C is integrally formed on the lever rotating shaft 63 B. When the operator rotates the head shift lever 63 C counterclockwise by 90 degrees as shown by the arrow F in FIG. 4, the cam member 63 A is also rotated counterclockwise by 90 degrees as shown by the arrow G in FIG. 5 . The rotation of the cam member 63 A makes a recess 63 A b of the cam member 63 A securely engage with a projection 62 B of the rotational frame 62 . Under this stable condition, the upright member 62 A of the rotational frame 62 is at the farthest position from the platen-driving shaft 72 . The printing head 60 attached to the upright member 62 A of the rotational frame 62 is accordingly kept at the rest position to allow the tape cartridge 10 to be attached in or detached from the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A. FIG. 6 is a decomposed perspective view showing the detailed structure of the printing head 60 rotating to move between the printable position and the rest position as described above. The printing head 60 of FIG. 6 is drawn from the opposite side to those of FIGS. 4 and 5. As mentioned above, the head member 65 of the printing head 60 is attached via the radiator plate 65 b to the upright member 62 A of the rotational frame 62 , which is rotatably supported on the head-rotating shaft 64 projecting from the base board 61 . The head member 65 on which a plurality of heating bodies HT are arranged has a large heating value and is thus fixed to the radiator plate 65 b . In order to ensure the smooth rotational movement of the head member 65 attached to the rotational frame 62 , a flexible cable 68 having excellent flexibility is used for the electric wiring to the head member 65 . The radiator plate 65 b is fixed to the upright member 62 A of the rotational frame 62 at two separate positions. At the first fixation point, the head-rotating shaft 64 is fitted in two rectangular apertures 65 ba formed in the radiator plate 65 b . The rectangular apertures 65 ba are formed to orient their shorter sides along the tape-feeding direction. The length of the shorter side is substantially equal to the diameter of the head-rotating shaft 64 whereas that of the longer side is approximately twice the diameter of the head-rotating shaft 64 . At the second fixation point, a pin 67 b is fitted in apertures 62 A a of the rotational frame 62 and an aperture 65 bb of the radiator plate 65 b , which are formed perpendicular to the head-rotating shaft 64 . The radiator plate 65 b is positioned accurately by the shorter sides of the rectangular apertures 65 ba in the tape-feeding direction while being arranged rotatably about the longer sides of the rectangular apertures 65 ba and the pin 67 b in the direction of the tape width. This structure allows the head member 65 to be precisely kept at the printable position opposite to the platen 12 , upon condition that the printing head 60 is pressed towards the platen 12 . Even when the tape T held between the printing head 60 and the platen 12 is slightly inclined in the direction of the tape width, the pivotal movement of the radiator plate 65 b about the pin 67 b allows the heating bodies HT to uniformly press the tape T against the platen 12 . Detailed structure of the input unit 50 C, the display unit 50 D, and the printer unit 50 B incorporated in the tape printing device 1 is described below after the brief explanation of electric structure of the various units including a control circuit unit 50 F. The control circuit unit 50 F constituted as a printed circuit board is installed with the printer unit 50 B immediately below the cover 50 K. FIG. 7 is a block diagram schematically showing electric structure of various units in general. The control circuit unit 50 F of the tape printing device 1 includes a one-chip microcomputer 110 (hereinafter referred to as CPU) having a ROM, a RAM, and input-output ports integrally incorporated therein, a mask ROM 118 , and a variety of circuits functioning as interfaces between the CPU 110 and the input unit 50 C, the display unit 50 D, and the printer unit 50 B. The CPU 110 connects with the input unit 50 C, the display unit 50 D, and the printer unit 50 B directly or via the interface circuits to control these units. The input unit 50 C has forty-eight character keys and fourteen function keys, sixty-two keys in total, as shown in FIG. 8 . The character keys have a so-called full-key arrangement according to a QWERTY arrangement. Like word processors, the input unit 50 C has a commonly known shift key to avoid an undesirable increase in the number of keys. The function keys enhance the ability of the tape printing device 1 by realizing quick execution of various functions such as character input, editing, and printing. These character keys and the function keys are allocated, to an 8×8 matrix. As shown in FIG. 7, sixteen input ports PA 1 through PA 8 and PC 1 through PC 8 of the CPU 110 are divided into groups, and the sixty-one keys of the input unit 50 C are arranged at the respective intersections of the input ports. The key arrangement is shown in FIG. 8 . The power switch button 50 J is disposed independently of the matrix keys and connects with a non-maskable interrupt NMI of the CPU 110 . When the power switch button 50 J is pressed, the CPU 110 starts non-maskable interruption to supply or shut off the power. An output from the detection switch 55 for detecting opening and closing operations of the cover 50 K is input into a port PB 5 , so that the CPU 110 interrupts to monitor the opening and closing conditions of the cover 50 K. When the detection switch 55 detects an opening operation of the cover 50 K while the printing head 60 is driven to work, the CPU 110 displays a predetermined error command on a main display element 50 D a (see FIG. 9) of the display unit 50 D and cuts the power supply to the printer unit 50 B. Ports PH, PM, and PL of the CPU 110 are connected to a head rank detection element 112 . The resistance of the printing head 60 significantly varies according to the manufacturing process. The head rank detection element 112 measures the resistance of the printing head 60 to determine the rank of the printing head 60 and set three jumper elements 112 A, 112 B, and 112 C of the head rank detection element 112 based on the measurement results. The CPU 110 then reads the condition of the head rank detection element 112 to correct a driving time or heating amount of the printing head 60 , thus effectively preventing the density of printing from being varied undesirably. The printer unit 50 B implements printing by the known thermal transfer process, where the density of printing varies with the air temperature and the driving voltage as well as the power-supply time of the thermal printing head 60 . A temperature detection circuit 60 A and a voltage detection circuit 60 B respectively detect the temperature and the driving voltage. These circuits 60 A and 60 B are integrally incorporated in the printing head 60 and output detection signals to two-channel analog-to-digital conversion input ports AD 1 and AD 2 of the CPU 110 . The CPU 110 reads voltages input and converted to digital signals through the input ports AD 1 and AD 2 to correct the power-supply time of the printing head 60 . A discriminating switch 102 disposed on a right lower corner of the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A (see FIG. 4) is connected to ports PB 1 through PB 3 of the CPU 110 . The discriminating switch 102 includes three cartridge discriminating switch elements 102 A, 102 B, and 102 C respectively inserted into the three detection holes 18 K a , 18 K b , and 18 K c formed in the tape cartridge 10 . Projections of the cartridge discriminating switch elements 102 A, 102 B, and 102 C are determined to correspond to the depths of the detection holes 18 K formed in the bottom wall 18 of the tape cartridge 10 . When a cartridge discriminating switch element 102 is inserted in a shallow detection hole 18 K, the cartridge discriminating switch element 102 is in contact with and pressed by the detection hole 18 K to be at ON position. When a cartridge discriminating switch element 102 is inserted in a deep detection hole 18 K, on the other hand, the cartridge discriminating switch element 102 is loosely fitted in the detection hole 18 K to be at OFF position. The CPU 110 determines the type of the tape cartridge 10 set in the tape cartridge holder unit 50 A, that is, the width of the tape T accommodated in the tape cartridge 10 , based on the conditions of the three cartridge discriminating switch elements 102 A, 102 B, and 102 C of the discriminating switch 102 . Tape width information representing the width of the tape T is used to determine the character size and font as well as control the printer unit 50 B as described later. A port PB 7 of the CPU 110 receives signals transmitted from a contact of the jack 50 N. When a plug 115 is inserted into the jack 50 N to supply direct current through an AC power cord 113 into the jack 50 N, power supply from a battery BT to a power unit 114 is cut by means of a break contact of the jack 50 N in order to avoid unnecessary power consumption of the battery BT. At the same time, signals output from the contact of the jack 50 N are input into the port PB 7 of the CPU 110 . The CPU 110 reads the signals to determine whether the main power supplied to the tape printing device 1 is from the AC power cord 113 or the battery BT and subsequently executes the controls according to the requirements. In the embodiment, upon condition that the power is supplied from the AC power cord 113 , the printing speed of the printer unit 50 D is set at the maximum. When the power is supplied from the battery BT, on the other hand, the printing speed of the printer unit 50 B is slowed down to lower the peak of electric current supplied to the printing head 60 and save the power of the battery BT. The eight mega-bit mask ROM 118 connected to an address bus and a data bus of the CPU 110 stores three different fonts of 16×16 dots, 24×24 dots, and 32×32 dots. The mask ROM 118 stores alphabetical types, such as elite, pica, and courier as well as Chinese characters and other specific characters and symbols according to the requirements. A 24-bit address bus AD, an 8-bit data bus DA, a chip selecting signal CS, an output enable signal OE of the mask ROM 118 are connected with ports PD 0 through PD 33 of the CPU 110 . These signals are also input into an external input-output connector 50 E a to allow an extension unit 50 E attached to the external input-output connector 50 E a to be accessible in a similar manner to the mask ROM 118 . The extension unit 50 E directly connectable with the control circuit unit 50 F receives a ROM pack or RAM pack optionally supplied as an external memory element. The control circuit unit 50 F is electrically connected with the external input-output connector 50 E a through insertion of the ROM pack or RAM pack into a slot of the extension unit 50 E, so that information is transmittable between the CPU 110 and the ROM pack or RAM pack. The ROM pack inserted in the extension unit 50 E may store specific characters, marks, and symbols for drawings, maps, chemistry, and mathematics as well as linguistic fonts other than English or Japanese, and character fonts such as Gothic, Ming, and block type faces. This structure allows the user to edit text data in a desirable font. The battery-backed RAM pack in which information is freely written may alternatively be inserted in the extension unit 50 E. The RAM pack stores a greater amount of information than the storage capacity of an internal RAM area of the tape printing device 1 to create a library of text data or to be used for information exchange with another tape printing device 1 . Character dot data read out of the mask ROM 118 or the extension unit 50 E are input into an LCD controller 116 A of a display control circuit 116 as well as the CPU 110 . The display unit 50 D controlled by the CPU 110 via the display control circuit 116 is laid under a transparent portion of the cover 50 K. The user can thus see the display unit 50 D through the cover 50 K. The display unit 50 D has two different electrode patterns on a liquid-crystal panel; that is, a dot matrix pattern and twenty-eight square and circular electrode patterns arranged to surround the dot matrix pattern as shown in FIG. 9 . The area of the dot matrix pattern is designated as a main display element 50 D a for displaying a print image whereas the area of the square and circular electrode patterns is referred to as an indicator element 50 D b. The main display element 50 D a is a liquid crystal display panel allowing a display of 16 dots in height by 96 dots in width. In the embodiment, since a character font of 16 dots in height by 16 dots in width is used for data input and editing, a display on the main display element 50 D a includes six characters by one line. Each letter or character is shown as a positive display, a negative display, or a flash display in the progress of the editing procedure. This allows the user to visually follow the progress of processing with the tape printing device 1 . Although the 16×16 character font is preferable for clearly displaying each character data, another font having the lower resolution, for example, 5×7 character font, may be applied to increase the number of character data which can be displayed on the main display element 50 D a. The display on the main display element 50 D a is in the dot matrix pattern and controlled arbitrarily. For example, is a layout of current print image may be displayed by a press of a ‘Function’ key on the input unit 50 C shown in FIG. 8 . The layout display is automatically scrolled from the right side to the left side of the main display element 50 D a . This allows the user to check the whole layout of text data. The indicator element 50 D b surrounding the main display element 50 D a includes a variety of indicators ‘t’ representing various functions. Some of the indicators ‘t’ corresponding to the functions currently executed by the tape printing device 1 are ON to emit light. The respective functions of the indicators ‘t’ corresponding to the square and circular electrode patterns on the indicator element 50 D b are printed around the electrode patterns of the display unit 50 D. Available functions include: selection of a character input mode, such as ‘Capital Letter’ or ‘Small Letter’; specification of a printing and editing style, such as ‘Vertical Print’ or ‘Center Line’; and specification of a print format, such as ‘Justification’ or ‘Left Weight’. When a certain function is selected or specified, an indicator ‘t’ corresponding to the function is turned ON to emit light. For example, when the ‘Center Line’ function is set, the indicator ‘t’ corresponding to the ‘Center Line’ lights up. The function ‘EASY’ in the printing and editing style represents automatic specification of a style preset in the tape printing device 1 . The function ‘Line Number’ on the indicator element 50 D b has four indicators ‘L’ to which digits ‘1’ through ‘4’ are assigned as illustrated in FIG. 9 . While the main display element 50 D a has the capacity of displaying only one line of text data, the tape printing device 1 can print the maximum of four lines on the tape T. The ‘Line Number’ indicators ‘L’ corresponding to the existing lines of text data are ON to emit light. The procedure of line number display will be described later more in detail. The printer unit 50 B of the tape printing device 1 includes the printing head 60 and the stepping motor 80 as mechanical constituents, and a printer controller 120 and a motor driver 122 for controlling the mechanical constituents as electrical constituents. The printing head 60 is a thermal head having sixty-four heating points arranged in one column at a pitch of {fraction (1/180)} inch, and internally provided with the temperature detection circuit 60 A for detecting the air temperature and the voltage detection circuit 60 B for detecting the supply voltage as described previously. The stepping motor 80 has a known structure for controlling the phase of four-phase driving signals to adjust the rotational angle. A tape feeding distance corresponding to each step of the stepping motor 80 is set equal to {fraction (1/360)} inch by the gear train functioning as a reduction gear mechanism. The stepping motor 80 receives a two-step rotation signal output synchronously with printing of each dot executed by the printing head 60 . The printer unit 50 B thereby executes printing in a printing pitch of 180 dots/inch both in the longitudinal direction of the tape T and the direction of the tape width. The detection switch 99 for detecting the operation of the cutting mechanism is inserted in a common line for connecting the printer controller 120 and the motor driver 122 to the CPU 110 as shown in FIG. 7 . When the cutting mechanism is activated during execution of the printing, the detection switch 99 works to inactivate the printer unit 50 B without delay. Since signals are continuously transmitted from the CPU 110 to the printer controller 120 and the motor driver 122 , the printing procedure is resumed after interruption of the cutting procedure with the cutting mechanism. The power unit 114 incorporated in the tape printing device 1 receives a stable back-up or logic circuit 5V power from the battery BT by an RCC method using an IC and a transformer. The CPU 110 has a port PB 4 allocated to the voltage regulation. The internal ROM of the CPU 110 stores a variety of programs for controlling the peripheral circuits. The internal RAM of the CPU 110 includes a first part designated as a system's area used for execution of the variety of programs stored in the internal ROM and a second part defined as a user's area including a text area for editing of text data and a file area for storing contents of the text data. The text area has the capacity of 125 character data of fixed input and stores character codes as well as style data and mode data used for editing the text data. The data in the text area may be supplemented or updated by the data input and editing procedures through the input unit 50 C. The text area on the internal RAM of the CPU 110 may be referred to as a text data buffer. The internal RAM has a file area of 1,500-character capacity while an optionally supplied RAM pack has a file area of 2,000-character capacity. The file area may store and manage 1 through 99 variable-length files according to a file management program stored in the internal ROM. The file management program also provides basic operation environments including registration, load, copy, and delete of a specified file. A general process routine executed by the CPU 110 of the tape printing device 1 of the embodiment is described according to the flowchart of FIG. 10 . The tape printing device 1 has a variety of process modes including a character input mode, a printing information specification mode, and a layout display mode. The tape printing device 1 is set in one of the process modes in response to a press of a corresponding function key on the input unit 50 C. When no function keys are operated but a character key is pressed, character data corresponding to the character key is input. When the program enters the process routine of FIG. 10, the process mode is identified first at step S 200 . When the process mode is not specified, the tape printing device 1 is determined to be in the character input mode and waits for input of character data at step S 210 . Character data corresponding to alphabets and numerals input from the input unit 50 C are directly transferred to a text data buffer whereas those corresponding to ‘kana’ (Japanese alphabets) are sent to the text data buffer after a required conversion of some ‘kana’ to ‘kanji’ (Chinese characters). Character data newly input from the input unit 50 C are added to the end of text data stored in the text data buffer in general procedures, or may be inserted into any desirable position of the existing text data with the aid of cursor positioning. Alternatively, the newly input character data may be over-written to replace the existing text data. The text data buffer has the capacity of 125 character data. When text data over the 125-character capacity are input from the input unit 50 C, the CPU 110 executes an overflow process at step S 220 . In the case of ‘kana’ input, the overflow process is executed after conversion to ‘kanji’. The overflow process eliminates character data exceeding the 125-character limit from the end of text data stored in the text data buffer in either case when input character data are added to the end of the text data or when input character data are inserted at a desirable position of the text data. After the overflow process at step S 220 , the program goes to step S 230 at which text data finally settled are displayed on the display unit 50 D. As described previously, text data of up to four lines can be printed on the tape T whereas the display unit 50 D has the capacity of displaying only six character data by one line. In this embodiment, each character data input at step S 210 is managed as 16-bit information. Printing information representing a line number and other attribute data also occupies one-character space (=16 bits) in the text data buffer. The 16-bit printing information consists of a flag for identifying a line number (2 bits), data representing the total number of lines (2 bits is sufficient for the maximum of four lines), face data (3 bits for 7 faces), font data (5 bits) including distinction between an internal font and an external fonts, and line spacing and inter-character spacing data (4 bits). The process of displaying text data stored in the text data buffer at step S 230 consists of several steps shown in the flowchart of FIG. 11 . At step S 400 , the ‘Line Number’ indicators ‘L’ on the indicator element 50 D b corresponding to the existing lines of text data are turned ON to emit light. One of the ‘Line Number’ indicators ‘L’ corresponding to a line where the cursor is currently positioned is then shown by flashing at step S 410 . The program subsequently goes to step S 420 at which text data of the cursor-positioned line are then displayed on the main display element 50 D a as the dot matrix pattern. The lighting and flashing process of the ‘Line Number’ indicators on the indicator element 50 D b allows the user to check the total number of existing lines of text data to be edited and the position of the cursor. FIGS. 12A and 12B show examples of the lighting and flashing process of the ‘Line Number’ indicators executed at steps S 400 and S 410 . When three lines of text data are edited for printing as shown in FIG. 12A, the liquid-crystal ‘Line Number’ indicators ‘L’ having the digits ‘1’, ‘2’, and ‘3’ are turned ON to emit light. The ‘Line Number’ indicator ‘L’ having the digit ‘2’ flashes to show that the cursor is positioned on the second line and that text data of the second line is currently displayed on the main display element 50 D a . The term ‘flash’ means switching ON and OFF at predetermined short intervals. In the example of FIG. 12B, four lines of text data are edited for printing and the cursor is positioned on the first line. All the ‘Line Number’ indicators ‘L’ having the digits ‘1’ through ‘4’ are turned ON to emit light whereas the ‘Line Number’ indicator ‘L’ having the digit ‘1’ flashes, accordingly. After the text data display process at step S 230 , the program goes to ‘NEXT’ and exits from the routine. The printing information specification mode may be set for each paragraph. The term ‘paragraph’ denotes each block of text data divided along the length of the tape T. In one example, text data printed on the tape T to represent a title applied onto the spine of a video tape include a first paragraph for picture data or icon of one line, a second paragraph for character data of one line representing the name of the film, and a third paragraph for character data of two lines representing the names of the director and leading actors and actresses. When the printing information specification mode is selected at step S 200 , the program goes to step S 240 at which required printing information is specified and either ‘AUTO’ mode or ‘MANUAL’ mode is selected for plural-line printing. The required printing information includes a total number of lines printed on the tape T, enhancement data (for example, bold, italics, underlined, outline type, and highlighted), inter-character spacing data (narrow, standard, wide), line spacing data (narrow, standard, wide), and font data for distinguishing between an internal font and an external ROM font. Each printing information is specified by selecting a desirable one out of a plurality of choices previously prepared. For example, the total number of lines to be printed is selected from the choices ‘1’, ‘2’, ‘3’, and ‘4’ since text data of up to four lines can be printed on the tape T in the embodiment. For plural-line printing, either the ‘AUTO’ mode or the ‘MANUAL’ mode is selected. The plurality of choices are successively highlighted on the display unit 50 D through operation of the cursor keys and space bars on the input unit 50 C. The user presses the ‘Return’ key on the input unit 50 C to settle each printing information selected. In this embodiment, ‘style’ information represents information applied to the whole paragraph, such as the total number of lines to be printed and selection of horizontal or vertical print, whereas ‘mode’ information denotes the other specified information, such as inter-character spacing data. When plural-line printing is specified, the program goes to step S 250 at which a desirable font combination is determined. The tape printing device 1 of the embodiment has three different font data of 16×16 dots, 24×24 dots, and 32×32 dots as basic fonts stored in the mask ROM 118 . The non-overlapped dots in each font are expandable by two times both in height and width. There are accordingly seven possible combinations of printable dot numbers or fonts including the maximum font of 64×64 dots. When text data are edited and printed in a plurality of lines, specification of the font applied to the text data on each line is required in addition to input of character data printed on the line. The seven printable dot number combinations correspond to ‘Compress’, ‘Expand’, ‘P’, ‘S’, ‘M’, ‘L’, and ‘G’ with the indicators ‘t’ on the indicator element 50 D b as shown in FIG. 9 . The indicator ‘t’ corresponding to the selected printable dot number combination lights up to inform the user. The process executed at steps S 240 and S 250 in the printing information specification mode specifies fundamental information significantly affecting the results of printing on the tape T. The user is hence required to specify the printing information and the font while roughly estimating the results of printing. The tape printing device 1 of the embodiment further executes the processing described below in order to simplify the operations in the printing information specification mode and improve the printing quality. FIG. 13 is a flowchart showing the process of specifying ‘style’ information applied to the whole paragraph with a default. The ‘style’ information specified here is selection of either ‘Vertical Print’ or ‘Horizontal Print’. For selection of either ‘Vertical Print’ or ‘Horizontal Print’, it is first determined whether a default has already been set in a specific area of the RAM at step S 500 . Upon condition that power supply to the tape printing device 1 has just started and no default has been set in the RAM, a default stored in the ROM as non-volatile data, in this embodiment, selection of ‘Horizontal Print’, is read from the ROM at step S 510 . The default is then stored in the specific area of the RAM at step S 520 . When it is determined that the default has already been set in the RAM at step S 500 or after the processing of step S 520 is completed, the program proceeds to step S 530 at which the default is displayed on the main display element 50 D a of the display unit 50 D. During the display, the user may change the default according to the requirements. The default of the ‘style’ information once set in the specific area of the RAM is applied to the subsequent paragraphs unless the user intentionally inputs data to change the default. This prevents the different writing styles, ‘vertical Print’ and ‘Horizontal Print’ from being mixed up unintentionally on the tape T. Although the user can arbitrarily change the ‘style’ of printing text data on the tape T, confusing arrangement of ‘Vertical Print’ and ‘Horizontal Print’ is generally not preferred. Other than the default used for the simplified specification of the ‘style’ information, the tape printing device 1 of the embodiment has a plurality of defaults called application forms where all the ‘style’ information and the ‘mode’ information have been set in advance. The user can specify the ‘style’ information including the total number of lines to be printed and selection of ‘Vertical Print’ or ‘Horizontal Print’ as well as the ‘mode’ information including inter-character spacing data and fancy type data by simply selecting a desired default among the plurality of application forms. FIG. 14 is a flowchart showing a routine of selecting a desired application form, which is executed at a start of the printing information specification mode. At step S 600 , it is determined whether the ‘style’ information and ‘mode’ information are specified automatically or manually, based on operation of a specific key on the input unit 50 C. When the manual specification is selected, the program enters the ‘Manual’ mode where the processing of steps S 240 and S 250 are successively executed. The tape printing device 1 waits for an input of the ‘style’ information by the user at step S 610 and sets the ‘style’ information according to the input at step S 620 . In a similar manner, the tape printing device 1 waits for an input of the ‘mode’ information by the user at step S 630 and sets the ‘mode’ information according to the input at step S 640 . The program then exits from the routine. When the easy specification is selected at step S 600 , the program enters the ‘EASY’ mode, which as set forth above, in the printing and editing style represents automatic specification of a style preset in the tape printing device 1 . At step S 650 , the tape printing device 1 displays titles of application forms having specified defaults on the display unit 50 D and waits for selection of a desired application form out of the plural choices. There are eight application forms preset in the embodiment, which have the titles of ‘VHS: Horizontal’, ‘VHS: Vertical’, ‘VHS-C’, ‘8 mm Video’, ‘Cassette Tape’, ‘Name & Address’, ‘Name Plate’, and ‘Identification Tag’ (‘VHS’, ‘VHS-C’, and ‘8 mm Video’ are trade names). FIGS. 15A through 22A show the titles and the specified defaults of ‘style’ information and ‘mode’ information whereas FIGS. 15B through 22B show examples of printing based on the defaults. These application forms give only eight combinations of the ‘style’ and ‘mode’ defaults, and the user can arbitrarily change the defaults specified by the selected application form as described later. As shown in FIGS. 15A through 22A, each application form only suggests a position suitable for picture data or icon, a position suitable for standard character data, and a position suitable for data of the date and time by specific display on the display unit 50 D. The tape printing device 1 accepts an input of text data in an arbitrary form different from the suggestion other than an input of text data in the suggested form. After the user selects a desired title of application form at step S 650 , the program goes to step S 660 at which the ‘style’ and ‘mode’ defaults are set corresponding to the selected application form. At step S 670 , it is determined whether modification of the defaults is required. When any modification is required, the program goes to step S 610 to change the defaults. When no modification is required, on the contrary, the program exits from the routine. When the layout display mode is selected at step S 200 , the program goes to step S 260 at which the CPU 110 reads an output of the cartridge discriminating switch 102 , which represents the type of tape cartridge 10 set in the tape printing device 1 , and more specifically, the printable width of the tape T. After the identification of the tape width, the program goes to step S 270 to display text data in a specific layout corresponding to the specified printing information and font combination. When a tape cartridge 10 having the tape T of appropriate width is set in the tape printing device 1 , text data are shown in white against the tape T shown in black on the main display element 50 D a . Upon condition that no tape T is set in the tape printing device 1 , text data (with a frame line according to the requirements) are shown in black while the tape T is not displayed at all. This inverted display of text data distinctively informs the user of no setting of the tape T. When the width of the tape T is insufficient for the selected ‘style’ and ‘mode’ information, a portion out of the tape width is highlighted. An acoustic or visual alarm may also inform the user of non-tape setting or inappropriate tape setting. After the layout display process at step S 270 , the program goes to step S 230 to resume the display of text data on the display unit 50 D. When a print mode is selected at step S 200 , the program goes to step S 280 at which the CPU 110 reads detection signals output from the cartridge discriminating switch 102 . At step S 290 , the CPU 110 determines the width of the tape T set in the tape printing device 1 based on the detection signals from the cartridge discriminating switch 102 , and expands a dot pattern of each line according to the tape width and the relative character size of each line by referring to a font map previously stored in the internal ROM. The dot pattern expansion process of step S 290 includes specifying a suitable font used for printing each line, successively reading character codes of the specified font corresponding to the text data from mask ROM 118 , and expanding each character code to a dot pattern. After completing the dot pattern expansion at step S 290 , the program goes to step S 300 to execute printing. In concrete procedures, the CPU 110 prepares 64-bit serial data by extracting the dot pattern by every column, and transfers the serial data to the printer unit 50 B. Text data stored in the text data buffer are then printed in either ‘Auto’ mode or ‘Manual’ mode. In ‘Manual’ mode, text data stored in the test data buffer are printed according to the number of lines previously specified. After plural-line printing, for example, two-line printing, is specified and text data are input for two lines, text data on the second line may be eliminated according to the requirements. On condition that the user eliminates text data for the second line, text data for only the first line should be printed. In ‘Auto’ mode, when no text data exists on the second line, text data of only the first line are expanded to dot patterns and printed with a large font. When text data exist on both the first and the second lines, on the other hand, a smaller font is selected for printing text data of the two lines. In ‘Manual’ mode, even when no text data exists on the second line, text data of the first line is printed with a font selected for the two-line printing. This printing procedure is applied to any plural-line printing such as three-line printing or four-line printing as well as two-line printing described above. In the tape printing device 1 of the embodiment, text data input from the input unit 50 C can be stored as a file in the internal RAM having a 1,500 character capacity and in the extension unit 50 E having a 2,000 character capacity. When the read/write mode is selected at step S 200 , the program goes to step S 310 at which it is determined whether a file is accessible. In the write mode, file accessibility implies existence of a vacant space to allow a new file to be stored in the internal RAM or the extension unit 50 E. In the read mode, file accessibility denotes existence of a previously recorded file. When the file is not accessible at step S 310 , the program goes to step S 230 to resume the display of text data on the display unit 50 D after displaying an error message ‘Out of Access’. When the file is accessible at step S 310 , on the contrary, the program goes to step S 320 at which text data currently stored in the text data buffer are recorded as a file in the write mode, or text data previously recorded are read to the text data buffer in the read mode. When text data existing in the text data buffer are recorded as a file, attribute information of the text data including both the ‘mode’ information and ‘style’ information is recorded together. The attribute information stored with text data includes data representing the number of printing lines, font data, inter-character spacing data, line spacing data, and enhancement data (for example, bold, outline face, underlined, italics). In the read mode, text data are read with the attribute information to the text data buffer. When text data input from the input unit 50 C already exist in the text data buffer, read-out text data are added to the end of the existing text data in the text data buffer. When the attribute information of the read-out text data is different from that of the existing text data, a discrimination mark is given to the read-out text data at step S 330 . The discrimination mark designated as, for example, a rightward closed triangle includes information such as enhancement data and the inter-character spacing data. The discrimination mark assigns the attribute information previously recorded in the existing file to the text data, which are read out to be linked with the existing text data in the text data buffer having different attribute information. As a result, the read-out text data with the discrimination mark are printed according to the attribute information recorded in the existing file while the newly input text data are printed according to the different attribute information. When a new paragraph of text data is input after the read-out text data, the attribute information of the read-out text data set in the discrimination mark does not affect attribute of the newly input text data. When it is preferable to change the attribute of the read-out text data to be identical with the attribute of text data input from the input unit 50 C, the discrimination mark is to be eliminated. As a typical example of the file reading and writing process executed at step S 320 in the flowchart of FIG. 10, a process of registering an abbreviation, a process of reading the registered abbreviation, and a process of deleting the registered abbreviation are shown in FIGS. 23, 24 , and 25 , respectively. The tape printing device 1 of this embodiment has a registration area which can store nine abbreviations of up to 16 letters, where each abbreviation may represent text data of up to 40 letters. The user can set the abbreviation registration mode by pressing the power switch 50 J simultaneously with the ‘Function’ key on the input unit 50 C as shown in FIG. 23 . The existing abbreviations are then read out of the registration area. The user presses the rightward cursor key to find a vacant space in the registration area and inputs the whole text data to be registered and subsequently an abbreviation representing the text data. When the user inputs an abbreviation and executes the required operation for conversion shown in FIG. 24, the original text data corresponding to the abbreviation is read out of the registration area and displayed on the display unit 50 D. The abbreviation previously registered in the registration area can be deleted easily by setting the tape printing device 1 in the abbreviation registration mode, reading out an abbreviation to be deleted, and executing the required operation shown in FIG. 25 . Deletion of an abbreviation is implemented simply by overwriting blanks on the abbreviation to be deleted and the corresponding text data. The structure of the embodiment allows registration and deletion of abbreviations to be implemented by similar operations, thus reducing the time and labor required for the registration and deletion procedures. Upon condition that no abbreviation has been registered corresponding to input text data, even when the user executes the required operation for conversion, no abbreviation but only the input text data is displayed on the display unit 50 D as shown in FIG. 25 . Although operations of the tape printing device 1 of the embodiment in typical modes are described above, the tape printing device 1 may also be used in other modes which are not explained here. The tape printing device 1 of the embodiment thus constructed has the following advantages over the conventional tape printing devices. The display unit 50 D of the embodiment includes the indicator element 50 D b and the main display element 50 D a for displaying only one line of print image as described above. The display unit 50 D is approximately a quarter in size of the display unit of the conventional tape printing device used for editing text data of up to four lines. The tape printing device 1 of the embodiment, however, has the comparable functions for editing text data on the display unit 50 D to those of the conventional tape printing device having the larger display unit. The indicator element 50 D b of the embodiment has the four ‘Line Number’ indicators. The ‘Line Number’ indicators on the indicator element 50 D b corresponding to the existing lines of text data are turned ON to emit light whereas one of the ‘Line Number’ indicators corresponding to a line currently displayed on the main display element 50 D a and edited is distinguished by flashing. This lighting and flashing operation on the indicator element 50 D b gives sufficient information on the line numbers required for editing procedures. It is generally not required to display all the lines of text data simultaneously for editing the plural lines of text data. The structure of the embodiment allows the user to check the total number of lines of text data to be edited as well as the line number currently displayed on the main display element 50 D a by the indicators on the indicator element 40 D b. Although, the small-sized display unit 50 D can display only one line of text data, sufficient information required for editing a plural lines of text data is given to the user. The structure of the embodiment may be changed or modified according to the requirements. Although the main display element 50 D a of the embodiment has the capacity of displaying only one line of text data, it may be modified according to the layout of the whole tape printing device to allow two or three lines of text data to be displayed. In the latter case, the indicators on the indicator element 50 D b also effectively inform the user of the total number of existing lines to be edited and the line number currently displayed on the main display element 50 D a for editing procedures. In another application, the line number currently displayed and edited may be displayed before the discrimination mark. The maximum column number of text data currently edited and the column number where the cursor is positioned may also be displayed in a similar manner. In the embodiment, text data are printed on the tape T having the adhesive rear face. The tape printing device of the embodiment may, however, be applied to other tapes, such as tapes having the adhesive layer separately applied thereon, laminate tapes having a transparent sheet for protecting the print applied thereon, and tapes specifically used for print with transferable ink. A tape printing device 700 is described as a second embodiment according to the invention. The tape printing device 700 of the second embodiment has a display unit 750 D shown in FIG. 26, which is different from the display unit 50 D of the tape printing device 1 of the first embodiment. The display unit 750 D includes a main display element 750 D a having the capacity of displaying four lines of text data, that is, all the printable lines, and an indicator element 750 D b surrounding the main display element 750 D a . Indicators ‘t’ on the indicator element 750 D b respectively correspond characters and abbreviations printed thereon, which represent various functions and are different from those of the first embodiment, and emit light or flash in the same manner as the first embodiment. The characters and abbreviations printed on the indicator element 750 D b include: those representing the number of lines to be edited (Auto, 1, 2, 3, 4); those representing enhancement of printed letters (Border, Shade, etc.); those representing specification of serifs and capital letters (Rmn, SCAN, Caps), and one representing vertical print (Vert); and those representing the font size (Font Size: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Wide). FIG. 27 is a flowchart showing a display control routine executed in the second embodiment. When the program enters the routines, the CPU 110 first reads a specified number of lines ‘m’ at step S 800 . Headers of the first line through the line currently edited are displayed on the second column from the right on the main display element 750 D a at step S 805 , and the cursor is flashed on the right-most column of the currently edited line at step S 810 . FIG. 28A shows a display on the main display element 750 D a when character data ‘A, B, C’ have already been input on the first of the four printing lines and editing starts on the second line. The tape printing device 700 then waits for an input of text data at step S 815 . The CPU 110 then identifies a key input from the input unit 50 C at step S 820 . When one of the cursor keys is operated, the program goes to step S 830 at which a shifting process shown in FIG. 29 is executed to shift data displayed on the main display element 750 D a . Since the cursor position is fixed on the right-most column on the main display element 750 D a , it is first determined whether any character data exists on the right or the left of the cursor position at step S 831 in the flowchart of FIG. 29 . When any character data exists on the right or the left of the cursor, the program goes to step S 832 at which whether the header of each line, that is, line number data LDP, which moves with text data, is positioned on the left-most column on the main display element 750 D a . When the line number data LDP is not positioned on the left-most column, the program proceeds to step S 833 at which input text data CDP are displayed with the line number data LDP while the line number data LDP and the existing text data CDP are moved leftward in response to each input of text data CDP. FIG. 28B shows a display on the main display element 750 D a when character data ‘defg’ are input on the second line. When the line number data LDP is positioned on the left-most column on the main display element 750 D a , on the contrary, the program goes to step S 834 at which the input text data CDP are displayed on the second column from the left through the right-most column (that is, the column where the cursor is positioned) on the main display element 750 D a while the line number data LDP is fixed on the left-most column. FIG. 28C shows a display on the main display element 750 D a when character data ‘hijklm’ are further input after ‘defg’ on the second line and the head of the text data ‘d’ is eliminated from the display area. When any of character keys is operated on the input unit 50 C at step S 820 in the flowchart of FIG. 27, the program proceeds to step S 840 at which character data input on the cursor position is displayed and to step S 841 at which the whole display on the main display element 750 D a is shifted leftward by one character space. The method of display is varied according to the position of the line number data LDP on the main display element 750 D a in the same manner as the processing of steps S 832 through S 834 described above. When ‘Delete’ key is operated on the input unit 50 C at step S 820 , the program goes to step S 850 at which character data at the cursor position is deleted and to step S 852 at which the whole display on the main display element 750 D a is shifted rightward by one character space. In this case, the method of display is also varied according to the position of the line number data LDP on the main display element 750 D a in the same manner as the processing of steps S 832 through S 834 described above. When the downward cursor key is operated upon condition that the cursor is positioned on the second line (see FIG. 28 C), another line, that is, the third line, to be edited appears on the main display element 750 D a while the cursor position is unchanged as shown in FIG. 28 D. When text data consists of five or a greater number of lines, the fifth or the following line appears on the main display element 750 D a in response to an operation of the downward cursor key whereas the first or the corresponding line disappears from the main display element 750 D a. While the total number of lines and the line number currently displayed and edited are indicated on the left of the main display element 50 D a in the first embodiment, the line number is displayed with text data on the main display element 750 D a in the structure of the second embodiment. The structure of the second embodiment distinctly informs the user of the line number currently edited. The line number data is always positioned on the head of the text data and fixed at the left-most column after the line number data reaches the left-most column on the main display element 750 D a . This allows the user to check the column number easily. The display unit 750 D of the second embodiment has the capacity of displaying the maximum of four lines, thus allowing text data to be edited readily. A tape printing device 900 is described as a third embodiment according to the invention. The tape printing device 900 of the third embodiment has the same structure as that of the tape printing device 700 of the second embodiment. FIG. 30 is a plan view showing the appearance of the tape printing device 900 , and FIG. 31 is a block diagram showing electric constituents of the tape printing device 900 . As illustrated in FIG. 30, the tape printing device 900 is provided with a cover 910 and a tape cartridge holder unit 911 under the cover 910 like the tape printing device 1 of the first embodiment. A tape 912 is drawn out of a tape cartridge for printing, discharged from a tape outlet on the left side wall of the device 900 , and cut in response to an operation of a cut button 913 . The tape printing device 900 has a keyboard unit 914 on which various character keys and function keys are mounted. Specific functions are assigned to several character keys which are effective only when the ‘Function’ key is pressed. For example, the digit key ‘1’ has the function ‘Meas’ which shows and changes the unit of length of the tape 912 . A display unit 915 of the tape printing device 900 , which is identical with the display unit 750 D of the second embodiment, is a black and white liquid-crystal display having the capacity of displaying the maximum of four lines. Referring to the block diagram of FIG. 31, the tape printing device 900 includes an input unit 92 b , a control unit 930 , and an output unit 940 in its electric configuration. The control unit 930 receives data from the input unit 920 , executes the required processing, and outputs the results of the processing to the output unit 940 , which displays or prints the outputs transmitted from the control unit 930 . The input unit 920 includes a key input unit 921 receiving various signals sent from the keyboard unit 914 shown in FIG. 30, and a tape width detection sensor 922 . The key input unit 921 outputs various character code data and control data to the control unit 930 . The tape width detection sensor 922 detects the width of the tape set in the tape printing device 900 and outputs the tape width information to the control unit 930 . The output unit 940 includes a thermal printing head 941 , a head-driving element 942 for driving the printing head 941 , a tape-feeding motor 943 for rotating a platen to feed the tape, a motor-driving element 944 for driving the tape-feeding motor 943 , the liquid-crystal display unit 915 , and a display-driving circuit 945 for actuating the liquid-crystal display unit 915 . The control unit 520 is typically constructed as a microcomputer and includes a CPU 931 , a ROM 932 , a RAM 933 , a character generator ROM (CG-ROM) 934 , an input interface element 935 , and an output interface element 936 , which are connected to one another via a system bus. Various operation programs and fixed data are stored in the ROM 932 . The RAM 933 is used as a working memory and stores data input by the user. The CG-ROM 934 stores dot patterns of characters and symbols prepared for the tape printing device 900 , and outputs a corresponding dot pattern in response to an input of code data representing a character or symbol. Separate CG-ROMs may be used for display and printing. The input interface element 935 works as an interface between the input unit 920 and the control unit 930 whereas the output interface element 936 functions as an interface between the control unit 930 and the output unit 940 . The CPU 931 receives input signals from the input unit 920 and data stored in the ROM 932 or the RAM 933 , and executes the required processing based on the operation programs stored in the ROM 932 using the RAM 933 as the working area. The progress or result of the processing is displayed on the display unit 915 or printed on the tape 912 . FIG. 32 is a flowchart showing a process routine executed by the tape printing device 900 of the third embodiment. This process routine changes the unit of length of the tape on the display unit 915 . The tape printing device 900 has a function of changing the unit of length applied to display of the tape length, which is calculated based on the number of input character data and specification of font and character size. When the program enters the routine, the tape printing device 900 waits for a key input at step S 1011 . When the user operates any key on the keyboard unit 914 , it is determined whether a ‘Unit Change’ key function is activated at step S 1012 . Although the ‘Unit Change’ key function is realized by pressing the ‘Function’ key and the digit key ‘1’ in this embodiment, a separate ‘Unit Change’ key may be mounted on the keyboard unit 914 . When the key input is not the ‘Unit Change’ key function at step S 1012 , the program goes to step S 1013 to display character data corresponding to the input character key or execute required processing according to the input function key. When the ‘Unit Change’ key function is activated at step S 1012 , the program goes to step S 1014 at which a flag FLAG is set equal to zero and to step S 1015 at which the tape printing device 900 displays a menu to request the user to select the unit of length. In this embodiment, ‘cm’ and ‘inch’ are shown as possible choices on the liquid-crystal display unit 915 as shown in FIG. 33, where one choice ‘cm’ is highlighted as a default. The tape printing device 900 again waits for a key input at step S 1016 after the display of the menu. When the ‘Return’ key, which functions as ‘Select’ key, is pressed at step S 1017 , the highlighted choice ‘cm’ is fixed as the unit of length and the program returns to step S 1011 to wait for another key input. When the leftward cursor key is pressed while the menu is displayed on the display unit 915 at step S 1018 , the program goes to step S 1019 at which the flag FLAG is set equal to zero and to step S 1020 at which the choice ‘cm’ is highlighted on the display unit 915 as shown in FIG. 33 . When the rightward cursor key is pressed while the menu is displayed on the display unit 915 at step S 1021 , on the other hand, the program goes to step S 1022 at which the flag FLAG is set equal to one and to step S 1023 at which the choice ‘inch’ is highlighted on the display unit 915 as shown in FIG. 34 . The program then returns to step S 1016 to wait for another key input. When the ‘Print’ key is operated at step S 1011 , the program enters a printing process routine, which is executed at step S 1013 in the flowchart of FIG. 32 and shown in the flowchart of FIG. 35 . In response to an operation of the ‘Print’ key, it is determined whether the flag FLAG is equal to zero at step S 1032 . The flag FLAG=0 represents selection of ‘cm’ in metric system as the unit whereas FLAG=1 denotes selection of ‘inch’ in inch-yard system. When FLAG=0 at step S 1032 , the program goes to step S 1033 at which the length of the tape is shown by ‘cm’. When FLAG=1 at step S 1032 , on the contrary, the program goes to step S 1034 at which the tape length is shown by ‘inch’. FIG. 36 shows an exemplified display by ‘cm’ and FIG. 37 shows one by ‘inch’. The CPU 931 calculates required blanks based on the number of input character data and specification of the font and character size, determines a required tape length in the selected unit or dot number, and displays the tape length on the liquid-crystal display unit 915 . For the display by ‘cm’, millimeter is used for the length below ‘1 cm’. For the display by ‘inch’, fractions like ½ and ⅜ are used for the length below ‘1 inch’. These values are determined by referring to a conversion table previously stored in the ROM 932 . The conversion table is used for the conversion between the dot number, ‘cm’ and ‘inch’ as shown in FIG. 38 . After the processing at step S 1033 or S 1034 , the program goes to step S 1035 at which the tape printing device 900 executes the printing operation to print text data on the tape. The program then goes to ‘END’ to exit from the routine. The structure of the embodiment allows the user to readily check and determine the length of the tape 912 required for printing by a desired unit. The unit of length is easily changed between a plural choices, which are displayed on the display unit 915 . Although the ‘Unit Change’ key function is activated by the certain key operation in the embodiment, the unit of length may be changed by a key pressed simultaneously with the ‘Power’ button as shown in the flowchart of FIG. 39 . When the power is turned ON at step S 1040 , the control unit 930 determines whether any key is pressed at step S 1041 . When any key is pressed, the program successively goes to steps S 1042 and S 1044 to determine whether the key is ‘M’ or ‘I’. When the key ‘M’ representing the metric system is pressed, the program goes to step S 1043 to set the flag FLAG equal to zero. When the key ‘I’ representing the inch-yard system is pressed, the program goes to step S 1045 to set the flag FLAG equal to one. The program then goes to ‘END’ to exit from the routine. This structure sets the flag FLAG according to the key pressed simultaneously with the ‘Power’ button. In this structure, the length of the tape is also displayed by either ‘cm’ or ‘inch’ in the printing process shown in FIG. 35 . For change of the unit, after the input text data are stored in a file and the tape printing device 900 is once turned OFF, the power is turned ON again with the press of either the ‘M’ or ‘I’ key. This structure allows a desired unit of length to be set only by pressing the ‘I’ or ‘M’ key representing each measuring unit when the device 900 is switched ON. There may be many modifications, alterations, and changes without departing from the scope or spirit of essential characteristics of the invention. It is thus clearly understood that the above embodiments are only illustrative and not restrictive in any sense. The scope and spirit of the present invention are limited only by the terms of the appended claims.

A tape printing assembly for editing input data of up to ‘n’ lines which includes a main display formed to display the edited input data in ‘p’ lines, where ‘p’ is an integer between 1 to at most ‘n’−1. A display controller is adapted to control the editing procedure and display of the input data of a line currently being edited on the main display, while simultaneously indicating on an auxiliary display the line currently edited. In another aspect, a line number indicator, corresponding to a line of input data, is positioned proximate and adjacent to the line on the main display. Upon a selected portion of the input data being positioned within a display area, the line number indicator is positioned proximate to and moves with the selected portion. Upon the selected portion being scrolled beyond an end of the display area, the line number indicator is fixed relative the display area proximate the end thereof.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED CASES [0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/685,060, filed May 27, 2005, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] U.S. Pat. No. 5,794,050 to Dahigren et al. provides for a Natural Language Understanding System. A naive semantic system that incorporates modules for text processing based upon parsing, formal semantics and discourse coherence, as well as relying on a naive semantic lexicon that stores word meanings in terms of a hierarchical semantic network is disclosed. Naive semantics is used to reduce the decision spaces of the other components of the natural language understanding system of. According to Dahlgren, naive semantics is used at every structure building step to avoid combinatorial explosion. [0003] For example, the sentence “face places with arms down” has many available syntactic parses. The word “face” could be either a noun or a verb, as could the word places”. However, by determining that “with arms down” is statistically most likely to be a prepositional phrase that attaches to a verb, the possibility that both words are nouns can be eliminated. Furthermore, the noun sense of “face” is eliminated by the fact that “with arms down” includes the concepts of position and body, and one sense of the verb “face” matches that conception. In addition to the naive semantic lexicon, a formal semantics module is incorporated, which permits sentences to be evaluated for truth conditions with respect to a model built by the coherence module. Coherence permits the resolution of causality, exemplification, goal, and enablement relationships. This is similar to the normal functionality of knowledge bases. [0004] Natural language retrieval is performed by Dahlgren's system using a two-stage process referred to as digestion and search. In the digestion process, textual information is input into the natural language understanding module, and the NLU module generates a cognitive model of the input text. In other words, a query in natural language is parsed into the representation format of first-order logic and the previously described native semantics. The cognitive model is then passed to a search engine, that uses two passes: a high recall statistical retrieval module using unspecified statistical techniques to produce a long list of candidate documents; and a relevance reasoning module which uses first-order theorem proving, and human-like reasoning to determine which documents should be presented to the user. Generally, Dahlgren analyzes text based on sentence structure. The sentence is analyzed using a word-by-word analysis and a whole sentence analysis. Disclosed is a method for interpreting natural language input, wherein parsing and a naive semantic lexicon are utilized in conjunction to determine the plausibility of interpretative decisions, and wherein at least one entry identifying at least one sense of a word may be related to an ontological classification network, syntactic information, and a plurality of semantic properties. [0005] Dahlgren system uses a semantic network similar to the ontologies employed in the system of present invention. However, it relies on a complicated grammatical system for the generation of formal structures, where complicated grammatical information is needed to eliminate possible choices in the parser. The concept based search engine system of the present invention provides an advantage in that it uses a simple grammatical system in which rule probabilities and conflicting ontological descriptions are used to resolve the possible syntactic parses of sentences. This greatly reduces the processing power required to index documents. [0006] U.S. Pat. No. 6,675,159 to Lin et al. provides for a Concept-Based Search and Retrieval System. Disclosed is a concept-based method for searching text documents, wherein the method provides transforming a natural language query into predicate structures representing logical relationships between words in the natural language query; an ontology containing lexical semantic information about words; and means for ranking a set of matching natural language query predicate structures and equivalent text document predicate structures. [0007] Lin's system imposes a logical structure on text, and a semantic representation is the form used for storage. The system provides logical representations for all of the content in a document and a semantic representation of comparable utility with significantly reduced processing requirements, and no need to train the system to produce semantic representations of text content. While training is needed to enable document categorization in the system, generation of the semantic representation is independent of the categorization algorithm. [0008] U.S. Pat. No. 6,766,316 to Caudill et al. assigned to Science Application International Corporation, provides for a Method and System of Ranking and Clustering for Document Indexing and Retrieval. Disclosed is a relevancy ranking/clustering method and system for an information retrieval system which ranks documents based on relevance to a query and in accordance with user feedback. Additionally, a question and answering system further provides an answer formulation unit providing a natural language response to the input query. [0009] U.S. Pat. No. 6,910,003 to Arnold, assigned to Discern Communications, Inc., discloses system and method for searching. Raw text is retrieved or input into the system. The raw text is parsed into components such as date, place, location, actors, and the like. The raw text is stored in topic specific information caches based on the individual components. In operation, a user enters a query. The system parses the user query and compares the parsed query to the topic specific information caches. Matching topic specific information caches are displayed to the user. [0010] U.S. Patent Publication No. 2002/0059289 to Wenegrat et al. provides for Methods and Systems for Generating and Searching a Cross-Linked Keyphrase Ontology Database. Disclosed is a method of generating a cross-linked key-phrase ontology database, wherein the cross-linked key-phrase ontology database may be searched by parsing a natural language statement into a structured representation. The methods and systems of the invention involve the generation and use of a cross-linked keyphrase ontology database. A cross-linked keyphrase ontology database is created by: (a) defining at least one keyphrase; (b) representing the keyphrase by a keyphrase node in an ontology; (c) cross-linking the keyphrase node to at least one second keyphrase node, where the second keyphrase node represents a second keyphrase in a second ontology; and (d) repeating steps (b)-(c) for each keyphrase defined in step (a). The keyphrase in step (a) may be generated by parsing a text and can be selected from a group consisting of nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. In one embodiment, the keyphrase in step (a) and the second keyphrase have at least one word in common. The text parsed may be in English or in any other written or spoken language [0011] U.S. Patent Publication No. 2004/0103090 to Dogl et al. provides for a Document Search and Analyzing Method and Apparatus. Disclosed is a document search system having an ontology indexing function (ontology indexer 113 ), wherein search engine sub-system 125 , in conjunction with indexer 113 and concept search engine 126 , provides means for processing/parsing search queries to create a new entry for each word in a word index, and then associates it with a unique word ID, thereby allowing result builder 222 to create a two dimensional or three-dimensional graphical representation of the query data set or ontology (visualization model). [0012] U.S. Patent Publication No. 2005/0125400 to Mori et al. provides for an Information Search System, Information Search Supporting System, and Method and Program for Information Search. Disclosed is an information search system having conversion means for decomposing a natural language sentence according to a dependence relationship between single words of the natural language and a corresponding ontology as means for generating an inquiry sentence. [0013] Foreign patent WO/0235376 to Busch et al. provides for an Ontology-Based Parser for Natural Language Processing. Disclosed is a system and method for converting natural-language text into predicate-argument format by utilizing an ontology-based parser, wherein a sentence lexer may be utilized to convert a sentence into ontological entities tagged with part-of speech information. [0014] U.S. Patent Publication No. 2002/0147578 to O'Neil et al., assigned to LingoMotors, Inc., provides for a Method and System for Query Reformulation for Searching of Information. Disclosed is a method for searching information using a reformulated query expression where a user inputs a query. The query is generally in a natural language form. The query is indicated as an input query. The input query is provided into an engine 103 to convert the natural language form into a logical form. The logical form is preferably one that has semantic information provided into the logical form. The logical form also has key terms of the query, among other information and is used for the query. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] Disclosed is a system and method for searching. In particular, a search engine is disclosed that utilizes natural language processing (NLP) techniques. In particular, the search engine utilizes meaning-based natural language processing as well as ontological semantics in analyzing the meaning of queries as well as the text of the searched web pages, documents or the like. This system is used to analyze Web pages, queries, and the like. [0016] Query analysis is a commonly encountered term in the search engine literature. It mainly refers to parsing the query using a tokenizer, eliminating insignificant words (such as “the”), and in some cases finding the plural form of the words. A complete morphological variation (such as “take” “took” “taking”) is rarely deployed because these findings cannot be easily used in a single Boolean operation over an inverted index unless single query request is transformed into multiple requests by the system and the results are aggregated somehow. This has not been a common practice today. Also, some search engines claiming Natural Language Processing (NLP) capability only analyze the question (not the text) in the manner described above to convert natural queries into a stream of keywords which is a mispresentation of the general idea of NLP. Outside the search engine domain, query analysis for the generic act of retrieval, mostly for document management type applications, can be more involved. [0017] In particular, a search engine is disclosed that utilizes natural language processing (NLP) techniques. The search engine utilizes meaning-based natural language processing using ontological semantics in analyzing the meaning of queries and the searched text. This system analyzes Web pages, queries, and the like. The natural language processing method produces equivalent meanings to a sequence of user initiated words, wherein relevance parsing of the original query produces a display of queries/questions as hot links to the next round of searching without additional typing by the user. [0018] The system receives text as an input. The text is processed using one or more of various resources including a language specific dictionary, fact databases, inference rules, a word index, text meaning representations, word development, i.e., ontology, and the like. The text is related to other terms using the resources to include other terms and phrases. These expanded terms are used for a more thorough search of available data. [0019] The ontological semantics process and system deploys a designated function per request type that optimizes its speed and makes it feasible in time-constrained applications such as in a search engine. All the words in a sequence of words that correspond to an anticipated query are analyzed by ontological semantics process to identify each word's parent. Words that produce a parent through ontological semantics are used to create new sequences (called inherited sequences). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0020] FIG. 1 depicts how a query is processed according to one embodiment of the invention; [0021] FIG. 2 depicts a result screen according to one embodiment of the invention; [0022] FIG. 3 depicts a system for natural language processing according to one embodiment of the invention; and [0023] FIG. 4 depicts scoring according to one embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0024] Disclosed is a system for performing searches using Natural Language Processing and Ontological Semantics. The search terms are input into the system and processed according to rules. The individual search terms are analyzed and divided by language type such as question, noun, verb, adjective, punctuation, and the like. Tags identifying each term type are preferably associated with each term. Additionally, the terms are expanded using ontological semantic to expand the scope of the search terms. [0025] In operation, a query 10 is input into a response unit 12 , as shown in FIG. 1 . As discussed herein, the query 10 is “what drug treats headache?” In a preferred embodiment, the response unit 12 is adapted to sift the incoming query 10 for already analyzed queries. For example, if a gallery has already been created from incoming query 10 , the query is sent to the gallery unit 14 for processing and the results are retrieved from the Gallery database. [0026] Likewise, if the query is a weather query, the weather module 16 processes it and the results are retrieved from a Weather database. Likewise, if the query is a query about hakia, the database 18 processes it and the results are retrieved from an hakia database. Likewise, if the query is a mundane query, the dialogue database 20 processes it and the results are retrieved from a dialogue database. Out of billions of possible queries that can be asked to a search engine, only a small fraction of them are treated via databases 14 , 16 , 18 , and 20 . The selection of which database to go is made using a list of pre-defined search terms for each database ( 14 , 16 , 18 , 20 ) based on exact match. This list resides inside response unit. If the response unit 12 does not process the query (i.e., it could not send to any one of the databases 14 , 16 , 18 , 20 ), it is sent to a Question Analyzer (QA) module 22 . In one embodiment, every query is input into the QA module. The QA module 22 calls a Tokenizer (TK) to separate the query into word groups and sentence groups by specific rules. The QA module 22 calls the Bag-of-Words (BOW) library 24 to identify these word tags per definitions. As the result of the data processing, the QA module 22 identifies the query type based on its rules of detection. The processing of the preferred embodiment is shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Word Morphological String Type Tag variations Query Type Word 1 What question Q1 Q1 word Word 2 drug noun N1 drugs Word 3 treats verb V1 treat, treating, treated Word 4 headache noun N1 headaches Word 5 ? Quotation Z1 mark [0027] The QA module 22 sends the information shown in table 1 to a Natural Language Processor (NLP) module 26 . The NLP module 26 creates a retrieval sequence. In a preferred embodiment, the retrieval request is called a Mapped Anticipated Query Request (MAQ request). In the present example, the MAQ request is “drug headache treat”. This sequence will be used to retrieve paragraphs from a paragraph data storage system. In one embodiment, an uneven triple-redundant storage system is used. However, it should be noted that other storage systems can be used. In one embodiment, sequences are created using alphabetical sorting. [0028] The NLP module 26 also creates “fallback sequences” 28 . This is called a “fallback request”. The fallback requests include “drug headache”, “drug treat”, and “headache treat”. These sequences are used to retrieve paragraphs from the paragraph storage system preferably when there is no response back from the paragraph storage system storage for the complete sequence. Fallback sequences 28 are created using special rules that take into account the word tags and their weights. The NLP module 26 prepares a MAQ request set by attaching file name extensions, for example, “drug headache treat.inx”. The NLP module 26 uses the sequences above to identify the location IDs of the MAQ files in the paragraph storage system using a hash+mode method. In one embodiment, the MAQ request is ID 1 , and the fallback requests are sequentially labeled ID 2 , ID 3 , and the like. [0029] The NLP module 26 calls a “MAQ Retrieval and Scooping” (MRS) module to retrieve MAQ files from KUTS using the IDs. If the first MAQ request containing the fully query sequence brings a MAQ file with enough results, then the fallback requests are omitted. The required number of results is determined based on the topic of the query, number of words in the query, and the like. The MRS method opens the MAQ file(s) and collects paragraph IDs (PIDs) using the MAQ sequence and the original query. A typical MAQ file has the following structure: [0000] File name: drug headache treat.inx [0000] Paragraph PID-1 Scores of (PID-1) Equivalent Words (drug=Paracetamol, treat=relieve) [0000] Paragraph PID-2 Scores of (PID-2) Equivalent Words (headache=migraine, treat=heal) [0030] The list inside a MAQ file is preferably a predefined length. In a first embodiment, the MAQ file is 100 entries long. In another embodiment, the list is not limited and contains all possible matching results. The MAQ files are preferably created during an off-line process where Ontological Semantics identify equivalences, and the MAQ generator identifies the MAQ file names (from the sequences that occur in the paragraphs of the analyzed text). [0031] The MRS method retrieves the paragraphs from KUTS using the paragraph PIDs. Along with each paragraph, its URL and Title are also retrieved. MRS then transfers this set of paragraphs back to the NLP module 26 . A typical paragraph is shown below. [0000] Paracetamol is Called Acetaminophen in the United States [0000] By reducing the amount of prostaglandin available for synthesis, paracetamol helps relieve headache pain by reducing the dilation of the blood vessels that cause the pain. [0000] Paracetamol, however, only inhibits prostaglandin biosynthesis in the central nervous system (CNS). Paracetamol has little or no effect on peripheral tissues. [0000] http://www.painhelp.com/info/paracetamol/ [0032] The NLP module 26 analyzes each paragraph, and each sentence one at a time. The NLP module 26 calls the TK module to parse out the words. The NLP module 26 uses NLP-Elastic Scoring and NLP-Special Solutions, with the word equivalences, to assign each sentence a relevancy score with respect to the original query. A typical scoring process selects the best sentence in the paragraph. [0033] A typical scoring report for the above paragraph is shown below. The score reflects the analysis performed with respect to the query. Overall Score: 0.7591516 Title Score: 0 Sentence Score: 0.9364396 Domain 0 Source: 0 Score: Sp: 1 Link Score: 0 St (Pairs): A:B:0.41 * 0.75 * 1.0 = 0.3075 A:C:1 * 0.75 * 1.0 = 0.75 B:C:0.41 * 1 * 1.0 = 0.41 Extra Modifier (Em): 1 Ss = (Sp * (1−)1 − St/Sw/k(M)) + (0.001 * Sx)) * Em [0034] The best sentence in every paragraph is preferably highlighted, underlined, italicized, or bolded for visual effect of distinction when the results displayed on the screen. In a preferred embodiment, the relevant portion is highlighted in yellow. The overall score of each paragraph decides the order of display of the paragraphs, from top to bottom. [0035] After all the paragraphs are analyzed and best sentences are identified, one of the best sentences is selected to be sent to dialogue module ( 20 ). This selection is done using special rules. The dialogue module displays the selected sentence at the top of the screen. In front of the selected sentence for dialogue, additional comments are added from the contents of the file HEDGES.txt. These comments include short expressions like “good question”, “consider this”, and the like. The results are compiled and sent to the display unit to produce a result screen as shown in FIG. 2 . [0036] The MAQ files are stored in the paragraph storage system. The MAQ files aid system performance. In one embodiment, the MAQ file system can be replaced by some other database or indexed using on-the-fly analysis. [0037] As discussed above, every query is analyzed and reformulated. FIG. 1 shows the distribution, reformulation, and check procedure (in the order of execution), where the QA process operates among other modules. The QA module 22 operates on queries after they are processed in the response unit 12 . [0038] QA module 22 operates in conjunction with a bag of words module BOW 24 . For the BOW to function, each part of text is processed. For a given language, for example English, BOW Tags are defined by calling the BOW object. The QA module 22 prepares the query for the natural language processor (NLP) 26 . [0039] At the outset, the type of the query is determined for the NLP module 26 . The query type is either a what, how, why, who, where, or the like. In a preferred embodiment, the queries are processed according to the following rules. [0040] The first 19 examples presented below represent questions that use what to ask the question. [0000] Type=Q1 [0000] What is a honey bee? [0041] IF 1 st word is 2 nd word is 3 rd word is 4 th word is 5 th word is 6 th word is What is anything are → Type=Q2 What was the most watched TV series at all times? What was the most expensive TV series production in history? [0042] IF 2 nd 1 st word is word is 3 rd word is 4 th word is 5 th word is 6 th word is What is the most [V1]/QT002 anything are least was best were worst Type=Q3 [0043] What is the meaning of life? [0044] What are the symptoms of diarrhea? [0045] What is the length of the San Francisco Bridge? [0046] IF 1 st word is 2 nd word is 3 rd word is 4 th word is 5 th word is 6 th word is What is the (X)T003 of anything are was were Type=Q4 What opera singer was the best performing artist in last nights concert? [0047] IF 1 st 3 rd 4 th 5 th 7 th word is 2 nd word is word is word is word is 6 th word is word is What Comb of 2 is the most anything Which words here are least → [N1] [SM] was best [A1] were worst Or a single word Type=Q5 Which baseball player was smiling during the opening gala of . . . Which car speeds up to 60 miles an hour in 5 seconds? [0048] IF 1 st word is 2 nd word is 3 rd word is 4 th word is 5 th word is 6 th word is 7 th word is What Comb of 2 is/are anything Which words here was/were → [N1] [SM] do/does [A1] did/has/have Or a single [V*] word Type=Q6 What causes concrete to crack? [0049] IF 2 nd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th 1 st word is word is 3 rd word is word is word is word is word is What [V*] anything Which → Type=Q7 What sort of maniac drives BMW motorbike in a school building? [0050] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 5 th word is word is word is 4 th word is word is 6 th word is 7 th word is What kind of anything Which sort → type class Type=Q8 [0051] What time does the Orioles game start? [0052] IF 1 st 2 nd 4 th 5 th word is word is 3 rd word is word is word is 6 th word is 7 th word is What time anything Which date → Type=Q9 [0053] What medicine is best for sleep deprivation? [0054] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 7 th word is word is word is word is 5 th word is 6 th word is word is What Comb of is most for anything Which 2 words are least known for → here was best [N1] were worst [SM] [A1] Or a single word Type=Q10 [0055] What should I do if my dog eats chocolate? [0056] IF 1 st 2 nd 4 th word 6 th word 7 th word word is word is 3 rd word is is 5 th word is is is What should I do anything → you one Type=Q12 [0057] What are the signs of trouble? [0058] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th word is word is word is word is word is word is 7 th word is What are the anything → were Type=Q19 [0059] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th word is word is word is word is word is word is 7 th word is What Anything → Which The next nine questions ask questions using the term how. Type=Q20 [0060] How to make lasagna? [0061] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th word is word is word is word is word is word is 7 th word is How to [V1] anything → Type=Q21 [0062] (How) [high/often/frequent] can a bear jump in the air? [0063] (How) [fast] do birds fly? [0064] IF 1 st word 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th is word is word is word is word is word is word is How QT021 is/are anything → was/were can/may should/must do/does has/have had/did Type=Q22 [0065] (How much) (does) [a bee] [weigh]? [0066] How much does a Mustang cost? [0067] IF 1 st word 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th is word is word is word is word is word is word is How much does it/a/[SM]/ QT022 anything → do [N1]/ [PR]/[00] combination of up to 3 words Type=Q23 [0068] (How much) [a bee] [weighs]? [0069] How much a Mustang costs? [0070] IF 1 st word 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th is word is word is word is word is word is word is How much a/ QT022 anything → [SM]/[N1]/ [PR]/[00] combination of up to 3 words Type=Q24 [0071] (How many) [tall] [bodyguards] (does) [the President] [have] ? [0072] (How many) [countries] [are] [in the United Nations]? [0073] IF 1 st word 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th is word is word is word is word is word is word is How many [SM]/[N1]/ anything → [PR]/[P2]/ [00]/[A1]/ [V3] combination of up to 3 words Type=Q25 [0074] (How many times) did Tyson lose a fight? [0075] IF 1 st word 2 nd 5 th 6 th 7 th is word is 3 rd word is 4 th word is word is word is word is How many times anything → Type=Q26 [0076] (How) (were) (the) [markets] [yesterday]? [0077] (How) (is) (the) [situation] [in Iraq]? [0078] IF 1 st word 2 nd 3 rd 5 th 6 th 7 th is word is word is 4 th word is word is word is word is How Is/are the anything → Was/were Type=Q27 [0079] (How) is pancreatic cancer treated? [0080] (How) should I know if my prescription is correct? [0081] (How) (can) [a beautiful] [women] [date] [older man]? [0082] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is How Is/are anything → Was/were do/does can/may did should Type=Q29 [0083] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is How anything → The next rule applies to those questions that ask queries using the term why. Type=Q39 [0084] Why is the sky blue? [0085] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is Why anything → The next rules apply to queries using who. Type=Q41 [0086] (Who) (is) (the) [king] (of [comedy] [of all times]? [0087] (Who) (was) (the) [director] (of [12 Samurais]? [0088] (Who) (is) (the) [builder] (of [Eiffel tower]? [0089] (Who) (is) (the) [CEO] (of [IBM]? [0090] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is Who is/are the QT041 of anything → was/were Type=Q42 [0091] (Who) [manufactures] [wall-mounted] [hair dryers] ? [0092] (Who) [killed] [Abraham Lincoln] ? [0093] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is Who [V*] anything → Type=Q43 [0094] (Who) (is) (the) [best] (cook) [in] [Manhattan]? [0095] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is Who is/are the QT043 anything → was/were Type=Q49 [0096] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is Who anything → The next rules apply to questions using when. Type=Q59 [0097] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is When anything → Where questions are handled with the following rules. Type=Q68 [0098] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is Where can I find anything → Type=Q69 [0099] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is word is word is word is word is word is word is Where anything → Confirmation questions or queries are using the following rules. Type=Q78 [0100] IF 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 5 th word is word is word is 4 th word is word is 6 th word is 7 th word is Is it true anything → Type=Q79 [0101] IF 2 nd 3 rd word 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th 1 st word is word is is word is word is word is word is Is/are anything Was/were → Do/does/did Has/have/ had Shall/will Should/could Would/might May/can [0102] Many users enter queries that seek information directly. These queries are command queries such as find, fetch, look, and the like. [0000] Type=C1 [0103] IF 1 st 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th word is 2 nd word is word is word is word is word is 7 th word is Find anything → Bring Fetch Look Type=C2 [0104] IF 1 st 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th word is 2 nd word is word is word is word is word is word is List anything → List-of Table-of Type=C3 [0105] IF 3 rd 4 th 5 th 6 th 7 th 1 st word is 2 nd word is word is word is word is word is word is Compare anything → Analyze [0106] Based on the query analysis, the queries are formulated for the MAQ. A flag is set for each of the queries. For example, “where” questions, apply the flag A (for address), which will automatically include P (for place) in the Retrieval module. For “what time” Q8 questions, apply the flag T (for time). “When” questions also receive the flag T (for time) [0107] FIG. 3 depicts a natural language processing module according to one embodiment of the invention. As shown, natural language processing module 26 includes a section for special solutions 134 as well as a scoring section 136 . The natural language processing module 26 performs both query analysis as well as paragraph analysis. An agent 130 scours the web and analyzes and retrieves content for the natural language processor to analyze. Agent 130 provides URLs, page titles, and paragraphs to the natural language processor. Once the content is analyzed, the MAQ 126 is used in the storing of paragraph IDs which link to the paragraph URL, and title of the content. When a query is entered, the MAQ is provide with a MAQ request and in response, provides a paragraph ID as well as equivalents as to the NLP for processing and presentation to the user. As discussed above, the bag of words module 24 is provided with the original query or original paragraph and, in turn, provides words, tags, as well as equivalences. The processing done by the NLP module 26 is discussed below with respect to FIG. 4 . The MAP system enables ontological semantics analysis both off-line and on-line. It should be noted that the MAQ extracts all possible questions that could be answered from a given web page. The MAQ processing is based on two overriding goals. Given a sentence from a web page, how many questions can be asked so that this sentence will be a potential answer and what are the questions that can be asked which will result in the sentence from the web page being an answer? In a preferred embodiment, all of the questions that can be asked by a user and those that would find answers from analyzed web pages are already prepared by the MAQ algorithm before the user submits a query to the search engine. Once the MAQ files are prepared, they are stored in a file that contains the paragraph ID for easy retrieval. As new web pages are found, the MAQ files are updated. [0108] NLP is the mechanism to match queries to sentences (paragraphs). It is implemented in a “boxed” manner that is used to determine how the results should be scored. There are 3 “boxing” rounds as shown in FIG. 4 . [0109] The first matching round is where elastic scoring is performed. After the paragraphs are scored, in the second round of scoring the paragraph performing URL and title scoring. The final round reranks the paragraphs based on extra words in support of the question type. In the preferred embodiment, the first two rounds are preferably used during MAQ process and on-the-fly scoring, whereas the last round typically applies only to on-the-fly scoring. TABLE 2 SES QT Table URL/Title Extra Words MAQ Sp (pure presence score) Replacements per question type S dom = Ss ⁡ ( J Z ) M + c Sd (distance degradation) S tail = e ⁡ ( Ss ⁡ ( J Y ) M + c ) So (Order degradation) S title = Ss ⁡ ( J V ) M Sx (weighted presence) Replacements per question type Sp = Σ i = 1 , M ⁢ R i M ⁢   ≤ 0.1 Sx = Σ i = 1 , M ⁢ R i ⁢ W i Σ i = 1 , M ⁢ W i ⁢   ≤ 0.1 Sw = ∑ i = l , M j = l , M i ≠ j   ⁢ W i · W j + b i , j   Ss is assigned a value based on exact match per question type Ss 1 = ⁢ W domain ⁢ S domain + ⁢ W tail ⁢ S tail + ⁢ W title ⁢ S title + ⁢ W sentence ⁢ Ss   Ss Times 1.05 Ss1 + 0.01 St = ∑ i = l , M j = l , M i ≠ j   ⁢ M   PS i - PS j  -  PQ i - PQ j   + M ⁢ R i , j ⁢ W i ⁢ W j Ss = Sp ⁡ ( 1 - ( 1 - St ⁢ / ⁢ Sw ) k ⁡ ( M ) ) + 0.001 ⁢   ⁢ Sx   Weights are in QT tables Table in Weights are in in QANLP Workbench.exe.config MAQ.xml ..exe.config ..config [0110] In the Box 1 , sentence elastic scoring is performed. The sentence score is called a presence score. The elastic score is calculated by adding the weights for each of the question words found in the sentence and dividing by the sum of all the question word weights as shown below. Sx = ∑ i = 1 , M   ⁢ R i ⁢ W i ∑ i = 1 , M   ⁢ W i ≤ 1.0 [0111] In the above equation, M is the number of significant words in the query. R is 1 for each query word found in the sentence, and 0 otherwise. The weightless form of the same calculation is: Sp = ∑ i = 1 , M ⁢ R i M ≤ 1.0 [0112] Sx is only used to distinguish the same Sp results (perfect order and distance) by means of a tiny effect. [0113] A distance score for every combination of question word pairs is calculated. This distance score is 1 over the physical distance between the two words in the sentence minus the expected distance. The physical distance is the actual distance of the words between the word pairs Adding the number of question words to the operand and dividend then dilutes the distance score. In this manner this equation gives less importance for longer queries. Sd = M ∑ i = 1 , M , j = 1 , M , i ≠ j ⁢   PS i - PS j  -  PQ i - PQ j   + M ≤ 1.0 [0114] In the above equation, PS is the position of the word in the sentence, PQ is the position of the word in the query, M is the number of words in the query. [0115] Next, an order score is calculated. In the above equation the order score is computed by disregarding all non-query words from the sentence, and focusing on the query words found in the sentence. In this manner extraneous words are eliminated from the calculation. [0116] M=the length of the query; [0117] L=the length of the sentence; [0118] The order score is determined as follows: [0119] Starting from a query word and its neighbor to the right: R(i)=1 if the query word's neighbor occurs on the right side in the sentence R(i)=0.5 if the query word's neighbor occurs on the left side in the sentence R(i)=0.2 if the query word's neighbor occurs on the left side in the sentence and if both words are tagged [PR]s. So = 1 ( M - 1 ) ⁢ ∑ i = 1 , L ⁢ R ⁡ ( i ) ≤ 1.0 [0123] where L≧M>1. [0124] An example of the above calculation is shown below. [0125] Consider a query sequence of A B C D E in a sentence E A X X B D X C D X X, where M=5 and L=11. (X represents words that are irrelevant to the query). [0126] R(1)=1.0 (A B−A X X B) [0127] R(2)=1.0 (B C−B D X C) [0128] R(3)=1.0 (C D−C D) [0129] R(4)=0.5 (D E−E A X X B D) [0130] So=(1/4)*3.5=0.85 [0131] Instead of calculating scores individually, preferably, a pair-wise calculation is performed. S w is the sum of the multiplication of the weights for each pair. If two words appear next to each other in the query give the weight a little boost b Sw = ∑ i = 1 , M j = 1 , M i ≠ j ⁢ W i . W j + b i , j [0132] Example query: A B C [0133] Boost=0.1 [0134] A weight=0.5 [0135] B weight=0.3 [0136] C weight=0.2 [0137] AB weight=0.15 [0138] AC weight=0.10 [0139] BC weight=0.06 [0140] S w =(0.15+0.1)+0.1+(0.06+0.1)=0.51 [0141] The quality of each pairing of words is called Pairwise total score, St, and is given by St = ∑ i = 1 , M j = 1 , M i ≠ j ⁢ Sd i , j ⁢ So i , j ⁢ Sw i , j [0142] Substituting pair wise calculation, we have St = ∑ i = 1 , M j = 1 , M i ≠ j ⁢ M   PS i - PS j  -  PQ i - PQ j   + M ⁢ R i , j ⁢ W i ⁢ W j [0143] The sentence score is Ss = Sp ⁡ ( 1 - ( 1 - St / Sw ) k ⁡ ( M ) ) + 0.001 ⁢ Sx [0144] This means perfect distance and order will produce: Ss=Sp+ 0.001 Sx [0145] Anything not perfect will start to degrade Ss=Sp all the way to its certain percentage as determined by the selection of k. For example, k(M)=2 will lower the Ss=Sp all the way to its half value as shown below. K(M) 2 3 4 5 6 St/Sw Ss= Ss= Ss= Ss= Ss= 1   Sp Sp Sp Sp Sp 0.9 0.95 Sp 0.8 0.90 Sp 0.7 0.85 Sp 0.6 0.80 Sp 0.5 0.75 Sp 0.4 0.70 Sp 0.3 0.65 Sp 0.2 0.60 Sp 0.1 0.55 Sp 0.0 0.50 Sp 0.67 Sp 0.75 Sp 0.80 Sp 0.83 Sp [0146] Thus k(M), called a boxing coefficient, determines the effect of distance and order on total presence score, and is a function of the length of the query M. Contents of the table above are adjustable via benchmark tests. They all are in between 0 and 1. Default system would use all equal to 1.0. M 2 3 4 5 >5 k 2 3 4 5 6 Interval 1/2 = 0.5 2/3 = 0.66 3/4 = 0.75 4/5 = 0.8 5/6 = 0.83 [0147] By doing so, a 3/4 presence will not override a 4/4 presence, even if the order or distance is not good. Different k values can be used to control the overlap. [0148] There are special considerations that should be taken into account. For example, a special case exists when only one query word is found in the sentence, then the pairwise computation as described above can be bypassed by: Ss=Sp [0149] A sample calculation is shown here. [0150] Query: What is the length of the San Francisco Bridge? [0151] Sentence-1: The length of the entire structure of the San Francisco—Oakland Bay Bridge, with approaches, is 8.4 miles or 7.5 miles. Sources vary due to the start and endpoint of the measurements). W A = 0.5 W B = 1.1 W C = 1.1 W D = 1.1 Presence: Sp = 1.0 Degradation by distance and order: St = ∑ i = l , M j = l , M i ≠ j   ⁢ Sd i , j ⁢   ⁢ So i , j ⁢   ⁢ Sw i , j W Distance Order A:B:0.56 *0.6666667 *1.0 = 0.3733333 A:C:0.55 *0.6666667 *1.0 = 0.3666667 A:D:0.55 *0.5 *1.0 = 0.275 B:C:1.22 *1 *1.0 = 1.22 B:D:1.21 *0.6666667 *1.0 = 0.8066667 C:D: 1.22 *0.6666667 *1.0 = 0.8133334 Sw = 5.31 St = 3.855 Sentence score Ss = Sp ⁡ ( 1 - ( 1 - St ⁢ / ⁢ Sw ) k ⁡ ( M ) ) for k = 2 (method 1) Ss = 0.8629944 for k(M) = 4 (method 2) Ss = 0.9314 [0152] Query: What is the length of the San Francisco Bridge? [0153] Sentence-2: Before the attacks, the San Francisco Bridge District paid US$500,000.00 a year for $125,000,000.00 worth of coverage, which included terrorist attack. W A = 0.5 W B = 1.1 W C = 1.1 W D = 1.1 Presence: Sx = 0.8684 Sp = 0.75 Degradation by distance and order: St = ∑ i = l , M j = l , M i ≠ j   ⁢ Sd i , j ⁢   ⁢ So i , j ⁢   ⁢ Sw i , j W D O B:C:1.22 *1 *1.0 = 1.22 B:D:1.21 *1 *1.0 = 1.21 C:D: 1.22 *1 *1.0 = 1.22 Sw = 3.65 St = 3.65 Sentence score Ss = Sp ⁡ ( 1 - ( 1 - St ⁢ / ⁢ Sw ) k ⁡ ( M ) ) for k = 2 (method 1) Ss = 0.75 for k(M) = 4 (method 2) Ss = 0.75 [0154] There are two preferably elastic scoring calculations for the text, and the best score among them shall be selected. Scoring calculations are typically performed for a single sentence and a single sentence combined with the next sentence, including the title. [0155] URL & Title Scoring are performed in Box 2 as shown in FIG. 4 . First, the system performs URL domain scoring. A URL domain is shown below: http://www.domain.com/xxx/yyy/zzz [0157] The URL domain score is computed by: S dom = Ss ⁡ ( J Z ) M + c [0158] where J is the number of characters of the query words found in the domain, and Z is the total number of characters in the domain, and c is the credibility factor. Power to the M (query length) in the equation ensures rapid decay in case of a small mismatch. As M grows, it is desirable to eliminate partial mismatch more rapidly. When J=Z, domain name is always active. Ss is the sentence score where the dissected significant words are treated like a sentence in comparison to the query. c=0.1 (for .mil .gov) c=0 (otherwise) [0161] Below is an example of dissecting: Query: US Army http://www.USxxxxArmyxxx.com/xxx/yyy/zzz [0164] That means there are 4 words dissected above. It should be noted that the last one is irrelevant. [0165] Next, URL tail scoring is performed. The URL tail is shown below: http://www.domain.com/xxx/yyy/zzz.ext [0167] The URL tail score is computed by S tail = e ⁡ ( Ss ⁡ ( J Y ) M + c ) [0168] where J is the number of characters of the query words found in the tail, and Y is the total number of characters in the tail, c is the credibility factor, and e is the extension factor. Power to the M (query length) in the equation ensures rapid decay in case of small mismatch. As M grows, it is desirable to eliminate partial mismatch more rapidly. Ss is the sentence score where the dissected significant words are treated like a sentence in comparison to the query. c=0.1 (for .mil .gov) c=0 (otherwise) e=0 (for .exe .gif .jpg) e=1 (otherwise) [0173] Once the domain and title scoring are complete, title scoring is performed. The title is scored in a manner similar to a sentence. However, the additional factor of rapid decay (in case of long titles where the query words are only a part of the title) is individual. S title = Ss ⁡ ( J V ) M [0174] In the above equation, J is the number of characters of the query words found in the title, and V is the total number of characters in the title. Power to the M (query length) in the equation ensures rapid decay in the case of small mismatch. As M grows, the system eliminates partial mismatches more rapidly. [0175] Once the Box-1 and Box-2 scores of FIG. 4 are calculated, a Combined Scoring of Box-1 and Box-2 is calculated. [0176] The combined score is calculated by: S 1,2 =W domain S domain +W tail S tail +W title S title +W sentence Ss [0177] The weights above are adjusted based on query techniques such as trial and error, or the like (M is the number of query words). Table 3 is used for fine adjustment of rapid decay if the power rule is not effective. TABLE 3 M W domain W tail W title W sentence 1 W 1 W 2 W 3 W 4 2 W 5 W 6 W 7 W 8 3 W 9 W 10 W 11 W 12 4 W 13 W 14 W 15 W 16 5 W 17 W 18 W 19 W 20 [0178] The sentence also includes the solution scoring shown in Box 3 of FIG. 4 . Here, searching is based on words in support of the question type. NLP scoring depends on the question type detection result of the Question Analyzer Module 26 . The result possibilities include single word query (non-question, after noise eliminated), double word query (non-question, after noise eliminated), triple word query (non-question, after noise eliminated), multi-word query (non question), what questions, how questions, why questions, who questions, when questions, where questions, confirmation questions, commands, and dialogues. [0179] The list of NLP Methods with respect to the question types are outlined below: TABLE 4 NLP Best Sentence Method Non Question Single word query NLP-N1 Double word query NLP-N2 Triple word query NLP-N3 Many words query NLP-N4 What questions Q1 - What is Y NLP-N4 Q2 - What is the most [QT]/ NLP-Q2 [V2] Y Q3 - What is the [QT] of Y NLP-Q3 Q4 - What X is the best Y NLP-Q4 Q5 - What X [V1] Y NLP-Q5 Q6 - What [V1] Y NLP-Q6 Q7 - What X of Y Z NLP-Q7 Q8 - What [time] Y NLP-Q8 Q9 - What Y is [QT] for X NLP-Q9 Q12 - What are the X NLP-Q12 Q19 - What Y NLP-N4 How questions Q20 - How to [V1] Y NLP-Q20 Q21 - How [QT] do Y NLP-Q21 Q22 - How much does X [QT] Y NLP-Q22 Q23 - How much a X [QT] NLP-Q23 Q24 - How many Y NLP-Q24 Q25 - How many times Y NLP-Q25 Q26 - How is the Y NLP-Q26 Q27 - How is Y NLP-N4 Q29 - How Y NLP-N4 Why questions Q39 - Why Y NLP-Q39 Who questions Q41 - Who is the [QT] of Y NLP-Q41 Q42 - Who [V1] Y NLP-Q42 Q43 - Who is the [QT] Y NLP-Q43 Q49 - Who Y NLP-Q49 When questions Q59 - When Y NLP-Q59 Where questions Q68 - Where can I find X NLP-Q68 Q69 - Where Y NLP-Q69 Confirm Q78 - Is it true X NLP-N4 Q79 - Is X NLP-N4 Commands C1 - Find Y NLP-C1 C2 - List Y NLP-C2 C3 - Compare Y NLP-C3 Dialogues DE - whatz up NLP-DE DR - What is hakia NLP-DR [0180] In many instances, users enter only a single word query. In a first embodiment, the top score pattern is read from an external file. The top score pattern is loaded into the system memory. The single word of the query is replaced with X. Exact matches are then found, and the score in the Table NLP-N1.txt is used. TABLE NLP-N1.TXT Pattern found in the sentence (slash/means a new line in the actual table) Sentence Score X means . . . 1.0 meaning of X 1.0 the definition of X 1.0 the description of X 1.0 X (is/are/was/were) defined as . . . 1.0 X (is/are/was/were/has been/have been) 1.0 known as . . . X (is/are/was/were/has been/have been) 1.0 referred to as . . . X (is/was/has been) a . . . 0.9 X (are/were/have been) . . . 0.9 X (lives/resides) . . . 0.8 . . . X 0.1 (Default) [0181] An Example is given below: [0182] What is angioplasty? [0183] Answer: According to the Merck manual, angioplasty is defined as a process of replacing . . . [0184] Score=1.0 [0185] The double words method is handled, as shown in the table above by NLP-N2. The system reads the top score pattern from an external file and loads it into the memory. Then, the X1 X2 variables are replaced with the double word of the query. Exact matches are fond and the score in the Table NLP-N2.txt is used. TABLE NLP-N2.TXT Pattern found in the sentence Sentence Score X1 X2 means . . 1.0 the meaning of X1 X2 (is/are/was/were) 1.0 the definition of X1 X2 (is/are/was/were) 1.0 the description of X1 X2 (is/are/was/were) 1.0 X1 X2 (is/are/was/were) defined as 1.0 X1 X2 (is/are/was/were/has been/have been) 1.0 known as X1 X2 (is/are/was/were/has been/have been) 1.0 referred to as X1 X2 (is/was/has been) a 0.9 X1 X2 (are/were/have been) 0.9 X1 X2 (lives/resides) 0.8 . . . X1 X2 0.5 (Default) [0186] Triple words queries are handled using NLP-N3. In operation, the top score pattern from an external file is loaded into the memory. The three words replace X1 X2 X3 with the triple word of the query. A matches is found using the score in the Table NLP-N3.txt TABLE NLP-N3.TXT Sentence Dialogue Pattern found in the sentence Score Signal X1 X2 X3 means . . . 1.0 the meaning of X1 X2 X3 (is/are/was/were) 1.0 the definition of X1 X2 X3 (is/are/was/were) 1.0 the description of X1 X2 X3 (is/are/was/were) 1.0 X1 X2 X3 (is/are/was/were) defined as 1.0 X1 X2 X3 (is/are/was/were/has been/have been) 1.0 known as X1 X2 X3 (is/are/was/were/has been/have been) 1.0 referred to as X1 X2 X3 (is/was/has been) a 0.9 X1 X2 X3 (are/were/have been) 0.9 X1 X2 X3 (lives/resides) 0.8 . . . X1 X2 X3 0.7 (Default) [0187] Queries that have more than 3 words are processed using NLP-N4. In operation, the top score pattern is read from an external file and loaded into the memory. The XSEQUENCE in the table is replaced with the words of the query. Exact matches are found and the score in the Table NLP-N4.txt is used. If the exact match is not found, then Elastic Scoring is used. It should be noted that a question in the form of “what is Y?” is handled using NLP-N4. TABLE NLP-N4.TXT Sentence Dialogue Pattern found in the sentence Score Signal XSEQUENCE means . . . 1.0 the meaning of XSEQUENCE(is/are/was/were) 1.0 the definition of XSEQUENCE(is/are/was/were) 1.0 the description of XSEQUENCE(is/are/was/were) 1.0 XSEQUENCE (is/are/was/were) defined as 1.0 XSEQUENCE(is/are/was/were/has been/have 1.0 been) known as XSEQUENCE(is/are/was/were/has been/have 1.0 been) referred to as XSEQUENCE (is/was/has been) a 1.0 XSEQUENCE (are/were/have been) 1.0 XSEQUENCE (lives/resides) 1.0 . . . XSEQUENCE 0.9 (Default) [0188] Many queries are received asking a question beginning with what. It should be noted that preferably, [V1]* means V1 and its equivalences. What questions use the NLP-Q2 best question method. The questions are typically in the form “what is the most [QT002]/[V4N5] Y?” For examples: what is the most [expensive] [French wine]? Or What is the most [watched] [TV series]? [0189] These questions are processed using elastic scoring. Elastic Scoring is applied to: most [QT002N4N5]*Y. For example: what is the most [expensive] [French wine]? The query is expanded to become: most {expensive or costly or pricy} French wine. Another example is the query: What is the most [watched] [TV series]? This expanded query becomes most {viewed or Nielsen-rated or admired} TV series. In a preferred embodiment, the equivalences are stored in a file named QT002.txt. [0190] Questions in the form what is the meaning of life are analyzed. These questions use the NLP-Q3. They are analyzed as what is the [QT003] of Y?Another example is what is the length of the San Francisco Bridge? [0191] At the outset, Elastic Scoring is applied to [QT003] of Y and Y [QT003]*. [0192] The higher score is selected. [0193] For example, given the query what is the meaning of life? Elastic scoring is applied to the term and its equivalences. The term is 1—meaning of life and the equivalences are 2—life {means or described or defined}. Another example is the query what is the length of the San Francisco Bridge? The first term that is scored is “length of San Francisco Bridge” and the second term that is scored is the expanded phrase “San Francisco Bridge {long or inches or feet}.” It should be noted that the equivalences are stored in a file named QT003.txt. [0194] The method called NLP-Q4 is used for questions in the form of what X is the best Y as well as what Y? For example what medicine is the best for headache is input into the system. Elastic Scoring, as discussed above, is used to analyze this query type. Elastic scoring is performed on two different forms of the query, X best Y and best Y X. The higher score for the two different queries is used. [0195] The method called NLP-Q5 is used for queries in the form of what X [V1]Y? An example of such a query is what medicine treats hyperglycemia? Elastic scoring is applied to the query and an expanded form of the query. The two scores result from X[V1]*Y and Y [V1]*[by/with] X. The higher of the two scores is used for matching. [0196] The method called NLP-Q6 is used for queries in the form of what [V1] Y? Queries in this form ask questions such as what makes a good husband? The query is put into the form [V1]*Y and elastic scoring is performed. The generated score is then used for matching. [0197] The method called NLP-Q7 is used for queries in the form of what X of Y Z? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as what part of a train ride is fun? The query is put into the form X Y Z and elastic scoring is performed. The generated score is then used for matching. [0198] The method called NLP-Q8 is used for queries in the form of what [time] Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as what time is the Yankee game on TV? Elastic scoring is performed on Y {starts, calendar, schedule, time, date}. The generated score is then used for matching. [0199] Queries in the form of what Y is the best for X are processed using elastic scoring and the method NLP-Q9. Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as what medicine is the best for growing hair? Elastic scoring is performed on Y {best} X. The generated score is then used for matching. [0200] The method called NLP-Q10 is used for queries in the form of what should I do Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as what should I do if my dog eats chocolate? Elastic scoring is performed on Y. The generated score is then used for matching. [0201] The method called NLP-Q12 is used for queries in the form of what (are/were) the X? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as what were the suggestions for invading Iraq? Scoring is performed on {list, collection, group, set} X, where the presence of the words in the parentheses contribute to the presence score 1%. The score is then used for matching. [0202] The method called NLP-Q20 is used for queries in the form of how to [V1] Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how to cook lasagna? Elastic scoring is performed on {method, way, manner, fashion, style, approach} [V1]*Y, where the presence of the words in the parentheses contribute to the presence score 1. The generated score is then used for matching. [0203] The method called NLP-Q21 is used for queries in the form of how [QT] do Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how fast does a BMW go on a dirt road, or how rich is Bill Gates? Elastic scoring is performed on [QT]*Y and Y [QT]*. The higher of the two generated scores is then used for matching. [0204] The method called NLP-Q22 is used for queries in the form of how much does X [QT] Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how much does a sumo wrestler weigh minimum? Elastic scoring is performed on X [QT]*Y. The generated score is then used for matching. [0205] The method called NLP-Q23 is used for queries in the form of how much a X [QT]? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how much does a BMW cost? Elastic scoring is performed on X [QT]* and [QT]* of X. For example, the system seeks answers to the initial question in the form of “BMW costs $40,000” and Price of BMW is $40,000. The higher of the two generated scores is then used for matching. [0206] The method called NLP-Q20 is used for queries in the form of how many Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how many players are in a soccer team? Elastic scoring is performed{number, quantity, population, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety, hundred, thousand, million, billion, trillion}Y, where the presence of the words in { } contribute to the presence score 1% (multiplier of 1.01). The generated score is then used for matching. [0207] The method called NLP-Q25 is used for queries in the form of how many times Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how many times [did Chicago win the NBA title]? Elastic scoring is performed Y {frequency, repetition, times, seldom, often, frequent, once, twice}, where the presence of the words in { } contribute to the presence score 1% (multiplier of 1.01). The generated score is then used for matching. [0208] The method called NLP-Q26 is used for queries in the form of how is the Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how is the weather in London, how are the markets in Tokyo, or how is the situation in Iraq? Elastic scoring is performed. The generated score is then used for matching. [0209] The method called NLP-Q39 is used for queries in the form of why Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as why is the sky blue? Elastic scoring is performed on {reason} Y and Y {reason, result, result-of, due, due-to, caused, because, understand, understanding}, where the presence of the words in { } contribute to the presence score 1% (multiplier of 1.01). The higher generated score is then used for matching. [0210] The method called NLP-Q41 is used for queries in the form of who is the [QT] of Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as who is the king of comedy or who is the CEO of IBM. Elastic scoring is performed on [QT]-of Y and Y's [QT]. The higher generated score is then used for matching. [0211] The method called NLP-Q42 is used for queries in the form of who [V1] Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as who killed Kennedy? Elastic scoring is performed on [V1]*Y. The generated score is then used for matching. [0212] The method called NLP-Q43 is used for queries in the form of who is the [QT] Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as who is the best chef in New York? Elastic scoring is performed on [QT]*Y. The generated score is then used for matching. [0213] The method called NLP-Q49 is used for queries in the form of who Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as who is Madonna? Elastic scoring is performed on Y. The generated score is then used for matching. [0214] The method called NLP-Q59 is used for queries in the form of when Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as when did the Crusades start? Elastic scoring is performed on {date, a.c., b.c., era, time, history, century, decade, year}Y and Y {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday, January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December}, where the presence of the words in { } contribute to the presence score 1% (multiplier of 1.01). The higher generated score is then used for matching. [0215] The method called NLP-Q68 is used for queries in the form of where can I find Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as where can I find wall mounted hair dryer? Elastic scoring is performed on Y {address, located, place}, where the presence of the words in { } contribute to the presence score 1% (multiplier of 1.01). The generated score is then used for matching. [0216] The method called NLP-Q69 is used for queries in the form of where Y? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as where did the Crusades start? Elastic scoring is performed on {location, address} Y and Y {address, located, placed, territory}, where the presence of the words in { } contribute to the presence score 1% (multiplier of 1.01). The higher generated score is then used for matching. [0217] The method called NLP-Q78 is used for queries in the form of how? Queries in this form ask questions or seek information such as how? Elastic scoring is performed. The generated score is then used for matching. [0218] The selection among the best sentences for dialogue response is done according to the following rules; Rule-1: The best sentence score contains Sp=1, Rule-2: The sentence ends with a period, Rule-3: The sentence length is preferably between 3 words minimum and 15 words maximum, Rule-4: The sentence includes at least one word with Noise tags, Rule-5: The words in the sentence should not have all [SM] or [PR] tags, Rule-6: The words in the sentence preferably have at least have one of the [SM], [PR], [α]tags, and Rule-7: If no sentence qualifies there is no dialogue response. [0219] The Bag of Words object (BOW) takes a sentence, identifies the role of every word, then assigns tags to each word. This object also identifies natural sequences, denoted by S{x}, and proper name sequences, denoted by PNS{x}. This object also checks the Proper Name list, and adds a new proper name if it is not in the list already. [0220] For a given language, English for example, the following tags are defined. It should be noted that other tags may be implemented for other grammatical parts of speech as well. [0221] [V1]—Verb in any form; [0222] [V2]—Verb in simple tense; [0223] [V3]—Verb in simple present form 3 rd person; [0224] [V4]—Verb in past tense; [0225] [V5]—Verb in past participle tense; [0226] [V6]—Verb in gerund form; [0227] [A1]—Sole adjective/modifier; [0228] [T1]—Time word of any kind; [0229] [T2]—Time duration word; [0230] [T3]—Time calendar word; [0231] [P1]—Place word of any kind; [0232] [P2]—Place word Countries; [0233] [P3]—Place word Cities; [0234] [PR]—Proper name; [0235] [Z1]—Noise words; [0236] [SM]—Noun undetected; [0237] [N1]—Noun of the most common type; [0238] [Q1]—Question word; [0239] [H1]—Pronoun; [0240] [#1]—Number word of quantity; [0241] [C1]—Category: Currency of any kind (symbol+number) or (word); [0242] [M1]—Category: Measurement of any kind (number+symbol) or (number+word); [0243] [K1]—Symbols $, #, %, &; [0244] [D1]—Adverbs ending with -ly with exceptions (fly, Elly, belly, etc.); [0245] S{x}—A sequence that may include two or more Tags; and [0246] PNS{x}—A proper name sequence that may include two or more Tags [0247] token tag—is a single character that precedes the Tags can be anything. [0248] In a preferred embodiment, lists reside in the system memory. The list conventions include RE-Verbs.txt Detect [V1][V2][V3][V4][V5][V6] [0250] All verbs in English arranged as 5 entries per line and each line shows equivalency. V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 simple 3 rd past part gerund go goes went gone going sleep sleeps slept slept sleeping [0251] RE-Modifiers.txt Detect [A1] [0252] List of sole adjectives and modifiers, one entry per line. [0253] RE-Timewords.txt Detect [T1][T2] [T3] [0254] List of place words, two columns T2 T3 Duration Calendar while Monday during Tuesday meanwhile Wednesday forever Thursday ever Friday [0255] RE-Placewords.txt Detect [P1] [P2] [P3] [0256] List of time words, two columns P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 Countries Cities Abbreviations State Codes States France Rome Ave TX Nebraska Italy Jakarta Str NY Wyoming [0257] RE-CatXX.txtDetect [xx] [0258] List of Category XX words. There may be several of these files depending on the number of categories authorized. [0259] RE-Noisewords.txt Detect [Z1] [0260] List of noise words. [0261] RE-Nounwords.txt Detect [Z2] [0262] List of common nouns words. [0263] RE-Questionwords.txt Detect [Q1] [0264] List of question words. [0265] RE-Pronouns.txt Detect [H1] [0266] List of noise words. [0267] RE-Numberwords.txt Detect [#1] [0268] List of number words. [0269] RE-Currencywords.txt Detect [C1] [0270] List of currency words. [0271] RE-Measurementwords.txt Detect [M1] [0272] List of noise words. [0273] RE-Adverbs.txt Detect [D1] [0274] List of adverbs. [0275] RE-Proper.txt Detect [PR] [0276] List of proper names. [0277] RE-Continue.txt [0278] List of character(s) that follow a period immediately, which suggests the period is not the end of a sentence. Single entry per line. [0279] RE-Stop.txt [0280] List of character(s) that terminate a PNS or S like comma, ( ) { } [ ] ' | [0281] RE-EndofSentence.txt [0282] List of character(s) that terminate a sentence like period, colon, semicolon, question mark, exclamation mark [0283] Using the lists each word in the sentence must be tagged (i.e., [X]). The order of the Tag tests i.e., whether the word belongs to one of the lists, is important because the same word can belong to more than one Tag definition, and the conflicts must be resolved. Thus, it is preferable to perform tagging in the following order [0284] Identify all tags except [Vx] [0285] Identify [Vx] as the last step of identification [0286] Tag the remaining as [SM] [0287] Identify [PR], and PNS forms [0288] Note that the latter Tags override the former Tags above. It should be noted that other orders can be used for Tagging and tags may not override other Tags in other embodiments. [0289] All tags except [Vx] are identified using their respective resource lists via word-by-word comparison. These identifications do not care if the words are capitalized or not. While most word are tagged as a single word comparison, some tags involve two or three tags, and create a sequence. The tags that require multiple tags are currency tags, time word tags, and place word tags. [0290] Currency representations are shown below $6 MM [C1] [K1] $6 million [C1] [#1]  6 million Dollars [#1] [#1] [C1] $6 MM Canadian Dollars [C1] [K1] [xx] [C1] $6,000,000 USD [C1] [K1] [0291] These types of sequences are not broken in cluster computations. [0000] Therefore, [0292] IF {a word with a [C1] tag is adjacent to any combination of [#1][K1]} [0293] THEN the entire combination is marked as a sequence, such as S{[C1][#1][K1]} [0294] Time/date representations are shown below. Mar. 24, 2004 [T1] [#1] comma [#1] 24 Mar. 2004 [#1] [T1] [#1] Friday, June 8 [T1] comma [T1] [#1] During the month of March [T1] [Z1] [T1] [Z1] [T1] [0295] These types of sequences are not broken in cluster computations. Therefore, [0296] IF {a word with a [T1]tag is adjacent to any combination of [T1][#1][Z1]} [0297] THEN the entire combination is marked as a sequence, such as S{[T1][#1][T1]} [0298] Address representations are shown below. 5 Worth Str., Apt 5G [#1] [P1] [P4] [P4] [#3] Nebraska, NB 10034 [P6] [P5] [#1] [0299] Typical P4 words [0300] Apt. Str. Ln. Lane Ave. Avenue Blvd. Fl, Floor, [0301] Typical P5 words (States) [0302] NY, TX, AL, GA [0303] Typical [#3] [0304] Combination of a number and letter, such as 5G, 4F, 20-A, etc. [0305] These types of sequences must not be broken in cluster computations. Therefore: [0306] IF {a word with a [Px] tag is adjacent to any combination of [#1] [#2] [#3]} [0307] THEN the entire combination is marked as a sequence, such as S{[P1][#1]} [0308] The system identifies all of the [V1]tags. This ensures that some of the dual words identified as nouns in the previous steps are converted to action tags as their last accepted form. All V2, V3, V4, V5 are marked as V1 tag in QI. Any left over words from the steps above are to tagged as [SM] indicating that they are “something” and shall be treated as nouns. [0309] After the identifications above, each capitalized word in the sentence (capitalized letter(s) in any position in the word) are considered as a proper name and are assigned a new tag as [PR] depending on the conditions. The old tag is preserved in case the new tag proves invalid. Capitalized words may include: a name such as “Michael” [SM] => [PR] a noise word such as “The” [Z1] => [PR] a noun such as “Soldier” [N1] => [PR] place word such as “Paris” [P1] => [PR] time word such as “Friday” [T1] => [PR] a company name such as “imClone” [SM] => [PR] an acronym such as “USA” [P1] => [PR] a file name such as “My_File.” [SM] => [PR] a currency name such as “Dollars” [C1] => [PR] a measurement name such as “Pounds” [M1] => [PR] [0310] Capitals also indicate beginning-of-the-sentence words. Conflicts are resolved by the rules below. Each rule can be overridden by the next rule, thus, in this embodiment, the order of execution is important. If the first word AND THEN In the Proper name list [PR] [V1] Next word capitalized [PR] (or after a noise word) [N1] Next word capitalized [PR] (or after a noise word) [SM] Next word capitalized [PR] (or after a noise word) [0311] OTHERWISE retain its previous tag [0312] A proper name sequence (PNS) means there is more than one word with [Pr] tag in the vicinity of another one. There are two types of PNSs Proper names appearing together (United States), and proper names that have certain noise words in between (Army of the United States). In a preferred embodiment, the QI algorithm will MARK the PNSs using the following rules: [0313] IF {several words with [PR] tags are lined up next to each other separated only by space} [0314] THEN all these words with [PR] tag are a PNS [0315] and denoted as PNS{[PR] [PR] . . . [PR]} [0316] Example: United States PNS{ [PR] [PR] } Justice Department PNS{ [PR] [PR] } [0317] IF {several words with [PR] tags are lined up next to each other separated by [Z1]noise words} [0318] THEN all these words with [PR] and [Z1]tags are a PNS and denoted as PNS{[PR] [Z1] . . . [PR]} [0319] Example: Department of Justice PNS{ [PR] [Z1] [PR] } Raiders of the Lost Ark PNS{ [PR] [Z1] [Z1] [PR] [PR] } Avalanche in Tibet PNS{ [PR] [Z1] [PR] } [0320] Morphological variations are handled by the Morphology Object. Morphology includes verb morphology, and morphology using word ending letter, word endings, and suffixes. [0321] Verb Morphology is handled via a master verb file where present, past, particle, and gerund forms of each verb is listed. Alternatively, the rules below can also be used. This object must also have a stemming function (backward operation). [0322] Morphology depends upon word endings. In other words, a word ending will define how the word is modified. Table 4.2 shows sample words sorted by word ending. [0323] 4.2 Word endings [0324] A papaya, banana, aroma, corona, algebra [0325] B cob, tab, mob, rob [0326] C lilac [0327] D add, pad, sad, said, paid, read, weed, seed, greed [0328] E line, lime, wine, whine, mine, mile, stone, trouble, gone, flue, postpone, torture, coerce, toe, continue, flexible, able, laxative, communicate, fabricate, converse, commune, converge, employee, hibernate, nominate [0329] F cuf [0330] G egg [0331] H which, twitch, switch, bitch, hitch, french [0332] I alibi, gemini, [0333] J [0334] K back, attack, hack, black, lack, truck, trunk, crank, flank [0335] L hotel, april, minimal, optimal, respectful, brutal, full, fail, fulfill, kill, hill, bill, will [0336] M Amsterdam, dam, phlegm, swim [0337] N can, man, ban, fan, tan, dawn, down, thin [0338] O phyllo, potato, tomato [0339] P cap, tap, lap, map, top, tap [0340] Q [0341] R tar, far, tear, fear, mirror, car [0342] S fuss, bus, yes, capricious, continuous, laziness, logistics, pass, mass, [0343] T moment, dirt, most, east, west, internet, cut, affect, effect, infect, diligent. intelligent [0344] U you, flu, thou, [0345] V [0346] W saw, raw, meow, how, new [0347] Y they, hay, happy, lay, lazy, story, enemy, day, pay, lazy, tardy, hungry* [0348] Z buzz [0349] Utilizing the word ending, as shown in Table 4.2, endings are added to words. Standard grammatical rules of construction apply. Several examples are given below. [0350] Adding the ing suffix: [0351] Ending letter -e [0352] remove -e add ing [0353] ending -ne [0354] remove -ne add ning [0355] ending -f, -m, -n, -p, -r, -s, -t [0356] add—fing, -ming, ning, ping, ring, sing, ting [0357] Adding the ment/mant suffix: end -m add -ent only end -e remove -e, add ment Adding ness to words: end -y remove y, add -iness Adding less to words: end -y remove y, add -less remove y, add -iless Adding tion/ion/sion/ation to words: end -e remove -e, add -sion, tion, ation [0372] Typically, any one of the following suffixes can be added to a word to enlarge the scope of the search. ing—verb ment—verb mant—verb ness—adj less—adj tion—verb ion—verb tions—verb ions—verb ist—noun ? ism—verb/noun/adj sm—verb/noun/adj ed—verb d—verb s—noun/verb es—noun/verb ies—noun/verb ous—adj ously ly—adj y—adj ence st—adj est—adj er—adj r—adj or—adj/noun ee—verb ive—verb/noun ve—verb/noun ize ic/tic/fic al/ual/ial [0406] The present invention may be described herein in terms of functional block components, code listings, optional selections and various processing steps. It should be appreciated that such functional blocks may be realized by any number of hardware and/or software components configured to perform the specified functions. For example, the present invention may employ various integrated circuit components, e.g., memory elements, processing elements, logic elements, look-up tables, and the like, which may carry out a variety of functions under the control of one or more microprocessors or other control devices. [0407] Similarly, the software elements of the present invention may be implemented with any programming or scripting language such as C, C++, C#, Java, COBOL, assembler, PERL, or the like, with the various algorithms being implemented with any combination of data structures, objects, processes, routines or other programming elements. [0408] Further, it should be noted that the present invention may employ any number of conventional techniques for data transmission, signaling, data processing, network control, and the like. [0409] It should be appreciated that the particular implementations shown and described herein are illustrative of the invention and its best mode and are not intended to otherwise limit the scope of the present invention in any way. Indeed, for the sake of brevity, conventional data networking, application development and other functional aspects of the systems (and components of the individual operating components of the systems) may not be described in detail herein. Furthermore, the connecting lines shown in the various figures contained herein are intended to represent exemplary functional relationships and/or physical or virtual couplings between the various elements. It should be noted that many alternative or additional functional relationships or physical or virtual connections may be present in a practical electronic data communications system. [0410] As will be appreciated by one of ordinary skill in the art, the present invention may be embodied as a method, a data processing system, a device for data processing, and/or a computer program product. Accordingly, the present invention may take the form of an entirely software embodiment, an entirely hardware embodiment, or an embodiment combining aspects of both software and hardware. Furthermore, the present invention may take the form of a computer program product on a computer-readable storage medium having computer-readable program code means embodied in the storage medium. Any suitable computer-readable storage medium may be utilized, including hard disks, CD-ROM, optical storage devices, magnetic storage devices, and/or the like. [0411] The present invention is described below with reference to block diagrams and flowchart illustrations of methods, apparatus (e.g., systems), and computer program products according to various aspects of the invention. It will be understood that each functional block of the block diagrams and the flowchart illustrations, and combinations of functional blocks in the block diagrams and flowchart illustrations, respectively, can be implemented by computer program instructions. These computer program instructions may be loaded onto a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions that execute on the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus create means for implementing the functions specified in the flowchart block or blocks. [0412] These computer program instructions may also be stored in a computer-readable memory that can direct a computer or other programmable data processing apparatus to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer-readable memory produce an article of manufacture including instruction means that implement the function specified in the flowchart block or blocks. The computer program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer or other programmable data processing apparatus to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer or other programmable apparatus to produce a computer-implemented process such that the instructions that execute on the computer or other programmable apparatus provide steps for implementing the functions specified in the flowchart block or blocks. [0413] Accordingly, functional blocks of the block diagrams and flowchart illustrations support combinations of means for performing the specified functions, combinations of steps for performing the specified functions, and program instruction means for performing the specified functions. It will also be understood that each functional block of the block diagrams and flowchart illustrations, and combinations of functional blocks in the block diagrams and flowchart illustrations, can be implemented by either special purpose hardware-based computer systems that perform the specified functions or steps, or suitable combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. [0414] One skilled in the art will also appreciate that, for security reasons, any databases, systems, or components of the present invention may consist of any combination of databases or components at a single location or at multiple locations, wherein each database or system includes any of various suitable security features, such as firewalls, access codes, encryption, de-encryption, compression, decompression, and/or the like. [0415] The scope of the invention should be determined by the appended claims and their legal equivalents, rather than by the examples given herein. For example, the steps recited in any method claims may be executed in any order and are not limited to the order presented in the claims. Moreover, no element is essential to the practice of the invention unless specifically described herein as “critical” or “essential.” [0416] In the specification, the term “media” means any medium that can record data therein. The term “media” includes, for instance, a disk shaped media for such as CD-ROM (compact disc-read only memory), magneto optical disc or MO, digital video disc-read only memory or DVD-ROM, digital video disc-random access memory or DVD-RAM, a floppy disc, a memory chip such as random access memory or RAM, read only memory or ROM, erasable programmable read only memory or E-PROM, electrical erasable programmable read only memory or EE-PROM, a rewriteable card-type read only memory such as a smart card, a magnetic tape, a hard disc, and any other suitable means for storing a program therein. [0417] A recording media storing a program for accomplishing the above mentioned apparatus maybe accomplished by programming functions of the above mentioned apparatuses with a programming language readable by a computer or processor, and recording the program on a media such as mentioned above. [0418] A server equipped with a hard disk drive may be employed as a recording media. It is also possible to accomplish the present invention by storing the above mentioned computer program on such a hard disk in a server and reading the computer program by other computers through a network. [0419] As a computer processing device, any suitable device for performing computations in accordance with a computer program may be used. [0420] Examples of such devices include a personal computer, a laptop computer, a microprocessor, a programmable logic device, or an application specific integrated circuit. [0421] While this invention has been described by reference to a preferred embodiment, it should be understood that numerous changes could be made within the spirit and scope of the inventive concepts described. Accordingly, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the disclosed embodiment, but that it have the full scope permitted by the language of the following claims.

A search engine is disclosed that utilizes natural language processing (NLP) techniques. The search engine utilizes meaning-based natural language processing using ontological semantics in analyzing the meaning of queries and the searched text. This system analyzes Web pages and queries. The NLP method produces equivalent meanings to a sequence of user initiated words, wherein relevance parsing of the original query produces a display of queries/questions as hot links to the next round of searching without additional typing by the user.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/738,195, entitled “Capital Markets Sales Cloud Solution,” by Alex McClintock, filed Dec. 17, 2012 (Attorney Docket No. 1095PROV), the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. COPYRIGHT NOTICE [0002] A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0003] One or more implementations relate generally to identifying events, and more particularly to performing actions in response to those events. BACKGROUND [0004] The subject matter discussed in the background section should not be assumed to be prior on merely as a result of its mention in the background section. Similarly, a problem mentioned in the background section or associated with the subject matter of the background section should not be assumed to have been previously recognized in the prior art. The subject matter in the background section merely represents different approaches, which in and of themselves may also be inventions. [0005] Many current systems utilize automation to perform one or more actions in response to predetermined criteria. Unfortunately, techniques for implementing these actions have been associated with various limitations. Just by way of example, many current techniques fail to cater to specific types of users (e.g., users associated with the stock market, etc.) when performing actions in response to predefined criteria. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide techniques for performing an action in response to an event. BRIEF SUMMARY [0006] In accordance with embodiments, there are provided mechanisms and methods for performing an action in response to an event. These mechanisms and methods for performing an action in response to an event can enable enhanced system and user efficiency, improved customer experience and satisfaction, decreased cost, etc. [0007] In an embodiment and by way of example, a method for performing an action in response to an event is provided. In one embodiment, it is determined that an event has occurred. Additionally, an entity associated with the event is identified in response to the determination. Further, one or more actions associated with the entity are performed. [0008] While one or more implementations and techniques are described with reference to an embodiment in which performing an action in response to an event is implemented in a system having an application server providing a front end for an on-demand database system capable of supporting multiple tenants, the one or more implementations and techniques are not limited to multi-tenant databases nor deployment on application servers. Embodiments may be practiced using other database architectures, i.e., ORACLE®, DB2® by IBM and the like without departing from the scope of the embodiments claimed. [0009] Any of the above embodiments may be used alone or together with one another in any combination. The one or more implementations encompassed within this specification may also include embodiments that are only partially mentioned or alluded to or are not mentioned or alluded to at all in this brief summary or in the abstract. Although various embodiments may have been motivated by various deficiencies with the prior art, which may be discussed or alluded to in one or more places in the specification, the embodiments do not necessarily address any of these deficiencies. In other words, different embodiments may address different deficiencies that may be discussed in the specification. Some embodiments may only partially address some deficiencies or just one deficiency that may be discussed in the specification, and some embodiments may not address any of these deficiencies. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0010] In the following drawings like reference numbers are used to refer to like elements. Although the following figures depict various examples, the one or more implementations are not limited to the examples depicted in the figures. [0011] FIG. 1 illustrates a method for performing an action in response to an event, in accordance with one embodiment; [0012] FIG. 2 illustrates a method for performing stock market reporting, in accordance with another embodiment; [0013] FIG. 3 illustrates an interface of an exemplary technical analysis software platform, in accordance with another embodiment; [0014] FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary call list, in accordance with another embodiment; [0015] FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram of an example of an environment wherein an on-demand database system might be used; and [0016] FIG. 6 illustrates a block diagram of an embodiment of elements of FIG. 5 and various possible interconnections between these elements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION General Overview [0017] Systems and methods are provided for performing an action in response to an event. [0018] As used herein, the term multi-tenant database system refers to those systems in which various elements of hardware and software of the database system may be shared by one or more customers. For example, a given application server may simultaneously process requests for a great number of customers, and a given database table may store rows for a potentially much greater number of customers. [0019] Next, mechanisms and methods for performing an action in response to an event will be described with reference to example embodiments. [0020] FIG. 1 illustrates a method 100 for performing an action in response to an event, in accordance with one embodiment. As shown in operation 102 , it is determined that an event has occurred. In one embodiment, the event may be determined to have occurred when one or more predetermined criteria have been met. For example, the event may be determined to have occurred when one or more identified values meet one or more predetermined criteria. [0021] Additionally, in one embodiment, the determining may include monitoring one or more streams of data. For example, the one or more streams of data may include streaming stock data (e.g., stock process, reports, stock ticker data, etc.). In another example, the one or more streams of data may include streaming news data (e.g., local news data, international news data, financial news data, social news data, etc.). [0022] Further, in one embodiment, the determining may include analyzing the data by comparing data from the one or more data streams against one or more predetermined criteria. For example, it may be determined whether one or more criteria are met by data retrieved from the one or more data streams. In another example, the criteria may include a threshold, and it may be determined whether the threshold has been breached by the data retrieved from the one or more data streams. In another embodiment, the predetermined criteria may include a threshold stock price, a threshold stock volume, a threshold stock increase or decrease, a predetermined news headline (e,g., one or more predetermined keywords), etc. [0023] Further still, in one embodiment, the event may include a stock market event. For example, the event may include a stock price or stock volume reaching a predetermined level, an announcement about a publicly held company, etc. In another embodiment, the event may be determined by a system. For example, the event may be determined by a multi-tenant on-demand database system. In another example, the system may include a financial services system or other system that is associated with one or more financial aspects. In yet another embodiment, the event may be manually entered into the system. For example, a user may manually enter the event into the system when such an event is detected. [0024] Also, in one embodiment, the event may be received automatically by the system. For example, the event may be automatically received by the system utilizing an application programming interface (API) or other means. In another embodiment, the event may be received from a system or entity that is separate from the system that receives the event. For example, a second system separate from a first system may perform monitoring and analysis to identify the event and may send an indication of the event to the first system, where the first system then determines that the event has occurred from its receipt of the indication of the event. [0025] In another embodiment, the event may include an identification of one or more elements associated with the event (e.g., a name of an associated corporation, a stock ticker identification, a product identification, etc.). In yet another embodiment, one or more predetermined characteristics may be associated with the event, and the event may be determined to have occurred when the one or more predetermined characteristics are identified from one or more streams of data. [0026] In addition, it should be noted that, as described above, such multi-tenant on-demand database system may include any service that relies on a database system that is accessible over a network, in which various elements of hardware and software of the database system may be shared by one or more customers (e.g. tenants). For instance, a given application server may simultaneously process requests for a great number of customers, and a given database table may store rows for a potentially much greater number of customers. Various examples of such a multi-tenant on-demand database system will be set forth in the context of different embodiments that will be described during reference to subsequent figures. [0027] Furthermore, as shown in operation 104 , an entity associated with the event is identified in response to the determination. In one embodiment, the entity associated with the event may include an individual, a corporation, an application, etc. For example, the entity may include a client and/or customer of a system, where the entity is involved with the stock market. In another embodiment, the entity may be organized, classified, tiered, or otherwise arranged within a plurality of entities. For example, the entity may be included within a list of entities to be contacted during one or more occurrences. [0028] Further still, in one embodiment, the entity may be manually associated with the event. For example, the entity may be manually added to a list within the system. In another embodiment, the entity may be automatically associated with the event (e.g., according to one or more criteria, etc.). In yet another example, the entity may be associated with the event in response to a request. For example, the entity may be associated with the event in response to a request from the entity that is received by the system (e.g., utilizing a graphical user interface (GUI) provided by the system, etc.). [0029] Also, in one embodiment, the entity may include an object stored within the system. For example, the entity may include an object (e.g., a table, etc.) that stores contact information associated with the entity (e.g., a phone number, an email address, etc.), a name of the entity, one or more identifiers associated with the entity (e.g., usernames, etc.), etc. [0030] Additionally, as shown in operation 106 , one or more actions associated with the entity are performed. In one embodiment, performing the one or more actions may include contacting the entity. For example, the entity may be alerted regarding the event. In another embodiment, the entity may be contacted using information associated with the entity. For example, the entity may be contacted using contact information associated with the entity that is stored within an entity object. [0031] Further, in one embodiment, performing the one or more actions may include adding the entity to a call list. For example, a call list may be provided to one or more users on a periodic basis (e.g., daily, hourly, etc.), where the call list indicates entities to be contacted by the one or more users via telephone. In another embodiment, performing the one or more actions may include sending an email to the entity. In yet another embodiment, performing the one or more actions may include posting a message to a social media page (e.g., web page, site, etc.) associated with the entity. [0032] Also, in one embodiment, the one or more actions that are performed may be limited by one or more conditions associated with the entity. For example, the entity object may include one or more restrictions that limit the ways in which the entity is contacted (e.g., only by private email or phone, not by public social media postings, etc.). In another embodiment, performing the one or more actions may include confirming that the entity was contacted regarding the event. For example, a supervisor of a user may be notified to confirm that the user has contacted the entity regarding the event. In another example, if a user has contacted the entity regarding the event, an automatic notification of such contacting may be sent to a supervisor of the user. In this way, entities associated with particular events may be personally notified when such events occur. [0033] FIG. 2 illustrates an exemplary method 200 for performing stock market reporting, in accordance with another embodiment. As an option, the method 200 may be carried out in the context of the functionality of FIG. 1 . Of course, however, the method 200 may be carried out in any desired environment. The aforementioned definitions may apply during the present description. [0034] As shown in operation 202 , a market event is identified. In one embodiment, the market event may include an event associated with one or more stock markets (e.g., one or more stocks traded within one or more stock markets, etc.). For example, the market event may be associated with stock activity within one or more stock markets. In another embodiment, the market event may include an event associated with one or more news stories regarding one or more stocks traded within one or more stock markets. [0035] Additionally, in one embodiment, the market event may include an inbound event that is received at a system. For example, the market event may include an inbound market event entry that is automatically received at the system utilizing a web services API within the system. In another example, the market event may include an inbound market event that is manually entered into the system by an administrator (e.g., before a morning call, etc.). In another embodiment, the market event may be a situation where a stock that an institutional sales representative has important customers in or that an equity analyst covers is down 10% in pre-market or has traded at 300% of average daily volume. [0036] Further, in one embodiment, the market event may be identified through analysis performed within the system. For example, one or more applications within the system may monitor data associated with one or more stocks within one or more stock markets. In another example, one or more applications within the system may analyze the monitored data (e.g., by comparing the monitored data to one or more thresholds, inputting the monitored data into one or more analysis equations, etc.). FIG. 3 illustrates an interface 300 of an exemplary technical analysis software platform that performs a continuous scan of stock data 302 traded within a predetermined stock market. In one embodiment, an automated entry of market events into the system may be generated from a technical analysis platform that may continually calculate if a pre-determined indicator threshold has been breached by comparing the scanned stock data to the threshold. If the indicator threshold is breached, the system may receive a market event, and one or more market event records may be created utilizing a system API. [0037] Further still, as shown in operation 204 , one or more customers associated with the market event are determined. In one embodiment, the one or more customers may include one or more customers of the system. In another embodiment, the one or more customers may include customers of a client of the system. In yet another embodiment, each of a plurality of customers may be associated with (e.g., linked with, etc.) one or more predetermined stocks, one or more predetermined corporations, etc. For example, each of the plurality of customers may be represented by a customer object within the system, and an identifier of one or more predetermined stocks (e.g., the stock ticker, etc.) and/or one or more corporations may be linked to each customer object. [0038] Also, in one embodiment, a customer may be automatically associated with a stock when it is identified that the customer purchases the stock. In another embodiment, a customer may be associated with a stock in response to a request by the customer to be associated with the stock (e.g., a request submitted by the customer utilizing a GUI of the system, etc.). In another embodiment, the market event may be associated with a predetermined stock and/or a predetermined corporation, and all customers associated with the predetermined stock and/or corporation (e.g., via their customer object, etc.) may be determined to be associated with the market event. [0039] Additionally, as shown in operation 206 , the one or more customers associated with the market event are included in a call list report. In one embodiment, the call list report may include a report that is sent to one or more users that indicates one or more customers who are to be contacted by the one or more users. In another embodiment, the call list report may be sent to one or more users of the system. For example, the call list report may be emailed at a predetermined time of day. In another example, the call list report may be generated on demand. In yet another example, the call list report may be emailed in response to the identification of the market event. [0040] Further, in one embodiment, customers may be ordered within the call list report. For example, customers may be ranked within the call list report according to importance, relevance, significance, etc. FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary call list 400 including an event description 402 identifying a market event, customer descriptions 404 containing information describing a plurality of customers, customer names 406 , customer contact information 408 , and contact assistant information 410 . [0041] Further still, in one embodiment, standard activity reporting may also allow for monitoring (e.g., by sales management, etc.). For example, activities performed based on the call lists (e.g., calls made to customers by users, etc.) may be identified and reported to management. In this way, managers may confirm that key clients are being called. In another embodiment, more complex reporting may be performed that may compare activities generated against contacts or accounts where market events were generated for securities which the contact or account has an interest in. Customer segmentation criteria may also be incorporated to prioritize sales calls. [0042] Also, in one embodiment, social media may be incorporated to allow for discussion of market events by system users. However, one or more of a customer's security, regulatory and compliance requirements may pose constraints on the user of social media. In another embodiment, the system may generate financial market-related events a scan of one or more social media viewpoints to identify one or more market events and update a table of market events within the system. [0043] Additionally, in one embodiment, for other industries, product updates, news, competitor updates and other relevant new information may be identified as events detected and captured by the system and then written into the a market event table within the system, again generating a call list for the sales representative, or even just providing timely competitive intelligence as it might related to key customer interests. [0044] Further, in one embodiment, a technical analysis and/or automated trading software platform may be used to generate real-time market events. Such a platform and/or analysis may have an event driven capability and may integrate with the system API. In another embodiment, the system may include a service which leverages an existing technical analysis library to provide basic analysis and optimized integration where a customer doesn't have an existing capability. [0045] In this way, the system may promote greater sales rep engagement with the system through the generation of the market event generated call lists. With real-time integration to market data present in the POC, quicker notification of events as generated by the technical analysis platform may promote greater engagement with and adoption of the system by sales representatives of various companies. This solution may target early morning meetings and subsequent call activities that occur on a daily basis within institutional sales teams. [0046] Additionally, an association may be made between financial instruments and contacts interested in the various instruments. The system and methods may then be implemented via a associative/junction object. For example, market events may enter the system from integration with a technical analysis platform which is integrated with a market data feed provider to drive the generation of call lists. The sales representative may use the call lists to call contacts for which there has been a market event as determined by the technical analysis software. [0047] Further, by capturing market events related to securities entered manually or via a system web services API, the system may drive usage (e.g., via call list generation, etc.) providing the basis for increased usage and data capture user adoption (i.e. social media discussion of inbound market event data). Associating securities events with customers via the API on a real-time basis may provide a compelling reason for sales representatives to regularly consult the system as one way to react and stay in front of time-sensitive developments. [0048] Further still, using a few new objects, the system may manage market events by having financial instruments associated with contacts to provide a call list for institutional salespeople. The process of associating financial instruments with corresponding contacts may include migrating data where this association already exists into the system, or manual association by administrators and/or assistants initially and/or sales reps on an ongoing basis. System Overview [0049] FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram of an environment 510 wherein an on-demand database system might be used. Environment 510 may include user systems 512 , network 514 , system 516 , processor system 517 , application platform 518 , network interface 520 , tenant data storage 522 , system data storage 524 , program code 526 , and process space 528 . In other embodiments, environment 510 may not have all of the components listed and/or may have other elements instead of, or in addition to, those listed above. [0050] Environment 510 is an environment in which an on-demand database system exists. User system 512 may be any machine or system that is used by a user to access a database user system. For example, any of user systems 512 can be a handheld computing device, a mobile phone, a laptop computer, a work station, and/or a network of computing devices. As illustrated in FIG. 5 (and in more detail in FIG. 6 ) user systems 512 might interact via a network 514 with an on-demand database system, which is system 516 . [0051] An on-demand database system, such as system 516 , is a database system that is made available to outside users that do not need to necessarily be concerned with building and/or maintaining the database system, but instead may be available for their use when the users need the database system (e.g., on the demand of the users). Some on-demand database systems may store information from one or more tenants stored into tables of a common database image to form a multi-tenant database system (MTS). Accordingly, “on-demand database system 516 ” and “system 516 ” will be used interchangeably herein. A database image may include one or more database objects. A relational database management system (RDMS) or the equivalent may execute storage and retrieval of information against the database object(s). Application platform 518 may be a framework that allows the applications of system 516 to run, such as the hardware and/or software, e.g., the operating system. In an embodiment, on-demand database system 516 may include an application platform 518 that enables creation, managing and executing one or more applications developed by the provider of the on-demand database system, users accessing the on-demand database system via user systems 512 , or third party application developers accessing the on-demand database system via user systems 512 . [0052] The users of user systems 512 may differ in their respective capacities, and the capacity of a particular user system 512 might be entirely determined by permissions (permission levels) for the current user. For example, where a salesperson is using a particular user system 512 to interact with system 516 , that user system has the capacities allotted to that salesperson. However, while an administrator is using that user system to interact with system 516 , that user system has the capacities allotted to that administrator. In systems with a hierarchical role model, users at one permission level may have access to applications, data, and database information accessible by a lower permission level user, but may not have access to certain applications, database information, and data accessible by a user at a higher permission level. Thus, different users will have different capabilities with regard to accessing and modifying application and database information, depending on a user's security or permission level. [0053] Network 514 is any network or combination of networks of devices that communicate with one another. For example, network 514 can be any one or any combination of a LAN (local area network), WAN (wide area network), telephone network, wireless network, point-to-point network, star network, token ring network, hub network, or other appropriate configuration. As the most common type of computer network in current use is a TCP/IP (Transfer Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) network, such as the global internetwork of networks often referred to as the “Internet” with a capital “I,” that network will be used in many of the examples herein. However, it should be understood that the networks that the one or more implementations might use are not so limited, although TCP/IP is a frequently implemented protocol. [0054] User systems 512 might communicate with system 516 using TCP/IP and, at a higher network level, use other common Internet protocols to communicate, such as HTTP, FTP, AFS, WAP, etc. In an example where HTTP is used, user system 512 might include an HTTP client commonly referred to as a “browser” for sending and receiving HTTP messages to and from an HTTP server at system 516 . Such an HTTP server might be implemented as the sole network interface between system 516 and network 514 , but other techniques might be used as well or instead. In some implementations, the interface between system 516 and network 514 includes load sharing functionality, such as round-robin HTTP request distributors to balance loads and distribute incoming HTTP requests evenly over a plurality of servers. At least as for the users that are accessing that server, each of the plurality of servers has access to the MTS' data; however, other alternative configurations may be used instead. [0055] In one embodiment, system 516 , shown in FIG. 5 , implements a web-based customer relationship management (CRM) system. For example, in one embodiment, system 516 includes application servers configured to implement and execute CRM software applications as well as provide related data, code, forms, webpages and other information to and from user systems 512 and to store to, and retrieve from, a database system related data, objects, and Webpage content. With a multi-tenant system, data for multiple tenants may be stored in the same physical database object, however, tenant data typically is arranged so that data of one tenant is kept logically separate from that of other tenants so that one tenant does not have access to another tenant's data, unless such data is expressly shared. In certain embodiments, system 516 implements applications other than, or in addition to, a CRM application. For example, system 516 may provide tenant access to multiple hosted (standard and custom) applications, including a CRM application. User (or third party developer) applications, which may or may not include CRM, may be supported by the application platform 518 , which manages creation, storage of the applications into one or more database objects and executing of the applications in a virtual machine in the process space of the system 516 . [0056] One arrangement for elements of system 516 is shown in FIG. 5 , including a network interface 520 , application platform 518 , tenant data storage 522 for tenant data 523 , system data storage 524 for system data 525 accessible to system 516 and possibly multiple tenants, program code 526 for implementing various functions of system 516 , and a process space 528 for executing MTS system processes and tenant-specific processes, such as running applications as part of an application hosting service. Additional processes that may execute on system 516 include database indexing processes. [0057] Several elements in the system shown in FIG. 5 include conventional, well-known elements that are explained only briefly here. For example, each user system 512 could include a desktop personal computer, workstation, laptop, PDA, cell phone, or any wireless access protocol (WAP) enabled device or any other computing device capable of interfacing directly or indirectly to the Internet or other network connection. User system 512 typically runs an HTTP client, e.g., a browsing program, such as Microsoft's Internet Explorer browser, Netscape's Navigator browser, Opera's browser, or a WAP-enabled browser in the case of a cell phone, PDA or other wireless device, or the like, allowing a user (e.g., subscriber of the multi-tenant database system) of user system 512 to access, process and view information, pages and applications available to it from system 516 over network 514 . Each user system 512 also typically includes one or more user interface devices, such as a keyboard, a mouse, trackball, touch pad, touch screen, pen or the like, for interacting with a graphical user interface (GUI) provided by the browser on a display (e.g., a monitor screen, LCD display, etc.) in conjunction with pages, forms, applications and other information provided by system 516 or other systems or servers. For example, the user interface device can be used to access data and applications hosted by system 516 , and to perform searches on stored data, and otherwise allow a user to interact with various GUI pages that may be presented to a user. As discussed above, embodiments are suitable for use with the Internet, which refers to a specific global internetwork of networks. However, it should be understood that other networks can be used instead of the Internet, such as an intranet, an extranet, a virtual private network (VPN), a non-TCP/IP based network, any LAN or WAN or the like. [0058] According to one embodiment, each user system 512 and all of its components are operator configurable using applications, such as a browser, including computer code run using a central processing unit such as an Intel Pentium® processor or the like. Similarly, system 516 (and additional instances of an MTS, where more than one is present) and all of their components might be operator configurable using application(s) including computer code to run using a central processing unit such as processor system 517 , which may include an Intel Pentium® processor or the like, and/or multiple processor units. A computer program product embodiment includes a machine-readable storage medium (media) having instructions stored thereon/in which can be used to program a computer to perform any of the processes of the embodiments described herein. Computer code for operating and configuring system 516 to intercommunicate and to process webpages, applications and other data and media content as described herein are preferably downloaded and stored on a hard disk, but the entire program code, or portions thereof, may also be stored in any other volatile or non-volatile memory medium or device as is well known, such as a ROM or RAM, or provided on any media capable of storing program code, such as any type of rotating media including floppy disks, optical discs, digital versatile disk (DVD), compact disk (CD), microdrive, and magneto-optical disks, and magnetic or optical cards, nanosystems (including molecular memory ICs), or any type of media or device suitable for storing instructions and/or data. Additionally, the entire program code, or portions thereof, may be transmitted and downloaded from a software source over a transmission medium, e.g., over the Internet, or from another server, as is well known, or transmitted over any other conventional network connection as is well known (e.g., extranet, VPN, LAN, etc.) using any communication medium and protocols (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, HTTPS, Ethernet, etc.) as are well known. It will also be appreciated that computer code for implementing embodiments can be implemented in any programming language that can be executed on a client system and/or server or server system such as, for example, C, C++, HTML, any other markup language, Java™, JavaScript, ActiveX, any other scripting language, such as VBScript, and many other programming languages as are well known may be used. (Java™ is a trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc.). [0059] According to one embodiment, each system 516 is configured to provide webpages, forms, applications, data and media content to user (client) systems 512 to support the access by user systems 512 as tenants of system 516 . As such, system 516 provides security mechanisms to keep each tenant's data separate unless the data is shared. If more than one MTS is used, they may be located in close proximity to one another (e.g., in a server farm located in a single building or campus), or they may be distributed at locations remote from one another (e.g., one or more servers located in city A and one or more servers located in city B). As used herein, each MTS could include one or more logically and/or physically connected servers distributed locally or across one or more geographic locations. Additionally, the term “server” is meant to include a computer system, including processing hardware and process space(s), and an associated storage system and database application (e.g., OODBMS or RDBMS) as is well known in the art. It should also be understood that “server system” and “server” are often used interchangeably herein. Similarly, the database object described herein can be implemented as single databases, a distributed database, a collection of distributed databases, a database with redundant online or offline backups or other redundancies, etc., and might include a distributed database or storage network and associated processing intelligence. [0060] FIG. 6 also illustrates environment 510 . However, in FIG. 6 elements of system 516 and various interconnections in an embodiment are further illustrated. FIG. 6 shows that user system 512 may include processor system 512 A, memory system 512 B, input system 512 C, and output system 512 D. FIG. 6 shows network 514 and system 516 . FIG. 6 also shows that system 516 may include tenant data storage 522 , tenant data 523 , system data storage 524 , system data 525 , User Interface (UI) 630 , Application Program Interface (API) 632 , PL/SOQL 634 , save routines 636 , application setup mechanism 638 , applications servers 600 1 - 600 N , system process space 602 , tenant process spaces 604 , tenant management process space 610 , tenant storage area 612 , user storage 614 , and application metadata 616 . In other embodiments, environment 510 may not have the same elements as those listed above and/or may have other elements instead of, or in addition to, those listed above. [0061] User system 512 , network 514 , system 516 , tenant data storage 522 , and system data storage 524 were discussed above in FIG. 5 . Regarding user system 512 , processor system 512 A may be any combination of one or more processors. Memory system 512 B may be any combination of one or more memory devices, short term, and/or long term memory. Input system 512 C may be any combination of input devices, such as one or more keyboards, mice, trackballs, scanners, cameras, and/or interfaces to networks. Output system 512 D may be any combination of output devices, such as one or more monitors, printers, and/or interfaces to networks. As shown by FIG. 6 , system 516 may include a network interface 520 (of FIG. 5 ) implemented as a set of HTTP application servers 600 , an application platform 518 , tenant data storage 522 , and system data storage 524 . Also shown is system process space 602 , including individual tenant process spaces 604 and a tenant management process space 610 . Each application server 600 may be configured to tenant data storage 522 and the tenant data 523 therein, and system data storage 524 and the system data 525 therein to serve requests of user systems 512 . The tenant data 523 might be divided into individual tenant storage areas 612 , which can be either a physical arrangement and/or a logical arrangement of data. Within each tenant storage area 612 , user storage 614 and application metadata 616 might be similarly allocated for each user. For example, a copy of a user's most recently used (MRU) items might be stored to user storage 614 . Similarly, a copy of MRU items for an entire organization that is a tenant might be stored to tenant storage area 612 . A UI 630 provides a user interface and an API 632 provides an application programmer interface to system 516 resident processes to users and/or developers at user systems 512 . The tenant data and the system data may be stored in various databases, such as one or more Oracle™ databases. [0062] Application platform 518 includes an application setup mechanism 638 that supports application developers' creation and management of applications, which may be saved as metadata into tenant data storage 522 by save routines 636 for execution by subscribers as one or more tenant process spaces 604 managed by tenant management process 610 for example. Invocations to such applications may be coded using PL/SOQL 634 that provides a programming language style interface extension to API 632 . A detailed description of some PL/SOQL language embodiments is discussed in commonly owned co-pending U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/828,192 entitled, PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR EXTENDING APIS TO EXECUTE IN CONJUNCTION WITH DATABASE APIS, by Craig Weissman, filed Oct. 4, 2006, which is incorporated in its entirety herein for all purposes. Invocations to applications may be detected by one or more system processes, which manages retrieving application metadata 616 for the subscriber making the invocation and executing the metadata as an application in a virtual machine. [0063] Each application server 600 may be communicably coupled to database systems, e.g., having access to system data 525 and tenant data 523 , via a different network connection. For example, one application server 600 1 might be coupled via the network 514 (e.g., the Internet), another application server 600 N-1 might be coupled via a direct network link, and another application server 600 N might be coupled by yet a different network connection. Transfer Control Protocol and Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) are typical protocols for communicating between application servers 600 and the database system. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that other transport protocols may be used to optimize the system depending on the network interconnect used. [0064] In certain embodiments, each application server 600 is configured to handle requests for any user associated with any organization that is a tenant. Because it is desirable to be able to add and remove application servers from the server pool at any time for any reason, there is preferably no server affinity for a user and/or organization to a specific application server 600 . In one embodiment, therefore, an interface system implementing a load balancing function (e.g., an F5 Big-IP load balancer) is communicably coupled between the application servers 600 and the user systems 512 to distribute requests to the application servers 600 . In one embodiment, the load balancer uses a least connections algorithm to route user requests to the application servers 600 . Other examples of load balancing algorithms, such as round robin and observed response time, also can be used. For example, in certain embodiments, three consecutive requests from the same user could hit three different application servers 600 , and three requests from different users could hit the same application server 600 . In this manner, system 516 is multi-tenant, wherein system 516 handles storage of, and access to, different objects, data and applications across disparate users and organizations. [0065] As an example of storage, one tenant might be a company that employs a sales force where each salesperson uses system 516 to manage their sales process. Thus, a user might maintain contact data, leads data, customer follow-up data, performance data, goals and progress data, etc., all applicable to that user's personal sales process (e.g., in tenant data storage 522 ). In an example of a MTS arrangement, since all of the data and the applications to access, view, modify, report, transmit, calculate, etc., can be maintained and accessed by a user system having nothing more than network access, the user can manage his or her sales efforts and cycles from any of many different user systems. For example, if a salesperson is visiting a customer and the customer has Internet access in their lobby, the salesperson can obtain critical updates as to that customer while waiting for the customer to arrive in the lobby. [0066] While each user's data might be separate from other users' data regardless of the employers of each user, some data might be organization-wide data shared or accessible by a plurality of users or all of the users for a given organization that is a tenant. Thus, there might be some data structures managed by system 516 that are allocated at the tenant level while other data structures might be managed at the user level. Because an MTS might support multiple tenants including possible competitors, the MTS should have security protocols that keep data, applications, and application use separate. Also, because many tenants may opt for access to an MTS rather than maintain their own system, redundancy, up-time, and backup are additional functions that may be implemented in the MTS. In addition to user-specific data and tenant specific data, system 516 might also maintain system level data usable by multiple tenants or other data. Such system level data might include industry reports, news, postings, and the like that are sharable among tenants. [0067] In certain embodiments, user systems 512 (which may be client systems) communicate with application servers 600 to request and update system-level and tenant-level data from system 516 that may require sending one or more queries to tenant data storage 522 and/or system data storage 524 . System 516 (e.g., an application server 600 in system 516 ) automatically generates one or more SQL statements (e.g., one or more SQL queries) that are designed to access the desired information. System data storage 524 may generate query plans to access the requested data from the database. [0068] Each database can generally be viewed as a collection of objects, such as a set of logical tables, containing data fitted into predefined categories. A “table” is one representation of a data object, and may be used herein to simplify the conceptual description of objects and custom objects. It should be understood that “table” and “object” may be used interchangeably herein. Each table generally contains one or more data categories logically arranged as columns or fields in a viewable schema. Each row or record of a table contains an instance of data for each category defined by the fields. For example, a CRM database may include a table that describes a customer with fields for basic contact information such as name, address, phone number, fax number, etc. Another table might describe a purchase order, including fields for information such as customer, product, sale price, date, etc. In some multi-tenant database systems, standard entity tables might be provided for use by all tenants. For CRM database applications, such standard entities might include tables for Account, Contact, Lead, and Opportunity data, each containing pre-defined fields. It should be understood that the word “entity” may also be used interchangeably herein with “object” and “table”. [0069] In some multi-tenant database systems, tenants may be allowed to create and store custom objects, or they may be allowed to customize standard entities or objects, for example by creating custom fields for standard objects, including custom index fields. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/817,161, filed Apr. 2, 2004, entitled “Custom Entities and Fields in a Multi-Tenant Database System”, and which is hereby incorporated herein by reference, teaches systems and methods for creating custom objects as well as customizing standard objects in a multi-tenant database system. In certain embodiments, for example, all custom entity data rows are stored in a single multi-tenant physical table, which may contain multiple logical tables per organization. It is transparent to customers that their multiple “tables” are in fact stored in one large table or that their data may be stored in the same table as the data of other customers. [0070] While one or more implementations have been described by way of example and in terms of the specific embodiments, it is to be understood that one or more implementations are not limited to the disclosed embodiments. To the contrary, it is intended to cover various modifications and similar arrangements as would be apparent to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the scope of the appended claims should be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all such modifications and similar arrangements.

In accordance with embodiments, there are provided mechanisms and methods for performing an action in response to an event. These mechanisms and methods for performing an action in response to an event can enable enhanced system and user efficiency, improved customer experience and satisfaction, decreased cost, etc.

RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is a continuation application and claims the priority benefits of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/758,196, filed Jun. 5, 2007, which is a continuation application that claims the priority benefits of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/515,575, filed Feb. 29, 2000, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] The present application relates generally to data processing. BACKGROUND [0003] In addition to access convenience, one of the advantages offered by network-based transaction facilities (e.g., business-to-business, business-to-consumer and consumer-to-consumer Internet marketplaces and retailers) and on-line communities is that participants within such facilities or communities may provide feedback to the facility, to other users of the facility and to members of an on-line community regarding any number of topics. [0004] For example, an Internet-based retailer may provide a feedback mechanism whereby customers may provide feedback, in the form of comments or opinions, regarding goods or services offered for sale by the retailer. An Internet-based bookstore may, for example, provide a feedback mechanism whereby comments or opinions regarding particular books may be submitted via a web site operated by the book retailer. Such comments are then displayed within a web page, pertaining to the relevant book, generated by the Internet-based book retailer. Such comments and feedback are useful in assisting a purchaser with a buying decision. [0005] For users of a network-based transaction facility, such as an Internet-based auction facility, feedback regarding other users is particularly important for enhancing user trust of the transaction facility. Indeed, a history of positive feedback for a trader that routinely uses an Internet-based auction facility may be particularly valuable and useful in providing other traders with a degree of confidence regarding a specific trader. Accordingly, a positive feedback history may establish the credibility and trustworthiness of a particular trader within an on-line trading community. Similarly, a history of negative feedback may discourage other traders from transacting with a specific trader. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0006] The present application is illustrated by way of example and not limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings, in which like references indicate similar elements and in which: [0007] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary network-based transaction facility in the form of an internet-based auction facility. [0008] FIG. 2 is a database diagram illustrating an exemplary database for the transaction facility. [0009] FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic representation of an exemplary transaction record table of the database illustrated in FIG. 2 . [0010] FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic representation of an exemplary feedback table of the database illustrated in FIG. 2 . [0011] FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic representation of an exemplary feedback details table of the database illustrated in FIG. 2 . [0012] FIG. 6 illustrates an exemplary interface sequence, according to one embodiment, that may be implemented by the transaction facility for the purposes of harvesting feedback, comments, opinions or reviews. [0013] FIGS. 7A-7B are flow charts illustrating an exemplary method of harvesting feedback, comments or reviews pertaining to transactions facilitated by a network-based transaction facility. [0014] FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary logon interface for accessing a feedback mechanism of the transaction facility. [0015] FIG. 9 is a flow chart illustrating an exemplary method of displaying a user interface to harvest feedback, comments and opinions pertaining to multiple items. [0016] FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary “exceeds threshold” multiple feedback interface. [0017] FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary filtered multiple feedback interface, that may follow the “exceeds threshold” interface following filtering of transactions. [0018] FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary “does not exceed threshold” feedback interface. [0019] FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary “confirmation” interface. [0020] FIG. 14 is an object diagram illustrating exemplary objects of the transaction facility that may be utilized to harvest multiple feedbacks, opinions or comments from users of a transaction facility. [0021] FIG. 15 is a diagrammatic representation of a machine, in an exemplary form of a computer system, in which a set of instructions for causing the machine to perform any of the methodologies of the present application may be executed. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0022] A method and system for harvesting feedback information, comments and opinions regarding multiple items from users of a network-based transaction facility are described. In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present application. It will be evident, however, to one skilled in the art that the present application may be practiced without these specific details. Terminology [0023] For the purposes of the present specification, the term “transaction” shall be taken to include any communications between two or more entities and shall be construed to include, but not be limited to, commercial transactions including sale and purchase transactions, auctions and the like. Transaction Facility [0024] FIG. 1 is block diagram illustrating an exemplary network-based transaction facility in the form of an Internet-based auction facility 10 . While an exemplary embodiment of the present application is described within the context of an auction facility, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the application will find application in many different types of computer-based, and network-based, commerce facilities. [0025] The auction facility 10 includes one or more of a number of types of front-end servers, namely page servers 12 that deliver web pages (e.g., markup language documents), picture servers 14 that dynamically deliver images to be displayed within Web pages, listing servers 16 , CGI servers 18 that provide an intelligent interface to the back-end of facility 10 , and search servers 20 that handle search requests to the facility 10 . E-mail servers 21 provide, inter alia, automated e-mail communications to users of the facility 10 . [0026] The back-end servers include a database engine server 22 , a search index server 24 and a credit card database server 26 , each of which maintains and facilitates access to a respective database. [0027] The Internet-based auction facility 10 may be accessed by a client program 30 , such as a browser (e.g., the Internet Explorer distributed by Microsoft Corp. of Redmond, Wash.) that executes on a client machine 32 and accesses the facility 10 via a network such as, for example, the Internet 34 . Other examples of networks that a client may utilize to access the auction facility 10 include a wide area network (WAN), a local area network (LAN), a wireless network (e.g., a cellular network), or the Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) network. Database Structure [0028] FIG. 2 is a database diagram illustrating an exemplary database 23 , maintain by and accessed via the database engine server 22 , which at least partially implements and supports the auction facility 10 . The database 23 may, in one embodiment, be implemented as a relational database, and includes a number of tables having entries, or records, that are linked by indices and keys. In an alternative embodiment, the database 23 may be implemented as collection of objects in an object-oriented database. [0029] Central to the database 23 is a user table 40 , which contains a record for each user of the auction facility 10 . A user may operate as a seller, buyer, or both, within the auction facility 10 . The database 23 also includes item tables 42 that may be linked to the user table 40 . Specifically, the tables 42 include a seller items table 44 and a bidder items table 46 . A user record in the user table 40 may be linked to multiple items that are being, or have been, auctioned via the facility 10 . A link indicates whether the user is a seller or a bidder (or buyer) with respect to items for which records exist within the item tables 42 . The database 23 also includes a note table 48 populated with note records that may be linked to one or more item records within the item tables 42 and/or to one or more user records within the user table 40 . Each note record within the table 48 may include, inter alia, a comment, description, history or other information pertaining to an item being auction via the auction facility 10 , or to a user of the auction facility 10 . [0030] A number of other tables are also shown to be linked to the user table 40 , namely a user past aliases table 50 , a feedback table 52 , a feedback details table 53 , a bids table 54 , an accounts table 56 , an account balances table 58 and a transaction record table 60 . [0031] FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic representation of an exemplary embodiment of the transaction record table 60 that is populated with records, or entries, for completed, or ended, transactions (e.g., auctions) that have been facilitated by the auction facility 10 . The table 60 includes a transaction identifier column 62 that stores a unique transaction identifier for each entry, and an end date column 64 that stores a date value indicating, for example, a date on which a transaction was established. A bidder column 66 stores a user identifier for a bidder (or a purchaser), the user identifier comprising a pointer to further user information stored in the user table 40 . Similarly, a seller column 68 stores, for each entry, a user identifier for a seller within the relevant transaction. An item number column 70 stores, for each entry, an item number identifying the goods or service being transacted, and a title column 72 stores, for each entry, a descriptive title for the relevant transaction or for the item being transacted. [0032] It should be noted that, in one embodiment, an entry is only created in the transaction record table 60 for transactions that have been established, for example, by the conclusion of an auction process, or by some other offer and acceptance mechanism between the purchaser and the seller. [0033] FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic representation of an exemplary embodiment of the feedback table 52 . The feedback table 52 stores summary information regarding feedback for users of the auction facility 10 . The table 52 includes a user identifier column 74 that stores, for each entry, a user identifier providing a pointer to the user table 40 . A total score column 76 stores, for each user entry, a total number of feedback comments (e.g., negative, positive and neutral), received for the relevant user. A total negative column 78 stores, for each user entry, the total number of negative feedback comments for the relevant user, and a total positive column 80 similarly stores, for each user entry, the total number of positive feedback comments received for that user. A number of retractions column 82 stores, for each user entry, the number of threads that the relevant user has retracted from auctions. [0034] FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic representation of one embodiment of the feedback details table 53 , that is populated with entries reflecting the details of each feedback comment or opinion submitted by a user to the auction facility 10 regarding another user or item involved in a transaction. In one exemplary embodiment, users are only permitted to provide feedback pertaining to a transaction upon conclusion of that transaction. The feedback information may pertain to a further user that participated in the transaction, or to the object (e.g., goods or services) that was the subject of the transaction. In an alternative embodiment, for example, comments or opinions are provided regarding an item or service that is offered for sale or regarding an event. In these cases it will be appreciated that a transaction is necessarily required for feedback to be permitted. [0035] The feedback details table 53 includes an item number column 84 including an item identifier that points to a record within the item tables 42 . A comment column 86 stores, for each entry, the actual text of the feedback, comment, or opinion. A type column 88 , in one embodiment, stores indication as to whether the comment is positive, negative or neutral. A date column 90 stores, for each entry, the date on which the feedback, comment or opinion was delivered. A response column 92 stores the text of a response submitted by a user (e.g., a user to which the original comment pertained) in response to the comment text stored in column 86 . Similarly, a rebuttal column 94 stores the text of a rebuttal to such a response. [0036] A commentator column 96 stores the user identifier of the user that submitted the original comment, stored in column 86 , for the entry. A commentee column 98 stores the user identifier of the user to which comment may have been directed. [0037] It will be appreciated that further dates and other descriptive information may also populate the feedback details table 53 . Multiple Feedback Items [0038] In order to facilitate the convenient provision of feedback by users of the auction facility 10 pertaining to a transaction (e.g., an auction transaction) in which a user participated, the present application proposes a method and system whereby a user may conveniently provide feedback pertaining to multiple transactions. By facilitating the harvesting of multiple feedbacks for a multiple transaction via a unified mechanism, the application addresses the inconvenience of tracking down multiple auctions via other indirect channels or mechanisms that may be provided by web site. In one embodiment, the present application facilitates the provision of multiple feedbacks pertaining to respective multiple transactions via a single interface (e.g., a markup language page interface). While the present application is discussed within the context of providing feeding regarding transactions within a user is participated, it will readily be appreciated that the present application may be extended to providing multiple feedbacks, comments or opinions pertaining to respective multiple products, events or other entities. For example, a book reviewer, utilizing the teachings of the present application, may conveniently provide comments, reviews or opinions pertaining to multiple books. [0039] FIG. 6 shows an interface sequence 100 , according to an exemplary embodiment of the present application, that may be implemented by the auction facility 10 for the purposes of harvesting feedback (or comments, opinions or reviews) from users of the auction facility 10 . The auction facility 10 may, in one embodiment, only permit a user to provide feedback pertaining to a transaction within which that user wants a participant and which has been established or completed. For example, a transaction may be established through the identification of the winner of an auction, which creates the implicit understanding that the established transaction, between the purchaser (i.e., the winning bidder) and the seller, will be completed by performance of the reciprocal obligations underlying the transaction. [0040] The sequence 100 of interfaces shown in FIG. 6 will be described with reference to the flow chart shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B . Exemplary representations of the various interfaces included with the sequence 100 are shown in FIGS. 8-12 . [0041] On the ending of an auction, and the identification of winning bidder, the auction facility 10 , via the e-mail servers 21 , issues an end-of-auction e-mail 102 to both the winning bidder and the seller advising both parties of the outcome of the auction, and providing respective contact details to allow the parties to contact each others. [0042] The interface sequence 100 commences with a logon interface 108 through which a user of the facility 10 provides at least a user identifier and associated password. The logon interface 108 may be accessed, in one embodiment, via three mechanisms, namely an end-of-auction e-mail 102 , a view item (auction ended) interface 104 or a feedback services interface 106 , each of which comprises a markup language document (e.g., HTML document) including a hypertext link to an object (which will be described in further details below) that generates the logon interface 108 as well as further interfaces of the sequence 100 . The end-of-auction e-mail 102 , as noted above, is communicated by the e-mail servers 21 of the auction facility 10 to both a winning bidder and a seller upon the end of the auction process, the e-mail 102 notifying respective parties about the end of the auction and also providing contact details. The view item (auction ended) interface 104 is presented to a user, at conclusion of an auction, when seeking further information regarding the item that was the subject of the auction. For example, upon conclusion of an auction, a textual description of the subject of the auction may be hypertext linked to generate the interface 104 . The feedback services interface 106 may be accessed, for example, through a site navigation menu or toolbar that presents the option to a user of leaving feedback. The feedback services interface 106 is typically used to leave feedback where a user does not know the item number identifying an item or where a user wishes to view feedback concerning multiple auctions within which t user has been a participant within a predetermined period of time (e.g., the past 60 days). [0043] The interface 108 , and subsequent interfaces 110 - 116 , are generated by a collection of objects (or methods), exemplary embodiments of which are illustrated in FIG. 14 . Specifically, a logon interface 108 is generated by a “LeaveFeedbackToMultipleUsersShow” object 118 . The object 118 is also responsible for generating a “threshold exceeded” multiple feedback interface 110 , a filtered multiple feedback interface 112 , a “does not exceed threshold” feedback interface 114 and a confirmation interface 116 , as will be described in further detail below. To this end, the object 118 issues calls to a “LeaveFeedbackToMultipleUsers” object 120 that is responsible for actually recording feedback inputted via the interfaces 108 - 116 to the database 23 , and specifically the feedback and feedback details tables 52 and 53 . The object 118 also issues calls to a “GetSellerListForFeedback” object 122 that retrieves a list of sellers and items from the transaction record table 60 , for a clearing user identified by a specific user identifier. The object 122 includes a “UserItemRecord” vector 126 that is used as a container for the retrieved user and item information, the contents of the vector 126 being released to the object 118 . [0044] The object 118 similarly issues a call to a “GetBidderListForFeedback” object 124 that retrieves a list of bidders and items from the transaction record table 60 of the database 23 where the bidders have both items from a specific user identified by an inputted user identifier. The object 124 similarly uses the “UserItemRecord” vector to pass bidder and item information to the object 118 . [0045] The interfaces 108 - 116 will now be described within the context of a method 128 , according to one embodiment of the present application, of harvesting feedbacks, comments or opinions regarding multiple items from users of a network-based transaction facility. The method 128 is illustrated by the flow chart indicated in FIGS. 7A and 7B . [0046] The method 128 commences with a logon confirmation operation at block 130 performed utilizing a user identifier and a password. Specifically, the logon interface 108 , an exemplary embodiment of which is illustrated in FIG. 8 , provides a user identifier field 180 and password field 182 into which a user may enter a user identifier and password to enable the logon confirmation operation at block 130 . The logon interface 108 illustrated in FIG. 8 also includes a further target user identifier field 184 , into which a commentator user (identified by the user ID entered into fields 180 ) can specify the user identifier of a further user to which the feedback, or comments, are applicable. An item number field 186 also allows a commentator user 186 to specify a specific item number (e.g., identifying an auction) if the feedback that the commentator user wishes to leave is to be directed towards a specific item. Input into the fields 184 and 186 is optional, and may function as filter criteria so that only a limited number of information items are presented in a subsequent multiple feedback interface. [0047] Returning to FIG. 7A , at block 132 , the object 118 issues calls to the “GetSellerListForFeedback” object 122 and the “GetBidderListForFeedback” object 124 to retrieve a list comprising multiple completed transactions for which the commentator user was either a successful bidder or seller. The objects 122 and 124 retrieve the relevant transaction information from the transaction record table 60 of the database 23 , and only retrieve transaction records for which no feedback has been left and which were established within a predetermined time period (e.g., the past 60 days). To this end, the objects 122 and 124 may identify records within the transaction record table 60 for which the feedback column 73 indicates that no feedback has been left, and transaction records for which date information included within the end date column 64 identifies the transaction has been established within the predetermined time period. [0048] In one embodiment, the predetermined time period may be a default value that is automatically specified. In an alternative embodiment, a “time frame” input field may be provided within the logon interface 108 , utilizing which a commentator user may specify the predetermined time period. [0049] At decision box 134 , the object 118 makes a determination as to whether more than a predetermined number (e.g., 25) transaction records are retrieved from the transaction record table 60 at block 132 . Following a positive determination at decision box 134 , at block 136 , the object 118 retrieves a first template (e.g., an ISAPI page) that provides for pagination and includes a filter field, as will be described in further detail below. Following a negative determination at decision box 134 , the object 118 retrieves a second template (e.g., an ISAPI page) that, while facilitating pagination, does not provide a filter field. [0050] At block 138 , the template retrieved at block 136 or 140 is populated by ISAPI code, utilizing the contents of the “UserItemRecord” vectors 126 returned by the objects 122 and/or 124 to generate a feedback interface (e.g., the multiple feedback interface 110 or 114 ). [0051] At block 142 , the feedback interface generated at block 138 (e.g., HTML code) is communicated, via the Internet 34 , to the client program 30 (e.g., a browser) for display. [0052] At decision box 144 , a determination is made as to whether a filter criterion has been applied to the transaction records by a commentator user. If so, at block 146 , the object 118 may issue fresh calls to the objects 122 and 124 to retrieve a modified list of transaction and user information. In an alternative embodiment, the object 118 may simply discard objects (or vectors) previously returned by the objects 122 and 124 that do not meet the filter criteria. [0053] At block 148 , feedback information, comments or opinions are received at the auction facility 10 from the client program 30 and specifically from the relevant interface communicated at block 142 . The feedback information may, in one embodiment, include a number of feedback items, each feedback item including date information specifying a date on which the feedback was provided, comment information providing the actual textual content of the feedback, type information indicating whether the feedback is positive, negative or neutral, user identifier information identifying both the commentator and the target (or commentee) users and any other pertinent information. In exemplary embodiments, which are further described below, the feedback interfaces may comprise markup language documents (e.g., HTML pages) that include radio buttons or check boxes that may be utilized to identify whether a feedback item is provided with respect to an underlying information item (e.g., an auction) and that may also be utilized to identify the type of feedback being provided (e.g., positive, negative or neutral). [0054] At block 150 , the object 118 makes a call to the “LeaveFeedbackToMultipleUsers” object 120 to create multiple instances of the object 120 , each object containing the details of each of the feedback items received at block 148 . Accordingly, instances of the object 120 may be viewed as containers for each of the feedback items. [0055] Proceeding to FIG. 7B , at decision box 190 , a determination is made as to whether any of the feedback has been categorized via the commentator user as being of a negative or neutral type. If so, at block 192 , the object 118 generates the confirmation interface 116 (e.g., in the form of an HTML document) that is communicated from the auction facility 10 to the client program 30 . The confirmation interface 116 prompts the commentator user for confirmation regarding any negative or neutral comments. At decision box 194 , a determination is made as to whether all negative or neutral feedback comments have been confirmed. If not, the unconfirmed feedback is deleted at block 196 . Following a positive determination at decision box 194 , or following a negative determination at decision box 190 , or following completion of block 196 , the method proceeds to block 152 , where the object 118 issues an ISAPI call to an error_check function (not illustrated) that comprises a kernel module, and that performs a number of checks with respect to each feedback item, embodied within an instance of the object 120 . For example, the error_check function may determine whether the commentator, or target, user has been suspended from the auction facility 10 , whether feedback has already been submitted for the respective transaction, whether the commentator user has been a member of the auction facility 10 for less than predetermined time (e.g., five days) or whether a reserve price has been met for the relevant item (or transaction) to which the feedback comment pertains. If any of the conditions embodied within the error_check function are not met, the relevant feedback comment is deleted, for example by deleting the instance of the object 120 embodying the feedback comment. [0056] At block 154 , ISAPI calls are issued from each of the objects 120 to populate the database 23 , and more specifically the feedback table 52 and the feedback details table 53 , with the information contained in the instances of the objects 120 , which operation is then actually performed at block 156 . The method 128 then ends at block 158 . [0057] Having now described server-side operations with respect to FIGS. 7A and 7B , a description is now provided of an exemplary method 200 of displaying a user interface to harvest feedback, comments or opinions pertaining to multiple items (e.g., transactions). The method 200 shall be described within the context of the interfaces 110 , 112 and 114 illustrated in FIG. 6 and with reference to a flowchart illustrated in FIG. 9 . [0058] As stated above with respect to FIG. 7A , at block 142 , a server may communicate a feedback interface over the communications network to a client program 30 (e.g., a browser) for display. Accordingly, the method 200 commences at block 202 with the receipt of a feedback interface in the form of a markup language document. The feedback interface may be, depending on the number of transactions, the “exceeds thresholds” multiple feedback interface 110 or the “does not exceed threshold” multiple feedback interface 114 . The feedback interface, in one embodiment, comprises a markup language document (e.g., an HTML document). [0059] At block 204 , the client program 30 then proceeds to display transaction identifier information for a plurality of transactions within a single interface. FIG. 10 provides an exemplary embodiment of the “exceeds threshold” multiple feedback interface 110 , and the transaction identifier information is shown to include user identifier information 230 , identifying the other party (e.g., the winning bidder or the seller) involved in the transaction, an item identifier providing an item number (or code) identifying the subject matter of the transaction, an item description 234 providing an alpha-numeric description of the subject of the transaction, ended date information 236 , indicating the date on which the transaction was established through the ending of the auction process. [0060] At block 206 , a feedback input field 238 is displayed to indicate an association between the input field and the transaction identifier information. For example, referring again to the exemplary feedback interface 110 shown in FIG. 10 , a feedback input field 238 is displayed on the interface 110 adjacent the transaction identifier information. The feedback input field 238 can receive both textual and numeric input. In an alternative embodiment, a drop-down menu may be provided to input one of a selected set of comments into the feedback input field 238 . [0061] At block 208 , the interface then receives user-inputted feedback information (e.g., comments or opinions) via the feedback input field 238 . This feedback may be provided by an alpha-numeric input device, such as a keyboard, or by voice recognition software. In an alternative embodiment of the application, the input field 238 may be replaced by a voice recording mechanism that allows the commentator user to leave voice feedback by initiating a recording process. [0062] At block 210 , the method 200 displays a type input mechanism adjacent the identifier information for each transaction, the type input mechanism allowing a commentator user to specify type information (e.g., positive, negative or neutral) feedback for the relevant transaction. Referring again to FIG. 10 , an exemplary feedback type input 240 is shown to include three radio buttons, one of which is selectable to identify the input into the feedback input field 238 as being positive, negative or neutral. Accordingly, at block 212 , the interface 110 receives user-inputted type information via the feedback type input 240 . [0063] At block 214 , the method 200 displays a “skip” input 242 , in the exemplary form of a radio button or check box, adjacent the identification information for each transaction displayed within the interface. FIG. 10 shows an exemplary skip input 242 comprising a radio button that is user-selectable to indicate that the commentator user does not wish to provide feedback regarding the relevant transaction. In an alternative embodiment, a check box may be provided to allow user indication that no feedback is being provided. [0064] As is well known in the art, within HTML a check box or radio button is defined by TYPE, NAME and VALUE specifiers, where the TYPE specifier specifies either a check box or a radio button, the NAME specifier specifies a variable where a return value will be stored and the VALUE specifier stores what will be returned in the variable if the check box is checked, or the radio button is selected. Accordingly, feedback type and skip indications may be communicated from the interface 110 in pairs to an ISAPI function implemented by the objects as described above. Each information pair may comprise, for example, a name and a value. [0065] At block 216 , the interface 110 receives the user inputted skip information (or identification) via the skip input 242 . [0066] At decision box 218 , a determination is made as to whether the user selects a “submit” button to communicate the information inputted via the interface 110 to the server side. If not, the method 200 loops through blocks 204 - 216 . Alternatively, if the user does select the “submit” button at decision box 218 , field identifier and field content information (e.g., feedback, type information and skip information) is communicated in pairs from the client program 30 to the server side. The method 200 then ends at block 222 . User Interfaces [0067] Further descriptions of exemplary user interfaces will now be described with reference to FIGS. 10-13 . While the exemplary interfaces are described as comprising markup language documents displayed by a browser, it will be appreciated that the described interfaces could comprise user interfaces presented by any Windows® client application or stand-alone application, and need not necessarily comprise markup language documents. [0068] FIG. 10 , as described above, illustrates an exemplary “exceeds threshold” feedback interface 110 that provides a predetermined maximum number (e.g., 25) of discrete feedback windows 244 , each window 244 being dedicated to a specific one of a number of transactions or items. Each feedback window 244 includes transaction (or item) identification information, a feedback type input 240 , a feedback skip input 242 and a feedback input field 238 . Accordingly, a collection of feedback windows 244 , all displayed in a single interface 110 , allow a commentator to provide feedback pertaining to multiple transactions or items in a convenient manner without having to advance through a series of distinct interfaces. [0069] The number of feedback windows 244 displayed in a single interface is limited (e.g., 25), and accordingly the interface 110 provides retreat and advance buttons 246 and 248 that allow a commentator user to retreat to a previous collection of feedback windows 244 , or advance to a subsequent collection of feedback windows 244 . [0070] The “exceeds threshold” feedback interface 110 furthermore includes a filter criteria input field 250 , into which a commentator user may input a user identifier, or item number, to limit the number of transactions, or items, pertaining to which feedback is to be submitted. For example, where the number of transactions for which the commentator may leave feedback exceeds a predetermined threshold (e.g., 50), the filter allows a commentator user to reduce the number of transactions by specifying only transactions involving a particular user or pertaining to a specific item. In alternative embodiments, the filter criteria may comprise a keyword on which a search is done to locate any transactions for which the descriptions contain relevant keywords. The filter mechanism underlying the filter criteria input field 250 allows a commentator user conveniently to limit the number of feedbacks displayed within an interface, and also conveniently to identify specific transactions for which the commentator user wishes to leave feedback. [0071] To this end, FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary filtered multiple feedback interface 112 that may follow the “exceeds threshold” feedback interface 110 following filtering of the transactions presented in the interface 110 . [0072] FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary “does not exceed threshold” feedback interface 114 , which is substantially similar to the filtered multiple feedback interface 112 , but does not include the retreat and advance buttons 246 and 248 . It will also be noted that the interface 114 does not provide a filter criteria input field 250 . [0073] FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary embodiment of the confirmation interface 116 , described above with reference to FIG. 6 . [0074] In summary, it will be appreciated that the above described interfaces, and underlying technologies, provide a convenient vehicle for the inputting of feedback, comments or opinions regarding multiple items, or transactions, via a single user interface. [0075] FIG. 15 shows a diagrammatic representation of a machine in the exemplary form of a computer system 300 within which a set of instructions, for causing the machine to perform any one of the methodologies discussed above, may be executed. In alternative embodiments, the machine may comprise a network router, a network switch, a network bridge, Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a cellular telephone, a web appliance or any machine capable of executing a sequence of instructions that specify actions to be taken by that machine. [0076] The computer system 300 includes a processor 302 , a main memory 304 and a static memory 306 , which communicate with each other via a bus 308 . The computer system 300 may further include a video display unit 310 (e.g., a liquid crystal display (LCD) or a cathode ray tube (CRT)). The computer system 300 also includes an alpha-numeric input device 312 (e.g. a keyboard), a cursor control device 314 (e.g. a mouse), a disk drive unit 316 , a signal generation device 320 (e.g. a speaker) and a network interface device 322 [0077] The disk drive unit 316 includes a machine-readable medium 324 on which is stored a set of instructions (i.e., software) 326 embodying any one, or all, of the methodologies described above. The software 326 is also shown to reside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory 304 and/or within the processor 302 . The software 326 may farther be transmitted or received via the network interface device 322 . For the purposes of this specification, the term “machine-readable medium” shall be taken to include any medium that is capable of storing or encoding a sequence of instructions for execution by the machine and that cause the machine to perform any one of the methodologies of the present application. The term “machine-readable medium” shall accordingly be taken to included, but not be limited to, solid-state memories, and optical and magnetic disks. [0078] Thus, a method and system for harvesting feedback information, comments, and opinions regarding multiple items from users of a network-based transaction facility have been described. Although the present application has been described with reference to specific exemplary embodiments, it will be evident that various modifications and changes may be made to these embodiments without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the application. Accordingly, the specification and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense.

Systems and Methods to determine whether a single input interface includes comment information that is categorized. The system present a single input interface via a communications network. The single input interface includes a plurality of input mechanisms to facilitate user input of comment information and categorization information. The plurality of input mechanisms include a first input mechanism and a second input mechanism. The first input mechanism is to facilitate user input of comment information that pertains to a first event of a plurality of events. The second input mechanism is to facilitate user input of categorization information that categorizes the comment information pertaining to the first event. The plurality of input mechanism further include a third input mechanism and a fourth input mechanism. The third input mechanism is to facilitate user input of comment information that pertains to a second event of the plurality of events. The fourth input mechanism is to facilitate user input of categorization information that categorizes the comment information that pertains to the second event. Finally, the system determines whether the single input interface includes comment information that is categorized.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application is related to U.S. Published Application No. 2006/0271107, published on Nov. 30, 2006, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, and to U.S. Published Application No. 2006/0074448, published on Apr. 6, 2006, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT [0002] Not Applicable INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ON A COMPACT DISC [0003] Not Applicable NOTICE OF MATERIAL SUBJECT TO COPYRIGHT PROTECTION [0004] A portion of the material in this patent document is subject to copyright protection under the copyright laws of the United States and of other countries. The owner of the copyright rights has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or the patent disclosure, as it appears in the United States Patent and Trademark Office publicly available file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. The copyright owner does not hereby waive any of its rights to have this patent document maintained in secrecy, including without limitation its rights pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.14. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0005] 1. Field of the Invention [0006] This invention pertains generally to apparatus and methods for incrementally manipulating body structures and more particularly to performing corrective procedures on a patient via incremental internal loading. [0007] 2. Description of Related Art [0008] Anatomical deformities occur in the general populous in a number of different forms and from a variety of causes. Examples of skeletal deformities include pectus excavatum, scoliosis, club feet, and numerous forms of skeletal dysplasia. These conditions are treated in a variety of different manners from braces to surgery, with sometimes minimal efficacy. [0009] The defect known as pectus excavatum, or funnel chest, is a congenital anomaly of the anterior chest wall. The excavatum defect is characterized by a deep depression of the sternum, usually involving the lower half or two thirds of the sternum, with the most recessed or deepest area at the junction of the chest and the abdomen. The lower 4-6 costal or rib cartilages dip backward abnormally to increase the deformity or depression and push the sternum posterior or backward toward the spine. Also, in many of these deformities, the sternum is asymmetric or it courses to the right or left in this depression. In many instances, the depression is on the right side. [0010] Pectus excavatum with significant deformity occurs in approximately 1 out of every 2000 births. The deformity may be present at birth but is often noted after several years of age and usually worsens during rapid growth around puberty. Because of the pressure of the sternum and cartilages, defect also pushes the midline structures so that the lungs are compressed from side to side and the heart (right ventricle) is compressed. Severe lesions have a major effect on thoracic volume and pulmonary function but the principal motivation for repair is the deformity itself. It does occur in families and thus, is inherited in many instances. Other problems, especially in the muscle and skeletal system, also may accompany this defect. In approximately ⅕ of the patients, scoliosis is present. The regression or any improvement in this defect rarely occurs because of the fixation of the cartilages and the ligaments. When one takes a deep breath or inspires, the defect is usually accentuated. [0011] Pectus excavatum can be repaired surgically using an open approach in which the malformed costal cartilages are resected and the sternum forcibly held in place with a metal strut. In another approach, described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,024,759, the sternum is forced into a corrected position often under great tension, and held in place with a metal strut. Both can achieve good results but at the cost of considerable morbidity: an operation under general anesthesia followed by a 4-7 day hospital stay required for pain control usually by continuous epidural analgesia. Several more weeks of moderate to severe discomfort are typical and complications from the sternum held forcibly against the metal strut are not infrequent. It is necessary to leave the bar in place for a year or more before it is removed in another procedure. Total cost usually reimbursed by third party payers averages more than $30,000. [0012] The problem with all currently available pectus excavatum surgical repairs is that they attempt to achieve immediate total correction and fixation often under considerable tension. A better approach would be the gradual step-by-step correction of the deformity by applying a smaller force over a longer period of time. [0013] Another skeletal deformity, scoliosis, is a condition in which an individual has an abnormal spine curvature. Generally, some curvature in the neck, upper trunk and lower trunk is normal. However, when there are abnormal side-to-side (lateral) curves in the spinal column, the patient is generally diagnosed as having as scoliosis. [0014] Orthopaedic braces are typically used to prevent further spinal deformity in children with curve magnitudes within the range of 25 to 40 degrees. If these children already have curvatures of these magnitudes and still have a substantial amount of skeletal growth left, then bracing is a viable option. The intent of bracing, however, is to prevent further deformity, and is generally not used to correct the existing curvature or to make the curve disappear. [0015] Surgery is an option used primarily for severe scoliosis (curves greater than 45 degrees) or for curves that do not respond to bracing. The two primary goals for surgery are to stop a curve from progressing during adult life and to diminish spinal deformity. [0016] Although there are different techniques and methods used today for scoliosis surgery, all of them involve fairly invasive procedures with considerable patient morbidity. One frequently performed surgery involves posterior spinal fusion with instrumentation and bone grafting, which is performed through the patient's back. During this surgery, the surgeon attaches a metal rod to each side of the patient's spine by anchors attached to the vertebral bodies. The spine is then fused with a bone graft. The operation usually takes several hours and the patient is typically hospitalized for a week or more. Most patients are not able to return to school or for several weeks after the surgery and cannot perform some pre-operative activities for up to four to six months. [0017] Another surgery option for scoliosis is an anterior approach, wherein the surgery is conducted through the chest walls instead of entering through the patient's back. During this procedure, the surgeon makes incisions in the patient's side, deflates the lung and removes a rib in order to reach the spine. The anterior spinal approach generally has quicker patient rehabilitation, but usually requires bracing for several months after this surgery. [0018] For these reasons, it would be desirable to provide improved apparatus and methods for repositioning bone structures, by applying a corrective force to the bone structure, which could be gradually adjusted much like orthodontic tooth braces. [0019] It would be further desirable to provide a device that applies a corrective force to reposition a body member without a mechanical force that requires piercing of the skin, thereby limiting the specter of infection and wound problems. [0020] In addition, it would be desirable to provide a device for repositioning bones structures having tension-sensing technology to allow measurement of the force applied to correct all types of asymmetric deformities and allow protection of skin against pressure damage. [0021] In addition, it would be desirable to provide improved devices and methods for minimally invasively treating scoliosis. [0022] At least some of these objectives will be met with the inventions described hereinafter. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0023] The present invention comprises apparatus and methods for altering the position, orientation, growth or development of body parts and organs by sustained force over time. [0024] The present invention comprises an implantable jackscrew that is non-invasively activated, lengthened, or shortened, via an induced electrical coupling across the skin. The entire implanted jackscrew device is hermetically sealed within an expandable titanium bellows. The jackscrew is driven by an electric motor within the screw device. The electric motor is connected to a subcutaneous docking station. The small electric motor may comprise a piezo motor or any other available small electric motor capable of generated forces up to 100 lbs that can be activated non-invasively from outside the skin using inductive power and signal coupling. The external device supplies the power and displays the force and distance readings from the implanted device. [0025] The implanted device incorporates a force measurement transducer. For some conditions that would benefit from a “cushioned” application of force, a coil spring shock absorber using either magnetic repulsion or an elastomer spring may be used. [0026] An aspect of the invention is an apparatus for incrementally adjusting the length between a first body segment and a second body segment within the body of a patient. The apparatus includes an implant configured to be installed within the body having a first member with a first attachment point for fixation to the first body segment, and a second member with a second attachment point for fixation to the second body segment. The first member is moveably coupled to the second member to allow linear motion of the first member with respect to the second member. The apparatus further includes a motor coupled to the first and second members, wherein the first member is coupled to the second member via a worm drive such that rotation of the motor drives motion of the worm drive to affect translation of the second member with respect to the first member. The electronic motor is transcutaneously coupled to a power source external to the patient's body and the motor is configured to rotate in response to energy delivered from the power source to incrementally adjust the length between the first attachment point and the second attachment point. [0027] In one embodiment, the unit comprises a gear reduction unit coupled between the motor and the worm drive, wherein the gear reduction unit facilitates a high ratio gear reduction of the rotation of the first rotor to the worm drive. [0028] In a preferred embodiment, the motor is inductively coupled to the power source. [0029] In another embodiment, the power source comprises a control to vary the speed and directionality of the internal motor to allow micro-motion control of the distance between the first and second attachment points. [0030] The apparatus may also include a force measurement transducer coupled to the first or second members, wherein the transducer is configured to measure a force applied to the first and second attachment points by the implant. Readings from the transducer may provide feedback for control of the internal motor. [0031] Furthermore, a biasing member may be coupled to the first or second members; wherein the biasing member is configured to absorb loading between the first and second members. [0032] In one embodiment, the first attachment point is configured to secure to a first vertebra and the second attachment point is configured to attach to a second vertebra, wherein the implant is configured to distract the first vertebra from the second vertebra. [0033] In a preferred embodiment, the internal motor, worm drive, and first and second members are hermetically sealed inside a casing. [0034] Another aspect is a method for manipulating first and second body segments within the body of a patient by inserting an implant at a location within the body, securing a first attachment point of the implant to the first body segment, securing a second attachment point of the implant to the second body segment, and transcutaneously supplying power to an internal motor coupled to the first and second attachment points. The internal motor provides rotation to a worm drive coupled between the first and second attachment points such that the worm drive transforms the rotational motion of the internal rotor into linear adjustment of the distance between the first and second attachment points. [0035] In a preferred embodiment of the current aspect, adjusting the distance between the first and second attachment allows incremental manipulation of the first body segment with respect to the second body segment. [0036] In another embodiment, a first member comprising the first attachment point is moveably coupled to a second member comprising the second attachment point, and adjusting the distance between the first and second attachment points comprises linearly translating the first member with respect to the second member. The gear ratio between the internal motor and the worm drive may be reduced to allow a smaller input force on the internal motor to drive a larger output force between the first and second attachment points. [0037] The method may further include controlling the speed and directionality of the internal motor rotation to affect micro-motion control of the distance between the first and second attachment points. [0038] In another embodiment, the method includes measuring a force applied to the first and second body segments by the implant. The force measurement may be wirelessly transmitted the force measurement to a controller external to the patient to control the internal motor according to feedback provided by the force measurements. [0039] In yet another embodiment, the method may include preloading the first and second attachment points by coupling a biasing member to the first or second members. [0040] In a preferred embodiment, transcutaneously supplying power to an internal motor comprises inductively transferring energy from an external location to a subcutaneous location within the patient. [0041] In one embodiment, the first segment comprises a first vertebrae of the spine and the second segment comprises a second vertebrae of the spine, wherein the first attachment point is secured to the first vertebrae and the second attachment point is secured to the second vertebra so that motion of the first and second attachment points distracts the first vertebrae from the second vertebrae. [0042] Another aspect is a system for manipulating an anatomical feature within the body of the patient comprising an internal jackscrew configured to be implanted at the anatomical feature inside the patient. The jackscrew comprises first and second attachment points configured to secure to spaced-apart locations on the anatomical feature. An internal motor is coupled to the jackscrew, wherein the internal motor is configured to drive motion of the jackscrew to manipulate the anatomical feature. The system further includes a controller configured to supply energy to the internal motor, wherein the controller is located external to the patient. An inductive coupling is connected to the controller and internal motor and is configured to wirelessly transfer energy from the external controller to the internal motor. [0043] In one embodiment, the inductive coupling comprises an external pad coupled to the controller; and an internal pad coupled to the internal motor, wherein the internal pad is configured to be positioned at a subcutaneous location to wirelessly transmit energy from the controller through the skin to the internal motor. [0044] Further aspects of the invention will be brought out in the following portions of the specification, wherein the detailed description is for the purpose of fully disclosing preferred embodiments of the invention without placing limitations thereon. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S) [0045] The invention will be more fully understood by reference to the following drawings which are for illustrative purposes only, and where like reference numbers denote like elements: [0046] FIG. 1 is a schematic view of an internal jackscrew assembly in accordance with the present invention. [0047] FIG. 2 shows an alternative embodiment in accordance with the present invention. [0048] FIG. 3 shows the embodiment of FIG. 1 installed to decompress a spine segment in accordance with the present invention. [0049] FIG. 4A is an anterior view of the human spine. [0050] FIG. 4B is a lateral view of the human spine. [0051] FIG. 5A-D illustrates various abnormal curvatures of the spine due to scoliosis. [0052] FIG. 6 illustrates abnormal rotation of the vertebrae of the spine as a result of scoliosis. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0053] Referring more specifically to the drawings, for illustrative purposes the present invention is embodied in the apparatus and methods generally shown in FIG. 1 through FIG. 6 . It will be appreciated that the apparatus may vary as to configuration and as to details of the parts, and that the methods may vary as to the specific steps and sequence, without departing from the basic concepts as disclosed herein. [0054] FIG. 1 shows an internal load generating system 10 in accordance with the present invention. The system 10 includes a magnetically coupled implantable jackscrew assembly 20 that is inductively driven by an external drive assembly 50 . The jackscrew assembly 20 comprises a first member 12 and second member 14 housed within a hermetically sealed bellows 26 . The first and second members 12 , 14 are coupled to allow linear motion with respect to each other to apply a tensile or compressive force to respective attachment points 22 and 24 that may be attached to one or more body members or body member locations. For example, attachment point 22 may be coupled to a first vertebral body, and attachment point 24 may be coupled to a second vertebral body to allow incremental distraction of the spine segments (see FIG. 3 ). [0055] The first member 12 is coupled to an internal drive coupling an electric motor 30 . The internal motor 30 is coupled to drive shaft 28 located inside end cap 38 . The small electric motor 30 could be a piezo-electric motor or any other available small electric motor capable of generated forces up to 100 lbs or more. The internal motor may comprise any type of rotary or servomotor, including a brush motor or brushless motor. [0056] The internal motor is controlled and powered trans-dermally via an inductive electrical coupling 58 that is configured to wirelessly transfer energy from an external pad 56 to an internal pad or dock 46 . Internal induction pad is coupled to the internal motor 30 via cable 42 , and is preferably located subcutaneously just ender the patient's skin 44 for optimal transmission. However, other locations in the body may be used as well. The external induction pad 56 is configured to be positioned adjacent or touching the patient's skin 44 just outside the internal pad 46 , the location of which may be marked for ease of use. [0057] Inductive coupling 28 may comprise one of several electromagnetic resonant systems available in the art, including dielectric disks or capacitively-loaded conducting-wire loops for pads 56 and 46 . The electrical coupling 58 is connected via cable 54 to a power source 52 that supplies the power to the internal motor 30 . Power source 52 may also comprise a controller that controls operation of the internal motor 30 (e.g. by operating motor 30 at intervals or according to some other feedback such as that generated by sensor 32 ). [0058] Sensor 32 may comprise a force measurement transducer that measures the force applied to the attachment points 22 , 24 . Transducer 32 may be configured to take readings of the applied force over time, and may be configured to store them locally on a memory chip or the like, or transmit force data via the wireless transmission coupling 58 to external receiving unit 52 , or may transmit via another wireless remote transmission such as RFID, IR or the like. Transducer 32 may also comprise deformable silicon pressure sensing device, such as the Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) implant currently be developed by OrthoMEMS, Inc. for orthopedic sensing. [0059] Poser source/control unit 52 may also comprise a display and user interface to display force and distance readings from sensor 32 , and for allowing the force and control settings to be modified. [0060] The rotating shaft 28 coupled to internal motor 30 may also be coupled to gear reduction unit 40 that facilitates a high ratio gear reduction (e.g. 256:1 or 500:1) to worm gear screw 16 . Gear reduction unit 40 allows high-speed micro-motion control of the jackscrew assembly 20 via a small input or rotational force from the internal motor 30 . The gear reduction unit 40 may comprise a commercially available unit such as Spur Gearhead GS12A or Micro Harmonic Drive MHD 8, both from Maxon Precision Motors, Inc., Fall River, Mass. [0061] Female screw thread or nut 18 is attached to second member 14 and is threaded to screw 16 such that rotation of screw 16 causes the first member 12 to separate or converge with respect to second member from 14 . Additional force and separation may be achieved by further rotation of internal motor 30 . [0062] The second member 14 may optionally be spring loaded (e.g. via a coil spring, elastomer, or the like) with biasing member 34 to create an additional preload between the first and second members. Biasing member 34 may provide a shock absorption component to the assembly for withstanding loading between first and second body members disposed on attachment points 22 and 24 . Initial loading to separate attachment points 24 and 22 may soak up some or all of the travel of biasing member 34 , depending on the spring rate. However, as the body members associated with attachments points 24 and 22 are gradually manipulated, the travel of biasing member 34 is restored. [0063] FIG. 1 depicts a linear coil-spring design for biasing member 34 . However it is contemplated that an elastomer or magnetic repulsion may also be used. [0064] The entire implanted device is preferably hermetically sealed via endcap 38 and titanium bellows 26 over the moveable members 14 , 16 . [0065] Pressure applied by the device (either compressive or tensile) is measurable and adjustable through the electric coupling 58 and data provided by sensor 32 . [0066] In a preferred embodiment, the jackscrew 20 is operated to provide non-invasive lengthening and shortening in very small increments (i.e., <1 mm), wherein adjustment may be achieved in an awake patient as an out-patient office procedure. This has the advantage of allowing feedback from the patient about patient discomfort or pain relief. [0067] In an alternative embodiment shown in FIG. 2 , the internal motor 30 is coupled to controller 62 via a detachable wired coupling 70 . In this configuration, the internal motor 30 is coupled to a trans-cutaneous dock 68 that mounts through the skin (e.g. small incision). An external coupling 68 is wired to the controller 62 via cabling 64 , and detachably mates with the dock 66 to allow energy and/or data transfer. The monitor/controller 62 may be detached when not in used by separating the external coupling 68 from the dock 66 . [0068] 1. Vertebral Jack for Decompression of Herniated Disks [0069] FIG. 3 illustrated system 100 for decompression of one or more spine segments. As shown in FIG. 3 , a jackscrew assembly 20 may be coupled between vertebra 102 and vertebra 104 . In this embodiment, the first attachment 22 is coupled to a pedicle screw 122 that is mounted in the pedicle 110 of the lower vertebra 106 . Correspondingly, the second attachment 24 is coupled to a pedicle screw 124 that is mounted in the pedicle 108 of the upper vertebra 102 . The jackscrew may then be operated via control unit 52 and inductive coupling 58 to increase the distance between attachment points and thereby place the vertebral joint in tension to leave compression of disc 104 the may be collapsed or herniated. [0070] The pedicle mounting may comprise a number of different systems available in the art, including, fur example, any of the systems are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,648,915; 6,010,503; 5,946,760; 5,863,293; 4,653,481, etc., the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. [0071] While FIG. 3 illustrates decompression of adjacent spine members, it is appreciated that the jackscrew assembly 20 may be sized to span any number of vertebrae. In addition, the jackscrew assembly 20 may be mounted anteriorly (e.g. to the vertebral body) or laterally (in which case two jacks may be used for to maintain symmetry). [0072] 2. Vertebral Jack for Scoliosis [0073] FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate the curvature of a normal spine 300 . The spine is relatively straight in the sagittal plane 302 and has a double curve in the coronal plane 304 . Generally, the thoracic section 308 of the spine is convex posteriorly and the lumbar section 306 of the spine is convex anteriorly. Normally there should be no lateral curvature of the spine about the saggital plane 302 . [0074] Scoliosis is a deformity that generally comprises by both lateral curvature and vertebral rotation. FIGS. 5A-D illustrate various forms of abnormal lateral curvature of the spine. FIG. 5A shows abnormal thoracic curvature 310 . FIG. 5B shows abnormal thoracolumbar curvature 312 . FIG. 5C shows abnormal lumbar curvature 314 . Finally, some cases involve a double curvature of the spine, as shown in FIG. 5D shows abnormal thoracic curvature. [0075] FIG. 6 illustrates rotation of the spine and corresponding effect on the rib cage 332 s a result of scoliosis. As the disease progresses, the vertebrae 330 and spinous processes in the area of the major curve rotate toward the concavity of the curve. As the vertebral bodies rotate, the spinous processes deviate more and more to the concave side and the ribs follow the rotation of the vertebrae. The posterior ribs on the convex side 336 are pushed posteriorly, causing narrowing of the thoracic cage and the characteristic rib hump seen in thoracic scoliosis. The anterior ribs on the concave side 334 are pushed laterally and anteriorly. [0076] Now referring to FIG. 5A , a jackscrew assembly 20 in accordance with the present invention may be positioned to attach to vertebral segments spanning abnormal thoracic curvature 310 . In this configuration, the jackscrew may be expanded to apply a tensile translational force F to the curved section 310 and allow straightening of the intermediary segments and lateral curvature of the spine. The force F may be incrementally applied to continue translation of the vertebrae 340 and 342 over time. [0077] The jackscrew assembly 20 may also be applied to correct for thoracolumbar curvature 312 in FIG. 5B , and lumbar curvature 314 shown in FIG. 5C . Two jackscrew assemblies 20 may be applied to opposite sides of the spine to correct for the double curvature 316 of the spine in FIG. 5D . [0078] Additionally, in any of the conditions shown in FIG. 5A-D , a second opposing jack screw assembly 20 may be attached to the opposing (convex) side of the curvature to and operated to shorten the distance between attachment points and further facilitate curvature correction. [0079] 3. Other Applications [0080] The jackscrew assembly 20 scalable to operate under a number of applications. The internal electric motor 30 is available in extremely small sizes, without compromising the output power. The total length of the jackscrew assembly 20 (between attachment points 24 and 22 ) may range from as little as 1 cm and as great as 30 cm. This allows application to many different diseases and/or conditions. In addition, multiple jackscrew devices 20 can be used and activated individually without interfering with each other or an adjacent device(s). [0081] Accordingly, it is appreciated that the system and methods of the present invention may be used for a variety of applications throughout the body. For example, the system 10 may be used for bone and cartilage elongation and reformation (e.g., distraction osteogenesis), bone lengthening (e.g., leg lengthening), chest deformity correction and chest expansion (e.g., automated titanium rib treatment for thoracic deformities), or adjustment of flow rate, (increase and decrease), through implanted valves (e.g., drug delivery pumps, IV access, shunts, etc.) [0082] Therefore, it will be appreciated that the scope of the present invention fully encompasses other embodiments which may become obvious to those skilled in the art, and that the scope of the present invention is accordingly to be limited by nothing other than the appended claims, in which reference to an element in the singular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless explicitly so stated, but rather “one or more.” All structural, chemical, and functional equivalents to the elements of the above-described preferred embodiment that are known to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporated herein by reference and are intended to be encompassed by the present claims. Moreover, it is not necessary for a device or method to address each and every problem sought to be solved by the present invention, for it to be encompassed by the present claims. Furthermore, no element, component, or method step in the present disclosure is intended to be dedicated to the public regardless of whether the element, component, or method step is explicitly recited in the claims. No claim element herein is to be construed under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. 112, sixth paragraph, unless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for.”

Systems and methods are disclosed for manipulating an anatomical feature within the body of the patient. An implant such as an internal jackscrew is implanted at the anatomical and has first and second attachment points that secure to spaced-apart locations on the anatomical feature. An internal motor is coupled to the jackscrew, and is configured to drive motion of the jackscrew to manipulate the anatomical feature. The system further includes an external driver that is inductively coupled to the internal motor to manipulate the anatomical feature.

This application is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/078,843, filed Feb. 19, 2002, now abandoned which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/269,973, filed Feb. 20, 2001. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a microchip-based electrospray ionization device and column with affinity adsorbents and a method of using the device and column. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Although efforts to evaluate gene activity and to explain biological processes including those of disease processes and drug effects have traditionally focused on genomics in the past two decades, more attention has been paid to proteomics in recent years due to its offering a more direct, complete and promising understanding of the biological functions of a cell. Proteomics research is targeted towards a comprehensive characterization of the total protein complement encoded by a particular genome and its changes under the influence of biological perturbation. Proteomics also involves the study of non-genome encoded events such as the post-translation modification of proteins, interactions between proteins, and the location of proteins within the cell. The study of the gene expression at the protein level is important because many of the most important cellular activities are directly regulated by the protein status of the cell rather than the status of gene activity. Also, the protein content of a cell is highly relevant to drug discovery and drug development efforts since most drugs are designed to target proteins. Therefore, the information gained from proteomics is expected to greatly boost the number of drug targets. Current technologies for the analysis of proteomics are based on a variety of protein separation techniques followed by identification of the separated proteins. Currently, the most popular method for proteomics investigation is the use of high-resolution two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2D-gel) to map the biological complexity at the molecular level, followed by in-gel proteolytic digestion and sensitive mass spectral techniques to identify the spots. of interest. Complex biological materials typically contain hundreds of biological molecules plus organic and inorganic salts which preclude direct mass spectral analysis. Therefore, significant sample preparation and purification steps are required prior to proteolytic digestion and mass spectral analysis. Although 2-D gel is one of the most powerful methods in the current study of proteomics, this method suffers from the labor-intensive, time consuming, attendant analyte loss and limitation of staining sensitivity to detect the low abundance proteins or peptides. The 2-D gel method suffers from poor reproducibility. In addition, electrophoretic techniques are also plagued by a bias towards proteins of high abundance and the variation of solubility among the complex proteins. Obviously, there is a need for direct and facile mass spectrometric detection for both major and minor proteins in heterogeneous samples. The significant demands evolving from both the rapid increase of new drug targets and the availability of vast libraries of chemical compounds also apply to the new technologies that can facilitate the screening process. To avoid the aforementioned disadvantages of the 2-D gel technique, some microchip-based separation devices (arrays) have been developed for rapid analysis of large numbers of samples. Compared to conventional separation columns or devices, microchip-based separation devices (arrays) have higher sample throughput, reduced sample and reagent consumption, and reduced chemical waste. Such devices are capable of fast analyses and provide improved precision and reliability compared to the conventional analytical instruments. The liquid flow rates for microchip-based separation devices range from approximately 1 to 500 nanoliters (nL) per minute for most applications. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) and capillary electrochromatography (CEC) are the two major separation modes used for microchip-based devices. However, liquid chromatography (LC) is not a major separation mode for microchip-based devices and currently is limited to an infusion mode in some limited applications. Recently, a chip-based proteomics approach has been introduced using biomolecular interaction analysis-mass spectrometry (BIA-MS) in rapidly detecting and characterizing proteins present in complex biological samples at the low- to sub-fmole level (Nelson et al., 2000 Electrophoresis 21: 1155-63). One of the most powerful techniques is surface enhanced laser desorption/ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF-MS) technology which was commercially embodied in Ciphergens's ProteinChip Array System (Merchant et al., 2000 Electrophoresis 21: 1164-77). The system (aluminum chip) uses chemically (cationic, anionic, hydrophobic, metal, etc.) or biochemically (antibody, DNA, enzyme, receptor, etc.) treated surfaces for specific interaction with proteins of interest followed by selected washes for SELDI-TOF-MS detection. The power of the. system incorporates straightforward sample preparation with on-chip capture (binding) and detection for protein discovery, protein purification, protein identification from small samples, allowing rapid analysis and assay development on a single platform. Compared to the classic methods of sample purification, the advantages of the Protein Chip system include: 1. on-line “one-step” separation of a small amount of crude biological sources for high throughput analysis; 2. In situ clean-up which diminishes sample loss by eliminating non-specific binding, reducing analyte signal suppression; 3. Pre-concentration of the target molecules, increasing the detection sensitivity particularly for the minor targets compounds. However, the SELDI-TOF-MS based Protein Chip system suffers from the inability to provide the primary sequencing and structure information for bio-polymers such as proteins and peptides, and for small compounds. It has limitations with respect to the quantitative analysis of analytes. It also has a limited detection level for analytes and limited range of proteins, since only a low number density of analyte is available at any small point on a array spot where the laser beam can hit and generate ions for detection. The detection levels will significantly decline for proteins with a molecular mass above 15-20 Kda. Electrospray ionization (ESI) provides for the atmospheric pressure ionization of a liquid sample. The electrospray process creates highly-charged droplets that, under evaporation, create ions representative of the species contained in the solution. An ion-sampling orifice of a mass spectrometer may be used to sample these gas phase ions for mass. analysis. Electrospray in front of an ion-sampling orifice of an API mass spectrometer produces a quantitative response from the mass spectrometer detector due to the analyte molecules present in the liquid flowing from the capillary. One advantage of electrospray is that the response for an analyte measured by the mass spectrometer detector is dependent on the concentration of the analyte in the fluid and independent of the fluid flow rate. The response of an analyte in solution at a given concentration would be comparable using electrospray combined with mass spectrometry at a flow rate of 100 μL/min compared to a flow rate of 100 nL/min. D. C. Gale et al., Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 7:1017 (1993) demonstrate that higher electrospray sensitivity is achieved at lower flow rates due to increased analyte ionization efficiency. Thus by performing electrospray on a fluid at flow rates in the nanoliter per minute range provides the best sensitivity for an analyte contained within the fluid when combined with mass spectrometry. The increasing demand for more efficient and rapid separation techniques in many areas, especially for the pharmaceutical industry, has initiated research towards column consolidation and miniaturization. In recent years, such column consolidation has been achieved when porous polymer continuous beds or monoliths were introduced or invented. Hjertén, J. Chromatography, 473 (1989), 273-275 discloses a polymer gel continuous bed prepared by in situ polymerization of an aqueous solution of acrylamide derivatives. Svec and Fréchet disclosed in 1994 and 1995 (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,334,310 and 5,453,185) a continuous liquid chromatographic column containing a separation medium in the form of a macroporous polymer plug. Column miniaturization has also been achieved when a porous polymer monolith was prepared by radical polymerization in situ in a fused silica capillary. The development of fritless columns with a polymer-based porous monolith rather than conventional spherical beads has become more and more important since it meets the requirement of today's micro-scale liquid chromatography and capillary electrochromatography as described by Peters et al., Analytical Chemistry, 70 (1998), 2288-2295; and Gusev et al., J. Chromatography A, 855 (1999), 273-290. It would be desirable to provide a microchip device integrated with the miniaturized and consolidated micro-columns/packings for proteomics research. In an effort to overcome the above drawbacks to the prior art, the present invention provides a microchip-based ESI device including a miniaturized and consolidated micro-column and micro-column array having affinity chromatographic adsorbents, which offers higher selectivity and sensitivity, and more accurate qualitative analysis than prior disclosed protein chips and provides quantitative analysis of analytes. The ESI device also offers the capability of providing additional structure and primary sequence information for analytes. In an alternative platform, the microchip device has built-in or attached micro-columns containing an adsorbent in the form of a porous polymer monolith or a coated support. Both platforms and their combinations are used for the detection of complex protein samples and screening of combinatory chemical compounds. In addition, the platforms have potential uses for non-covalent binding in identifying protein-protein, protein-ligand interactions. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An aspect of the present invention is to develop a microchip-based on-line device for both the affinity capture of biomolecules and the electrospray ionization in coupling with a mass spectrometer. Another aspect of the invention is to provide a method for using such device for affinity capture of biomolecules to meet the needs for the modern life sciences such as proteomics, drug discovery, clinical diagnostics and forensic science. A further aspect of the present invention relates to an electrospray device having flow-contacting portions including an affinity chromatographic adsorbent. A further aspect of the present invention relates to a method for analysis including: providing the electrospray device; and selectively immobilizing affinity ligands on the flow-contacting surface of the device. A further aspect of the present invention relates to a method for analysis including: providing the electrospray device; selectively binding an analyte on the affinity chromatographic adsorbent by affinity capture; optionally, performing chemical, enzymatic, or physical treatment of the immobilized analyte; selectively desorbing the analyte; electrospraying the desorbed analyte; and passing the electrosprayed analyte to a detector. A further aspect of the present invention relates to a chromatography column including an affinity chromatographic adsorbent. According to the invention, these objects have been achieved by a microchip-based electrospray ionization device having an affinity chromatographic absorbent. The device is the combination of a monolithic silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube/column in communication with one of the chip reservoir. The affinity adsorbent is immobilized in either the chip reservoirs/channels or the capillary tube, or in both. The affinity adsorbent is in the form of either a porous polymer monolith or a surface coating with affinity functions on the flow-contacting surfaces. The affinity chromatography of the present invention includes immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC). The device and its use can achieve the simultaneous affinity capture of biomolecules and subsequent electrospray ionization for mass spectrometry analysis. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The chip reservoir/channel is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. There is no immobilized affinity adsorbent in the attached capillary tube. FIG. 2 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The chip reservoir/channel is coated or immobilized with an affinity adsorbent. There is no immobilized affinity adsorbent in the attached capillary tube. FIG. 3 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The capillary tube is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. There is no immobilized affinity adsorbent in the chip reservoir/channel. FIG. 4 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The capillary tube is coated or immobilized with an affinity adsorbent, while the chip reservoir/channel is without an immobilized affinity adsorbent. FIG. 5 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The chip reservoir/channel is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith. The attached capillary tube is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith as well. All the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. FIG. 6 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The chip reservoir/channel is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. The capillary tube is coated or immobilized with an affinity adsorbent. FIG. 7 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The chip reservoir/channel is coated or immobilized with an affinity adsorbent. The capillary tube is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. FIG. 8 shows a cross section of a reservoir and its extended nozzle channel of a chip array with the engaged capillary tube. The chip reservoir/channel is coated or immobilized is with an affinity adsorbent. The attached capillary tube also has an affinity adsorbent coated or immobilized on its inner wall. FIG. 9 shows the reservoir-side of the chip with an 8×12 array, wherein the 8 columns (in the vertical direction) have 8 different affinity adsorbents while each column (in the horizontal direction) has the same adsorbent. FIG. 10 is a scheme for the surface modification of a porous poly(vinylbenzyl chloride-co-divinylbenzene) (PVBC/DVB) monolith or a coated PVBC/DVB layer in a capillary tube or a chip reservoir/channel in Example 1, which results in the surface chemistry suitable for immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC). FIG. 11 is a scheme for the surface modification of a porous PVBC/DVB monolith or a coated PVBC/DVB layer in a capillary tube or a chip reservoir/channel in Example 2, which results in the surface chemistry suitable for affinity chromatography. FIG. 12 shows the selected reaction monitoring (SRM) MS/MS mass spectra of dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) samples in EXAMPLE 3 that are pretreated with and without a porous polymer monolith immobilized with an iminodiacetic acid group. FIG. 13 shows a mass spectrum of the infusion of a five-peptide mixture (1 μM each component) in 50% methanol/50% water with 0.1% acetic acid through a microchip electrospray device and serves as a control. The top panel shows the total ion current (TIC) over the 1-min acquisition and the bottom shows the mass spectrum of five-peptide mixture resulting from summing the 1-min data. The inset displays the amino acid sequences of five peptides used in this study. FIG. 14 shows a mass. spectrum of the results of a five-peptide mixture (1 pmol of each component) loaded on an iminodiacetic acid (IDA)-immobilized monolith PEEK column (381 μm I.D.×4.7 cm), eluted directly to a stainless steel column (125 μm I.D.×10 cm) containing the poly(styrene- co-divinylbenzene) (PS-DVB) monolith followed by on-line gradient elution from 5-50% acetonitrile with 0.1% acetic acid in 10 minutes through a microchip electrospray device. The top panel shows the TIC chromatogram of the gradient elution over 3.5-min acquisition. The bottom panel displays the mass spectrum of elution components resulting from summing the 3.5-min data. FIG. 15 shows a TIC chromatogram and extracted ion chromatograms from the LC-ESI-MS analysis of a 0.6 pmol of myoglobin tryptic digest on a stainless steel column (125 μm I.D.×10 cm) containing the PS-DVB-C 18 monolith coupled with a microchip electrospray device; mobile phase: A=0.1% v/v acetic acid and 0.01% v/v heptafluorobutyric acid in water, B=0.1% v/v acetic acid and 0.01% v/v heptafluorobutyric acid in acetonitrile. The gradient program was 0%→40%→70% in 0→10→15 min with flow rate 300 nL/min. FIG. 16 shows a mass spectrum from the infusion of a beta-casein tryptic digest after affinity chromatography on a PEEK column (381 μm I.D.×4.7 cm) containing the monolithic IDA-Fe(III) stationary phase for separation of phosphopeptides. The top panel shows that the mass spectrum of 0.5 μM beta-casein tryptic digest in 50% methanol/50% water with 0.1% acetic acid through a microchip electrospray device over 1-min acquisition and serves as a control. The peaks indicated by arrow are the tryptic fragments of beta-casein. The inset, an expansion of the region between m/z 1030-1048, reveals the spectrum of a phosphopeptide (from beta-casein 48-61, FQpSEEQQQTEDELQDK) with monoisotopic mass 2060.8284 Da detected in control sample in a doubly charge state. The bottom panel shows that the mass spectrum of 10 pmol of beta-casein tryptic digest passed through the IDA-Fe(III) monolithic column, eluted by 2% NH 4 OH and re-suspended in 10 μL of 50% methanol/50% water with 0.1% acetic acid for infusion analysis through the microchip device. The inset displays that the doubly charged phosphopeptide ion has also Na adduction in addition to proton attachment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Electrospray ionization provides for the atmospheric pressure ionization of a liquid sample. The electrospray process creates highly-charged droplets that, under evaporation, create ions representative of the species contained in the solution. An ion-sampling orifice of a mass spectrometer may be used to sample these gas phase ions for mass analysis. When a positive voltage is applied to the tip of the capillary relative to an extracting electrode, such as one provided at the ion-sampling orifice of a mass spectrometer, the electric field causes positively-charged ions in the fluid to migrate to the surface of the fluid at the tip of the capillary. When a negative voltage is applied to the tip of the capillary relative to an extracting electrode, such as one provided at the ion-sampling orifice to the mass spectrometer, the electric field causes negatively-charged ions in the fluid to migrate to the surface of the fluid at the tip of the capillary. When the repulsion force of the solvated ions exceeds the surface tension of the fluid being electrosprayed, a volume of the fluid is pulled into the shape of a cone, known as a Taylor cone, which extends from the tip of the capillary. A liquid jet extends from the tip of the Taylor cone and becomes unstable and generates charged-droplets. These small charged droplets are drawn toward the extracting electrode. The small droplets are highly-charged and solvent evaporation from the droplets results in the excess charge in the droplet residing on the analyte molecules in the electrosprayed fluid. The charged molecules or ions are drawn through the ion-sampling orifice of the mass spectrometer for mass analysis. This phenomenon has been described, for example, by Dole et al., Chem. Phys. 49:2240 (1968) and Yamashita et al., J. Phys. Chem. 88:4451 (1984). The potential voltage (“V”) required to initiate an electrospray is dependent on the surface tension of the solution as described by, for example, Smith, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 1986, IA-22:527-35 (1986). Typically, the electric field is on the order of approximately 10 6 V/m. The physical size of the capillary and the fluid surface tension determines the density of electric field lines necessary to initiate electrospray. When the repulsion force of the solvated ions is not sufficient to overcome the surface tension of the fluid exiting the tip of the capillary, large poorly charged droplets are formed. Fluid droplets are produced when the electrical potential difference applied between a conductive or partly conductive fluid exiting a capillary and an electrode is not sufficient to overcome the fluid surface tension to form a Taylor cone. Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry: Fundamentals, Instrumentation, and Applications , edited by R. B. Cole, ISBN 0-471-14564-5, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York summarizes much of the fundamental studies of electrospray. Several mathematical models have been generated to explain the principals governing electrospray. Equation 1 defines the electric field E c at the tip of a capillary of radius r c with an applied voltage V c at a distance d from a counter electrode held at ground potential: E c = 2  V c r c  ln ( 4  d / r c ) ( 1 ) The electric field E on required for the formation of a Taylor cone and liquid jet of a fluid flowing to the tip of this capillary is approximated as: E on ≈ ( 2     γ     cos     θ ɛ o  r c ) 1 / 2 ( 2 ) where γ is the surface tension of the fluid, θ is the half-angle of the Taylor cone and ε 0 is the permittivity of vacuum. Equation 3 is derived by combining equations 1 and 2 and approximates the onset voltage V on required to initiate an electrospray of a fluid from a capillary: V on ≈ ( r c  γ     cos     θ 2     ɛ 0 ) 1 / 2  ln  ( 4  d / r c ) ( 3 ) As can be seen by examination of equation 3, the required onset voltage is more dependent on the capillary radius than the distance from the counter-electrode. The present invention provides an electrospray device that forms a stable electrospray of substantially all fluids commonly used in CE, CEC, and LC. The surface tension of solvents commonly used as the mobile phase for these separations range from 100% aqueous (γ=0.073 N/m) to 100% methanol (γ=0.0226 N/m). As the surface tension of the electrospray fluid increases, a higher onset voltage is required to initiate an electrospray for a fixed capillary diameter. As an example, a capillary with a tip diameter of 14 μm is required to electrospray 100% aqueous solutions with an onset voltage of 1000 V. The work of M. S. Wilm et al., Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion Processes 136:167-80 (1994), first demonstrates nanoelectrospray from a fused-silica capillary pulled to an outer diameter of 5 μm at a flow rate of 25 nL/min. Specifically, a nanoelectrospray at 25 nL/min was achieved from a 2 μm inner diameter and 5 μm outer diameter pulled fused-silica capillary with 600-700 V at a distance of 1-2 mm from the ion-sampling orifice of an electrospray equipped mass spectrometer. Electrospray in front of an ion-sampling orifice of an API mass spectrometer produces a quantitative response from the mass spectrometer detector due to the analyte molecules present in the liquid flowing from the capillary. One advantage of electrospray is that the response for an analyte measured by the mass spectrometer detector is dependent on the concentration of the analyte in the fluid and independent of the fluid flow rate. The response of an analyte in solution at a given concentration would be comparable using electrospray combined with mass spectrometry at a flow rate of 100 μL/min compared to a flow rate of 100 nL/min. D. C. Gale et al., Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 7:1017 (1993) demonstrate that higher electrospray sensitivity is achieved at lower flow rates due to increased analyte ionization efficiency. Thus by performing electrospray on a fluid at flow rates in the nanoliter per minute range provides the best sensitivity for an analyte contained within the fluid when combined with mass spectrometry. The present invention provides an electrospray device for integration of microchip-based separation devices with API-MS instruments. This integration places a restriction on the capillary tip defining a nozzle on a microchip. This nozzle will, in all embodiments, exist in a planar or near planar geometry with respect to the substrate defining the separation device and/or the electrospray device. When this co-planar or near planar geometry exists, the electric field lines emanating from the tip of the nozzle will not be enhanced if the electric field around the nozzle is not defined and controlled and, therefore, an electrospray is only achievable with the application of relatively high voltages applied to the fluid. Control of the electric field at the tip of a nozzle is an important component for successful generation of an electrospray for microfluidic microchip-based systems. This invention provides sufficient control and definition of the electric field in and around a nozzle microfabricated from a monolithic silicon substrate for the formation of multiple electrospray plumes from closely positioned nozzles. The present nozzle system is fabricated using Micro-ElectroMechanical System (“MEMS”) fabrication technologies designed to micromachine 3-dimensional features from a silicon substrate. MEMS technology, in particular, deep reactive ion etching (“DRIE”), enables etching of the small vertical features required for the formation of micrometer dimension surfaces in the form of a nozzle for successful nanoelectrospray of fluids. Insulating layers of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride are also used for independent application of an electric field surrounding the nozzle, preferably by application of a potential voltage to a fluid flowing through the silicon device and a potential voltage applied to the silicon substrate. This independent application of a potential voltage to a fluid exiting the nozzle tip and the silicon substrate creates a high electric field, on the order of 10 8 V/m, at the tip of the nozzle. This high electric field at the nozzle tip causes the formation of a Taylor cone, fluidic jet and highly-charged fluidic droplets characteristic of the electrospray of fluids. These two voltages, the fluid voltage and the substrate voltage, control the formation of a stable electrospray from this microchip-based electrospray device. The electrical properties of silicon and silicon-based materials are well characterized. The use of silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers grown or deposited on the surfaces of a silicon substrate are well known to provide electrical insulating properties. Incorporating silicon dioxide and silicon nitride layers in a monolithic silicon electrospray device with a defined nozzle provides for the enhancement of an electric field in and around features etched from a monolithic silicon substrate. This is accomplished by independent application of a voltage to the fluid exiting the nozzle and the region surrounding the nozzle. Silicon dioxide layers may be grown thermally in an oven to a desired thickness. Silicon nitride can be deposited using low pressure chemical vapor deposition (“LPCVD”). Metals may be further vapor deposited on these surfaces to provide for application of a potential voltage on the surface of the device. Both silicon dioxide and silicon nitride function as electrical insulators allowing the application of a potential voltage to the substrate that is different than that applied to the surface of the device. An important feature of a silicon nitride layer is that it provides a moisture barrier between the silicon substrate, silicon dioxide and any fluid sample that comes in contact with the device. Silicon nitride prevents water and ions from diffusing through the silicon dioxide layer to the silicon substrate which may cause an electrical breakdown between the fluid and the silicon substrate. Additional layers of silicon dioxide, metals and other materials may further be deposited on the silicon nitride layer to provide chemical functionality to silicon-based devices. Mass spectrometry techniques have increasingly played a central role in current proteomics study in terms of their powerful combination of analysis speed, high sensitivity, high selectivity and high accuracy for detecting and identifying proteins including translational modification proteins from a complex sample. The microchip based separation platforms have drawn more attention and are being explored for rapid analysis of a large number of samples from a trace amount of sample available. Recently an electrospray ionization-based monolithic microchip device for mass spectrometry has been developed (Schultz et al., 2000 Anal Chem 72: 4058-63). The electrospray device was fabricated from a monolithic silicon substrate using deep reactive ion etching and other standard semiconductor techniques to etch nozzles with 10 micron inner diameter from the planar surface of a silicon wafer. A channel extends through the wafer from the tip of the nozzle to a reservoir etched into the opposite planar surface of the wafer. Each microchip has a 8×12 array of nozzles/reservoirs with a 2.25 mm pitch. The microchip device was demonstrated to have a capability to detect as low as 5 femol tryptic fragments and 1 femol entire protein using direct sample deposition on the chip followed by on-a-fly reconstitution process (Corso, Zhang et al., Proceedings of the 48 th ASMS Conference on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics . Long Beach, Calif. Jun. 11-15, 2000). A stainless mounting bracket was used to hold the microchip and for mounting to the translational stage used for accurate positioning of the microchip array in front of the mass spectrometer ion-sampling orifice. Suitable electrospray devices and chips and methods for the production thereof are set forth in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/748,518, entitled “Multiple Electrospray Device, Systems and Methods,” by Schultz et al., filed Dec. 22, 2000, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Advantages of using an ESI-based microchip array with affinity absorbents include straightforward sample preparation with on-chip capture of trace amount of analytes followed directly by on-line detection. It provides rapid analysis on a single platform and diminished sample loss by in situ clean-up and enhances the detection sensitivity for the low abundant analytes by specifically accumulating the target molecules. The ESI-based chip device offers advantages over a SELDI-TOF-MS based protein chip by its abilities to provide the sequence and structure information for target analytes, and to offer the capability of quantitative analysis. The ESI-chip device can also increase detection sensitivity compared to the SELDI-TOF-MS based device. All the target analytes at each reservoir/nozzle in the ESI chip device remain in a liquid environment and are readily eluted and directed to the mass spectrometer. In addition, the present invention incorporates an additional conductive capillary column with affinity absorbents, which can be engaged to the reservoir of ESI chip array. This combination provides additional flexibility for 1-D affinity separation in the column plus on-line desalting and detection in the ESI chip device. It also provides the capability of 2-D affinity chromatography separation for complex samples. The following two paragraphs are from column 8, lines 17-55 of U.S. Pat. No. 6,627,882, formally incorporated by reference U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/748,518: The present invention relates to an electrospray device for spraying a fluid which includes an insulating substrate having an injection surface and an ejection surface opposing the injection surface. The substrate is an integral monolith having either a single spray unit or a plurality of spray units for generating multiple sprays from a single fluid stream. Each spray unit includes an entrance orifice on the injection surface; an exit orifice on the ejection surface; a channel extending between the entrance orifice and the cut orifice; and a recess surrounding the exit orifice and positioned between the injection surface and the ejection surface. The entrance orifices for each of the plurality of spray units are in fluid communication with one another and each spray unit generates an electrospray plume of the fluid. The electro-spray device also includes an electric field generating source positioned to define an electric field surrounding the exit orifice. In one embodiment, the electric field generating source includes a first electrode attached to the substrate to impart a first potential to the substrate and a second electrode to impart a second potential. The first and the second electrodes are positioned to define an electric field surrounding the exit orifice. This device can be operated to generate multiple electrospray plumes of fluid from each spray unit, to generate a single combined electrospray plume of fluid from a plurality of spray units, and to generate multiple electrospray plumes of fluid from a plurality of spray units. The device can also be used in conjunction with a system for processing an electrospray of fluid, a method of generating an electrospray of fluid, a method of mass spectrometric analysis, and a method of liquid chromatographic analysis. Another aspect of the present invention, is directed to an electrospray system for generating multiple sprays from a single fluid stream. The system includes an array of a plurality of the above electrospray devices. The electrospray devices can be provided in the array at a device density exceeding about 5 devices/cm 2 , about 16 devices/cm 2 , about 30 devices/cm 2 , or about 81 devices/cm 2 . The electrospray devices can also be provided in the array at a device density of from about 30 devices/cm 2 to about 1000 devices/cm 2 . The invention includes the combination of a chip array and an attached flow-delivering tube. Either or both of them have an affinity adsorbent in the form of built-in porous polymer monoliths or surface coatings. More particularly, preferred embodiments are described below. In one embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 1) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The silicon chip is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith in each of its reservoirs/channels, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. There is no immobilized affinity adsorbent in the attached capillary tube. In a second embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 2) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The silicon chip has affinity adsorbents coated or immobilized on its reservoir/channel surfaces. There is no immobilized affinity adsorbent in the attached capillary tube. In a third embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 3) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The attached capillary tube is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. There is no immobilized affinity adsorbent in the chip reservoirs/channels. In a fourth embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 4) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The attached capillary tube has an affinity adsorbent coated or immobilized on its inner wall. There is no immobilized affinity adsorbent in the chip reservoirs/channels. In a fifth embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 5) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The silicon chip is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith in each of its reservoirs/channels. The attached capillary tube is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith as well. All the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. In a sixth embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 6) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The silicon chip is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith in each of its reservoirs/channels, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. The attached capillary tube is with an affinity adsorbent coated or immobilized on its inner wall. In a seventh embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 7) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The silicon chip has affinity adsorbents coated or immobilized on its reservoir/channel surfaces. The attached capillary tube is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith, wherein the porous polymer surfaces are immobilized with affinity ligands. In an eighth embodiment, the present invention provides a microchip-based device (as shown in FIG. 8) which is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached or engaged onto a chip reservoir. The silicon chip has affinity adsorbents coated or immobilized on its reservoir/channel surfaces. The attached capillary tube also has an affinity adsorbent coated or immobilized on its inner wall. In a ninth embodiment, the reservoirs/channels of the silicon chip, as described in the above first, second, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth embodiments, are immobilized with either one or more than one affinity adsorbents. As a preferred embodiment, FIG. 9 shows the reservoir-side of the chip with an 8×12 array, wherein the 8 columns (in the vertical direction) have 8 different affinity adsorbents while each column (in the horizontal direction) has the same adsorbent. The different affinity adsorbents can be prepared from one support matrix with different affinity ligands. The different affinity ligands can be either structurally/functionally unrelated or structurally/functionally related. For example, the different immobilized ligand molecules can be chemical compounds from the same combinatory library or different protein members from the same protein family or fragments of the different members from the same protein family. In a tenth embodiment, the attached capillary tube in the device can be provided with or without an adsorbent. If both the attached capillary tube and the chip reservoir/channel array contain affinity adsorbents in one of the configurations (FIGS. 5 - 8 ), the immobilized affinity ligand molecules in the attached capillary tube can be either the same or different as that in the chip reservoirs/channels. When the immobilized affinity ligands in the capillary tube and the chip array are different, two-dimensional (2-D) affinity chromatography can be achieved. In all of the above embodiments, the chip nozzles of the device are used as unique electrospray probes interfaced to a detector, such as, a mass spectrometer for ESI/MS detection. One of the chip nozzles is sequentially positioned to the ion-sampling orifice of the mass spectrometer, and the capillary tube/column is engaged to one reservoir in the backside of the chip. In all of the above embodiments, the porous polymer monoliths serve as supports for various immobilized affinity ligands. The methods for the preparation of polymer-based capillary monolithic columns for HPLC and capillary electrochromatography can be adapted for use in the present invention. Examples of such polymer monoliths include those covered by U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,334,310 and 5,334,310 (Fréchet and Svec) and introduced by literature like J. Chromatography A, 855 (1999), 273-290 (Gusev et al), which are each incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. The processes for preparing such monoliths have been modified at Advion BioSciences, Inc., formerly Advanced BioAnalytical Services, Inc. (Ithaca, N.Y.) based on the company's licensed U.S. patents and other published literature, as set forth herein and suitable monoliths are available from this company. As a preferred embodiment, the monoliths are in situ formed in the reservoirs/channels or the capillary tube by radical polymerization of monomers in the presence of certain porogen and initiator associated with heat or UV light. The monomers used for polymerization are preferred one or two monovinyl monomers plus a multivinyl monomer (crosslinker). The preferred monovinyl monomers include styrene, vinylbenzyl chloride, vinylacetate, alkyl methacrylates, glycidyl methacrylates. The preferred crosslinkers include divinylbenzene and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, and the crosslinker's ratio in the total monomer mixture is preferred from about 20 to about 50 v/v %. The porogen can be various solvents or solvent combinations. The preferred porogen is a mixture of a relatively less polar organic solvent (an alcohol, e.g., 1-propanol) and a more polar organic solvent (e.g., formamide). It is preferred that the ratio of monomers to porogen is about 40:60 v/v. The preferred initiators are 2′2-azobisisobutyronitrile and benzoyl peroxide with a concentration in the total polymerizing liquid of from about 0.2 to about 0.5 w/v %. The polymerization is carried out under the preferred conditions of heating at about 45 to about 80° C. for about 8 to about 24 hours with purge of an inert gas when the lumens containing the polymerizing mixture are sealed. With other conditions unchanged, the polymerization can be also carried out at room temperature by UV light at a wavelength of from about 200 to about 400 nm. The resulted porous polymer monoliths have a preferred pore size of about 1 to about 3 μm and porosity of about 45 to about 65 v/v %. In the present invention, the preferred monoliths are poly(vinylbenzyl chloride-co-divinylbenzene) (PVBC/DVB) with molecular ratio of from about 10 to about 50% divinylbenzene as a crosslinker. The internal pore size distribution and the porosity vary with processes by which the monolith is prepared. The PVBC/DVB monoliths can be either covalently bonded or just physically attached/adhered onto the inner walls of the chip reservoirs/channels and the capillary tube, which is depended on the physical and chemical properties of the wall surfaces. It is important that a monolith formed in the reservoir/channel or a capillary tube be mechanically stable without a gap between the monolith body and its holding surface. A PVBC/DVB monolith covalently bonded in a fused silica capillary can be prepared by first silanizing the internal wall of the capillary with method introduced by Huang and Horváth, Journal of Chromatography A, 788 (1997) 155-164. In all of the above embodiments, the surface coatings on the inner walls of the reservoirs/channels or the capillary tube serve as supports for various immobilized affinity ligands. The chip is silicon with certain surface coating for insulation. Additional coating layers may be applied on it to render the inner walls of the reservoirs/channels compatible with the immobilized adsorbents. The capillary tube is made of fused silica, stainless steel, or various polymers. The internal diameter of the capillary tube is preferred from about 20 to about 380 μm. Those methods for the preparation of inner surface-coated capillaries for HPLC, capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography can be adapted for use in the present invention. The materials of the coated layer include silica, agarose, and various synthetic polymers. The attachment of the coated layer includes covalent bonding or just physically attached onto the wall of a reservoir/channel or the capillary tube. As a preferred embodiment, the coated layer is in situ formed by radical polymerization of a thin film containing the mixture of monomers and an initiator with heat or UV light. A PVBC/DVB layer covalently bonded in a fused silica capillary can be prepared with the method introduced by Huang et al., Journal of Chromatography A, 858 (1999) 91-101. The monomers used for polymerization are preferred one or two monovinyl monomers plus a multivinyl monomer (crosslinker). The preferred monovinyl monomers include styrene, vinylbenzyl chloride, vinylacetate, alkyl methacrylates, glycidyl methacrylates. The preferred crosslinkers include divinylbenzene and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, and the crosslinker's ratio in the total monomer mixture is preferred from about 20 to about 50 v/v %. It may be not necessary to add a porogen into the mixture. The preferred initiators are 2′2-azobisisobutyronitrile and benzoyl peroxide with a concentration in the total polymerizing liquid of from about 0.2 to about 0.5 w/v %. The polymerization is carried out under the preferred conditions of heating at from about 45 to about 80° C. for about 8 to about 24 hours with purge of an inert gas when the lumens containing the polymerizing mixture are sealed. With other conditions unchanged, the polymerization can be also carried out at room temperature by UV light at a wavelength of from about 200 to about 400 nm. The resulted polymer coated layer has a preferred thickness of less than about 5 μm. In some cases, the capillary inner wall can be covalently bonded or physically attached with materials other than the in situ formed synthetic vinyl polymers as the supports. The affinity ligand molecules can be directly bonded onto the tube inner wall when the wall surface is chemically active for such bonding, which simplifies the coating procedure but usually results a low surface capacity for affinity capture. In all of the above embodiments, all of the supports in the form of porous polymer monoliths and coatings have various immobilized affinity functions on their surfaces. The methods for the grafting or immobilizing various affinity functions onto different support surfaces to make stationary phases for affinity liquid chromatography including immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) can be adapted for use in the present invention. Methods for immobilizing affinity functions are varied and dependent on the chemistry of the ligand itself, and whether a spacer arm is required. As a preferred embodiment, the immobilized ligand molecules are chosen from organic compounds, inhibitors, biotins, proteins, peptides, enzymes, coenzymes, receptors, affinity tags, nucleic acids, antibodies, carbohydrates, lectins, dyes and protein surface domains involved in molecular recognition. Preferred immobilized ligands include a potential drug candidate or a mixture with potential drug candidates from a combinatorial compound library as an example of organic compounds, benzamidine as an example of inhibitors, D-biotin or biotinylated molecules as an example of biotins, Avidin or Protein A as an example of proteins. Preferred immobilized ligands also include antisense peptides (eg. antisense Arg-vasopressin peptide) as an example of peptides, trypsin as an example of enzymes, adenosine 5′-monophosphate (5′-AMP) as an example of coenzymes, Interleukin-2 receptor as an example of receptors, polyamino acids (eg. polyhistidine) as an example of affinity tags, histidine or lysine as an example of amino acids, a fragment of calf thymus DNA as an example of nucleic acids, sheep anti-rabbit IgG as an example of antibodies, monosaccharide or its derivatives as an example of carbohydrates, concanavalin A (Con A) as an example of lectins and Cibacron Blue F3G-A as an example of dyes. In another preferred embodiment, metal ion chelating ligands, such as iminodiacetic acid (IDA), nitrilo triacetic acid (NTA), and tris(carboxymethyl) ethylene diamine (TED), are immobilized on the supports. These chelating ligands bind tightly to metal ions, in particular to the divalent ions, such as, Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Co(II), Ca(II) and Mg(II) and trivalent ions, such as, Fe(III) and Ga(III). The structure of the chelating ligand is such that a metal ion, once bound, does not have all its coordination sphere occupied. These spare coordination sites are weakly occupied by water or buffer molecules, which can be then replaced by more strongly complexing sites on proteins, antibodies, or other affinity molecules. In all of the above embodiments, the invention presents a method for using the device. In a preferred embodiment, the liquid in the inlet of the capillary tube/column is connected to the mass spectrometer high voltage power supply, while the chip (with insulation coating on its all silicon surfaces) is connected on its silicon body to the ground of the high voltage power supply. A micro pump is used to deliver liquid to the device capillary tube/column inlet through a nonconductive capillary. Other liquid delivering systems such as small vials with gas pressure or various syringe pumps can also be used. Samples can be loaded into the capillary tube/column through the liquid-delivering system with or without automatic operation. In a further embodiment, the present invention provides a method for using the device for affinity binding of target analyte molecules. The target analytes in unfractionized samples are optimized for specifically binding to the immobilized adsorbents in the device. The optimized solution condition not only provides good solubility for the desired analytes but also greatly facilitates the affinity interaction (chemically or biochemically binding or physically adhere) between the mobile phase and stationary phase. Generally, the flow-contact surfaces with or without immobilized affinity functions are equilibrated with the optimized solution prior to the loading of the unfractionated samples. The affinity adsorbents of the present invention can be applied to affinity chromatography columns and micro columns in accordance with the processes disclosed herein. In another embodiment, the present invention includes a method to enable the successful desorption of the docked interesting analytes on the flow-contacted surfaces in both the attached tube/column and the chip array, or in either of them. Typically, after crude samples are loaded, the flow-contacted surfaces are washed completely with the aforementioned optimized solution. If multiple sample loading is necessary, repeating washing steps can be applied for those low abundant targets. The captured targets are desorbed and eluted with either an organo-aqueous solution or a buffer with extremely high or low pH or both. Alternatively, the captured targets are also desorbed and eluted with the loading buffer containing a competitor compound or reducing agents such as cysteine, mercapethanol and DTT. The solution containing the eluted targets exits the device from the nozzle channel for ESI/MS or ESI/MS/MS detection. Small compounds and peptides can be directly detected and identified by MS/MS analysis. When the attached capillary tube is just an open tube without an adsorbent (FIGS. 1 and 2) and the chip array has multiple affinity adsorbents in each row or column (FIG. 9 ), the device can be used for multiple analyses of one or more analytes, where the loading and elution conditions vary among different rows or columns. Usually the multiple loading of the crude samples can help detect and identify those very low abundant analytes. During the loading and washing steps, the excess waste solution can be blotted out by Whatman paper applied in nozzle side to avoid the potential cross contamination in the subsequent ESI/MS analysis through the nozzles. For each row or column of the adsorbents, differential elution from less stringency to more stringency is orderly performed for increasing the selectivity threshold. As a result of this differential elution, compounds or macromolecules with shared similar physical, chemical and biochemical properties are retained on the active surfaces of the adsorbents in the chip reservoirs/channels under less stringent wash and elution for ESI/MS detection. Only specific analytes with strong surface affinity to the immobilized adsorbents are enriched and eluted by the stringent conditions. This differential elution is useful for investigating a variety of purification conditions on multiple active surfaces and particularly useful for screening combinatory chemical compounds and identifying the different protein or peptide members from the same protein or peptide family. In another embodiment, the present invention includes a method for on-line chemical, enzymatic and physical treatment of the captured analytes. After the interest analytes are bound on the flow-contacting surfaces of the device, an alternative way to further characterize the bound analytes is to perform a serial of different chemical, biochemical or physical modifications before elution. Followed by washing steps to further remove a portion of the modified analytes, the remaining portion of the analytes bound to the adsorbents is then eluted for ionization and electrospray through a nozzle of the microchip device. This post-capture on-line modification for the interest analytes provides not only an additional confirmation for identifying the analytes but also a direct evidence of elucidating primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary structure of the analytes and their components. For instance, if a phosphorylated protein is bound through its phosphorous groups chelated on the adsorbents in one row/column of the chip array, the elution of the whole protein followed by ESI/MS analysis will yield little information for the identification of the analytes. However, the different reservoirs containing the same affinity adsorbent in one row/column of the chip can serve as multiple micro-columns for different purposes. For example, one such protein-loaded “multiple micro-columns” can be used for on-line proteolysis digestion when the endoprotease digestion solution is delivered by the engaged capillary tube. A direct detection of the resulting peptides mapping combining with sequencing one of the selected peptide by ESI/MS/MS will result in unambiguously identifying the protein. Alternatively, after a washing step to wash away unbound peptides, a further treatment with and without phosphatase for the remaining peptide(s) containing a phosphorous group followed by desorption and analysis of the remaining peptides will yield information on a site-specific location of the phosphorous groups. Besides the phosphorylation modification, the method can also be used to verify several types of the sequence-specific post-translational modifications including dephosphorylation, glycosylation, cysteine residue reactivity, site-specific modifications (such as histidine residues), and ligand binding. An additional embodiment of the present invention includes a method for separation of classes of target analytes by two-dimensional affinity chromatography. As shown in FIGS. 5-8, the 2-D columns are provided by the combination of the capillary column and the chip array. Such 2-D affinity separation mode provides a potential option for efficiently characterizing the structural closely related analytes. Typically, the capillary column contains the adsorbent less specific or suitable for binding of a serial similar analytes, while the chip array contains the adsorbents more specific or suitable for secondary affinity separation of the retained classes of analytes. Another embodiment of the present invention also includes a microchip-based device and a method for 2-D separation of chemical compounds and biomolecules. The device is the combination of a silicon microchip having a reservoir/nozzle array and a capillary tube attached onto a chip reservoir. The attached capillary tube is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith. The polymer surface is covalently immobilized with ion-exchange groups (such as SO 3 − , CO 2 − , NR 3 + and DEAE). The silicon chip is packed with a built-in or in situ formed porous polymer monolith in each of its reservoirs/channels. The porous polymer monolith surfaces are covalently bound with alkyl groups C 4 -C 18 . Therefore, the capillary column serves as an ion-exchange column to separate the mixture sample based on the charge states of the molecules, while the silicon chip acts as hydrophobic adsorption columns for both sample cleanup and electrospray ionization. The effluents containing the separated target molecules under stepwise elution with different concentrations of the counter-ions (salts) are delivered to the reservoir array from low to high concentrations of counter-ions. As a result, the separated molecules in different reservoirs of the microchip are elctrosprayed and identified by ESI/MS. One aspect of the invention provides a device and a method for screening, detecting and identifying a plurality of proteins or peptides for their ability to bind to a particular component of a sample. Such proteins or peptides are in low abundance, hard to be detected and identified by conventional 2-D gel coupled with mass spectrometry system. Such proteins or peptides are either post-translationally modified or unmodified. Such proteins or peptides are capable of involving macromolecule recognition for structural higher order and functional supramolecular assemblies. The proteins and peptides are biomarkers which are up or down-regulated in response to a particular physiological or pathological state. Another aspect of the invention provides a device and a method for use in a diagnostic and forensic manner when the plurality of analytes being assayed is indicative of a disease condition or the presence of ‘marker’ molecules or the presence of pathogen in an organism. An additional aspect of the invention may be used for drug screening when a potential drug candidate is screened directly for its ability to bind or otherwise interact with a plurality of proteins. And also a plurality of potential drug candidates are screened for their ability to bind or interact with one or more immobilized proteins (such as receptors, enzymes and antibodies). The present invention is further described in the following Examples, which are recited herein as illustrative of the present invention but in no way limit the present invention. EXAMPLE 1 This example includes a procedure for the surface modification of a porous PVBC/DVB monolith or a coated PVBC/DVB layer in a capillary tube or a chip reservoir/channel, resulting the surface chemistry suitable for immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC). As shown in FIG. 10, the surface of the PVBC/DVB support is reacted with diethyl iminoacetate, followed by the hydrolysis with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. A solution of 20%(v/v) diethyl iminodiacetate (DIDA) in acetonitrile is prepared and degassed with helium bubbling. The solution is filled into the capillary tube and the chip reservoirs/channels with PVBC/DVB support. The chip reservoirs/channels and the capillary tube are then sealed. The chip can be also submerged in the solution in a closed container. Subsequently, they are placed in an oven and heated at 80° C. for 24 hours. After the solution is removed from the chip and the capillary tube, they are washed with acetonitrile and water. By the same way, they are then filled with or put into a solution of 1 M NaOH and heated in the oven again at 80° C. for 16 hours. They are finally washed with water, methanol, 0.1 M HCl and water respectively. EXAMPLE 2 This example includes a procedure for the surface modification of a porous PVBC/DVB monolith or a coated PVBC/DVB layer in a capillary tube or a chip reservoir/channel, resulting in a surface chemistry suitable for affinity chromatography. As shown in FIG. 11, the surface of the PVBC/DVB support is hydrolyzed with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to provide a hydroxyl group enriched hydrophilic surface, followed by a procedure from a published method for the activation of crosslinked agaroses (Bethell et al., The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 254 (8) (1979) 2572-2575) as modified below. An aqueous solution of 1 M NaOH is filled into the capillary tube and the chip reservoirs/channels with PVBC/DVB support. The chip reservoirs/channels and the capillary tube are then sealed. The chip can be also submerged in the solution in a closed container. Subsequently, they are placed in an oven and heated at 80° C. for 24 hours. After the solution is removed from the chip and the capillary tube, they are thoroughly washed with water and water-free acetonitrile. The hydrolyzed PVBC/DVB surfaces are treated with freshly prepared acetonitrile solution containing 5%(w/v) 1,1′-carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) at room temperature for 30 minutes. After it is washed with acetonitrile again, the surfaces are reacted at 4° C. overnight with a certain concentration of antibodies or other affinants in water at pH 10. The antibodies or other affinants have the primary amine functions so that the affinants can be covalently coupled on the CDI activated PVBC/DVB surfaces. EXAMPLE 3 The following includes applications for using the device with affinity adsorbents including immobilized iminodiacetic acid and subsequent metal ions prepared in EXAMPLE 1. 1. Mg(II) ions are chelated by iminodiacetic (IDA) groups immobilized in the surfaces of a porous polymer monolith as described above. The following 1 μM ddNTPs samples with or without 2 mM Mg(II) was used for initially testing if home-made IDA immobilized micro column or microchip device functions properly and for testing the binding capacity of the apparatus. A 12 cm length with 180 μm id monolith IDA column was connected to a triple quadrupole Micromass Quattro II (Cheshire, U.K.) mass spectrometer and the column was equilibrated with a mobile phase 50% methanol-0.1% acetic acid. A 10 μL mixture of 1 μM ddNTPs and 2 mM Mg(Ac) 2 was injected into the column through an auto-sample injector. The mobile phase was delivered to the mass spectrometer probe at flow rate of 30 μL/min. The ddNTPs were passed through the column and detected by mass spectrometer. The mass spectrometer was equipped with a Z-spray source and operated in negative ion MS/MS selected reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. The Z-spray desolvation temperature and capilliary voltage were 400° C. and 3000V respectively. The collision energy was 35V and the dwell time for each transition was 200 ms. The following SRM transitions were monitored for each of the ddNTP bases: ddCTP, m/z 370.1→m/z79.0; ddTTP, m/z 385.1→m/z79.0; ddATP, m/z 394.1→m/z79.0; ddGTP, m/z 410.1→m/z79.0. FIG. 12 shows the SRM MS/MS mass spectra of ddNTPs samples. The ddNTPs sample containing Mg(II) without treatment with IDA micro column prior to ESI/MS analysis showed that ddNTPs transition ions were significantly suppressed by the presence of Mg(II) ion (as shown in FIG. 12 II) while the same samples treated with IDA immobilized porous polymer gave the same signal intensity of the ddNTPs transition ions (FIG. 12 IV) compared to the standard ddNTPs sample (in the absence of Mg(II), FIG. 12 I) and the sample treated with immobilized IDA gel from PIERCE (FIG. 12 III). This suggests that the Mg(II) in the reaction solution was chelated to the monolith surface of the micro column. The binding capacity of the above column to Mg(II) under above condition is 2 mmoles per mL of porous polymer monolith bed volume. 2. Cu(II) ions are chelated by IDA in both capillary column and microchip device for affinity capture of his-rich peptides, proteins and Lectins (ConA). Initially the above monolith IDA column was tested. A 381 μm I.D.×4.7 cm monolith IDA column was connected to a micro pump system and to a Micromass LCT-TOF-MS (Cheshire, U.K.) mass spectrometer for ESI/MS detection. The column was pre-charged with Cu(II) by injection of 100 μL of 40 mM Cu(Ac) 2 . The excess of Cu(II) in the column was removed with distilled water and the column was equilibrated with 100 μL of 1M NaCl. A mixture of synthetic peptides containing 1 pmole of each angiotensin I (1295.7 Da), Angiotensin II (1045.5 Da), Leu-enkephalin (555.3 Da), Met-enkephalin (573.2 Da) and Oxytocin (1006.4 Da) in equilibration buffer was loaded into the column. The column was then washed with 1 M NaCl and connected to the PS-DVB monolith stainless column with 10 cm length and 125 μm id used for engaging the ESI microchip reservoir. The bound peptides were then eluted from the IDA-Cu(II) column to the PS-DVB column with 100 mM imidazole/0.5M NaCl, pH 7.0. The PS-DVB column was then washed with 5% acetonitrile-0.1% acetic acid, followed by on-line gradient elution from 5-50% acetonitrile with 0.1% acetic acid in 10 minutes through the ESI chip device and detected by the LCT mass spectrometer. An electrospray voltage of 1400V was applied to PS-DVB column. The LCT mass spectrometer was operated in the positive ion mode and mass spectral data were acquired using one-second ion integration times. As shown in FIG. 14, the two peptides (angiotensin I and angiotensin II) containing histidine residues in the five-peptide mixture were all captured and detected by mass spectrometer while the rest three peptides without histidine residues were washed out in the IDA-Cu(II) column and failed to be detected. For comparison, the mass spectrum of control sample containing 5-peptide mixture was shown in FIG. 13 . The copper chelates are also ideally suited for proteins such as horse heart myoglobin and lectins. The same column noted above is used for selectively binding myoglobin containing 4-5 surface histidines and consequent affinity separation of myoglobin from the mixture with peroxidase, cytochrome c, alphal-acid glycoprotein and chymotrypsinogen A. A similar condition as described above for the peptide mixture is used for loading and eluting the myoglobin followed by MS analysis. Alternatively, the bound myoglobin in IDA-Cu(II) monolith column can be carried out in situ (on-column) enzymatic digestion by loading the trypsin solution consisting of 50 mM ammonium biocarbonate pH 8.0 plus 10 mM DTT and 2 M Guanidine-HCl and incubating for 30-60 minutes. The resulting tryptic fragments were eluted to a stainless steel column (125 μm I.D.×10 cm) containing the PS-DVB-C 18 monolith with 100 mM imidazole/0.5M NaCl, pH 7.0. The PS-DVB-C 18 column was then washed with 0.1% acetic acid-0.01% heptafluorobutyric acid, followed by on-line gradient elution with 0%→40%→70% acetonitrile containing 0.1% acetic acid-0.01% heptafluorobutyric acid in 0→10→15 minutes through the ESI chip device and detected by the LCT-TOF mass spectrometer. The results shown in FIG. 15 reveal that the majority of myoglobin tryptic fragments has base line separation and detected coverage of myoglobin is more than 80%. The ConA molecule is a widely-used lectin that is able to tightly bind to copper(II)-IDA functions of stationary phase. Therefore with the ConA loading to pre-charged Cu(II) column and serving as an adaptor, the glycosylation proteins can be separated from the mixture containing non-glycosylation analytes and identified by ESI/MS as described in detail in EXAMPLE 4. In order to obtain a ConA/Cu(II)-IDA column, a ConA solution (1 mg/mL) in 10 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 is loaded on the Cu(Il)-IDA column, the excess of ConA is washed away with 10 mM phosphate buffer, 100 mM NaCl pH 7.0. After separation of the interesting glycolated proteins, the ConA can be removed from the column either with eluents containing excess of competitive agents such as ammonium ions or glycine or with eluents of pH below 3.0. 3. Ni(II) ions are chelated to the aforementioned column for affinity separation of cloned HIS-tag proteins from the crude lysate of the cell. The copper ions in the column are removed by washing the column with excess of 50 mM EDTA solution. The column is then reloaded with nickel by treating the column with excess NiCl 2 , followed by equilibration buffer with 20 mM sodium phosphate pH 7.0 and 0.2 M sodium chloride. A testing model sample, the E coli lysate containing the six-HIS tagged chorismate mutase/prephenate dehydrogenase at C-terminus (42,865 Da), is used for loading to the column. After the complete washing for non-specific binding proteins, the interest target protein is eluted with lowering the pH for the elution buffer. Consequently the above HIS-tagged protein is then purified and identified by ESI/MS. Alternatively, the bound HIS-tagged protein can be in situ digested by trypsin and the resulting tryptic fragments were eluted and identified by ESI/MS. 4. Fe(III) or Ga(III) ions are chelated to the monolith IDA column for characterizing phosphorylation protein and peptides. The above monolith-Cu(II) column was used. The metal Cu(II) was stripped with 50 mM EDTA, pH 8.5. After completely washing column with water, the column was re-charged with 40 mM FeCl 3 . After washing away excess metal ions with water, the column was equilibrated with loading solution (0.5% acetic acid). The tryptic digest of bovine beta-casein (10 pmol) was acidified with 1% acetic acid and loaded on the column. The column was then washed with 20% acetonitrile-0.1% acetic acid and followed by distilled water. The phosphopeptides were eluted with 50 μL of 2% ammonium hydroxide. After evaporation, the eluted sample was re-suspended in 10 μL of 50% methanol with 0.1% acetic acid for direct infusion analysis through the microchip device. The results (FIG. 16) demonstrated that after treated with monolith IDA-Fe(III) column, all non-phosphopeptides from beta-casein tryptic digest were washed out and only one phosphopeptide with a mass of 2060.8 was accumulated and detected by the mass spectrometer. A serious of adductions to this doubly charged ion by Na and K in addition to proton attachment was also detected in relatively abundant, consistent with the feature of phosphopeptides. Alternatively, prior to elution the bound phosphopeptides are treated with calf intestinal phosphatase (CIP) in the column. Then the dephosphopeptides are directly detected by ESI/MS or ESI/MS/MS. Comparison of the masses of the peptides and MS/MS data with and without CIP treatment, specific phosphorous sites can be determined. EXAMPLE 4 This is the application of the device with affinity adsorbents including immobilized lectin (ConA) ligands prepared in EXAMPLE 1. The immobilized ConA ligands in the attached capillary tube or/and chip reservoirs/channels are used for affinity capture of glycosylation proteins and peptides. Using the surface immobilized lectin (ConA) can eliminate the possible metal interaction of the ConA-Cu(II)-IDA to the glycosylated proteins. The device (including either the capillary column or chip reservoirs/channels or both) is initially equilibrated with 10 mM phosphate buffer, 100 mM NaCl pH 7.0, a mixture of 1 pmole of beta-lactoglobin, ribonuclease A, lysozyme, glucose oxidase is loaded into the column. The three above proteins without glycosylation are immediately eluted by the equilibration buffer and detected by mass spectrometer while glucose oxidase is adsorbed on the ConA stationary phase. Following an additional elution with 30% methanol-0.1% acetic acid, the glucose oxidase is eluted and detected by ESI/MS. Alternatively, the on-line trypsin and different glycosidases digestion for the bound glycosylated protein can provide additional information for the identification of glycosylated peptides as well as the glycosylted sites. EXAMPLE 5 This is the application of the device with affinity adsorbents including immobilized antibodies prepared in EXAMPLE 2. The device is used for detecting a biomarker in a diagnostic and forensic manner. The initial test is conducted by immobilizing polyclonal rabbit anti-human lactoferrin antibody in the device. The commercially available antibody can be further purified through protein A or protein G column. The immobilized polyclonal rabbit anti-human lactoferrin antibody in the device (either in the attached capillary column or in chip reservoirs/channels or both) is equilibrated with 20 mM phosphate, 0.15 M NaCl pH 7.0. The purified human lactoferrin (1 pmole) is directly injected to the device or sparked into a plasma or urine sample for injection to the device. After complete wash with the loading buffer followed by 5 mM ammonium acetate pH 7.0, the elution buffer containing 0.1% acetic acid-30% methanol is applied for eluting the human lactoferrin, detected by ESI/MS. Practically, for the detection of any biomarker analyte by the aforementioned device, the commercial available secondary antibody, for instance sheep anti-rabbit IgG, protein A, protein G, is immobilized on the device as a universal immobilized antibody for identifying the analytes. In this case, the primary antibody against the interesting analyte is loaded to the device first using the loading buffer, followed by the sample loading and elution as described above for the ESI/MS identification. Alternatively, more than one of the different primary antibodies can be loaded to the different row or column reservoirs of the micro chip, the device can be used for multiple analyses of the analytes. EXAMPLE 6 The device with affinity adsorbents including immobilized enzyme prepared in EXAMPLE 2 is used for on-line digestion, sample cleanup and further identification by ESI/MS. In the device, the attached capillary column is immobilized with trypsin, a member of proteases, while the chip array is immobilized with a hydrophobic stationary phase in its reservoirs/channels. The capillary column is equilibrated with 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate pH 8.0, 10 mM DTT and 4 M urea. A purified cytochrome c sample (1 pmole) is loaded into the column for 5 min at room temperature. The digested peptides are then eluted to the chip reservoir adsorbent with 5 mM ammonium acetate pH 7.0, where the peptides are bound on the hydrophobic adsorbent for sample cleanup. The tryptic fragments of cytochrome c are finally eluted with an aqueous solution containing 50%(v/v) methanol and 0.1% acetic acid, and detected by ESI/MS. EXAMPLE 7 In situ enzymatic and chemical treatment for the bound analytes produces an additional method for on-line characterizing of the analytes. When the analyte is bound in the capillary column through metal interactions such as myoglobin and bovine beta-casein in EXAMPLE 3 or through glycosylation interaction such as glucose oxidase in EXAMPLE 4, the bound proteins can be further treated with trypsin by loading the trypsin solution (50 mM ammonium bicarbonate pH 8.0, 10 mM DTT and 4 M urea) into the column for on-column digestion. The resulting tryptic fragments are then eluted either to a second PS-DVB-C 18 column for gradient elution in order to achieve the efficient separation (see FIG. 15) or directly to the chip reservoirs containing a hydrophobic stationary phase with 5 mM ammonium acetate, pH 7.0, for sample cleanup and followed by elution for the ESI/MS identification of the tryptic fragments as described in EXAMPLE 6. The other enzymes such as CIP and glycosidases can also be applied for removing and further identifying the bound phosphorylated or glycosylated peptides as described in EXAMPLE 3 and 4 respectively. EXAMPLE 8 The present device is used for two-dimensional affinity separation by combining the adsorption, enzymatic modification on the bound analytes and desorption between the micro column platform and microchip platform. For instance, the protein bound in the column through metal interaction can be enzymatically treated with trypsin and eluted to a chip array containing a hydrophobic stationary phase for sample cleanup to make it possible for on-line separation, sample cleanup and mass detection as described in EXAMPLE 7. Alternatively, the combination of Cu(II) charged micro column for histidine surface proteins and Con A immobilized microchip reservoir for glycosylation proteins can fraction only the histidine-rich glycoproteins from the mixture samples. Additional 2-D affinity separation can also be conducted by combining both Fe(III) charged column and ConA loaded a micro chip reservoir/channel for proteins and peptides with both phosphorylation and glycosylation modifications. Although the invention has been described in detail for the purpose of illustration, it is understood that such detail is solely for that purpose, and variations can be made therein by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention which is defined by the following claims.

A microchip-based electrospray ionization device and column with affinity adsorbents is disclosed. The invention includes a microchip array and a capillary tube or alone or attached in combination. At least a portion of the device or column has immobilized affinity adsorbents. Methods for using the device are provided as well for affinity capture of biomolecules to meet the needs for the modem life sciences such as proteomics and drug discover.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0001] 1. Field of the Invention [0002] The present invention is directed to surveillance systems; to such systems with multiple surveillance units in remote locations; and, in certain particular aspects, to such systems with units spaced-apart by relatively large distances. [0003] 2. Description of Related Art [0004] There are a variety of known surveillance systems, some stationary, some portable, which include one or more cameras (still and video); lights; sensors (motion; infrared; environmental, e.g. gas, temperature, humidity); motion detectors; power supplies; microphones; control systems; remote access systems; monitors; alarms; electronics equipment; and enclosures. [0005] Known systems include supports and masts (single piece and telescoping) to which various items are connected. Certain known systems are mounted on a variety of vehicles, including trailers, cars, trucks, and tracked vehicles. [0006] Problems and disadvantages of known systems include: with certain known systems it is difficult or impossible to communicate using satellite systems due to insufficient available bandwidth. Certain known systems do not provide mesh communications. Certain known systems use only discrete remote units that act as individual disparate systems with no unification or communication with a central system and with such known systems it is not possible to view multiple remote units from a single unified platform (a platform that allows a user to simultaneously view multiple remote nits at multiple remote locations using one piece of software on a single computer). with certain known units there is no local archiving at the unit which would conserve bandwidth; and with certain known units there is no system involving multiple units one of which has a local archiver which some of the units can share. [0007] Industrial sites, including, but not limited to, oilfield locations, pipelines, and oil and gas drilling and production facilities are often in remote areas where access is difficult and power which is at a premium is often generated on-site. Monitoring such sites presents particular problems; e.g. in providing power generation and communications facilities on-site. [0008] U.S. Pat. No. 4,709,265 discloses a remote control mobile surveillance system for hazardous environments and the like having a radio remote controlled vehicle that is sized and shaped for optimum maneuverability and stability, including mobility on stairs and inclined surfaces. The vehicle is designed to have a low center of gravity that is shiftable up and down, front to rear and side to side under operator control in order to provide stability. The top deck of the vehicle is uniquely shaped and is adapted to support any of several payloads, including an articulated arm module that is moveable in a pan and tilt direction and a smear sampler mechanism for repeatedly taking surface samples. The vehicle is moved by independently operated, motor driven tracks located on each of the two longitudinal sides of the vehicle and is adapted to move in a forward, reverse and rotational directions. Remote monitoring is provided by stereoptic TV cameras, stereo sound, and variety of environmental sensors. In one aspect, such a system has: an operator control center, the center having manual command operation and transmission means, telemetry receive and reporting means and antenna means; and a surveillance vehicle located remote from said control center and in wireless communication therewith; the vehicle having chassis means sized and shaped to fit within standard doorways and stairways and to provide an optimally low center of gravity for the vehicle; propulsion means adapted to provide movement to the vehicle and mounted on the chassis means and having at least two independently controllable motor and track means, cover means removably mounted on the chassis means and adapted to support a plurality of payloads, payload means adapted to be movable in at least one direction and to have mounted thereon an operative load means, the payload means being removably mounted on the cover means; communications means adapted to receive commands from and transmit telemetry to the operator control center, the means being operatively connected to the propulsion means and the payload means, whereby an operator at the operator control center can remotely control and monitor the movement of the vehicle and the operation of the payload means, the cover means being substantially rectangular in shape, having a vehicle front, a vehicle rear and two longitudinal side edges, a centrally located planar portion on which is mounted the payload means and a front planar apron portion extending from the payload at an angle downward to the vehicle front edge, and the payload means being adapted to move the operative load forward and below the centrally located planar position, along the planar apron position of the cover means, whereby the center of gravity of the vehicle may be moved lower and forward dynamically during movement of the vehicle up an inclined surface under remote control from the operator control center. [0009] U.S. Pat. No. 4,815,757 discloses rapid development surveillance vehicles and methods which are for detecting illegal immigration across national borders and the like. An off-the-road vehicle is equipped with a rapid mast erection/retraction assembly which includes a carriage mechanism which carries a telescoping mast. A track mechanism slidably carries the carriage mechanism by means of a fixed support and pivoting support arms. Ram air cylinders move the carriage mechanism in translational and rotational movement as guided on the track mechanism in a manner that the mast is moved from a stowed horizontal position to an erect vertical position. During erection of mast, a longitudinal roof opening is opened by means of a main door and displacement door in an automatic manner. Once erect, a leveling system checks to ensure that the vehicle is within one degree of level. Both level sensors and pressure sensors ensure that the vehicle is level and that all four jack legs are firmly engaged against the ground prior to extension of mast. Once the vehicle is within the prescribed level conditions, mast is pneumatically extended to a height of thirty feet whereupon a detection device which may be in the form of an infrared camera is ready for surveillance. The camera is mounted on a pan/tilt device which rotates it in a horizontal plane and tilts it in a vertical plane for increased surveillance. With the mast within one degree of true vertical, a stable platform is provided for the camera so that a nondistorted image appears on the display of a monitor remote from the camera. In one aspect, a rapid deployment surveillance vehicle is disclosed from which a detection device may be rapidly deployed from a stowed concealed position within a vehicle to an elevated vertical position for surveilling a detected event having: a mast on which the detection device is carried; a rapid erection/retraction system carried within the vehicle for deployment of the mast and detection device from the stowed, concealed position to an initial erect vertical position; a mast extension system for extending the detection device vertically to the elevated position elevated from the initial erect position considerably above the vehicle; a leveling system for leveling the vehicle during the time that the detection device is extended to the elevated position which includes: jack means carried adjacent each corner of the vehicle for engaging the ground and raising the vehicle, drive means for actuating the jack means, level sensor means for sensing a level condition of the vehicle and generating a level signal representative of the level condition, and control means for controlling the mast extension system and the leveling system in conjunction with each other, the control means controlling the drive means in response to the level sensor signal for simultaneously controlling the jack means and leveling the corners and the vehicle continuously while the detection device is extended to the elevated position, and the level sensor means continuously sensing the level condition for generating the level sensor signal while surveilling the detected event, platform mounting means for mounting the detection device to a free end of the mast; and the control means of the leveling system controlling the jack drive to level the vehicle continuously during surveillance for maintaining the extended mast within a prescribed range of true vertical so that the detection device is stably carried by the mast in the elevated position providing a stable, enhanced image of the detected event on the display of a monitor continuously while surveilling the detected event. [0010] U.S. Pat. No. 7,267,496 discloses temporary surveillance systems that include a platform having a plurality and variety of cameras or sensors mounted thereto, and a base enclosure adapted to accommodate a power supply, a variety of electronics and other equipment for controlling and providing power to the surveillance equipment. The base is constructed to be tamper resistant and immovable by manual means. A substantially hollow support pole includes a lower portion detachably mounted to the base, and an upper portion mounted to the platform. Wires and cables for connecting the surveillance equipment with the electronics and power supply are run through the support pole. Power to the system may be supplied through existing power sources, for example a 120V power source. In certain aspects, the system is an unmanned portable surveillance system having: a base configured for placement on the ground and the base being configured to support the surveillance system in an upright freestanding position and having a weight sufficient to substantially prevent movement thereof by hand; at least one camera positioned above the base at a height sufficient to put it substantially out of reach of a person who may want to tamper with said at least one camera, the at least one camera configured to obtain visual images of objects in the vicinity of the base; and a recorder positioned in a secure location configured to prevent unauthorized access to the recorder, the recorder being configured to record the visual images obtained by the at least one camera without human intervention during ongoing surveillance; wherein the base, the camera, and the recorder are configured to be readily transportable to a location for surveillance of an area in the vicinity of the system, and wherein the portable surveillance system further has a circuit breaker. In one aspect, the system is an unmanned portable surveillance system, the system having: a base configured for placement on the ground and the base having a weight sufficient to substantially prevent movement thereof by hand; at least one camera positioned above the base at a height sufficient to put it substantially out of reach of a person who may want to tamper with said at least one camera, the at least one camera configured to obtain visual images of objects in the vicinity of the base; and a recorder positioned in a secure location within the that is configured to prevent unauthorized access, the recorder being configured to record the visual images obtained by the at least one camera without human intervention during ongoing surveillance; wherein the base, the camera, and the recorder are configured to be readily transportable to a location for surveillance of an area in the vicinity of the system, wherein the portable surveillance system further has a ground fault breaker. [0011] The present inventors have recognized the need for efficient and effective portable surveillance systems; and for such systems with multiple remote units which can communicate effectively with each other, with a central location, and with a client in another location. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0012] The present invention discloses, in certain aspects, surveillance systems which are portable and which include multiple surveillance units in a network with a host system; connection to a client; communication via multiple modes such as satellite, radio, wireless, internet, and/or land lines; and real time access to signals from each unit. [0013] In certain aspects, such systems have units each with its own power supply, including, but not limited to, on-site generators (e.g. diesel-powered or solar-powered generators), batteries, and solar power apparatuses. [0014] In certain aspects, such systems provide on-site and remote real time access to various items and equipment on each surveillance unit. [0015] In certain aspects, such systems provide inter-communication from one unit to another so that a unit that is most remote from a central location can communicate, via intermediately spaced units, with the central location. [0016] The present invention discloses, in certain aspects, methods for surveilling a site, the methods including: locating a first unit for surveillance at a site, the first unit including a first base, a first local archiver (e.g., with a control system, e.g., including a computer), first surveillance apparatus on the base for surveilling the site with at least one first surveillance component; producing first surveillance signals with the first surveillance component; transmitting the first surveillance signals from the first surveillance component to the first local archiver; processing the first surveillance signals in the local archiver to produce a first record of the surveilling of the site; and making the first record available by remote access, in real time and/or for review historically. In one aspect, such methods include making the record available via a central server in communication with the first local archiver and with a remote viewing site. [0017] In certain aspects, such methods include: locating a second unit for surveillance spaced-apart from the first unit, each of the first unit and the second unit having a mesh radio system; the second unit including a second base, a second surveillance apparatus for surveilling an area adjacent the second unit and including at least one second surveillance component, the second surveillance component for producing second surveillance signals; transmitting the second surveillance signals from the second unit to the first unit via the mesh radio systems; processing the second surveillance signals from the second surveillance apparatus in the first local archiver to produce a second record of the surveillance of the area adjacent the second unit; and making the second record available by remote access. [0018] In certain aspects, the present invention discloses systems for surveilling a site, the systems including: a first unit for surveillance at a site, the first unit including a first base, a first local archiver, first surveillance apparatus on the base including at least one first surveillance component, the at least one first surveillance component for producing first surveillance signals, first transmitting apparatus for transmitting the first surveillance signals from the first surveillance component to the first local archiver, the local archiver processing apparatus for processing the first surveillance signals to produce a first record of the surveilling of the site, and the local archiver including connection apparatus for making the first record available by remote access. [0019] Such systems may have, in certain aspects, a second unit for surveillance spaced-apart from the first unit; each of the first unit and the second unit having a mesh radio system; the second unit including a second base, a second surveillance apparatus for surveilling an area adjacent the second unit and including at least one second surveillance component; the second surveillance component for producing second surveillance signals; second transmitting apparatus for transmitting the second surveillance signals from the second unit to the first unit via the mesh radio systems; the first local archiver including processing apparatus for processing the second surveillance signals from the second surveillance apparatus in the first local archiver to produce a second record of the surveillance of the area adjacent the second unit; and the local archiver connection apparatus also for making the second record available by remote access. [0020] Accordingly, the present invention includes features and advantages which are believed to enable it to advance portable surveillance system technology. Characteristics and advantages of the present invention described above and additional features and benefits will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art upon consideration of the following detailed description of preferred embodiments and referring to the accompanying drawings. [0021] Certain embodiments of this invention are not limited to any particular individual feature disclosed here, but include combinations of them distinguished from the prior art in their structures, functions, and/or results achieved. Features of the invention have been broadly described so that the detailed descriptions that follow may be better understood, and in order that the contributions of this invention to the arts may be better appreciated. There are, of course, additional aspects of the invention described below and which may be included in the subject matter of the claims to this invention. Those skilled in the art who have the benefit of this invention, its teachings, and suggestions will appreciate that the conceptions of this disclosure may be used as a creative basis for designing other structures, methods and systems for carrying out and practicing the present invention. The claims of this invention are to be read to include any legally equivalent devices or methods which do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention. [0022] What follows are some of, but not all, the objects of this invention. In addition to the specific objects stated below for at least certain preferred embodiments of the invention, there are other objects and purposes which will be readily apparent to one of skill in this art who has the benefit of this invention's teachings and disclosures. It is, therefore, an object of at least certain preferred embodiments of the present invention to provide the embodiments and aspects listed above and: [0023] New, useful, unique, efficient, non-obvious systems and methods for surveillance, particularly for remote site surveillance; [0024] Such systems and methods which include multiple units in communication with a central control; [0025] Such systems and methods with a unit with an accessible local archiver; [0026] Such systems and methods in which multiple units share a local archiver; and [0027] Such systems and methods which provide real time access to the operator of the system and to a client using the system. [0028] The present invention recognizes and addresses the problems and needs in this area and provides a solution to those problems and a satisfactory meeting of those needs in its various possible embodiments and equivalents thereof. To one of skill in this art who has the benefits of this invention's realizations, teachings, disclosures, and suggestions, various purposes and advantages will be appreciated from the following description of preferred embodiments, given for the purpose of disclosure, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. The detail in these descriptions is not intended to thwart this patent's object to claim this invention no matter how others may later attempt to disguise it by variations in form or additions of further improvements. [0029] The Abstract that is part hereof is to enable the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and the public generally, and scientists, engineers, researchers, and practitioners in the art who are not familiar with patent terms or legal terms of phraseology to determine quickly from a cursory inspection or review the nature and general area of the disclosure of this invention. The Abstract is neither intended to define the invention, which is done by the claims, nor is it intended to be limiting of the scope of the invention or of the claims in any way. [0030] It will be understood that the various embodiments of the present invention may include one, some, or all of the disclosed, described, and/or enumerated improvements and/or technical advantages and/or elements in claims to this invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS [0031] A more particular description of embodiments of the invention briefly summarized above may be had by references to the embodiments which are shown in the drawings which form a part of this specification. These drawings illustrate certain preferred embodiments and are not to be used to improperly limit the scope of the invention which may have other equally effective or equivalent embodiments. [0032] FIG. 1A is a side view of a surveillance unit according to the present invention. [0033] FIG. 1B is an end view of the surveillance unit of FIG. 1A . [0034] FIG. 2A is a side view of a surveillance unit according to the present invention. [0035] FIG. 2B is an end view of the surveillance unit of FIG. 2A . [0036] FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a block diagram of for a surveillance unit according to the present invention. [0037] FIG. 4 is a schematic view of a block diagram for a surveillance unit according to the present invention. [0038] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of an electronics system for a surveillance unit according to the present invention. [0039] FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a surveillance system according to the present invention. [0040] Presently preferred embodiments of the invention are shown in the above-identified figures and described in detail below. Various aspects and features of embodiments of the invention are described below and some are set out in the dependent claims. Any combination of aspects and/or features described below or shown in the dependent claims can be used except where such aspects and/or features are mutually exclusive. It should be understood that the appended drawings and description herein are of preferred embodiments and are not intended to limit the invention or the appended claims. On the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. In showing and describing the preferred embodiments, like or identical reference numerals are used to identify common or similar elements. The figures are not necessarily to scale and certain features and certain views of the figures may be shown exaggerated in scale or in schematic in the interest of clarity and conciseness. [0041] As used herein and throughout all the various portions (and headings) of this patent, the terms “invention”, “present invention” and variations thereof mean one or more embodiment, and are not intended to mean the claimed invention of any particular appended claim(s) or all of the appended claims. Accordingly, the subject or topic of each such reference is not automatically or necessarily part of, or required by, any particular claim(s) merely because of such reference. So long as they are not mutually exclusive or contradictory any aspect or feature or combination of aspects or features of any embodiment disclosed herein may be used in any other embodiment disclosed herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0042] FIGS. 1A and 1B show a surveillance unit 10 according to the present invention which has a telescoping mast 12 mounted on a vehicle, e.g. on a wheeled trailer 14 with an enclosure 14 a . Of course it is within the scope of the present invention to mount the surveillance unit 10 on any base, e.g., a truck, car, mobile robots, skid, portable building or tracked vehicle. In certain aspects the mast 12 telescopes up to a height of about thirty feet. [0043] A platform 16 on the mast 12 includes a fixed camera 20 (still or video); a motion detector 22 ; a PTZ (pan, tilt, zoom) camera 24 (still or video); sensor(s) 26 ; light(s) 27 ; and a radio system 28 (which can serve as a mesh radio system for communication with other units and/or other local archivers). Such a mesh radio system provides a network in which there are at least two paths to each unit (or each “node”) and each unit can communicate through one or more intermediate units to reach any destination or location on the network and such communication is possible even when there is, for example, no direct path between two units or two nodes. Any known sensor or sensors may be used including but not limited to, sensors for motion, infrared, intrusion, biological agents, chemical agents, and/or gas. The mast is held by a holder 48 when in a folded down position. [0044] Power for the various items of equipment is provided from a power supply 32 (see FIG. 5 ) which can, according to the present invention, be mounted at any appropriate location on the trailer 14 . Power is transmitted from the power supply 32 in a power lines 34 to a first junction box 36 and from there in flexible power lines to a second junction box 42 from which individual power lines and/or communication cables 39 extend in a flexible conduit 38 to each piece of equipment on the platform 16 . [0045] In one aspect, the power supply 32 is an AC power supply. The trailer 12 includes an AC power input 44 for inputting AC power from an external AC power supply. [0046] Optionally, a separate generator system 50 provides power to the surveillance unit 10 . Such a system 50 may be diesel powered, solar powered, and/or battery powered. [0047] The surveillance unit 10 includes a local archiver system 60 within an enclosure 62 . The local archiver system 60 includes a control system 64 with a computer apparatus 65 (e.g. PLC, laptop computer, computer, etc.) with an optional system power supply 66 (e.g. any suitable power supply including, but not limited to, a battery apparatus and/or a solar power supplier) and connections 69 for connecting the system 62 to items on an electronics module 70 in a housing 70 a . The local archiver system 60 receives data from all the systems components, cameras (still, video, PTZ), sensors, and detectors; records and processes the data; and makes it available for transmission from the surveillance unit. [0048] The control system 64 is in communication with each item on the platform 16 , with devices as described below in the electronics module 70 , and with each meter, instrument, gauge, sensor and detector. The control system 64 controls each of the items on the platform; receives signals from the local archiver and from each meter etc. and from each item on the platform continuously in real time; records all such signals, including streaming video from cameras; and transmits data corresponding to all the signals to the electronics module. The local archiver system is optional for any unit according to the present invention. [0049] As shown in FIG. 5 , the electronics module 70 includes the power supply 32 and: signal blocks 71 which receives signals from each component; ground blocks 72 for grounding all components; fuse blocks 73 which provide a fuse function for all components; a DIN rail 74 providing mounting for the blocks and the power supply 32 ; cables 75 connecting all components for power and signalling; a wire duct 76 around the cables 75 ; an ethernet switch 77 providing communication between components; a cellular router 78 providing connection between the system 60 and its components and an external network; and a DIN rail 79 that provides mounting for the switch 77 and the router 78 . The cables 75 are connected to the control system 62 via an internal conduit 47 . [0050] FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate a surveillance unit 10 a , like the surveillance unit 10 (and like numerals indicate like parts); but with a solar power system 52 for providing power to the surveillance unit 10 . The system 52 has a solar array 54 and a solar power processor/control 56 connected to and/or within the module 70 for sending power to the line 38 . [0051] Any system according to the present invention may have a variety of sensors, meters, instruments, gauges, and detectors for monitoring the status of components of the system. As shown in FIG. 2A , the power and supply 66 a (like the power supply 66 , FIG. 1B ) is a battery and a meter 66 b monitors the voltage level of the battery and the meter 66 b is in communication with the local archiver 60 . A temperature sensor 66 c senses temperature within the enclosure 62 and a humidity sensor 66 d senses humidity within the enclosure 62 . Both sensors 66 c and 66 d are in communication with the local archiver 60 . [0052] FIG. 2A illustrates that the trailer enclosure 14 a of any system according to the present invention may include a temperature sensor 14 b and a humidity sensor 14 c ; and that an electronics module in a system according to the present invention, like the electronics module 70 , may have within its enclosure (like the enclosure 70 a ) a temperature sensor 70 b and a humidity sensor 70 c . All these sensors are in communication with the control system 64 . Similar sensors 20 b , 20 c ; 22 b , 22 c ; 28 b , 28 c ; and 24 b , 24 c are provided for the items 20 , 22 , 24 , and 28 and all such sensors are in communication with the control system 64 . [0053] Any electrical apparatus or line in a system according to the present invention may have meter(s), gauge(s), and/or sensor(s) for sensing the electrical characteristics and levels (e.g. voltage and/or amperage) of such apparatus or line. For example, as shown in FIG. 1B , electrical meters 20 e , 22 e , 24 e , 28 e , 32 e , and 39 e indicate power level, voltage and/or amperage for their respective item or line and are all in communication with the control system 64 . [0054] As shown in FIG. 2B , any system according to the present invention may include a device monitoring system 200 as part of a control system (like the control system 64 ) or as a separate apparatus which has inputs for receiving signals from each meter, sensor etc. and outputs in communication with a control system and/or in communication with a central server. The appropriate digital 200 d and analog inputs 200 a and outputs are provided for each meter, sensor, etc. and, optionally, a network port 200 p for communication. [0055] The system 200 , either directly or via the control system 64 , can provide alerts, alarms, and messages (e.g. email) via the status of any item or component of a unit according to the present invention. At a central location (e.g. at the location of a central server) and/or at a remote location (e.g. at a remote location of a system operator and/or at a remote client location) all meters, sensors, etc. can be monitored in real time and/or historically and all alerts, alarms, and messages can be provided on-site and/or to remote locations. For example at a remote operator site and/or at a remote client site an operator and/or a client can query any meter, sensor, etc. in real time and can view (screen, chart, video, audio, via a web page, via a network management system, e.g. using SNMP, simple network management protocol) the historical record and/or real time transmissions. [0056] As shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B any system according to the present invention may have a ground radar unit 202 for viewing, identifying, and tracking objects, personnel, vehicles, and/or targets. As shown in FIG. 2A the system 202 may be mounted on a trailer enclosure 14 d and as shown in FIG. 2B a system 202 may be mounted atop a mast 12 . A system 202 can scan 360 degrees around a unit according to the present invention. A system 202 is in communication with a control system 64 , and/or a central server (like the server 120 , FIG. 6 ). Any suitable known radar system may be used; including, but not limited to, known perimeter surveillance radars. [0057] FIG. 3 illustrates one scheme for a surveillance unit 10 (e.g. as shown in FIGS. 1A , 1 B). An external power source ED (e.g. a system 50 ) powers a battery BC which charges batteries in a battery bank BB (e.g. all at 12 volts). The battery bank BB provides electrical power (e.g. at 12 volts) to the local archiver 60 (and its various components and systems with voltage inversion as required); to an ethernet switch 77 ; to the PTZ camera 24 ; to indoor and outdoor satellite units; and to the fixed camera 20 . [0058] Optionally, as shown in FIG. 4 , communication is provided to a surveillance unit according to the present invention via a satellite system SS which includes a satellite outdoor unit SO connected to a satellite unit SP. The local archiver 60 , etc. are connected via standard computer networking protocol, e.g. an ethernet connection, “ETHERNET”. [0059] FIG. 4 also illustrates a power scheme for a surveillance unit 10 which includes a solar power system SP with a photovoltaic array AR (“PV Array”). The solar power system SP provides power (e.g. at 24 volts) to a charge controller CC which charges batteries in a battery bank (all e.g. at 12 volts). Optionally, an external power system EX (e.g. a system 50 ) powers a battery charger BY (e.g. at 120 volts) which in turn charges batteries in the battery bank BB (e.g. at 12 volts). The charge controller CC provides power (e.g. at 12 volts) to the ethernet switch 77 ; the camera (e.g. a camera 20 or 24 ); the cellular router 78 ; and to the local archiver. “ETHERNET” between the three items in FIG. 4 indicates data communication, including video data. [0060] FIG. 6 illustrates a system 100 according to the present invention which includes multiple surveillance units 110 according to the present invention (e.g. like any surveillance unit according to the present invention, e.g., but not limited to, the surveillance unit system 10 and 10 a ). The surveillance units 110 can be at different locations or sites and they can be separated by relatively large distances, e.g. many miles. [0061] A central server 120 with an archiver 121 is in communication with all the surveillance units 100 . A client whose sites, locations, and/or equipment is under surveillance via the surveillance units 110 communicates with the central server 120 via any known method or system of communication. As shown this communication is via a network (“NET”) which can be the internet or any private network. The central server can serve as a single unified platform at which the client can monitor and/or view multiple remote units according to the present invention using one piece of software on a single computer. [0062] The line labelled 132 (“VIDEO FLOW”) indicates the transmission of video data from a unit to a client and provides the client real time access to streaming video from each video camera of each surveillance unit (and, in some aspects, access to archived video of each camera). [0063] A local archiver 112 is in communication with its own surveillance unit 110 a and via any suitable form of communication (wired or wireless) with several other surveillance unit systems 110 a , 110 b , and 110 c . Via a satellite uplink system 114 , the local archiver 112 is in communication with a satellite system 118 which in turn communicates with a teleport 140 (a main downlink/uplink hub for satellite communication). The teleport 140 conveys the information from the local archiver 112 to the NET network. This includes every type of information from every component, camera, sensor, detector, etc. of the surveillance units 110 a - d . The teleport 140 is also in communication, via the satellite system 118 , with a local archiver 115 of a surveillance unit 110 a spaced-apart from the surveillance unit 110 with the local archiver 112 . The surveillance unit 110 c which may not be able to communicate with the local archiver 112 (e.g. due to distance, terrain, conditions), communicates with either unit 110 b or 110 d , each of which then communicates data from the unit 110 c to the local archiver 112 . [0064] Line 134 indicates the transmission of video data from the archiver 112 to the NET network. [0065] A cellular router 117 with an antenna 119 of a surveillance unit 110 f communicates with the NET network. Optionally an intermediary network NTK is used. [0066] The archiver 121 of the central server 120 communicates via a network NTW with a local archiver 160 of an office 162 . For example, the office 162 is a field office at a construction site which may have multiple cameras, e.g. sixteen cameras (viewable at the office and/or at a remote location). The office 162 and the router 117 may communicate with the NET network via a virtual private network (“VPN”). [0067] In one aspect of a method according to the present invention a remote user accesses a single camera of a unit according to the present invention over a cellular internet connection to view the camera. Multiple cameras could be added to this unit and accessed in the same manner whether the network connection is cellular, satellite, etc. In this mode, the trailer (or trailers) acts as an independent unit not joined in any particular network. [0068] In another aspect of a method according to the present invention with a unit according to the present invention with a camera or multiple cameras that is part of a larger network of units, each unit communicates with a central server over cellular, satellite, etc. The server manages the connections between the units and remote viewers, and the central server archives video from each and/or every camera if desired. A user connects to the central server, and then accesses each unit and its associated cameras and sensors for viewing. If the central server is recording video data, then the user can view the recorded video. The communication between the units and central servers takes place over a Virtual Private Network, while the user connection to the server does not necessarily need to take place over a VPN. [0069] In one aspect in a system and method according to the present invention a unit according to the present invention with a local archiver onboard records video for each of a plurality of cameras on the unit. The unit connects to a central server for user connections and management purposes. The user is able to access recorded video data from the unit's local archiver. The unit need not continuously stream video to the central server for recording purposes since recording is occurring locally on the local archiver. This system (and those like it according to the present invention) is not limited in bandwidth as are some remote communications methods which employ satellite or cellular limited bandwidth systems, and/or which are charged per bandwidth used. Using a local archiver according to the present invention allows for recording more camera video streams than could fit over a limited network connection. For example, with four cameras in a system according to the present invention with a bandwidth requirement of 128 kbit/sec each camera is connected to a local archiver that only has a single 128 kbit/sec satellite connection. Only one camera is remotely viewed live at a time, but all four are continuously recording locally. The unit-to-central-server connections, in one particular aspect, can take place over a VPN. [0070] In one aspect of systems and methods according to the present invention multiple units are connected to a single main unit that contains a local archiver and a satellite or cellular connection. Every camera on every trailer in this small local network records its video to the main unit's local archiver. The local unit network may be a wireless mesh network, wired fiber optic network, etc. [0071] For any system according to the present invention, a client can directly access a unit according to the present invention over a network connection, e.g. an internet connection. Alternatively, a client can access a central server, which acts as a proxy to the unit(s) according to the present invention. [0072] It is within the scope of the present invention for any unit according to the present invention to have heater apparatus H (see FIG. 1B ) and/or cooler apparatus C (see FIG. 1B ) in or adjacent any part of the unit, including, but not limited to, in or adjacent the unit's main body (trailer enclosure, housing, etc.); in or adjacent a control system; in or adjacent a local archiver; and/or in or adjacent an electronics enclosure. [0073] The present invention, therefore, provides in at least some embodiments, but not necessarily all embodiments, methods for surveilling a site, the methods including: locating a first unit for surveillance at a site, the first unit including a first base, a first local archiver, first surveillance apparatus on the base for surveilling the site with at least one first surveillance component; producing first surveillance signals with the first surveillance component; transmitting the first surveillance signals from the first surveillance component to the first local archiver; processing the first surveillance signals in the local archiver to produce a first record of the surveilling of the site; and making the first record available by remote access. Such methods may include one or some, in any possible combination, of the following: wherein the at least one first surveillance component includes a first video camera and the first record is a video record; wherein the at least one first surveillance component is at least one of, some or, or all of still camera, video camera, PTZ camera, and sensor; wherein the sensor is at least one of, some of, or all of motion sensor, gas sensor, temperature sensor, humidity sensor, electrical sensor (meter, gauge, instrument, voltmeter, ammeter), chemical agent sensor, and biological agent sensor; sending sensor signals from the sensor to the first local archiver, the sensor signals indicative of a parameter sensed by the sensor; remotely accessing the first local archiver, and reviewing the first record; wherein the remotely accessing is done wirelessly via one of network connection (e.g., private network and/or Internet) and/or satellite system; wherein the network connection is provided by one of an internet and a virtual private network; wherein the remotely accessing is done in communication with a central server in communication with the first local archiver; processing the first surveillance signals with the local archiver to produce a first viewable version of the first surveillance signals, remotely accessing the local archiver, and remotely viewing the first viewable version in real time; wherein the remotely accessing is done wirelessly via one of network connection and satellite system; locating a second unit for surveillance spaced-apart from the first unit, each of the first unit and the second unit having a mesh radio system, the second unit including a second base, a second surveillance apparatus for surveilling an area adjacent the second unit and including at least one second surveillance component, the second surveillance component for producing second surveillance signals, transmitting the second surveillance signals from the second unit to the first unit via the mesh radio systems, processing the second surveillance signals from the second surveillance apparatus in the first local archiver and/or in a second local archiver of the second unit to produce a second record of the surveillance of the area adjacent the second unit, and making the second record available by remote access; wherein the at least one second surveillance component includes a second video camera and second record is a video record; wherein the at least one second surveillance component is one of still camera, video camera, PTZ camera, and sensor; wherein the sensor is at least one of, some of, or all of motion sensor, gas sensor, electrical sensor, chemical agent sensor, and biological agent sensor; remotely accessing the first local archiver, and reviewing the second record; wherein the remotely accessing is done wirelessly via one of network connection and satellite system; processing the second surveillance signals with the first and/or second local archiver to produce a second viewable version which is a viewable version of the second surveillance signals, remotely accessing either or both archivers, and viewing the second viewable version in real time; wherein said remotely accessing is done in communication with a central server in communication with the first local archiver and/or the second local archiver; processing the second surveillance signals with the first local archiver to produce a second viewable version which is a viewable version of the second surveillance signals, remotely accessing the first local archiver, and viewing the second viewable version in real time; wherein the remotely accessing is done wirelessly via one of network connection and satellite system; wherein the network connection is provided by one of an internet and/or a virtual private network; and/or locating a second unit for surveillance spaced-apart from the first unit, the second unit including a second base, a second local archiver, a second surveillance apparatus for surveilling an area adjacent the second unit and including at least one second surveillance component, the second surveillance component for producing second surveillance signals, transmitting the second surveillance signals from the second unit to the second local archiver, processing the second surveillance signals from the second surveillance apparatus in the second local archiver to produce a second record of the surveillance of the area adjacent the second unit, and making the first record and the second record each available by remote by accessing a central server, the central server in communication with the first local archiver and with the second local archiver. [0074] The present invention provide, therefore, in certain aspects, systems for surveilling a site, the systems including: a first unit for surveillance at a site, the first unit including a first base, a first local archiver, first surveillance apparatus on the base including at least one first surveillance component, the at least one first surveillance component for producing first surveillance signals, first transmitting apparatus for transmitting the first surveillance signals from the first surveillance component to the first local archiver, the local archiver processing apparatus for processing the first surveillance signals to produce a first record of the surveilling of the site, and the local archiver including connection apparatus for making the first record available by remote access. Such systems may have one or some, in any possible combination, of the following: wherein the at least one first surveillance component is one of still camera, video camera, PTZ camera, and sensor, wherein the sensor is one of motion sensor, gas sensor, temperature sensor, humidity sensor, electrical sensor, chemical agent sensor, and biological agent sensor, and apparatus for sending sensor signals from the sensor to the first local archiver, the sensor signals indicative of a parameter sensed by the sensor; a second unit for surveillance spaced-apart from the first unit, each of the first unit and the second unit having a mesh radio system, the second unit including a second base, a second surveillance apparatus for surveilling an area adjacent the second unit and including at least one second surveillance component, said second surveillance component for producing second surveillance signals, second transmitting apparatus for transmitting the second surveillance signals from the second unit to the first unit via the mesh radio systems, the first local archiver including processing apparatus for processing the second surveillance signals from the second surveillance apparatus in the first local archiver to produce a second record of the surveillance of the area adjacent the second unit, and the local archiver connection apparatus also for making the second record available by remote access; and/or the second unit including a second local archiver, and transmitting apparatus for transmitting the second surveillance signals from the second unit to the second local archiver, the second local archiver including processing apparatus for processing the second surveillance signals from the second surveillance apparatus to produce a second record of the surveillance of the area adjacent the second unit, and a central server in communication with the first local archiver and with the second local archiver so that the first record and the second record are each available by remote access via the central server. [0075] In conclusion, therefore, it is seen that the present invention and the embodiments disclosed herein and those covered by the appended claims are well adapted to carry out the objectives and obtain the ends set forth. Certain changes can be made in the subject matter without departing from the spirit and the scope of this invention. It is realized that changes are possible within the scope of this invention and it is further intended that each element or step recited in any of the following claims is to be understood as referring to the step literally and/or to all equivalent elements or steps. The following claims are intended to cover the invention as broadly as legally possible in whatever form it may be utilized. The invention claimed herein is new and novel in accordance with 35 U.S.C. § 102 and satisfies the conditions for patentability in § 102. The invention claimed herein is not obvious in accordance with 35 U.S.C. § 103 and satisfies the conditions for patentability in § 103. This specification and the claims that follow are in accordance with all of the requirements of 35 U.S.C. § 112. The inventor may rely on the Doctrine of Equivalents to determine and assess the scope of the invention and of the claims that follow as they may pertain to apparatus not materially departing from, but outside of, the literal scope of the invention as set forth in the following claims. All patents and applications identified herein are incorporated fully herein for all purposes. It is the express intention of the applicant not to invoke 35 U.S.C. § 112, paragraph 6 for any limitations of any of the claims herein, except for those in which the claim expressly uses the words ‘means for’ together with an associated function. In this patent document, the word “comprising” is used in its non-limiting sense to mean that items following the word are including, but items not specifically mentioned are not excluded. A reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the element is present, unless the context clearly requires that there be one and only one of the elements.

Systems and methods are disclosed for surveillance including surveillance units which, in certain aspects, include a first unit for surveillance at a site, the first unit having a first base, a first local archiver, first surveillance apparatus on the base including at least one first surveillance component, the at least one first surveillance component for producing first surveillance signals, first transmitting apparatus for transmitting the first surveillance signals from the first surveillance component to the first local archiver, the local archiver including processing apparatus for processing the first surveillance signals to produce a first record of the surveilling of the site, and the local archiver including connection apparatus for making the first record available by remote access. This abstract is provided to comply with the rules requiring an abstract which will allow a searcher or other reader to quickly ascertain the subject matter of the technical disclosure and is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims, 37 C.F.R. 1.72(b).

[0001] This invention relates to a flat, distortion-free, zero-shrink, low-temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) bodies, composites, modules or packages from precursor green (unfired) laminates of three or more different dielectric tape chemistries that are configured in an uniquely or pseudo-symmetrical arrangement in the z-axis of the laminate. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] An interconnect circuit board or package is the physical realization of electronic circuits or subsystems from a number of extremely small circuit elements electrically and mechanically interconnected. It is frequently desirable to combine these diverse type electronic components in an arrangement so that they can be physically isolated and mounted adjacent to one another in a single compact package and electrically connected to each other and/or to common connections extending from the package. [0003] Complex electronic circuits generally require that the circuit be constructed of several levels of conductors separated by corresponding insulating dielectric tape layers. The conductor layers are interconnected through the dielectric layers that separate them by electrically conductive pathways, called via fills. [0004] In all subsequent discussion it is understood that the use of the term tape layer or dielectric layer implies the presence of metallizations both surface conductor and interconnecting via fills which are cofired with the ceramic tape. In a like manner the term laminate or composite implies a collection of metallized tape layers that have been pressed together to form a single entity. [0005] The use of a ceramic-based green tape to make low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) multilayer circuits was disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,654,095 to Steinberg. The co-fired, free sintering process offered many advantages over previous technologies. However, when larger circuits were needed, the variation of firing shrinkage along the planar or x,y direction proved too broad to meet the needs. Given the reduced sizes of the current generation of surface mount components, the shrinkage tolerance (reproducibility of x,y shrinkage) has proved too great to permit the useful manufacture of LTCC laminates much larger than 6″ by 6″. This upper limit continues to be challenged today by the need for greater circuit density as each generation of new circuits and packages evolves. In turn this translates into ever-smaller component sizes and thereby into smaller geometry's including narrower conductor lines and spaces and smaller vias on finer pitches in the tape. All of this requires a much lower shrinkage tolerance than could be provided practically by the free sintering of LTCC laminates. [0006] A method for reducing X-Y shrinkage during firing of green ceramic bodies in which a release layer, which becomes porous during firing, is placed upon the ceramic body and the assemblage is fired while maintaining pressure on the assemblage normal to the body surface was disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,085,720 to Mikeska. This method used to make LTCC multilayer circuits provided a significant advantage over Steinberg, as a reduction X-Y shrinkage was obtained through the pressure assisted method. [0007] An improved co-fired LTCC process was developed and is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,191 to Mikeska. This process, referred to as PLAS, an acronym for pressure-less assisted sintering, placed a ceramic-based release tape layer on the two major external surfaces of a green LTCC laminate. The release tape controls shrinkage during the firing process. Since it allows the fired dimension of circuit features to be more predictable the process represents a great improvement in the fired shrinkage tolerance. [0008] A slight modification of the art proposed by Mikeska is presented in U.S. Pat. No. 6,139,666 by Fasano et al. where the edges of a multilayer ceramic are chamfered with a specific angle to correct edge distortion, due to imperfect shrinkage control exerted by externally applied release tape during firing. [0009] Shepherd proposed another process for control of registration in an LTCC structure in U.S. Pat. No. 6,205,032. The process fires a core portion of a LTCC circuit incurring normal shrinkage and shrinkage variation of an unconstrained circuit. Subsequent layers are made to match the features of the pre-fired core, which then is used to constrain the sintering of the green layers laminated to the rigid pre-fired core. The planar shrinkage is controlled to the extent of 0.8-1.2% but is never reduced to zero. For this reason, the technique is limited to a few layers, before registration becomes unacceptable. [0010] During the release tape-based constrained sintering process, the release tape acts to pin and restrain any possible shrinkage in x- and y-directions. The release tape itself does not sinter to any appreciable degree and is removed prior to any subsequent circuit manufacturing operation. Removal is achieved by one of a number of suitable procedures such as brushing, sand blasting or bead blasting. The use of the sacrificial constraining tape or release tape means that the user must purchase a tape material that does not reside in the final product. Furthermore, the top and bottom conductors cannot be co-processed with the laminate. These necessary steps may only be carried as part of a post-fired strategy after firing and removal of the release tape. [0011] In a more recent invention, U.S. patent application 60/385,697 the teachings of constrained sintering are extended to include the use of a non-fugitive, non-removable, non-sacrificial or non-release, internal self-constraining tape. The fired laminate comprises layers of a primary dielectric tape which define the bulk properties of the final ceramic body and one or more layers of a secondary or self-constraining tape. The purpose of the latter is to constrain the sintering of the primary tape so that the net shrinkage in the x, y direction is zero. This process is referred to as a self-constraining pressure-less assisted sintering process and the acronym SCPLAS is applied. The self-constraining tape is placed in strategic locations within the structure and remains part of the structure after co-firing is completed. There is no restriction on the placement of the self-constraining tape other than that z-axis symmetry is preserved. [0012] FIG. 1 , which contains some generic dielectric tape arrangements, is used to illustrate the definition of z-axis symmetry as noted in U.S. Patent Application 60/385,697. In this embodiment, only one type of self-constraining (SC) tape ( 101 ) is used with a primary tape ( 100 ). The criterion is that the distribution of the two tape materials ( 100 , 101 ) is balanced in terms of thickness and position around the centerline ( 103 ) of the structure. The consequence of not preserving z-axis symmetry is a severely bowed or cambered circuit. [0013] This invention described in U.S. patent application 60/385,697 represents an alternative to release tape-based constrained sintering. However, it is not obvious as to how one can apply this to the practical manufacture of ceramic structures with asymmetric arrangements of metallized tape layers comprising two different dielectric chemistries. [0014] The introduction of dielectric layers with a higher dielectric constant (k) than the bulk dielectric material can produce localized enhanced capacitor capability when suitably terminated with a conductor material. This is commonly referred to as a buried passive structure and is a robust and cost-effective alternative to the use of standard, externally applied, surface mount components such as multilayer capacitors (MLC). In U.S. Pat. No. 5,144,526 awarded to Vu and Shih, LTCC structures are described whereby high dielectric constant materials are interleaved with layers of low dielectric constant material in a symmetrical arrangement. [0015] In practical terms the need for symmetry limits the freedom of a designer to layout a circuit in its most optimal form. This, in turn, has some unfavorable consequences relative to the performance, the form factor and the overall cost of the circuit. An ability to obviate this problem represents a significant competitive advantage to the continued growth of ceramic circuit packages. The only solution currently available, namely, to balance the asymmetrical and functional part of the structure with dummy, non functioning compensating layers (see FIG. 2 ) does not alleviate all of the disadvantages described above. [0016] FIG. 3 shows some examples of some simple asymmetric arrangements. Actual designs would be more complex. Nonetheless, regardless of the complexity factor, the most intractable problem associated with such arrangements is that the structure will bow or camber to an unacceptable degree after co-firing. Moreover it will be cambered to a degree that will render it unusable for subsequent processing such as assembly by pick and place of passive and active surface components. The conventional definition of unacceptable camber or bowing is greater than an 0.003 inch deflection of the center point of a substrate per one inch of substrate diagonal length, e.g. a total of 0.025 inches for a 6″×6″ co-fired substrate. Different operations have different requirements but the above definition meets the majority of applications. The extent of this disadvantage increases with substrate size. It can pass almost unnoticed for substrates less than 2″×2″ but becomes very marked as the standard substrate dimension is increased to 6″×6″. [0017] The above problem is caused by differences in the physical and chemical properties of the two dielectric materials in contact with each other and exists with all known combinations of dielectric chemistries. It will occur regardless of the absence or presence of metallic conductors in the structure. It thus represents a significant limitation to the ongoing development of the technology as a whole. [0018] In a more recent application, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/430,081, the teachings of constrained sintering is extended to the production of large area camber-free, co-fired LTCC structures that are derived from asymmetric arrangements of low dielectric constant primary tape and high k dielectric constant self-constraining tape materials, each of a different chemistry. It combines the use of both of internal, permanent, self-constraining tape and external, removable release constraining tape. [0019] As already discussed the asymmetric structures as illustrated in FIG. 3 cannot be co-fired flat by conventional processing techniques. They will tend to bow or camber in a concave manner i.e. the two edges of the laminate will be significantly higher than the center-point in the direction perpendicular to the plane of maximum asymmetry. [0020] In an embodiment of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/430,081, as shown in FIG. 4 , an internal constraining layer ( 101 ) is formulated to provide a self-constraining function and an embedded capacitor function within a LTCC assembly. The properties of the processed internal constraining layer provide a rigid physical form restraining x and y shrinkage of primary tapes ( 100 ) and impart functional properties to the final LTCC assembly. The internal constraining tape precedes the sintering of the primary tape layers. To prevent bowing and permanent structural distortion after co-firing because of the difference in dielectric chemistries without the need to symmetrically balance it with dummy or compensating layers, a layer of removable, non permanent release layer ( 201 ) is applied to the outside surface directly opposite the source of greatest asymmetry. This enables extremely asymmetric structures to be fired flat. After firing, the release layer is removed using conventional brushing or sand blasting methods. [0021] However, the necessary inclusion of a release layer ( 201 ) and its removal after firing still adds cost in material, equipment, and process. Meanwhile, the bottom conductor in contact with the release layer cannot be co-processed with the laminate. This necessary step may only be carried as part of a post-fired strategy after firing and removal of the release tape. [0022] The current invention represents an innovative approach and innovative novel compositions and examples to produce a structure exhibiting an interactive suppression of x,y shrinkage without the use of a sacrificial dielectric release tape at one side of the laminate as specified in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/430,081. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0023] FIGS. 1 a - 1 b are an illustration of generic dielectric tape arrangements used to illustrate the definition of z-axis symmetry, these are related to U.S. patent application 60/385,697. [0024] FIGS. 2 a - 2 c are an illustration of the addition of prior art non-functional material necessary to render the LTCC structure symmetrical and co-fireable without any bowing or cambering. The equal sign means that the function of the severely cambered assemblage 2 A can only be provided by a camber-free assemblage after adding 2 C to the 2 B laminate before firing. [0025] FIGS. 3 a - 3 d are an illustration of prior art asymmetrical structures where tapes of two different chemistries are present and all will display severe camber after co-firing. [0026] FIGS. 4 a - 4 b are an illustration of asymmetrical structures of the previous invention, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/430,081. [0027] FIGS. 5 a - 5 d are an illustration of pseudo-symmetrically configured mixed k dielectric layers within a third and primary low k, low temperature cofired ceramic matrix of the current invention. Tapes 501 and 502 represent internal constraining tapes of the same or different k value whereas tape 100 represents the primary tape component and 103 is the centerline of the structure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0028] The current invention further extends the concept of making asymmetrical configured LTCC dielectric multilayer circuits to include at least two internal constraining tapes having the same or different k values, without the use of sacrificial release tape at one side of the multilayer laminate. In order to preserve the balance in sintering stress to produce a flat or camber-free substrate, it is necessary that (1) each internal constraining tape ( 501 or 502 ) can independently provide a zero-shrink SCPLAS system with the primary tape ( 100 ), and (2) The internal constraining tapes are arranged to preserve structural symmetry regarding the class of internal constraining tapes as an entity with respect to primary tape. Since the internal constraining tapes are generally of different composition and dielectric constant (k), the term of “pseudo-symmetry” is created. The above pseudo-symmetrical arrangement treats all of the self-constraining tapes as a class with respect to the primary tape, and the name “pseudo” reflects the differences among the self-constraining tapes involved. [0029] While the structure of the LTCC multilayer circuit of the present invention may be asymmetrical around the centerline, there is still a requirement that the internal constraining tapes be arranged to preserve structural symmetry regarding the class of internal constraining tapes as an entity with respect to the primary tape. This means that when viewing the structure as two pieces, a top and bottom around the centerline, the level of shrinkage associated with each piece independently should be the same (or about the same) to ensure a uniform shrinkage with regard to the structure as a whole. Of course, the preferred level of shrinkage for the structure as a whole is zero-shrinkage, although any uniform level may be achieved for the structure as a whole, as long as each independent piece about the centerline may achieve the same shrinkage level independently. [0030] There are several possible embodiments of the present invention subject to the above requirements for preservation of the balance in sintering stress as noted above. These embodiments include: (1) all internal constraining tapes and the primary tape have the same dielectric constant (k); (2) at least one internal constraining tape has the same dielectric constant (k) as the primary tape; and (3) at least one internal constraining tape is a low k tape and at least one internal constraining tape is a high k tape. This invention also applies to a primary tape of either low k or high k characteristic. In the case with a low k primary tape, the internal constraining tapes may have the same or higher k. In the case of a high k primary tape, the internal constraining tapes may have the same or lower k. [0031] The differences in the dielectric tape chemistry result from differences in the types and compositions of the glass(es) and/or the filler(s) used to formulate the tapes and reflect in their corresponding dielectric constant (k) at any given frequency. For the purpose of clarification of this invention, a standard k is between 7 and 9. The typical primary tape is generally at a k value between 7 and 9, although this k value is not a necessary requirement of the primary tape. For purposes of this invention, a tape with a k value at or lower than 8 is considered a low k tape, whereas a tape with a k value greater than 8 is considered a high k tape. It is therefore apparent that the high k values can be multiples of tens, hundreds, or thousands as far as this invention is concerned. Furthermore, tapes having k values within 0-15% of one another are considered to have the same k. [0032] In the case when one of the internal constraining tapes has the same k as the primary tape, a compositionally and electrically asymmetrical configuration is attained. It is noted that, due to the structural symmetry between internal constraining tapes and primary tape, the multilayer circuit can be fired flat and provide zero-shrink without the use of a sacrificial release tape as described in the prior art noted above. [0033] FIGS. 5 a - 5 d illustrate various multilayer arrangements of internal constraining tapes and primary tape according to this invention. It is noted that the present invention can be applied but not limited to these examples. internal constraining tapes 501 and 502 form the central core in 5 a . internal constraining tape 501 or 502 serves as the constraining layer in the upper or lower portion of structure in 5 b . Either internal constraining tape 501 or 502 by itself can form the core as in 5 c , which is the simplest configuration of this invention and represents a typical SCPLAS concept previously filed for patent. FIG. 5 d illustrates an expanded version of 5 b to include flexibility in tape thickness and layer count variation. [0000] Internal Self-Constraining Tape(s) [0034] The internal constraining tape ( 501 , 502 ) as utilized in the present invention contains glasses that flow, densify, and become rigid at temperatures significantly below 850° C., which is a standard process temperature. Because the constraining tape becomes part of the final LTCC body it significantly increases the performance requirements for the constraining tape material. The electrical properties (e.g., dielectric constant k) of the constraining tape may also be adjusted with a choice of materials that make up the tape. This makes possible the use of more than one chemical type of primary tape to locally control the dielectric and other electrical properties of a portion of a LTCC circuit. [0000] Primary Tape [0035] The primary tape ( 100 ) is generally the majority tape in a LTCC assembly and the resultant fired assembly derives its mechanical and electrical characteristics from it. In most situations the constraining tape has a minority presence in the structure. It can be used effectively to locally modify aspects of the dielectric and other electrical performance of the assembly, but its biggest influence is to control the physical structure by constraining its x,y shrinkage substantially to zero. [0000] LTCC Structure [0036] During the heating of the assembly of the present invention, the glass in the constraining tapes (low or high k, respectively for 501 or 502 ) attains its transition temperature (the temperature at which the glass initiates sintering, followed by flow and densification) earlier than the glass of the primary tape (low k) and it flows sufficiently to coat the surface particles of the adjacent layers of the primary tape. Since the crystallization temperature of the constraining tape glass is both close to and above its transition temperature, crystallization occurs very soon thereafter. This has the result of stiffening the glass and significantly raising its composite viscosity or elevating its re-melting temperature beyond the peak firing temperature of 825 to 875° C. of the first co-firing and/or subsequent post-firing process. [0037] The constraining influence of the primary tape ensures that x,y shrinkage in the constraining tape is very small, if not zero. Subsequent increases in temperature cause the constraining tape to sinter fully and its glass to complete its crystallization. Since a suitable glass will, typically, develop in excess of 50 volume % crystalline phases, the constraining tape body becomes rigid when dominated by the volumetric accumulation of crystalline content of filler and in site formation of crystal from the glass. Then, when the transition temperature of the primary tape glass is achieved and flow occurs, it is kept physically in place by its previous interaction with the constraining tapes. Thus, the already-sintered constraining tape layers become the constraining force and the primary tape is constrained while sintering to shrink only in the z-direction. Once the assembly is fully sintered and has cooled down, the assembly will be seen to possess the same dimensions in the x,y direction as the original “green” or unfired assembly. The layers of the now chemically-reacted inorganic components of the two or more individual tapes used in the assembly are interleaved in various configurations. The only still observable boundaries being those where tapes of different chemistries were placed adjacent to each other and where the various inner circuit features reside. The above discussion is applicable to configurations presented in FIGS. 5 b and 5 d. [0038] In the special case of 5 a , the two different internal constraining tapes, 501 and 502 , are in direct contact. This type of structure requires sufficient interfacial bonding between the internal constraining tapes without significant inter-diffusion of glass from either or both tapes during the firing process. As in all of the cases, the primary tape ( 100 ) serves as the constraining force for both internal constraining tapes ( 501 , 502 ) in the lower temperature range; and the sintered and crystalline, rigid internal constraining layers serve as the constraining force for the primary tape in the higher temperature range. [0039] Such an innovation offers the advantages of facilitating cofireable top and bottom conductors, relieves the practical restrictions that externally-constrained sintered structures experience as the layer count is increased and the constraining influence of the external release tape is felt less and less. Furthermore, there is no need to remove the sacrificial constraining tape by mechanical and/or chemical means. This represents a saving of material and equipment expenditure and labor, and also possible environmental contamination. In addition, the use of the constraining tape allows the formation of exactly dimensioned, non-shrink cavities in a tape structure. Both blind and through cavities can be produced by this constrained sintering technique. [0040] In order to meet the performance requirements of LTCC circuit manufacturers, additional material performance factors must be considered beyond the simple process of constraining the x,y shrinkage in the green tape assembly when thermally processed. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the constraining tapes and the primary tape must be sufficiently close in magnitude to provide for the production of 6″×6″ or larger ceramic boards consisting of many layers of laminated green tape materials. Inattention to this could result in stress induced cracking in the fired ceramic LTCC body during the temperature descending portion of the furnace firing or thereafter. [0041] Another design factor is created because the constraining tapes must be thermally processed to a rigid body prior to the primary tape to provide proper system x,y constraint. This means that the glass-filler material in the constraining tapes should be designed to attain a lower composite viscosity to the primary tape, but at approximately 50-150° C. lower in temperature and preferably in the range of 80-150° C. It should be noted that the above assessment was based on a belt furnace firing profile at an ascending rate of 6-8° C. per minute between 450° C. and −850° C. Such a profile is commonly used to achieve high throughput in mass production of LTCC circuit substrates. However, a smaller temperature difference (e.g. <50° C.) can also be effective if the firing profile in a multiple zone belt or box furnace provides a plateau to facilitate the full densification, and/or crystallization, and revivification of the constraining tapes. It should also provide sufficient compatibility between constraining and primary tapes during the densification to maintain the strength and bonding at the respective tape interfaces. This compatibility can be influenced by tape formulation, physical characteristics of the constituents and changes in thermal processing conditions. The electrical properties of the constraining tape materials must also meet performance requirements for high frequency circuit applications. [0000] Components of Internal Constraining and Primary Tapes [0042] Internal constraining and primary tape components and formulations are discussed below. The internal constraining tapes (501, 502) are further characterized as composed of a filler ceramic material such as Al 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , ZrO 2 , ZrSiO 4 , BaTiO 3 , etc., with a crystallizable or filler reactable glass composition so that its flow, densification and rigidification during firing proceed the remaining layers of primary tape. Although a constraining or primary tape normally may consist of a glass and filler, it may be designed by skilled artisans to utilize more than one glass or more than one filler. The physical act of restricting the x,y shrinkage of the constraining tapes by the primary tape during thermal processing is quite similar to the externally applied release layers of a conventional primary tape assembly. It is to be noted, however, that although the terms of “primary tape” and “constraining tape” are used in this invention, the “primary tape” constrains the “constraining tape” during its lower temperature sintering/crystallization process; whereas the already sintered “constraining tape” constrains the “primary tape” during its higher temperature firing. The requirements for suitable materials to serve as a non-sacrificed constraining tape are however different. The material requirements are considered below. [0043] Specific examples of glasses that may be used in the primary or constraining tape are listed in Tables 1 and 1a. Preferred glass compositions found in the high k constraining tape comprise the following oxide constituents in the compositional range of: B 2 O 3 6-13, BaO 20-22, Li 2 O 0.5-1.5, P 2 O 5 3.5-4.5, TiO 2 25-33, Cs 2 O 1-6.5, Nd 2 O 3 29-32 in weight %. The more preferred composition of glass being: B 2 O 3 11.84, BaO 21.12, Li 2 O 1.31, P 2 O 5 4.14, TiO 2 25.44, Cs 2 O 6.16, Nd 2 O 3 29.99 in weight % shown in Table 1a as composition #3. An example of additional primary tape is shown in #2 Table 1a. Preferred glasses for use in the primary tape comprise the following oxide constituents in the compositional range of: SiO 2 52-55, Al 2 O 3 12.5-14.5, B 2 O 3 8-9, CaO 16-18, MgO 0.5-5, Na 2 O 1.7-2.5, Li 2 O 0.2-0.3, SrO 04, K 2 O 1-2 in weight %. The more preferred composition of glass being: SiO 2 54.50, Al 2 O 3 12.72, B 2 O 3 8.32, CaO 16.63, MgO 0.98 Na 2 O 2.20, Li 2 O 0.24, SrO 2.94, K 2 O 1.47 in weight %. Composition #1 Table 1a is repeated here for a formulation example and is the same as listed previously in Table 1 #15. [0044] Example glasses for use in the low k constraining tapes comprise the following oxide constituents in the compositional range of: Glasses #4-#7 Table 1 are examples of glasses that have a suitably low dielectric constant while serving suitably as a constraining glass in an LTCC tape structure. Composition #4 Table 1a contains Cs 2 O and ZrO 2 whereas #5-#7 contain K 2 O without ZrO 2 . This illustrates the ability to functionally replace the function of Cs 2 O by K 2 O. Since ZrO 2 is known to raise glass viscosity, a smaller content of K 2 O is sufficient when ZrO 2 is not present. The dielectric constant of the tapes composed of these glasses and 33.9 volume % alumina filler having a D50 PSD of 2.5 micron is about 8. Preferred glasses for use as a low k constraining tape comprise the following oxide constituents in the compositional range of SiO 2 7-9, ZrO 2 0-3, B 2 O 3 11-14, BaO 7-23, MgO 3-9, La 2 O 3 14-28, Li 2 O 0.5-2, P 2 O 5 2-6, K 2 O 0.5-3, Cs 2 O 0-7, Nd 2 O 3 28-34 in weight %. The more preferred composition of glass being: SiO 2 8.22, B 2 O 3 12.93, BaO 11.99, MgO 8.14, La 2 O 3 16.98, Li 2 O 1.46, P 2 O 5 5.55, K 2 O 1.84, Nd 2 O 3 32.89 in weight %. [0045] In order to match the dielectric constant (k) in one of the constraining tape to that of the primary tape, the design of glass varies significantly from that in the high k constraining tape. It is well known that the choice of inorganic filler(s) in the constraining tape compositions also affect their resultant k; hence the tape compositions represent an overall property balance in order to provide zero-shrink, material compatibility, and desirable electrical performance such as k and loss tangent for high frequency applications. Several suitable fillers that maybe used to adjust lower the composite dielectric constant of a suitable LTCC tape composition include cordierite, forsterite, steatite, amorphous silica, aluminum phosphate (AlPO4), (CGW) Vycor glass or other crystalline or amorphous lower k ceramic materials. [0046] In the primary or constraining tape the D 50 (median particle size) of frit is preferably in the range of, but not limited to, 0.1 to 5.0 microns and more preferably 0.3 to 3.0 microns. As the constraining tapes must undergo simultaneous densification and crystallization, their averaged glass particle size and particle size distribution are most critical for the attainment of desirable microstructure within the temperature range above the organic burnout (pyrolysis) and the softening point of the glass in the primary tape, [0047] The glasses described herein are produced by conventional glass making techniques. The glasses were prepared in 500-1000 gram quantities. Typically, the ingredients are weighed then mixed in the desired proportions and heated in a bottom-loading furnace to form a melt in platinum alloy crucibles. As well known in the art, heating is conducted to a peak temperature (1450-1600° C.) and for a time such that the melt becomes entirely liquid and homogeneous. The glass melts were then quenched by counter rotating stainless steel roller to form a 10-20 mil thick platelet of glass. The resulting glass platelet was then milled to form a powder with its 50% volume distribution set between 1-5 microns. The glass powders were then formulated with filler and organic medium to cast tapes as detailed in the Examples section. The glass compositions shown in Table 1 represent a broad variety of glass chemistry (high amounts of glass former to low amounts of glass former). The glass former oxides are typically small size ions with high chemical coordination numbers such as SiO 2 , B 2 O 3 , and P 2 O 5 . The remaining oxides represented in the table are considered glass modifiers and intermediates. [0048] Ceramic filler such as Al 2 O 3 , ZrO 2 , TiO 2 , ZrSiO 4 , BaTiO 3 or mixtures thereof may be added to the castable composition used to form the tapes in an amount of 0-50 wt. % based on solids. Depending on the type of filler, different crystalline phases are expected to form after firing. The filler can control dielectric constant and loss over the frequency range. For example, the addition of BaTiO 3 can increase the dielectric constant significantly. [0049] Al 2 O 3 is the preferred ceramic filler since it reacts with the glass to form an Al-containing crystalline phase. Al 2 O 3 is very effective in providing high mechanical strength and inertness against detrimental chemical reactions. Another function of the ceramic filler is rheological control of the entire system during firing. The ceramic particles limit flow of the glass by acting as a physical barrier. They also inhibit sintering of the glass and thus facilitate better burnout of the organics. Other fillers, α-quartz, CaZrO 3 , mullite, cordierite, forsterite, zircon, zirconia, BaTiO 3 , CaTiO 3 , MgTiO 3 , SiO 2 , amorphous silica or mixtures thereof may be used to modify tape performance and characteristics. It is preferred that the filler has at least a bimodal particle size distribution with D50 of the larger size filler in the range of 1.5 and 3 microns and the D50 of the smaller size filler in the range of 0.3 and 0.8 microns. [0050] In the formulation of constraining and primary tape compositions, the amount of glass relative to the amount of ceramic material is important. A filler range of 20-40% by weight is considered desirable in that the sufficient densification is achieved. If the filler concentration exceeds 50% by wt., the fired structure is not sufficiently densified and is too porous. Within the desirable glass/filler ratio, it will be apparent that, during firing, the liquid glass phase will become saturated with filler material. [0051] For the purpose of obtaining higher densification of the composition upon firing, it is important that the inorganic solids have small particle sizes. In particular, substantially all of the particles should not exceed 15 μm and preferably not exceed 10 μm. Subject to these maximum size limitations, it is preferred that at least 50% of the particles, both glass and ceramic filler, be greater than 1 μm and less than 6 μm. [0052] The organic medium in which the glass and ceramic inorganic solids are dispersed is comprised of a polymeric binder which is dissolved in a volatile organic solvent and, optionally, other dissolved materials such as plasticizers, release agents, dispersing agents, stripping agents, antifoaming agents, stabilizing agents and wetting agents. [0053] To obtain better binding efficiency, it is preferred to use at least 5% wt. polymer binder for 90% wt. solids, which includes glass and ceramic filler, based on total composition. However, it is more preferred to use no more than 30% wt. polymer binder and other low volatility modifiers such as plasticizer and a minimum of 70% inorganic solids. Within these limits, it is desirable to use the least possible amount of polymer binder and other low volatility organic modifiers, in order to reduce the amount of organics which must be removed by pyrolysis, and to obtain better particle packing which facilitates full densification upon firing. [0054] In the past, various polymeric materials have been employed as the binder for green tapes, e.g., poly(vinyl butyral), poly(vinyl acetate), poly(vinyl alcohol), cellulosic polymers such as methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, methylhydroxyethyl cellulose, atactic polypropylene, polyethylene, silicon polymers such as poly(methyl siloxane), poly(methylphenyl siloxane), polystyrene, butadiene/styrene copolymer, polystyrene, poly(vinyl pyrollidone), polyamides, high molecular weight polyethers, copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, polyacrylamides, and various acrylic polymers such as sodium polyacrylate, poly(lower alkyl acrylates), poly(lower alkyl methacrylates) and various copolymers and multipolymers of lower alkyl acrylates and methacrylates. Copolymers of ethyl methacrylate and methyl acrylate and terpolymers of ethyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate and methacrylic acid have been previously used as binders for slip casting materials. [0055] U.S. Pat. No. 4,536,535 to Usala, issued Aug. 20, 1985, has disclosed an organic binder which is a mixture of compatible multipolymers of 0-100% wt. C 1-8 alkyl methacrylate, 100-0% wt. C 1-8 alkyl acrylate and 0-5% wt. ethylenically unsaturated carboxylic acid of amine. Because the above polymers can be used in minimum quantity with a maximum quantity of dielectric solids, they are preferably selected to produce the dielectric compositions of this invention. For this reason, the disclosure of the above-referred Usala application is incorporated by reference herein. [0056] Frequently, the polymeric binder will also contain a small amount, relative to the binder polymer, of a plasticizer that serves to lower the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the binder polymer. The choice of plasticizers, of course, is determined primarily by the polymer that needs to be modified. Among the plasticizers which have been used in various binder systems are diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, dioctyl phthalate, butyl benzyl phthalate, alkyl phosphates, polyalkylene glycols, glycerol, poly(ethylene oxides), hydroxyethylated alkyl phenol, dialkyldithiophosphonate and poly(isobutylene). Of these, butyl benzyl phthalate is most frequently used in acrylic polymer systems because it can be used effectively in relatively small concentrations. [0057] The solvent component of the casting solution is chosen so as to obtain complete dissolution of the polymer and sufficiently high volatility to enable the solvent to be evaporated from the dispersion by the application of relatively low levels of heat at atmospheric pressure. In addition, the solvent must boil well below the boiling point or the decomposition temperature of any other additives contained in the organic medium. Thus, solvents having atmospheric boiling points below 150° C. are used most frequently. Such solvents include acetone, xylene, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, methyl ethyl ketone, ethyl acetate, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, tetrachloroethylene, amyl acetate, 2,2,4-triethyl pentanediol-1,3-monoisobutyrate, toluene, methylene chloride and fluorocarbons. Individual solvents mentioned above may not completely dissolve the binder polymers. Yet, when blended with other solvent(s), they function satisfactorily. This is well within the skill of those in the art. A particularly preferred solvent is ethyl acetate since it avoids the use of environmentally hazardous chlorocarbons. [0058] In addition to the solvent and polymer, a plasticizer is used to prevent tape cracking and provide wider latitude of as-coated tape handling ability such as blanking, printing, and lamination. A preferred plasticizer is BENZOFLEX® 400 manufactured by Rohm and Haas Co., which is a polypropylene glycol dibenzoate. Application [0059] A green tape for use as a constraining tape or a primary tape is formed by casting a thin layer of a slurry dispersion of the glass, ceramic filler, polymeric binder and solvent(s) as described above onto a flexible substrate, heating the cast layer to remove the volatile solvent. It is preferred that the primary tape not exceed 20 mils in thickness and preferably 1 to 10 mils. It is preferred that the constraining tapes be 1 to 10 mils and preferably 1 to 3 mils in thickness. The tape is then blanked into sheets or collected in a roll form. The green tape is typically used as a dielectric or insulating material for multilayer electronic circuits. A sheet of green tape is blanked with registration holes in each corner to a size somewhat larger than the actual dimensions of the circuit. To connect various layers of the multilayer circuit, via holes are formed in the green tape. This is typically done by mechanical punching. However, a sharply focused laser can be used to volatilize and form via holes in the green tape. Typical via hole sizes range from 0.004″ to 0.25″. The interconnections between layers are formed by filling them via holes with a thick film conductive ink. This ink is usually applied by standard screen printing techniques. Each layer of circuitry is completed by screen printing conductor tracks. Also, resistor inks or high dielectric constant inks can be printed on selected layer(s) to form resistive or capacitive circuit elements. Furthermore, specially formulated high dielectric constant green tapes similar to those used in the multilayer capacitor industry can be incorporated as part of the multilayer circuitry. [0060] After each layer of the circuit is completed, the individual layers are collated and laminated. A confined uniaxial or isostatic pressing die is used to insure precise alignment between layers. The laminates are trimmed with a hot stage cutter. Firing is carried out in a standard thick film conveyor belt furnace or in a box furnace with a programmed heating cycle. This method will, also, allow top and/or bottom conductors to be co-fired as part of the constrained sintered structure without the need for using a conventional release tape as the top and bottom layer, and the removal, and cleaning of the release tape after firing. [0061] As used herein, the term “firing” means heating the assemblage in an oxidizing atmosphere such as air to a temperature, and for a time sufficient to volatilize (burn-out) all of the organic material in the layers of the assemblage to sinter any glass, metal or dielectric material in the layers and thus densify the entire laminate. [0062] It will be recognized by those skilled in the art that in each of the laminating steps the layers must be accurate in registration so that the vias are properly connected to the appropriate conductive path of the adjacent functional layer. [0063] The term “functional layer” refers to the printed green tape, which has conductive, resistive or capacitive functionality. Thus, as indicated above, a typical green tape layer may have printed thereon one or more resistor circuits and/or capacitors as well as conductive circuits. [0064] According to the defined configuration of the various laminates (see FIGS. 1 to 5 ), green tape sheets of various thickness were blanked with corner registration holes into sheets with x- and y-dimensions ranging from 3″×3″ to 8″×8″. These were then punched to form via holes and then metallized with suitable surface and via fill conductors using standard processing techniques well known to those skilled in the art. [0065] The parts were then fired by heating in an oxidizing atmosphere such as air to a temperature, and for a time sufficient to volatilize (burn-out) all of the organic material in the layers of the assemblage to sinter any glass, metal or dielectric material in the layers. In this way the entire laminate was densified. [0066] The parts were then evaluated for any shrinkage and substrate camber. TABLE 1 ID SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 ZrO 2 B 2 O 3 CaO BaO MgO La 2 O 3 Na 2 O Li 2 O SrO P 2 O 5 TiO 2 K 2 O Cs 2 O Nd 2 O 3 1 53.50 13.00 8.50 17.00 1.00 2.25 0.25 3.00 1.50 2 54.50 12.72 8.32 16.63 0.98 2.20 0.24 2.94 1.47 3 11.84 21.12 1.31 4.14 25.44 6.16 29.99 4 8.77 2.45 11.81 7.32 3.06 27.63 1.02 4.01 5.40 28.53 5 7.63 12.63 22.26 5.36 15.76 1.26 2.58 1.99 30.52 6 8.24 13.19 12.02 8.16 17.02 1.46 5.10 1.85 32.96 7 8.22 12.93 11.99 8.14 16.98 1.46 5.55 1.84 32.89 EXAMPLES [0067] Tape compositions used in the examples were prepared by ball milling the fine inorganic powders and binders in a volatile solvent or solvent blend. To optimize the lamination, the ability to pattern circuits, the tape burnout properties and the fired microstructure development, the following volume % formulation of slip was found to provide advantages. The formulation of typical slip compositions is also shown in weight percentage, as a practical reference. The inorganic phase is assumed to have a specific density of 4.5 g/cc for glass and 4.0 g/cc for alumina and the organic vehicle is assumed to have a specific density of 1.1 g/cc. The weight % composition changes accordingly when using glass and oxides other than alumina as the specific density maybe different than those assumed in this example. Volume % Weight % Inorganic phase 42% typical range 74% typical range 37-47% practical 70-78% practical Organic phase 58% typical 26% typical 63-53% practical 30-22% practical [0068] Since the tape is usually coated from slip, the composition for the slip must include sufficient solvent to lower the viscosity to less than 10,000 centipoise; typical viscosity ranges are 1,000 to 4,000 centipoise. An example of a slip composition is provided in Table 2. Depending on the chosen slip viscosity, higher viscosity slip prolongs the dispersion stability for a longer period of time (normally several weeks). A stable dispersion of tape constituents is usually preserved in the as-coated tape. TABLE 2 Slip Composition Typical Practical Component Range Weight % Range Acrylate and methacrylate polymers 4-6 4-6 Phthalate type plasticizers 1-2 1-2 Ethyl acetate/methyl ethyl ketone mixed 19.7 18-22 solvent Glass powder 50.7 47-54 Alumina powder 23.2 20-27 Inorganic pigment  0.6 0-1 [0069] The glasses for the Examples found herein were all melted in Pt/Rh crucibles at 1450-1600° C. for about 1 hour in an electrically heated furnace. Glasses were quenched by metal roller as a preliminary step and then subjected to particle size reduction by milling. The powders prepared for these tests were adjusted to a 1-5 micron mean size by milling prior to formulation as a slip. Since additional milling is utilized in the fabrication of slip, the final mean size is normally in the range of 1-3 microns. Example 1 [0070] Primary Tape Composition #1 (Glass #1, Table 1a) (4.5 mils Tape Thickness) Glass: Filler: Al 2 O 3 (D50 = 2.8 micron) Glass content 66.1 vol % B 2 O 3 8.50 wt. % Filler content 33.9 vol % SiO 2 53.50 Li 2 O 0.25 wt. % Al 2 O 3 13.00 SrO 3.00 CaO 17.00 K 2 O 1.50 MgO 1.00 Na 2 O 2.25 Glass Density 2.53 g/cc Alumina Density 4.02 g/cc [0071] Constraining Tape Composition #1 (Glass #3, Table 1a) (4.0 or 2.0 mils Tape Thickness) Glass: Filler: Al 2 O 3 (D50 = 2.8 micron) Filler content 33.9 vol % B 2 O 3 11.84 wt. % BaO 21.12 Li 2 O 1.31 P 2 O 5 4.14 TiO 2 25.44 Cs 2 O 6.16 Nd 2 O 3 29.99 Glass Density 4.45 g/cc Alumina Density 4.02 g/cc [0072] Constraining Tape Composition #2 (Glass #4, Table 1a) (4.0 or 2.0 mils Tape Thickness) Glass: Filler: Al 2 O 3 (D50 = 2.8 micron) Filler content 33.9 vol % SiO 2 8.77 wt. % Cs 2 O 5.40 ZrO 2 2.45 Nd 2 O 3 28.53 B 2 O 3 11.81 BaO 7.32 MgO 3.06 La 2 O 3 27.63 Li 2 O 1.95 P 2 O 5 4.34 Glass Density 4.65 g/cc Alumina Density 4.02 g/cc [0073] Comparing the dielectric constant (k) of the above tape, the Constraining #1 (about 16) is greater than that of the Primary #1 (about 8) which is similar to Constraining #2. The solids formulation of the primary and constraining tapes are shown as filler and glass content above. Three tape structures were made using these materials in construction as follows: Test #1 Prim#1/Constraining#1/Prim#1/Constraining#2/Prim#1 Layer count ratio = 3/1/6/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 7.8 Test #2 Prim#1/Constraining#1/Prim#1/Constraining#2/Prim#1 Layer count ratio = 2/1/4/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 5.5 Test #3 Prim#1/Constraining#1/Prim#1/Constraining#2/Prim#1 Layer count ratio = 3/1/4/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 6.6 Test #4 Prim#1/Constraining#1/Prim#1/Constraining#2/Prim#1 Layer count ratio = 2/1/3/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 4.9 [0074] All samples were flat following belt furnace firing at 850° C., and they showed the following % x,y-shrinkage: Test #1 0.35%, Test #2 0.20%, Test #3 0.23% and Test #4 0.07%. [0075] The onset of tape sintering between the respective primary and constraining tape in the above configurations is separated by about 75-85° C. The constraining tape developed rigid property near 700° C. and the primary tape at this temperature is just beginning to sinter. [0076] The influence of the total/constraining tape thickness is seen to relate in general to the x,y-shrinkage values, and the smaller the ratio, the smaller the x,y-shrinkage. Furthermore, the above laminate configuration exhibits a pseudo-symmetry if treating Primary #1 as one type and both Constraining #1 and #2 as the other type. However, if adopting a dielectric constant classification, the Constraining #1, a high k (=16) tape is located at layer 4 of a 14 layer laminate for Test #1; layer 3 of a 10 layer laminate for Test #2, layer 4 of a 12 layer laminate for Test #3, and layer 3 of a 9 layer laminate for Test #4. Therefore, the above EXAMPLE 1 illustrates asymmetrical arrangement of electrical property and hence flexibility for circuit designs. Example 2 [0077] A Primary #2 Tape (4.5 mils thick) is paired with two different constraining tape compositions (Constraining #1 and Constraining #2) having identical total/constraining tape thickness ratio as those shown in the EXAMPLE 1. [0078] Primary Tape Composition #2 (Glass #2, Table 1a) (4.5 mils Tape Thickness) Glass: Filler: Al 2 O 3 (D50 = 2.8 micron) Filler content 33.9 vol % SiO 2 54.50 wt % Na 2 O 2.20 Al 2 O 3 12.72 Li 2 O 0.24 B 2 O 3 8.32 SrO 2.94 CaO 16.63 K 2 O 1.47 MgO 0.98 Glass Density 2.55 g/cc Alumina Density 4.02 g/cc [0079] Test #5 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#2/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 3/1/6/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 7.8 Test #6 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#2/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 2/1/4/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 5.5 Test #7 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#2/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 3/1/4/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 6.6 Test #8 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#2/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 2/1/3/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 4.9 Test #9 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#2/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 2/2/3/2/2 constraining thickness 2.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 4.9 [0080] All samples were flat following belt furnace firing at 850° C. and they showed the following % x,y-shrinkage: Test #5 0.18%, Test #6 0.12%, Test #7 0.15%, Test #8 0.06%, and Test #9 0.07%. [0081] As one can see in the group Tests #5 to #8 (as compared to the group Tests #1 to #4), the role of the primary tape influences the degree of x,y-shrinkage control and the primary tape #2 is more effective to drive the x,y-shrinkage to zero. Furthermore, the configuration of Test #9 is similar to that of Test #8 except that both the Constraining tape constituents for Test #9 are consisted of two layers of tape at half of the thickness as those for Test #8. This adds another dimension of flexibility for circuit designs should more or less circuit layers are suitable to achieve desirable functional performances. Example 3 [0082] This example uses the Constraining Tape #1 and 3 with the Primary Tape #2. Regarding the dielectric constant k values, the Constraining tape #1 is higher (k=16) than that of Primary tape #2 (k=8) which is similar to that of the Constraining tape #3. [0083] Constraining Tape #3 (Glass #5, Table 1a) (4.0 or 2.0 mils Tape Thickness) Glass: Filler: Al 2 O 3 (D50 = 2.8 micron) Filler content 33.9 vol % SiO 2 7.63 wt. % Nd 2 O 3 30.52 wt. % B 2 O 3 12.63 BaO 22.26 MgO 5.35 La 2 O 3 15.76 Li 2 O 1.26 P 2 O 5 2.58 K 2 O 1.99 Glass Density 4.50 g/cc Alumina Density 4.02 g/cc [0084] Test #10 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#3/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 3/1/6/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 7.8 Test #11 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#3/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 2/1/4/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 5.5 Test #12 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#3/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 3/1/4/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 6.6 Test #13 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#3/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 2/1/3/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 4.9 [0085] All samples were flat following belt furnace firing at 850° C. and they showed the following % x,y-shrinkage: Test #10 0.39%, Test #11 0.25%, Test #120.19% and Test #130.11%. Comparing the shrinkage values of the above 13 tests, it appears that the combination of the Primary tape #2 with the Constraining tape #1 and #2 provides the most effective x,y shrinkage control. Example 4 [0086] This example uses the Constraining Tape #1 and 4 with the Primary Tape #2. Regarding the dielectric constant k values, the Constraining tape #1 is higher (k=16) than that of Primary tape #2 (k=8) which is similar to that of the Constraining tape #4. [0087] Constraining Tape #4 (Glass #7, Table 1a) (4.0 or 2.0 mils Tape Thickness) Glass: Filler: Al 2 O 3 (D50 = 2.8 micron) Filler content 33.9 vol % SiO 2 8.22 wt. % Nd 2 O 3 32.88 wt. % B 2 O 3 12.93 BaO 11.99 MgO 8.14 La 2 O 3 16.98 Li 2 O 1.46 P 2 O 5 5.55 K 2 O 1.89 Glass Density 4.27 g/cc Alumina Density 4.02 g/cc [0088] Test #14 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 3/1/6/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 7.8 Test #15 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 2/1/4/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 5.5 Test #16 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 3/1/4/1/3 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 6.6 Test #17 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 2/1/3/1/2 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 4.9 [0089] All samples were flat following belt furnace firing at 850° C. and they showed the following % x,y-shrinkage: Test #14 0.19%, Test #15 0.15%, Test #16 0.17% and Test #17 0.06%. Comparing the shrinkage values of the EXAMPLE 4 with those in the EXAMPLE 2, it appears that the combination of the Primary tape #2 with both of the Constraining tape #1 and #2 provides as effective x,y shrinkage control as a combination of the Primary tape #1 and #4. Example 5 [0090] In another experiment, Primary Tape #2 and Constraining Tape #1 and #4 were used. The differences between Test #16 of EXAMPLE 4 and Tests #18-#20 of EXAMPLE 5 are in the configuration of the multilayer laminates. Test #18 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 1/1/8/1/1 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 6.6 Test #19 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Prim#2/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 4/1/2/1/4 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 6.6 Test #20 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 5/1/1/5 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 6.6 Test #21 Prim#2/Constraining#1/Constraining#4/Prim#2 Layer count ratio = 5/1/2/5 constraining thickness 4.0 mils, primary thickness 4.5 mils total/constraining thickness ratio = 4.8 [0091] Despite the layer order arrangement among the Primary tape and two Constraining tapes, the above Tests #18-#20 have identical total tape thickness/constraining tape thickness ratio of 6.6. This is one of the critical factors controlling the x,y fired shrinkage. The x,y-shrinkage values for test 18, 19, or 20 of, respectively, 0.19%, 0.15%, or 0.15% are close to one another mainly due to the same tape thickness ratio of 6.6. Test #20 is a special case where the two Constraining tapes were in direct contact. Since both of them formed rigid microstructure due to crystallization of the glass/filler in the tape, they served as the core to constrain the Primary tape at its peak firing temperature of 850° C. Test #21 resulted in a smaller x,y-shrinkage of 0.03%, which was contributed by a thicker core, consisted of one layer of Constraining tape #1 and two layers of Constraining tape #4. As disclosed in this invention, the first of the two Constraining tape #4 layers was located at the geometrical center of the laminate configuration and a pseudo-symmetry was attained. [0092] Furthermore, the above laminate configuration exhibits a pseudo-symmetry if treating Primary #2 as one type and both Constraining #1 and #4 as the other type. However, if adopting a dielectric constant classification, the Constraining #1, a high k (=16) tape is located at layer 2 of a 12 layer laminate for Test #18; layer 3 of a 12 layer laminate for Test #19, layer 6 of a 12 layer laminate for Test #20, and layer 6 of a 13 layer laminate for Test #21. Therefore, the above EXAMPLE 5 illustrates asymmetrical arrangement of electrical property and hence flexibility for circuit designs. [0093] The primary/constraining tape laminates disclosed in this invention can be fired in a typical LTCC belt furnace profile to achieve full densification and zero or nearly zero x,y-shrinkage. A typical LTCC belt furnace profile for 951 GREEN TAPE™ (a commercial product from E. I. DuPont) is a three and a half-hour burnout and sintering profile which includes: (1) 25° C. to 60° C. at 2.5° C./min, (2) 60° C. to 400° C. at 19.2° C./min, (3) 400° C. to 435° C. at 1.4° C./min, (4) 435° C. to 850° C. at 7.0° C./min, (5) dwell at 850° C. for 17 min, (6) 850° C. to 40° C. at 17.3° C./min, and (7) 40° C. to room temperature at 0.5° C./min. For anyone skilled in the art, the above profile can be modified according to one's belt furnace specifications so long as adequate organic burnout, ramp rate to peak temperature, peak temperature duration, and descending rate can be optimized to produce the desirable results. [0094] The primary/constraining tape laminates disclosed in this invention can be fired in a typical LTCC belt furnace profile to achieve full densification and zero or nearly zero x,y-shrinkage. A typical LTCC belt furnace profile for 951 GREEN TAPE™ (a commercial product from E. I. DuPont) is a three and a half-hour burnout and sintering profile which includes: (1) 25° C. to 60° C. at 2.5° C./min, (2) 60° C. to 400° C. at 19.2° C./min, (3) 400° C. to 435° C. at 1.4° C./min, (4) 435° C. to 850° C. at 7.0° C./min, (5) dwell at 850° C. for 17 min, (6) 850° C. to 40° C. at 17.3° C./min, and (7) 40° C. to room temperature at 0.5° C./min. For anyone skilled in the art, the above profile can be modified according to one's belt furnace specifications so long as adequate organic burnout, ramp rate to peak temperature, peak temperature duration, and descending rate can be optimized to produce the desirable results.

This invention relates to a process which produces flat, distortion-free, zero-shrink, low-temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) bodies, composites, modules or packages from precursor green (unfired) laminates of three or more different dielectric tape chemistries that are configured in an uniquely or pseudo-symmetrical arrangement in the z-axis of the laminate.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of and claims priority to and the benefit of: U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser. No. 14/028,232, filed Sep. 16, 2013, titled “Machine, Computer Readable Medium, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Display,” which is a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser. No. 12/620,995, filed Nov. 18, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,538,966, titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Access Utilizing a User-Selected Trigger Event,” which claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,814, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,831, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,862, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,894, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,914, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008, all of which are each incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. This application also relates to: U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/620,944, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Display” filed on Nov. 18, 2009; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/440,871, by Reese, et al., titled “Machine, Computer Readable Medium, and Computer-Implemented Method For File Management, Storage, and Display filed on Apr. 5, 2012; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/620,963, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management and Storage” filed on Nov. 18, 2009; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/621,059, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for Randomized Slide Show of Files” filed on Nov. 18, 2009, now abandoned; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/621,033, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Display in Albums Utilizing a Questionnaire” filed on Nov. 18, 2009, now abandoned, all of which are each incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention The present invention relates generally to file management and organization, and, more particularly, to machines, program products, and methods of file management, storage, and display, including computer scrapbooking and journaling. 2. Description of the Related Art With the proliferation of inexpensive digital cameras, including the ubiquity of camera phones, personal photography has never been more common. It is known, however, that many photographs are underutilized. Typically, personal photographs are haphazardly stored in drawers and boxes (if prints) or computer folders and memory devices (if digital files), uncategorized and rarely viewed by anyone. Photo albums provide well known means for storing and viewing photographs. A photo album is a book with blank pages used for making a collection of photographs. However, the tasks associated with organizing, storing, and selecting photographs for photo albums are quite time-consuming and require extensive decision-making. While photo albums generally display photographs with or without captions, scrapbooks feature other mementos in addition to photographs, such as, e.g., ticket stubs, letters, announcements, invitations, bulletins, programs, receipts, and the like. Due to the inclusion of these mementos, scrapbooks often provide better context for photographs than photo albums, but at a cost of even more extensive decision-making. Similarly, it is known that the proliferation of movie clips, audio clips, and other electronic files has resulted in unorganized, underutilized clutter on computer and file storage systems. Likewise, it is well known that personal documents are often haphazardly stored and uncategorized, including, e.g., personal financial records such as brokerage receipts and tax records, personal medical records such as immunization charts, and government documents such as marriage licenses. Digital slide shows and rotating picture frames are known, and the inclusion of a photograph in a particular computer folder typically determines its inclusion in the slide show or rotation. That is, the location of the file, whether in a particular folder (or not), determines its inclusion (or exclusion) from the slide show. SUMMARY OF INVENTION In view of the foregoing, Applicant has recognized a need for file organization systems, machines, program products, and methods of file management, storage, and display. Embodiments of the present invention provide for converting photographic prints and documents, i.e., hardcopies, into digital or computerized files, i.e., softcopies, and then into organized electronic albums and the display thereof. The conversion from photographic prints and documents to digital files, i.e., from hardcopies to softcopies, can include, for example, use of a scanner or other input device that digitizes an optical image into an electronic image represented as binary data as understood by those skilled in the art. The conversion from digital files to organized electronic albums can include, for example, the use of an icon palette as described herein, with the icons corresponding to a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. In addition to scanned photographic prints and documents, digital files can include, for example, digital photographs, i.e., images originally captured using a digital camera and digital documents, i.e., documents originally created on a computer. Through the user action assigning the digital files to the predetermined categories, the digital files can be organized and accessed differently, i.e., with a different arrangement and presentation, using the icon palette. Furthermore, this assembling of individual images and documents into aggregations and collections of related elements can result in new and enhanced displays, such as albums, electronic scrapbooks, and slide shows as described herein. In addition, embodiments of the present invention facilitate the creation, preservation, and accessibility of historical archives from otherwise unorganized and underutilized clutter on computer and file storage systems. Embodiments of the present invention provide, for example, for a file management system, responsive to the problems associated with unorganized and underutilized files, including but not limited to photographs. The system includes an icon palette displayed on a user computer, with the icons corresponding to a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. The plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user includes predefined default categories and user-defined categories. The predefined default categories can include, for example, marriage, faith, family, children, friends, school, music, film, books, travel, work, sports, pets, military, health, and others as understood by those skilled in the art. The icon palette includes a palette boundary. User action, including, for example, dragging and dropping one of the plurality of unsorted files across the palette boundary onto an icon on the icon palette assigns the file to one of the plurality of predetermined categories. A file can be assigned to one or more predetermined categories. The file management system also includes a file management server, which then stores the file remotely from the user computer and allows for retrieval of the file through an electronic communications network, e.g., the Internet. The file management system includes a client-server architecture, including a thick-client or application client and also a thin-client or browser, as understood by those skilled in the art. The file management system can include a plurality of users associated with a plurality of user computers. The user can select the icons to be shown on the icon palette, including adding or deleting icons. The user can create icons corresponding to user-defined categories and delete icons corresponding to predefined default categories. The user can select an order for the icons on the icon palette and group icons together. In addition, the user can expand or collapse the icon palette to suit the user's preferences, including altering an x-dimension, a y-dimension, or both x- and y-dimensions of the icon palette, as understood by those skilled in the art. In an exemplary embodiment, the user can match the scale of the icon palette to the user's good vision, or alternately the user's poor vision. In addition, the user can move the icon palette throughout the screen associated with the user computer as understood by those skilled in the art. The icon palette preserves the user-selected order for the icons on the icon palette through changes in its size and location. Moreover, the icon palette can use various indicia of a painter's palette, including, for example, color, to identify the icons with the predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. For example, the color of the icon for the category “School” can be selected by the user to be the color of the user's alma mater, such as, for example, burnt-orange. Features of the file management system, according to embodiments of the present invention, allow a user to quickly sort, organize, categorize, and store files, including photographs. The photographs can, for example, include digital photographs or scanned prints. Countless other files, such as, for example, medical and immunization records, school report cards, and newspaper clippings, can also be scanned as digital files and then managed, stored, and displayed according to embodiments of the present invention. The use of icons and predetermined categories provides the user with a visualization and a taxonomy for the sorting and organizing of files. In addition, the predefined default categories allow the user to begin sorting and organizing files without having to create from scratch a categorization scheme. User-defined categories allow the user to create additional categories and personalize the file management system. For example, a predefined default category can include the category children; whereas user-defined categories can include categories Dick and Jane, one for each child. In addition, the user can edit the icon associated with each category so that the icon for the category Dick is an image of Dick the child, an icon for the category Jane is an image of Jane the child, and an icon for the category children is an image of Dick and Jane, instead of a default icon of generic children. In addition, the use of a remote file management server provides the user portability, as files can be accessed anywhere the Internet is available, and fault tolerance, in the event of a flood, a fire, or severe equipment failure. An exemplary embodiment of a file management machine includes a first computer configured as a file management server adapted to communicate through an electronic communications network with a plurality of remotely located user computers associated with a plurality of member and visitor users and configured as the user computers, with each user computer being remote from the file management server. The file management server can include at least a processor, memory, and a computer program operable on the file management server and stored in the memory or other non-transitory computer readable medium. The computer program can include a set of instructions that, when executed by the file management server, cause the file management server to perform operations comprising: generating a member account for a member user, causing display of an icon palette to the member user on one of the remotely located user computers, the icon palette having a palette boundary and icons representing a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the member user, and assigning one of the plurality of files to at least one of the plurality of predetermined categories responsive to member user action. The user action can be such that dragging and dropping one of the plurality of files onto a selected one of the icons on the icon palette causes the file management server to execute the operations of: extracting a copy of the file from a memory element associated with the respective remotely located user computer and transferring the copy of the file through the electronic communications network to a memory element associated with the file management server, and establishing a relation between the file and the respective predetermined category represented by the selected icon. The operations can also include repeating the operation of the assigning for each other of the plurality of files to thereby define a plurality of member uploaded files, associating each of the plurality of member uploaded files with one or more of a plurality of albums responsive to member user selection thereof, and generating a plurality of visitor accounts for a corresponding plurality of visitors. Each visitor account of the plurality of visitor accounts is associated with the member account and configured by the member user to provide each respective different visitor with custom visitor access permissions. The operations can also include assigning the visitor access restrictions to each of the plurality of visitors through custom visitor access configuration of the plurality of visitor accounts, with each custom visitor access configuration providing member user-selected access to one or more subsets of the plurality of member uploaded files according to one or more of the following bases: a file-by-file basis, an album-by-album basis, and a category-by-category basis. According to an embodiment, the custom visitor access configuration for each respective visitor includes selectable access to the one or more subsets of the member uploaded files on the file-by-file basis and one or both of the following bases: the album-by-album basis and the category-by-category basis. According to another embodiment, the custom visitor access configuration for each respective visitor includes selectable access to the one or more subsets of the member uploaded files on the file-by-file basis, the album-by-album basis, and the category-by-category basis. According to an embodiment, the operations can also or alternatively include generating a visitor access configuration webpage form providing a visitor account creation input section including visitor name and password input fields, a visitor listing section, and two or more of the following: a categorical access section providing one or more input fields for member user selection of one or more of the predetermined categories, an album access section providing one or more input fields for member user selection of one or more of the plurality of albums, and a file access section providing one or more input fields for member user selection of one or more specifically identified member uploaded files of the plurality of member uploaded files. According to an embodiment, the operations can also include employing one or more of the plurality of visitor accounts to facilitate gathering missing information related to description of material displayed in a member uploaded file. The operation of employing one or more of the plurality of visitor accounts to facilitate gathering missing information can include causing the display of one of the plurality of member uploaded files to a visitor associated with one of the plurality of visitor accounts configured to provide access to the respective member uploaded file, and receiving the missing information related to the description of material displayed in the respective member uploaded file. In a typical scenario, the displayed file is a photograph, the material displayed include people, and the missing information received includes a name of at least one of the people displayed in the photograph which was left unnamed as a result of being unknown to the member user. According to an embodiment, the computer program described above can be stored on a standalone non-transitory computer readable medium to form a standalone product. Example embodiments of the present invention provide for a method, e.g., a computerized method, of file management, which include a combination of computer implemented steps performed in conjunction with user manipulation to perform the operations described above. The method ca also or alternatively n include prompting a user to fill out a questionnaire associated with the file responsive to a user action assigning the file to a predetermined category. The questionnaire can include any additional categories, album data, a journal entry, event information, and display information. The data from the questionnaire can be ultimately stored in a database on a remote file management server. The event information can include, for example, the time, date, and location associated with the file. The event information can be used for search and display purposes. For example, to locate a particular file, a user can limit a search to a particular date or a particular date range. In addition, the questionnaire can include a data field for search words to facilitate a later search for the file. Embodiments of the present invention can provide, for example, for displaying an album of files in pre-selected formats on a display device, responsive to the questionnaires associated with the files. Through the questionnaire, the user can assign a file to an album and provide a relative picture size. With multiple albums possible for each category, the files associated with a particular album can relate to a single event or theme, such as, for example, a child's birthday party or other event as understood by those skilled in the art. The relative picture size can include, for example, a value of “1” indicating a small picture, a value of “5” indicating a large picture, and values of “2”, “3”, and “4” in between, as understood by those skilled in the art. A single page in an album can, for example, display only one file with a picture size of “5”; whereas, a page in an album can, for example, display two files with a picture size of “4” and many files with a picture size of “1”, as understood by those skilled in the art. By automating the display of files into albums, including, for example, any formatting (once an album assignment is determined by the user), embodiments of the present invention provide an easy and effortless way to view multiple collections of files. Embodiments of the present invention include other features and benefits, including a program product that prompts the user for login information. Login information can include, for example, a username, a password, and a status to thereby allow complete access to a member and restricted access to a visitor or a trial user. The benefit of a visitor status is to allow a user to share photographs and other files, without providing complete and unrestricted access to the member's other documents. For example, in-laws can share pictures of a common grandchild without sharing personal medical or military service records. Because the user determines the level of access for a visitor account, different visitor accounts can have different access configurations allowing, for example, an adult child who has a medical power of attorney access to the member's prescription records, but denying a minor grandchild with a different visitor account access to those files. Another benefit of a visitor status is to increase the number of people and the amount of information or context. For example, photographs of a picnic often include dates and other guests whose names or complete names are unknown to the host. The use of visitor accounts facilitates the gathering of this and other missing information. Embodiments of the present invention provide, for example, for allowing the user to indicate a desire or intention to make a file (and associated journal entry) publicly available after the death of the user, or alternately to delete the file. A user can also use another event, time, or combination besides the death of the user, to trigger a file being made public, such as, for example, the year 2075 or, in the alternative, 25 years after the death of the user. The user can specify such access on a file-by-file basis, or alternately on a category-by-category basis, so that private, personal information is deleted, but otherwise the files can be accessible by third parties, for the benefit of history. Embodiments of the present invention include legal arrangements and associated documents necessary to carry out the intentions of the user. In an exemplary embodiment, a wealth of information regarding notable events in a life of the user would be preserved for future generations of historians, both professional and personal. Embodiments of the present invention can also include application software, i.e., program product, and a local database on a user computer. The local database can store settings and preferences for user accounts and can also record recent changes made by the user. The system further includes an electronic communications network connecting the remote computer server and the user computer. According to embodiments of the present invention, the user computer connects to the remote server computer only when data needs to be transferred and upon initial login by the user to synchronize the data in the local database and the server database. The system can include a plurality of users associated with a plurality of user computers. Embodiments of the present invention can also include file management machines, i.e., computers, including client or user computers, and computer servers. The file management machines can be configured, i.e., programmed, with computer program product to implement various processes and operations as described herein. In addition, embodiments of the present invention include enhancements and other systems, machines, program products, and associated methods of file management, storage, and display, as understood by those skilled in the art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS So that the manner in which the features and benefits of the invention, as well as others which will become apparent, may be understood in more detail, a more particular description of the invention briefly summarized above may be had by reference to the embodiments thereof which are illustrated in the appended drawings, which form a part of this specification. It is also to be noted, however, that the drawings illustrate only various embodiments of the invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of the invention's scope as it may include other effective embodiments as well. FIG. 1 is an environmental view according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a computer screen view of an icon palette according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is another computer screen view of an icon palette according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a client-server architecture of a file management system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a client-server architecture of a file management system according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a schematic flow diagram of a file management system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a web browser architecture of a file management system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a schematic flow diagram of a file management system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a logic diagram for a launch sequence according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a logic diagram for a launch sequence using a browser according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a logic diagram for an icon palette according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a logic diagram for an icon palette according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 16 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 17 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 20 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 21 is a logic diagram for a method of file management according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 22 is a data view according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 23 is second data view according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 24 is a third data view according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 25 is a fourth data view according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 26 is a questionnaire according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 27 is a questionnaire according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 28 is a visitor access configuration screen according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 29 is a randomizer setup screen according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 30A and 30B are views of a randomizer slide show according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 31 is a logic diagram for a method of file management, storage, and retrieval according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 32 is a logic diagram for a method of file management, storage, and retrieval according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 33 is a computer program product according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 34 is a computer configured as a file management machine according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, which illustrate embodiments of the invention. This invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the illustrated embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. Embodiments of the present invention provide for converting photographic prints and documents, i.e., hardcopies, into digital or computerized files, i.e., softcopies, and then into organized electronic albums and the display thereof. The conversion from photographic prints and documents to digital files, i.e., from hardcopies to softcopies, can include, for example, use of a scanner or other input device, such as, a voice recorder, a video camera, or a digital camera. A scanner is an input device, e.g., a computer peripheral, that digitizes an optical image into an electronic image represented as binary data as understood by those skilled in the art. Other input devices, e.g., digital cameras, can communicate with a computer through standard input-out (I/O) devices and ports as understood by those skilled in the art, allowing the transfer of a file from memory associated with the input device, e.g., the digital camera, to memory associated with the computer for use with the embodiments of the present invention. The conversion from digital files to organized electronic albums can include, for example, the use of an icon palette as described herein, with the icons corresponding to a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. In addition to scanned photographic prints and documents, digital files can include, for example, digital photographs, i.e., images originally captured using a digital camera; digital documents, i.e., documents originally created on a computer or other electronic device; and sound or video recordings. Through the user action assigning the digital files to the predetermined categories, the digital files can be organized and accessed differently, i.e., with a different arrangement and presentation, using the icon palette. That is, files stored conventionally in electronic folders on a computer, e.g., a document folder having subfolders for pictures, music, and other classifications, or files stored conventionally on various memory media, such as, compact disks (“CDs”), digital video disks, (“DVDs”), memory sticks, hard drives, subscriber identity module (“SIM” module or cards), and others as understood by those skilled in the art, are transformed, according to embodiments of the present invention, in location, including to remote servers away from the user as described herein and accessible through, e.g., the Internet; in arrangement, including into a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user; and in presentation, including through icons. This assembling of individual images and documents into aggregations and collections of related elements can further result in new and enhanced displays, such as albums, electronic scrapbooks, and slide shows as described herein. Moreover, journal entries and other associated data, as described herein, provide and keep context so that the new and enhanced displays are greater, i.e., more beneficial, than the sum of the parts. These new and enhanced displays can provide, for example, a visual depiction or representation of notable events in a life of the user, including, for example, family or faith. In addition, embodiments of the present invention facilitate the creation, preservation, and accessibility of historical archives from otherwise unorganized and underutilized clutter on computer and file storage systems, including boxes of photographic prints, documents, mementos, and records. That is, embodiments of the present invention can efficiently change the physical into the digital (or electronic), the unexplained into the annotated, and the inaccessible into the accessible. Embodiments of the present invention provide, for example, for a file management system, illustrated in FIGS. 1-34 , responsive to the problems associated with unorganized, unsorted, and underutilized files, including but not limited to photographs. The system includes an icon palette 103 , 200 , 300 , (see also, e.g., FIGS. 22 and 23 for alternate embodiments 2203 and 2303 ), displayed on a user computer 101 , 407 , 507 , 711 , i.e., a machine, with the icons 105 , 203 A-E, 303 A-E, corresponding to a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. The system can also include a computer, i.e., a machine, remote from the user configured as a file management server 111 . The predetermined categories associated with the life of the user include predefined default categories and user-defined categories. The plurality of predefined default categories can include a number, e.g., three (3), of the following: marriage, faith, family, children, school, travel, military, health, and others as understood by those skilled in the art. Other embodiments for the plurality of predefined default categories include friends, music, film, books, work, sports, and pets (see, e.g., 2903 in FIG. 29 ). The icon palette includes a palette boundary 201 , 301 . User action, including, for example, dragging and dropping one of the plurality of unsorted files across the palette boundary 201 , 301 onto an icon 105 , 203 A-E, 303 A-E on the icon palette 103 , 200 , 300 assigns the file to one of the plurality of predetermined categories. A file can be assigned to one or more predetermined categories. User action on a computer can include, for example, utilizing a computer mouse. A computer mouse is a pointing device that detects, e.g., mechanically or optically, two-dimensional motion relative to a supporting surface. The motion is typically generated by the user to driver a cursor 207 on the computer screen. That is, the mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user interface (“GUI”). Physically, a mouse can be an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. Other input devices for user action can include trackballs, joysticks, and various game controllers as understood by those skilled in the art. Directing the cursor 207 “on top” of a file being displayed on a computer screen and then clicking the button of the mouse allows the computer to select the file for action. Action can include, for example, opening the file (typically through a double-click as understood by those skilled in the art), including automatically launching an application associated with the file as necessary. Action can also include, for example, dragging and dropping the file onto a folder or application, such as an icon palette embodiment of the present invention. As understood by those skilled in the art, dragging a file involves selecting the file, then holding down the mouse button while moving the mouse; likewise, dropping a file involves releasing the mouse button when the cursor 207 on the screen is “on top” of or associated with a location, file, or application on the computer screen. As part of user action assigning the file to a predetermined category, e.g., dragging and dropping the file on an icon on the icon palette, the program product obtains information about the file, including its name, file type or extension, and location in memory, i.e., its path, and uses this information to copy the file to file management server. The user (see, e.g., U in FIG. 1 ) can select the icons 105 , 203 A-E, 303 A-E to be shown on the icon palette 103 , 200 , 300 including adding or deleting icons. Through menu screens and use of I/O devices, the user U can create icons or modify icons 105 , 203 A-E, 303 A-E corresponding to user-defined categories and delete icons corresponding to predefined default categories. The user U can select an order for the icons on the icon palette and group icons together. In addition, as illustrated in FIG. 2 , the user can adjust the relative size, i.e., expand or collapse, the icon palette to suit the user's preferences, including altering an x-dimension, a y-dimension, or both x- and y-dimensions of the icon palette, as understood by those skilled in the art. Compare, e.g., the size of icon palettes 205 and 200 in FIG. 2 . In an exemplary embodiment, the user U can match the scale of the icon palette to the user's good vision, or alternately the user's poor vision. In addition, the user U can move the icon palette throughout the screen associated with the user computer as understood by those skilled in the art. That is, a location of the icon palette on the display screen is controllable by the user U. The icon palette 103 , 200 , 300 preserves the user-selected order for the icons on the icon palette through changes in its size and location. (See, e.g., FIGS. 2 and 3 .) Moreover, the icon palette 103 , 200 , 300 can use various indicia of a painter's palette, including, for example, color and shape, to identify the icons with the predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. For example, the color of the icon for the category “School” 203 C can be selected by the user to be the color of the user's alma mater, such as, for example, burnt-orange. For example, the spacing of the icons on the palette can suggest or evoke the spacing of separate portions of paint on a painter's palette. Features of the file management system, according to embodiments of the present invention, allow a user to quickly sort, organize, categorize, and store files, including photographs. See, e.g., FIG. 3 . The photographs 307 can, for example, include digital photographs or scanned prints. Countless other files 311 , such as, for example, medical and immunization records, school report cards, and newspaper clippings, can also be scanned as digital files and then managed, stored, and retrieved according to embodiments of the present invention. The use of icons 303 A- 303 E and predetermined categories provides the user with a visualization and a taxonomy for the sorting and organizing of files. In addition, the predefined default categories allow the user to begin sorting and organizing files without having to create from scratch a categorization scheme. Moreover, the existence of predefined default categories facilitates the sharing of files, allowing two users to share files categorized as Travel, without having to further cull, sort, or organize for an exchange. User-defined categories allow the user to create additional categories and personalize the file management system. Embodiments of the present invention provide, for example, for a method of file management. See, e.g., FIG. 11 . The method includes prompting a user to fill out a questionnaire 1113 associated with the file responsive to a user action assigning the file to a predetermined category 1103 . The questionnaire can include any additional categories, data, a journal entry, event information, and display information. See, e.g., FIG. 22 . The data from the questionnaire is ultimately stored in a database on the remote file management server. The event information includes, for example, the time, date, and location associated with the file. The event information is useful for searching and display purposes. For example, to locate a particular file, a user can limit a search to a particular date or a particular date range. In addition, the questionnaire includes a data field for search words to facilitate a later search for the file. As understood by those skilled in the art, the questionnaire can include multiple screens, forms, pages, windows, or queries. Because the questionnaire provides access to and stores input in a database, questionnaire data may be added or modified at once, in batches, or incrementally, as understood by those skilled in the art. Embodiments of the present invention provide, for example, for displaying an album of files in pre-selected formats 2213 on a display device, responsive to the questionnaires associated with the files. Through the questionnaire 2600 , the user can assign a file to an album and provide a relative picture size 2609 so that a pre-selected format for an album page includes a large number of files with a relatively small picture size, and a pre-selected format for an album page includes a small number of files or a single file with a relatively larger picture size. With multiple albums possible for each category, the files associated with a particular album can relate to a single event or theme, such as, for example, a child's birthday party or other event as understood by those skilled in the art. By automating the display of files into albums, including, for example, any formatting (once an album assignment is determined by the user), embodiments of the present invention provide an easy and effortless way to view multiple collections of files. Embodiments of the present invention provide, for example, for allowing the user to indicate a desire or intention to make a file (and associated journal entry) publicly available after, for example, the death of the user, or alternately to delete the file. See, e.g., 2705 in FIG. 27 . Through the questionnaire, the user can specify a desire or intention to make a file accessible to the public so that the user can designate a portion of the plurality of files and associated journal entries to be made publicly available after a user-selected trigger event. See, e.g., 2703 in FIG. 27 . In addition, the questionnaire can include a hyperlink to terms 2707 and an approval box for the user to select to approve the terms for future access to the files. A user can also use a calendar event, a death of the user, a time period after the death of the user, and other events to trigger a file being made public, such as, for example, the year 2075 or, in the alternative, 25 years after the death of the user. The user can specify such access on a file-by-file basis, or alternately on a category-by-category basis, so that private, personal information is deleted, but otherwise the files can benefit history. Embodiments of the present invention include legal arrangements and associated documents necessary to carry out the intentions of the user. These arrangements can include the establishment of a recipient entity 109 , including non-profit or for-profit organizations, to acquire ownership rights to the files, for example, to own or jointly own or otherwise license the files and copyrights associated with the files. These arrangements and associated documents can further include a joint ownership with right of survival, a trust, a perpetual license, an assignment of copyright ownership, a dedication to the public domain, limited powers of attorney and other forms of agency, and other legal arrangements and associated documents as understood by those skilled in the art. In an exemplary embodiment, a recipient of files according to such legal arrangement could charge for and license access (and other rights) to the files, either directly or indirectly, through subscriptions, sponsorships, advertising, and other forms of payment. That is, publicly available does not necessarily mean freely available. In an exemplary embodiment, a wealth of information regarding notable events in a life of the user would be preserved for future generations of historians, both professional and personal historians. In an exemplary embodiment, a death of the user can be verified by a published obituary or by a contact list supplied by the user through the questionnaire, or otherwise as understood by those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, a journal entry recording the death of the user can be created. In addition, funeral-related files, including, for example, an order of service, a program, a video or audio recording of services, a guest book, a eulogy text, an obituary, and others as understood by those skilled in the art, can be added to the files on behalf of the user and for the benefit of history. Embodiments of the present invention further include, for example, a journal 2201 . A master journal 2301 for the user's account is an aggregation of individual journal entries 2215 , each associated with a file and entered through a questionnaire. See also 2201 , 2501 and 2401 for portions of the master journal for an album or category. Embodiments include displaying a portion of the master journal on the display device responsive to user criteria so that a user can view journal entries for a category, a particular date range, or files in an album. Embodiments of the present invention include, for example, a randomizer module for displaying a slide show of randomized files responsive to user criteria. See, e.g., FIGS. 30A and 30B . To use the randomizer module, the user specifies in a database a plurality of files for inclusion in a slide show of randomized files so that only appropriate files are displayed. The randomizer module randomly selects a set of files from the plurality of files specified in the database for inclusion in the slide show responsive to user criteria, displays the randomly selected set of files in the slide show on a display device, and repeats the steps of randomly selecting and displaying the set of files in the slide show responsive to user criteria. Embodiments of randomizer module can include, for example, random number generators, i.e., applications that generate series of numbers that are, attempt to be, or appear to be random, or as if by chance. As understood those skilled in the art, random number generation can use a seed value, such as the current time, to generate a random number. Alternately, embodiments can include prior collections of numbers, known as random number tables. The random numbers generated or retrieved from a table can be scaled to match the need. For example, if fifty ( 50 ) files are associated with a category, a random number be scaled so that each of the files has a similar chance of being selected in the slide show for that category. Included in the definition of random are so-called pseudo-random generation and tables, in which certain results are ignored or eliminated because although generated randomly, the results do not appear to be. For example, if a given image is selected for display and then, by random, the same image is selected again for the next position, the pseudo-random generation or table may eliminate this result, i.e., skip to the next number in sequence. Likewise, pseudo-random schemes in which missed or underselected files are favored or weighted are considered as random for purposes of this application. The user specifies files for inclusion in a slide show of randomized files through the questionnaires. The randomizer module can then display the slide show on the display device attached to the user computer and external devices, such as, for example, electronic picture frames and televisions. External devices can communicate with the user computer wirelessly as understood by those skilled in the art. The user criteria can include one or more categories to display, a quantity of files to select, a start date, an end date, a duration the selected files will be presented by the program, and a number of cycles to repeat selection and presentation. See, e.g., FIG. 29 . The benefits of the randomizer include the quick and effortless display of various and numerous files maintained by the file management system on various display devices, including the user computer and digital picture frames. The randomizer module also greatly improves the utilization of the numerous files by providing a convenient way to view files that otherwise would remain scattered or stored. In addition, because the user previously specified files for inclusion in the randomizer, only appropriate files are displayed, preventing the inadvertent display of a private file. By allowing the user to select categories to display, the user can also tailor the randomizer slide show to an audience. As illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 , embodiments of the present invention include a user U, using a user computer 101 to view an icon palette 103 , 200 , 300 on a display screen 102 associated with the user computer 101 . The user computer 101 can communicate with a file management server 111 , associated with a recipient entity 109 established for acquiring ownership rights to files and located remote, i.e., in a remote location, from the user U and the user computer 101 . The icon palette 103 , 200 , 300 includes icons 105 , 203 A-E, 303 A-E corresponding to a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user U, such as, for example, family 107 . As the user U assigns one of a plurality of unsorted files 311 , such as, e.g., a recent picture of his family, to one of the plurality of predetermined categories through dragging and dropping 309 one of the plurality of unsorted files across the palette boundary 201 , 301 onto an icon on the icon palette. The unsorted file 307 , 311 can originate on the desktop 313 or within a folder, such as, for example, a folder of photos 305 , as understood by those skilled in the art. As understood by those skilled in the art, the user U can use a mouse or other such device to drive a cursor 207 on the computer. As illustrated in FIGS. 2 and 3 , the icon palette 200 , 300 is scalable by the user and can be moved about the screen. Compare, e.g., the size of icon palettes 205 and 200 in FIG. 2 . As illustrated in FIG. 4 , embodiments of the present invention include a system 400 with a client-server architecture for file management, storing, and display. The system 400 includes a first computer server 401 , i.e., a machine. The first computer server 401 includes a database engine 403 and stores a database 405 . In an exemplary embodiment, the database 405 is a relational database, such as, e.g., an SQL database. The database 405 contains records for a plurality of user account settings, preferences, journal entries, and files 406 . The files can include various formats such as, for example, JPEG, JIFF, MPEG, GIF, MP3, MP4, PDF, WAV, and others as understood by those skilled in the art. The system also includes a second computer associated with a user defining a user computer 407 , i.e., a machine. In an exemplary embodiment, the user computer 407 is a MACINTOSH or WINDOWS computer running an operating system from Apple Inc. or Microsoft Corporation, as understood by those skilled in the art. In an exemplary embodiment, the user computer 407 is configured via new and enhanced program product 3301 , 3402 to implement features and functionality as described herein. The user computer 407 can include a local database 411 and a thick-client or application software client 409 , i.e., computer program product, as understood by those skilled in the art. The local database 411 stores settings and preferences for user accounts and also records of recent changes made by the user 408 . The user computer 407 can temporarily store the file and data associated with the file so that the user can assign files and associate data with the file in the event of slow or interrupted communication with the remote server 401 . The system 400 further includes an electronic communications network 413 , for example, the Internet, connecting the computer server 401 and the user computer 407 . Accordingly, the first computer server 401 is a remote server, being remote from the user computer 407 . The remote file management server 401 stores files remotely from the user computer 407 and allows for retrieval of files through an electronic communications network 413 , e.g., the Internet. The system can include a plurality of users associated with a plurality of user computers. In an alternate embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 5 , the database engine 503 can access a database or portions of a database 505 located a database server 510 or storage device 515 , remote from the computer server 501 . The database can include user account settings, preferences, and other data 506 . The user computer 507 can operate a user application 509 , which may include a local database 511 storing user account settings, preferences, and recent changes 508 . In the system 500 , the user computer 507 can communicate with the file management server 501 machine through the electronic communications network 513 , e.g., the Internet. The system can include a plurality of users associated with a plurality of user computers. These embodiments allow for a scalable database architecture with robust security and fault-tolerant properties as understood by those skilled in the art. In addition, these embodiments allow for rarely accessed data to be archived 517 on tape device or other storage device 515 , perhaps resulting in a delay for the user to access the archived data, as understood by those skilled in the art. Such storage devices can further be located remote from the server 501 . In an exemplary embodiment, the file management server 501 machine can a computer or computers running a WINDOWS, MACINTOSH, UNIX, LINUX, or other operating system as understood by those skilled in the art. In an exemplary embodiment, the file management server 501 machine is associated with one or more remote (from the user) data centers providing hosting, processing, and storage capabilities. As understood by those skilled in the art, International Business Machines Corp. (“IBM”) and various other organizations operate such facilities and can provide additionally hardware, software, and services and support. Such facilities can offer redundant and fault-tolerant implementations. Redundant systems can include, for example, multiple power sources, communication networks, computers and other hardware, and associated monitoring and switching infrastructure, as understood by those skilled in the art, so that no single component failure results in a system failure. According to a method 600 of communicating with the server, as illustrated in FIG. 6 , the user computer connects to the remote server computer only upon initial secure login by the user 601 and after a data change when data needs to be transferred and to synchronize the data in the local database and the server database 603 . Requests to access the server are validated through a secure login 605 . In addition, the use of a remote file management server provides the user portability, as files can be accessed anywhere the Internet is available, and fault tolerance, in the event of a flood, a fire, or severe equipment failure. As illustrated in FIG. 7 , embodiments of the present invention also include a system 700 with a thin-client or browser-based implementations of a client-server architecture for file management, storing, and retrieval, as understood by those skilled in the art. The system 700 includes a first computer server 701 . The first computer server 701 includes a web server 703 , a database engine 705 , and a database 707 . The database 707 contains records for a plurality of user account settings, preferences, journal entries, and files 709 . In an exemplary embodiment, the first computer server 701 machine is associated with a remote (from the user) data center providing hosting, processing, and storage capabilities. The system also includes a second computer associated with a user defining a user computer 711 . In an exemplary embodiment, the user computer 711 is a MACINTOSH or WINDOWS computer running an operating system from Apple Inc. or Microsoft Corporation, as understood by those skilled in the art. The user computer 711 includes a thin-client or browser client 713 as understood by those skilled in the art. According to this embodiment of the present invention, no local database is required on the user computer 711 , and communication with the server 701 is necessary. The system 700 further includes an electronic communications network 715 , for example, the Internet, connecting the computer server 701 and the user computer 711 . The system can include a plurality of users associated with a plurality of user computers. According to a method 800 of communicating with the server, as illustrated in FIG. 8 , the user enters the URL into the browser address bar 801 . The URL, which stands for uniform resource locator or universal resource locator, is the address of a resource, such as, for example, a document or Web site, on the Internet that consists of a communications protocol followed by the name or address of a computer on the network and that often includes additional locating information, such as, for example, directory and file names. The server sends a secure page requesting user name and password information 803 . Then the computer connects to the remote server computer through a secure connection 805 , as understood by those skilled in the art. As illustrated in FIGS. 9 and 10 , embodiments of the present invention provide launch sequences 900 , 1000 . The user launches the application 901 or enters an URL address into the browser on the user computer 1001 and is prompted for login information 903 , 1003 , including, for example, a username and password, as understood by those skilled in the art. Embodiments of the present invention further provide during the login for a user's status as, for example, a member, a visitor, and a trial 927 , 1027 . A member has an existing account. A visitor is associated with a member account but is restricted to allowed areas and permitted operations. See also FIG. 28 for a visitor access configuration screen. A trial status denotes a user without an account. If a user is not a member 905 , 1005 , an offer to sign up, or become a member, can be presented 907 , 1007 . If the user so indicates a sign-up window 909 or sign-up page 1009 can be presented to the user. The data entered in the sign-up window 909 or sign-up page 1009 can be communicated to the database 913 , 1013 on the file management server through the electronic communications network 911 , 1011 to create or deny a new account. Other launch sequence embodiments of the present invention send the user's name, password, and status 915 , 1015 through the electronic communications network 917 , 1017 to the database on the remote file management server to validate login information and return account preferences 919 , 1019 . The file management server then returns user settings, categories, and icons to the user computer 921 , 1021 . If necessary, the file management server synchronizes the settings, categories, and icons with those stored locally on the user computer 923 , 1023 . Upon a successful launch sequence, the software displays the user-appropriate icon palette and icons and awaits user action 925 , 1025 so that the user is displayed the icon palette on the desktop 929 , 1029 . The benefit of a visitor status embodiment is to allow a user to share photographs and other files, without providing complete and unrestricted access to the member's other documents. For example, in-laws can share pictures of a common grandchild without sharing personal medical or military service records. Because the user determines the level of access for a visitor account, different visitor accounts can have different access configurations allowing, for example, an adult child who has a medical power of attorney access to the member's prescription records, but denying a minor grandchild with a different visitor account access to those files. Another benefit of a visitor status is to increase the number of people and the amount of information or context. For example, photographs of a picnic often include dates and other guests whose names or complete names are unknown to the host. The use of visitor accounts facilitates the gathering of this and other missing information. As illustrated in FIGS. 11-12 and 26-27 , embodiments of the present invention provide methods 1100 , 1200 for prompting a user to fill out a questionnaire 1113 , 1213 associated with a file responsive to a user action selecting the file or assigning the file to a category 1103 , 1203 . In a thick-client embodiment, the software application receives a user action 1101 associated with the icon bar, i.e., the icon palette. In a thin-client or browser-based embodiment, a browser page displays the icon palette 1201 and awaits a user action. The kind of user action determines the next step or operation 1103 , 1203 , as understood by those skilled in the art. For example, dragging the cursor 207 over an icon through use of a mouse or similar input device can result in the icon under the cursor 207 being highlighted, or selected 1105 , 1205 , as understood by those skilled in the art. For example, clicking on the icon palette 1127 , 1227 provides for modification of the icon palette. See, e.g., FIGS. 13 and 14 . The user action can also include assigning a file to a predetermined category by, for example, dragging and dropping an icon representing the file onto an icon on the icon palette representing the category 1204 . The user action can also include selecting the file through a menu as understood by those skilled in the art. Responsive to the user action, the path to the file, e.g., the dropped object, is captured, along with the assigned category, i.e., the category associated with the icon 1107 , 1207 . A determination is made whether the object, i.e., the file, is acceptable 1109 , 1209 . If not, because the file type is unknown, the size is too big or too small, the file contains a virus or other mal-ware, the file is corrupted or otherwise defective, or other reasons, as understood by those skilled in the art then the user can be alerted 1111 , 1211 . Then the action can be aborted and the user is returned to a listening state 1125 , 1225 , or ready state as understood by those skilled in the art. If the object, i.e., the file, is acceptable, then the user is prompted to fill out a questionnaire 1113 , 1213 . See, e.g., FIGS. 26-27 . Upon completion, if the questionnaire form is not acceptable 1115 , 1215 , the action is aborted, and the user is returned to a listening state 1125 , 1225 , or ready state as understood by those skilled in the art. If the form is acceptable, multiple files are handled. That is, if multiple files are dropped, each file is attached to the questionnaire 1117 , 1217 . In a thin-client or browser-based embodiment, the data is sent to the server 1223 . In a thick-client embodiment, an addition determination can be made whether the server is available 1119 . If not, the questionnaire data and files can be saved in a local database for later uploading and synchronization to the server 1121 . Once the server is available, the data and files can be sent to the server 1123 . As illustrated in FIG. 26 , prompting the user for the questionnaire 2600 can result in the category and journal information being sent to the application or browser 2651 , so that the user is displayed the questionnaire with some information already populated 2653 . The questionnaire 2600 can include, for example, data for a category 2601 , an album 2603 , a name for the file 2605 , and a data field for search words to associate with the file 2607 . The questionnaire can include event information, including data fields for an event date 2619 and an event time 2617 , a location description 2621 , a city 2623 , a state 2625 , and a country 2627 . In addition, the event information can include a description of the weather 2629 , a temperature 2631 , a status of the moon 2633 , and other attributes as understood by those skilled in the art. As understood by those skilled in the art, the file name 2605 and category 2601 can be automatically populated responsive to a user action that assigns the file to a category. In addition, the event time 2617 and date 2619 can be automatically populated, including from the time and date associated with the file, if available. Other fields can also be automatically populated, including with default values or a prior or common value or a value derived from the user action or the file itself as understood by those skilled in the art. The questionnaire 2600 can display a thumbnail of the file 2637 or an icon that represents the file type 2639 . The questionnaire 2600 can also include a relative picture size 2609 for displaying in an album, with, for example, a value of “1” indicating a small picture, a value of “5” indicating a large picture, and values of “2”, “3”, and “4” in between, as understood by those skilled in the art. A page in an album can, for example, display only one file with a picture size of “5”; whereas, a page in an album can, for example, display two files with a picture size of “4” and many files with a picture size of “1”, as understood by those skilled in the art. Through the questionnaire 2600 , the user can also specify the files for inclusion in a slide show of randomized files 2611 . As illustrated in FIG. 27 , through the questionnaire 2701 , the user can specify a desire or intention to make a file publicly available 2703 (or delete a file as understood by those skilled in the art) and select a trigger event to make the file publicly available 2705 . Examples include making a file public upon death of the user 2705 , making the file public 25 years after the death of the user, and others as understood by those skilled in the art. In addition, the questionnaire 2701 can include terms of a legal document 3410 , or a hyperlink to the terms, and an approval box for the user to select to approve the terms 2707 for future access to the files. As illustrated in FIG. 34 , the legal document 3410 can include, for example, an electronic legal document stored in the memory 3401 of the file management machine 3400 . The questionnaire also includes recall information 2613 , 2615 as illustrated in FIG. 26 . To utilize the recall feature, the user fills out a recall date 2613 for a future date in the questionnaire. The recall date can be, for example, the date a bill is due, the date an insurance policy expires, an upcoming anniversary, an upcoming birthday, or other future date. The user also fills out a threshold, e.g., a number of days before the recall date to receive an alert 2615 . Later, when the user logs in near the recall date 2613 , within the number of days indicated by the recall before data 2615 , then the user receives an alert, including, for example, a pop-up or notice screen. Alternately, the alert can be an e-mail or other message as understood by those skilled in the art. The alert can include the file or a thumbnail of the file 2637 . The questionnaire 2600 also includes a journal entry 2635 associated with the file. Individual journal entries are aggregated into one master journal for the user 2301 , as illustrated in FIG. 23 . In addition, a portion of the master journal can be displayed on the display device. The portion can correspond to user criteria, such as, for example, a category 2601 , a particular data range, or files in an album 2201 , 2501 as shown in FIGS. 22 and 25 . In an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, as illustrated in FIG. 11 , if the server is unavailable 1119 , the questionnaire can be saved in the local database on the user computer 1121 for later uploading to the file management server 1123 . In addition, according to embodiments of the present invention, multiple files may share a questionnaire for data entry purposes and for ease of use 1117 , 1217 , as illustrated in FIGS. 11-12 and 25 . If the data associated with a file changes, that file can get a separate questionnaire. Embodiments of the present invention provide for predefined default categories and also user-defined categories and associated icons. The user can add, delete, or edit the categories associated with the life of the user, as well as the icons that represent the categories, as illustrated in FIGS. 13-19 and 30 . Embodiments of the present invention include pop-up menus 1307 , 1407 so that a user can performs methods of editing 1500 , 1600 , adding 1700 , 1800 , and deleting 1900 categories associated with the life of the user, as well as the icons that represent the categories. The predefined default categories associated with the life of the user can include, for example, marriage, faith, family, children, friends, school, music, film, books, travel, work, sports, pets, military, and health 2903 . Other categories are possible and within the scope of the present invention, as understood by those skilled in the art. Embodiments of the present invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 13 and 14 , can include methods 1300 , 1400 of utilizing the icon palette to access and manipulate the files, associated data, and categories. In a thick-client embodiment, for example, a user U can click on the icon palette 1301 . The kind of click is determined 1303 . For a left or double-click, as understood by those skilled in the art, data can be displayed 1305 . See, e.g., FIG. 20 . For a right click or long click, as understood by those skilled in the art, a pop-up memo is displayed 1307 . From the pop-up menu 1307 , the user U can edit a category name 1309 . See, e.g., FIG. 15 . The user U can direct that the edits, i.e., changes, can be saved and displayed 1311 or canceled and discarded 1313 , as understood by those skilled in the art. The user can also direct that a category be added 1315 (see FIG. 17 ) or deleted 1317 . The method 1300 can also include altering the local icon palette while pending a request to a remote server, e.g., hiding a deleted category 1319 . In a thin-client embodiment, for example, a user U can click on the icon palette 1401 , and a web page is sent 1403 responsively. The web page can provide a subcategory list 1406 , e.g., a list of albums, with navigation links, as understood by those skilled in the art, that lead to a display of data 1419 . Clicking on a navigation link by the user U can cause the display of an album's files 1421 or journal entries associated with an album's files 1423 . The web page can also provide a pop-up menu 1407 . From the pop-up menu 1407 , the user U can direct that data be displayed 1405 (see FIG. 21 ), and the user U can edit a category name 1409 . See, e.g., FIG. 16 . The user U can direct that the edits, i.e., changes, can be saved and displayed 1411 or canceled and discarded 1413 , as understood by those skilled in the art. The user U can also direct that a category be added 1415 (see FIG. 18 ) or deleted 1417 (see FIG. 19 ). Embodiments of the present invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 15 and 16 , can include methods 1500 , 1600 of customizing, i.e., editing, the icon palette. For example, a user U can select the icon palette for editing 1501 , 1601 . In a thick-client embodiment, for example, a paste icon modal dialog window, e.g., an edit category window, is opened, displaying a category name and picture, or icon 1503 . As understood by those skilled in the art, a modal dialog window remains the front-most window and captures all user action until it is closed 1521 . In a thick-client embodiment, for example, an edit page is displayed, having a category name and picture, or icon 1603 . As understood by those skilled in the art, the “save” button on the edit category window 1505 or page 1605 can be deactivated. The edit category window 1505 or page 1605 can include a category name and a graphic of the current picture. The user U can edit the category name 1507 , 1607 , by renaming the category “children” with specific names, e.g. “Jack and Jill.” The user U can also drag a file, i.e., a new image, over the graphic area 1509 , 1609 to determine if the file type is appropriate 1511 , 1611 . The user U can also paste or drop a file, e.g., for an image or picture, into the graphical area 1513 , 1613 . Whether the file type is appropriate is determined 1515 , 1615 . If not, the user U is alerted 1517 , 1617 . If the file type is appropriate, the image in the file is sized and displayed in the graphic box 1519 , 1619 . After customizing the icon palette, the “save” button is activated, and the user can cancel or save the edits, then return to the calling procedure 1523 or page 1623 , as understood by those skilled in the art. Embodiments of the present invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 17 and 18 , can include methods 1700 , 1800 of creating new categories. For example, once a user U has selected a new category 1701 , 1801 , a temporary category record is created 1703 , 1803 having a default name, such as, “Untitled Category” with a default picture of icon. The user U is prompted to edit the new category 1705 , 1805 . In a thick-client embodiment, for example, the temporary category record can be saved, resulting in changes to the display of the icon palette locally and changes added to the upload queue for the remote server 1707 . In a thin-client embodiment, for example, the temporary record is saved, and refreshed web pages are sent from the web server 1807 , as understood by those skilled in the art. If the user cancels the temporary new category, the temporary record is discarded 1709 and the previous view returns, i.e., the prior icon palette 1809 . Embodiments of the present invention, as illustrated in FIG. 19 , can include a method 1900 of deleting categories. In a thick-client embodiment, for example, once a user U has selected to delete a category 1901 , a “delete” modal dialog box displays is opened, displaying information about the category 1903 . A confirmation prompt 1905 is displayed to the user. If the user U elects to cancel the deletion, the dialog box is closed 1907 . If the user elects to delete the category, the category can be hidden from the icon palette locally and a delete request can be added to the pending remote server upload queue 1909 . Embodiments of the present invention provide for the displaying on a list of albums associated with a category, as illustrated in FIGS. 20-22 and 24-25 . By clicking on an icon 2001 or otherwise selecting a category from the server 2101 , an album list is retrieved 2003 , 2103 and displayed to the user 2005 . Various data views, as illustrated in FIGS. 22-25 , are available. A user action is determined 2009 , 2109 . The user U can cancel the album list, and the window can be closed 2011 , 2111 ; the user (U) can record and save changes 2013 , 2113 . In addition, the user U can add files to a category by, e.g., dragging and dropping a file, or object, to the category as described herein 2015 , 2115 . From the list of albums, the user has various other navigation options. Options for the user include displaying an album 2211 , 2503 of files in pre-selected formats on the display device responsive to the questionnaires associated with the files, as illustrated in FIGS. 22 and 25 . The pre-selected formats (see 2211 , 2503 ) can include an album page displaying multiple files 2217 , 2509 of the same or different sizes. Another option includes displaying a portion of the master journal 2201 , 2501 on the display device comprising individual journal entries 2215 , 2507 associated with files in an album. Furthermore, embodiments of the present invention allow for simultaneously displaying an album 2503 and the portion of the master journal associated with the files in the album 2501 . According to embodiments of the present invention, the files displayed in pre-selected formats in the album of files can be linked to the associated journal entries in the displayed portion of the master journal so that when a user highlights a file, the associated journal entry is also highlighted, and when a user highlights a journal entry, an associated file is also highlighted, as illustrated in FIGS. 22 and 25 . Specifically, see 2213 and 2215 , and also 2505 and 2507 . As further illustrates in FIG. 22 , an alternate embodiment of the icon palette 2203 can display icons 2207 a - 2207 n that represent a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in the life of the user. In addition, navigation links to a journal 2205 , i.e., a master journal, can be provided on the icon palette 2203 . See also, navigation link 2305 , icon 2307 , and alternative embodiment of the icon palette 2303 in FIG. 23 . Furthermore, by clicking on a icon, for example, 2207 b , a subcategory list can be displayed 2209 , allowing the user to navigate to an album 2211 or to the journal 2201 , or to display both simultaneously, as illustrated in FIGS. 22 and 25 . Other navigation paths and interactions are included in the embodiments, as understood by those skilled in the arts. Embodiments of the present invention provide for a member to allow restricted access to the member's account to a visitor, as illustrated in FIG. 28 . The user, in this case a member, creates the login name 2811 and password 2813 for the visitor 2809 , through a visitor access configuration screen 2801 as illustrated in FIG. 28 . Through the visitor access configuration screen or screens, the member determines the access level for the visitor on a file by file basis 2803 , on an album by album basis 2805 , on a category by category basis 2807 , or a combination of these as understood by those skilled in the art. Embodiments of the present invention include a randomizer module 2901 for displaying a slide show of randomized files responsive to user criteria. The user specifies a file for inclusion in a slide show of randomized files 2611 through the questionnaire 2600 , as illustrated in FIG. 26 . Configured through a randomizer setup screen 2901 , as illustrated in FIG. 29 , the randomizer module can display the slide show on the display device attached to the user computer and external devices 2917 , such as, electronic picture frames and televisions. The user can name, save, and retrieve a particular randomizer configuration 2905 . The user criteria can include one or more categories to display 2903 , a quantity of files to select 2907 , a start date 2909 , an end date 2911 , a duration the selected files will be presented by the program 2913 , and a number of cycles to repeat selection and presentation 2915 . An example embodiment, as illustrated on FIG. 29 , indicates that in the first cycle 50 files will be randomly selected from the checked categories, including marriage, family, children, friends, school, music, travel, and pets. The selection will be restricted to files with event dates on or between Jan. 25, 2007 and Jan. 25, 2008. The files will be displayed for 30 minutes, and then a new 50 files will be selected and available for display for 30 minutes. This process will repeat for five cycles. The files will be displayed on a USB picture frame. As illustrated in FIGS. 30A and 30B , the randomizer module can consecutively display images 3002 , 3004 on an electronic picture frame 3001 . For example, a first image 3002 can show a present 3003 having a bow 3005 prior to being opened, and a second image can show the aftermath of opening the present, including a toy 3011 , an open box 3007 , and a discarded ribbon 3009 . Embodiments of the present invention include a method 3100 of file management, as illustrated in FIG. 31 . The method can include a start 3101 . The method can include prompting a user for login information 3103 . The login information can include a username, a password, and a status to thereby allow complete access to a member and restricted access to a visitor. The method can also include displaying an icon palette on a display device to the user 3105 . The icon palette has a palette boundary and includes icons representing a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. The method can include assigning one of a plurality of unsorted files to at least one of the plurality of predetermined categories through a user action so that dragging and dropping one of the plurality of unsorted files across the palette boundary onto an icon on the icon palette assigns the file to one of the plurality of predetermined categories 3107 . The method can include prompting the user to fill out a questionnaire associated with the file responsive to the user action assigning the file to the predetermined category 3109 . The questionnaire can include album data, a journal entry, event information, and display information. The method can include temporarily storing the file and data associated with the questionnaire in a database on a local computer 3111 so that the user can assign files and fill out questionnaires in the event of slow or interrupted communication with the remote server. The method can include storing the file and data associated with the questionnaire in a database on a remote server 3113 so that the user can access the file and associated data through an electronic communications network. The method can also include aggregating individual journal entries into one master journal for the user 3115 . The method can include displaying a portion of the master journal on the display device responsive to user criteria so that a user can view journal entries for a category, a particular date range, or files in an album 3117 . The method can include displaying an album of assigned files using pre-selected formats on the display device 3119 , responsive to questionnaires associated with the files. Each file is associated with the same predetermined category of the plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. The method can include specifying in a database files for inclusion in a slide show of randomized files 3121 . The method can include randomly selecting a set of files from the specified files responsive to user criteria 3123 and displaying randomly selected set of files in the slide show on a display device 3125 . The method can also include repeating the steps of randomly selecting and displaying the set of files in the slide show responsive to user criteria 3127 . The method can include an end or stop 3129 . Embodiments of the present invention include a method 3200 of file management, as illustrated in FIG. 32 . The method can include a start 3201 . The method can include establishing a recipient entity for acquiring ownership rights to files 3203 . The method can include storing in a database a plurality of files assigned by a user to a plurality of categories representing notable events in a life of the user so that the user can access the plurality of files through an electronic communications network 3205 . The method can include storing in the database a master journal for the user where the master journal including individual journal entries by the user and each journal entry is associated with one or more files of the plurality of files 3207 . The method can include prompting the user through a questionnaire to select a trigger event for making publicly available a file of the plurality of files and an associated journal entry and to approve legal terms so that the user can designate a portion of the plurality of files and associated journal entries to be made publicly available after the selected trigger event 3209 . The method can include receiving ownership rights by the recipient entity from the user according to the user-approved legal terms for the designated portion of the plurality of files and associated journal entries 3211 . The method can include providing access to third parties to the designated portion of the plurality of files and associated journal entries after the user-selected trigger event 3213 . The method can include verifying a death of the user through a published obituary or a contact list supplied by the user through the questionnaire 3215 . Embodiments can further include verification through a death certificate or governmental database. The method can also include creating a journal entry for the user recording the death of the user 3217 . The method can include an end or stop 3219 . Embodiments of the present invention include a method of file management. The method can include displaying an icon palette on a display device to a user 3105 . The icon palette includes icons representing predetermined categories associated with a life of the user. The method can also include assigning a file to a predetermined category through a user action so that dragging and dropping the file onto an icon on the icon palette assigns the file to the predetermined category 3107 . The method can include prompting the user to fill out a questionnaire associated with the file responsive to the user action assigning the file to the predetermined category 3109 . The questionnaire includes album data, a journal entry, event information, and display information. The method can further include displaying an album of files in pre-selected formats on the display device, responsive to the questionnaires associated with the files 3119 . Embodiments of the present invention include a method of file management for a randomizer module. The method includes specifying in a database a plurality of files for inclusion in a slide show of randomized files so that only appropriate files are displayed 3121 . Each file of the plurality of files has been assigned to at least one predetermined category associated with a life of the user through a user action. The method includes storing the plurality of files and the database on a remote server so that a user can access the plurality of files and the database through an electronic communications network 3113 . The method also includes randomly selecting a set of files from the plurality of files specified in the database for inclusion in the slide show responsive to user criteria 3123 . The user criteria includes a number of files to display, a start date of the files, an end date for the files, a duration to display the files, and a number of repetitions before selecting new files so that the user can tailor the randomized slide show for an audience. The user criteria also include a list of categories from which to draw files. The user can name, save, and retrieve the user criteria for a particular configuration. The method includes displaying the randomly selected set of files in the slide show on a display device 3125 . The method includes repeating the steps of randomly selecting and displaying the set of files in the slide show responsive to user criteria 3128 . Embodiments of the present invention include a system of file management, storage, and display. The system includes a first computer server associated with a file management provider defining a file management server, the file management server being positioned to manage, store, and retrieve files and associated data. The system also includes a plurality of second computers associated with a plurality of users defining user computers, each user computer in communication with the file management server through an electronic communications network. The system further includes a computer program product associated with user computer as discussed below. Embodiments of the present invention include a computer program product, stored on a tangible computer memory media, operable on a computer, the computer program product including a set of instructions that, when executed by the computer, cause the computer to perform various operations. The operations include displaying an icon palette on a display device to a user. The icon palette includes icons corresponding to a plurality of predetermined categories representing notable events in a life of the user. The operations also include assigning a file to at least one predetermined category through a user action so that dragging and dropping the file onto an icon on the icon palette assigns the file to the predetermined category. The operations include prompting the user to fill out a questionnaire associated with a file responsive to the user action assigning the file to the predetermined category. The questionnaire can include any additional predetermined categories, album data, a journal entry, event information, and display information. The operations further include displaying an album of files in pre-selected formats on the display device, responsive to the questionnaires associated with the files. As illustrated in FIG. 33 , embodiments of the present invention include a computer program product 3301 , stored on a tangible computer memory media 3305 , operable on a computer 3303 , the computer program product including a set of instructions 3307 that, when executed by the computer, cause the computer to perform various operations. The operations include storing in a database a plurality of files assigned by a user to a plurality of categories representing notable events in a life of the user so that the user can access the plurality of files through an electronic communications network 3309 . The operations include storing in the database a master journal for the user where the master journal comprising individual journal entries by the user and each journal entry associated with one or more files of the plurality of files 3311 . The operations include prompting the user through a questionnaire to select a trigger event for making publicly available a file of the plurality of files and an associated journal entry and to approve legal teems so that the user can designate a portion of the plurality of files and associated journal entries to be made publicly available after the selected trigger event 3313 . The operations include logging a receipt of ownership rights by a recipient entity from the user according to the user-approved legal terms for the designated portion of the plurality of files and associated journal entries 3315 . The operations include providing access to third parties to the designated portion of the plurality of files and associated journal entries after the user-selected trigger event 3317 . The operations include verifying a death of the user through a published obituary or a contact list supplied by the user through the questionnaire 3319 . The operations include creating a journal entry for the user recording the death of the user 3321 . As illustrated in FIG. 34 , a file management machine 3400 can include a computer, having a memory 3401 having stored therein program product 3402 , a processor 3403 , and an input-output interface, or an I/O device 3404 . The file management machine can include the file management computer 3400 as a separate component, module, program product, or server within an internal network of servers comprising the system. In this way, the file management computer may be configured as a plurality of computers or servers connected via a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN). The file management system can be configured to include a file management machine 3400 further communicating through its I/O device 3404 with a database server 3405 , a telecommunications interface 3407 , a web server 3406 , and other equipment and components as understood by those skilled in the art. See also FIGS. 4, 5, and 7 . Other architectures, implementations, and organizations will be understood by those skilled in the art to be included within the embodiments of the present invention. Program products can be implemented in a variety of software and programming languages, including without limitation hypertext markup language (“HTML”), Java, C, C++, XML, JavaScript, and others as understood by those skilled in the art. Multi-processor computers, cloud computing, server farms, multiple computer systems, multiple databases and storage devices (including hierarchies of storage and access), and other implementations will be recognized by those having skill in the art as encompassed within the embodiments of the present invention. For example, a single computer, a plurality of computers, a server, or server cluster or server farm may be employed, and this disclosure does not limit any configuration of computers and servers for each. Moreover, each may be deployed as at a server farm, data center or server cluster managed by a server host, and the number of servers and their architecture and configuration may be increased based on usage, demand, and capacity requirements for the system. Moreover, embodiments include clusters of computers, servers, storage devices, display devices, and components interacting together, as understood by those skilled in the art. A person having ordinary skill in the art will recognize that various types of memory are readable by a computer such as described herein, e.g., user computer, file management computer server, or other computers and machine within embodiments of the present invention. Examples of computer readable media include but are not limited to: nonvolatile, hard-coded type media such as read only memories (ROMs), CD-ROMs, and DVD-ROMs, or erasable, electrically programmable read only memories (EEPROMs), recordable type media such as floppy disks, hard disk drives, CD-R/RWs, DVD-RAMs, DVD-R/RWs, DVD+R/RWs, flash drives, memory sticks, and other newer types of memories, and transmission type media such as digital and analog communication links. For example, such media can include operating instructions, as well as instructions related to the system and the method steps described above and can operate on a computer. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that such media can be at other locations instead of or in addition to file management computer server to store program products, e.g., including software, thereon. This application is a continuation of and claims priority to and the benefit of: U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser. No. 14/028,232, filed Sep. 16, 2013, titled “Machine, Computer Readable Medium, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Display,” which is a continuation of U.S. Non-Provisional patent application Ser. No. 12/620,995, filed Nov. 18, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,538,966, titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Access Utilizing a User-Selected Trigger Event,” which claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,814, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,831, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,862, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,894, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/116,914, by Reese et al., titled “System, Program Product, and Method for File Management, Storage, and Retrieval” filed Nov. 21, 2008, all of which are each incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. This application also relates to: U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/620,944, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Display” filed on Nov. 18, 2009; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/440,871, by Reese, et al., titled “Machine, Computer Readable Medium, and Computer-Implemented Method For File Management, Storage, and Display filed on Apr. 5, 2012; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/620,963, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management and Storage” filed on Nov. 18, 2009; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/621,059, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for Randomized Slide Show of Files” filed on Nov. 18, 2009, now abandoned; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/621,033, by Reese et al., titled “Machine, Program Product, and Computer-Implemented Method for File Management, Storage, and Display in Albums Utilizing a Questionnaire” filed on Nov. 18, 2009, now abandoned, all of which are each incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Many modifications and other embodiments of the invention will come to the mind of one skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings presented in the foregoing descriptions and the associated drawings. Therefore, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the illustrated embodiments disclosed, and that modifications and other embodiments are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims.

File management machines, computer readable media, and methods of file management, are provided. An exemplary file management machine includes a file management server configured to receive or retrieve user files through an electronic communication/computer network to provide categorical organization and establishment of albums. The file management server can also function to create member user and visitor accounts. The visitor accounts can be provided individual custom access by the member user to provide individualized tailored access to a subset of the files uploaded by the member user. The visitor accounts can be used as to gather information about the file unknown to the member user.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST The invention described herein may be manufactured, used, and licensed by or for the United States Government without the payment of royalties thereon. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A body of research has been conducted in which lasers are used to induced phase-change (create a plasma) on solid surfaces and in gases, in order to deduce atomic related spectral information, i.e., laser induced breakdown spectroscopy. Similarly, there is a body of research in which practitioners have used laser illumination to generate acoustic surface waves, in which Fourier analysis is applied to the acoustic signal, in order to measure non-destructively various physical parameters. See for example, A Harata, H Nishimura, T Sawada, “Laser-induced surface acoustic waves and photo-thermal surface gratings generated by crossing two pulsed laser beams”, App. Phys. Let. Vol. 57, (1990) and D Schneider, T Schwarz, H J Scheibe, M Panzner, “Non-destructive evaluation of diamond and diamond-like carbon films by laser induced surface acoustic waves. Thin solid films, vol. 295, pp. 107-116, (1997), both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. On methodology for detection involves an experimental technique termed optical Light Detection And Ranging, (LIDAR). LIDAR methods, techniques, and instrumentation is a fairly mature and established technique which has proven effective in measuring 3D wind profiles. To a lesser degree there are claims of being able to measure various elemental atmospheric gas components, water vapor, temperature, and other atmospheric parameters. However, such claims are premised on assumptions that that may, or may not be accurate, and these assumptions greatly affect LIDAR derived results, e.g., most LIDAR predictions involve an inverse process that requires important information about aerosol size distribution, shape, and composition, which is rarely known with any degree of accuracy. The main limitation with the LIDAR approach is that it can only measure a parameter called optical backscatter which is a complex function of many phenomena. For example, generally speaking, an optical LIDAR propagates a pulse of energy at a particular wavelength through the atmosphere. As the pulse propagates it undergoes attenuation by aerosol scattering, aerosol absorption, and gaseous absorption (neglecting molecular scattering). A fraction of the original pulse is scattered back (backscattered) to the transmission point, and is detected by an optical detector. The backscatter is effectively the ratio of the power sent out to the power scattered back to the receiver. However, to make use of this type of measurement, practitioners must make important assumptions as mentioned above because atmospheric backscatter is a complex function of both scattering and absorption. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A preferred method for detecting the composition of a physical space comprises: at a first predetermined time focusing a laser at a first predetermined excitation point along the line of sight of the laser to create rapid localized heating of the gases to produce a thermal inhomogeneity which results in the propagation of a first pressure wave; the first pressure-wave propagating outward from the predetermined excitation point at a propagation velocity approximating the speed of sound that is defined for the particular composition of the media; at a second predetermine time focusing a laser to a second predetermined excitation point along the line of sight of the laser to produce a second pressure wave; the velocity from the first predetermined excitation point to the second predetermined excitation point being selected to approximate the propagation velocity of the pressure wave which creates an effective superposition of the first and second pressure-waves at the second predetermined excitation point: and moving, the laser focal point sequentially along the light-of-sight at various excitation points approximately at the phase front velocity to define a series of predetermined excitation points and pressure wave propagations: whereby the series of pressure wave propagations combine to produce a coherent pressure wave that can be detected at a predetermined distance by an appropriate acoustic sensor. Optionally, the method further includes returning the laser focus to the first predetermined excitation point whereupon the process is then repeated along the laser beam line-of-sight until a coherent pressure wave is produced that can be detected at a predetermined distance by an appropriate acoustic sensor. Optionally, each sweep from the first predetermined excitation point to the last predetermined excitation point may be repeated at a fixed frequency F, defined by the inverse of the time period needed to move from the first predetermined excitation point to the last in the series of excitation points at the propagation velocity. Optionally, the shockwave may be detected by an acoustic receiving sensor mounted in the proximity of the laser beam source. Optionally, the absorption spectra for localized regions of the atmosphere may be detected by an acoustical sensor and measured by at least one processor. Optionally, the method may be utilized for the detection of hazardous chemical/airborne materials and/or gases in the atmosphere. Also, as an option a Cassegrain telescope configuration may be utilized, and/or the coherent pressure wave may be received by a sensor positioned approximately on the central axis of the laser beam. As another option the method is used in conjunction with a lidar system. As a further option, the method may be capable of remotely measuring atmospheric absorption related parameters for identifying the biological/chemical composition of the atmosphere at the physical space. A preferred embodiment system for detecting the composition of a physical space comprises a laser beam source; an acoustic sensor; a beam focusing mechanism for focusing the laser beam at predetermined points in the physical space to generate a thermal inhomogeneity which results in the propagation of a pressure wave; the pressure-wave propagating outward from the predetermined excitation point at a propagation velocity approximating the speed of sound that is defined for the particular composition of the media; at least one processor for controlling the timing for the laser beam focusing to generate thermal inhomogeneities: whereby the laser focal point is moved sequentially along the light-of-sight at various excitation points by the beam focusing mechanism approximately at the phase front velocity to define a series of predetermined excitation points and pressure wave propagations such that the series of pressure wave propagations combine to produce a coherent pressure wave that can be detected at a predetermined distance by the acoustic sensor. As an option, the laser may be capable of being dynamically focused at any point within the physical space by the beam focusing mechanism under the control of the at least one processor. Optionally, the beam focusing mechanism may have a Cassegrain telescope configuration. Optionally, the at least one processor may operate to generate the thermal inhomogeneities at time intervals such that at a first predetermined time the laser beam is focused at a first predetermined excitation point along the line of sight of the laser to create rapid localized heating of the gases to produce a thermal inhomogeneity which results in the propagation of a first pressure wave; the first pressure-wave propagating outward from the predetermined excitation point at a propagation velocity approximating the speed of sound that is defined for the particular composition of the media; and at a second predetermine time the laser beam is focused to a second predetermined excitation point along the line of sight of the laser to produce a second pressure wave; the velocity from the first predetermined excitation point to the second predetermined excitation point being selected to approximate the propagation velocity of the pressure wave which creates an effective superposition of the first and second pressure-waves at the second predetermined excitation point; and wherein the laser focal point is moved sequentially along the light-of-sight at various excitation points approximately at the phase front velocity to define a series of predetermined excitation points and pressure wave propagations such that the summation of the pressure waves produces a coherent pressure wave that is detected by the acoustic sensor. Optionally, the at least one processor may operate to repeat each cycle from the first predetermined excitation point to the last predetermined excitation point at a fixed frequency F, defined by the inverse of the time period needed to move from the first predetermined excitation point to the last in the series of excitation points at the propagation velocity. As another option, the system may operate in conjunction with or include a Lidar system. The system may optionally include a sensor which receives the coherent pressure wave that is positioned approximately on the central axis of the laser beam. As a further option, the laser beam is emitted in the direction of the line-of-sight along an axis and the propagation and sensing of the acoustic waves are conducted along the axis. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view of represents a preferred embodiment showing a laser source and detector 10 emitting a laser beam 11 and receiving an acoustic wave indicative of the chemical composition of the hazards plum. FIG. 2A is a schematic illustration showing a preferred embodiment Cassegrain telescope 20 assembly and acoustical wave generation. FIG. 2B is an enlarged schematic illustration showing one particular embodiment involving a Cassegrain telescope 20 assembly of FIG. 2A further illustrating laser beam generation. FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic illustration showing sequential development of pressure induced waves according to a preferred methodology of the present invention. A more complete appreciation of the invention will be readily obtained by reference to the following Description of the Preferred Embodiments and the accompanying drawings in which like numerals in different figures represent the same structures or elements. The representations in each of the figures are diagrammatic and no attempt is made to indicate actual scales or precise ratios. Proportional relationships are shown as approximates. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The embodiments of the invention and the various features and advantageous details thereof are explained more fully with reference to the non-limiting embodiments that are illustrated in the accompanying drawings and detailed in the following description. It should be noted that the features illustrated in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. Descriptions of well-known components and processing techniques are omitted so as to not unnecessarily obscure the embodiments of the invention. The examples used herein are intended merely to facilitate an understanding of ways in which the embodiments of the invention may be practiced and to further enable those of skill in the art to practice the embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, the examples should not be construed as limiting the scope of the embodiments of the invention. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. In the drawings, the dimensions of objects and regions may be exaggerated for clarity. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. As used herein the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to limit the full scope of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. It will be understood that when an element such as an object, layer, region or substrate is referred to as being “on” or extending “onto” another element, it can be directly on or extend directly onto the other element or intervening elements may also be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on” or extending “directly onto” another element, there are no intervening elements present. It will also be understood that when an element is referred to as being “connected” or “coupled” to another element, it can be directly connected or coupled to the other element or intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly connected” or “directly coupled” to another element, there are no intervening elements present. It will be understood that, although the terms first, second, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections, these elements, components, regions, layers and/or sections should not be limited b these terms. For example, when referring first and second elements, these terms are only used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer or section from another region, layer or section. Thus, a lust element, component, region, layer or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer or section without departing from the teachings of the present invention. Embodiments of the present invention are described herein with reference to cross-section illustrations that are schematic illustrations of idealized embodiments of the present invention. As such, variations from the shapes of the illustrations as a result, for example, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are to be expected. Thus, embodiments of the present invention should not be construed as limited to the particular shapes of regions illustrated herein but are to include deviations in shapes that result, for example, from manufacturing. Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and Scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. It will also be appreciated by those of skill in the art that references to a structure or feature that is disposed “adjacent” another feature may have portions that overlap or underlie the adjacent feature. Referring to FIG. 1 , the methodology of a preferred embodiment of the present invention comprises employing a method to measure an absorption “only” related parameter in the atmosphere at a distance (i.e., remotely). The method and system is based on a phenomena referred to as Coherent Sonic Wave Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (CSWPS). The fundamental concept is as follows. A laser operating at wavelength A., is propagated through free space that contains optically absorbing, atmospheric gases, aerosols, particulate matter, hydrosols, etc (see FIG. 1 ). The Coherent Sonic Wave Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (CSWPS) technique is applicable for both continues-wave (CW) and pulsed laser sources 10 , 25 . In FIG. 1 , the element 10 comprises both the transmitting laser and the acoustical receiver. The laser 10 , can be dynamically, focused at any point along the propagation path. For our example, a Cassegrain telescope 20 can be utilized with an adaptive secondary mirror 23 , as shown in FIG. 2A , in order to operate as a laser beam focusing mechanism. Laser 25 emits a beam and the diameter of the expanded laser beam at the exit aperture may be defined as D (See FIG. 2B ). The laser beam operation may optionally be controlled by a processor 26 . The distance from the telescope 20 to a distant point in spaces be may be defined as X 1 , such that the ratio of D/X 1 is very small. i.e., D/X 1 >> 1 . At time T 1 the laser is focused at a point in space, X 1 (see FIGS. 2A and 3 (beginning at time T 1 )). A portion of the focused laser energy is absorbed by the gas/aerosol media which in turns produces localized heating in a small region about, point, X 1 . This rapid localized heating produces a thermal inhomogeneity is the media about the laser focal point, which results in the production of a pressure wave. This pressure-wave propagates outward from the excitation point, X 1 , at velocities at, or about, the speed of sound, Vs, that is defined for the particular gas/aerosol media. At some later time, T 2 , the pressure-wave from excitation point, X 1 , will have expanded to a radius, R 2 , as shown by the circle X 1 T2 in FIG. 3 , (Time T 2 ). At time, T 2 , the laser focus is translated, to a position, X 2 (shown as the dot labeled X 2 T2 in FIG. 3 at Time T 2 ), along the line-of-sight (LOS), which produces a second pressure (shock) wave at X 2 . The movement (velocity) of the laser focal point, from point X 1 to X 2 is judiciously chosen to match the phase front velocity, Vs. This creates an effective superposition (summation) of the two pressure-waves at point X 2 . The process is continued by moving the laser focal point along the light-of-sight (LOS) at the velocity Vs, defining a continuous series of points X 1 , X 2 , X 3 . . . Xf, where Xf is that last location along the LOS, and T 1 , T 2 , T 3 . . . Tf are the time periods at which each corresponding position are obtained. At the last position point, Xf, at time, Tf, along the LOS (preferably in the direction towards the acoustic or pressure-wave detector) the laser sources is switched off. At this point the dynamic focal system reverts to the initial condition necessary to produce a focused laser beam back at location X 1 . The process then continuously repeated along points X 1 , X 2 , X 3 . . . Xf, (see FIG. 3 , Times T3 and Tf) producing a large coherent pressure (shock) wave that can be detected at great distances by an appropriate acoustic sensor. The repetition of each sweep is conducted at a fixed frequency F, defined by the inverse of the time period needed to complete one complete sweep, i.e., the time period required to sweep the laser focal point through a distance |X 1 ·Xf| and back to location X 1 . The magnitude of the shockwave is detected by an acoustic receiving sensor conveniently mounted opposite to dynamic secondary mirror located in the telescope, as shown in FIG. 2 . In order to optimize the signal-to-noise, (S/N), of the recorded acoustic signal (at a cycle frequency, F) phase sensitive amplification and/or time-gating is used to filter out spurious ambient acoustic noise. Because D/X 1 >> 1 , the geometry, intensity, and volumetric extent of each focal point, is approximately the same, lending to continuity between all excitation points. The intensity/magnitude of the resultant acoustic wave that is recorded by the acoustic sensor is directly related to the optical absorption of the gas/aerosol media. It is preferable, but not critical that the path/motion for each successive excitation point be moving in the direction towards the acoustic sensor. The process is repetitive at frequency, F, as defined by the inverse of period between the first excitation at time, T 1 , and the last exaction at time, Tf, (shown in FIG. 2 ). By tuning the laser source over different wavelengths, 1.1, J. 2 , 13 etc., one can effectively measure an absorption related spectra (tunable laser source shown in FIG. 2 ). In spectral regions in which the atmospheric optical attenuation is present, a correction using standard atmospheric transmission models may be applied to the raw absorption spectra. This absorption related spectra can be used as an identifiable metric for the detection of predescribed atmospheric gaseous, aerosol, and particulate mixtures. By using a pulsed-laser source one can define the geometry, size and extent, of a particular gaseous/aerosol species. Because the temporal response between a gas and an aerosol are different, i.e., optical energy is absorbed and transferred to thermal energy nearly instantaneously for gas, whereas the same process may take micro to milliseconds for aerosols (depending on aerosol size and composition). Therefore by reducing the laser pulse width to a sufficiently small period, one can separate gaseous absorption from aerosol absorption, thus significantly improving information content inherent in the described CSWPS method. Unlike LIDAR, the Coherent Sonic Wave Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (CSWPS) approach of the present invention effectively measures only the atmospheric absorption and would not rely on questionable assumptions about the composition of the atmosphere, it is a direct In situ measurement. Moreover, the CSWPS method of the present invention may be complimentary with the established LIDAR method, and because the required instrumentation for both approaches are very similar . . . established LIDAR systems could be easily be modified to conduct both techniques simultaneously and in effect simultaneously measure atmospheric absorption, backscatter, and total extinction characteristics. This would greatly increase the information content, accuracy and nature, of the atmospheric measurement information currently in circulation. As described above, a preferred embodiment may be used for improved atmospheric remote sensing, and in particular the remote detection and identification of toxic/harmful release of chemical or biological warfare agents. Additional, applications would involve commercial monitoring of man-made and naturally occurring pollutants. Similarly, there is great debate involving global warming/climate change in which remote sensing of the atmosphere will continue to be of great importance. As a result, the introduction of a new remote atmospheric spectroscopic approach, i.e., the present invention Coherent Sonic Wave Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (CSWPS), would be of great importance. Besides remote atmospheric absorption spectroscopy, since the method inherently produces an effective pressure-wave (shock wave) whose position and direction can be controlled from a distance, it is conceivable that the present invention methodology may have application(s) in the rapidly emerging unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) area. The preferred embodiments of the present invention provide remote in situ, measure of electromagnet (EM) absorption within a predefined volume of the atmosphere. The preferred embodiment provide for optical generation of a pressure/acoustic wave of sufficient energy capable of detection at a distance. This is achieved by the judicious movement at a specific velocity of a region in space in which electromagnet (EM) radiation is brought to a focus. The intense focusing of EM energy results in rapid localized beating of the atmospheric media producing a spherically outgoing pressure-wave (see FIG. 3 ). The focal point is moved along a predescribed linear path, such that the velocity of the movement of the focused energy point(s) exactly/notches the velocity of the phase front for each resulting pressure-wave (usually this velocity will be close to, if not identical to the speed of sound, see FIG. 3 at Time T 2 ). By matching the velocity of the dynamically moving focal points with that of the outgoing spherical pressure-wave phase front, one creates a coherent superposition (summation) of many pressure-waves resulting in a large acoustic front that is of sufficiently intensity (see FIG. 3 at times T 3 and T(f). The sufficiently large resultant acoustic signal is detected over long distances using current acoustic detection schemes, i.e., phase sensitive detection and amplification, and/or time gating the acoustic sensor integration period. The magnitude of the received/recorded acoustic signal is directly related to the optical absorption of the probe medium (atmosphere) for the specific wavelength of the propagated EM energy. Multiple wavelengths can be generated sequentially, which are subsequently propagated such that an absorption profile extending over many wavelengths can be determined, i.e., an in situ measure of the absorption spectra. The present invention provides for reliable means for the “remote” detection of hazardous airborne chemical/biological warfare agents. Current state-of-art involves a laser propagation technique, called Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), which to date, has proven ineffective. A preferred methodology of the present invention provides a method capable of remotely measuring, in situ, an atmospheric absorption related parameter(s) that will prove more effective in identifying the biological/chemical composition of the atmosphere. The preferred methodology is based on a phenomena referred to as “Coherent Sonic Wave Photoacoustic Spectroscopy” (CSWPS), which is capable of determining atmospheric absorption. The main limitation with the LIDAR approach is that it can only measure a single (fairly nondescript) parameter called optical backscatter, which is often a complex function of many phenomena. Unlike LIDAR, the CSWPS approach directly measures the optical absorption (an ability that is currently unavailable) which is direct function of the molecular composition of the media. By operating the described CSWPS methodology of a preferred embodiment in a multi-wavelength mode, one can remotely measure the absorption spectra, for localized regions of the atmosphere. The resultant spectra may prove to be an effective identifier appropriate for the detection of hazardous chemical/biological airborne materials and/or gases. In addition, we foresee the CSWPS method to be complimentary with the established LIDAR method, and because the required instrumentation for both approaches are very similar, established LIDAR systems could easily be modified to conduct both. As used herein the terminology “physical space” includes, the region within a chamber, the earth's atmosphere, outer space, an undefined region or the like. Obviously, many modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that, within the scope of the appended claims, the invention many be practiced otherwise than as specifically described.

A method and system for detecting composition of a physical space comprising: a laser beam source; an acoustic sensor; a beam focusing mechanism for focusing the laser beam at predetermined points in the physical space to generate a thermal inhomogeneity which results in the propagation of a pressure wave that propagates outward from the predetermined excitation point at a propagation velocity approximating the speed of sound for the particular composition of the media; at least one processor for controlling the timing for the laser beam focusing to generate thermal inhomogeneities; whereby the laser focal point is moved sequentially along the light-of-sight at various excitation points by the beam focusing mechanism approximately at the phase front velocity to define a series of predetermined excitation points and pressure wave propagations such that the series of pressure wave propagations combine to produce a coherent pressure wave detectable by the acoustic sensor.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a new compound, i.e., thiohumic acid, and to a heavy metal adsorbent containing this new compound as its active ingredient. In recent years, pollution of rivers, lakes and sea water with heavy metal ions contained in industrial effluents has become a serious social problem and, consequently, the elimination of heavy metal ions in industrial effluents has become necessary for preventing environmental pollution. It has hitherto been proposed for removing heavy metal ions in water to precipitate these ions as sulfides, carbonates or hydroxides, adsorb them with active carbon, replace them with an ion exchange resin and complex them with a chelate-forming agent. However, such methods are unsuited for treating a large amount of liquids such as industrial effluents, as these methods require expensive treating agents and the rate of removal they achieve is limited. It is known that humic acid exhibits high adsorptivity for various heavy metal ions, such as copper and cadmium ions. However, humic acid possesses poor adsorptivity for mercury ions and cannot be used as an adsorbent intended for removing mercury. In the chemical industry field, therefore, there is a great demand for the development of a new adsorbent which can economically be prepared and has a high adsorptivity for various heavy metal ions including mercury ions. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is a prime object of this invention to provide a new compound called thiohumic acid. It is another object of this invention to provide a heavy metal adsorbent possessing a high adsorptivity for heavy metal ions, especially mercury ions. It is still another object of this invention to provide a process for preparing thiohumic acid. These and other objects of this invention will become more fully apparent as the description proceeds. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION As the result of much research conducted for modifying humic acid to prepare a heavy metal adsorbent possessing good adsorptivity for heavy metals such as mercury, it has now been found that a compound obtained by substituting at least a part of carboxyl groups of humic acid by thiocarboxyl groups can minimize the concentration of mercury to 0.001 ppm or less when used for the treatment of an aqueous solution containing inorganic and/or organic mercury compounds at a concentration of 1 ppm. In accordance with this invention, humic acid is first heated together with a halogenating agent to convert the acid into humic acid halide and any remaining excess halogenating agent is removed by distillation or other suitable means. Next, the resulting humic acid halide is dissolved or suspended in a solvent such as dimethylformamide, pyridine, dimethylsulfoxide, ethanol or water and then reacted with a thiolating agent. The reaction product thus obtained is separated from the reaction liquid by filtration or centrifugal separation, washed with water and dried. Thiohumic acid thus obtained contains about 2-6 meq/g of thiocarboxyl group and exhibits high adsorptivity to mercury compounds. As the humic acid utilizable in this invention as the starting material, there can be mentioned natural humic acid as well as the so-called humic acid homologues, for example, oxidized coal obtained by oxidizing coal with an oxidizing agent, such as nitric acid or oxygen, regenerated humic acid obtained by extracting natural humic acid or oxidized coal with a dilute aqueous solution of alkali and adding an acid such as hydrochloric acid to the extract, another oxidized coal obtained by oxidation of coke, semi-coke, pitch or asphalt, and regenerated humic acid homologues obtained by extraction with a diluted alkali of such oxidized coal. Lignite and brown coal abounding in humic acid can also be used directly as the starting material for this invention. Reagents for converting the carboxyl group in humic acid to an acid halide group include, for example, thionyl chloride, thionyl bromide, phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride and phosphorus oxychloride. Among these, thionyl chloride is most preferable because of its high reactivity and easiness in removal of any excess after the reaction and of by-products. After completion of the halogenation reaction for humic acid, any remaining excess halogenating agent is distilled and reused. The reaction between humic acid and a halogenating agent takes place to a notable degree at room temperature, but is suitably carried out at the boiling point or at a temperature of 20°-30°C below the boiling temperature of the halogenating agent to attain the halogenation reaction completely. The reaction requires 0.5-5 hours. In view of the fact that the yield of the product becomes higher than the theoretical yield when the reaction time is prolonged, it is supposed that in addition to halogenation of the carboxyl groups, halogenation of other active hydrogen atoms in the humic acid also takes place. As described above, humic acid halide is then reacted with a thiolating agent such as hydrogen sulfide or alkali metal hydrosulfide to introduce the thiol group into the humic acid molecule. Utilizable as the solvent for this reaction are, for example, dimethylformamide (DMF), pyridine, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), alcohols, water and mixtures thereof. It is noted that not only the carbonyl halide groups but also other active halogens, for example, chlorine atoms bonded to the aliphatic carbon atoms, are converted into thiol groups by this reaction. The product of the invention obtained as described above contains 2-6 meq/g of thiocarboxyl groups according to the iodometry for the determination of thiol groups and possesses a strong, selective adsorptivity for heavy metal ions. As one of the characteristic features of the heavy metal adsorbent of the humic acid series according to this invention, the adsorbent adsorbs mercury compounds selectively in a wide pH range and without deterioration in quality even in the presence of other metal ions. More precisely, the heavy metal adsorbent of this invention exhibits an excellent adsorptivity for mercury in liquids to be treated having pH values within the range of 2-10 or higher. The concurrent presence of a considerably high concentration of sodium and calcium ions and a small amount of metal ions such as iron, aluminum, chromium, copper and cadmium ions and anions such as chlorine ion gives no adverse influence on the adsorptivity of the present heavy metal adsorbent for mercury. Thiohumic acid is thus particularly effective for the adsorption of mercury but also has good adsorptivity for heavy metals other than mercury. Another characteristic feature of thiohumic acid is its easy regeneration. The adsorbent after use can be regenerated by treating it with an aqueous solution of a mineral acid of low normality and can be used as regenerated. Humic acid used as the starting material may be in the form of powder or granules. In case the adsorbent is used in a continuous treating method, such as in a column, the heavy metal adsorbent of humic acid series prepared from granular humic acid is suitable for this purpose. This invention will be illustrated in more detail by way of the following examples. EXAMPLE 1 20 Grams of regenerated humic acid, prepared by the oxidation of coal with nitric acid, were heated at 80°C for 3 hours together with 200 ml of thionyl chloride. After the reaction, unreacted thionyl chloride was almost entirely distilled off at 80°C under atmospheric pressure and then completely distilled off at 80°C under reduced pressure. The yield of the resulting humic acid chloride was 23.0 g. 5.0 Grams of humic acid chloride were then added to 100 ml of DMF and gaseous hydrogen sulfide was blown thereinto for 5 hours. Then, water was added to the reaction liquid to precipitate thiohumic acid and the precipitate was collected by centrifugal separation, washed with water and dried. The yield of the thiohumic acid was 5.1 g and its thiocarboxyl content was 4.8 meq/g. 0.05 Gram of the recovered product was added to 100 ml each of an aqueous solution of 1 ppm methylmercuric chloride and an aqueous solution of 1 ppm mercuric chloride and each solution was shaken for 24 hours. Upon measuring the concentrations of methylmercuric chloride and mercuric chloride in the aqueous solutions, these concentrations were 0.0052 ppm and 0.0036 ppm, respectively. In a similar adsorption test using 0.5 g of thiohumic acid, the concentrations of methylmercuric chloride and mercuric chloride in the treated aqueous solutions were both reduced to 0.001 ppm. EXAMPLE 2 0.05 Gram of thiohumic acid prepared according to Example 1 was added to 100 ml each of 0.05 M aqueous solution of sodium chloride containing 1 ppm methylmercuric chloride and 1 × 10.sup. -3 M aqueous solution of cupric chloride and each solution was shaken for 24 hours. Upon measuring the concentrations of methylmercuric chloride and cupric chloride in the aqueous solution, these concentrations were 0.0056 ppm and 0.0061 ppm, respectively. EXAMPLE 3 1.0 Gram of humic acid chloride prepared according to Example 1 was added to each of 20 ml of pyridine and 20 ml of a 15% aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide. Hydrogen sulfide was blown into each solution for 4 hours. After completion of the reaction, thiohumic acid thus prepared was collected, by centrifugal separation from the aqueous reaction liquid, and directly from the pyridine medium, and after acification with hydrochloric acid in the case of the aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide was washed with water and dried. The yields of the products were 0.9 g and 1.1 g, respectively, and the thiocarboxyl group content was 3.8 meq/g and 3.1 meq/g, respectively. 0.1 Gram of each of the above products was added to separate 100 ml aqueous solutions containing 1 ppm methylmercuric chloride and each solution was shaken for 24 hours. Upon measuring the concentrations of methylmercuric chloride in the aqueous solutions, the concentrations were 0.0064 ppm and 0.0071 ppm, respectively. EXAMPLE 4 Ten g of humic acid prepared by extraction of lignite with alkali were heated at 50°C for 4 hours together with 50 g of phosphorus trichloride. After completion of the reaction, unreacted excess phosphorus trichloride was removed by distillation first at 80°C and then at 100°C under reduced pressure. In 20 ml of 90% ethanol were dissolved 5 g of potassium hydroxide and gaseous hydrogen sulfide was blown into the solution for 4 hours. To this solution were added 2.0 g of the above reaction product and the mixture was reacted together for 4 hours at 5°-15°C. After the reaction, the reaction liquid was acidified with hydrochloric acid to precipitate thiohumic acid which was then collected by centrifugal separation, washed with water and dried. The yield of the product was 1.9 g and its thiocarboxyl group content was 3.3 meq/g. 0.1 Gram of the product was added to 100 ml of an aqueous solution containing 1 ppm methylmercuric chloride and the solution was shaken for 24 hours. Upon measuring the concentration of methylmercuric chloride in the aqueous solution, the concentration was 0.0058 ppm. EXAMPLE 5 Using regenerated humic acid prepared by oxidation of coal tar pitch with air, thiohumic acid was prepared in a manner similar to that described in Example 1. The yield of the acid chloride from 20 g of the regenerated humic acid was 22.6 g and the yield of thiohumic acid from 5.0 g of the acid chloride was 4.9 g. The thiocarboxyl group content of the thiohumic acid was 4.4 meq/g. 0.5 Gram of the reaction product was added to 100 ml each of an aqueous solution of 1 ppm methylmercuric chloride and an aqueous solution of 1 ppm mercuric sulfate and each solution was shaken for 24 hours. Upon measuring the concentrations of methylmercuric chloride and mercuric sulfate in the aqueous solutions, both concentrations were less than 0.001 ppm. EXAMPLE 6 20 Grams of granular oxidized coal, obtained by the oxidation of granular semi-coke (manufactured from coal; dry distillation: 550°C, 30 min,; granularity: 24 mesh) with nitric acid, were reacted with 100 ml of thionyl chloride at 60°C for 5 hours. After completion of the reaction, unreacted excess thionyl chloride was removed by distillation under reduced pressure. The yield of the product was 22.1 g. 5.0 Grams of this product were added to 50 ml of DMF and gaseous hydrogen sulfide was blown thereinto for 5 hours. The product was collected by filtration, washed with water and dried in vacuo at room temperature. The yield of granular thiohumic acid was 4.9 g and its thiocarboxyl group content was 2.1 meq/g. 1.0 Gram of the granular thiohumic acid was added to 100 ml each of an aqueous solution of 1 ppm methylmercuric chloride and an aqueous solution of 1 ppm mercuric chloride and each solution was shaken for 24 hours. Upon measuring the concentrations of methylmercuric chloride and mercuric chloride, both concentrations were less than 0.001 ppm. The mercury adsorptivity of the granular thiohumic acid used in the foregoing adsorption tests was regenerated by treating the acid with 2-N hydrochloric acid.

The compound thiohumic acid resulting from replacing at least a part of the carboxyl groups in humic acid by thiocarboxyl groups, i.e., ##EQU1## as well as a heavy metal adsorbent containing thiohumic acid as its active ingredient. This new compound is obtained by treating humic acid with a halogenating agent to form humic acid halide and treating such halide with a thiolating agent.

PRIORITY CLAIM The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/086,720, filed on Mar. 22, 2005 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,340,694, and entitled, “Method and System for Reduction of XOR/XNOR Subexpressions in Structural Design Representations,” which is incorporated herein by reference. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is related to the following co-pending U.S. patent applications filed on even date herewith, and incorporated herein by reference in their entirety: Ser. No. 11/086,721 (AUS920050017US1), entitled “METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR REDUCTION OF AND/OR SUBEXPRESSIONS IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN REPRESENTATIONS”. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field The present invention relates in general to verifying designs and in particular to performing reduction of subexpressions. Still more particularly, the present invention relates to a system, method and computer program product for performing reduction of XOR and XNOR subexpressions in structural design representations. 2. Description of the Related Art With the increasing penetration of processor-based systems into every facet of human activity, demands have increased on the processor and application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) development and production community to produce systems that are free from design flaws. Circuit products, including microprocessors, digital signal and other special-purpose processors, and ASICs, have become involved in the performance of a vast array of critical functions, and the involvement of microprocessors in the important tasks of daily life has heightened the expectation of error-free and flaw-free design. Whether the impact of errors in design would be measured in human lives or in mere dollars and cents, consumers of circuit products have lost tolerance for results polluted by design errors. Consumers will not tolerate, by way of example, miscalculations on the floor of the stock exchange, in the medical devices that support human life, or in the computers that control their automobiles. All of these activities represent areas where the need for reliable circuit results has risen to a mission-critical concern. In response to the increasing need for reliable, error-free designs, the processor and ASIC design and development community has developed rigorous, if incredibly expensive, methods for testing and verification for demonstrating the correctness of a design. The task of hardware verification has become one of the most important and time-consuming aspects of the design process. Among the available verification techniques, formal and semiformal verification techniques are powerful tools for the construction of correct logic designs. Formal and semiformal verification techniques offer the opportunity to expose some of the probabilistically uncommon scenarios that may result in a functional design failure, and frequently offer the opportunity to prove that the design is correct (i.e., that no failing scenario exists). Unfortunately, the resources needed for formal verification, or any verification, of designs are proportional to design size. Formal verification techniques require computational resources which are exponential with respect to the design under test. Simulation scales polynomially and emulators are gated in their capacity by design size and maximum logic depth. Semi-formal verification techniques leverage formal algorithms on larger designs by applying them only in a resource-bounded manner, though at the expense of incomplete verification coverage. Generally, coverage decreases as design size increases. Techniques for reducing the size of a design representation have become critical in numerous applications. Logic synthesis optimization techniques are employed to attempt to render smaller designs to enhance chip fabrication processes. Numerous techniques have been proposed for reducing the size of a structural design representation. For example, redundancy removal techniques attempt to identify gates in the design which have the same function, and merge one onto the other. Such techniques tend to rely upon binary decision diagram (BDD)-based or satisfiability (SAT)-based analysis to prove redundancy, which tend to be computationally expensive. Another technique is subexpression elimination, wherein a system rewrites logic expressions to attempt to enable a representation with fewer gates. For example, given two expressions A&B&C and D&A&B, subexpression elimination would translate those to (A&B)&C and (A&B)&D, enabling a sharing of node (A&B) between both expressions, requiring a total of three 2-bit AND expressions vs. four. Traditionally, such subexpression elimination algorithms require the use of logic factoring algorithms for obtaining covers of expanded forms of logic expressions, which also tend to be costly in terms of computational resources. Similar subexpression elimination algorithms are needed for XOR and XNOR subexpressions. What is needed is a method, system, and computer program product for heuristic XOR and XNOR subexpression elimination on a structural design representation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A method, system and computer program product for reducing XOR/XNOR subexpressions in structural design representations are disclosed. The method comprises receiving an initial design, in which the initial design represents an electronic circuit containing an XOR gate. A first simplification mode for the initial design is selected from a set of applicable simplification modes, wherein the first simplification mode is an XOR/XNOR simplification mode, and a simplification of the initial design is performed according to the first simplification mode to generate a reduced design containing a reduced number of XOR gates. Whether a size of the reduced design is less than a size of the initial design is determined, and, in response to determining that the size of the reduced design is less than a the size of the initial design, the initial design is replaced with the reduced design. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features believed characteristic of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. The invention itself, however, as well as a preferred mode of use, further objects and advantages thereof, will best be understood by reference to the following detailed descriptions of an illustrative embodiment when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 depicts a block diagram of a general-purpose data processing system with which the present invention of a method, system and computer program product for performing reduction of subexpressions in structural design representations containing XOR and XNOR gates may be performed; and FIG. 2 is a high-level logical flowchart of a process for performing reduction of subexpressions in structural design representations containing XOR and XNOR gates. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The present invention provides a method, system, and computer program product for subexpression elimination in a structural design representation. The present invention uses polynomial structural algorithms, discussed below, and is robust in the sense that it does not increase design size. The present invention may also be configured to preserve as much of the original design representation as possible. The present invention increases verification speed (due to operation upon structural design representations without a need for expanding logic expressions, or SAT or BDD-based analysis), and is applicable to very large designs. Under the prior art, in very large and complex combinational equivalence checking examples, software packages cannot feasibly expand the expression of the cone under evaluation to utilize subexpression elimination techniques. The present invention heuristically enables subexpression elimination “deep” in logic cones. With reference now to the figures, and in particular with reference to FIG. 1 , a block diagram of a general-purpose data processing system, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention, is depicted. Data processing system 100 contains a processing storage unit (e.g., RAM 102 ) and a processor 104 . Data processing system 100 also includes non-volatile storage 106 such as a hard disk drive or other direct-access storage device. An Input/Output (I/O) controller 108 provides connectivity to a network 110 through a wired or wireless link, such as a network cable 112 . I/O controller 108 also connects to user I/O devices 114 such as a keyboard, a display device, a mouse, or a printer through wired or wireless link 116 , such as cables or a radio-frequency connection. System interconnect 118 connects processor 104 , RAM 102 , storage 106 , and I/O controller 108 . Within RAM 102 , data processing system 100 stores several items of data and instructions while operating in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. These include an initial design (D) netlist 120 and an output table 122 for interaction with a verification environment 124 . In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 , initial design (D) netlist 120 contains targets (T) 132 and constraints (C) 134 . Other applications 128 and verification environment 124 interface with processor 104 , RAM 102 , I/O control 108 , and storage 106 through operating system 130 . One skilled in the data processing arts will quickly realize that additional components of data processing system 100 may be added to or substituted for those shown without departing from the scope of the present invention. Other data structures in RAM 102 include reduced design (D′) netlist 140 . A netlist graph, such as design (D) netlist 120 , is a popular means of compactly representing problems derived from circuit structures in computer-aided design of digital circuits. Such a representation is non-canonical and offers the ability to analyze the function from the nodes in the graph. A netlist, such as initial design (D) netlist 120 , contains a directed graph with vertices representing gates and edges representing interconnections between those gates. The gates have associated functions, such as constants, primary inputs (e.g. RANDOM gates), combinational logic (e.g., AND gates), and sequential elements (hereafter referred to as registers). Registers have two associated components; their next-state functions and their initial-value functions, which are represented as other gates in the graph. Certain gates in the netlist may be labeled as “primary outputs”, “targets”, “constraints”, etc. Semantically, for a given register, the value appearing at its initial-value gate at time “0” (“initialization” or “reset” time) will be applied by verification environment 124 as the value of the register itself; the value appearing at its next-state function gate at time “i” will be applied to the register itself at time “i+1”. Certain gates are labeled as targets (T) 132 and/or constraints (C) 134 . Targets (T) 132 correlate to the properties that require verification. Constraints (C) 134 are used to artificially limit the stimulus that can be applied to the RANDOM gates of initial design (D) netlist 120 ; in particular, when searching for a way to drive a “1” to a target (T) 132 , the verification environment 124 must adhere to rules such as, for purpose of example, that “every constraint gate must evaluate to a logical 1 for every time-step” or “every constraint gate must evaluate to a logical 1 for every time-step up to, and including, the time-step at which the target is asserted.” For example, in verification environment 124 , a constraint could be added which drives a 1 exactly when a vector evaluates a set of RANDOM gates to simulate even parity. Without its constraint, the verification environment 124 would consider valuations with even or off parity to those RANDOM gates; with the constraint, only even parity would be explored. The present invention will, with respect to some designs, preserve the expression of some targets (T) 132 and constraints (C) 134 . Processor 104 executes instructions from programs, often stored in RAM 102 , in the course of performing the present invention. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, processor 104 executes verification environment 124 . In a preferred embodiment, the present invention is applied to a netlist representation where the only combinational gate type is a 2-input AND, and inverters are represented implicitly as edge attributes. Registers have two associated components, their next-state functions, and their initial-value functions. Both are represented as other gates in design (D) netlist 120 . Semantically, for a given register, the value appearing at its initial-value gate at time ‘0’ (“initialization” or “reset” time) will be applied as the value of the register itself; the value appearing at its next-state function gate at time “i” will be applied to the register itself at time “i+1”. Certain gates are labeled as “targets” and/or “constraints”. Hereafter, the explanation of the present invention assumes that OR gates are represented as AND gates with inversion attributes pushed on all their incoming edges and outgoing edges, and INVERTER gates are folded into inverted attributes on edges between their source and sink gates. The implementation in the preferred embodiment of this assumption increases the power of the present invention by “shifting” to an alternate logic representation. In a 2-input AND representation, note that A XOR B may be represented either as (NOT (A & NOT B) & NOT (NOT A& B)) or (NOT (A & B) & NOT (NOT A & NOT B)). XNOR toggles the top level inversion. Targets (T) 132 represent nodes whose Boolean expressions are of interest and need to be computed. The goal of the verification process is to find a way to drive a ‘1’ on a target (T) 132 node, or to prove that no such assertion of the target (T) 132 is possible. In the former case, a “counterexample trace” showing the sequence of assignments to the inputs in every cycle leading up to the fail event getting triggered is generated and recorded to output table 122 . Verification environment 124 includes a computer program product, stored in RAM 102 and executed on processor 104 , which provides a series of tools for activities such as equivalence checking, property checking, logic synthesis and false-paths analysis. Generally speaking, verification environment 124 contains rule-based instructions for predicting the behavior of logically modeled items of hardware. Verification environment 124 uses the series of rules contained in its own instructions, in conjunction with design netlist 120 , to represent the underlying logical problem structurally (as a circuit graph). In a preferred embodiment, verification environment 124 includes a Cycle-Based Symbolic Simulator (CBSS), which performs a cycle-by-cycle simulation on design netlist 120 symbolically by applying unique random, or non-deterministic, variables to the netlist inputs in every cycle. In order to reduce the size of designs on which it operates, such as initial design (D) netlist 120 , verification environment 124 includes a reduction tool package 126 . A Cycle-Based Symbolic Simulator (CBSS), such as is included verification environment 124 , performs a cycle-by-cycle symbolic simulation on a netlist representation of the design in initial design (D) netlist 120 . Verification environment 124 extends the cycle simulation methodology to symbolic values. Verification environment 124 applies symbolic functions to the inputs in every cycle and propagates them to the targets 132 . Hence, state-variables/next-state functions and the targets are expressed in terms of the symbolic values applied in the various cycles. If a target is hit, a counterexample may generated simply by assigning concrete values to the symbolic values in the cycles leading up to the failure. Reduction tool package 126 is comprised of several tools, which one skilled in the art will quickly realize may be embodied as separate units or as lines of code within an integrated package. An AND/OR identification module 142 identifies certain gates initial design (D) netlist 120 (referred to as “roots”) whose functions must be preserved when eliminating common subexpressions within AND/OR trees, which in turn indicate which gates may be replaced by the process of the present invention. AND/OR identification module 142 identifies AND roots in four steps. First, AND/OR identification module 142 labels all pre-defined gates whose functions need to be preserved as roots. For example, in a verification setting, targets (T) 132 and constraints (C) 134 may need to be preserved. Similarly, in a synthesis setting, “primary outputs” may need to be preserved. Second, AND/OR identification module 142 marks the “cone of influence” of the pre-defined gates. The cone-of-influence is identified transitively as the set of gates which source incoming edges to this pre-defined set, including next-state functions and initial-value functions for registers. Third, for any register marked as in the cone-of-influence, AND/OR identification module 142 labels its next-state function and initial-value function as roots. Finally, for any non-register gate “g” in the cone-of-influence, the AND/OR identification module 142 analyzes all gates that source the incoming edges to “g”. If “g” is not an AND gate, AND/OR identification module 142 tags all such source gates as roots. Otherwise, for each incoming edge, if that edge is tagged as “inverted”, AND/OR identification module 142 marks the corresponding source gate as a root. AND/OR elimination module 144 executes a heuristically optimal structural algorithm for eliminating common AND/OR subexpressions from the identified roots. For all AND-gate roots tagged by AND/OR identification module 142 , AND/OR elimination module 144 traverses fanin-wise exclusively through AND gates and uninverted edges, queueing up “leaves” of the AND tree as all “edges” at which the traversal stops (where an “edge” correlates to both the source gate and the “inverted” attribute of the edge). These edges will include either inverted edges (sourced by arbitrary gate types), or uninverted edges to non-AND gate types. Any gates traversed “through” which are not marked as roots will effectively be replaced by subexpression elimination process, as explained later. AND/OR elimination module 144 then builds an intermediate data structure representing the common subexpression data. AND/OR elimination module 144 ignores any gate not marked in the cone of influence identified by AND/OR identification module 142 . For any AND gate marked as a root, AND/OR elimination module 144 translates it as a multi-input gate (of the same function) in the intermediate representation whose inputs are the identified leaves. The resulting netlist will include all AND gate roots, and all gates queued up as literals for those roots, with edges between them. AND/OR elimination module 144 then eliminates subexpressions from the created data structure via the algorithm embodied in the following pseudocode: for each gate “i” which is a literal of an AND root{  for each polarity of “i”, i.e. for each literal “j” involving “i” { // the present invention will check for instances of “i” as well as “NOT i” in roots  roots = all AND gate roots in the fanout of “j” // the roots including literal “j” that the present invention may refactor from  if (roots has fewer than two elements) {continue;} // no subexpression elimination possible with “j”  leaves = all literals occurring in 2+ roots // the literals that the present invention may refactor out of roots; this will include j  leaves = leaves MINUS “j” // leaves is now the set of literals that the present invention will try to refactor of roots, along with j  while (leaves) {   “k” = pop (leaves) // grab another literal; the present invention will try to refactor both “j” and “k” out of roots   roots’ = subset of roots containing {“j”, ”k”} // see which roots include both “j” and “k”   if (roots’ has fewer than two elements) {continue;} // a small optimization - due to adding newly created AND gates as roots below   leaves’ = maximal set of common literals in each element of roots’ // a superset of {j,k}; see if they include additional common literals   cur = create AND gate whose inputs are leaves’ // an AND gate representing the common subexpression   refactor leaves’ out of roots’ // remove connections between leaves’ and each of roots’   add cur as leaf of roots’ // remove connections between leaves’ and each of roots’   add cur as leaf of roots’ // add cur as an input to each of roots’   add cur to roots // may need to further refactor cur    }   }  } When AND/OR elimination module 144 terminates the algorithm above, all common subexpressions will be eliminated from the roots. To complete the process of minimizing the original design (D) netlist 120 , reduction tool package 126 replaces the roots in the original design (D) netlist 120 with new logic consistent with the solution obtained in the intermediate representation. The present invention therefore synthesizes all “cur” gates created in the intermediate representation, then re-synthesizes the roots as AND functions over the original roots and the synthesized “cur” gates, to map the solution from the intermediate representation to one in original design (D) netlist 120 . A simple example illustrates the operation of the algorithm above. Assume three roots, such that A1={A, B, C, D} A2={A, B, C, E} A3={A, C, E}. Assume that AND/OR elimination module 144 processes literals in the outer loops in the order A, B, C, D, E. In the first loop, “j” is “A”. Roots will be {A1, A2, A3}. Leaves will initially be {A, B, C, E} and will not include D, because that literal occurs only in a single root A1. Reduction tool package 126 then prunes A from leaves. AND/OR elimination module 144 then enters the inner loop, and sets k=“B”. Roots will be {A1, A2}; leaves will be {A, B, C}. AND/OR elimination module 144 will create a new AND gate A4={A, B, C} and remove those three literals from each of the roots, rendering the roots at the end of the first pass through the inner loop as: A1={A4, D} A2={A4, E} A3={A, C, E} A4={A,B,C}. For the second pass through the inner loop, AND/OR elimination module 144 sets k=“C”. Roots will be {A3, A4}; leaves will be {A, C}. AND/OR elimination module 144 will create a new AND gate A5={A, C}, rendering the roots at the end of the second pass through the inner loop as: A1={A4, D} A2={A4, E} A3={A5, E} A4={A5, B} A5={A, C} For the third inner loop AND/OR elimination module 144 sets k=“B”; the set of roots is empty, because no remaining roots have {A, B}. Hence AND/OR elimination module 144 continues out of this inner loop. For the fourth and final pass through the inner loop, AND/OR elimination module 144 sets k=“E”; the set of roots is again empty since no remaining roots have {A, E}. AND/OR elimination module 144 proceeds to the next pass through the outer loop. In the next pass through the outer loop, AND/OR elimination module 144 chooses “j”=“B”. There is only one root with B (which is A4) and, AND/OR elimination module 144 continues to the next pass through the outer loop, and iterates similarly with C and D. For the final loop, the AND/OR elimination module 144 chooses “j”=“E”, resulting in two roots {A2, A3}. Leaves will only be {E}, because the other literals A4 and A5 in {A2, A3} appear only in a single root. As a result, AND/OR elimination module 144 will not enter the inner loop. Overall, assuming that AND/OR elimination module 144 started with the above roots A1=A&(B&(C&D)), A2=A&(B&(C&E)), A3=A&(C&E), there are 8 2-input AND expressions. AND/OR elimination module 144 yields A1=A4&D A2=A4&E A3=A5&E A4=A5&B A5=A&C, with only 5 2-input AND expressions. Extensions to the common AND/OR subexpression elimination algorithm of AND/OR elimination module 144 provide redundancy removal capability. There are several facets to AND/OR elimination module 144 extensions. After queuing the literals in the AND roots in AND/OR elimination module 144 , and before creating the intermediate format, AND/OR elimination module 144 prunes the queue in five steps. First, AND/OR elimination module 144 deletes any constant-one gates from the queue. Second, if a constant-zero gate is in the queue, AND/OR elimination module 144 empties the queue and put only a constant-zero gate in the queue. Third, AND/OR elimination module 144 deletes any redundant edges from the queue (i.e., if two edges sourced by the same gate, with the same “inverted” attributes, are in the queue, AND/OR elimination module 144 deletes one of them). This step will ensure that every literal in the queue is unique. Fourth, if any opposite-polarity literals are in the queue, AND/OR elimination module 144 empties the queue and puts only a constant-zero gate in the queue. Finally, if any inverted literal is in the queue, and that literal is an AND root, and the literals of that AND root are all present as literals in the current queue, AND/OR elimination module 144 empties the queue and put only a constant-zero gate in the queue. Since these queues within AND/OR elimination module 144 represent literals of an AND expression, the steps above are a structural application of propositional “conjunction simplification” rules. If the resulting queue has only a constant-zero literal, then AND/OR elimination module 144 will replace the corresponding root by constant-zero. If the queue has no literals whatsoever, the situation must have arisen due to elimination of constant-one literals, and AND/OR elimination module 144 will replace the corresponding literal by constant-one. Otherwise, AND/OR elimination module 144 uses a hash table to identify the literals of the AND roots. After pruning the queue for a new AND root, AND/OR elimination module 144 checks to see if an AND root with the identical literals exists. If so, AND/OR elimination module 144 replaces the current AND root by the existing one with identical literals. Otherwise, AND/OR elimination module 144 adds the AND root literals to the hash table and proceeds to the next AND root. AND/OR elimination module 144 then proceeds to the common subexpression elimination aspect. AND/OR synthesis module 146 executes an algorithm to synthesize 3+ input AND gates to minimize gate depth, and/or to retain as much of the original design representation in initial design (D) netlist 120 as possible. When synthesizing 3+ input AND gates into 2-input AND gates for a 2-input AND representation, AND/OR synthesis module 146 may create the set of 2-input AND gates in any possible configuration without risking suboptimality with respect to the total number of gates in the final design. Any non-root gates will be replaced by synthesis of the intermediate representation, which maximally eliminated all common subexpressions from the root expressions. Synthesis of 3+ input AND gates could be an arbitrary cascade (e.g., given a 4-input AND over A, B, C, D, AND/OR synthesis module 146 could form (((A&B)&C)&D)). Alternatively, it is often desired to limit the “depth” of logic levels (i.e., the maximum number of combinational gates that can be traversed through fanin-wise without stopping at a register or primary input). For that reason, a balanced AND tree such as ((A&B)&(C&D)) is often preferred. Furthermore, rather than arbitrarily pairing literals as in the last example to minimize the depth of the synthesized logic, the AND/OR synthesis module 146 yields even greater reductions in maximum logic depth through the use of a 3-step method. First, AND/OR synthesis module 146 labels each literal in the multi-AND representation with its “depth”, where depth is defined such that all constant gates, RANDOM gates, and registers have level 0. The level of other combinational gates is equal to the maximum level of any of their sourcing gates plus one. AND/OR synthesis module 146 then sorts the literals of the 3+ input AND tree by increasing depth in a queue. Finally, while there are 2+ literals in the queue, AND/OR synthesis module 146 removes the two “shallowest” literals and create a 2-input AND over them and add the resulting 2-input AND gate to the queue, again sorting by depth. Note that AND/OR synthesis module 146 defers creating an AND gate over gates that are already “deep” as long as possible, resulting in a solution where the maximum level of any created AND gate is minimal. When there is only one literal left in the queue, AND/OR synthesis module 146 replaces the root, which was found in initial design (D) netlist 120 with this literal. Additionally, AND/OR synthesis module 146 may rebuild the AND gates to maximize the amount of reuse of the prior design representation, to in turn minimize the amount of change to the design representation caused by subexpression elimination. Such a criteria may be used as a “tie-breaker” when AND/OR synthesis module 146 is selecting among arbitrary equal-cost solutions (e.g., if more than 2 “shallowest nodes” exist when using the minimum-depth creation algorithm above, AND/OR synthesis module 146 could select those whose conjunctions already exist in the original design); or it could be the only criteria. Assume that AND/OR synthesis module 146 has a “queue” of literals to build an AND tree over, and AND/OR synthesis module 146 will retain as much similarity with the original gates as possible. Again, this priority may relate either to the entire queue that AND/OR synthesis module 146 synthesizes, or to a subset of the queue representing equal-cost solutions for another criteria, such as min-depth above. AND/OR synthesis module 146 may use an additional method, which is expressed as the algorithm embodied in the following pseudocode: for each literal A in the queue  for each AND gate over A in the original cone-of-influence, look at the other AND literal B or NOT B; call the match “C” (which is either B or NOT B)  if (B is in queue)   delete A and B from the queue   add the existing AND gate for (A & B) to the queue XOR/XNOR identification module 152 executes a method for identifying gates of initial design (D) netlist 120 whose functions must be preserved when eliminating common subexpressions within XOR/XNOR trees (referred to as “roots”), which in turn indicate which gates may be replaced by the process of the present invention. XOR/XNOR identification module 152 identifies roots in five steps. First XOR/XNOR identification module 152 labels all pre-defined gates whose functions need to be preserved as roots. For example, in a verification setting, targets (T) 132 and constraints (C) 134 may need to be preserved. In a synthesis setting, “primary outputs” may need to be preserved. Second, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 marks the “cone of influence” of the pre-defined gates. The cone-of-influence is identified transitively as the set of gates which source incoming edges to this pre-defined set, including next-state functions and initial-value functions for registers. Third, for any register marked as in the cone-of-influence, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 labels its next-state function and initial-value function as roots. Fourth, if initial design (D) netlist 120 does not include a 2-input AND representation, for any non-register gate “g” in the cone-of-influence, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 analyzes all gates that source the incoming edges to “g”. If “g” is not an XOR or XNOR gate, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 tags all such source gates as roots. If initial design (D) netlist 120 does include a 2-input AND representation, for every node in the cone of influence, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 uses pattern matching to detect the top AND clause of expressions of the form (NOT(A & NOT B) & NOT(NOT A & B)), which is an XNOR structure, and (NOT(A & B) & NOT(NOT A & NOT B)), which is an XOR structure. If such a structure is detected, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 labels the internal two AND gates as “xor_internals”. Finally, for every XOR/XNOR gate, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 analyzes its fanout gates. If any of the fanout gates are in the cone-of-influence, but not tagged as xor_internals, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 labels them as sinks. As a post-processing step, XOR/XNOR identification module 152 clears the xor_internal flag from any node identified XOR/XNOR root. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 executes a heuristically optimal structural algorithm for eliminating common XOR/XNOR subexpressions from roots. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 exploits the propositional logic fact that ((A XOR B) XNOR C) is equivalent to ((A XNOR B) XOR C), NOT((A XOR B) XOR C) and ((A XOR NOT B) XOR C). Further XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 exploits the propositional logic fact that ((A XNOR B) XNOR C) is equivalent to ((A XOR B) XOR C). This allows XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 to cancel NOTs in pairs, and if any NOT remains, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 may apply the NOT to the top of the XOR expression. If initial design (D) netlist 120 does not include a 2-input AND representation, for all XOR/XNOR-gate roots tagged above, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 traverses fanin-wise exclusively through XOR/XNOR gates and inversions. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 maintains an inverted_flag, initialized to false. Any XNOR gate traversed through causes XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 to toggle the inverted_flag, and any inversion present on an edge “between” XOR and XNOR gates causes XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 to toggle the inverted_flag. Finally, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 queues the UNINVERTED gates sourcing edges at which this traversal stops (i.e., inputs to the terminal XOR/XNOR gates). For each such gate that is inverted, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 toggles the inverted_flag. If initial design (D) netlist 120 does include a 2-input AND representation, for all XOR/XNOR-gate roots tagged above, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 traverses fanin-wise exclusively through XOR/XNOR structures using a get_xor_literals function. For XOR/XNOR gate “g”, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 calls a get_xor_leaves(g, false, literals) function with an empty queue “literals” to get its queue of literals, and its inverted_flag. In a preferred embodiment of XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 the get_xor_leaves(g, false, literals) implements the algorithm embodied in the following pseudocode: xor_type is either NOT_XOR_TYPE     or XNOR_TYPE     or XOR_TYPE // the bool return indicates the inverted_flag bool get_xor_leaves(gate g, bool inverted_edge, queue literals) { xor_type type bck_xor_type(p, false); if(type == XNOR_TYPE) {flag = true;) else   {flag = false;) if(type == NOT_XOR_TYPE) {  push(literals, g); // note - only uninverted literals are pushed. inversions for those are reflected in inverted_flag //by XNORTYPE and XOR_TYPE processing  return false; }else{ inp1 = input_gate_1 (input_gate_1 (g)); inp2 = input_gate_2(input_gate_1 (g)); if(get_xor_leaves(inp1, in put_edge1 _is_inverted(input_gate_1 (g)), literals) { flag = NOT flag; } if(get_xor_leaves(inp2, input_edge2_is_inverted (input_gate_1 (g)), literals) { flag = NOT flag; } ) return flag; } xor_type get_xor_type(gate g, bool inverted_edge) { if(g is a 2-input AND gate) {  if(input_gate_1 (g) is a 2-input AND gate && //first input gate of “g” is also an AND  input_gate_2(g) is a 2-input AND gate && //second input gate of “g” is also an AND  input_edge1_is_inverted(g) &&  //first input edge of “g” is inverted  input_edge2_is_inverted(g) &&  //first input edge of “g” is inverted ((input_gate_1 (input_gate_1 (g)) == input_gate_1 (input_gate_2(g))) || // source of first input gate to first child of “g” is (input_gate_1 (input_gate_1 (g)) == input_gate_2(input_gate_2(g)))) && //also a source of second child of g ((input_gate_2(input_gate_1(g)) == input_gate_1 (input_gate_2(g))) || //source of second input gate to first child of “g” is (input_gate_2(input_gate_1 (g)) == input_gate_2(input_gate_2(g))))) { // also a source of second child of g //the present invention now knows this is an XOR or XNOR type if(input_edge1_is_inverted(input_gate_i (g)) input_edge1_is_inverted(input_gate_1 (g))) { type = XNOR_TYPE; } else{ type = XOR_TYPE; } if(!inverted_edge) {return type;} else if(type == XNOR_TYPE) {return XOR_TYPE;} // flip type since called on an inverted edge for gate g else {return XNOR_TYPE;}// flip type since called on an inverted edge for gate g } } return NOT_XOR_TYPE; } Any gates traversed “through” by XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 on either traversal, which are not marked as roots, will effectively be replaced by the cross-elimination module 136 , as explained later. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 will then build an intermediate data structure representing the common subexpression data. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 ignores any gate not marked in the cone of influence. For any XOR/XNOR gate marked as a root, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 translates it as a multi-input XOR gate in the intermediate representation whose inputs are the identified leaves. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 labels the gate with the “inverted_flag”, indicating if an even or odd number of inversions were detected. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 then adds all literals of the multi-input XOR gate, and edges from those literals to the multi-input XOR gate, to the intermediate representation. Next, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 eliminates subexpressions from the created data structure in a manner that implements the algorithm embodied in the following pseudocode: for each gate “i” which is a literal of an XOR/XNOR root { for each polarity of “i” i.e. for each literal “j” involving “i” { //the present invention will check for instances of “i” as well as “NOT i” in roots roots = all XOR/XNOR gate roots in the fanout of “j” //the roots including literal “j” that the present invention may refactor from if(roots has fewer than two elements) {continue;} // no subexpression elimination possible with “j”   leaves = all literals occurring in 2+ roots   //the literals that the present invention may refactor out of roots   leaves = leaves MINUS “j”   //leaves is now the set of literals that the present invention will try to refactor out of roots, along with “j” while(leaves) {  k = pop(leaves) //grab another literal; the present invention will try to refactor both “j” and “k” out of roots roots' = subset of roots containing {j,k} //see which roots include both “j” and “k” leaves' = maximal set of common literals in each element of roots'   //a superset of {j,k}; see if they include additional common literals roots' has fewer than two elements) {continue;} //a small optimization - due to adding newly created AND gates as roots below cur = create XOR gate whose inputs are leaves' //an XOR gate representing the common subexpression   refactor leaves’ out of roots'   //remove connections between leaves’ and each of roots'   add cur as a leaf of roots' //add cur as an input to each of roots'   add cur to roots //may need to further refactor cur    }   }  } When the above algorithm terminates, all common subexpressions will be eliminated from the roots by XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 . To complete the process of minimizing initial design (D) netlist 120 , XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 replaces the roots found in initial design (D) netlist 120 with new logic consistent with the solution obtained on the intermediate representation. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 therefore synthesizes all “cur” gates created in the intermediate representation, which will be XOR gates. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 next re-synthesizes the roots as XOR functions over the original roots and the synthesized “cur” gates. Finally, if the “inverted_flag” of the root is not set, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 replaces the original XOR/XNOR gate with this synthesized XOR gate. Otherwise, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 replaces the original XOR/XNOR gate with the inversion of the synthesized XOR gate. This step effectively maps the solution from the intermediate representation to one in the original design. Extensions to XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 can provide redundancy removal capability. After queuing up the literals in the XOR/XNOR roots in and before creating the intermediate format, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 prunes the queue in three steps. First, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 deletes any constant-one gates from the queue, and toggles the “inverted_flag” associated with the node. XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 then deletes any constant-zero gates from the queue. If two identical literals are in the queue, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 deletes them both to ensure that every literal in the queue is unique. Because these queues represent literals of an XOR expression, the steps above provide a structural application of propositional “conjunction simplification” rules. If the resulting queue is empty, and the “inverted_flag” is false, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 replaces the corresponding root by constant-zero. If the resulting queue is empty, and the “inverted_flag” is true, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 replaces the corresponding root by constant-one. Additionally, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 uses a hash table to identify the literals of the XOR roots. After pruning the queue for a new XOR root, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 checks to see if an XOR root with the identical literals exists. If so, and if the “inverted_flags” for the current and matching roots are equal, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 replaces the current XOR root by the matching one with identical literals. If so, and if the “inverted_flags” for the current and matching roots differ, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 replaces the current XOR root by the inverse of the matching one with identical literals. Otherwise, XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 adds the XOR root literals to the hash table. XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 executes an algorithm to synthesize 3+ input XOR gates to minimize gate depth, and/or to retain as much of the original design representation in initial design (D) netlist 120 as possible. XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 could perform an arbitrary cascade, (e.g. given a 4-input XOR over A, B, C, D the present invention could form (((A XOR B) XOR C) XOR D))). Alternatively, it is often desired to limit the “depth” of logic levels (i.e., the maximum number of combinational gates that can be traversed through fanin-wise without stopping at a register or primary input. For that reason, a balanced XOR tree such as ((A XOR B) XOR (C XOR D)) is preferred. Furthermore, rather than arbitrarily pairing literals as in the last example to minimize the depth of the synthesized logic, XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 yields even greater reductions in maximum logic depth. XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 performs three steps. First, XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 labels each literal in the multi-XOR representation with its “depth”. Depth is defined where all constant gates, RANDOM gates, and registers have level 0. The level of other combinational gates is equal to the maximum level of any of their sourcing gates plus one. Second, XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 sorts the literals of the 3+ input XOR tree by increasing depth in a queue. Third, while there are 2+ literals in the queue, XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 removes the 2 “shallowest” literals and create a 2-input XOR over them (using either of the 2-input AND decompositions for XOR, if desired) and adds the resulting 2-input XOR gate to the queue, again sorting by depth. Note that XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 defers creating an XOR gate over gates that are already “deep” as long as possible, resulting in a solution where the maximum level of any created XOR gate is minimal. When there is only one literal left in the queue, XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 replaces the root in the original netlist with this literal (if its inverted_flag is false), else by the inversion of that literal. Additionally, XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 may rebuild the XOR/XNOR gates to maximize the amount of reuse of the prior design representation, to in turn minimize the amount of change to the design representation caused by subexpression elimination. Such a criterion may be used as a “tie-breaker” when selecting among arbitrary equal-cost solutions (e.g., if more than 2 “shallowest nodes” exist when using the min-depth creation algorithm above, the present invention could select those whose conjunctions already exist in the original design); or it could be the only criteria. Assume that XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 has a “queue” of literals to build an XOR tree over, and XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 is to retain as much similarity with the original gates as possible. Again, this may either be the entire queue that the present invention is designed to synthesize, or may be a subset of the queue to synthesize representing equal-cost solutions for another criteria, such as min-depth above. XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 may also employ an instruction set where, for each literal A in the queue XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 and for each XOR/XNOR gate over A in the original cone-of-influence, XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 looks at the other XOR/XNOR literal B or NOT B, and XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 calls the match “C” (which is either B or NOT B). Note that XOR/XNOR synthesis module 156 may readily identify XOR/XNOR gates over A even in a 2-input AND representation. An appropriate algorithm is embodied in the following pseudocode: (get_xor_type) applied to AND gates which are 2 fanout levels “deeper” than A   if(B is in queue)   delete A and B from the queue   if the existing gate is an XOR, add that existing XOR gate for   (A XOR B) to the queue   if the existing gate is an XNOR, add the inverse of that existing XNOR gate for (A XNOR B) to the queue Cross elimination module 138 executes algorithms to allow subexpression elimination between XOR/XNOR expressions and AND/OR expressions. When building an XOR gate over A and B in a 2-input AND representation, cross elimination module 138 pursues one of two options: NOT(NOT(A & NOT B) & NOT(NOT A & B)) or (NOT(A & B) & NOT(NOT A & NOT B)). Assume that, somewhere in the original design (D) netlist 120 , cross elimination module 138 sees an AND gate for (NOT A & B); and no other AND gates over gates A and B exist (save for those to be fabricated for A XOR B). This condition implies that cross elimination module 138 chooses the former synthesis of the XOR, and cross elimination module 138 may reuse one existing AND gate, thereby adding only two for the XOR, whereas the latter would require three dedicated XORs. When synthesizing a 2+ input XOR in a 2-input AND representation, Cross elimination module 138 attempts to share the resulting AND gates with those in the original structure using the algorithm embodied in the following pseudocode, in which references to “queue” represent the XOR literals to be synthesized: // refactor out pairs which have 2 of the 3 AND gates already in the cone for each literal A in the queue   for each AND gate over A in the cone-of-influence, which is not an xor_internal, look at the other AND literal B or NOT B; call the match “C” (which is either B or NOT B)   if(B is in queue)   if( (NOT A & NOT C) also exists in the cone-of-influence, and is not an xor_internal) refactor A and B out of queue   create XOR gate (NOT(A & C) & NOT(NOT A & NOT C)), and add that to the queue   for each AND gate over NOT A in the cone-of-influence, which is not an xor_internal, look at the other   AND literal B or NOT B; call the match “C” (which is either B or NOT B)   if(B is in queue)   if( (A & NOT C) also exists in the cone-of-influence, and is not an xor_internal) refactor A and B out of queue   create XOR gate (NOT(NOT A & C) & NOT(A & NOT C)), and add that to the queue   //refactor out pairs which have 1 of the 3 AND gates already in the cone   for each AND gate over A in the cone-of-influence, which is not an xor_internal, look at the other AND literal B or NOT B; call the match “C” (which is either B or NOT B)   if(B is in queue)   refactor A and B out of queue   create XOR gate (NOT(A & C) & NOT(NOT A & NOT C)), and add that to the queue   for each AND gate over NOT A in the cone-of-influence, which is not an xor_internal, look at the other AND literal B or NOT B; call the match “C” (which is either B or NOT B)   if(B is in queue)   refactor A and B out of queue   create XOR gate (NOT(NOT A & C) & NOT(A & NOT C)), and add that to the queue Prevention module 136 executes an algorithm to heuristically prevent logic increases for AND/OR as well as XOR/XNOR refactoring. Though AND/OR elimination module 144 and XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 provide complete elimination of subexpressions, AND/OR elimination module 144 and XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 are heuristic. The order in which common subexpressions including literals “j” and “k” are removed from expressions affects the optimality of the final solution, and may result in an increase in size. Prevention module 136 provides a functionality to attempt to prevent such an increase in size. After building the multi-input AND and XOR representations described above, respectively, and before calling the subexpression elimination code, Prevention module 136 deploys the algorithm embodied in the following pseudocode: For each AND root “g”     traverse fanin-wise looking for AND roots that were “traversed through”, and queue these up For each element of the queue “h”, in order of decreasing number of literals in “h”: if the literals queue for “g” includes all the literals in “h”  refactor h literals out of “g”  add h as a literal of “g” Similarly for XOR roots: For each multi-input XOR root “g”: traverse fanin-wise looking for XOR roots that were “traversed through, and queue these up For each element of the queue “h”, in order of decreasing number of literals in “h”: if the literals queue for “g” includes all the literals in “h” refactor “h” literals out of “g” if “h” has its inverted flag as false, add “h” as a literal of “g” else, add the inversion of “h” as a literal of “g” Prevention module 136 heuristically keeps the final subexpression-eliminated solution closer to that of the original solution, which prevents certain gate increases which may result from the heuristic algorithms AND/OR elimination module 144 and XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 . Reversal module 148 executes an algorithm to selectively undo portions of the subexpression elimination results in reduced design (D′) netlist 140 , to improve overall reduction capability and/or retain greater similarity with the original design representation in initial design (D) netlist 120 . As described in the discussion of Prevention module 136 , heuristic algorithms can at times increase design size. Such increases may occur for certain cones of logic, though other cones may attain a reduction through the subexpression elimination. Reversal module 148 provides functionality to selectively undo portions of the subexpression elimination, and retain others. After application of AND/OR elimination module 144 and XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 have generated an intermediate data structure, reversal module 148 may partition the roots which overlap in literals. Assume every root which contains literal ‘A’ is in the same partition. For optimality, reversal module 148 places disjoint roots into different partitions. This may be performed by the algorithm embodied in the following pseudocode: partition = 1 for each root “g” { if(labeled(g)) {continue;} push(queue, g) while(queue) { h = pop(queue) label(h) = partition; for each literal “1” in the literals queue of “h” for each root “r” in the fanout of “1” { if(labeled(r)) {continue;} label(r) = partition push(queue, r) } } partition++ } Once reversal module 148 has labeled each root in maximally disjoint partitions, reversal module 148 may selectively undo the subexpression elimination results for a given partition. The results of each partition are independent from the others by the construction of the partitioning, hence undoing one partition entails no suboptimality to other partitions. One significant consideration for undoing the subexpression elimination for a given partition is whether the transformation increases the number of gates necessary to represent the partition. Reversal module 148 may therefore count the number of gates used in the original design to represent the logic of the “traversed through” gates for the given roots in a partition, and compare it to those needed to represent the replacement logic for those roots. If the former is less than, or possibly equal to/within a specific threshold of being equal to (e.g., if the reversal module 148 attempts to retain as much of the original design representation as possible), the latter, reversal module 148 may neglect the replacement of the original gates. Numerous other criteria for neglecting the replacement may be selected, such as choosing based upon gate depth, or any other criteria. Referring now to FIG. 2 , a high-level logical flowchart of a method for heuristic elimination of sub-expressions instructional design representations is depicted. The process starts at step 200 and then proceeds to step 202 , which depicts verification environment 124 receiving initial design (D) netlist 120 . The process next moves to step 204 . At step 204 , reduction tool package 126 determines whether to use whether to use XOR/XNOR or AND/OR simplification. The choice of what form of simplification is to be used can be based on any number of criteria, ranging from alternating between passes to performing mathematical computations with respect to initial design (D) netlist 120 . If AND/OR simplification is chosen, then the process passes to step 206 , which depicts AND/OR identification module 142 identifying a minimal set of AND/OR roots whose functions must be preserved. The process then moves to step 208 . At step 208 , reduction tool package 126 enqueues AND leaves of each root from initial design (D) netlist 120 . The process then proceeds to step 210 , which depicts AND/OR elimination module 144 using AND rewriting rules to simplify queues. The process next moves to step 212 . At step 212 , for each root queue of a gate (g1) which is a superset of the queue of another gate (g2), AND/OR elimination module 144 replaces the common leaves in g1's queue with leaf g2. The process then proceeds to step 214 , which depicts AND/OR elimination module 144 clustering roots into leaf-disjoint groups. Next, the process proceeds to step 216 . At step 216 , AND/OR elimination module 144 successively eliminates common leaf sets from each corresponding group of roots creating the corresponding AND gates over common leaves and replacing the common leaves in queues with the new AND gate. AND/OR elimination module 144 also adds the new AND gate to the root group. The process then moves to step 218 , which depicts prevention module 136 and cross elimination module 138 building depth-balanced AND trees for each AND root. The process then proceeds to step 220 . At step 220 , reduction tool package 126 determines whether the new logic created in steps 206 to 218 or steps 226 to 238 is smaller than the original logic of initial design (D) netlist 120 received in step 202 . If the new logic created in steps 206 to 218 or steps 226 to 238 is not smaller than the original logic of initial design (D) netlist 120 received in step 212 , then the process moves to step 222 , which depicts reversal module 148 retaining the original logic or group received in initial design (D) netlist 120 at step 202 . The process returns to step 204 , which is described above. If reduction tool package 126 determines that the new logic created in steps 206 to 218 or steps 226 to 238 is smaller than the original logic received in initial design (D) netlist 120 at step 202 , then the process proceeds to step 224 . Step 224 depicts reduction tool package 126 replacing the original logic received in initial design (D) netlist 120 at step 202 with the new logic created in steps 206 to 218 or steps 226 to 238 . The process then proceeds to step 240 . At step 240 , reduction tool package 126 determines whether the current solution of initial design (D) netlist 120 as modified through steps 206 to 218 or steps 226 to 238 meets the required size parameters for the current verification problem. If reduction tool package 126 determines that the current solution meets the size parameters for the current verification problem then the process ends at step 242 , at which point results are reported to output table 122 . If reduction tool package 126 determines that the current solution constructed in steps 206 to 218 or steps 226 to 238 does not meet the sized parameters of the current verification problem then the process returns to step 202 which is described above. Returning to step 226 , which depicts verification environment 124 identifying a minimal set of XOR/XNOR roots whose functions must be preserved. The process then moves to step 228 , at step 228 , reduction tool package 126 enqueues XOR leaves of each root from initial design (D) netlist 120 . The process then proceeds to step 230 , which depicts verification environment 124 using XOR rewriting rules to simplify queues. The process next moves to step 232 . At step 232 , for each root queue of a gate (g1) which is a superset of the queue of another gate (g2), verification environment 124 replaces the common leaves in g1's queue with leaf g2. The process then proceeds to step 234 , which depicts XOR/XNOR elimination module 154 clustering roots into leaf-disjoint groups. Next, the process proceeds to step 236 . At step 236 , verification environment 124 successively eliminates common leaf sets from each corresponding group of roots creating the corresponding XOR gates over common leaves and replacing the common leaves in queues with the new XOR gate. Verification environment 124 also adds the new XOR gate to the root group. The process then moves to step 238 , which depicts verification environment 124 building depth-balanced XOR trees for each XOR root. The process then proceeds to step 220 . While the invention has been particularly shown as described with reference to a preferred embodiment, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. It is also important to note that although the present invention has been described in the context of a fully functional computer system, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the mechanisms of the present invention are capable of being distributed as a program product in a variety of forms, and that the present invention applies equally regardless of the particular type of signal bearing media utilized to actually carry out the distribution. Examples of signal bearing media include, without limitation, recordable type media such as floppy disks or CD ROMs and transmission type media such as analog or digital communication links.

A method, system and computer program product for reducing XOR/XNOR subexpressions in structural design representations are disclosed. The method includes receiving an initial design, in which the initial design represents an electronic circuit containing an XOR gate. A first simplification mode for the initial design is selected from a set of applicable simplification modes, wherein the first simplification mode is an XOR/XNOR simplification mode, and a simplification of the initial design is performed according to the first simplification mode to generate a reduced design containing a reduced number of XOR gates. Whether a size of the reduced design is less than a size of the initial design is determined, and, in response to determining that the size of the reduced design is less than a the size of the initial design, the initial design is replaced with the reduced design.

This application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application having Serial No. 08/949,366, filed Oct. 14, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,230,930 the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to vending machines, and more particularly to an improved method and apparatus for vending multi-sized and fragile products and in particular bottled or canned beverages of varied sizes and shapes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention applies to the vending of products in general and in particular to the difficult issues that arise when attempting to dispense items of various sizes and shapes and/or fragile items that do not fare well when subjected to dropping or impact forces during a vend cycle. While the invention addresses all of these issues, the problems associated with dispensing bottled beverages of various sizes and configurations and packaged in various types of materials such as glass or plastic perhaps best characterize the situation. Accordingly, the invention will hereinafter be discussed in the context of its applicability to dispensing contained beverages, it being understood that the inventive principles can be expanded to include the dispensing of other products as well. Machines for vending canned and/or bottled beverages have long been known. Early bottled vending machines enabled release of same-sized bottled beverages, one at a time, following deposit of the required purchase amount, from chest-like coolers. The purchaser was required for example to slide the neck of the beverage bottle along and through a retaining race to a dispensing location from which it could be lifted out of the refrigerated chest after release by the dispensing mechanism. With the advent of canned beverages, dispensing became somewhat simpler and easier to automate due to the standardization of container sizes and techniques that enabled the cylindrical cans to roll and drop through chutes during a vend cycle to the delivery area of the machine. Due in part to the rigidity of the cans and their secure seal mechanisms, and the fact that their movement can be fairly well controlled during a dispensing cycle, the canned beverage vending machine has become the standard of today's sealed beverage dispensing systems. For the most part, the sale of specialty beverages such as fruit or fruit flavored juices, milk, teas and the like and/or beverages that were sealed in glass or plastic bottles, has been conducted by over-the-counter sale techniques and not through automated vending machines. For many of such specialty beverages, packaging in the standard disposable can configuration is not a viable option. For others, the marketing appeal and distinctiveness of a uniquely shaped or stylized container is of major concern. Non-can packaging has now even become popular for the well-known carbonated beverages, that are readily available in many different sized and shaped containers, both plastic and glass, and in various volumes. It has also become desirable for vending machines to have glass doors through which the actual product being vended can be viewed by the purchaser. Such machines having helical vending coils (as for example illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 4,061,245) for dispensing non-beverage packaged goods have become very popular with both customers and merchants. Refrigerated merchandising coolers for holding bottled beverages and having glass fronts have also been available in, for example, convenience stores, but have not generally been available for automatic dispensing of beverages. Some beverage dispensing machines have been configured such that their front doors hold actual samples of the beverages contained within the machine, but do not display the actual beverages to be dispensed. Whether or not the vending machine has a glass front, automated vending has been a problem for most of the non-standard sized and non-canned beverage containers. To date, an automated vending machine that can reliably and safely vend beverage containers of different materials, sizes and shapes from the same machine, without damaging or dropping the container or product within has not been available. One beverage vending machine that has attempted to address the need for a glass front beverage vending machine for bottled-type containers is illustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,505,332 and Des. 362,463. Such machine enables the purchaser to view and select the actual product to be vended, but operates on a principle that vertically drops the vended beverage container from the front end of the shelf on which it is stored, to a lower chute area that redirects the container to a delivery area from which the purchaser can remove the container. While addressing a number of industry needs, this vending technique is not usable or practical for vending many of the varied shaped and sized beverage containers available today, without the risk of damage to the container or contents. This is particularly true of larger glass bottles or thinner plastic containers that are susceptible to breakage or damage during a vertical drop vending process. In order to address such problems, larger and/or more damage susceptible containers, might be required to be placed on the lowermost shelves of the machine in order to minimize the vertical drop distance. Such requirement can impose significant marketing disadvantages to the merchandisers of such products who may wish to have their products displayed at a higher (e.g. eye level) position in the machine. Further, the impact imparted to the beverage container and its contents as a result of the vertical drop process can result in explosion or ruptured containers. At the very least, for carbonated beverages, the drop vend process requires the purchaser to wait for a period of time before opening the container in order to prevent explosive or overflow effervescence of the beverage upon opening. It is obvious that any breakage or product leakage or explosion within the vending machine can be very detrimental to the operability and reliability of the machine and can contribute to excessive maintenance problems. Another disadvantage of machines such as that of the U.S. Pat. No. 5,505,332 patent, and virtually all vending machines that operate on the principle of dropping and delivering the vended product by gravity, is that the delivery bin or delivery port of the machine is necessarily located below the lowest shelf of the product storage area toward the lower portion of the machine. Such positioning requires the purchaser to bend down and often to reach in awkward manner, in order to retrieve the vended product from the delivery bin of the vending machine. There have been designs of vending machines that use robotic principles to acquire a product to be vended from the machine. With the use of such robotic techniques, the product to be vended can be selected and removed from its stored position without dropping the product, and which can then be carried to a delivery area that is not required to be at the bottom of the machine. Examples of such machines as applied to the vending of like-sized video cassettes are illustrated by U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,036,472 and 5,139,384. Such systems, however, have not been particularly applicable to the dispensing of fragile products or of beverage containers of varied shapes. In general they have employed robotic mechanisms that are not practical for rapidly dispensing beverage, containers, and do not generally address the other problems of the prior art described above as related to dispensing bottled beverages. The present invention addresses the described deficiencies of prior art vending machines and the need for a dispensing machine and method for dispensing fragile containers such as beverages packaged in glass, plastic or can containers of varied sizes, shapes and fluid volumes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention provides an improved vending machine apparatus and method for vending products, and particularly bottled and canned beverages, without subjecting the vended containers to shock and impact forces due to dropping, rolling or abrupt tipping of the product during the vending operation. The invention uses an efficient, cost-effective, highly accurate, reliable and easily programmable robotic beverage capture assembly for capturing that beverage container selected by a customer from a plurality of viewable stored containers and for smoothly, gently, and quickly carrying the captured container to a product delivery area or port of the machine. The product delivery port is located at thigh to waist height to minimize customer bending while retrieving the vended product from the machine. The shelf or tray area of the machine preferably contains no active or powered components, but is entirely passive in nature, being operated entirely in response to activation forces applied thereto by the robotic beverage container capture apparatus. The vending machine and apparatus is extremely versatile and is particularly applicable to the vending of glass and plastic beverage containers of varied sizes, shapes and fluid volumes which can simultaneously be housed and dispensed by the vending machine. The glass door of the vending machine enables point-of-sale marketing of the products to be vended and allows the consumer to view the selected vended product during virtually the entire vend cycle. The smooth vending process minimizes product damage and stress and virtually eliminates machine maintenance caused by damage to or breakage of beverage containers during a vend cycle. Thus according to one aspect of the invention there is provided a method for vending beverages packaged in sealed containers, comprising the steps of: (a) storing a plurality of packaged beverages and selectable queues of containers of such beverages within a vending machine; (b) aligning a robotic assembly in the machine in registration with a consumer selected one of said beverage container queues; (c) transferring one of the beverage containers from the selected container queue to the robotic assembly; (d) carrying the transferred beverage container to a delivery port of the vending machine; and (e) presenting the carried beverage container at the delivery port for customer removal from the vending machine; wherein the entire process is performed without dropping or subjecting the container to severe impact forces. The product queues can be arranged in vertically spaced columns within the vending machine which can be readily adjusted to accommodate beverage containers of varied heights. Further, the beverages can be arranged on shelves or trays that can be inclined at angles which permit gravity movement of the stored beverages in the queues toward a dispensing end of the queue. According to a preferred aspect of the invention, the customer selected beverage container is transferred from the selected container queue to the robotic assembly by simply sliding the first-in-line container from the selected queue into retaining engagement by the robotic assembly, while retaining the second-in-line and successively aligned ones of the beverage containers in that queue from moving along the queue. According to yet another aspect of the invention there is provided a method of vending bottled beverages from a vending machine of the type having a transparent front viewing panel that enables customer viewing of the actual beverages held by the machine and available for vending, comprising the steps of: (a) aligning a plurality of bottled beverages in at least two ordered queues of the beverages; (b) providing a customer selection input identifiable with at least one of the two ordered queues of beverages; (c) removing a bottled beverage from said one of said ordered queues in response to said customer selection input; and (d) moving the removed bottled beverage to a delivery port of the machine, wherein the removing and moving steps are smoothly performed without dropping or subjecting the bottled beverage to sharp impact forces. According to yet another aspect of the invention there is provided a method of vending discrete products from a vending machine of the type having a transparent viewing panel for customer viewing and selection of the products to be vended, and a support for supportably holding the products for visual presentation to a customer through the viewing panel, comprising the steps of: (a) ordering the products in a plurality of selectable queues of the products on the support such that a foremost one of the products in each of the queues addresses the viewing panel at a dispensing end of its associated queue; (b) moving a capture assembly into alignment with a dispensing end of a customer selected one of the queues; (c) transferring the foremost one of the products from the customer selected one of the queues into retainment by the capture assembly; (d) moving the capture assembly with its retained product in view of the viewing panel to a delivery port; and (e) enabling customer removal of the retained product from the capture assembly at the delivery port; wherein the steps of transferring and moving the foremost product from the selected queue to the delivery port are performed without dropping or subjecting the foremost product to sharp impact forces. According to yet a further aspect of the invention there is provided a vending machine for beverages packaged in sealed containers, comprising: (a) a storage facility defining an enclosed internal cavity and a container delivery port opening into the internal cavity; (b) a container holder within the internal cavity for holding a plurality of selectable sealed beverage containers, wherein the container holder is disposed to define with the storage facility a vend selection space within the internal cavity; (c) a beverage container capturer for retainably removing one of the plurality of selectable beverage containers from the container holder in response to a vend control signal; (d) transport means operatively connected with the beverage container capturer for moving the beverage container capturer within the vend selection space in response to the vend control signal; and (e) a control system operatively connected with the capturer and with the transport system for producing and providing the vend control signal thereto to cause the capturer and the transport system to cooperatively capture a selected beverage container from the container holder and smoothly carry the captured container through the vend selection space to the delivery port without dropping or subjecting the selected beverage container to sharp impact forces. The invention further contemplates the use of a door forming a part of the chassis and including a transparent panel for enabling customer viewing of the plurality of selectable beverage containers in the chassis. The invention further contemplates the use of container releaser operatively connected with at least one of the queues adjacent its discharge end for selectably retaining the beverage containers in the queue. The container releaser preferably includes only passive components which do not require any external energy sources. The invention further includes a plurality of trays for aligning the containers in their respective queues. According to a further aspect of the invention, the transport system includes a rack and pinion system for moving the beverage container capturer in the vend selection space in an accurate, positive and smooth manner, without vibration or wobble. According to yet a further aspect of the invention there is provided a vending machine for vending selectable products comprising: (a) a product storage chassis including a door, cooperatively forming an internal cavity, wherein the chassis includes a transparent panel portion to enable viewing therethrough into the internal cavity and a product delivery port spaced from the transport parent panel portion; (b) product selection system operable by a customer for generating a vend control signal indicative a product selection of the customer; (c) a support operatively mounted within the internal cavity of the product storage chassis for supporting the products in a plurality of selectable and separate ordered queues of such products; and (d) a robotic assembly mounted to the chassis and operatively moveable within the internal cavity in response to the vend control signal to rapidly and smoothly remove and carry a selected product from its associated ordered queue to the product delivery port, without dropping or jarring the selected product; wherein a customer can view the entire product removal and carrying operation of a vending cycle of the machine through the transparent panel portion. The invention further contemplates the positioning of the delivery port at a customer convenient height that does not require the customer to excessively bend to retrieve the vended product. According to a further aspect of the invention, a door and associated locking assembly are provided at the delivery port for preventing opening of the door unless a vended product is available at the delivery port, and for preventing movement of the robotic assembly whenever the door is enabled for opening. The invention further contemplates the use of a robotic assembly having an X-Y support frame mounted in the chassis; a shuttle moveably mounted to the support frame for movement therealong in an X-direction; a carriage assembly operatively connected to the shuttle for controlled movement therealong in a Y-direction; and a capture mechanism operatively mounted to the carriage assembly for removing and carrying the selected product from its associated ordered queue. According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, dc motors with output drive gears engaging rack members are used for energizing the robotic assembly. According to a further aspect of the invention there is provided a carriage assembly for use with the vending machine of the type having: a chassis defining an internal cavity, a front door forming one side of the chassis; a product support assembly mounted in the chassis and configured to hold a plurality of products to be vended in separate ordered queues of the products, such that one end of the queues address a dispensing end of the product support assembly, wherein the volume between the dispensing ends of the product support assembly and the door define a vend selection space; wherein the carriage assembly comprises: (a) an X-rail assembly mounted to the chassis in generally horizontal orientation; (b) a Y-rail assembly mounted to the X-rail assembly in generally vertical orientation and configured for movement along the X-rail assembly; (c) an X-drive motor mounted for movement with the Y-rail assembly for controlling movement of the Y-rail assembly along the X-rail assembly; (d) a carriage mounted to the Y-rail assembly for movement therealong; (e) a Y-drive motor mounted for movement with the carriage for controlling movement of the carriage along the Y-rail assembly; and (f) wherein the carriage assembly is configured to accurately move, position and hold the carriage relative to the product support assembly within the vend selection space. According to a preferred configuration of the carriage assembly, the carriage can attain movement positioning and positional maintenance along the Y-rail assembly to within an accuracy of {fraction (1/32)} inch and even to within an accuracy of {fraction (1/64)} inch. Accurate positioning of the carriage assembly in both the X and Y-directions is achieved by position sensors. According to yet a further aspect of the invention there is provided a product release and capture assembly for use in a vending machine of the type having: a chassis defining an internal cavity; a product support assembly mounted in the chassis and configured to hold a plurality of products to be vended in separate ordered queues of the products, said product support assembly being arranged and configured to define a dispensing end of the queues, wherein a vend selection space is defined in the internal cavity adjacent the dispensing ends of the queues; the product support assembly further including means for urging products in the queues to move toward the dispensing ends of the queues; a carriage; a drive system connected to controllably move the carriage generally in an X-Y coordinate plane within the vend selection space into alignment with the dispensing end of a selected one of the product queues, wherein the product release and capture assembly comprises: (a) an escapement mechanism mounted to the product support assembly of the selected one of the product queues adjacent the dispensing end thereof, wherein the escapement mechanism comprises: (i) a first engagement member configured to selectively engage a first-in-line product at the dispensing end of the selected queue; (ii) a second engagement member configured to selectably engage a second-in-line product aligned in said queue immediately adjacent to and behind the first-in-line product; (iii) a connector operatively connecting the first and second engagement members for cooperative movement, wherein the connector is configured to move the first engagement member into engaging and disengaging positions relative to the first-in-line product while simultaneously respectively moving the second engagement member into disengaging and engaging positions relative to the second-in-line product; (iv) bias means operatively connected with the connector for normally moving the first engagement member into its engaging position; and (v) a force receiving surface operatively connected with the connector for receiving an activating force tending to move the connector against the normal bias of the bias means; and (b) a capture receptacle movably mounted to the carriage for movement between first and second positions; the said capture receptacle when operable in said first position enabling free movement of the capture receptacle and the carriage relative to the escapement mechanism in the vend space; and being operable when moving to said second position, and when the carriage is positioned in operative alignment with a dispensing end of the selected queue, to engage the force receiving surface to operatively move the connector against the bias of the bias means, to move the first engagement member toward its disengaging position, thereby releasing the first-in-line product for movement out of the dispensing end of the queue and into the capture receptacle. According to yet a further aspect of the invention, the connector slidably engages the first engagement member and the connector and first engagement member are independently pivotally mounted for movement relative to one another. According to yet a further aspect of the invention, the first engagement member extends through a slot in the connector. According to yet a further aspect of the invention, the escapement mechanism includes only passive components requiring no power energy sources. According to yet a further aspect of the invention, the capture receptacle is pivotally mounted to the carriage about a generally horizontal pivot axis and pivotally moves thereabout to activate the escapement mechanism. The capture receptacle includes a floor portion for supporting one of the captured products from the queue and is configured such that its floor portion aligns with the queue floor portion during the vend procedure. The capture receptacle may also include retainer in the floor and a stabilizer for maintaining the captured products in a stable position during its transport phase to the product delivery port. These and other aspects of the invention will become more apparent upon a description of a preferred embodiment of the invention. It will be appreciated that the preferred embodiment is not to be construed as limiting the invention to any particular configurations, designs, or applications that are specifically presented therein. The preferred embodiment is presented to illustrate a specific application and implementation of the broader principles of the invention and is not to be construed in a limiting manner. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING Referring to the Drawing where like numerals represent like parts throughout the several views: FIG. 1 is a front elevational view of a preferred embodiment of a beverage container vending machine incorporating the principles of the invention; FIG. 2 is an enlarged front elevational view of the inner beverage tray assembly of the vending machine of FIG. 1, also illustrating the robotic beverage capture assembly of the vending machine; FIG. 3 is a right side elevational view of the tray assembly and robotic beverage capture assembly of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a top, right, front perspective view of the support frame structure of the vending machine of FIG. 1 with the outer chassis and door removed, illustrating the robotic beverage capture assembly attached thereto, and one vertical support beam of the beverage tray assembly of FIGS. 1 and 2; FIG. 5 is an enlarged fractional front elevational view of the upper rail portion of the robotic beverage capture assembly disclosed in FIGS. 2, 3 , and 4 ; FIG. 6 is a right elevational view of the upper rail assembly of FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is an enlarged fractional front elevational view of the lower rail portion of the robotic beverage capture assembly disclosed is FIGS. 2, 3 , and 4 ; FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of the lower rail assembly of FIG. 7, generally taken along the Line 8 — 8 of FIG. 7; FIG. 9 is an enlarged fractional perspective view of the beverage capture cage portion of the robotic beverage capture assembly of FIGS. 2, 3 , and 4 ; FIG. 10 is an exploded view of the beverage capture cage assembly of FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is an enlarged fractional perspective view of the front end of a beverage try illustrating a preferred configuration of a release mechanism in operative position relative to a beverage container; FIG. 12 is a diagrammatic side view illustrating movement of the beverage capture cage portion of the robotic beverage capture assembly during a vend cycle; FIG. 13 is a diagrammatic top view illustrating the sequential movement of the container release mechanism during a vend cycle; FIG. 14 is an enlarged top, front, right side perspective view of the delivery door assembly of the vending machine of FIG. 1; FIG. 15 is a top, right, back side perspective view of the door assembly of FIG. 14; FIGS. 16A and 16B form a schematic diagram illustrating the various components of the vending machine and their functional relationship and interaction; FIGS. 17A and 17B form a flow chart illustrating various operations performed by the vending machine under computer control during a vend cycle; FIG. 18 is a top perspective view of a floor insert member for use with the beverage capture cage; FIG. 19 is a top view of a low surface friction floor insert of a beverage tray; FIG. 20 is a cross section end view of the floor insert of FIG. 19; and FIG. 21 is an enlarged side perspective view of a lever guide arm. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring to the figures there is generally illustrated therein a preferred embodiment of a vending machine that incorporates the principles of this invention. While the preferred embodiment of the invention will be described in association with its applicability to a vending machine for bottled and canned beverages, it will be understood that the broad principles of the invention are not limited to such product dispensing application or to the specifics of the preferred embodiment machine disclosed. The described machine represents one clear example of a dispensing system incorporating the principles of the claimed invention, but the invention is not intended to be construed in a limiting manner as a result of the preferred embodiment disclosure. Referring to the figures, there is generally illustrated at 20 a vending machine for dispensing bottled and canned beverages of varied shapes, sizes, configurations and fluid volumes. The vending machine generally comprises an outer chassis or cabinet 22 and a front hinged door panel 24 , which in combination define an inner cavity 25 for housing the products to be vended, the control and refrigeration functions of the machine and other vending machine features well-known in the art. The front door panel 24 frames a transparent glass or clear plastic panel 26 which provides a clear view into the internal cavity of the cabinet and the beverage products stored in ordered manner on trays therein, when the door panel 24 is closed. The door panel 24 includes an appropriate control panel, generally indicated at 28 which includes a product selection input and monetary and credit processing system, well-known in the art. Since the control panel and its various features and functions do not form a part of this invention, they will not be detailed herein. Those skilled in the art will readily recognize many appropriate such control panels and features thereof that could be used in association with a vending machine as hereinafter described. The door panel 24 illustrated in FIG. 1 also includes a coin return slot, generally indicated at 29 and a locking handle assembly 30 that enables the door to be opened and closed in secured manner for purposes of maintenance, loading of the machine, and the like. The door panel 24 also includes a product delivery port, generally indicated at 32 , which is approximately at thigh or waist level and depicted with its door in an “open” position in FIG. 1, with a vended bottle product 40 illustrated through the open door. A more complete description of the product delivery assembly feature will be hereinafter described. In the preferred embodiment, the chassis and door panel assembly is supported by a plurality of legs 34 in elevated manner above a floor or support surface to enable ease of cleaning below the machine, the ability to readily lift the machine by a pallet jack, fork lift or other moving type of structure and to provide improved ventilation for a refrigeration system (not illustrated, but well-known to those skilled in the art) for the vending machine. Since the vending machine of the preferred embodiment is configured to carry beverages, most of which require refrigeration, it is contemplated that the internal cavity (at least that portion thereof which is to contain the beverages to be dispensed) will be refrigerated by an appropriate refrigeration system. Such refrigerated portion of the machine may even be zoned for different temperatures to accommodate vendible products having different cooling needs. The upper product holding portion could also be partitioned into refrigerated and non-refrigerated compartments, into refrigerated and freezer compartments, or in other desired configurations. The chassis or cabinet 22 of the vending machine is supported by an appropriate internal frame assembly generally illustrated in FIG. 4 . The frame assembly includes a plurality of front and back upright corner support standards 36 a and 36 b respectively connected by upper and lower front and back transverse frame members 37 a and 37 b respectively and intermediate front and back transverse members 38 a and 38 b respectively. The front and back corner upright support standards 36 and the front and back transverse frame members 37 are interconnected by a plurality of side transverse frame members 39 a and 39 b respectively for the left and right sides of the frame structure as viewed from the front of the machine. The frame members 36 , 37 , 38 and 39 collectively define a rectangular frame structure for supporting the chassis and other components of the machine. The refrigeration unit for the machine is generally located in that portion of the internal cavity defined by the framework, and positioned below the intermediate transverse frame members 38 . The product storage portion of the internal cavity defined by the framework is generally located above the intermediate transverse frame members 38 . The beverage containers housed by the upper portion of the internal cavity of the vending machine 20 are supported by a plurality of beverage trays, two of which are generally indicated at 42 in FIG. 4 . While the preferred embodiment used beverage “trays”, it will be appreciated that the principles of the invention could also be applied to conventional beverage holding shelf configurations having partitions for separating the containers into ordered rows or aligned queues of beverages extending from front to back in the internal cavity. In the preferred embodiment, the beverage trays 42 are mounted to a plurality of vertically oriented tray mounting standards, one of which is illustrated at 44 in FIG. 4 . The vending machine of the preferred embodiment includes four such vertically oriented tray mounting standards 44 , as indicated in FIG. 2 . The tray mounting standard has a pair of vertically oriented and laterally spaced (from front to back) rib members 45 a and 45 b respectively. The rib support members 45 are integrally formed with upper and lower support brace portions 46 and 47 respectively that extend in generally horizontal manner in the direction from front to back of the machine. The upper support brace member 46 is secured to an intermediate upper transverse frame member 38 that is mounted between the front and back upper transverse frame members 37 a and 37 b . The lower support brace member 47 is fixedly secured to the intermediate front and back transverse frame members 38 a and 38 b respectively. The collective support and brace member portions 45 - 48 which comprise the vertically oriented tray mounting standard 44 form in the preferred embodiment a solid fixed mounting structure for the beverage trays 42 . The vertical spaced ribbed support members 45 a and 45 b of the tray mounting standard 44 include regularly longitudinally spaced mounting holes (generally indicated at 50 ) for mounting the beverage trays 42 to the tray mounting standard 44 . In the preferred embodiment, the mounting holes 50 are positioned along the rib support members 45 such that successive trays 42 mounted to the rib support members 45 can be positioned at relative spacings that accommodate beverage containers of varied heights. In the preferred embodiment, the trays 42 can be mounted along the spaced rib support members 45 so as to accommodate beverage containers held by the trays up to 9 inches in height. Obviously, the relative vertical spacing between the trays 42 and the number of trays mounted to the tray mounting standards 44 is a matter of design and marketing choice. In the preferred embodiment, the trays 42 are secured to the rib support members 45 through the mounting holes 50 by mounting clips 52 which enable the trays 42 to be rapidly connected and disconnected from the tray mounting standard 44 when positioning adjustment of the trays 42 is desired. Alternatively, the trays could be secured to the mounting standards by bolts on other appropriate fasteners. In the preferred embodiment, the vertical alignment of holes 50 in the foremost vertical support rib 45 a are relatively lower than the corresponding mounting holes 50 in the rearmost vertical rib support member 45 b such that when a support tray 42 is mounted to the spaced rib support member 45 a and 45 b , the tray 42 will be inclined at a downwardly depending angle from back to front of the vending machine to enable beverage containers carried thereby to slide by gravity toward the open front (i.e. dispensing) end of the tray. In the preferred embodiment, the preferred angle of inclination of the tray with the horizontal is from about 8-20 degrees and most preferably about 12 degrees. The degree of inclination is a design parameter that can be varied, depending upon the type, size, weight, configuration, etc. of the container being held, the relative coefficient of friction between the container and the tray floor surface, the type of materials used to construct the tray, the temperature of the internal cavity, etc. It will also be appreciated that the principles of this invention do not require movement of the products toward the dispensing end of their respective trays or shelves to he accomplished entirely by gravity. Other biasing assist techniques well known in the art could also be employed. The vertically oriented tray mounting standards 44 are configured to securely support oppositely disposed pairs of beverage trays 42 as indicated more fully in the frontal view of the tray assembly illustrated in FIG. 2 . It will be appreciated that the foregoing description with respect to the tray mounting assembly of FIG. 4 only illustrates a single tray mounting standard 44 with only several incomplete tray assemblies 42 attached thereto, for ease of description purposes. A more complete tray assembly as it might appear mounted within the vending machine is illustrated in FIG. 2 . Referring thereto, it will be noted that the completed assembly includes four tray mounting standards 44 transversely spaced from one another so as so accommodate two beverage trays therebetween, with the outermost tray mounting standards 44 being spaced from the upright corner posts 36 of the frame support structure so as to accommodate a single tray width therebetween. While the widths of the trays can vary in the preferred embodiment the product trays can accommodate beverage containers of up to 3 inches in diameter. It will be appreciated that while all of the beverage trays 42 connected to the vertical mounting standards 44 at a particular height are aligned with one another in FIG. 2, such orientation does not have to be uniform so as to define ordered horizontal rows of beverage product within the machine. In the preferred embodiment illustrated, there are five such rows or shelves of the product trays. Due to the flexible height adjustment capabilities for the trays as provided by the vertically oriented tray mounting standards 44 , each tray can be positioned along its vertical mounting standard at a different height which would accommodate the particular product size and arrangement configuration desired within the machine. In the preferred embodiment, each of the trays 42 is shaped in the configuration of a U-shaped channel, generally having a lower surface or floor support surface 42 a and a pair of oppositely disposed side walls 42 b upwardly extending from the floor 42 a at right angles with respect thereto. In the preferred embodiment, the side walls are spaced so as to accommodate beverage containers of up to 3 inches in diameter; however, it will be recognized that the invention is not limited by such dimension or to other non-claimed dimensions described herein. The floor 42 a is designed to minimize sliding friction therealong. The mounting clips or bolts 52 are secured to and/or through the side walls 42 b of the trays 42 at appropriate longitudinal locations therealong for fastening registry with the mounting holes 50 of the vertical rib support members 45 , as previously described. In the preferred embodiment each of the trays is designed to hold a collective beverage container weight of up to about 20-25 pounds. The beverage trays indicated in FIG. 4 comprise the basic tray element portion of a completed tray, and are illustrated in FIG. 4 without any beverage container release or extended side wall provisions, as will be hereinafter described in more detail. The front or dispensing end of the trays 42 which address the glass door are generally indicated by the numeral 43 . It will be appreciated that other tray or product support configurations such as, for example, wire grid trays could be used. Beverage containers carried by the plurality of open-faced trays 42 are removed from the trays and transported to the product delivery port 32 a robotic beverage capture and transport assembly, generally indicated at 60 in FIG. 4 . The robotic assembly 60 operates within the vend selection space 61 (FIG. 3) which is generally that space or volume between the inner surface of the door 24 and the front surfaces of the front frame members 36 a , 37 a and 38 a . The robotic system will be described with reference to an X, Y, Z coordinate system in the machine. The X-direction is horizontal and parallel to the floor. The Y-direction is the vertical direction and perpendicular to the X-direction. The Z-direction is orthogonal to the XY plane and relative to the vending machine is in the direction from the front to back of the machine. The robotic beverage capture and transport assembly 60 generally includes a pair of horizontally mounted rail/rack assemblies, a vertically oriented shuttle bar that rides along the horizontal rails in the X-direction, a carrier frame that moves in the Y-(vertical) direction along the shuttle bar, and a pick-up or transfer mechanism that is mounted to and moves with the carrier frame and operates in the Z-direction to remove a beverage container from a selected tray. The lower rail assembly includes a mounting plate bracket 62 which is secured to and between the front upright corner support standards 36 a and to the front intermediate transverse frame member 38 a (FIG. 4 ). A lower stationary slide bar 63 is secured, in horizontal manner, to the mounting plate bracket 62 by a plurality of spacers 64 . A lower horizontal gear rack 65 is secured to the mounting plate bracket 62 , generally below and in spaced relationship to the stationary slide bar 63 . An optical X-position indicator plate 66 is mounted to the front corner support standards 36 a of the frame of the vending machine. The indicator plate 66 has a plurality of markers, generally indicated at 66 a longitudinally spaced therealong in the X-direction for providing optically detectable position markings for enabling the robotic assembly to align with the columns of trays 42 in the “X” direction. A lower moveable slide bar 67 has a pair of side slide block members 67 a which define oppositely disposed longitudinal grooves or channels, and which are connected together by a steel mounting plate 67 b for matingly engaging the upper and lower edges of the stationary slide bar 63 , enabling the moveable slide bar 67 to cooperatively slide along and be guided by the stationary slide bar 63 . The upper horizontal rail assembly for guiding movement in the X-direction includes an elongate mounting plate bracket 68 that is secured to the upper front transverse frame member 37 a of the frame. An upper stationary slide bar 69 is secured, in horizontal manner, to the lower elongated surface of the mounting plate bracket 68 by a plurality of spacers 70 . An elongate upper horizontal gear rack 71 is secured to a lower mounting surface of the upper mounting plate brackets 68 with its gear face addressing the front of the machine. An upper moveable slide bar 72 has a pair of side slide block members 72 a which define oppositely disposed channels formed therein, connected together by a steel mounting plate 72 b for matingly slideably engaging the outer edges of the upper stationary slide bar 69 . In the preferred embodiment, the upper and lower moveable slide bars 72 and 67 respectively comprise a pair of opposed slotted blocks of plastic or acetyl resin material such as that sold under the Delrin® trademark suitable for providing a low-friction slideable bearing surface with the stationary slide bars. The upper and lower rail assemblies carry a shuttle bar assembly for movement therealong in the X-direction. The shuttle bar assembly has an elongate upright frame member 75 with a lower mounting bracket 75 a and an upper mounting bracket 75 b . The lower shuttle bracket 75 a is secured to the steel plate member 67 b of the lower moveable slide bar 67 , and the upper shuttle bracket 75 b is secured to the steel mounting plate portion 72 b of the upper moveable slide bar 72 . In the preferred embodiment, the upper shuttle bracket 75 b is channel-shaped in cross-section, as illustrated best in FIG. 6 . This mounting configuration allows the upright shuttle frame member 75 to move in the X-direction as guided by the upper and lower stationary slide bars 69 and 62 respectively. Movement of the shuttle frame member 75 along the upper and lower slide bars is controlled by an X-drive motor 77 , mounted in vertical manner to the lower shuttle bracket 75 a . The motor 77 is a reversible dc brush gear motor with a dynamic brake. The dynamic brake enables the motor drive gear to stop immediately when the power to the motor is discontinued, enabling accurate positioning of the shuttle assembly in the X-direction. In the preferred embodiment, the motor 77 is a 24 volt dc motor manufactured by Barber Colman, model LYME 63000-731 rated at 5.3 inch-pounds of torque at 151 rpm, whose output shaft is connected to a drive gear 77 a . The drive gear 77 a cooperatively engages a first spur gear 78 which is connected by an elongate shaft 79 to a second spur gear 80 located adjacent the upper rail assembly. The shaft 79 connecting the spur gears 78 and 80 is journaled through appropriate bearings, one of which is shown at 81 in FIG. 6, which are appropriately mounted to and for movement with the upright shuttle bar frame member 75 . The two spur gears 78 and 80 are commonly rotated by the drive gear 77 a of the X-drive motor 77 , and rotate about the axis of the elongate drive shaft 79 . The first spur gear 78 cooperatively engages the lower horizontal gear track 65 of the lower rail assembly and moves therealong in the direction according to rotation of the drive gear 77 a . The upper spur gear 80 cooperatively engages the upper horizontal gear track 71 of the upper rail assembly and moves therealong according to rotation of the elongate shaft 79 . Accordingly, the X-drive motor 77 controls movement of the shuttle bar frame 75 and attached components in the X-direction by spur gears 78 and 80 engaging and moving along the upper and lower gear tracks 71 and 65 respectively. Such connection ensures a fixed vertical shuttle attitude as it traverses back and forth in the vend selection space and allows for rapid movement in the X-direction without binding and without wobble or vibration that might be associated with worm gear driven configurations. The position of the shuttle movement in the X-direction may be monitored and determined in any appropriate desired manner. In the preferred embodiment, an optical sensor 83 (FIGS. 7 and 8) is mounted to the shuttle frame member 75 and is positioned therealong so as to operatively align with the slots 66 a in the optical X-position indicator plate 66 . Such mounting enables the optical sensor 83 to detect the position slots 66 a and to thereby provide X-direction location information back to the robotic motion Controller (as hereinafter described). A limit switch 84 located at the right end of the lower rail assembly and engagable by the shuttle bar assembly as it moves in the X-direction indicates the rightmost or “Home” position of the shuttle bar assembly in the X-direction. The X Home position represents a location of the robotic assembly that corresponds to a final vend position wherein a captured product is presented at the delivery port 32 , as will be described more hereinafter. Movement of the robotic beverage capture and transport assembly 60 in the Y-direction is achieved by a carrier frame assembly, generally indicated at 90 , that is connected to and vertically moves along the shuttle bar frame member 75 , as described in more detail hereinafter. A vertically oriented gear rack 91 (see FIG. 3) is longitudinally mounted along one edge of the elongate shuttle bar frame member 75 . A vertical slide bar 92 (similar in nature to slide bars 63 and 69 ) is secured to one side of the vertical gear rack 91 as illustrated in FIG. 3 . The carrier frame assembly 90 is slidably and retainably mounted to and for movement along the vertical slide bar 92 by a moveable front slide block 93 mounted to the carrier frame 90 (see FIG. 2) and an oppositely disposed movable rear slide block (not illustrated), also mounted to the carrier frame 90 . The front and rear bearing blocks have oppositely disposed grooves formed therein which are cooperatively configured to slidably engage the outer edges of the vertical slide bar 92 in manner similar to that previously described with respect to the upper and lower X-rail assemblies. In the preferred embodiment, the carrier frame assembly 90 also includes an elongate bearing block secured thereto (not illustrated) through which the elongate shaft 79 passes. The bearing block includes a pair of slideable bearings for engaging the outer surface of the shaft 79 as it rotates and as the carrier frame assembly 90 moves therealong in the Y-direction. The bearings of the bearing block need to be capable of handling loads from rotation of the shaft 79 as well as from linear travel along the shaft. A Y-drive motor 97 having an output drive gear of 97 a is horizontally mounted to the carrier frame 90 near its upper end, in a manner such that its drive gear 97 a cooperatively, matingly engages the vertical gear rack 91 . The Y-drive motor 97 is a reversible dc brush gear motor that is driven by a pulse width modulated (PWM) signal. In the preferred embodiment, motor 97 is a 24 volt dc motor manufactured by Barber Colman, model LYME 63070-X-9332. Accurate Y-axis positioning of the carrier frame 90 relative to the shuttle bar assembly and stabilization at any “at rest” position therealong is provided by the pulse width modulation signal. The motor 97 is also provided with an optical pulse encoder 100 that counts the rotations of the motor's shaft. The system Controller, translates the number of rotations information into a linear Y-direction information. This information enables the Controller to determine and control the exact vertical or Y-direction position of the carrier frame 90 relative to the product carrying trays 42 within an accuracy of from {fraction (1/32)} to {fraction (1/64)} inch. A limit switch 99 (FIG. 3) mounted to the side of the shuttle bar upright frame member 75 is positioned to provide a signal to the Controller indicating that the carrier frame assembly 90 is or is not at its “Home” position in the Y-direction. The Y Home position is a Y axis position that enables the carrier frame 90 to move with shuttle assembly 75 in the X direction into the product delivery area. The carrier frame assembly 90 supports a beverage capture assembly that can assume various configurations. For example, the beverage capture assembly may be configured as a robotic arm that grasps and lifts the selected beverage container into the carriage frame assembly. However, in the preferred embodiment, the beverage capture assembly comprises a simple pivotal assembly that rotates in the Z-axis direction to release and capture a beverage container from a customer selected tray 42 . Referring to FIG. 10, the beverage capture assembly is generally indicated at 102 . The beverage capture assembly 102 is pivotally mounted to the carrier frame assembly 90 by a pivot hinge member 103 for pivotal rotation about the axis of the hinge 103 . As indicated in FIG. 10, the beverage capture assembly 102 cooperatively fits and moves into nesting position within the outer shell of the carrier frame assembly 90 . The carrier frame assembly 90 has an open bottom 90 a and an access port 90 b formed through its front wall. A Z-drive reversible dc brush gear motor 104 with a dynamic brake, is mounted to the bottom of the beverage capture assembly 102 and has an output drive gear 104 a . In the preferred embodiment motor 104 is a 24 volt de motor manufactured by Barber Colman, model JYHE-63200-741 rated at 3.5 inch pounds of torque at 46.6 rpm. A segment of arcuately shaped gear rack 106 is secured to one side wall of the carrier frame assembly 90 and is positioned relative to the position of the drive gear 104 a such that the drive gear 104 a cooperatively and matingly engages the teeth of the gear rack segment 106 . When the Z-drive gear motor 104 is energized so as to move the drive gear 104 a in a clockwise manner (as viewed in FIG. 10 ), the lower portion of the beverage capture assembly 102 moves outward from its first position in nesting engagement with the carrier frame assembly 90 about the pivot axis of the hinge 103 (as indicated in FIG. 12 ), to a second or extended position. Reversal of the motor drive, such that the drive gear 104 a rotates in a counterclockwise direction (as viewed in FIG. 10) causes the beverage capture assembly 102 to return to its retracted position in nesting engagement with the carrier frame assembly 90 . A pair of limit switches 230 and 229 mounted to the carrier frame assembly 90 indicate respectively when the beverage capture assembly 102 is fully extended or fully retracted (i.e. in its first or second positions). Switch 229 indicates that the beverage capture assembly 102 is fully nested within the carrier frame 90 , whereas switch 230 indicates when the beverage capture assembly 102 is in its fully extended position. The beverage capture assembly 102 includes an access port 102 a in its front surface that cooperatively aligns with the access port 90 b of the carrier frame assembly when the two are nested together. Both the carrier frame assembly 90 and the beverage capture assembly 102 have open back surfaces. The beverage capture assembly 102 further includes a pair of tapered beverage container guide members 107 connected to its opposed side walls and tapered in a manner so as to converge toward the front face of the beverage capture assembly for assisting in centering and supporting the outer surface of a beverage container carried by the beverage capture assembly, as will be appreciated more upon further description of the invention. The beverage capture assembly 102 further includes a floor insert member 108 having an upper friction reduced slidable surface similar in nature and material to that of the lower floor portions 42 a , and a circular detent 108 a portion formed therein for retaining the bottom edge of a beverage container 40 captured by the beverage capture assembly. The leading edge 109 of the floor insert member 108 may have a tapered, angled, or rounded edge 109 a , as shown in FIG. 18, to minimize the likelihood of the foremost portion 110 a of the lever guide arm 10 and the end of tray 43 from hitting against the insert member 108 . In a preferred embodiment, the floor insert member 108 includes a depressed lip 119 at leading edge 109 , on which the dispensing end of the tray 43 can rest. Floor insert member 108 may be positioned in beverage capture assembly 102 to provide a horizontal surface on which the beverage container rests during transport in the assembly 102 . Alternately, the top surface of floor insert member 108 may be angled to the horizontal. Preferably, the insert member 108 is angled toward the front of the machine so as to tip the top of the beverage container further into the beverage capture assembly 102 to ensure a secure positioning of the bottle during transport. The beverage capture assembly further includes a transmissive optical sensor, positioned just above the floor insert member. The optical sensor includes a transmitter 223 and a receiver 224 between which an optical signal passes. When the signal is broken by a beverage container received by the beverage capture assembly, a “product present” signal is sent to the system Controller. The previous description of the beverage trays 42 described a simple unembellished U-shaped open end beverage delivery tray configuration. In the preferred embodiment, the delivery end portion of the tray has been modified to achieve the vending purposes of this invention. Referring to FIGS. 2, 9 and 19 , it will be noted that each of the lower floor portions of the beverage trays 42 provide an extremely low-friction surface. The low friction property may be achieved by numerous different techniques and materials. In the preferred embodiment the floor insert is approximately 2 inches wide to provide support and stability to the beverage containers carried thereby, although wider and narrower floor inserts 42 a can be used. In a preferred embodiment the insert material is any one of the acetyl resin materials sold under the Delrin® trademark, including materials known as “industrial grade” or “AF” materials, and materials impregnated or treated with additives such as silicone or fluorochemicals. Materials sold under the Celcon® trademark are also preferred. It will be appreciated that other materials capable of providing a low friction surface can also be used. For example, but not by way of limitation, filled polystyrene or glass thermoplastic composites or bubble construction principles could also be used. Additionally, materials such as polypropylene and nylon, preferably with some surface modifying coating thereon or additive therein, may also be useable. It is preferred that the hardness of the material is sufficiently high so that the weight of bottles or other food items on the floor for an extended time does not distort or deform the floor insert. In a preferred embodiment, the cross-sectional configuration chosen for the insert 42 a is a symmetrical ribbed or corrugated configuration wherein the radius of the raised rib portions 141 is in the range of about 0.035 to 0.075 inch, preferably about 0.050 inch, with the height of the rib being in the range of about 0.010 to 0.040, preferably about 0.020 inch, although other dimensions may be used. What is meant by “symmetrical” is that both the top and bottom sides of the floor insert 42 a have ribs 141 positioned directly opposite each other, as shown in FIG. 20 . The ribs 141 on the top and bottom sides may or may not have the same geometry. In an alternate embodiment, the ribs on the bottom side may be offset from the ribs on the top side. The thickness of the insert at the land area 143 between the ribs 141 is preferably about 0.04 to 0.06 inch and the overall thickness of the insert (including the land area and the ribs) is preferably about 0.08 to 0.12 inch, more preferably about 0.10 inch. Preferably, the ribs 141 are spaced to provide a land area 143 of about 0.125 inch (⅛th of an inch), although narrower or wider spacing can be used. Eight to 10 ribs 141 across the floor insert 42 a are preferred to provide proper stability to the bottles. However, the exact design of the floor insert (material selection, rib dimension and spacing, configuration, overall insert width, etc.) can be modified to be best suited with the beverage container being dispensed. It should be noted that for simplifying the Drawing, the floor insert has not been illustrated in all of the Figures. It will be appreciated that other ratios and other low friction configurations as well as alternate configurations such as wire or rollerfloor configurations could be used. A low-friction tray floor surface is desirable to ensure that the beverage containers freely slide by gravity along the floor surface, toward the open dispensing end of the tray. This is particularly true for a tray assembly configuration wherein only the weight of the beverage container and gravity are used to slide the container toward the dispensing end of the tray. The particular surface configuration of the tray floor, in combination with the angle of inclination of the tray are design parameters that can be varied, in view of the nature of the beverage containers that are to be dispensed, in order to provide for optimal movement of the beverage containers along the tray floor surface. The floor insert 42 a can be secured in the tray 42 by various methods such as keyholes, screws, snaps, clips, detents, rivets and other mechanisms. Preferably, the attachment mechanism is integrally molded with the floor insert, for example, at the side of the floor insert. A combination of attachment mechanisms can be used. FIG. 19 shows a floor insert 42 a with keyholes 145 which can be slid over protrusions in the tray 42 , and with side clips 147 which engage with a structure within the tray 42 . Referring to FIGS. 3, 9 and 11 , it will be noted that those portions of the tray side walls 42 b located adjacent the open dispensing end of the trays have been raised or increased in height by extension portions, generally indicated at 42 b ′. Extension portions 42 b ′ are shown as generally triangular, but may be of any configuration or dimension. The added height provides for extra stability of the beverage container at the tray's outlet end, to minimize sideways or lateral tipping of the beverage container during the dispensing operation. Extension portions 42 b ′ may be permanently attached or may be removable and replaceable as needed. In some designs it may be desired to include a reinforcing device on tray 42 . For example, after repeated loading of beverage containers into the tray, the tray may become deformed or lose some of its propensity to return to its original orientation (that is, vertical walls at a 90 degree angle to the floor). A reinforcing clamp or channel may be positioned along the base of the tray 42 to provide support. This or any reinforcement may be removable and replaceable. The beverage containers carried by a tray 42 are held within the tray and are either prevented or allowed to exit from the open end of the tray by a container release apparatus. In the preferred embodiment, the container release apparatus is entirely “passive” in nature (i.e. does not require any electrical or other energy powered mechanism residing on the trays, for its operation). The container release mechanism is best described with reference to FIGS. 3, 9 , 11 and 12 . Referring thereto, the container release mechanism includes a primary pivotal lever guide arm 110 which is pivotally connected to the right side wall 42 b of a tray (as viewed from the open front delivery end of a tray) by a first hinge pin 111 . The first hinge pin 111 and a second hinge pin 115 (later described) are secured by a bracket 112 to the outside surface of the right side wall 42 b of the tray (as shown in FIG. 3) and have their operable mounting portions extending upwardly above the upper edge of the right side wall. The lever guide arm 110 is secured to such upwardly projecting portion of hinge 111 . The hinge pin 111 connection to the tray side wall is positioned such that the portion of the lever guide arm 110 that is located “forward” of the hinge pin 111 has a front portion thereof that extends outward, beyond the front edge of the tray floor. The foremost portion 110 a of the lever guide arm 110 is bifurcated and bent at two angles to the general plane of the lever guide arm to form a pair of forward cam surfaces. The angled cam surfaces provide a broad “target” area for engagement and activation by movement of the beverage capture assembly 102 , as hereinafter described. The lowermost of the cam surfaces extends slightly below the floor of the tray. In a preferred embodiment shown in FIG. 21, the lowermost surface extends below the floor and includes another section 110 c extending rearward through the hinge pin 111 (position shown in dashed lines), so as to provide a “c” shaped surface. This extension 110 c increases the overall strength and rigidity of the guide arm 110 . The guide arm 110 may include any other designs to provide the desired structural features. The rearmost portion of the lever guide arm 110 is pivotable about the hinge 111 toward the open portion of the tray 42 with which it is associated (i.e. away from the side wall 42 b ) and retainably holds a first beverage engaging rod member 113 that is oriented generally perpendicular to the lower floor 42 a and generally parallel to the side walls 42 b of the tray 42 . The height of the beverage engaging rod member 113 can vary to accommodate different heights of beverage containers. The lower edge of the rod member 113 is carried by the lever guide arm 110 in spaced relation to the tray floor and floor insert members. The purpose of the beverage engaging rod member 113 , as will become clear upon a more detailed description, is to engage a beverage container in the tray and prevent its sliding movement along the tray in the direction toward its dispensing end. That portion of the lever guide arm 110 located forward of the hinge pin 111 also includes a slot passageway 110 b formed therethrough for slidably accommodating a second lever arm 114 that is pivotally mounted to the right side wall 42 b for movement about the second hinge pin 115 . The second hinge pin 115 is mounted by the bracket 112 adjacent the forward edge of the right side wall 42 b , as indicated in FIGS. 3, 9 and 11 . The second lever arm 114 extends through the slot 110 b to a distal end which retainably holds a second beverage engaging rod member 116 which is similar in nature to that of the first beverage engaging rod member 113 , and serves the same general purpose (i.e. to block movement of a beverage container along the floor of the tray). The slot 110 b in the lever guide arm 110 is strategically positioned relative to the hinge pin 115 and its attached lever arm 114 such that when the lever guide arm 110 is positioned in its normal position as illustrated in FIG. 11, the “forward” edge of the slot 110 b will engage the forward face of the second lever arm 114 to cause the second lever arm 114 to project outwardly and generally perpendicularly, laterally across the tray 42 so as to position the second beverage engaging rod member 116 held thereby directly in the path of the first-in-line beverage container, preventing the beverage container from advancing out of the open end of the tray. This situation is illustrated in FIG. 11 . In one embodiment, it may be desired to include a dimple or other type of protrusion on second lever arm 114 to increase the resistance to the advancement of the beverage container. This protrusion is preferably positioned near slot 110 b , and functions by increasing the force necessary to move lever guide arm 110 in relation to second lever arm 114 . The second beverage engaging member 116 need not be positioned in the center of the tray to accomplish its purposes. It need only engage the beverage container along its outer circumference at a position there along such that the forwardmost edge of the container does not project out beyond the front edge of the tray. The primary pivotal lever guide arm 110 is held in this “container engaging” position by a spring 118 transversely extending below the front edge of the tray, secured between the forward edge of the left side wall 42 b or floor of a tray and a forward portion of the lever guide arm 110 . It will be noted that when the primary lever arm is positioned in it's “normal” position, the spring 118 holds the general plane of the forward portion of the lever arm 110 slightly spaced from the side wall 42 b , by the distance “d” as illustrated in FIG. 11, to prevent pivotal motion of lever 114 . When the rod member 116 is in such container engaging position (FIG. 11 ), the rearmost portion of the lever guide arm 110 and its associated first beverage engaging rod member 113 will be positioned in resting engagement against the right side wall 42 b of the tray so as to allow passage of beverage containers along the tray lower surface and toward the open end thereof. This is the “normal”, “unactivated” mode of operation of the beverage container release apparatus. The slot 110 b , lever arm 114 , engagement member, pivotal travel of the lever guide arm 110 about its hinge 111 , and tension of the spring 118 are collectively and cooperatively designed such that the forces applied to the engagement member 116 by a full tray of beverage containers as a result of their collective weight vectors in the (-Z) direction (i.e. toward the open end of the tray) will not cause the first or second lever arms 110 or 114 to pivot about their axes in a container releasing direction (counter-clockwise when viewed from above). In such position, the lever arm 114 will be prevented from rotating by the forces applied to it by engagement with the slot 110 b of the first lever arm. When an activating force, in a Z-direction toward the open face of the tray and from external thereof, is applied to the forward cam surface of the foremost portion 110 a of the lever guide arm 110 , such cam activating force causes the lever guide arm 110 to pivot (in a counterclockwise direction as viewed from above) about its hinge pin 111 against the bias of spring 118 . Such pivotal action causes the rearward portion of the primary lever arm to rotate in counterclockwise direction about hinge 111 , moving the first beverage engaging rod member 113 into the advancing path of a second-in-line advancing beverage container, and forces the forward portion of the lever guide arm to pivot 110 into resting engagement with the right side wall 42 b of the tray. As the lever guide arm 110 rotates about the hinge pin 111 , the forward portion of the lever guide arm will “slide” to the right as viewed from the front of the machine, against the second lever arm 114 by reason of the slot 110 b , until the lever guide arm 110 is in resting engagement against the right side wall 42 b . As such sliding motion occurs, the lever guide arm 110 , through its slot 110 b , will no longer retard pivotal movement of the second lever arm, and the second lever arm 114 will pivot, as a result of forces applied to it by the first-in-line beverage container engaging its beverage engaging rod member 116 , in a counterclockwise direction as viewed from above, about the second hinge pin 115 , until the second lever arm 114 rests generally parallel to and alongside the lever guide arm 110 . At that position the second beverage engaging rod member 116 will lie in resting engagement against the forward portion of the lever guide arm 110 , allowing the first-in-line beverage container to freely slide by gravity out of the open end of the tray 42 . At the same time, the first beverage engaging rod member prevents sliding motion of the second-in-line container and all containers behind it, from sliding down the tray. This process is further described in more detail hereinafter in relation to a “vend cycle” and FIGS. 12 and 13. When the “activating” pressure against the forward cam surface of the foremost portion 110 a of the lever guide arm 110 is released, bias of the spring 118 against the forward portion 110 a of the guide arm 110 will cause the lever guide arm 110 to return to its normal position by pivoting in a clockwise direction (as viewed from above) around its hinge pin 111 . Such pivotal action will cause the wall of the slot 110 b in the lever guide arm 110 to apply pressure against the second lever arm 114 , rotating the second lever arm 114 about its pivot hinge 115 , which in turn will move the second beverage engaging rod member 116 back to its “blocking” position near the front of the tray. During this “return” procedure, there are no forces from beverage containers being applied to the lever arm 114 , since the first beverage engaging rod member 113 is holding back the beverage containers remaining in the tray. However, as the rod member 116 is returning to its blocking position, the rod member 113 is simultaneously returning to its normal position alongside the side wall 42 b . The “return to normal” cycle time is fast enough so as to allow the lever 114 and its associated rod 116 to return to their normal positions before the beverage containers released by the rear rod 113 slide into advancing engagement with the rod 116 . Referring to FIG. 1, the product delivery port 32 has associated therewith an automated delivery door opening and closing assembly, illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 15 . As indicated above the product delivery port is preferably located between thigh and waist level so that the customer does not have to unduly bend to retrieve the vended product therefrom. In a preferred configuration, the height of the delivery port is at least 27 inches from the floor and more preferably at a height of 30 inches or more. FIG. 14 illustrates the door opening assembly 120 as it would be viewed from the front right side of the vending machine, and FIG. 15 illustrates the door opening assembly as it would appear from its right back position. The door opening assembly 120 generally has a front mounting plate 121 defining an access port 121 a therethrough which cooperatively aligns with the product delivery port 32 formed in the front panel of the vending machine door 24 . The door opening assembly 120 also has top and right side wall portions 122 a and 122 b respectively, but does not have a left side panel. The open left side enables the moveable carrier frame assembly 90 and its mating beverage capture assembly 102 to move into cooperative docking alignment with the door opening assembly 120 such that the access port 121 a of the door opening assembly operatively aligns with the access port 90 b of the carrier frame assembly 90 and the access port 102 a as the beverage capture assembly 102 at the end of a vending cycle. This position also correspond to the X Home and Y Home positions. A reversible electric motor 123 having an output drive gear 123 a is mounted to the right side panel 122 b of the door opening assembly. The door opening assembly 120 further includes a slidable door panel 125 that is mounted for sliding movement in the vertical direction. The left side (as viewed from the front) of the door panel 125 slides within a channel 126 . The right side of the door panel 125 is integrally connected with a gear track extension 127 that rides within a retaining channel (generally indicated at 128 ) of the door opening assembly. The output drive gear 123 a of the electric motor 123 is positioned to engage the gears of the gear track extension 127 through an opening 128 a in the right side channel 128 . As the electric motor 123 is energized, the output drive gear 123 a rotates to move the engaged rear track extension so as to raise and lower the slidable door panel 125 . The door panel is illustrated in its lowered position in FIGS. 14 and 15. A pair of limit switches 130 and 131 are mounted to the right side wall 122 b of the door opening assembly 120 for respectively detecting the raised (closed) and lowered (open) positions of the door panel 125 . The gear driven door configuration provides a secure door opening mechanism that is not easily pried open by vandals or thieves when in a closed position. The product delivery port also has associated therewith a security lock system for locking the carriage frame assembly 90 in its docked position at the product delivery port at the end of a vend cycle. Such locking prevents unauthorized or vandalous entry into the interior of the vending machine through the product delivery port when the delivery door is open. The security locking apparatus generally includes a motorized lock, indicated generally at 218 in FIG. 1, a sensor 216 for detecting a locked status and a sensor 217 for detecting an unlocked status. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that such locking apparatus can assume many mechanical configurations, the details of any one of which are not limiting to the scope of this invention. Further, while a particular configuration of a vertically movable door has been described, those skilled in the art will appreciate that other configurations, as for example, rotatable door panels can also be used. FIGS. 16A and 16B generally illustrate the various electronic and control functions and components of the vending machine and their functional relationship and interaction to one another. FIG. 16 is not intended to be exhaustive of all functional and electronic details of the machine, but is a general overview of the major functions. The primary functions of such machines are well-known in the art and will not be detailed herein, since they do not form a part of the invention. It is well within the province of one skilled in the art to configure a vending machine in the proper format configuration and under proper control for which it is intended to serve. Accordingly, it is not believed necessary to further belabor such generalities in this application. In general, a Controller 200 provides all centralized control functions for the vending machine. A Controller could be in the nature of a computer or a microcontroller with embedded code, having a central processing unit through which all functions in the machine can be programmed controlled and coordinated. Such a central processing unit would include such things as a main program stored in memory that operates in connection with a plurality of other files such as utility files, screen picture files, screen voice files, product data files, sales report files, documentation files, robotic path files, and the like-generally-known to those skilled in the art. In a typical machine, the Controller 200 is coupled to a power supply 201 upon which it depends for its own energization, and may control the application of power from the power supply to other functions throughout the system. In this regard, it should be noted that while various electrical components have been disclosed in describing the preferred embodiment, no power connections have been illustrated as associated with those components, it being understood that appropriate power connections are provided in the operative machine. The power supply 201 is also connected to provide various lighting functions ( 202 ) required in the machine. The Controller 200 is also connected to operator input means, generally designated as a keyboard 203 , which can represent both a service keyboard for programming and entering information into the Controller as well as the product selection keys or pads located on the front of the machine. Controller 200 also operates various other customer interface features such as a display panel 204 , possibly a speaker 205 , and appropriate credit interface networks, generally represented at 206 . The credit interface function 206 communicates with such peripheral systems as bill validators 207 a coin mechanism 208 and a debit card network 209 . Controller 200 also controls the refrigeration functions 210 which include communication with and control of such ancillary functions as temperature sensors 211 and the compressor 212 and fan 213 which are typically operated through a compressor relay 214 . The Controller 200 controls the security lockout functions previously described for locking the carriage frame assembly 90 at the product delivery port following a vend cycle, generally indicated at 215 . The security lockout function includes communication with the locked sensor 216 , the unlocked sensor 217 and the locking motor 218 . The Controller 200 also communicates with and controls the functions associated with the operation of the delivery door (functional block 220 ) and the various functions of the robotic beverage capture and transporting functions. The delivery door function, includes communication with the door open and door closed limit switches 131 and 130 respectively and the door control motor 123 . The product present sensor function of the transmissive optical sensor 222 mounted in the beverage capture assembly 102 communicates with the Controller 200 . The transmitted and receiver portions of the product sensor are indicated at 223 and 224 in FIG. 16 A. The X, Y and Z-direction control functions, generally indicated at 225 , 226 and 227 respectively are coordinated through a delivery head control network 228 which communicates with Controller 200 . The X-direction control function communicates with the X-Home switch 84 , the X-drive motor and brake 77 and the X-position optical sensor 83 . The Y-direction control function 226 involves communication with the Y-motor optical encoder 100 , the Y-Home switch 99 and the Y-drive motor 97 . The Z-direction control function 227 communicates with the Z-in and Z-out switches 229 and 230 respectively mounted on the carrier frame assembly 90 for detecting pivotal motion of the beverage capture assembly 102 and the Z-drive motor and brake 104 . In operation, the plurality of trays 42 within the vending machine are adjusted relative to their associated support tray mounting standards 44 to accommodate the relative heights of the products desired to be vended. The trays are then loaded with the desired beverage containers through the open door 24 . The loaded beverage containers are retained in ordered manner on their respective trays by the container release mechanisms previously discussed, at the forward ends of the trays. In general, the machine has two modes of operation, a “Service” mode which is entered whenever the door 24 is open and will not be discussed herein. The normal mode of operation is the “Operate” mode and is the one which is of general concern to this invention. Upon entering the “Operate” mode a diagnostic check is performed on the vending mechanism. If the diagnostic check fails, the Controller 200 takes the unit out of service and displays an appropriate “Out-of-Service” message on its display panel 204 . After a power-up or reset condition, the Controller goes through a startup sequence which energizes the various functional peripherals of the system. In an idle state, the external display of the machine will show the accumulated credit amount when no keypad or vend activity is present. If there is still a beverage container or product in the delivery bin of the machine an appropriate message such as “PLEASE REMOVE PRODUCT” will be flashed continuously until the product is removed. Keypad depressions and credit accumulation is disabled if a product is still in the delivery bin. The carriage frame assembly 90 will be locked in its docked position at the product delivery position. The credit accumulation, credit acceptance and the handling of cash, bills and tokens is similar to that of other vending machines and is well-known in the art. The process of initializing a “Vend Process” is illustrated in the flowchart of FIGS. 17A and 17B. Referring thereto, following the start-up sequence 300 , generally described above, the Controller continually looks to see if a keypad entry or selection has been made ( 301 ). When a selection is entered on the keypad, the Controller will determine ( 302 ) whether sufficient credit is available for the given selection. If the accumulated credit is greater than or equal to the selection price, a vend attempt will be made for that selection. During this time, the customer's selection will also be shown on the display panel. If the credit accumulated is less than the selection price, the price will be flashed for three seconds or until a new selection key is pressed. Also, if the level of the coin changer assembly's least value coin tube is below its lowest sensor, the “Use Correct Change” sign will be continuously illuminated. Assuming that proper credit has been accumulated for the selected product, the Controller will ensure that the beverage capture assembly 102 is empty ( 303 ). If the beverage capture assembly 102 still contains a beverage container, the Controller will not allow the vend cycle to continue until the beverage container has been removed from the capture mechanism. The Controller then checks to see if the delivery door 125 is positioned in a closed position (decision block 304 ). If the door is open, the Controller will not allow the vend cycle to proceed. If both the conditions of an empty beverage capture assembly and a closed delivery door are satisfied, the vend cycle proceeds and the security lock motor 218 is energized to unlock the carriage frame assembly 90 for movement ( 305 ). Once unlocked, the shuttle bar assembly 75 is enabled for movement in the X-direction, and Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) signals are sent to the Y-drive motor 97 to move the carrier frame assembly 90 slightly up, in the Y-direction, to a “hovering” position just above the Home seated area so that the Y-home switch 99 is activated ( 306 ). This allows the carriage frame assembly 90 to clear the product delivery area when it begins moving with the shuttle assembly 75 in the X-direction. The carrier frame assembly 90 is held at its hovering Y-position ( 307 ) and the shuttle bar assembly is moved in the left X-direction to its first position as detected by the optical column position sensor 83 and the associated optical position indicator plate 66 ( 308 ). In the preferred embodiment the “first” X-position is the position in alignment with the right most column of trays in the vending machine, just left of the control panel as viewed in FIG. 1 . The controller then energized both the X and Y drive motors 77 and 97 so as to position the carriage frame assembly 90 in operative position in front of the customer selected tray 42 . The particular tray column position (in the X-direction) is sensed by the optical sensor 83 and its associated position indicator plate 66 . The desired amount of travel in the Y-direction is determined by the optical encoder 100 associated with the Y-drive motor 97 , which counts the revolutions of output shaft movement when the Y-drive motor is running. These functions are indicated by block 309 in FIG. 17 B. When the carrier frame assembly 90 reaches the desired Y-direction position, its movement is stabilized by the PWM drive signal ( 310 ), which maintains the carriage frame assembly at the desired Y-direction height. As described above, the PWM Y-motor control feature can enable accurate positioning of the carriage frame assembly relative to the selected tray within {fraction (1/32)} to {fraction (1/64)} of an inch. When the carriage frame assembly 90 is properly positioned before the customer selected tray, the Z-drive motor 104 is energized to rotate the beverage capture assembly 102 relative to the carrier frame assembly 90 until the limit switch 230 indicates full rotated extension of the beverage capture assembly 102 ( 311 ). As the beverage capture assembly arcuately moves toward the selected tray 42 , the forward edge thereof engages the forward cam surface 110 a of the foremost portion of the lever guide arm 110 on the selected shelf. As the beverage capture assembly continues to rotate in the forward direction, the lever guide arm 110 is rotated thereby about its hinge pin 111 , causing the second lever arm 114 to rotate in a counterclockwise direction (as viewed from above), moving the beverage engaging rod member 116 out of engagement with the foremost (first-in-line) beverage container on the selected tray. Simultaneously, the rearmost beverage engaging rod member 113 is moved into blocking position in front of the second-in-line beverage container, preventing the second-in-line beverage container from progressing down the inclined selected tray. Once the rod member 116 is removed from retaining contact with the first-in-line beverage container, the first-in-line beverage container is permitted to slide by gravity out of the open end of the selected tray and into the rotated beverage capture assembly 102 which is now in direct alignment with the selected beverage tray. It should be noted that when the beverage capture assembly 102 is fully rotated by the Z-drive motor 104 , as indicated by activation of the Z-out switch 230 , the upper surface of the floor insert member 108 of the beverage capture assembly 102 will be co-planarly aligned with the upper surface of the lower floor insert 42 a of the selected beverage tray 42 so as to form a continuous sliding surface for the first-in-line beverage container to slide from the open end of the selected tray and into the aligned beverage capture assembly 102 (see FIG. 12 ). As the first-in-line beverage container slides into the beverage capture assembly, its lower surface will enter the circular detent portion 108 a of the floor insert member, further retaining the container in fixed placed within the beverage capture assembly. The upper portion of the captured container will engage the tapered beverage container guides 107 to add further balancing support to the captured container within the beverage capture assembly. At this position, the captured beverage container will also activate the product present sensor 222 within the beverage capture assembly, indicating that the selected first-in-line beverage container actually has been dispensed from the selected tray and has been captured by the beverage capture assembly 102 . As long as the beverage capture assembly 102 remains in its Z-out receiving position, its engagement with the primary pivotal lever guide arm 110 will maintain the guide arm at its activated/rotated position against the bias of the spring 118 , maintaining the second beverage engaging rod member 116 in front of the second-in-line beverage container, to prevent its movement along the lower surface of the selected tray. Referring back to FIG. 17B, after the Z-out switch 230 has been activated ( 311 ), the Controller will wait for one second for the selected first in-line container to slide into the beverage capture assembly ( 312 ). The Controller then interrogates the product present sensor 222 to see if the beverage capture assembly 102 has actually received the selected beverage container (decision block 313 ). If the beverage capture assembly 102 is empty, the Controller repeats this process for up to three times. If the beverage capture assembly 102 remains empty after three cycles through its box 313 check, the Controller assumes that the selected tray is empty and flashes a “Sold Out” signal on the vending machine display. If this condition occurs, the Z-motor is energized to return the beverage capture assembly into the carriage frame assembly, the X and Y motors are energized to return the carriage frame assembly to its Home position, and the customer's money is refunded, ending the Vend cycle. If the product present sensor 222 indicates that a beverage container has in fact been received by the beverage capture assembly 102 , the Controller will activate the Z-drive motor in reverse direction to pivotally retract the beverage capture assembly 102 back into the carrier frame assembly 90 until the Z-in switch 229 indicates that the beverage capture assembly 102 is fully returned in nesting position within the carrier frame assembly 90 ( 314 ). As the beverage capture assembly 102 is withdrawn back into the carrier frame assembly 90 , its forward edge will release pressure against the forward cam surface of the foremost portion 110 a of the primary lever guide arm 110 , enabling the lever guide arm 110 to be retracted to its normal position under influence of the spring 118 . As the lever guide arm 110 rotates back to its initial position, the second lever arm 114 will once again restore the beverage engaging rod member 116 to its blocking position across the open end of the selected tray, while motion of the rearward portion of the lever guide arm 110 will withdraw the beverage engaging rod member 113 from its engagement with the previously second-in-line beverage container. As the rod member 113 releases its contact with the beverage container the second-in-line beverage container will slide under the force of gravity along the tray floor until it comes into resting engagement with the rod member 116 . In this position, the previously second-in-line container now becomes the first-in-line container in that selected product tray. Simultaneously, all of the other qued beverage containers carried by that tray will also simultaneously move “forward” in the tray, each advancing one position, toward the dispensing end of the tray. This process is schematically indicated in FIG. 13 for a full vend cycle from the tray. The entire process of having transferred the selected beverage container from the selected tray and into the beverage capture assembly 102 is achieved in smooth continuous manner without dropping the beverage container or imparting any jarring blows or forces to the container. Once the Z-motor has stabilized following activation of the Z-in switch 229 , the X and Y drive motors 77 and 97 respectively are simultaneously energized to move the shuttle bar 75 and the carrier frame assembly 90 back to the “first” X-position, carrying the captured selected beverage container to that position ( 315 ). The floor detent 108 a and the tapered beverage container guides 107 of the beverage capture assembly 102 help support and hold the captured beverage container within the beverage capture assembly during the transport phase. Once the carrier frame assembly 90 reaches the first position, the X-drive motor 77 is activated to move the shuttle bar so as to move the carrier frame assembly 90 to the X “home” position at which point the carrier frame assembly will cooperatively nest within the door opening assembly 120 such that the access ports 121 a , 102 a and 90 b are all in operative alignment ( 316 ). At the X “home” position, both the X and the Y drive motors are deenergized and the carrier frame assembly 90 is locked in position by the locking motor 218 at the delivery station ( 317 ). With the lock set, the Controller energizes the delivery door motor 123 until the door open switch 131 indicates that the delivery door is in a fully open position ( 318 ). The Controller then interrogates the product present sensor 222 in the beverage capture assembly 102 (decision block 319 ) to determine when the captured beverage container is removed from the beverage capture assembly 102 . When the delivery door opens, the customer making the beverage selection simply needs to reach into the delivery access port 32 and lift the delivered beverage container forward and up out of the beverage capture assembly. Since the delivery access port 32 is located at a higher (approximately waist) level then most vending machine delivery vends, the customer does not have to unduly bend or contort his/her body in order to remove the selected beverage from the machine. When the delivered beverage container has been removed from the delivery port, the product present sensor 222 will inform the Controller of that fact, and after a two-second delay ( 320 ) the Controller will energize the delivery door motor 123 so as to close the delivery door ( 321 ). Once the delivery door is closed, as indicated by activation of the door closed switch 130 , the vend cycle is complete ( 322 ). Following a successful vend, vend housekeeping matters such as incrementing of the electronic cash counter and the vend counter, etc. will be performed as is well-known in the art. It will be appreciated that the above process provides a smooth continuous vending sequence, all in view of the customer, to deliver the selected beverage container to the customer without jarring, dropping, or rolling of the container, or otherwise subjecting the container to sharp or severe impact forces. Upon removal of the container from the delivery port, the consumer can immediately open the container without concern for its contents exploding, or foaming out of the container, and without concern for damage being caused to fragile containers during the vending process. It will also be appreciated that since the delivery port is located in the side control panel, that area near the bottom of the machine that with prior art devices was used for delivery bins, can be used to advantage to store more product within the machine. It will also be appreciated that the apparatus and process allows for greater flexibility in arranging products of varied sizes, shapes, volumes and types of containers within the same machine and that the delivery door position is accommodating to the consumer. It will also be appreciated that implementation of the principles of the invention can be achieved in an economical manner since none of the product trays or shelves require any active and expensive components in order to effect a vend. These and other features and advantages of the invention will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art in view of the foregoing description. It will be appreciated that while a preferred embodiment description and application of the invention have been disclosed other modifications of the invention not specifically disclosed or referred to herein will be apparent to those skilled in the art in light of the foregoing description. This description is intended to provide concrete examples of a preferred embodiment structure and application clearly disclosing the present invention and its operative principles. Accordingly, the invention is not limit to any particular embodiment or configuration or component parts thereof. All alternatives, modifications and variations of the present invention which fall within the spirit and broad scope of the appended claims are covered.

An improved method and apparatus for vending products, and particularly beverage containers, of varied sizes, shapes and configurations without dropping or subjecting the vended product to damaging impact forces are disclosed. The products to be vended are aligned in selectable ordered queues within a vending machine that can include a transparent front panel. A robotic carriage assembly using rack and pinion assemblies moves in positive non-vibratory manner along an X-Y plane in the machine, captures the selected product from its queue and smoothly transports the product to a product delivery port conveniently located close to hip level. The carriage assembly uses unique product escapement and capture mechanisms to smoothly slide the related product from its queue into the carriage. Power door and safety lock features at the delivery port are also disclosed.

RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the full benefit of copending application Ser. No. 11/352,889, filed Feb. 13, 2006, which in turn claims the benefit of provisional application 60/652,549 filed Feb. 14, 2005 and 60/652,711 filed Feb. 14, 2005. TECHNICAL FIELD [0002] A cavitation device is used to reduce the water content of used or wastep solutions and slurries, including oil well fluids and muds, solution mining fluids, industrial oil/water emulsions, and other used or wastep aqueous industrial fluids. A main reason for reducing the water content of such fluids is to facilitate their disposal or reuse. Thermal energy from the steam and vapor produced by the non-scaling cavitation device is recycled in steam turbines or piston expander engines, or otherwise facilitates evaporation or condensation to useful fresh water. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] In oil and other hydrocarbon production, drilling, completion and workover, fluids are typically circulated down the string of tubes and upwards around the outside of the tubes, contacting the formation surface of the wellbore from which the hydrocarbons are to be produced. In the case of a completion, drilling, or workover fluids an original clear brine is typically prescribed to have a density which is a function of the formation pressure. Oil well fluids may include calcium, zinc, ammonium and/or cesium as cations, and chloride, formate and particularly bromide as anions from any source. Typical sources include cesium chloride or formate, calcium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium bromide, calcium bromide, zinc chloride, zinc bromide, ammonium chloride, and mixtures thereof as well as their cation and anion forming moieties from other sources. The salts and other additives in the completion, drilling, or workover fluid may be partially diluted by the formation water, as a result of contact with the formation. The brines can also become diluted deliberately by the well operator, who may add water to replace fluid lost into the formation, or to reduce the density following a decision that it is too high. Oil field fluids commonly include as ingredients not only various salts but also polymers, corrosion inhibitors, densifying agents such as barium compounds, biocides, solids such as mud additives, and other compounds. Whether or not they are diluted, the oil field operator is ultimately faced with the problem of disposal or reuse. Frequently, finding a permissible site for disposal of such solutions and slurries is difficult and very expensive Disposal is also difficult for other common oil well fluids such as water/oil (or oil/water) emulsions of widely varying composition, including muds. A related point is that if the excess water in dilute fluids is not eliminated or recovered for various purposes, the volume of fluid at the wellsite continues to increase. The cost of trucking to an approved disposal or processing site can be prohibitive in many instances, and accordingly a significant reduction in the volume of such materials is needed in the art. All such fluids originating in the hydrocarbon production industry—the oil and gas fields—may be referred to herein collectively as “oil well fluids.” All such fluids for which our invention is useful, including oil well fluids, may be referred to herein collectively as “industrial fluids.” They will all include at least some water which is to be removed. [0004] Conventional methods of dewatering such fluids, such as distillation or simple evaporation, are very susceptible to scale formation on the heat exchange surfaces, which soon renders the distillation or evaporation equipment inoperable. Conventional methods tend also to be energy inefficient, and do not lend themselves to the use of thermal and electrical energy commonly available at the well site. [0005] Production of hydrocarbons from underground formations generally includes water from the same formations. In 2007 the ratio of water produced to oil produced worldwide is about 5 barrels of water for every barrel of oil produced. As oilfields mature the produced water volumes typically increase. Unfortunately the water produced with oil is not fresh water and is typically highly contaminated with both dissolved salts and suspended solids that include very hard to remove oil droplets. It typically comes from much greater depths than the fresh water aquifers. [0006] At the same time there is only a small amount of chloride-free, fresh water in the world compared to the amount of sea water. It has been logical and common practice to extract fresh water from sea water or other “brackish” waters. One can simply boil sea water and then condense the steam as fresh water. Today desalination of sea water into fresh water is a commonly accepted technology in wide use around the world. Units range from a few gallons per day to 1,000,000's gallons per day. The technology for desalination is evolving with several dominate technologies generally defined as either evaporation or reverse osmosis and as of 2007 the two technologies represent about 50% of the new plants built; although, with the current rate of new membrane technology development it is generally expected that the use of reverse osmosis will grow relative to evaporation. Each has its advantages and there are numerous methods defined in the literature to describe both technologies in detail. [0007] Like seawater, the water produced from hydrocarbon extraction contains chlorides, and it seems logical that technology from desalination could apply to such produced water. In some produced water applications desalination technology does work and is being used successfully. Unfortunately there are some key differences between seawater and produced water. Seawater can be considered a consistent feedstock; therefore, you can design for the most efficient operation based on a number of choices and then amortize the cost of the plant over a long life. You can control the flow into the plant and assume the feedstock will never change. Furthermore, generally size is not an issue and size can improve efficiency particularly with heat exchangers, membranes etc. [0008] Unfortunately, water obtained in hydrocarbon production is not a consistent feedstock. It can vary even in the same field, and composition can change over time. Harsh chemicals are often used in the production of hydrocarbons and the well treatment chemicals contaminate the associated produced water. Typically, produced water contains significant dissolved and suspended organics. Produced water is reactive and changes over time. The water in the formation is in a reduced state; whereas, seawater is fully oxidized and non reactive. Surface handling of produced water often adds oxygen that oxidizes the components of the produced water. Changes in temperature and pressure cause significant scale deposition. Unlike a seawater desalination plant where you control the flow into the plant, with produced water, you must cope with the flow from the formation. Not only does the produced water volume from a well typically increase with time, there are upsets that change everything. An example of an upset might be where oil overwhelms an oil/water separator and the oil intrudes into the desalination process. Typically a desalination plant requires pretreatment of the seawater feedstock. Given the variability of the produced oilfield water it has been very difficult to design the pretreatment system particularly for reverse osmosis membranes. [0009] To evaporate produced water there are some major issues. One is economics. Generally most produced water is re-injected into the same or similar formations. Downhole disposal is an environmentally acceptable alternative to evaporation and it is one of the least expensive alternatives; however, it often requires trucking or piping that adds considerable cost. The other major problem is scale. Scale is inversely soluble with heat. As temperature increases the scaling salts are less soluble. Scale is detrimental to an evaporation process that uses heat. The scale will form first on hot surfaces and that includes heat exchanger surfaces. First there is loss of efficiency. as the scale starts to insulate the hot heat exchanger surface from the fluid. Scale buildup also plugs the heat exchanger. Unfortunately, corrosion must also be considered. Heat can speed the corrosion process and since most produced waters contain chlorides, one must consider chloride stress cracking of metals. [0010] While evaporation in the oilfield is not as simple as desalination, it can be accomplished with a careful process design and it is a proven effective way to dispose of brine. Evaporation is a key technology in numerous industries, including food, chemicals and minerals processing. There are a wide variety of processes and many variations. Different evaporation processes and components were considered in developing this technology. Generally the methods to design such systems are to work out the mass and heat balances of the system and then each component. Components generally include a flash tank where steam vapor separates from the liquid, a source of heat, pumps to add fluid to the process and remove fluid, crystallizers to remove dry solids, solids handling equipment, heat exchangers, mixers, calandrias, evaporative cooling towers, condensers, vacuum pumps, compressors, piping, heat-transfer fluids, vents, packing trays, mist eliminators, economizers, and combinations of all these components. Furthermore the chemistry of the water must be considered as part of the design process. Typically with seawater desalination there is a pretreatment to remove hardness, or to mitigate its effect in the process. Unfortunately oilfield waters typically contain an order of magnitude greater concentration of hardness. Furthermore the hardness can vary from a relatively benign calcium carbonate compound to a nuisance calcium sulfate, but there is also hazardous barium sulfate scale and even radioactive strontium sulfate scaling. In designing a plant a chemical balance must be considered along with the heat and mass balance. Oilfield water chemistry is well defined in various reference books such as the classic textbook by Dr. Charles Patten entitled “Oilfield Water Chemistry” available through DA Campbell and Associates. There are many text books on water chemistry, but Patten is different because it deals with oilfield waters. There are graphs to predict scale formation based on water analysis, pressures and temperatures that are proven reliable and universal for oilfield waters. The scaling indexes have since been refined and reduced to computer programs. [0011] Many evaporation technologies and system layouts are well known and have been practiced for at least 100 years, if not longer. [0012] For example, a simple system might be a source of heat and a flash tank. [0013] One could use any number of components to improve the design and function of a flash tank. For example there is natural circulation and forced circulation to consider. Fluid to be evaporated can be pumped into the tank to turn it into a simple continuous process. For example if you pump the same weight of water into the evaporation tank to equal the pounds of steam vapor being removed then you would have a continuous process. If you consider the mass balance and heat balance you need to know that it takes 1 BTU of heat to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree. Unfortunately it then takes 970.4 BTU per pound of water to vaporize that water into steam. To evaporate water using this method, you must add heat, generally know as sensible heat, to raise the temperature of the base fluid from the starting point to the boiling point. Then you must add the latent heat of vaporization to run the evaporation. The mass and heat balance are simple equations and for one pound of water evaporated, you need to add the sensible heat to the latent heat and then you can decide how much you want to process per hour and you will know how much energy is required and then you can design your system around your requirements using standard chemical engineering texts, vendor input, handbooks, etc. It is typical to start with a proposed Process and Instrumentation Diagram or P&ID and then work though the mass balance and heat balance. In doing such work it becomes obvious that this simple design is not efficient. If steam is the ultimate goal, or if steam is required in another process then this simple flash tank evaporator works, and one can continue through the design to size the unit and then specify components to build the system. These types of units are typically called steam boilers. They are packaged readily available for purchase, lease or rental in a multitude of sizes and configurations from a variety of sources. Steam drove the industrial revolution and again the technology is very well known and has evolved over time. A conventional steam boiler is not an ideal evaporator of oilfield waters because scale and corrosion rapidly foul the unit and can even cause serious injury. [0014] If you do not need the steam, then it becomes a cost. With desalination, you need fresh water for civilizations to survive. You can afford to pay for fresh water. Oilfield water is a cost that you want to minimize since it offsets the revenue from the hydrocarbons. It is not only a cost, but often an environmental hazard. Using a conventional steam boiler is a very inefficient way to evaporate oilfield waters. The first law of thermodynamics is the conservation of energy. If you make steam, the energy in the steam goes somewhere. If you evaporate produced oilfield waters, the steam in the simple evaporation design goes to global warming. That is both costly and not environmentally sound. If you take advantage of the first law of thermodynamics and “recycle” the steam into the evaporation process, you become far more efficient. That is it takes less energy. For example you could run a simple evaporation process but use the steam to further evaporation with a simple evaporative cooling tower. [0015] If you add a cooling tower to your process essentially you can double the evaporation of the system. One could term this multiple-effect evaporation. There are numerous multiple effect evaporators and generally to be economical you need at least five effects. Simply you must utilize the 2 nd law of thermodynamics which says heat moves from hot to cold. Steam at atmospheric pressure cannot boil water at atmospheric. It can only provide sensible heat—that is heat the water to the vaporization point. It cannot boil the water because heat will not move between two bodies that are the same temperature. As you compress steam it goes up in temperature. With some compression you can get more heat in the steam and then take advantage of the second law of thermodynamics. With a multiple-effect arrangement generally the first evaporation tank is at the highest pressure. High pressure steam goes to the next flash tank that is operating at lower pressure and the heat boils that liquid. That steam moves to the third, tank that is lower pressure than the second tank and so on. Systems have been built with 20 or 30 effects. It still takes 970 BTU/pound of water evaporated, but by recycling the steam through multiple effects; you can divide the 970 BTU/pound by the number of effects to get the actual number of BTU's used for pound evaporated. For example, if you have 5 effects essentially you can evaporate water 5 times more efficiently or put another way use only 200 BTU per pound. [0016] Another well known method to enhance evaporation is by using compression. You can use one flash tank, but compress the steam and use a heat exchanger to condense the steam into fresh water. The fluid circulates from the flash tank through a heat exchanger where you condense high pressure steam on the outside of the same heat exchanger. By condensing the steam you get back the latent heat of vaporization and fresh water as a by product. The steam must be hotter than the evaporative fluid. By compressing the steam the temperature goes up and heat moves from the hot to cold or from the hot steam into the lower temperature (although still hot) fluid being evaporated. Vapor compression can either be by thermocompressor or by mechanical vapor recompression (MVR). A thermocompressor simply mixes high pressure steam with low-pressure steam to raise the temperature of the steam. The MVR system relies on an engine driving compressor. MVR can be a very efficient process. There are numerous references in the literature to the efficiency of compression. Systems can equal 50-effect evaporators. If you have high pressure steam, or another high pressure gas thermocompression makes the most sense; otherwise, MVR would be the choice. [0017] All of the above systems use, and require, one thing in common: heat exchangers that are prone to fouling in oilfield environments. Heat exchangers by definition have a hot surface. Again heat moves from hot to cold; therefore, heat moves from the hottest fluid to the heat exchange surface (usually metal) and then to the colder fluid. That means the heated surface is hotter than the fluid and scale is inversely soluble with temperature. That means scale starts to form on the heat transfer surface. As scale forms heat transfer efficiency decreases. There are numerous designs to minimize scale build up on heat transfer surfaces. There are mechanical devices to even scrape the surfaces to prevent scale buildup. A crystallizer is simply a heat exchanger designed to handle very high solids, and is often used in the situations were scale can be a problem. There are a multitude of heat exchanger designs and patented systems to improve heat transfer and to prevent scale buildup. Chemicals can also be used to treat for scale and are often utilized in the oilfield since scale even builds up downhole; however, chemicals add to the cost of systems and an important goal is to minimize costs. [0018] One method to evaporate produced water is to remove the scale-forming chemicals first and then further process the water with the steam into a crystallizer or conventional MVR system. If you remove the hardness, any of the conventional evaporation systems will work. It is common practice to precipitate scale with chemicals or by other means. One method is to seed liquid as you heat it to precipitate the scale in the “fluid” instead of on the heat transfer surfaces. You can also keep the fluid below the scaling index by selecting systems that run at lower temperatures, or by using vacuum, among other methods. Seeding compounds and techniques are selected according to the composition of the concentrate and the type of scale likely to deposit under the circumstances. [0019] The present method avoids the use of conventional heat exchangers in the dirty fluids to a great extent, recycles thermal energy wherever feasible, and promotes scale-free evaporation to obtain useful fresh water without undue energy use. As will be seen below, a cavitation device, or SPR, is a versatile device for converting shaft horsepower into heat without using a conventional heat exchange surface. The SPR can be used in various heat and energy saving systems to realize cost savings in many ways while making copious amounts of useful fresh water and concentrating otherwise used wastep fluids so they can be economically reused or disposed of. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0020] This invention dewaters dilute and contaminated solutions and slurries—industrial fluids—by passing them through a cavitation device which generates shock waves to heat the fluid and facilitate the removal of moisture, thereby reducing the volume of wastep material for disposal. Preferably the cavitation device is one manufactured and sold by Hydro Dynamics, Inc., of Rome, Ga., most preferably the device described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,385,298, 5,957,122 6,627,784 and particularly 5,188,090, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. In recent years, Hydro Dynamics, Inc. has adopted the trademark “Shockwave Power Reactor” for its cavitation devices, and we use the term SPR herein to describe the products of this company and other cavitation devices that can be used in our invention. The cavitation device will heat the fluid without accumulating any scale. The reason is that the generation of thermal energy takes place within the fluid and not on a heat exchange surface. [0021] Definition: We use the term “cavitation device,” or “SPR,” to mean and include any device which will impart thermal energy to flowing liquid by causing bubbles or pockets of partial vacuum to form within the liquid it processes, the bubbles or pockets of partial vacuum being quickly imploded and filled by the flowing liquid. The bubbles or pockets of partial vacuum have also been described as areas within the liquid which have reached the vapor pressure of the liquid. The turbulence and/or impact, which may be called a shock wave, caused by the implosion imparts thermal energy to the liquid, which, in the case of water, may readily reach boiling temperatures. The bubbles or pockets of partial vacuum are typically created by flowing the liquid through narrow passages which present side depressions, cavities, pockets, apertures, or dead-end holes to the flowing liquid; hence the term “cavitation effect” is frequently applied, and devices known as “cavitation pumps” or “cavitation regenerators” are included in our definition. Steam generated in the cavitation device can be separated from the remaining, now concentrated, water and/or other liquid which frequently will include significant quantities of solids small enough to pass through the reactor. [0022] The term “cavitation device” includes not only all the devices described in the above itemized U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,385,298, 5,957,122 6,627,784 and 5,188,090 but also any of the devices described by Sajewski in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,183,513, 5,184,576, and 5,239,948, Wyszomirski in U.S. Pat. No. 3,198,191, Selivanov in U.S. Pat. No. 6,016,798, Thoma in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,089,886, 6,976,486, 6,959,669, 6,910,448, and 6,823,820, Crosta et al in U.S. Pat. No. 6,595,759, Giebeler et al in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,931,153 and 6,164,274, Huffman in U.S. Pat. No. 5,419,306, Archibald et al in U.S. Pat. No. 6,596,178 and other similar devices which employ a shearing effect between two close surfaces, at least one of which is moving, such as a rotor, and/or at least one of which has cavities of various designs in its surface as explained above. [0023] The solution or slurry is increased in temperature in the SPR and then passed to a next step either for utilizing the heat energy of the fluid or to enhance the efficiency of its vaporization. The vapor or steam associated with the heated fluid can be used, for example, to operate a steam turbine or steam engine, or it can be subjected to recompression to make its heat energy readily available for reuse, or it can be passed through a membrane to enhance the efficiency of vaporization, or simply passed to a cooling tower. [0024] The fluid heated by the SPR, or a portion of it, can be immediately recycled to the SPR to heat it further. Vapor or steam generated in the SPR can be separated to be passed to one of the above-mentioned steps, before, after, or at the same time as the remaining fluid. [0025] Our invention includes the optional step of filtering the fluid before it enters the SPR, or after it is concentrated by the SPR. Because the SPR is able to handle large proportions of solids in the fluid it processes, our invention enables the postponement of filtration until after the fluid is reduced in water content by passing through the SPR to heat it and facilitate removal of vapor; filters and the filtration process can therefore be engineered to handle smaller volumes of liquid with higher concentrations of solids. [0026] In another aspect, our invention includes a method of processing a used oil well fluid comprising optionally filtering the used oil well fluid, passing the used oil well fluid through a heat exchanger utilizing wastep heat from a power source such as the exhaust of a Diesel engine, powering a cavitation device with the power source, passing the oil well fluid through the cavitation device to increase the temperature thereof, optionally recycling at least some of the used oil well fluid through the cavitation device to further increase the temperature of the used oil well fluid, passing the used oil well fluid into a flash tank to separate steam and vapor from the used oil well fluid and to obtain a concentrated fluid, removing at least a portion of the concentrated fluid from the flash tank, and reusing the at least a portion of the concentrated fluid in an oil well. The use of a Diesel engine is not essential; the cavitation device may be powered by any more or less equivalent source of mechanical energy, such as a common internal combustion engine, a steam engine, an electric motor, or the like. Wastep heat from any of these, either in an exhaust gas or otherwise, may be utilized in a known manner to warm the oil well fluid before or after passing it through the SPR. [0027] While the SPR is quite capable of elevating the temperature of an aqueous solution or slurry to the boiling point of water (at atmospheric pressure) or higher, it is not essential in our process for it to do so, as the flash tank, membrane, or other vapor recovery device may be operated under a vacuum to draw off vapors at temperatures below the boiling point at atmospheric pressure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0028] FIGS. 1 a and 1 b show variations of a cavitation device as utilized in our invention. [0029] FIGS. 2A-2D are flow sheets illustrating our process made more efficient by utilizing steam from the heated fluid to operate a steam turbine or a steam engine for assisting in operating the SPR. [0030] FIG. 3 shows a recompression loop in which steam or vapor originating in the SPR is recompressed to conserve energy. [0031] In FIGS. 4 a and 4 b , a membrane distillation step is combined with our SPR system; two different configurations are shown. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0032] FIGS. 1 a and 1 b show two slightly different variations, and views, of the cavitation devices sometimes known as a cavitation pump, or a cavitation regenerator, and sometimes referred to herein as an SPR, which we use in our invention to regenerate solutions comprising heavy brine components. [0033] FIGS. 1 a and 1 b are taken from FIGS. 1 and 2 of Griggs U.S. Pat. No. 5,188,090, which is incorporated herein by reference along with related U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,385,298, 5,957,122, and 6,627,784. As explained in the 5,188,090 patent and elsewhere in the referenced patents, liquid is heated in the device without the use of a heat transfer surface, thus avoiding the usual scaling problems common to boilers and distillation apparatus. [0034] A housing 10 in FIGS. 1 a and 1 b encloses cylindrical rotor 11 leaving only a small clearance 12 around its curved surface and clearance 13 at the ends. The rotor 11 is mounted on a shaft 14 turned by motor 15 . Cavities 17 are drilled or otherwise cut into the surface of rotor 11 . As explained in the Griggs patents, other irregularities, such as shallow lips around the cavities 17 , may be placed on the surface of the rotor 11 . Some of the cavities 17 may be drilled at an angle other than perpendicular to the surface of rotor 11 —for example, at a 15 degree angle. Liquid (fluid)—in the case of the present invention, a solution containing heavy brine components, or a used mud emulsion, or a used workover fluid, or other industrial fluid which may or may not contain solid particulates,—is introduced through port 16 under pressure and enters clearances 13 and 12 . As the fluid passes from port 16 to clearance 13 to clearance 12 and out exit 18 while the rotor 11 is turning, areas of vacuum are generated and heat is generated within the fluid from its own turbulence, expansion and compression (shock waves). As explained at column 2 lines 61 et seq in the 5,188,090 patent, “(T)he depth, diameter and orientation of (the cavities) may be adjusted in dimension to optimize efficiency and effectiveness of (the cavitation device) for heating various fluids, and to optimize operation, efficiency, and effectiveness . . . with respect to particular fluid temperatures, pressures and flow rates, as they relate to rotational speed of (the rotor 11 ).” Smaller or larger clearances may be provided (col. 3, lines 9-14). Also the interior surface of the housing 10 may be smooth with no irregularities or may be serrated, feature holes or bores or other irregularities as desired to increase efficiency and effectiveness for particular fluids, flow rates and rotational speeds of the rotor 11 . (col. 3, lines 23-29) Rotational velocity may be on the order of 5000 rpm (col 4 line 13). The diameter of the exhaust ports 18 may be varied also depending on the fluid treated. Pressure at entrance port 16 may be 75 psi, for example, and the temperature at exit port 18 may be 300° F. Thus the heavy brine components containing solution may be flashed or otherwise treated in the cavitation device to remove excess water as steam or water vapor. Note that the position of exit port 18 is somewhat different in FIGS. 1 a and 1 b ; likewise the position of entrance port 16 differs in the two versions and may also be varied to achieve different effects in the flow pattern within the SPR. [0035] Another variation which can lend versatility to the SPR is to design the opposing surfaces of housing 10 and rotor 11 to be somewhat conical, and to provide a means for adjusting the position of the rotor within the housing so as to increase or decrease the width of the clearance 12 . This can allow for different sizes of solids present in the fluid, to reduce the shearing effect if desired (by increasing the width of clearance 12 ), to vary the velocity of the rotor as a function of the fluid's viscosity, or for any other reason. [0036] Operation of the SPR (cavitation device) is as follows. A shearing stress is created in the solution as it passes into the narrow clearance 12 between the rotor 11 and the housing 10 . This shearing stress causes an increase in temperature. The solution quickly encounters the cavities 17 in the rotor 11 , and tends to fill the cavities, but the centrifugal force of the rotation tends to throw the liquid back out of the cavity, which creates a vacuum. The vacuum in the cavities 17 draws liquid back into them, and accordingly “shock waves” are formed as the cavities are constantly filled, emptied and filled again. Small bubbles, some of them microscopic, are formed and imploded. All of this stress on the liquid generates heat which increases the temperature of the liquid dramatically. The design of the SPR ensures that, since the bubble collapse and most of the other stress takes place in the cavities, little or no erosion of the working surfaces of the rotor 11 takes place, and virtually all of the heat generated remains within the liquid. [0037] Temperatures within the cavitation device—of the rotor 11 , the housing 10 , and the fluid within the clearance spaces 12 between the rotor and the housing—remain substantially constant after the process is begun and while the feed rate and other variables are maintained at the desired values. There is no outside heat source; it is the mechanical energy of the spinning rotor—to some extent friction, as well as the above described cavitation effect—that is converted to heat taken up by the solution and soon removed along with the solution when it is passes through exit 18 . The rotor and housing 10 , particularly in its interior 20 , indeed tend to be lower in temperature than the liquid in clearances 12 and 13 . There is little danger of scale formation even with high concentrations of heavy brine components in the solution being processed. [0038] Any solids present in the solution, having dimensions small enough to pass through the clearances 12 and 13 may pass through the SPR unchanged. This may be taken into account when using the reconstituted solution in for oil well purposes. On the other hand, subjecting the water-soluble polymers to the localized cavitation process and heating may break them down, shear them, or otherwise completely destroy them, a favorable outcome for many purposes. The condition known as “fish-eyes,” sometimes caused by the gelling of water-soluble polymers, can be cured by the SPR. These effects will take place in spite of the possible presence of significant amounts of solids. [0039] Concentrated and heavy or dense brines are more liable to crystallize in use than dilute brines, and accordingly their crystallization temperatures are of concern. The crystallization point of a highly salt-laden solution does not imply merely that a small portion of the salts may crystallize out, but that the entire solution will tend to gel or actually solidify, a phenomenon of great concern during the transportation of such solutions or in storage, for example. The ability to concentrate heavy brine components and their ratios to each other in a solution using a cavitation device leads to better control over crystallization temperature and the ability to achieve a good balance between crystallization temperature and density. Complex relationships between the concentrations and ratios of heavy brine component ions and other constituents in the solution rather precisely obtained by our invention means that the crystallization temperature of a completion or workover fluid can be more readily controlled while conserving substantially all of the components available to be saved. [0040] The ability to concentrate heavy brine components content in a solution using a cavitation device also leads to better control over solution density. Relationships between the rather precisely obtained concentrations of heavy brine component ions and other constituents in the solution means that the density of a completion or workover fluid can be more readily matched with the density of the drilling fluid. [0041] Where the fluid treated is a heavy brine containing cesium, it will commonly contain at least 2.5% cesium by weight. Our invention includes a method of treating a hydrocarbon producing formation comprising introducing into the formation through a well an oil well fluid containing at least 2.5% by weight cesium, whereby the fluid becomes diluted so that it contains less than 2.5% cesium by weight, circulating the fluid from the well, and passing at least a portion of the fluid through a cavitation device to remove moisture therefrom and produce a regenerated fluid containing at least 2.5% cesium by weight in the fluid. [0042] Similar percentages may be found in cesium solutions used in mining cesium, and our invention may be quite useful for concentrating cesium solutions in cesium mining. [0043] In FIGS. 2 A-D, a dilute solution, slurry or emulsion (hereafter sometimes a fluid) enters in line 32 from the lower left, as depicted. It may come directly from a well, from a hold tank, or indirectly from another industrial fluid source. The SPR (cavitation device) 30 requires a motor or engine to rotate it. Here, a Diesel engine or other power source, designated Mech. Power 40 , powers the SPR through shaft 41 and generates hot exhaust gases or other wastep heat, which is/are passed to heat exchanger 42 , where the thermal energy of the exhaust gas or other wastep heat is used to heat the incoming fluid in line 32 through a heat exchange surface or other conventional or expedient manner. Optionally the heat exchanger may be bypassed in a line not shown. The incoming fluid continues through line 31 to the SPR 30 which may be any cavitation device described above; for illustrative purposes, it may be substantially as shown in FIGS. 1 a and 1 b . A supplemental pump, not shown, may assist the passage of the fluid. In the SPR 30 , the fluid is heated as described with reference to FIGS. 1 a and 1 b , and the heated fluid is passed through line 33 to a flash tank 44 , where steam and vapor is separated and removed in line 34 . Alternatively or supplementally, steam or vapor may be vented through a separate vent, not shown, from the SPR to the atmosphere or drawn off directly from or in a similar vent associated with exit port 18 ( FIGS. 1 a and 1 b ). The steam may be recycled in a known manner for thermal energy preservation, for condensing to make substantially pure water, put to other useful purposes, or simply flashed to the atmosphere. Optionally a vacuum may be drawn on the flash tank to assist in removing the vapor and steam. It is not essential that the temperature of the fluid exiting from the SPR exceed the boiling point of water, as a vacuum assist can facilitate the withdrawal of vapors. Concentrated fluid from the flash tank, in line 35 , can be recycled to the well, or analyzed on-line or after removal in order to determine the best way to re-establish the ratios of ingredients, a desired crystallization temperature, a desired density, or other property; it can also be recycled to line 32 to join with the input to the SPR to become further concentrated and for further water removal. In FIGS. 2A-2D , the concentrated fluid in line 35 is shown passing through heat exchanger 42 where it will contribute its excess thermal energy to the elevation of the temperature of the incoming fluid in line 32 . For this purpose, line 35 may have its own heat exchanger separate from one such as depicted deriving its thermal energy from mechanical power source 40 . [0044] FIGS. 2A and 2B show the steam or vapor in line 34 going to a steam turbine 36 , where the thermal energy is used to rotate the turbine, generating mechanical rotational power for supplementing the mechanical power source 40 in the operation of the SPR, through shaft 45 . In FIG. 2B , the turbine 36 is connected to an electrical generator 37 which generates power sent through wire 49 to electric motor 39 for rotating shaft 45 . Fluid discharged from the turbine 36 in line 38 is condensed by passing through turbine 36 and may be used as a source of fresh water. [0045] FIG. 2C is similar to FIG. 2A except that a steam cylinder engine 43 , such as a Spilling engine, is substituted for the steam turbine 36 in FIG. 2A . Steam and vapor from line 34 is sent to the steam engine 43 , which turns shaft 45 for supplementing the mechanical power input of power source 40 . In FIG. 2D , the steam engine 43 is coupled to an electric generator 46 , generating electricity sent through wire 49 to motor 39 for rotating shaft 45 . The steam and vapor entering steam cylinder engine 43 of FIGS. 2C and 2D is condensed while its thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy, and the condensate may be collected in a discharge line not shown for any convenient use as fresh water. [0046] Supplemental pumps, and various filters, meters and valves, not shown, may be deployed throughout the system of FIGS. 2 A-D, as in any of the other system configurations described herein to assure the desired flow rates and pressures, and to direct the fluids in the system to and through the various options described; automatic or manual controls for the valves pumps and other components may also be installed. Likewise, the system may utilize various electric and mechanical power and thermal energy sources available on site to drive pumps and/or assure the evaporation of water from the incoming fluid in line 32 . It should be understood that any electric power generated by the system will result in savings in commercial power otherwise available at the site. [0047] Referring now to FIG. 3 , the SPR is shown in use with mechanical vapor recompression. An incoming solution or slurry is passed through line 80 to heat exchanger 81 where it picks up heat from the condensate in line 82 , then passes through line 84 to heat exchanger 85 to absorb heat from hot concentrated liquid or slurry in line 86 from flash tank 87 , and on through line 88 to the SPR 89 . SPR 89 receives rotational power from mechanical power source 62 through shaft 68 . The SPR 89 further heats the incoming slurry or solution and forwards the heated fluid through line 50 , optionally through a devolatilizer 51 and further through line 52 to flash tank 87 . The SPR may have a vent not shown for venting vapor or steam to the atmosphere or for carrying the vapor or steam to any device in the system that could use the heat or steam power therefrom. In flash tank 87 , steam or vapor is removed through line 56 and sent to compressor 57 , which compresses it, at the same time elevating its temperature because of the increased pressure. Compressor 57 receives rotational mechanical power from power source 62 through shaft 69 or from a different power source not shown, for example an electrical motor which in turn may be powered by a steam turbine using steam from the system (see FIGS. 2A-2D ). Because the SPR heats the fluid without employing a solid heat exchange surface, it is virtually scale free; therefore the relatively high temperatures of the fluid in line 56 are achieved in a relatively scale-free manner. On the other hand, because the SPR is able to handle not only highly concentrated brines and other oilfield fluids containing solids as well as dissolved solids, the liquid accumulating in flash tank 87 may contain significant amounts of both dissolved and undissolved solids. The concentrated fluid can be removed through line 86 and filtered if desired. Condensation in condenser 83 of the high-temperature compressed steam from compressor 57 provides a condensed fluid in line 82 having considerable thermal energy for heating the incoming fluid in incoming line 80 through heat exchanger 81 . Additional mechanical vapor recompression loops can be installed as is known in the art of mechanical vapor recompression. Some of the steam or vapor in line 56 may optionally be diverted through line 65 to heat exchanger 66 designed to capture wastep heat from power source 62 , such as from exhaust gases or a thermal jacket, not shown in detail; this diverted steam or vapor can be isolated in line 70 for use as an optional steam or vapor, or, after it gives up its heat elsewhere, as condensate that can be used separately as a source of fresh water or combined with the distilled water in line 59 . Note also that concentrate from line 86 or line 71 is desirably recycled to the SPR in lines 63 or 64 , or both, to further elevate its temperature and/or remove additional water from it and/or further concentrate the fluid in lines 86 and 71 . [0048] FIGS. 4 a and 4 b are flow diagrams showing the use of membranes to enhance evaporation of water in an SPR system. In FIG. 4 a , an industrial or oilfield fluid enters the SPR 96 in line 108 , is heated in the SPR as described above and continues in line 108 . After passing through an optional heat exchanger 97 , the fluid output from the SPR 96 in line 90 goes directly to the retentate side 98 of a membrane 94 selected for its ability to permit heated water to pass, leaving salts and solids behind. FIG. 4 a is adapted from U.S. Pat. No. 6,656,361, which is expressly incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The membrane in FIG. 4 a is hydrophilic, which permits liquid water to pass through its pores. The fluid introduced from line 90 continues to flow while it contacts the surface of membrane 94 . It may be recirculated in line 91 , showing the now concentrated fluid leaving the membrane housing 95 and reentering it after passing through an optional heat exchanger 99 to increase its temperature, and joining line 90 . Heat exchanger 99 and other heat exchangers shown herein may utilize wastep heat from any of numerous sources normally available in an industrial setting and especially in an oilfield site. On the permeate side 100 of the membrane 94 , a slightly negative pressure may be drawn, leading vapor and/or aqueous droplets into space 92 , where the cooler conditions bring about condensation of vapor to fresh liquid water. The condensate is removed in line 101 for use in an associated system such as for makeup of a new oilfield fluid, or it may be simply collected for use as fresh water. As disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,656,361, an air blower may assist in moving and condensing the vapor in space 92 . Additional or optional cooling devices or circulating coolant 103 may be employed on the permeate side of the membrane also to assist in the condensation process. The fluid passing through the membrane housing 95 , now containing less water in line 91 may be further recycled through line 102 and optionally through another heat exchanger 104 to further increase its temperature, to the SPR 96 for additional heating before being returned to the membrane. A continuous or intermittent blowdown may be conducted, for example through line 107 to maintain desired concentrations of constituents in the circulating fluid; this may be accomplished by monitoring and controlling the conductivity of the fluid in line 102 , for example. [0049] In the configuration of FIG. 4 b , a hydrophobic membrane is used to enhance the evaporation of water from the fluid heated in the SPR 110 . The oilfield or other industrial fluid from input line 121 is heated in the SPR 110 and goes through line 111 to flash tank 112 where it is separated more or less like the fluid in flash tank 44 of FIGS. 2 A-D—that is, part of it remains in the flash tank as liquid, including undissolved solids or not, and part of it is given off as vapor or steam. The vapor or steam is directed (possibly with the aid of a slight negative pressure) to the retentate side 114 of the membrane 113 . Water vapor passes from the retentate side 114 of the membrane 113 into the air gap 115 defined by wall 116 more or less parallel to membrane 113 . Wall 116 is cooler than the heated fluid on the retentate side 114 , and accordingly the vapor tends to condense in air gap 115 , resulting in a fresh water condensate which is removed in line 117 for use as fresh water in any of numerous possible applications. The retentate may be recycled in line 118 to the retentate side 114 of the membrane, or in line 119 to the SPR for reheating. A concentrate stream is removed from the flash tank 112 continuously or intermittently in line 120 either for use as a source of its components or for disposal. If it is to be discarded, a considerable advantage of the process, as with all the methods disclosed herein, is that it will include far less volume to be transported or stored. In either case, the fluid in line 120 may be passed through a heat exchanger not shown to conserve its heat energy for other purposes, for example to preheat the incoming fluid in line 121 . Because the SPR 110 is able to generate relatively high temperatures in the original fluid without using a scale-forming surface, the system is essentially scale-free. As in FIGS. 2 and 3 , various valves, filters, meters, monitors, controls, heat exchangers and the like may be deployed through out the systems of FIGS. 4 a and 4 b as desired or as may be indicated by the circumstances. In almost all oilfield areas, wastep heat sources are available and can be adapted to heat exchangers of various kinds as are known in the art; the heat energy can be used as illustrated in FIGS. 2 A-D to elevate temperatures of fluids, or for conversion to electrical or mechanical power which also can be used wherever desirable in the system. Heat exchangers using wastep heat from any source may be of particular use on the incoming fluids in line 108 of FIGS. 4 a and 121 of FIG. 4 b , but of course may be applied wherever heat will be beneficial. Generally, hydrophobic membranes are preferred, as by definition they permit only water vapor, and not water droplets, to pass. If water droplets pass through the membrane, they may carry dissolved salts with them, which is counterproductive. However, we do not intend to disclaim the use of hydrophilic membranes, particularly as their properties may be improved in the future to reject dissolved salts more completely. It is a notable advantage of the SPR that it is able to heat the dirty or salts-laden water without significant scale formation, while retaining scale-forming salts in the concentrate, and the vapor or steam that is delivered to the membrane, whether the membrane is hydrophobic or hydrophilic, presents little danger of fouling. Both types of membranes are well known in the art of desalination, medical applications, and for other purposes. Any membranes which will perform as described with respect to FIGS. 4 a and 4 b are contemplated in our invention.

A cavitation device is used to reduce the water content of used or wastep solutions and slurries, including oil well fluids and muds, solution mining fluids, industrial oil/water emulsions, and other used or wastep aqueous industrial fluids. A main reason for reducing the water content of such fluids is to facilitate their disposal or reuse. Thermal energy from the steam and vapor produced by the non-scaling cavitation device is recycled in steam turbines or piston expander engines, or otherwise facilitates evaporation through a membrane or condensation to useful fresh water; the efficiency of the process can be enhanced by mechanical vapor recompression.

RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/514,090, filed on Aug. 2, 2011. The entire teachings of the above application are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] A medical chart or medical record is a systematic documentation of a patient's medical history and care. The term ‘Medical Chart’ is used both for the physical folder for each individual patient and for the body of information which comprises the total of each patient's health history. [0003] The information contained in the medical record allows health care providers to provide continuity of care to individual patients. The medical record also serves as a basis for planning patient care, documenting communication between the health care provider and any other health professional contributing to the patient's care, assisting in protecting the legal interest of the patient and the health care providers responsible for the patient's care, and documenting the care and services provided to the patient. In addition, the medical record may serve as a document to educate medical students/resident physicians, to provide data for internal hospital auditing and quality assurance, and to provide data for medical research. Personal health records combine many of the above features with portability, thus allowing a patient to share medical records across providers and health care systems. [0004] Because of the need for careful and systematic diagnosis, doctors are trained from the earliest classes of medical school to follow a systematic approach to diagnosis called the “SOAP” system. SOAP is an acronym for Subjective, Objective, Assessment and Plan. “Subjective” is a term that refers to the health professional's first encounter with data regarding a patient's medical condition. The health care professional hears a subjective description of the patient's condition as described by the patient. The assessment is subjective because the information about the information about the condition is based upon the patient's interpretation of his/her physical condition. For example, one patient may describe their condition as a high fever, dizziness or level of pain. However, one patient's interpretation of a high fever, or level of pain may differ from another's depending upon their experience, pain threshold. However subjective, the information is still an important consideration by the doctor. [0005] The term “objective” refers to direct observations by the professional of the patient's conditions including measurable, scaled observations. Such objective factors may include the sound of the patient's inhalation or exhalation, heart rate, blood pressure, body weight, temperature, physical appearance of systems, organs and body parts. The information is objective because it is based upon direct observations of the health care professional that is trained in observation and objectivity. [0006] The term “Assessment” means the diagnosis or preliminary assessment of a patient's condition. It may include an assessment that the patient may suffer from a number of potential symptoms that require further diagnosis, exploration or input. Optionally, it may be a single conclusion of one or more conditions. [0007] The term “Plan” refers to a formulation of the plan a health care professional makes based upon the professional's previous Assessment. The plan may include one or more of (1) additional tests or information gathering including (i)blood or fluid analysis (ii) radiological examination (iii) psychological evaluation (iv) exploratory surgery, or other diagnostic information gathering that may be relevant to rule out or diagnose one or more conditions. The plan may be a treatment plan that includes, patient health care instructions, pharmaceutical treatment, involvement of other health care professionals, such as a physical therapist, social worker or occupational therapist. The plan may require follow-up visits or leave additional visits to the discretion of the patient. [0008] The order of the SOAP process is as important as the steps themselves. The subjective information of the patient determines the nature of the objective examination by the health care professional. The subjective and objective leads to the assessment or diagnosis. The plan is based upon the diagnosis. It is therefore desirable for a medical charting system, including an automated or computerized medical charting system to take advantage of the SOAP system. [0009] Because of its importance to the long-term health and well being of a patient, medical records require considerable detail and accuracy. Some of the medical charting must be personally completed by a physician who's time demands are considerable. Thus, there is a continual need to develop technology that will permit a physician and its staff to be more efficient at medical charting without compromising accuracy and completeness. [0010] To improve the efficiency of charting, electronic charting systems have been developed. However, some challenges exist that make medical charting difficult for physicians to adapt. Often, physicians have unreliable computer skill sets and have never acquired typing skills sufficient to make electronic charting systems feasible. Moreover, due to the time constraints on physicians, it is often difficult and costly for physicians to acquire an new skill set. The lack of skill set in physicians often result in disruption of patient interaction as the physician attempts to muddle through the electronic charting system. If the charting system electronic or otherwise does not logically follow the doctor patient routine, the charting program can be distracting for the physician which could result in a less than thorough examination or disruption of the attorney. [0011] SpringCharts™ is a commercially available charting system. It can be a stand alone system or integrated into a more comprehensive electronic medical record charting system. The program utilizes a series of drop down menus and fill-in screens to complete medical charting. See http://www.medicaleharting.comlemr-software/electronic-medical-record-software-index.htm. [0012] MediNotes™ is another charting system that can be used as a stand alone system or synchronized into an existing electronic medical reporting system. MediNotes™ features flexible note templates that allow you to customize the program to suit the clinical and business needs of the physician and physician's staff With the ability to create common lists for frequent exams, medications and symptoms, MediNotes™ enables the user to easily document multiple chief complaints using color—coded text that guides you though each patient encounter. MediNotes™ does not use smart text to reference commonly used phrases and clusters. See http://www.medinotes.com/productslmne-emr.php. [0013] Doc U Chart™ is an electronic medical record for a tablet PC so that digital notes can be taken during exam. The charting is manually done, but digitally captured. Therefore, there is no use of smart text to reference charting templates, phrases and clusters. See http://www.docuchart.com/electronic_charting.asp. [0014] American Medical's software comprises a series of drop down menus and various charting screens. See http://www.americanmedical.com. [0015] A drop down menu system may be faster than manual charting, there is still a need for a system that could further improve the efficiency of medical charting in a systematic way that reduces physician typing time, follows the SOAP system, suggests objective indicia based upon subjective information, provides assessment suggestions based upon the objective and subjective, and provides plan suggestions based upon the subjective and objective information as well as the decided assessment. It is further advantageous to have a system that flows with rather than distracts from the physician patient interaction and improves accuracy. It is further advantageous to have a system that is efficient enough that the subjective and objective can be efficiently recorded with minimal keystrokes or computer steps by the physician. The present invention satisfies these and other needs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0016] Embodiments of the present invention have several advantages over prior medical charting software approaches, including improving typing efficiency by requiring only a few keystrokes to reference large amounts of data in the form of phrases, clusters of phrases and templates. [0017] Phrases, clusters of phrases or templates are accessible by reference codes that contain at least three keystroke sets of one or more keys each. The system is organized in a way that the physician or medical professional using the charting system can easily learn the simple codes to access large amounts of typed information by a few keystrokes. A library of phrases or clusters of phrases exists. They are first organized into several groups. Groups relating to the present invention included a symptom group of phrases and clusters of phrases relating to positively observed symptoms. A negative review of systems group of phrases and clusters of phrases relating to symptoms that the patient does not experience. An objective group of phrases and clusters of phrases pertains to medical examination observations that are objectively observed and measured in an examination by a healthcare professional. A diagnosis group of phrases and clusters of phrases pertain to diagnostic conclusion. A plan group of phrases and clusters of phrases pertain to diagnostic plans. Subsets of one or more of these groups are organized by the organ system or by specific anatomical parts. [0018] A specific desired phrase can be inserted by typing in a first keystroke set to identify a first keystroke group. The second keystroke set identifies a particular organ system or anatomical part. The third keystroke set identifies a medical fact relevant to the organ system or anatomical fact and calls up a group of phrases or clusters of phrases. [0019] Additionally, a smart text system can be employed, so that a number of possible reference codes options will display based upon the text already inserted into the reference code. For example, the smart text system means that after the first and second keystroke sets have been inserted a number of options appear that give the user of completing the reference code by typing additional letters to narrow the reference code options or allowing the user to select possible options from a list of smartphrases. [0020] By sequentially typing a reference code of three sets of keystrokes, whole paragraphs and clusters of paragraphs of relevant charting text can be accessed. By sets of keystrokes it is meant one two or more keystrokes that represent a concept that when combined with other sets of keystrokes narrow the physicians choices to one or more corresponding phrases, clusters of phrases or templates. The first keystroke set represents a general charting function. The second keystroke set generally represents an organ system, anatomic part or other logical narrowing identifier such as male, female, adult, child, or geriatric. The third keystroke set represents a particular medical fact including a medical condition, observation, conclusion or recommendation. The present invention provides a complete set of phrases or clusters of phrases that can be stored in a medical charting program and used to enhance an existing medical charting program. [0021] In one embodiment, the order of the keystroke sequence follows generally the SOAP system. First, subjective fact are recorded based upon a patient's subjective interpretation of bodily symptoms. This includes negative review of systems and negative symptoms. Objective data is then entered. Diagnosis based on medical analysis is next recorded. Finally, treatment plan is inserted. The charting system has the advantage that the entry or review of subjective provides an informal checklist or guide for medical examination. Optionally, the phrases or clusters of phrases relating to a particular condition can contain a specific list of all symptoms and negative symptoms, examinations required, and treatment plan options and follow-up items. Thus, more thorough examination can result from the present system in addition to more thorough documentation. [0022] The charting system enables a series of three keystroke sets to access clusters of phrases to accommodate complex assessment and diagnosis needs or simple phrases for more basic assessment or diagnosis charting based upon the subjective and objective observations. The charting system is adaptable from simple charting needs to the most complex charting issue. Data can be added and the phrases modified after being called up to ensure that the physician can have 100% control over the content and format of the charting and that the data can be matched to each individual patient for each individual encounter. New charting phrases can be programmed to suit ongoing changing needs of physicians in a user friendly format. [0023] Additionally, and importantly the phrases serve as a reminder or “checklist” during the assessment and plan stages of medical decision making and charting. Therefore, the charting system becomes more than a means of recording but an interactive tool to improve patient assessment, treatment plans, follow up items and documentation. Thus an improvement in speed of charting, quality of diagnosis and completeness of treatment options can be observed by one or more embodiments of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0024] FIG. 1 is a block, flow diagram representing stages of a patient interaction from telephone call to office visit to treatment plan and follow-up. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0025] The medical charting system can be used with any medical charting programs that are compatible with smart text. In one embodiment, the medical charting system is MyChart Personal Health Record Software, which can be obtained from Epic in Verona, Wis.(http://www.epic.com). Smart text system is available with the MyChart Personal Health Record Software and uses a “.” followed by a code which accesses a phrase. Based upon the sequence of keystrokes, a more complete phrase is automatically inserted. In the present case, the phrases uses a simple, easy to learn set of keystrokes that will call up templates, phrases and clusters of phrases in response to a series of keystrokes. The keystroke sequence has been created by a physician to follow the general approach that physicians follow in medical charting. [0026] By way of example and without limitation, the first keystroke relates to one of a set of categories of data entry. A code letter corresponds to one or more activity categories that prompts access of a series of templates, phrases or clusters of phrases. In one embodiment the letter code relates to one or more of the following: (1) S-recording of symptoms, (2) N-recording a negative review of systems, (3) X-recording examination notes, (4) D-writing a diagnosis, (5) P -outlining a medical plan (6) T-designing a treatment, (7) R-prescribing a medication (i.e., Rx), (8) A-listing a particular part of the anatomy, (9) I -outlining general information or instructions, (10) L-preparing standard correspondence (i.e. letters, faxes and emails, (11) T-recording a telephone consultation or (12) V-notating an office visit. [0027] In some instances, the same letter can refer to two different meaning categories of phrases. For example, T is the initial keystroke to initiate a treatment related phrase, cluster or template and to prompt a phrase, cluster or template to record a telephone call. Confusion is avoided because subsequent keystroke sets for a telephone consultation are defined to be distinct from subsequent keystroke sets for a treatment. Therefore, overlap and ambiguity of codes are avoided despite the similarity of the keystroke sets for different categories. [0028] An examination of the various keystroke sets in the reference code system now follows: [0000] TABLE 1 First Letter Functions is a list of a first set of keystrokes and their respective functions. Column 1 represents primary functions of the keystrokes sets. Column 2 represents additional possible initial keystrokes relating to different functions. EXEMPLARY FIRST KEYSTROKE SETS LETTER CODE MEANING S SYMPTOMS N NEGATIVE REVIEW OF SYMPTOMS X EXAMINATION D DIAGNOSIS P PLAN T TREATMENT G GOAL A ANATOMY I INFORMATION OR INSTRUCTION L LETTER R PRESCRIPTION (Rx) T TELEPHONE CALL V OFFICE VISIT [0029] In one embodiment, the first keystroke “S” relates to symptoms, positive symptoms or positive review of systems observations. In another embodiment, the first keystroke, “N”, relates to a negative review of systems or negative “ROS”. “S” and “N” keystrokes generally identify subjective information from the client that refer to positive conditions “S” or lack of conditions, “N.” Alternatively, the first keystroke is “X” and leads to phrases and clusters of phrases relating to objective examinations. The second keystroke for “S”, “N” and “X” categories are largely the same and follow the review of systems logic (largely followed by physicians) or identifies a discrete part of the anatomy. The second keystroke generally follows the review of systems foRmat or identifies discrete parts of the anatomy. Tables 2A and 2B illustrate the second keystroke set for recording symptoms relating to “S”, “N” and “X”. The second set of keystrokes in the reference code serve to narrows the choice of phrases, templates or clusters of phrases dependent in part upon the first letter selected. For example, if the first letter was “A”, corresponding to Anatomy the next keystroke, “C” followed by “W”, will prompt the insertion of “chest wall” or a cluster relating to chest wall. If “F” is selected, there is prompted a phrase, cluster of phrases or template relating to the foot. [0000] TABLE 2A ORGAN SYSTEM RELATED SECOND KEYSTROKE SETS SECOND KEYSTROKE MEANING AP Appearance AL Allergy CON Constitutional C Cardiovascular D Dermatologic E Ear, Nose and Throat ENDO Endocrine G Gastrointestinal HE Hematological I Immunologic LY Lymphatic M Musculoskeletal N Neurological 0 Ophthalmologic P Pulmonary RH Rheumatologic T Thyroid U Urologic V Vitals X Extremities [0000] TABLE 2B ANATOMICAL RELATED SECOND KEYSTROKE SETS SECOND KEYSTROKE MEANING A Ankle CS Cervical Spine CW Chest Wall E Ear EL Elbow F Foot Fl Finger H Head HA Hand HI Hip J Joint K Knee LL Lower Leg LS Lumbar Spine LX Lower Extremity M Mouth NE Neck N Nose PR Prostate Q Quadriceps S Shoulder ST Sternum T Tibia T Toe TMJ Temporomandibular Joint UX Upper Extremity Wrist [0000] TABLE 2C MISCELLANEOUS SECOND KEYSTROKE SETS SECOND KEYSTROKE MEANING A Adult B Basic B Bilateral C Course CH Check DSC Discussed E Effectiveness F Fever F Follow-up F Female G Geriatric G Goal I Improved I Illness I Increase L Left M Male O Occurrence P Pain PR Preventative R Reviewed RV S Severity T Time U Upper [0030] The logical organization of the system of the present invention creates several advantages of efficiency and ease of learning the system of the present invention. The sequence of keystrokes should follow the thought process that a physician follows to approach a particular task. For example, if a physician records a symptom or a negative review of systems (ROS), they would indicate the related keystroke (e.g. S or N). Next, the physician would be prompted to look at the particular system or organ to which the problem relates. Thus, the second or second and third keystroke(s) would pertain to the particular system or anatomical part to which the symptom or negative ROS was related. Systems or anatomical part and corresponding letter codes of one embodiment include but are not limited to A-allergy, A-Ankle, C-cardiovascular, CS-cervical spine, CW-chest wall, D-Dermatologic, E-ear, EL-elbow, F-foot, Fl-Finger, HE-hematologic, HI-hip, HA-Hand, G-gastrointestinal, H-head, I-M-immunologic, J-joint, K-knee, L-lumbar spine, LY-lymphatic, MS-musculoskeletal, N-neurologic, NE-neck, NO-Nose, 0-ophthomologic, P-pulmonary, Q-quadracept, R-rheumatologic, S-shoulder, ST-sternum, T-thyroid, U-urologic, V-vitals, W-wrist, Y-psychiatric. When organizing the keystrokes in this sequential manner, the keystrokes match the sequential thought process that a physician generally follows in a diagnosis. Depending on the particular specialty of the healthcare professional using the system, other anatomical shortcuts may be more convenient than system identifiers. For example, a professional that specializes in ear, nose and throat, may modify the second keystroke set to have more categories that pertain to different anatomical parts relevant to the condition. [0031] However, in some instances, it may be preferable to use optional second keystrokes Tables 2A, 2B and 2C show exemplary second keystroke sets relating to organ systems (Table 2A), anatomical terms (Table 2B) and miscellaneous second keystroke sets (Table 2C). Optionally, it may be desired that the second keystroke identifies relevant demographic or other patient information other than the organ system or body part, age category identifiers, sex identifiers. [0032] A third keystroke set begins to define the actual physical condition whether subjective (patient observed) or objective (observed by the physician during examination). Attached hereto as Appendix A: is a list of smart text keys and their corresponding phrases, clusters of phrases, or templates. They include a first keystroke set, a second keystroke set and a third keystroke set. [0033] The invention eases the task of charting by accessing pertinent phrases that suit the logical context and the details of the particular encounter with the patient. This is achieved by building from commonality and capitalizing on repetition. Automated repetition is an essential strength of the invention. All medical encounters include common aspects and some repetitive tasks. [0034] The particular pattern of phrases is organized around organ systems. Medical knowledge and the functional use of our knowledge are based on organ systems. A charting process that parallels the organ system is easier for a physician to adopt. Use of the invention in one or more embodiments will reduce obstruction to the physician's work habits and patterns, and provide ample opportunity for thorough documentation for coding, diagnostic investigation and research, and most certainly paperwork related to insurance claims, Medicare and Medicaid related claims and audits. Moreover, the individual physician can tailor and embellish the program. [0035] The majority of reference codes that relate to a patient encounter are organized according to the Review of Systems (ROS) approach. Much of diagnosis and charting relates to ruling out negative conditions so a considerable amount of charting time relates to repetition of negative or notional conditions. There are also common positive ROS. These positive ROS are the symptoms of the patient that are specific to ultimate diagnosis. Likewise, there are common pertinent negative examinations and common specific positive examinations required for the ultimate diagnosis. Charting requires documentation of all of this information. [0036] The group of common positive and negative conditions and examinations can be organized into a cluster. A “cluster” is a group of data relevant to a particular diagnosis that can be called up by the use of a smart text reference code and one or more of the information in the cluster may be called up by different smart text reference code. Typically but not always, a cluster relates to more complex patient scenarios. For example, multiple conditions need to be ruled out for a set of recorded symptoms and negative symptoms. Alternately, a single condition diagnosis may have a complex treatment and follow-up plan. The information is organized according to the organ systems and when clustered together makes up the relevant details of the patient's history and examination. A cluster can be accessed by typing multiple reference codes in a single inquiry line so that the health care professional can in a single line access multiple related phrases. Alternatively and optionally, a single access code can be programmed to call up a cluster of phrases preprogrammed in response to a single reference code command. EXAMPLE [0037] By way of example, the system of one embodiment is exemplified with reference to FIG. 1 . A typical patient consultation scenario involving a telephone consultation, an office visit and examination and a follow-up visit is shown in a flow diagram. Charting software is provided by Epic, Wisconsin USA. Although, the present invention is useful with a variety of existing medical charting software packages, without undue experimentation by a person of ordinary skill in the art. The Epic software has smart text capabilities. In one embodiment, the software is accessible by a personal digital assistant or smart phone. [0038] The series of consultations begins with a call from the patient to set an office visit for an upper respiratory infection (URI) is represented in FIG. 1 by box A. The healthcare worker that responds to the call will access the medical file of the patient by name, address, birthdates or other identifying information. Then, the user accesses the appropriate page to enter charting information. Pre-programmed reference codes for telephone consultation begin with “T.” The reference code, “.TEURI” calls up a telephone consultation for an upper respiratory infection. The semantics of one system of the present invention requires a reference code to begin with a “.” (dot or period) followed by the first set of keystrokes. In this case, the reference code begins with “T” which means telephone consultation. Then a second set of keystrokes is represented by “E” for ear, nose and throat system. The third set of keystrokes is “URI” for upper respiratory infection. [0039] The reference code, “TEURI” references a phrase that documents the complaint of the patient. It may, for example, include the text as follows: Patient called on Sep. 12, 2009 at 10:27 AM complaining of a mild fever (less than 101 Degrees Fahrenheit), malaise, sore throat, head congestion, coughing sputum and runny nose. Negative Review of Symptoms—Confirmed that none of the following symptoms are present, (1) chest pain or difficulty breathing, (2) coughing sputum combined with fever over 101 Degrees Fahrenheit that lasts longer than two days, (3) history of asthma or cardio pulmonary obstructive disorder (4) coughing blood. Care Instructions Provided—Patient is instructed to get lots of rest, drink plenty of fluids, take over the counter pain medication for pain relief and monitor. the fever. Follow-Up: Patient is instructed to follow-up with a call if (2) symptoms significantly worsen, (3) don't improve after one-week (4) patient has chest pain or difficultly breathing (5) discovers blood in sputum. [0044] The above is a cluster relating to a telephone call reference code for an upper respiratory infection. The nurse or healthcare professional answering the phone can use the review of symptoms, negative review of systems to determine whether an immediate appointment needs to be set with the doctor. Simple home care instructions can be provided over the phone. Follow-up instructions can be provided to the patient. The reference code “.TEURI” is a cluster because it contains phrases for upper respiratory infection symptoms and negative review of symptoms, follow-up items, and care instructions that can be accessed individually or in other clusters. The system illustrates an advantage of avoiding error when the healthcare professional has clear guidelines of when to recommend an appointment with the physician and when not to recommend an appointment with a physician. [0045] In our example and as referenced by Box B of FIG. 1 , after two additional days of fever over 101 Degrees Fahrenheit and unabated production of sputum, the patient calls again for an appointment with the physician. The person sets the appointment and types in “.AURIF” which accesses a cluster relating to an appointment upper respiratory infection with a fever. The following cluster of phrases is accessed in the medical charting system. “Patient called at Sep. 16, 2009, at 2:15 PM for an appointment complaining of a fever greater than 101 Degrees Fahrenheit for longer than two days, malaise, sore throat, head congestion, coughing sputum and rumly nose. Patient confirmed that none of the following symptoms are present: (1) chest pain or difficulty breathing, (2) history of asthma or cardio pulmonary obstructive disorder and (3) coughing of blood. [0047] At the appointed time, the patient meets at the doctor's office for a medical examination. This is represented in Box C of Fig. I. The healthcare worker then reviews the symptoms of an Upper Respiratory Infection with the patient using the phrase as a checklist to ensure that charting is complete. If symptoms are not present, they can be deleted from the phrase. The nurse typically sees the patient to initiate the examination. The reference code “.XVBPTWT” may be used to access a series of phrases for recording vital signs. “X” is the initial keystroke set. “V” is the second keystroke set for “vital signs”. Reference code, “.BPTWT” access a cluster of phrases that template the recording of blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, and weight. [0048] The physician examines the patient following the SOAP format. The doctor asks about the subjective symptoms. The charting system matches the SOAP format and has the ability to bring the details more efficiently, than previously, build upon the organs system and the structure of the charting. The translation to the text proceeds with simple keystrokes. After a few questions, the doctor confirms that the symptoms are classic upper respiratory infection with the possibility of bronchitis. The symptom clusters are found in the ear nose and throat organ system accessed by the code “.SEURIF” which represents “S” for Symptoms. “E” for ear nose and throat and “URIF” which stands for an upper respiratory infection with a fever.” Optionally, the same cluster can be programmed to be accessed by different codes. For example, so long as there is no confusion with another code system the method may be abbreviated to “.SURI.” because the code URI is understood to be part of the ear, nose and throat system. [0049] If the patient complains of all of the symptoms except a sore throat, a cluster can be accessed “.SEURINST” which is the phrase for the symptoms of an upper respiratory infection with no sore throat. A phrase for this may read, “Patient has malaise, head congestion, discharge and cough with fever and no sore throat.” [0050] If the patient complains of all of the symptoms except a sore throat and cough, a cluster or phrase can be accessed “.SEURINSTNC” which documents symptoms of an upper respiratory infection with no sore throat and no cough. A phrase for this may read, “Patient has malaise, head congestion, discharge and no sore throat and cough.” [0051] There are 8 ear nose and throat symptoms that can be included in the diagnosis for an upper respiratory infection. The definitive are malaise, head congestion, discharge, cough and no sore throat. Thus, the template would begin with the initial five core symptoms which can be taken away by adding negative symptom codes, i.e. “NST” for no sore throat or build on the symptoms with the additional three symptoms, e.g. adding “F” after the third keystroke set for “F” for fever. The symptom cluster can be based upon statistical probability that the symptoms will coexist or it can be based upon an actual definition of the diagnosis. But, in clinical practice there must be flexibility to match the list of symptoms with the individual patient and his or her presentation. This is accomplished above by defining a cluster of symptoms that is accessed by an abbreviation code and modifying the abbreviation code with additional symptoms and negative symptoms. [0052] Additional information can be added into the abbreviation code that accesses a particular symptom cluster. Each symptom has a time description, a course of the symptom and severity. The code for recording a symptom is .stime. “S” represents symptom and is the first keystroke set. “Time” or “t” is the second keystroke set and initiates all time descriptors. The third time descriptors may include 1 d, 1 day, 2 d, 2 days, }vv, 1 week, 3 mo, 3 month, 2 y, 2 years, etc. for various course times. A symptom having a duration of one week could have a cluster accessed by “.st 1 w”. [0053] The course codes can all be accessed by phrases like worsening, stable, improving, etc and these are saved as .scourse and shortened to .sc. For example, a phrase for an improving symptom could be accessed by .scim. “S” is the first keystroke set for symptom, “c” or “course” are optionally the second keystroke set representing course group of phrases. “imp”, “wor” or “sta” are optional third keystroke sets for “improving,” “worsening” or “stable,” respectively. [0054] The second keystroke “c” can represent both “cardiovascular” or “course” without confusion by choosing third keystroke sets that distinguish between the possible cardiovascular symptoms and the course definitions. For example, the third keystroke set for “worsening” could be “wor” or “worsening” which will not appear to be a cardiovascular symptom. [0055] Severity phrases are also common to all descriptions of complaints can be saved with a second keystroke set of “s” or “severity.” Thus, “.ss” followed by “crit” or “critical, will access a sentence indicating the symptom is “critical.” A string of codes, .seurif .st5d, scwor” .ssmod” will cause the printout of a paragraph explaining the patient has an upper respiratory infection with the five basic symptoms of malaise, cough, head congestion, sore throat and runny nose. The patient has a fever. The patient indicates that the infection is moderate. It has lasted for five days. The symptoms are worsening. [0056] Negative review of symptoms for an organ system is important to diagnose. The first keystroke set for a negative review of symptoms is “N.” Once again a cluster can be accessed that describes a group of system which can be modified by adding or taking away specific complaints in the manner similar to the symptom codes. For, example, .nppbronchitis accesses a negative review of symptoms cluster for bronchitis. “N” represents a “negative review of systems” first keystroke set. “P” represents the pulmonary system as a second keystroke set. “Bronchitis” represents a third keystroke set as a symptom or cluster of symptoms. “.npbronchitis” would access a cluster of phrases that would document that bronchitis was considered but ruled out. [0057] Some symptoms or negative symptoms are of such importance that they have a red flag status.” For example in considering a diagnosis for an upper respiratory infection, pneumonia would he an important “red flag” condition to either diagnose or rule out as a negative symptom. A negative red flag symptom code for pneumonia is “.nrfpneumonia.” “N” represents a negative review of systems. “RF” is a second keystroke set representing “red flags.” “Pneumonia” is a third keystroke set for pneumonia. Typing, “.nrfpneumonia” references a phrase that states, “The patient denies symptoms of pneumonia, no SOB, tachypnea, chest pain, etc.” [0058] The entire documentation for an upper respiratory infection can be saved and accessed as a cluster with a complete visit code. For example, “.svuri” can be the most common symptoms for an upper respiratory infection with symptoms and negative review of systems with all of the most likely documentation. Like others codes, the visit codes can be modified. For example, “.svuril weekworsening” represents the five most common observations for a visit relating to an upper respiratory infection and further “. . . would be specific with 1 week of worsening symptoms” and would include the phrases accessed by .nrf if desired by the physician using the system. [0059] The examination documentation is next reviewed. It differs from the symptom review and negative review of systems, because the symptoms and negative review of systems record subjective conditions described by the patient. The examination details the objective observations of the physician, nurse or assisting healthcare worker. As noted above, the nurse may begin with .xv for examination of vital signs. X being the first keystroke set for examination. V being the second keystroke set for vital signs. Specific vital sign phrases can be added with a third keystroke set. A third keystroke set, “standard” or “std” may be programmed to produce a cluster of vital sign codes that are routinely taken with each office visit, such as pulse, temperature, blood pressure and body mass. [0060] Other examination codes refer to appearances and can be accessed by .xap. “AP” being the second keystroke set for observation of appearances. For example, “.xapill” or “.xapdistress” with “ill” or “distressed” as the third keystroke set for appears ill or appears distressed. Each can further be modified as “mild,” “moderate” or “severe.” For example, “.xapdistressmoderate” will reference a phrase that documents that the patient appears moderately distressed during the examination. The code beginning “.xh”, “.xe” “xne”, “xnose,” are a head exam (or head and neck), ear exam, neck exam, and nasopharyngeal exam in that order. Each can be further modified with the third keystroke sets. For example, a cluster can be accessed by typing “.xhuri” would be the common specific head and neck exam for an upper respiratory infection including examination for nasal edema, pharyneal redness and small lymph nodes. [0061] Further modifications can eliminate specific negative symptoms. For example, if there is no nasal edema, “.xhurinnedema” would document the common neck and head symptoms for an upper respiratory infection without nasal edema. If there is exudates in the throat, xhurisexudate would document the most common head and neck symptoms of an upper respiratory infection and include a phrase documenting the observation of exudates in the throat. A common visit code could be programmed for an examination. “.xvuri” would include everything in the examination for a visit relating to an upper respiratory infection including vital signs, appearance, head and neck and pulmonary system. [0062] The diagnosis step is shown as Box D of FIG. 1 . Diagnosis can be documented in a similar manner with a first keystroke set of “d” for diagnosis. A second keystroke set documents the system, “e” for ear, nose and throat; the third keystroke set, “uri” accesses a phrase documenting that the diagnosis is an upper respiratory infection. Modifiers as discussed above including red flags, negative red flags and co-morbid conditions can likewise be documented. [0063] The treatment plan relates to Boxes E, F and G of FIG. 1 . The treatment plan is documented by the first keystroke set “P.” The second keystroke set includes “follow-up” or “F.” The reference code “.pfworsening” documents a request for a follow-up (Box G) visit if conditions worsen. The reference code, “.pti-f” documents follow-up for various red flag conditions such as pneumonia or dehydration by codes pfi-fpneumonia or pfrfdehydration. Treatment plan can include codes documenting additional testing (Box F), referral to specialist, care instructions (Box E) or other therapeutic options. [0064] A similar system can be used accessing standard instruction or information sheets relating to the treatment plan. For example, “.pi” relates to plan instructions to the patient. A smart text list of plan instructions will begin to list for menu options. For example, .pipneumonia would select a standard list of instructions to the patient for a diagnosis to the patient. [0065] Form letters relevant to the treatment plan can likewise be accessed. The reference code .plpneumonia produces form letters that are relevant to a pneumonia diagnosis, if needed. The reference code, .prpneumonia would include standard prescription options for treatment of a patient. A plan with a treatment goal for a pneumonia diagnosis can be treated with the designation .pgpneumonia. [0066] The complexity of the charting system could be daunting except that the organization of the system is based on organ systems just as the physician's trained logic. [0067] While this invention has been particularly shown and described with references to example embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the invention encompassed by the appended claims.

Disclosed is a medical record keeping system that includes a computer that operates a medical record software for maintaining patient records. The system may be operated in the following manner: (1) inputting an initial keystroke set that corresponds to the group consisting essentially of a symptom or negative review of systems, exam entries, or visit entries, (2) inputting a second keystroke set after the first keystroke set, the second keystroke set corresponds to a particular organ system or anatomical part, (3) inputting in a third keystroke set after the second keystroke set that pertains to a condition or medical observation. The steps of first typing, second typing, and third typing define the reference code, wherein the reference code results in the display of said at least one phrase.

The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/062,047 filed Apr. 17, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,140,445. Silanes are known as cross-linking agents which are useful in coatings and adhesives. One such type of coating is “clearcoats” for automobiles, which provide a clear protective layer over pigmented basecoats. Such coatings have been disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,250,605, 5,162,426 and 5,244,959 to Hazin et al.; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,499,150 and 4,499,151 to Dowbenko et al.; and PCT Publication No. WO 95/19982. Some of this art teaches the utility of silane oligomers or interpolymers for such coatings. For example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,499,150 and 4,499,151 teach a copolymer of an ethylenically unsaturated alkoxysilane with another ethylenically unsaturated group made by free radical polymerization. Because of the formulation chemistry, these interpolymers are limited in structure and functionalities. Moreover, U.S. Pat. No. 5,432,246 to Fenn et al. discloses a silane oligomer made from a 2° amino-alkoxy silane, a polyisocyanate and optionally a single isocyanate group. Such oligomers are based on the reaction of the amine with the isocyanate to form a substituted urea. In these oligomers all the isocyanate groups have reacted with the amine groups, so no isocyanate functionalities are present. Further, urea structures may increased viscosity to an unwanted degree. It is desirable to have coatings which incorporate alkoxy silane functionalities because siloxane bonds formed during curing provide good chemical resistance; however, appearance (gloss and DOI (distinctiveness of image)), mar resistance and lack of cracking all are other properties required for coatings, which properties are deficient in one respect or another in the known prior art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention teaches the formation and use of siloxane oligomers having a plurality of alkoxy groups, which oligomers have attached thereto, by other than an Si—O bond, further silyl functionalities. These oligomers may be of the formula [R 3 SiO 1/2 ] m [O 1/2 Si(R 2 )O 1/2 ] n [SiO 3/2 R] o [SiO 4/2 ] p   (I) wherein Each R is selected individually from the group consisting of B, R 1 , —OR 1 and W; wherein B is a silyl functionality group bridged by other than an Si—O bond to the Si atom of the siloxane oligomer backbone; each R 1 is individually a saturated or aromatic hydrocarbon group of 1 to 12 carbon atoms; each W individually is a monovalent radical; with the provisos that at least one R is a B and at least one quarter of all R groups are —OR 1 ; m=2 to 20; n=0 to 50; o=0 to 20; and p=0 to 5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Structure In structure I above, B is a silyl functionality group which is attached to the siloxane oligomer by other than an Si—O bond. There must be at least one B per siloxane oligomer, which preferably is internal to (pendant on) the oligomer. More preferably there are at least two B groups per oligomer. Usually, if a B group is attached to a silicon atom of the siloxane backbone, the other R group(s) on that silicon atom is an alkoxy group. The divalent linking group between the silicon atom of the silyl functionality group and the silicon atom of the siloxane oligomer may not contain an Si—O bond, but otherwise may include any heteroatoms, e.g., it may be alkylene, arylene, alkarylene, polyalkylene oxide, polyurethane, carbamate, an ester or isocyanurate. The linking group may be branched and may be olefinically or aromatically unsaturated. Preferably the bridging group is an alkylene of 2 to 12 carbon atoms, e.g., cyclo aliphatic (e.g., 1,4 diethylene-cyclohexane or 1,3,5 triethylene cyclohexyl) or linear (e.g., butylene, propylene). Alternatively, the bridging group is one that includes heteroatoms, such as a sulfide bridge (—(CH 2 ) n —Sx—(CH 2 ) n — wherein n=1 to 6 and x=1 to 8), a polyurethane (i.e., contains —NC(═O)— bonds), a urea (—NC(═O)N—), a carbonate (—NHC(═O)O—), an ester —C(═O)O— a polyether (which may contain ethylene oxide, propylene oxide or butylene oxide units), or an isocyanurate bond (in which case the third valency of the ring should have a silane or siloxy functionality). Moreover, the bridging group may contain side chains, such a hydroxyl or amine functionality. The divalent linking group may be substituted with silyl or siloxy functions, as well as unsaturated groups. Indeed, the divalent linking group may form part of a backbone with relatively linear siloxane chains attached to either end of the group. An exemplary bridging group is 2,4 ethylene, 1-vinyl cyclohexane. The silyl functionality at the end of the divalent bridging group may be an alkoxysilane, halo silane, a siloxane or may have further functionalities. Preferably, the silane is an alkoxy silane, more preferably a dialkoxy silane and most preferably a trialkoxy silane. A preferred B group may be represented as —C f H 2f —SiR 2 g (X) 3−g wherein f=2 to 12, g=0 to 2, X is a halogen or —OR 2 , and each R 2 is selected from W and R 1 . More preferably f=2 to 6, g=3 and X is —OR 2 , and most preferably wherein R 2 is preferably R 1 and is most preferably methyl. Preferable B's are —(CH 2 ) 2 Si(OCH 3 ) 3 ; —(CH 2 ) 2 Si(OC 2 H 5 ) 3 —(CH 2 ) 2 Si(OCH 3 ) 2 (CH 3 ); —(CH 2 ) 2 Si(OCH 3 ) 2 Cl; —C 2 H 4 (C 6 H 9 )(C 2 H 4 Si(OCH 3 ) 3 ) 2 ; —C 2 H 4 (C 5 H 8 )C 2 H 4 Si(OC 2 H 5 ) 3 ; and —C 2 H 4 Si(OCH 3 ) 2 (OSi(OCH 3 ) 3 ). When X is OR 2 , each R 2 may be the same or different in the OR 2 groups on any one silicon atom. W is a monovalent radical and may be an unsaturated non-aromatic hydrocarbon, hydroxy, an amine, an ester, a polyalkylene oxide, a thioester, an amide, a carbamate, an epoxy, cyano, polysulfide, or isocyanurate. Specific examples of W include gamma propyl amino, gamma propyl glycidoxy, acetoxy ethyl, propylene glycol, gamma propyl carbamate, dimethoxy phenyl propyl, n-octenyl, 2-ethyl, 3,4 epoxy cyclohexane, or cyano ethyl or an alkyl radical substituted with such groups. Usually if a W group is attached to a silicon atom, the other R group(s) on that silicon atom is a hydrocarboxy group (—OR 1 ), preferably an alkoxy. In one embodiment of the present invention, there is at least one W on the oligomer. R 1 is a saturated or aromatic hydrocarbon of 1 to 12 carbon atoms, e.g., alkyl (linear or branched) cycloalkyl, aryl or alkaryl. Exemplary R 1 are i-propyl, i-butyl, t-butyl, n-pentyl, cyclohexyl, phenyl, benzyl or napthyl. Specifically, methyl or ethyl are preferred for R 1 . If there is an R 1 on a silicon atom, it is preferred that that the other R group(s) on the silicon atom be other than R 1 , most preferably, they are —OR 1 . Since the R 1 groups, and particularly methyl groups as R 1 groups, may affect the compatibility of the oligomer in some embodiments (especially as compared to —OR 1 functionalities), R 1 should be such that less than five percent of the [O 1/2 Si(R 2 )O 1/2 ] n groups have two R 1 on them. More preferably in the [R 3 SiO 1/2] groups, only one of the R groups is R 1 , more preferably none are R 1 . In a preferred embodiment there are less than five percent by weight of the oligomer is dimethylsiloxy units and more preferably, there are no dimethyl siloxy units in the oligomer. Preferably m+n+o+p<50, more preferably <30 and most preferably <15. Preferably m is 2 to 4, n is to 1 to 15, o is 0 to 2 and p is 0 to 1, though it is understood there may be distributions of the number of siloxy units within a given oligomer batch. Preferably there are multiple alkoxy groups available on the oligomer so that upon curing these oligomers may cross-link, i.e., form Si—O—Si bonds with each other or with a silylated polymer or inorganic material. Thus, R is —OR 1 , more preferably ethoxy or methoxy, in at least one quarter of the R groups, more preferably in at least half of the R groups, while the remainder of the R groups are B or W groups, more preferably, trialkoxysilylethyl groups, most preferably trimethoxysilylethyl. In such embodiments p=0, o=0, m=2 and n=2 to 20. A preferred formula for the oligomer is [R(R 1 O) 2 SiO 1/2 ] m[O 1/2 SiR(OR 1 )O 1/2 ] n [SiO 3/2 R] o with R, R 1 , m, n and o as above and preferably with R 1 methyl, o=0, m=2 and n=0 to 15. Most preferably, all R's are either —OR 1 or B. Specific examples of the oligomer include It is preferred that the oligomer has a viscosity of 0.5 to 500 csks or more preferably 0.5 to 200 csks (25° C.). As is clear to one of skill in the art, the viscosity of the oligomer may be adjusted by adjusting the number of siloxy groups in the oligomer. In most cases the viscosity will be adjusted for a specific application to ensure that the composition containing the oligomer will spread over a specific substrate or be sprayable. Method of Manufacture The oligomers of the present invention may be formed in a two step process or one step process. In the two step process a condensation reaction is followed by a hydrosilation reaction. Such a two step process is (1) a siloxane oligomer with olefinically (ethylenic or acetylenic) unsaturated groups is produced by condensation from an unsaturated alkoxy silane, and optionally, other alkoxy silanes; and (2) hydrosilylating the oligomer produced in step (1) with an alkoxy hydrido silane. Alternatively the two steps are, (1) a siloxane oligomer is formed by condensation from alkoxy hydrido silanes, and optionally, other alkoxy silanes, which (2) oligomer is hydrosilylated with an olefinically unsaturated alkoxy silane. In the one step process bis alkoxy silane(s), wherein the silicon atoms are attached by other than an Si—O bond are condensed, preferably with other alkoxy silanes, to form a siloxane oligomer. The condensation may be performed according to either U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,950,779 or 5,210,168, which are incorporated herein by reference. In the two step process, the first starting material is either an olefinically unsaturated alkoxy silane or a hydrido alkoxy silane, which preferably are trialkoxysilanes. The alkoxy groups may be C 1 -C 12 , may be branched cyclic or include aryl groups, and may include heteroatoms. The preferred alkoxy groups are methoxy, ethoxy, isopropoxy, n-butoxy and cyclohexyloxy. Examples of the unsaturated group may be vinyl, acryl, methacryl, acrylate, acetylenyl, or any 1,2 unsaturated olefin. There may be different such unsaturated groups within one oligomer. The starting material for the one step process is a bis alkoxy silane. Preferably a bis alkyl dialkoxy silane or bis trialkoxy silane is the starting material. If the bridging group is other than an alkylene, this is the preferred method for manufacturing the oligomer, e.g., start with bis(gamma-trimethoxsilylpropyl) tetrasulfide. Exemplary such silanes are 1,4-bis(trimethoxy silylethyl) cyclohexane; 1,3,5 tris(trimethoxysilylethyl) cyclohexane; and 1,4-bis(triethoxysilyl) butane. While such starting materials are more difficult to manufacture than the above starting materials, they offer two advantages, a one step process and the avoidance of the potential of unsaturated groups being left in the oligomer. During condensation, other optional alkoxy silanes may be incorporated into the oligomer including, but not limited to, aryl silanes, alkyl silanes, amino silanes, epoxy silanes, amido silanes, carbamato silanes, cyano alkyl silanes, polyalkylene oxide silanes, ester silanes, or isocyanurate silanes. Said alkoxy silanes may be bis or tris alkoxy silanes. Specific examples of these silanes include: bis(trimethoxysilylethyl)benzene, tris(2-trimethoxysilylethyl)cyclohexane, 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, 3-aminopropylmethyldiethoxysilane, and methyl N-(3-trimethoxysilylpropyl) carbamate. These silanes must have at least one alkoxy group (in which case they would be end units on the oligomer), but preferably are di- or tri- alkoxy silanes. Moreover, in the condensation dialkoxy siloxy units may be inserted into the oligomer to affect the cross-linking, surface active and viscoelastic properties of the oligomer. Said may be done by using tetraalkoxy silanes, e.g., tetramethoxy or tetraethoxy silane. The condensation of the alkoxy silane monomers is performed in the presence of a carboxylic acid (e.g., acetic or formic acid) or water. Additionally a strong acidic condensation catalyst may be used, e.g., an ion exchange resin. The other reaction conditions of the condensation will depend on the monomeric silanes; however, temperature should be in the range of 20 to 60° C. In the two step process the product of the condensation is a siloxane oligomer containing either (1) at least one unsaturated functionality which is attached to a silicon atom on the siloxane backbone by other than an Si—O bond or (2) at least one silanic hydride. The unsaturated or silanic hydride siloxane oligomer produced in Step 1 is reacted with either a hydrido silane or ah olefinically unsaturated silane, respectively, in the presence of a catalyst by noble metal catalyst chemistry or by free radical chemistry. Such hydrosilation, for example, may be accomplished according to U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,530,452 and 5,527,936, which are incorporated herein by reference. It is preferred that the hydrido silane or olefinically unsaturated silane be trialkoxy to afford a great deal of cross-linking to the resulting oligomer. During reaction, the hydrogen on the hydrido silane is reactive with the unsaturation(s) groups and a bond is formed between the silicon atom and the unsaturated group (which, if ethylenic, is saturated in the process). In some cases there may be unsaturated sites left on the oligomer. The resulting oligomer is of the Formula I above. Utility These oligomers are useful in coatings or adhesives, especially those where alkoxy silanes are a component. In one application oligomers may be used to moisture cure said adhesive or coating. The oligomers may be used as a reactive diluents, in that they have little volatility will not contribute to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and have an adjustable viscosity to match an application, or to dilute another composition to make the entire composition spreadable or sprayable. Moreover, there is the benefit to the use of these oligomers in that the only VOC's which may be produced with the use of these oligomers may be the alcohols of the alkoxy groups. Said oligomers may be used in masonry waterproofing, paints, corrosion protection systems, and on substrates such as cement, metal, polymers (PVC, PVS, EPDM, PE, PP, ABS, EPR, BR, silicone, polycarbonate, etc.), wood, a paint layer (as a primer) or rubber. Moreover, oligomers may be used in silicate hardcoats. The oligomers may be used by themselves or with other monomers, cross-link epoxy silane with polyacid, and if the oligomer is unsaturated, copolymerized with other acetylenic unsaturated monomer. Specifically said oligomers are useful in the aforementioned clearcoats. Said clearcoats may be made per U.S. Pat. No. 5,244,696 to Hazan et al., which is incorporated herein by reference. Clearcoats made with the present oligomer have good mar resistance, good gloss (and gloss retention), chemical resistance, distinctiveness of image (DOI), and stain resistance. Coating compositions incorporating the oligomer of this invention can include a number of ingredients to enhance preparation of the composition as well as to improve final properties of the coating composition and the finish. For example, it is often desirable to include about 20 to 90%, preferably 20 to 60%, by weight of the composition, of a film-forming polymer. Such polymer typically has number average molecular weight of about 500 to 10,000. Examples of such polymers are alkyd, polyester, acrylic, epoxide, urethane, silicone, aminoplast, phenolic resin, melamine, urea, polyamide, silane modified polymers, allyl ester, styrene copolymers, ethyl cellulose, PTFE, vinyl chloroacetate and combinations of the above. The aforementioned silane modified polymer is the polymerization product of about 30-95%, preferably 40-60%, by weight of ethylenically unsaturated nonsilane containing monomers and about 5-70%, preferably 10-60%, by weight of ethylenically unsaturated silane-containing monomers, based on the weight of the organosilane polymer. Suitable ethylenically unsaturated nonsilane containing monomers are alkyl acrylates, alkyl methacrylates and mixtures thereof, where the alkyl groups have 1-12 carbon atoms, preferably 3-8 carbon atoms. The film-forming component of the coating composition is referred to as the “binder” and is dissolved, emulsified or otherwise dispersed in an organic solvent or liquid carrier. The binder generally includes all the components that contribute to the solid organic portion of the cured composition. Generally, pigments, and chemical additives such as stabilizers are not considered part of the binder. Non-binder solids other than pigments typically do not exceed about 5% by weight of the composition. The term “binder” includes the oligomer of the present invention, the organosilane polymer, the dispersed polymer, and all other optional film-forming components. The coating composition contains about 20-100% by weight of the binder and about 0-80% by weight of the organic solvent carrier. Suitable alkyl methacrylate monomers used to form the silane polymer are methyl methacrylate, ethyl methacrylate, propyl methacrylate, butyl methacrylate, isobutyl methacrylate, pentyl methacrylate, hexyl methacrylate, octyl methacrylate, nonyl methacrylate, lauryl methacrylate and the like. Suitable alkyl acrylate monomers include methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, propyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, isobutyl acrylate, pentyl acrylate, hexyl acrylate, octyl acrylate, nonyl acrylate, lauryl acrylate and the like. Cycloaliphatic methacrylates and acrylates also can be used, such as trimethylcyclohlexyl methacrylate, trimethylcyclohexyl acrylate, isobutyl cyclohexyl methacrylate, t-butyl cyclohexyl acrylate, and t-butyl cyclohexyl methacrylate. Aryl acrylate and aryl methacrylate also can be used, such as benzyl acrylate and benzyl methacrylate. Mixtures of two or more of the above-mentioned monomers are also suitable. In addition to alkyl acrylates and methacrylates, other polymerizable nonsilane-containing monomers, up to about 50% by weight of the polymer, can be used in the silane modified acrylic polymer for the purpose of achieving the desired properties such as hardness; appearance; mar, etch and scratch resistance, and the like. Exemplary of such other monomers are styrene, methyl styrene, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, methacrylonitrile, hydroxyethyl acrylate, methacrylic acid and the like. EXAMPLES Example 1—Preparing a Silane-containing Acrylic Polymer A silane-containing acrylic polymer is prepared similar to those listed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,499,150. A flask equipped with condenser, stirrer, and thermometer was charged with 218.4 g butyl acetate, 93.6 g VM&P naphtha and 62.4 g toluene and then heated to reflux. Three charges were simultaneously added over a two hour period, under a nitrogen blanket: Charge I: 582.4 g methyl methacrylate, 291.2 g butyl acrylate, 364.0 g styrene and 218.4 g. gamma-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane. Charge II: 125 g butyl acetate, and 72.8 g di-t-butyl peroxide Charge III: 124.8 g butyl acetate and 72.8 g gamma-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane. Upon the completion of these charges, additional peroxide (5.85 g) was added and the mixture was allowed to reflux for 1.5 hours to assure the completeness of the polymerization. The final resin has a solid content of 69 percent, a Gardner-Holt viscosity of Z+. Examples for Preparing the Hydrosilylated Vinyl Silane Oligomers Example 2 To 444.6 g (3.0 moles) of vinyltrimethoxysilane in a 1 l. three-necked flask was quickly added 115.1 g (2.5 moles) 99% formic acid at room temperature. The flask was protected with nitrogen and over 3 hours a combination of methyl formate and methanol (a total of 241.7 g) were distilled from the reaction mixture, producing 310.9 g of partially hydrolyzed and condensed vinylmethoxysiliconate of 0.5 cstks viscosity. The above reaction mixture was heated to 100° C. and 0.29 g of platinum-divinyltetramethyldisiloxane complex, containing 1.9% Pt, (Karstedt's catalyst; see U.S. Pat. No. 3,775,452) was added. From an addition funnel, 366.0 g (3.0 moles) of trimethoxysilane was added, maintaining the addition rate to sustain a reaction temperature of 110-120° C. After the addition was complete (4 hours), the flask was heated to 150° C., whereupon a small amount of black precipitate (platinum metal) formed. The product was cooled and filtered to produce a clear, colorless liquid of 32 cstks. viscosity. Example 3 In a procedure similar to Example 2, 444.6 g of vinyltrimethoxysilane was allowed to react with 115.1 g 99% formic acid. During the distillation of volatile components, the flask was heated to 150° C. to distill unreacted vinyltrimethoxysilane. The flask was cooled to 85° C. and 0.29 g of Karstedt's catalyst was added and 366.0 g distilled trimethoxysilane was slowly added, maintaining the temperature of the exothermic reaction between 85-100° C. by the rate of addition of trimethoxysilane. After the reaction was complete, the flask was heated to 150° C., precipitating a small amount of Pt on the walls of the flask. The excess trimethoxysilane was distilled from the reaction mixture. Upon cooling and filtering, 390 g of clear colorless product of 41 cstks. viscosity was isolated. Analysis by 13 C NMR indicated 78% hydrosilation of the original vinyl groups present. Example 4 Following Example 2, 48.9 g (0.33 mole) of vinyltrimethoxysilane and 29.8 g (0.17 mole) of 2-cyanoethyltrimethoxysilane were treated with 19.4 g (0.42 mole) of 99% formic acid. The flask contents were heated to 85° C. for 2 hours and the low boiling components were vacuum distilled. Hydrosilylation of the co-oligomeric reaction product with 40.3 g (0.33 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.04 g Karstedt's catalyst at 110-120° C., distilling the excess trimethoxysilane to 150° C. The residual catalyst was filtered, yielding a light yellow composition of 14 cstks. viscosity. Analysis by 13 C NMR indicated 75% hydrosilation of the original vinyl groups present. Example 5 Following Example 2, 37.1 g (0.25 mole) of vinyltrimethoxysilane and 52.1 g (0.25 mole) of 2-acetoxyethyltrimethoxysilane were treated with a total of 22.1 g (0.48 mole) of 99% formic acid. In this example, the 2-acetoxyethyltrimethoxysilane was allowed to react with 9.7 g (0.21 mole) of formic acid before the addition of the vinyl silane. After distillation of the low boiling components, hydrosilylation of the co-oligomeric reaction product with 30.5 g (0.25 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.03 g Karstedt's catalyst at 110-120° C., distilling the excess trimethoxysilane to 150° C. The residual catalyst was filtered, yielding a colorless composition of 50 cstks. viscosity. Analysis by 13 C NMR indicated >90 % hydrosilation of the original vinyl groups present. Example 6 Following Example 2, 24.5 g (0.165 mole) of vinyltrimethoxysilane and 16.9 g (0.085 mole) of phenyltrimethoxysilane were treated with a total of 11.1 g (0.24 mole) of 99% formic acid. After distillation of the low boiling components, hydrosilylation of the co-oligomeric reaction product with 20.1 g (0.165 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.01 g Karstedt's catalyst at 110-120° C., distilling the excess trimethoxysilane to 150° C. The residual catalyst was filtered, yielding a colorless composition of 100 cstks. viscosity. Analysis by 13 C NMR indicated >80 % hydrosilation of the original vinyl groups present. Example 7 Following Example 2, 18.5 g (0.125 mole) of vinyltrimethoxysilane and 29.1 g (0.125 mole) of 7-octenyltrimethoxysilane were treated with a total of 11.0 g (0.24 mole) of 99% formic acid. In this example, the 7-octenyltrimethoxysilane was allowed to react with 4.8 g of formic acid for 1 hour at 84-89° C. before the addition of the vinyl silane. The remaining 6.2 g of formic acid were added and the flask heated for 8 hours at 90-110° C. After distillation of the low boiling components, complete hydrosilylation of both of the olefinic moieties of the co-oligomeric reaction product was attempted with 30.5 g (0.25 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.074 g Karstedt's catalyst at 100-120° C., distilling the excess trimethoxysilane to 150° C. The residual catalyst was filtered, yielding a yellow material of 85 cstks. viscosity. Example 8 Following Example 2, 48.9 g (0.33 mole) of vinyltrimethoxysilane and 38.5 g (0.17 mole) of 2-phenethyltrimethoxysilane were treated with a total of 22.1 g (0.48 mole) of 99% formic acid. After distillation of the low boiling components, hydrosilylation of the co-oligomeric reaction product with 40.3 g (0.33 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.05 g Karstedt's catalyst at 120-130° C., distilling the excess trimethoxysilane to 150° C. The residual catalyst was filtered, yielding a straw colored composition of 50 cstks. viscosity. Example 9 Following Example 2, 24.5 g (0.165 mole) of vinyltrimethoxysilane, 32.7 g (0.165 mole) of 2-phenyltrimethoxysilane, and 25.1 g (0.165 mole) of tetramethoxysilane were treated with a total of 19.3 g (0.42 mole) of 99% formic acid for 4 hours at 87-100° C. After distillation of the low boiling components, hydrosilylation of the co-oligomeric reaction product with 20.3 g (0.165 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.05 g Karstedt's catalyst at 102-145° C., distilling the excess trimethoxysilane to 150° C. The residual catalyst was filtered, yielding a clear, colorless product of 14 cstks. viscosity. Example 10 To a solution containing 59.3 g (0.4 mole) vinyltrimethoxysilane, 54.8 g (0.4 mole) of methyltrimethoxysilane, and 60.9 g (0.4 mole) of tetramethoxysilane in a round bottomed flask was added 66 g (1.15 moles) of glacial acetic acid and 0.9 g (0.5 wt. %) of PUROLITE C-175 acidic dry ion exchange resin (manufactured by Purolite Company, division of Bro Tech Corp.). The flask contents were heated to 90° C. for several hours, followed by distillation of 122 g methanol and methyl acetate. The vinyl containing oligomer in the flask then was hydrosilylated with 49 g (0.4 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.04 g Karstedt's catalyst at 115-145° C. The final product, after removal of the low boiling components and filtration to remove any solid materials, was 145 g and was 65 cstks. viscosity. Example 11 In a reaction similar to example 10, solution containing 59.3 g (0.4 mole) vinyltrimethoxysilane, 54.8 g (0.4 mole) of methyltrimethoxysilane, and 60.9 g (0.4 mole) of tetramethoxysilane in a round bottomed flask was added 52.9 g (1.15 moles) of 99% formic acid and 0.9 g (0.5 wt. %) of PUROLITE C-175 acidic dry ion exchange resin. The flask was heated to 85-100° C. to distill the produced methanol and methyl formate collecting a total of 99.1 g. The reaction mixture was then filtered, removing the ion exchange resin. The 110.8 g vinyl containing oligomer was then hydrosilylated with 49 g (0.4 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.04 g Karstedt's catalyst at 118-144° C. The final product, after removal of the low boiling components and filtration to remove any solid materials, was 153.6 g and was 27 cstks. viscosity. Example 12 In a reaction similar to example 10, solution containing 59.3 g (0.4 mole) vinyltrimethoxysilane, 54.8 g (0.4 mole) of methyltrimethoxysilane, and 60.9 g (0.4 mole) of tetramethoxysilane in a round bottomed flask was added 20.7 g (1.15 moles) of distilled water and 0.9 g (0.5 wt. %) of PUROLITE C-175 acidic ion exchange resin. The reaction mixture was stirred at ambient temperature for one hourthen vacuum distilled, removing 71 g of low boiling components (mostly methanol). The reaction mixture was filtered, leaving 116 g of vinyl oligomer. This component then was hydrosilylated with 49 g (0.4 mole) of trimethoxysilane and 0.04 g Karstedt's catalyst at 110-146° C. The final product, after removal of the low boiling components and filtration to remove any solid materials, was 161 g and was 14 cstks viscosity. Examples for Viscosity Reducing Properties Example 13 The silane oligomers (20 g) of the examples above were blended with 100 g of to the silane-containing acrylic polymer (Ex. 1). The Gardner-Holt viscosity and the solid contents of the resultant mixtures were measured and the results are shown: % Solid Visc. 1 % Solid Sample Viscosity Silane w. Resin mixture Resin Z+ 69% Z+ 69% Exp. 3 41 cstks 92% X−Y 73% Exp. 4 14 cstks 85% X+ 71% Exp. 5 50 cstks 92% Y−Z 73% Exp. 6 100 cstks  93% Y−Z 73% Exp. 7 85 cstks 94% Z− 73% Exp. 8 50 cstks 87% Y−Z 72% Exp. 9 14 cstks 76% X+ 70% The viscosity reducing properties of these compounds were evaluated in another way. The viscosities of these mixtures were measured using Ford Cup, #4. Since the resin (Ex. 1) was very viscous, the resin was diluted with a solvent mixture containing 75% toluene and 25% xylene. So to 85 g of the resin was added 15 g of the solvent mixture. The resultant resin mixture was found to have a solid content of 59% and the Ford Cup #4 viscosity of 147 seconds. To the above resin mixture was added 18.4 g of the silane oligomers or copolymers, the viscosities and the percent solid contents were measured: % Ford % NVC Cup NVC Sample Viscosity silane #4 sec. mixture Resin — 59% 147 59% Example 3 41 cstks 92% 107 64% Example 4 14 cstks 85%  94 63% Example 5 50 cstks 92% 116 66% Example 6 100 cstks  93% — — Example 7 85 cstks 94% 126 65% Example 8 50 cstks 87% 109 64% Example 9 14 cstks 89% 104 62% Examples for Improved Physical Properties The silane oligomers were formulated with the silane-containing acrylic polymer (Ex. 1) according to Table A and the resultant mixture was coated on the E-coated panel and cured at 130° C. for 30 minutes. The properties of these coatings were listed in Table B. TABLE A Percent by Percent Coating Composition Weight by Wt. silane-containing acrylic polymer 1 83.1%  92.8%  Silane Oligomers 9.9% - Dibutyltin dilaurate 2 1.0% 0.9% Blocked acid 3 1.5% 1.9% UV absorber 4 0.9% 1.0% Polysiloxane 5 1.7% 2.0% Triethylorthoformate 1.9% 1.5% 1. To 100 grams of the acrylic silane polymer was added a solvent mixture consists of 8.6% butyl acetate, 11.9% acetone, 16.8% toluene, 56.4% xylene, 4% Cellosolve acetate (ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate), 2.3% butyl carbitol acetate (diethylene glycil monobutyl ether acetate). 2. 10 wt. % solution in xylene. 3. NACURE 5925 amine blocked dodecyl benzene sulfonic acid from King Industries. 4. TINUVIN 328 U.V. light absorber, product of Ciba-Geigy, Inc. 5. DC 200 from Dow Corning Corp., dissolved in xylene to give a 0.54 wt. % solution. TABLE B Gloss Gloss Pencil Sample 20° (1) 60° (1) DOI (2) Hardness (3) Resin 88 94 100 2B Example 3 84 92 100 2B Example 4 84 93 100 2B Example 5 84 91 100 2B Example 6 86 93 100 2B Example 7 81 91 100 2B Example 8 86 93 100 3B Example 9 86 92 100 2B (1) - ASTMD-523 (2) - Distinctness of Image (3) - ASTM D-3363-74

Alkoxy silane oligomers which have a non-hydrolyzable carbon bridged bond to another silane functionality are taught herein, as well as their manufacture and utility.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE [0001] Each of the applications and patents cited in this text, as well as each document or reference cited in each of the applications and patents (including during the prosecution of each issued patent; “application cited documents”), and each of the PCT and foreign applications or patents corresponding to and/or claiming priority from any of these applications and patents, and each of the documents cited or referenced in each of the application cited documents, are hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference. More generally, documents or references are cited in this text, either in a Reference List before the claims, or in the text itself; and, each of these documents or references (“herein-cited references”), as well as each document or reference cited in each of the herein-cited references (including any manufacturer's specifications, instructions, etc.), is hereby expressly incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a major determinant of both mortality and morbidity in the United States and throughout the world. More than 13 million Americans suffer from CAD, with 470 thousand deaths attributed to CAD in 2003 . Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics -2006 Update. 2006, American Heart Association: Dallas, Tex. ( Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics -2006 Update. 2006, American Heart Association: Dallas, Tex. http://www.americanheart.org.) [0003] Myocardial perfusion imaging, (MPI), is an integral part of the modern diagnosis and risk stratification of CAD (Klocke F J, B. M., Bateman T M, Berman D S, Carabello B A, Cerqueira M D, DeMaria A N, Kennedy J W, Lorell B H, Messer J V, O'Gara P T, Russel R O Jr., St. John Sutton, M G, Udelson J E, Verani M S, Williams K A., ACC/AHA/ASNC Guidelines for the Clinical Use of Cardiac Radionuclide Imaging: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2003, American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association: Bethesda, Md. p. 69). This technique involves the infusion of a radioactive tracer compound that, when imaged with a gamma-ray sensitive camera, gives a ‘snapshot’ of the distribution of blood flow within the myocardium at the time of injection. The resultant images help to determine both the functional capacity of coronary arteries in addition to the underlying viability of supplied myocardium. The administration of radiotracer at rest is often accompanied by a second administration during a physiologic or pharmacologic stress. By comparing rest and stress images, areas of the heart with normal, inadequate or no blood flow, (i.e. scar), can be identified (Zipes, D., Libby, P., Bonow, R., Braunwald, E., Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 7th ed. 2005, Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. 2183). Several varieties of radiotracer are available, including Rb-82, 5-FDG, Tc-99m-sestamibi, Thallium-201 and Tc-99m-tetrophosmin. Types of stresses used in clinical practice include exercise (usually walking or running on a treadmill), adenosine, dipyridamole or dobutamine administration. The particular selection of tracer compound and mode of stress depends on the clinical question being asked and the particular technologies available to the ordering physician. [0004] The utility of myocardial perfusion imaging in the management of cardiovascular disease is without question. However, the full diagnostic potential of the test has yet to be realized due to the regular appearance of artifacts that obscure the interpretation of cardiac images and decrease its diagnostic accuracy. ( FIG. 1 ) One of the most common sources of artifact in MPI is radiotracer uptake by the liver and gut. Specifically, emission of signal from areas in proximity to the heart can confuse radiographic interpretation. ( FIG. 2 ) Anatomically, the inferior aspect of the human heart lies a centimeter or less away from the superior surface of the liver, stomach and occasionally the small bowel. Commercial radiotracers, in particular thallium-201 and Tc-99m labeled agents, are absorbed from the blood by the liver and can enter either the small bowel or reflux into the stomach. For example, in a typical Tc-99m-setsamibi administration at rest, 1.2% of the total dose is taken into the heart, whereas 19% is absorbed into the liver ( Cardiolite Product Insert. 2003, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Medical Imaging: N. Billerica, Mass. p. 2). [0005] Due to the deleterious effects of subdiaphragmatic radiotracer uptake on myocardial perfusion imaging, several technologies have been examined in an attempt to reduce artifact signals. [0006] Compared with images taken at rest or while the patient is undergoing a chemical form of cardiac stress, images taken while the patient is undergoing physical exercise have reduced levels of hepatic and gut uptake of radiotracer. ( FIG. 3 ) Although this is a solution for some patients, many patients are unable to undergo exercise stress testing due to issues of decreased mobility, balance and deconditioning. These patients must therefore use a pharmacologic stress such as adenosine or dipyridamole. Also, in many laboratories, patients undergo resting images before the exercise portion of the procedure. In this situation, the rest images retain high relative amounts of hepatic and gut radiotracer uptake, which compounds problems in rest versus stress image comparison (Iskandrian, A. E., Verani, Mario S., Nuclear Cardiac Imaging: Principles and Applications. 2003, New York, N.Y.: Oxford Press. 509). [0007] Additional studies have attempted to increase the anatomic separation between the bottom of the heart and subdiaphragmatic structures through prone positioning during image acquisition (Dogruca, Z., et al., A comparison of Tl -201 stress - reinjection - prone SPECT and Tc -99 m - sestamibi gated SPECT in the differentiation of inferior wall defects from artifacts . Nucl Med Commun, 2000. 21(8): p. 719-27; Schoss, R. M. and R. J. Gorten, Comparison of supine versus prone tomographic myocardial imaging. Effect on false - positive rate . Clin Nucl Med, 1996. 21(6): p. 445-51; Kiat, H., et al., Quantitative stress - redistribution thallium -201 SPECT using prone imaging: methodologic development and validation . J Nucl Med, 1992. 33(8): p. 1509-15; Segall, G. M., M. J. Davis, and M. L. Goris, Improved specificity of prone versus supine thallium SPECT imaging . Clin Nucl Med, 1988. 13(12): p. 915-6; Esquerre, J. P., Prone versus supine thallium -201 myocardial SPECT . J Nucl Med, 1989. 30(10): p. 1738-9; Segall, G. M. and M. J. Davis, Prone versus supine thallium myocardial SPECT: a method to decrease artifactual inferior wall defects . J Nucl Med, 1989. 30(4): p. 548-55). Although this has been shown to be helpful with diaphragmatic attenuation, the use of prone positioning is limited due to patient inconvenience and the need to re-image the patient after initial identification of diaphragmatic artifact. [0008] Other studies have focused on the administration of food prior to the exam in order to promote repositioning of the stomach and increased intestinal mobility (Boz, A., et al., The volume effect of the stomach on intestinal activity on same - day exercise—rest Tc -99 m tetrofosmin myocardial imaging . Clin Nucl Med, 2001. 26(7): p. 622-5; Boz, A., et al., The effects of solid food in prevention of intestinal activity in Tc -99 m tetrofosmin myocardial perfusion scintigraphy . J Nucl Cardiol, 2003. 10(2): p. 161-7; Hurwitz, G. A., et al., Investigation of measures to reduce interfering abdominal activity on rest myocardial images with Tc -99 m sestamibi . Clin Nucl Med, 1993. 18(9): p. 735-41; van Dongen, A. J. and P. P. van Rijk, Minimizing liver, bowel, and gastric activity in myocardial perfusion SPECT . J Nucl Med, 2000. 41(8): p. 1315-7. Unfortunately, these methods have not demonstrated a clinically useful benefit. A pharmacological approach to promoting gut motility was examined using the drug metoclopromide. Similar to preprocedural feeding, metoclopromide did not significantly decrease the obscuring effect of abdominal radiotracer uptake (Weinmann, P. and J. L. Moretti, Metoclopramide has no effect on abdominal activity of sestamibi in myocardial SPET . Nucl Med Commun, 1999. 20(7): p. 623-5). Likewise, the gastric stimulant, cholecystokinin, has also been evaluated without success (Middleton, G. W. and J. H. Williams, Significant gastric reflux of technetium -99 m - MIBI in SPECT myocardial imaging . J Nucl Med, 1994. 35(4): p. 619-20). Lastly, the use of aminophyllin to counter dipyridamole stress does not prevent artifacts from subsequent images taken after the dipyridamole injection (Yuksel, M., et al., The effect of aminophylline administration on 99 mTc - MIBI lung and liver uptake in patients with or without myocardial ischemia . Rev Esp Med Nucl, 2000. 19(6): p. 423-7) [0009] Thus, there remains a need to reduce uptake of radiotracer during myocardial perfusion imaging that is effective during the acquisition of both resting images and stress images and reduces the obscuring effect of abdominal radiotracer uptake for image analysis. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] The present invention is based, at least in part, on the discovery that somatostatin can reduce extracardiac accumulation of a radiotracer during myocardial perfusion imaging. Thus, in one aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing extracardiac accumulation of a radiotracer during myocardial perfusion imaging in a subject comprising administering to a subject in need of myocardial perfusion imaging an effective amount of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analogs or a physiologically acceptable salt thereof, thereby reducing extracardiac accumulation of a radiotracer during myocardial perfusion imaging [0011] In one embodiment, the method comprises administering one or more somatostatin analogs or a physiologically acceptable salt thereof. [0012] In another embodiment, the somatostatin analog is prosomatostatin, somatostatin-28, somatostatin-14, octreotide, octreotide acetate, lanreotide, seglitide, vapreotide, AN-238, SMS 201-995, SDZ CO 611, RC 160, SMS-D70, SOM 230, KE 108, CGP 23996, BIM 23014, L362,855, L054,522, a cyclic peptide having somatostatin properties, a cyclohexapeptide having somatostatin agonist properties, an octopeptide having somatostatin agonist properties or a small molecule that mimics the pharmacological properties of somatostatin; more preferably the somatostatin analog is octreotide, octreotide acetate, or lanreotide. In yet another embodiment, the somatostatin analog is a radio labeled somatostatin or a radio labeled peptide analog of somatostatin. In still another distinct embodiment, the somatostatin analog is not a radio labeled somatostatin or a radio labeled peptide analog of somatostatin. In further embodiment, one or more additional somatostatin analogs or physiologically acceptable salts thereof may also be administered to the subject. [0013] In one embodiment, the radiotracer whose uptake is being prevented is Albumin aggregated iodinated I 131 serum, Albumin chromated Cr 51 serum, Albumin iodinated I 125 serum, Albumin iodinated I 131 serum, Ammonia N 13, Carbon monoxide C 11, Carbon C 14 urea, Chromic phosphate P 32, Cyanocobalamin Co 57, Cyanocobalamin Co 58/Co 57, Ferrous citrate Fe 59, Fibrinogen 1 125, Fludeoxyglucose F 18 Fluorodopa F 18, Gallium citrate Ga 67, I 131 radio labeled B1 monoclonal antibody, Indium in 111 capromab pendetide, Indium in 111 chloride, Indium in 111 imciromab pentetate, Indium in 111 immune globulin intravenous pentetas, Indium in 111 oxyquinoline, Indium in 111 pentetate, Indium in 111 pentetreotide, Indium in 111 satumomab pencletidee, lobenguane sulfate I 123, lobenguane sulfate I 131, locanlidic acid I 123, Iodocholesterol I 131, Iodohippurate sodium I 123, Iodohippurate sodium I 131, Iodomethylnorcholesterol I 131, lofetamine hydrochloride I 123, lothalamate sodium I 125, Krypton Kr 81m, Mesiperone C 11, Methionine C 11, Raclopride C 11, Rhenium Re 186 etidronate, Rubidium chloride Rb 82, Samarium Sm 153 lexidronam pentasodium, Selenomethionine Se 75, Sodium acetate C 11, Sodium chromate Cr 51, Sodium fluoride F 18, Sodium iodide I 123, Sodium iodide I 131, Sodium pertechnetate Tc 99m, Sodium phosphate P 32, Stannic pentetate Sn 117, Strontium chloride Sr 89, Technetium Tc 99m albumin, Technetium Tc 99m albumin aggregated, Technetium Tc 99m albumin colloid, Technetium Tc 99m antimony trisulfide colloid, Technetium Tc 99m apcitide, Technetium Tc 99m arcitumomab, Technetium Tc 99m bectumomab, Technetium Tc 99m biciromab, Technetium Tc 99m bicisate, Technetium Tc99m depreotide, Technetium Tc 99m disofenin, Technetium Tc 99m etidronate, Technetium Tc 99m exametazime, Technetium Tc 99m furifosmin, Technetium Tc 99m gluceptate, Technetium Tc 99m lidofenin, Technetium Tc 99m mebrofenin, Technetium Tc 99m medronate, Technetium Tc 99m mertiatide, Technetium Tc 99m nofetumomomab merpentan, Technetium Tc 99m oxidronate, Technetium Tc 99m pentetate, Technetium Tc 99m pyrophosphate, Technetium Tc 99m (pyro- and trimeta-) phosphates, Technetium Tc 99m red blood cells, Technetium Tc 99m sestamibi, Technetium Tc 99m succimer, Technetium Tc 99m sulesomab, Technetium Tc 99m sulfur colloid, Technetium Tc 99m teboroxime, Technetium Tc 99m tetrofosmin, Thallous chloride Tl 201, Water 0 15, Xenon Xe 127, or Xenon Xe 133, or 5-FDG; more preferably, the radiotracer is rubidium-82, 5-FDG, Tc-99m-sestamibi, Thallium-201 or Tc-99m-tetrophosmin. [0014] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for monitoring myocardial perfusion abnormalities, said method comprising the steps of: A.) administering to the subject a bolus injection, constant infusion or both of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analogs or physiologically acceptable salts thereof, B.) administering to the subject a detectable amount of a radiotracer in either the presence or absence of a chemical and/or physical stress agent, and C.) obtaining an image of the subject's heart, thereby monitoring myocardial perfusion and/or myocardial viability in the subject. [0018] Another aspect of the invention provides a kit for performing myocardial perfusion imaging comprising one or more somatostatin analogs, or physiologically acceptable salts thereof, and instructions for use. In one embodiment, the one or more somatostatin analogs are present in one or more unit dosage forms. In another embodiment, the kit further comprises tubing. [0019] In another aspect, the invention provides a kit for performing myocardial perfusion imaging comprising a.) a first unit dose of one or more somatostatin analogs supplied in a first vial bearing a first identification code and a second unit dose of one or more somatostatin analogs supplied in a second vial bearing a second identification code; b.) a syringe bearing said first identification code and a syringe bearing said second identification code each independently filled with at least one pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle, c.) at least two syringe needles; and d.) tubing. [0024] In one embodiment, said first unit dose of the kit is 100 mcg and said second unit dose is 200 mcg, to be administered as a 50 mcg per hour continuous infusion. [0025] In another aspect embodiment, the invention provides a kit for performing myocardial perfusion imaging comprising a.) a single unit dose of one or more somatostatin analogs supplied in a vial bearing an identification code; b.) a syringe bearing said first identification code, filled with at least one pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle, c.) a syringe needle; and d.) tubing. [0030] In one embodiment, the one or more somatostatin analogs is octreotide, octreotide acetate, or lanreotide. [0031] In another embodiment, the technique to detect the presence or assess the severity of coronary artery disease or myocardial viability is radiopharmaceutical myocardial perfusion imaging. [0032] In another embodiment, the subject is a mammal, preferably a human. In some embodiments, the human subject is a male or a female. In still other embodiments, the human subject is an elderly individual, an adult individual or an adolescent individual. In other embodiments, the human subject is suffering from one or more symptoms of coronary artery disease. In a particular embodiment, the human subject is suffering from or showing symptoms or other indications of coronary artery disease on the inferior aspect of the heart. [0033] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for increasing the accuracy or image quality of myocardial perfusion imaging in a subject undergoing non-stress myocardial perfusion imaging comprising administering an effective amount of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analog or a physiologically acceptable salt thereof, such that endogenous insulin release is stabilized, thereby increasing the accuracy or image quality of myocardial perfusion imaging. [0034] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for facilitating radiotracer uptake in the heart of increasing the accuracy or image quality of myocardial perfusion imaging in a subject undergoing non-stress myocardial perfusion imaging comprising administering an effective amount of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analog or a physiologically acceptable salt thereof, such that radiotracer uptake in the heart of said subject is facilitated, thereby increasing the accuracy or image quality of myocardial perfusion imaging. [0035] In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method for assessing myocardial viability of a subject by non-stress myocardial perfusion imaging comprising the steps of: [0036] a.) administering an effective amount of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analog or a physiologically acceptable salt thereof; and [0037] b.) obtaining an image of myocardial blood flow in the subject, thereby determining the viability of the subject myocardium [0038] It is noted that in this disclosure and particularly in the claims and/or paragraphs, terms such as “comprises”, “comprised”, “comprising” and the like can have the meaning attributed to it in U.S. patent law; e.g., they can mean “includes”, “included”, “including”, and the like; and that terms such as “consisting essentially of” and “consists essentially of” have the meaning ascribed to them in U.S. patent law, e.g., they allow for elements not explicitly recited, but exclude elements that are found in the prior art or that affect a basic or novel characteristic of the invention. [0039] These and other embodiments are disclosed or are obvious from and encompassed by, the following Detailed Description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES [0040] FIG. 1 shows a myocardial perfusion image of a subject's heart (seen here as a ‘doughnut’ shape) and liver using a TC99-sestamibi tracer and physiologic stress. The rest image clearly shows the liver artifact as a result of tracer uptake by the subject liver at rest. The bottom, or ‘inferior’, aspect of the heart disappears in the presence of the liver artifact. The same area of the heart reappears when the image is acquired in the absence of liver artifact (upper panel). This is an example of how liver artifact can complicate the interpretation of myocardial perfusion, especially in the inferior heart. [0041] FIG. 2 shows a myocardial perfusion image of a subject's heart and liver. In this case a thallium-201 rest image (bottom row) is compared with a Tc99m-MIBI stress image (top row). Notice the high uptake in the area of the liver in the Tc99m-MIBI images which results in an artifactual absence of tracer counts from the inferior aspect of the heart. This is an example of a false-positive diagnosis of coronary stenosis due to extracardiac uptake of radiotracer (Adapted from Clin Nucl Med. 2005 September; 30(9):623-4.) [0042] FIG. 3 shows a graph demonstrating the increased abdominal to myocardial activity ratio frequently associated with both rest and chemical stress and exercise myocardial perfusion scans. (Adapted from Clin Nucl Med. 2005 September; 30(9):623-4.) [0043] FIG. 4 shows a graph demonstrating the decrease of portal vein flow associated with the infusion of Octreotide at various infusion concentrations. (Adapted from: Digestion 1999; 60:132-140). [0044] FIG. 5 shows a graph demonstrating a 50% reduction in gastric mucosal blood flow fifteen minutes after a single bolus injection of Octreotide as measured by a laser Doppler flowmeter. (Adapted from: Surg Endosc (2003) 17: 1570-1572). DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions [0045] The following definitions can be referenced to assist in understanding the subject matter of the present application. Additional terms may be found defined throughout the detailed description. [0046] As used herein, unless otherwise specified, the term “somatostatin” refers to a polypeptide produced by the hypothalamus and the pancreas which acts as a neurohormone that inhibits the secretion of other hormones, especially growth hormone and thyrotropin, or inhibits the secretion of the other pancreatic hormones, insulin and glucagon, and reduces the activity of the digestive system. [0047] As used herein, unless otherwise specified, the term “somatostatin analog” refers to a somatostatin receptor agonist, which can be any naturally occurring substance or manufactured drug substance or composition that can interact and/or bind with a somatostatin receptor and initiate a biological response characteristic of the somatostatin receptor. Somatostatin. analogs include peptides having, at least about 30% sequence identity, preferably at least about 50% sequence identity, more preferably at least about 75% sequence identity or even about 80% sequence identity, still more preferably at least about 85% sequence identity or even about 90% sequence identity, even still more preferably at least about 95% sequence identity or even about 99% sequence identity with naturally occurring somatostatin. In specific embodiments, the somatostatin analog peptide is a cyclic peptide, cyclohexapeptide or an octopeptide. In other embodiments, the somatostatin analog is a small molecule. In some embodiments, somatostatin analogs include, but are not limited to, prosomatostatin, somatostatin-28 somatostatin-14, octreotide, octreotide acetate, lanreotide, seglitide, vapreotide, AN-238, RC-160, CGP 23996, BIM 23014, SMS D70, SOM 230, KE 108, L362,855, L054,522, SMS 201-995, SDZ CO611, cyclohexapeptides having somatostatin agonist properties, octopeptides having somatostatin agonist properties and small molecules having somatostatin agonist properties. In other embodiments, somatostatin analogs include those small molecules described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,387,932: 6,117,880; 6,063,796; 6,057,338; 6,025,372; 4,748,153; 4,663,435; 4,612,366; 4,611,054; 4,585,755; 4,522,813 4,486,415; 4,427,661; 4,360,516; 4,310,518; 4,235,886; 4,191,754; 4,190,648; 4,162,248; 4,161,521; 4,146,612; 4,140,767; 4,139,526; 4,130,554; 4,115,554; 7,094,753; 6,987,167; 6,346,601; 5,006,510; 4,130,554; 6,787,521; 6,268,342; 7,176,187; 7,060,679; 6,930,088; 6,579,967; 6,552,007; 6,465,613; 6,355,613; 6,316,414; 6,051,554; 5,998,154; 5,976,496; 5,770,687; 5,750,499; 5,597,894; 5,405,597; 5,225,180; 5,073,541; 4,428,942; and 4,393,050. [0048] As used herein, unless otherwise specified, the term “radiotracer”, “radiotracer compound”, “radioactive tracer compound” or “radiolabelled compound” refers to a compound which is labeled with a radioactive isotope which can be detected using a camera or other device sensitive to X-rays, gamma radiation or other radiation source. [0049] As used herein, unless otherwise specified, the term “extracardiac accumulation”, “artifact”, or “excess accumulation of a radiotracer” refers to the uptake of a radiotracer by an organ or tissue of a subject apart from and/or in addition to uptake by the myocardium. This uptake usually occurs in the liver or gut of a subject or other organ in close proximity to the heart. Extracardiac uptake decreases the diagnostic accuracy of myocardial perfusion imaging, resulting in an increase of false-positives or under-interpretation of true perfusion abnormalities. [0050] As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to an amount of a compound of the invention or a combination of two or more such compounds, which reduces the uptake of a radiotracer by a subject during myocardial perfusion imaging or which otherwise increases the efficiency of myocardial perfusion imaging in said subject. The amount, which is effective, will depend upon the patient's size and gender, type of image being collected, type of radiotracer being used and the result sought. For a given subject, an effective amount can be determined by methods known to those of skill in the art of myocardial perfusion imaging. [0051] As used herein, the term “detectable amount” refers to an amount of a radiotracer or a combination of two or more such radiotracers, which is detectable by myocardial perfusion imaging using x-rays, gamma radiation or other acceptable radiation source. For a given subject, a detectable amount can be determined by methods known to those of skill in the art of myocardial perfusion imaging. [0052] As used herein, the term “myocardial perfusion imaging” refers to radiopharmaceutical imaging performed by scintigraphy, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging, perfusion contrast echocardiography, digital subtraction angiography (DSA) and ultra fast X-ray computed tomography (CINE CT), or combinations of these techniques which allow one of skill in the art to view, analyze, and asses myocardial damage, viability or other myocardial abnormalities including, but not limited to, coronary artery disease. [0053] As used herein, the term “physiologically acceptable salt” refers to a relatively non-toxic, inorganic or organic acid addition salt of a compound of the present invention. For example, see S. M. Berge, et al. “Pharmaceutical Salts,” J. Pharm. Sci. 1977, 66, 1-19. Physiologically acceptable salts include those obtained by reacting the main compound, functioning as a base, with an inorganic or organic acid to form a salt, for example, salts of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, methane sulfonic acid, camphor sulfonic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, succinic acid and citric acid. Physiologically acceptable salts also include those in which the main compound functions as an acid and is reacted with an appropriate base to form, e.g., sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, and chorine salts. Those skilled in the art will further recognize that acid addition salts of the claimed compounds may be prepared by reaction of the compounds with the appropriate inorganic or organic acid via any of a number of known methods. Alternatively, alkali and alkaline earth metal salts of acidic compounds of the invention are prepared by reacting the compounds of the invention with the appropriate base via a variety of known methods. [0054] Representative salts of the compounds of this invention include the conventional non-toxic salts and the quaternary ammonium salts, which are formed, for example, from inorganic or organic acids or bases by means well known in the art. For example, such acid addition salts include acetate, adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzoate, benzenesulfonate, bisulfate, butyrate, citrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, cinnamate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, fumarate, glucoheptanoate, glycerophosphate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydrochloride, hydrobromide, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonate, itaconate, lactate, maleate, mandelate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oxalate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, succinate, sulfonate, tartrate, thiocyanate, tosylate, and undecanoate. [0055] Base salts include alkali metal salts such as potassium and sodium salts, alkaline earth metal salts such as calcium and magnesium salts, and ammonium salts with organic bases such as dicyclohexylamine and N-methyl-D-glucamine. Additionally, basic nitrogen containing groups may be quaternized with such agents as lower alkyl halides such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl chlorides, bromides and iodides; dialkyl sulfates like dimethyl, diethyl, and dibutyl sulfate; and diamyl sulfates, long chain halides such as decyl, lauryl, myristyl and strearyl chlorides, bromides and iodides, aralkyl halides like benzyl and phenethyl bromides and others. [0056] As used herein, unless otherwise specified, the term “physiologically acceptable carrier,” includes, but is not limited to, a carrier medium that does not interfere with the effectiveness of the biological activity of any active ingredients, is chemically inert, and is not toxic to the consumer or patient to whom it is administered. Somatostatin and Somatostatin Analogs: [0057] Somatostatin and its clinical analogs selectively decrease blood flow to the splanchnic viscera including the liver, small intestine and stomach. In addition, somatostatin and its clinical analogs exert suppressive effects on the release of several endogenous hormones, including insulin. ( FIGS. 4-5 ). Somatostatin exerts these effects through a set of G-protein coupled, seven transmembrane receptors, SST 1 -SST 5 (Patel, Y. C., Somatostatin and its receptor family . Front Neuroendocrinol, 1999. 20(3): p. 157-98). These receptors are broadly distributed throughout human anatomy, which accounts for the multiple physiological effects of somatostatin (Table 1). The clinically used SST agonists, octreotide and lanreotide, are selective for a subset of SST receptors, displaying affinity for SST 2 , SST 3 and SST 5 , but exhibiting virtually no affinity for SST 1 or SST 4 . [0000] TABLE 1 Distribution Octreotide Receptor Subtype Brain Gut Liver Panc Kidney Lung Aorta Heart EC50 SST1 + + + + + + + + >1000 SST2 + + + + + + + + 0.6 SST3 + + + + + 34.5 SST4 + + + + + + >1000 SST5 + + + + + 7 Affinities are expressed in EC50 (nM). Data adapted from Patel, 1999 (Patel, Y. C., Somatostatin and its receptor family. Front Neuroendocrinol, 1999. 20(3): p. 157-98). nd = not done. [0058] The diagnostic accuracy of myocardial perfusion imaging relies in part on the absence of artifact, and in part on the predictable response of the heart to either exercise or pharmacologically induced coronary vasodilation. Without being limited by theory, the administration of somatostatin analogs before and during MPI is believed to reduce artifact and/or extracardiac uptake by a subject without altering the basic coronary vasodilatory response to common stress agents, including chemical agents adenosine and dipyridamole, and without significantly effecting the systolic or diastolic parameters of baseline cardiac function. [0059] It is also recognized that, in the setting of myocardial viability assessment using the combination of 5-FDG radiotracer and PET scanning, an additional benefit of periprocedural somatostatin analog administration will include an inhibitory effect on endogenous insulin secretion. By inhibiting endogenous insulin secretion, somatostatin analog administration will allow for easier control of serum glucose levels using exogenous insulin and therefore aid in a controlled myocardial uptake of the radiotracer, 5-FDG, which is a glucose analog. Dosage Forms and Modes of Administration [0060] Preferred modes of administration include oral administration and parenteral administration, including but not limited to bolus injection and constant infusion. More preferred modes of administration include bolus injection and constant infusion either alone or in combination with each other. Oral Dosage Forms [0061] Somatostatin or Somatostatin analogs of the invention and compositions comprising them that are suitable for oral administration can be presented as discrete dosage forms, such as, but are not limited to, tablets (e.g., chewable tablets), caplets, capsules, and liquids (e.g., flavored syrups). Such dosage forms contain predetermined amounts of active ingredients, and may be prepared by methods of pharmacy well known to those skilled in the art. See generally, Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th ed., Mack Publishing, Easton Pa. (1990). [0062] Typical oral dosage forms of the invention are prepared by combining the active ingredient(s) in an intimate admixture with at least one excipient according to conventional pharmaceutical compounding techniques. Excipients can take a wide variety of forms depending on the form of preparation desired for administration. For example, excipients suitable for use in oral liquid or aerosol dosage forms include, but are not limited to, water, glycols, oils, alcohols, flavoring agents, preservatives, and coloring agents. Examples of excipients suitable for use in solid oral dosage forms (e.g., powders, tablets, capsules, and caplets) include, but are not limited to, starches, sugars, micro-crystalline cellulose, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, and disintegrating agents. [0063] Because of their ease of administration, tablets and capsules represent very advantageous oral dosage unit forms, in which case solid excipients are employed. If desired, tablets can be coated by standard aqueous or nonaqueous techniques. Such dosage forms can be prepared by any of the methods of pharmacy. In general, pharmaceutical compositions and dosage forms are prepared by uniformly and intimately admixing the active ingredients with liquid carriers, finely divided solid carriers, or both, and then shaping the product into the desired presentation if necessary. [0064] For example, a tablet can be prepared by compression or molding. Compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredients in a free-flowing form such as powder or granules, optionally mixed with an excipient. Molded tablets can be made by molding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. [0065] Examples of excipients that can be used in oral dosage forms of the invention include, but are not limited to, binders, fillers, disintegrants, and lubricants. Binders suitable for use in pharmaceutical compositions and dosage forms include, but are not limited to, corn starch, potato starch, or other starches, gelatin, natural and synthetic gums such as acacia, sodium alginate, alginic acid, other alginates, powdered tragacanth, guar gum, cellulose and its derivatives (e.g., ethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, carboxymethyl cellulose calcium, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose), polyvinyl pyrrolidone, methyl cellulose, pre-gelatinized starch, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, (e.g., nos. 2208, 2906, 2910), microcrystalline cellulose, and mixtures thereof. [0066] Examples of fillers suitable for use in the pharmaceutical compositions and dosage forms disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, talc, calcium carbonate (e.g., granules or powder), microcrystalline cellulose, powdered cellulose, dextrates, kaolin, mannitol, silicic acid, sorbitol, starch, pre-gelatinized starch, and mixtures thereof. The binder or filler in pharmaceutical compositions of the invention is typically present in from about 50 to about 99 weight percent of the pharmaceutical composition or dosage form. [0067] Suitable forms of microcrystalline cellulose include, but are not limited to, the materials sold as AVICEL-PH-101, AVICEL-PH-103 AVICEL RC-581, AVICEL-PH-105 (available from FMC Corporation, American Viscose Division, Avicel Sales, Marcus Hook, Pa.), and mixtures thereof. An specific binder is a mixture of microcrystalline cellulose and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose sold as AVICEL RC-581. Suitable anhydrous or low moisture excipients or additives include AVICEL-PH-103.TM and Starch 1500 LM. [0068] Disintegrants are used in the compositions of the invention to provide tablets that disintegrate when exposed to an aqueous environment. Tablets that contain too much disintegrant may disintegrate in storage, while those that contain too little may not disintegrate at a desired rate or under the desired conditions. Thus, a sufficient amount of disintegrant that is neither too much nor too little to detrimentally alter the release of the active ingredients should be used to form solid oral dosage forms of the invention. The amount of disintegrant used varies based upon the type of formulation, and is readily discernible to those of ordinary skill in the art. Typical pharmaceutical compositions comprise from about 0.5 to about 15 weight percent of disintegrant, specifically from about 1 to about 5 weight percent of disintegrant. [0069] Disintegrants that can be used in pharmaceutical compositions and dosage forms of the invention include, but are not limited to, agar-agar, alginic acid, calcium carbonate, microcrystalline cellulose, croscarmellose sodium, crospovidone, polacrilin potassium, sodium starch glycolate, potato or tapioca starch, pre-gelatinized starch, other starches, clays, other algins, other celluloses, gums, and mixtures thereof. [0070] Lubricants that can be used in pharmaceutical compositions and dosage forms of the invention include, but are not limited to, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, mineral oil, light mineral oil, glycerin, sorbitol, mannitol, polyethylene glycol, other glycols, stearic acid, sodium lauryl sulfate, talc, hydrogenated vegetable oil (e.g., peanut oil, cottonseed oil, sunflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil, and soybean oil), zinc stearate, ethyl oleate, ethyl laureate, agar, and mixtures thereof. Additional lubricants include, for example, a syloid silica gel (AEROSIL 200, manufactured by W. R. Grace Co. of Baltimore, Md.), a coagulated aerosol of synthetic silica (marketed by Degussa Co. of Plano, Tex.), CAB-O-SIL (a pyrogenic silicon dioxide product sold by Cabot Co. of Boston, Mass.), and mixtures thereof. If used at all, lubricants are typically used in an amount of less than about 1 weight percent of the pharmaceutical compositions or dosage forms into which they are incorporated. Parenteral Dosage Forms [0071] Parenteral dosage forms can be administered to patients by various routes including, but not limited to, subcutaneous, intravenous (including bolus injection and constant infusion), intramuscular, and intraarterial. Because their administration typically bypasses patients' natural defenses against contaminants, parenteral dosage forms are preferably sterile or capable of being sterilized prior to administration to a patient. Examples of parenteral dosage forms include, but are not limited to, solutions ready for injection, dry products (including, but not limited to lyophilized powders, pellets, and tablets) ready to be dissolved or suspended in a pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle for injection, suspensions ready for injection, and emulsions. [0072] Suitable vehicles that can be used to provide parenteral dosage forms of the invention are well known to those skilled in the art. Examples include, but are not limited to: Water for Injection USP; aqueous vehicles such as, but not limited to, Sodium Chloride Injection, Ringer's Injection, Dextrose Injection, Dextrose and Sodium Chloride Injection, and Lactated Ringer's Injection; water-miscible vehicles such as, but not limited to, ethyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and polypropylene glycol; and non-aqueous vehicles such as, but not limited to, corn oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, sesame oil, ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, and benzyl benzoate. [0073] Compounds that increase the solubility of one or more of the active ingredients disclosed herein can also be incorporated into the parenteral dosage forms of the invention. Transdermal, Topical, and Mucosal Dosage Forms [0074] Transdermal, topical, and mucosal dosage forms of the invention include, but are not limited to, ophthalmic solutions, sprays, aerosols, creams, lotions, ointments, gels, solutions, emulsions, suspensions, or other forms known to one of skill in the art. See, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 16th and 18th eds., Mack Publishing, Easton Pa. (1980 & 1990); and Introduction to Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms, 4th ed., Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia (1985). Dosage forms suitable for treating mucosal tissues within the oral cavity can be formulated as mouthwashes or as oral gels. Further, transdermal dosage forms include “reservoir type” or “matrix type” patches, which can be applied to the skin and worn for a specific period of time to permit the penetration of a desired amount of active ingredients. [0075] Suitable excipients (e.g., carriers and diluents) and other materials that can be used to provide transdermal, topical, and mucosal dosage forms encompassed by this invention are well known to those skilled in the pharmaceutical arts, and depend on the particular tissue to which a given pharmaceutical composition or dosage form will be applied. With that fact in mind, typical excipients include, but are not limited to, water, acetone, ethanol, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, butane-1,3-diol, isopropyl myristate, isopropyl palmitate, mineral oil, and mixtures thereof to form lotions, tinctures, creams, emulsions, gels or ointments, which are non-toxic and pharmaceutically acceptable. Moisturizers or humectants can also be added to pharmaceutical compositions and dosage forms if desired. Examples of such additional ingredients are well known in the art. See, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 16th and 18th eds., Mack Publishing, Easton Pa. (1980 & 1990). [0076] Depending on the specific tissue to be treated, additional components may be used prior to, in conjunction with, or subsequent to treatment with active ingredients of the invention. For example, penetration enhancers can be used to assist in delivering the active ingredients to the tissue. Suitable penetration enhancers include, but are not limited to: acetone; various alcohols such as ethanol, oleyl, and tetrahydrofuryl; alkyl sulfoxides such as dimethyl sulfoxide; dimethyl acetamide; dimethyl formamide; polyethylene glycol; pyrrolidones such as polyvinylpyrrolidone; Kollidon grades (Povidone, Polyvidone); urea; and various water-soluble or insoluble sugar esters such as Tween 80 (polysorbate 80) and Span 60 (sorbitan monostearate). [0077] The pH of a pharmaceutical composition or dosage form, or of the tissue to which the pharmaceutical composition or dosage form is applied, may also be adjusted to improve delivery of one or more active ingredients. Similarly, the polarity of a solvent carrier, its ionic strength, or tonicity can be adjusted to improve delivery. Compounds such as stearates can also be added to pharmaceutical compositions or dosage forms to advantageously alter the hydrophilicity or lipophilicity of one or more active ingredients so as to improve delivery. In this regard, stearates can serve as a lipid vehicle for the formulation, as an emulsifying agent or surfactant, and as a delivery-enhancing or penetration-enhancing agent. Different salts, hydrates or solvates of the active ingredients can be used to further adjust the properties of the resulting composition. Dosage [0078] The magnitude of the effective dose of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analogs or physiologically salts thereof in the reduction in splanchnic blood flow at the time of radiotracer injection will vary with the severity of the toxicity and the route of administration. The dose, and perhaps the dose frequency, will also vary according to age, body weight, response, and the past medical history of the subject and radiotracer and type of radiation being used in a given myocardial perfusion imaging study. Suitable dosing regimens can be readily selected by those skilled in the art with due consideration of such factors. All combinations described in the specification are encompassed as therapeutic, and it is understood that one of skill in the art would be able to determine a proper dosage of particular somatostatin analog and radiotracer using the parameters provided in the invention. [0079] In general, the total daily dose ranges of somatostatin or the somatostatin analog are generally from about 0.02 mcg/kg to about 10 mcg/kg administered in bolus injection or about 0.02 mcg/kg/hr to about 0.4 mcg/kg/hr administered as a constant infusion. A preferred total dose is from about 20 mcg to about 700 mcg of somatostatin or the somatostatin analog per bolus injection, more preferably about 25 mcg to about 250 mcg, even more preferably about 50 mcg to about 200 mcg, still more preferably about 50 mcg to about 100 mcg. Similarly, a preferred total rate dose for constant infusion is from about 20 mcg/hr to about 400 mcg/hr of somatostatin or the somatostatin analog per infusion, more preferably about 50 mcg/hr to about 250 mcg/hr, even more preferably about 50 mcg/hr to about 150 mcg/hr, still more preferably about 100 mcg/hr. [0080] The total daily dose ranges of somatostatin or the somatostatin analog when administered orally generally range from about 0.001 mg/kg to about 200 mg/kg body weight per day, and preferably from about 0.01 mg/kg to about 20 mg/kg body weight per day. [0081] Alternatively, somatostatin or the somatostatin analog or combination of somatostatin analogs is given as a single bolus injection, followed by a constant infusion. Preferably, somatostatin or the somatostatin analog or combination of somatostatin analogs is given as a single bolus injection up to about 6 hours before administration of the radiotracer, more preferably up to about 2 hours before, even more preferably up to about 1 hour before, still more preferably between about 5 minutes and 30 minutes before. Preferably, the single bolus injection is followed by a constant infusion of the somatostatin analog or combination of somatostatin analogs, which may be the same or different as the analog or analogs administered via bolus injection. Preferably, the constant infusion is begun at the same time as the bolus injection, more preferably from about 15 minutes to about 2 hours before administration of the radiotracer, still more preferably about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes before the administration of the radiotracer. Preferably, the constant infusion is ceased after the accumulation of the final myocardial perfusion imaging scans, more preferably from about 15 minutes to about 2 hours before or after accumulation of the final myocardial perfusion imaging scans. As the somatostatin analogs are not particularly toxic, the formulation may be administered for as long as necessary to achieve the desired effect. [0082] Alternatively still, when administered orally, somatostatin or the somatostatin analog or combination of somatostatin analogs is given up to about 36 hours before administration of the radiotracer, more preferably up to 24 hours before, even more preferably up to about 12 hours before, yet more preferably up to about 6 hours before, still more preferably between about 15 minutes before and about 3 hours before. Imaging Methods [0083] Suitable myocardial perfusion imaging studies can be performed by those of skill in the art of radiology and radioimaging in accordance with generally accepted practices. The myocardial perfusion imaging study, including the source or type of radiation, imaging system and data collection system will vary according to age, body weight, response, and past medical history of the subject. Suitable myocardial perfusion imaging studies can be readily selected by those skilled in the art with due consideration of such factors. [0084] In general, suitable myocardial perfusion imaging studies can be performed by scintigraphy, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging, perfusion contrast echocardiography, digital subtraction angiography (DSA) and ultra fast X-ray computed tomography (CINE CT), or combinations of these techniques. Kits [0085] Typically, active ingredients of the invention are administered to a subject prior to and/or during a myocardial perfusion imaging study. In addition, active ingredients of the invention are administered prior to and/or simultaneously with a radiotracer. This invention therefore encompasses kits which, when used by the medical practitioner, can simplify the administration of appropriate amounts of active ingredients and/or radiotracers to a patient. [0086] A typical kit of the invention comprises one or more unit dosage forms of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analogs, or physiologically acceptable salts thereof, and instructions for use. A kit of the invention may also further comprise a unit dosage form of a radiotracer. Examples of radiotracers include, but are not limited to, those listed above. [0087] Kits of the invention can further comprise devices that are used to administer somatostatin or the somatostatin analog and/or radiotracer. Examples of such devices include, but are not limited to, intravenous cannulation devices, syringes, drip bags, patches, topical gels, pumps, tubing, containers that provide protection from photodegredation, and inhalers. [0088] Kits of the invention can further comprise pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles that can be used to administer one or more active ingredients. For example, if an active ingredient is provided in a solid form that must be reconstituted for parenteral administration, the kit can comprise a sealed container of a suitable vehicle in which the active ingredient can be dissolved to form a particulate-free sterile solution that is suitable for parenteral administration. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable vehicles include, but are not limited to: Water for Injection USP; aqueous vehicles such as, but not limited to, Sodium Chloride Injection, Ringer's Injection, Dextrose Injection, Dextrose and Sodium Chloride Injection, and Lactated Ringer's Injection; water-miscible vehicles such as, but not limited to, ethyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and polypropylene glycol; and non-aqueous vehicles such as, but not limited to, corn oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, sesame oil, ethyl oleate, isopropyl myristate, and benzyl benzoate. [0089] Kits of the invention can further compromise devices and methods that facilitate the simultaneous administration of somatostatin or one or more somatostatin analogs with chemical stress agents such as, but not limited to, adenosine, A2a receptor agonists, dipyridamole or dobutamine. Examples include but are not limited to multiple ports on supplied tubing, salt derivatives of one or more somatostatin analogs designed to be compatible in intravenous delivery tubing with common chemical stress agents or timing devices that automatically switch from one agent to another. [0090] The invention will now be further described by way of the following non-limiting examples. EXAMPLES Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Using Octreotide and Pharmacologic Stress [0091] Fifteen minutes prior to injection of a radiotracer, a bolus injection of 100 mcg octreotide is administered, followed by a constant infusion of 100 mcg per hour for the remainder of the study including rest and stress injections. Adenosine pharmacologic stress is administered as normal without suspension of octreotide. After the final perfusion scan is acquired, octreotide is turned off. [0092] Analysis of myocardial perfusion imaging study is performed as usual except extracardiac uptake of radiotracer as a result of reduced splanchic blood flow are reduced and efficacy of analysis is improved. Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Using Octreotide and Pharmacologic Stress [0093] Ten minutes prior to injection of a radiotracer, a bolus injection of 100 mcg octreotide is administered, rest perfusion images are acquired as normal. Ten minutes prior to adenosine pharmacologic stress, a second 100 mcg octreotide bolus is administered and the stress perfusion scan is acquired as normal. [0094] Analysis of myocardial perfusion imaging study is performed as usual except extracardiac uptake of radiotracer as a result of reduced of splanchic blood flow are reduced and efficacy of analysis is improved. Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Using Lanreotide and Physiologic Stress [0095] Thirty minutes prior to injection of a radiotracer, a bolus injection of 200 mcg lanreotide is administered, followed by a constant infusion of 200 mcg per hour for the remainder of the rest injections. Prior to administration of physiologic treadmill exercise stress, lanreotide is turned off. [0096] Analysis of myocardial perfusion imaging study is performed as usual except extracardiac uptake of radiotracer as a result of reduced of splanchic blood flow are reduced and efficacy of analysis is improved. Kit Designed to Facilitate the Delivery of Periprocedural Octreotide During Myocardial Perfusion Imaging [0097] Unit dosages of 100 mcg octreotide acetate and 200 mcg octreotide acetate are supplied in two separate vial containers of different colors. Two diluent filled syringes, each color coded to the appropriate vial are supplied along with two 1½″ syringe needles, allowing for easy reconstitution of octreotide. A single vial with 200 mcg is reconstituted with 50 cc D5W and supplied tubing is attached to this vial and octreotide drip is begun at the specified rate. In the second vial, 100 mcg octreotide is reconstituted with supplied syringe and needle. Solution is withdrawn and given intravenously as a bolus administration through an auxiliary port in the supplied tubing. All instructions are supplied. Chemical stress agent and radio tracer are then administered through same auxiliary port. Myocardial Perfusion Imaging Comparative Trial [0098] A Randomized, placebo-controlled, double blinded trial for the use of octreotide acetate to suppress subdiaphragmatic uptake in myocardial perfusion imaging is performed. [0099] 40 subjects with recent history of dipyridamole or adenosine myocardial perfusion scan are enrolled. 20 of these subjects have anterior or lateral reversibility. [0100] The subjects are initially randomized into equal groups, one to receive octreotide, the other to receive placebo. [0101] a. Treatment group: 100 mcg octreotide acetate is infused as bolus injection 15 minutes prior to rest images. This is followed by a 100 mcg/hr constant infusion for the remainder of the study. [0102] b. Placebo group: Equivalent volume of saline is infused at identical rate as treatment group. [0103] Blood pressure, heart rate and symptoms are monitored in the standard fashion. Perfusion agent injection and rest images are performed in the standard fashion. Dipyridamole or adenosine stress is infused and stress images acquired in the standard fashion. Octreotide or saline infusion is halted after completion of each imaging study. [0104] Imaging scans are analyzed in the standard fashion. Subdiaphragmatic uptake is rated subjectively as “not present”, “insignificant” or “obscuring” by the reader and a quantitative subdiaphragmatic uptake score is generated. Perfusion study data is read and compared to previous study by three independent readers and the effect of treatment on obscuring artifact is calculated along with the effect on revision of past interpretation of the scan. [0105] Having thus described in detail preferred embodiments of the present invention, it is to be understood that the invention defined by the above paragraphs is not to be limited to particular details set forth in the above description as many apparent variations thereof are possible without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention. REFERENCES [0000] 1. Pawlikowski, M. and G. Melen-Mucha, Somatostatin analogs—from new molecules to new applications . Curr Opin Pharmacol, 2004. 4(6): p. 608-13. 2 . 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The present invention features inter alia polypeptides comprising an Fc region comprising genetically-fused Fc moieties. In addition, the instant invention provides, e.g., methods for treating or preventing a disease or disorder in subject by administering the binding polypeptides of the invention to said subject.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/937,162, filed Feb. 7, 2014, for “Interactive Marketing Game.” Such application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND [0002] Following a number of disruptive changes that have arisen since the commercialization of the Internet, and following the rapid proliferation of smart phones, tablets, social media, and other new channels for marketing to consumers, companies need new and different tools, methods and data to make strategic decisions about how to deploy financial and human resources in a way that achieves optimal marketing results. Marketing scenario planning based on using mass media to promote brands, referred to as above-the-line (ATL) techniques, including TV and radio advertising, print and outdoor media, and web, Internet and mobile banner ads, but which does not consider below-the-line (BTL) techniques, such as direct mail and email marketing campaigns, trade shows and catalogs, and other forms of personalized marketing, and do not consider the underlying operational capabilities necessary to optimize marketing, invariably are less efficient in their use of time, human resources, purchased and manufactured data, and computational resources. Put simply, the old tools, methods and data (from 10 years ago, for example) do not “scale upward” to address the new business problems faced by marketers today. Attempting to use old tools, methods and data to make these strategic decisions increases errors, computer processing time and resource consumption, leading to delays in implementation of improvement initiates, missed opportunities, and poorly optimized computing infrastructure. [0003] Prior generation planning scenario simulation tools and methods do not address the business problems raised by the Internet, connected devices such as smart phones and tablets, and other marketing tools, channels and resources. In addition, the quantity, quality and underlying structure of the data elements needed to make, implement and evaluate the success of optimization initiatives have reached a level of complexity that requires a break from traditional planning scenario and simulation methods, and the adoption of new tools and methods that break from the past. [0004] In Business-to-Consumer (B2C) marketing, the ability to make strategic marketing decisions that lead to improved new customer acquisition, cross-sales and up-sales results, customer retention, revenue growth, customer satisfaction and profit improvement are essential to the success of the company. Yet marketers do not possess the knowledge, skills, data and tools to optimize marketing capabilities in a way that leads to measurable improvements in performance. [0005] Old decision making methods based on direct marketing scenario simulation do not consider the impact of smart phones, the Internet and social media. These methods do not scale in a linear fashion to address multi-product, multi-channel, multi-device, multi-platform direct marketing. There is not a logical progression from single channel scenario simulation to multi-channel scenario simulation. In addition, new tools and methods are needed that incorporate data and decision making approaches that simply did not exist prior to the commercialization of the internet, and prior to the rapid proliferation of smart phones, tablets, and social media. For example, the allocation of budget to marketing expenditures by marketing channel and device platform will result in different marketing results. Any scenario planning approach that does not consider the implications of budget allocation across channels cannot achieve optimal outcomes. Modeling the variables in a singular, sequential fashion produces results that are not optimized, and requires excessive computer processing and resource consumption. Nor does it simultaneously take into consideration the correlative relationships that exist among a larger set of variables. Companies do not have access to the normalized benchmark data that are needed to perform optimization, and to attempt to construct benchmarking exercises independently to fuel decision making requires excessive computer processing and resource consumption. [0006] The lack of a logical progression in marketing outcomes that rises from migrating from single channel scenario simulation to multi-channel scenario simulation is a root cause of computational inefficiency. This inefficiency is created in general computing equipment when methods of data collection are introduced which do not address the conflation that exists between marketing channels. When two or more marketing channels, marketing campaigns, or marketing content (i.e. advertising, messaging, or promotional offer) occurs in different places or in the same place across multiple time intervals, each sharing some characteristics of the another, the outcomes appear to arise from a single marketing capability, and the differences in capability improvement that are needed to improve outcomes with a reliable and measurable degree of predictability appear to become lost. The desired system must anticipate and prevent conflation through a new experimental design that joins, or assembles, qualitative and quantitative data such that scenario simulation is possible using less powerful computational equipment and limited computational cycles. [0007] Further, the ability to market to consumers effectively across devices, channels, platforms and social media sites requires specific marketing capabilities, including capabilities for closed-loop evaluation of the outcomes achieved through investing in the new capabilities. Without the ability to identify the current level of capability maturity for these capabilities, and to model the effectiveness of making improvements to one (or more) capability attributes that must be improved, and in which priority order to improve each particular capability attribute maturity, business executives are unable to conceive of, execute and measure the effectiveness of execution for strategic initiatives that have a demonstrated correlation to improved marketing performance as measured and reported through marketing key performance indicators (KPIs). [0008] What is desired then is a system for collecting, assembling, modifying and evaluating content and data for performing marketing scenario simulation, predicting specific, measurable outcomes that are empirically reproducible, and making, testing, and optimizing specific business decisions surrounding capability improvement programs for marketing to consumers. The desired system should reduce the computational errors that are typically introduced by performing scenario simulation on variables that are not tightly defined and whose scoring is not based on rigidly defined design of experiments (DOE) or experimental design. The method and underlying design of the information-gathering exercises must not introduce variation into the computing process. Where high variation is present, the error rate increases, statistical confidence is reduced, and additional computational cycles are required for the applicable computing resources, or the introduction of more specialized computing equipment is required to achieve the computational objective. A system design that requires additional computing cycles and/or such specialized computing equipment reduces computational efficiency, and limits the adoption of advanced scenario simulation in the post-internet age to only a “privileged few.” [0009] It is not enough that the system generate measurable outcomes that are empirically reproducible, resulting in making, testing, and optimizing specific business decisions surrounding capability improvement programs for marketing to consumers. In addition, the requirements for total cost of ownership (TCO) for such a system must be such that the system can be operated within the technology architecture that is common among companies, and must be capable of operating at high levels of efficiency, low computational cycles, low requirements for redundancy, and at a low error rate. [0010] Progress toward optimizing the actions needed to increase marketing capability is measured by a marketing maturity quotient (MMQ) developed by Acxiom Corporation, and by improvements in specific KPI measurements over time. The MMQ is a comparative index, based on a maximum possible score of 100, for aggregated level of capability maturity across Capabilities, Dimensions, and Attributes, as defined by the Maturity Model Body of Knowledge (BoK) for marketing capabilities. BRIEF SUMMARY [0011] The invention is directed to a system and method by which specific content is collected, assembled, modified and evaluated through an interactive game interface, which in certain embodiments is a collection of web forms facilitating users to enter content and data as prompted, and allowing modification and evaluation by authorized users. The web forms are administered in certain implementations through a custom portal made available on an access-restricted basis to specific users, as recorded in an administrator function within the commercially available Salesforce.com (SFDC) sales automation software platform. Access restrictions prevent any user from viewing, modifying, extracting, or otherwise having any access to direct content and data supplied by another user, unless they have the specific permissions required to do so. [0012] The web forms themselves in various implementations have been designed in various implementations in a way that exposes proprietary content from a Marketing Maturity Model Body of Knowledge (BOK), including Capability definitions, Dimension definitions, Attribute definitions, and definitions for Level of Maturity, specific Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), and the definitions for each KPI. This unique experimental design and methodological approach allows for the collection of data according to an extremely objective and rigorous protocol, especially for qualitative information that is often considered to be ‘softer’, more subjective, and relegated to a position of lesser importance than quantitative data. It is in fact the exacting standards developed to procure and assemble this data that reduces errors and permits it to be incorporated in a normalized database, and thereby facilitates objective comparisons across a wide range of corporate entities, anticipating and preventing conflation through a new experimental design that joins, or assembles, qualitative and quantitative data such that scenario simulation is possible using more widely available computing equipment and limited computational cycles. Assembling the data in this fashion and using it in a software tool predicated on game theory makes the knowledge and experience of many corporations accessible to an individual company. This synergistic effect will become stronger as more corporate users contribute to the body of knowledge. The correlation or joining of quantitative data to qualitative data in a normalized database prior to analysis serves to increase the efficiency of the computing system performing the analysis operations, since fewer clock cycles are required in order to perform an analogous analysis as would be required without this correlation/integration. [0013] The specific content and data collected, assembled, modified and evaluated includes, in certain implementations: [0014] (1) User Supplied Content (USC), or qualitative content, covering the entire domain of multi-product, multi-channel direct marketing, as defined in the Marketing Maturity Model Body of Knowledge (BOK), including Capability definitions, Dimension definitions, Attribute definitions, and definitions for each Level of Maturity, designed such that different marketing capabilities which share some characteristics of one another, and which seem to have a single identity, can be anticipated and removed as a possible future source of computational inefficiency and error; [0015] (2) User Supplied Data (USD), or quantitative outcome-oriented content, also covering the entire domain of multi-product, multi-channel direct marketing and expressed in the form of KPIs, and more particularly, by assigning one or more marketing performance metrics to a grouping of marketing capability attributes, and to a company, or a division of a company that has entered USC or is otherwise associated with USC that has been generated at a specific point in time, covering a specific time period. Point-in-time performance measurements for KPIs used by a company, or a division of a company, indicate that entity's marketing performance, i.e.: the ability of that company to convert human and financial resources, products, brand, goodwill, and other assets into revenue and profit arising from increased customer acquisition, increased customer retention, increased Net Promoter Score (NPS) and increased customer lifetime value (CLTV) or net present value (NPV) at a specific point in time, covering a specific time period; [0016] (3) Modified User Supplied Content (MUSC), is created through the subsequent modification of USC, through the addition of independent External Evidence. MUSC further identifies and emphasizes the contrasts between different marketing capabilities which share some characteristics of one another, and which seem to have a single identity. This conflation in capabilities can be anticipated and removed as a possible future source of computational inefficiency and error by the addition of objective and independent evidence. Since the fusion of distinct subjects tends to obscure analysis of relationships which are otherwise obvious through advanced analytics, failure to identify the contrast between different marketing capabilities produces errors or misunderstandings in predictive relationships. [0017] (4) External Evidence is gathered by the game administrator, and/or by a third-party services provider, such as a professional consultant, business analyst, or market research analyst, whether acting in a paid or un-paid capacity. External evidence can include third-party data and evaluation, and externally observable evidence, such as publically available reports, purchased data, and benchmark data. USC may be modified by the experience of a third-party services provider, such as a professional consultant, business analyst, or market research analyst, whether acting in a paid or un-paid capacity. In alternative implementations, modification of USC to produce MUSC can be automated, or the external evidence used to produce the MUSC can be directly incorporated into the database, such that it is not used or not used only to directly modify the USC, but represents a separate data set. [0018] The collection and assembly of USC and USD, with modification via independent third-party data and evaluation, and externally observable evidence as described is a method for performing scenario simulation leading to hypothesis testing, decision making, measurement of effectiveness of decision implementation, and decision optimization. [0019] The game is based on a (BoK) for marketing capabilities and marketing KPIs, and is accessed through interactive web forms, where players interact with a graphical user interface to enter certain inputs which collectively form individual scenarios or game sessions. Then, based on the methodology, simulations—with a known level of confidence—illustrate the likelihood of achieving certain desired business outcomes or results, following activation of the initiatives that are selected by management as suggested by the game. Once the user acts on the initiatives and measures the outcomes, the outcomes are entered into the game through the same user interface, they become part of the normalized database, and new suggestions are developed, leading to increasing levels of optimization, and improved outcomes over time. The use of the normalized database greatly reduces the computational complexity required for each iteration of the game, thereby improving the performance of the computing system used to implement the system remotely from each of the client organizations that are using that system. [0020] Simulating, predicting, deciding, and measuring the performance improvements that result from the execution of optimized strategies and tactics is essential to the successful management of marketing. To be successful in marketing in the current business climate, marketers need to simulate and test specific predictions—based on a solid empirical foundation—about how customers will respond to specific marketing actions and investments across products, channels, and over time. Outcomes need to be simulated before committing financial and human resources to the creation of new capabilities through new strategic initiatives. The simulation should be done based on an empirical foundation derived from the accumulated results of similar investments made by others, and with a high degree of scientific, repeatable analytical discipline, rather than through guesswork. [0021] In various implementations the invention collects and assembles content and data integrated in a simulation tool that provides marketers a reasoned attempt to predict the behavior of consumers, resulting in measurable business performance improvements (outcomes). It applies in business situations where future results need to be modeled for planning and budgeting purposes, where simulations need to be performed using a system that can be operated within the technology architecture that is common among companies, and must be capable of operating at high levels of efficiency, low computational cycles, low requirements for redundancy, and at a low error rate. [0022] In organizations, (and this is especially true for marketing) business results depend on the responses of others (such as customers, prospects, consumers, etc.) to the choices (also called “scenarios”) made by management. The scenarios represent business investments in individual capabilities, which share some characteristics of one another, and which may seem to have a single identity. Since the fusion of distinct subjects tends to obscure analysis of relationships which are otherwise obvious through advanced analytics, creating contrast between different marketing capabilities during scenario planning reduces computational errors and increases the accuracy and usefulness of the prediction. [0023] Interactive gaming models in various implementations include: (1) a single player; (2) a set of actions that the player can choose (also known as “scenarios”); and (3) the “payoffs” (how much the player will win or lose as a result of each scenario in terms of marketing performance). More complex gaming models allow for: (1) assembly of outcomes from many single-player sessions, using the results of single player sessions to develop benchmarks which apply to all players who are clustered into a single division within a single organization; (2) across multiple divisions of a single organization; (3) across multiple organizations making up an industry group, or (4) across multiple organizations and/or industries in a geography segment; (5) a broader range of scenarios; (6) statistical correlation of expected outcomes (“payoffs”) to user-defined inputs, and (7) the ability to perform closed-loop measurement of activated initiatives across multiple sessions, each corresponding to a specific point in time. As the simulations become more complex and more iterations are run, the computer system efficiencies introduced by the use of the normalized database for collecting and maintaining integrated qualitative and quantitative data become more pronounced. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0024] FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an implementation of the invention to collect, evaluate, modify, and analyze USC, USD, MUSC, and external evidence. [0025] FIG. 2 is a block diagram depicting content collection and distribution in an implementation of the invention. [0026] FIG. 3A is a block diagram depicting a data correlation system according to an implementation of the invention. [0027] FIG. 3B is a selection of displays showing data correlation according to an implementation of the invention. [0028] FIG. 4 is a data diagram showing data correlation according to an implementation of the invention. [0029] FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing a business intelligence topology according to an implementation of the invention. [0030] FIG. 5B is an example of a requirements table with each row of the table representing the correlation of an attribute to its KPI and USD according to an implementation of the invention. [0031] FIG. 5C is an example of a simulation report that displays the highest likelihood simulations of achieving the desired business outcomes key performance indicator (KPI) goals in a certain implementation of the invention. [0032] FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing a process for developing a marketing improvement plan (MIP) according to an implementation of the invention. [0033] FIG. 7 is a KPI pyramid structure according to an implementation of the invention. [0034] FIG. 8 is a diagram showing a prioritization of country sequencing according to an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0035] In certain implementations, the invention is directed to a specific technique for determining, testing, and optimizing the actions needed to increase marketing capability as measured by the marketing maturity quotient (MMQ) and related marketing performance across time as measured by specific key marketing performance indicators (KPIs), which may also be referred to as marketing metrics, for a particular organization or division within an organization are described. User supplied content (USC) is entered by a user. A user is a particular individual acting on behalf of an organization or division within an organization. [0036] The data correlation module of the game has two major components that ultimately produce information that populates other tables: the Body of Knowledge (BoK) represented by the records in the anonymized normalized database, and then all of the information supplied by a new user or authorized third party acting on behalf of a company or company division. Combining (also referred to assembling) these two components is what allows the game to assimilate information from a new user and generate predictions regarding various outcomes and payoffs, as modeled by the user in user defined scenarios, while also providing superior performance in the computing system implementing the invention due to the normalized database. These predictions are incorporated in the production of the Marketing Improvement Plan (MIP). [0037] The normalized database is the repository of information accumulated from many organizations and organization divisions from specified points in time. It contains records of user-supplied information, and subsequent modifications, for all of these entities. These are the values for the attributes associated with particular capabilities and dimensions. As an example, one of the dimensions of the information management capability is collecting on and offline data. One attribute of this dimension pertains to offline data collection and assembly, and like other attributes it is rated on a scale of 1 to 5, where level 1 is the lowest performance and 5 is the highest. This information is available for 81 different attributes in a particular implementation. [0038] The division of marketing capabilities into cascading levels of detail—referred to as dimensions and attributes—reduces the computational errors that are typically introduced when simulation variables are not tightly defined, and whose capability maturity scoring is not based or rigidly defined experimental design. The method and underlying design of the information-gathering exercises must not introduce variability into the computing process. The error rate increases in experiments when high variability is present, statistical confidence is reduced, and additional computational cycles are required for general computing equipment, or specialized computing equipment must be introduced to achieve the computational objective. [0039] The normative database also contains other significant information—including values for other variables representing outcomes and payoffs resulting from the closed loop reporting structure inherent in the game. This database provides the benchmark ability to empirically associate particular inputs with particular outputs, based on similar observations collected with the same protocol across many companies. [0040] Stated another way, the database allows for the creation of predictive (correlative) relationships between an independent variable, or set of variables, and a dependent variable, based on a large number of benchmark observations. These relationships may be of a simple bivariate nature where variable Y is expressed as a function of variable A, or a more complex multivariate situation where variable Y is expressed as a function of variables A, B, C, etc. As noted elsewhere in the text, these functional relationships are not necessarily constrained to a simple linear nature; they may represent significant complex positive and negative non-linear relations between and among variables. Because these predictive relationships are based on many observations, it allows the amount of error (variability) associated with a particular prediction to be specified. Some predictive relationships are weaker than others and are associated with larger error, while others are very strong and have a smaller error component. [0041] Predictive relationships, whether bivariate or multivariate, are predicated on a univariate understanding of the statistical characteristics of individual variables (e.g. attributes). Univariate statistical characterization defines the central tendency and variance of a variable with commonly accepted metrics like mean, median, standard deviation, skewness and so on. It also enables a particular value for one corporate entity to be compared against all of the other companies in the database. A simple example would be how a user entered attribute value compared to the mean and standard deviation value of the same attribute for all or a subset of observations in the database. [0042] The second component of the correlation block is user supplied data. The information supplied by a user for an organization or organization division contains values for the variables in the normalized database, the same type of information previously entered for other organizations. What is initially unknown are the values of payoffs and other outcomes that result from closed-loop reporting of actions that will be taken by the organization in response to specific recommendations created from the game and the management improvement plan (MIP). [0043] On the simplest level, as previously mentioned, it is possible to establish numerically and graphically how the user's organization or organization division benchmarks against other organizations represented in the database on a variable-by-variable basis. But the real power of the game is derived from the predictive relationships inherent amongst the variables in the database, which also contains real measured values of outcomes and payoffs obtained by following the recommended MIP. The game allows predicted values for those payoffs and outcomes, based on the whole body of information present in the normalized database. As previously mentioned these predictions are made with an associated level of confidence. The predictions are used to populate tables used by other game components. [0044] After a new user/organization executes on the MIP, the impact of the actions taken can be expressed in terms of payoffs and other outcomes. These real measures can be recursively added to the particular company's record that becomes part of the normative database as well. Additional information regarding the difference between actual and predicted performance aids in making further predictions calculated from the normative database (NDB) more statistically representative. [0045] Each of the marketing capability attributes defined in the Body of Knowledge (BoK) receives a numeric score of 1-5. The score represents the qualitative content of the user regarding the level of maturity for each attribute at the current time. Levels 1 through 5 which comprise an ordinal scale, or ranking, each have specific definitions for the user to reference as they perform their scoring. Level 1 represents a lower level of performance or sophistication than 5. The user's USC for each of the attributes may be entered for multiple time periods, to create a time series. [0046] USC may be subsequently modified through the addition of independent third-party data and externally observable evidence, such as publically available reports, purchased data, and benchmark data. USC may also be modified by the experience of a third-party services provider, such as a professional consultant, business analyst, or market research analyst, whether acting in a paid or un-paid capacity. When USC is modified by external evidence, it becomes modified user supplied content (MUSC). [0047] The KPIs from the Body of Knowledge (BOK) are selected by the user and the actual measured results for each of the selected KPIs are entered representing a particular point in time. The user's USD measured results for each selected KPI may be entered for multiple time periods, to create a time series. In addition, the user's goal, or target values are entered, for each KPI selected. For each KPI goal or target, a time frame is specified indicating the user's desired time frame for achieving the goal value. For example: 1 year, 2 years, or 3 years. USD may be supplemented through the addition of independent third-party data and externally observable evidence, such as publically available reports, purchased data, and benchmark data. [0048] Based on proprietary techniques, specific actions are suggested in a specific order, which taken together, are indicative of the optimal set of actions needed to be taken by the user at a particular point in time to achieve the users KPI goals. Once the user makes specific elections from the suggestions, a Marketing Improvement Plan (MIP) is published by the game and directed from the remote computing system to the client device for display. The MIP details the specific capability maturity improvements that must be implemented by the user to achieve the users KPI goals. [0049] The user may revisit the MIP in multiple, subsequent game sessions, to update the USC and USD with current-period USC and USD. Following each game session, the MIP may be refreshed with new action optimization suggestions. With each new user session, the underlying statistical relationships become more representative through recursion. [0050] Turning now to FIG. 1 , a block diagram is shown of one embodiment of a system that is configured to collect, evaluate, modify and/or analyze USC, USD, MUSC, and external evidence. The method of collection of user-supplied content, user-supplied data, modified user supplied content, and external evidence are all shown within one high-level illustration. However, in other embodiments, all or a portion of any of the components shown as being included within interactive game interface 100 may be logically placed elsewhere, including being integrated with an existing system of record holding the user supplied content, user supplied data, and/or external evidence. In various embodiments, all or a portion of any one of the components depicted in FIG. 1 may be combined with one or more of the systems and/or components shown in FIG. 1 . [0051] “User supplied content” (USC) 110 refers to specific qualitative content entered by a user. A user is a particular individual acting on behalf of an organization or division within an organization. Each of the marketing capability attribute scores are associated with the particular individual's opinion of the capability maturity for a respective particular one of the attributes, at a particular point in time, using pre-defined standard definitions for capability maturity. The user supplied content is a numeric score from 1-5 representing their qualitative content of the capability maturity for a respective particular one of the attributes. [0052] USC 110 may be received from a large variety of users or sources, including websites of providers, content received from consultants, external analysts or agents, and other purchased sources. Following normalization and anonymization, USC 110 may be displayed to other users as benchmarks stored in NBD 220 , thereby affecting their opinions which they enter as USC 110 . [0053] The commercialization of the Internet has made qualitative data less meaningful and quantitative data more meaningful in business management. As a result, capability maturity models that derive their assessment purely from qualitative data are no longer as desirable as models based on quantitative data. [0054] Techniques and structures described herein allow authors of particular USC 110 items to be identified as being influential and as being “in-market” for business improvement services. These authors may be identified in various fashions, and may have associated contact information such as an email address, phone number, user identification, etc. USC 110 authors may be analyzed for need and fit of business improvement services, considering particular industries and geographies, brands, types of goods or services, categories, and other factors. [0055] Once identified, various actions may be taken with regard to such authors. Demographic data may be used for example, if authors of USC 110 are in-market for services, and are identified as being in leadership positions within their organizations, a service provider may wish to contact them to offer services. [0056] Note that herein, marketing capability maturity and/or marketing performance may be measured, calculated, analyzed, determined, etc., with respect (and without limitation) to any of: an industry, or geography, a product, a service, a brand, a type of product, a group of products (which may or may not be of the same type), a group of brands and/or services, a supplier, a manufacturer, a retailer, (e.g., any provider), and other objects, services, individuals, and entities, revenue, headcount, gross media spend, etc. [0057] Interactive game interface 100 is logically divided into data content collection, marketing capability content, modified user supplied content, Key Performance Indicator content collection, collection of External Evidence, and defined output. In USC 110 , using the interface supplied by interactive game interface 100 , user supplied content (USC) 110 is entered by a user. Each of the marketing capability attribute scores is associated with the individual's opinion of the capability maturity for each attribute, at a particular point in time. [0058] The opinion of the user is collected via a scoring system based on pre-defined standards for capability maturity. The user references the standard definition for each level of maturity supplied by BoK 105 and then enters his or her opinion of the current state of capability maturity for the each attribute. The user's USC 110 for each one of the marketing capability attributes may be entered for multiple time periods—for example, on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis—to create a time series for USC 110 . [0059] In modified user supplied content (MUSC) 120 , using the interface supplied by interactive game interface 100 , USC 110 may be modified through the addition of independent third-party data and externally observable evidence (See external evidence 160 below), such as publically available reports, purchased data, and benchmark data. USC 110 may also be modified by the experience of a third-party services provider, such as a professional consultant, business analyst, or market research analyst, whether acting in a paid or un-paid capacity. When USC 110 is modified by external evidence, it becomes modified user supplied content (MUSC) 120 . [0060] Using the user interface supplied by interactive game interface, USD 130 is entered by a user. A user is a particular individual acting on behalf of an organization or division within an organization. Each of the key performance indicators are entered by the user, and are associated with the particular individual's measured results for a respective particular one of the KPIs, for a particular point in time. The user's measured results for each of the KPIs may be entered for multiple time periods—for example, on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis—to create a time series for measured results. [0061] In external evidence 160 , the addition of independent third-party data and externally observable evidence, such as publically available reports, purchased data, and benchmark data has been applied to modify USC 110 . USC 110 may also be modified by the experience of a third-party services provider/content reviewer, such as a professional consultant, business analyst, or market research analyst, whether acting in a paid or un-paid capacity. When USC 110 is modified by external evidence 160 , it becomes modified user supplied content (MUSC) 120 . [0062] In defined output 180 , using the interactive game interface 100 business rules and instructions are entered by a user to determine the KPI improvement that is desired and define the correlation method and output. [0063] Turning now to FIG. 2 — 140 Content Management, a block diagram is shown in more detail by which content, data and third-party data and evidence are received from interactive game interface 100 and normalized benchmark database (NDB) 220 and distributed to other systems through data correlation method 210 . In interface 141 , a user interface is supplied to facilitate the entry of USC 110 by a user, the addition of independent third-party data and externally observable evidence by a user or by a system administrator, and the entry of user supplied data (USD) 130 by a user. The user interface also allows for anonymous conversations between users through comments, questions and feedback. In matching 142 , a matching logic is illustrated. All USC, USD, and external evidence is matched to user id, session id, date/time, company id, division id, capability id, dimension id, and attribute id. In incorporation 143 , software code is illustrated to incorporate the display of context-sensitive help screens that are presented to the user to increase the validity of USC 110 , as well as to assist the user navigate the interactive features of the game. [0064] The “validity” of an individual USC 110 element is defined by the intercoder reliability that is inherent to the methodology. For example, validity is measured by the degree of correlation to NPS (Net Promoter Score), and the percentage change that is seen in the individual USC 110 element following the introduction of external evidence. NPS is a known management tool that can be used to gauge the loyalty of a company's customer relationships. Other such tools are known and can be used in alternative implementations. [0065] In event handler 144 , an event handler coordinates and verifies user identity, user permissions, user input, user actions, and browser actions, including the actions that must be performed every time a page loads, actions that must be performed when the page is closed, and actions that must be performed when a user clicks a button. [0066] In extract/transform/load module 145 , a process of extracting external evidence data from pre-defined source systems and/or data tables and bringing it into the data storage utility, maintaining the data, and making it available to other system processes, is illustrated. [0067] In user session data/access administration module 146 , software code is illustrated to facilitate the access and permissions of authorized users for the game. [0068] Accordingly, content collecting and distribution system 140 interfaces with normalized benchmark data 220 that includes all content and data generated from various sources. USC and USD may be stored with a variety of metadata including user identification(s) for users, or identification of a web site from which external evidence was sourced. Other information besides content of USC, USD and external evidence may be determined based on a user's actions (such as the number or revisions submitted by the user, or other factors, scores, and/or metrics as discussed herein). [0069] Content collection and distribution system 140 may also maintain a set of user data, which may include information on individual users who have submitted USC 110 and USD 130 . Such information may include session id information, user names, email addresses, and any other information for a user. [0070] Turning now to FIG. 3 A—Data Correlation Method, a diagram is shown by which user content, user data and user defined output are utilized to calculate output (tables, metrics and reports). From 180 , business rules and instructions, which have been defined by user and are used by the correlation method and to determine which report(s) output or optimized scenarios, are received within content management system 140 . From content management system 140 , it takes the instructions and business rules and in turn informs NDB 220 of required data variables to be utilized within data correlation method 210 . Variables from NDB 220 embody MMQ, KPIs, metrics, and other user defined/supplied information; however, are not limited to those variables. [0071] Correlation method 210 combines USC 110 , USD 130 , external evidence 160 , MUSC 150 , and NBD 220 to calculate tables, metrics, and reports to produce output 310 comprising correlated USC/MUSC/USD/NDB data 310 . [0072] Turning now to FIG. 3 B—Correlation Method Output, identifies examples, but not limited to the examples displayed, of potential outputs from the data correlation method, 210 , as displayed to a user at a client device. The correlation output presents the findings and calculations of correlation method 210 in a manner that provides optimized predictive scenarios from the data. [0073] Turning now to FIG. 4 —Data Correlation, a block diagram is shown by which content, data and third-party data and evidence are received from a user and distributed to other systems. From 211 , information supplied by a user acting on behalf of an organization or organization division contains values for variables present in the normalized database. This portion of a record shows that on a particular date/time User 123 from Company 1 , Division 1 entered a value for user supplied content attribute 1 , KPI user supplied data, and the target goal for KPI 1 , and the time frame in which it will be achieved. From 160 external evidence it shows that attribute 1 was modified based on external evidence. [0074] From 212 , the partial record for 211 from the normalized database, which is derived from 220 NDB, shows the value for attribute 1 and the attribute 1 gap, which is the difference between the actual value and the target. It also holds values for variables KPI 1 , MMQ, outcome 1 , and payoffs 3 and 4 . [0075] From 213 , the partial records represented for 212 and 213 show the same information as contained in record 211 , though populated with specific values for those particular corporate entities. These are vastly simplified representations of all the records in the NDB in certain implementations. What is important to note is that the records in the NDB contain all of the same information contributed by User 123 shown in 211 , but in addition they contain values for various outcomes and payoffs resulting from taking actions presented in the Marketing Improvement Plan (MIP). These latter values are not present with the initial harvesting of information from User 123 . From 214 , records 213 to 214 are shown as elements within NDB 220 . [0076] Turning now to FIG. 5 —Business Intelligence, a block diagram is shown by which correlated content and data are received from data correlation method 210 and augmented with business intelligence 320 to then be supplied to marketing improvement plan (MIP) 330 for the creation and publication of an improvement plan to a user through a client device from a remote marketing capabilities computer system. The correlation of USC 110 and USD 130 as described is a rigorous and objective, unique and non-obvious method for establishing the priorities needed for specific business improvements, for the user to achieve the desired outcomes identified as KPI goals. In 310 —Correlated USC/MUSC/USD/NDB data are assembled in an automated fashion in a requirements table (FIG. 5 -B—Requirements Table, sample), which may also be known as a Capability Attribute Traceability Matrix, with each row of the table representing the correlation of a specific capability attribute with its USC and MUSC scores, to its KPI and USD for that specific KPI. Capability attribute number, name, USC, MUSC, target score KPI name, KPI goal, or and USD are each stored in a separate column within the table, corresponding to each row for a specific capability attribute. In 320 —Business Intelligence, the requirements table created in 310 is augmented with an adjacent column, where the frequency of occurrence for each attribute is counted, recorded and multiplied by the numeric gap between MUSC score and target score. This result is called the weighted attribute value. [0077] The weighted attribute value for each attribute is stored in a second table, called the summary requirements table. Scenarios for improvements needed to attain KPI goals are derived by sequencing the rows of the summary requirements table by priority, with priority being determined based on capability and weighted attribute value. Specific actions are presented in a specific order, which taken together, are indicative of the optimal set actions needed to be taken by the user at a particular point in time to achieve the users KPI goals. The improvement actions needed are displayed from highest priority to lowest priority in a simulation report for user review at the client device. The simulation report (FIG. 5 -C—Simulation Report, sample) displays the highest likelihood simulations, defined as the simulation with the highest likelihood to achieve goal, or target value, and illustrates the likelihood of achieving the desired business outcomes (KPI goals), following the implementation of the improvement initiatives suggested in the simulation. Also included are the potential impact—defined as contribution to value goal, and potential effort—defined as the relative cost for each improvement initiative. [0078] Turning now to FIG. 6 —Marketing Improvement Plan, a block diagram is shown illustrating the method by which USC 110 , MUSC 120 , USD 130 , and external evidence 160 are analyzed to develop a unique business improvement plan tailored specifically to the user's inputs and goals. At marketing improvement plan (MIP) 330 , a user reviews the requirements table 310 , and the summary requirements table 320 , along with the simulation report 320 which displays the simulation having the highest likelihood for achieving goal values within the specific time period. [0079] Using the Interactive Game Interface supplied by 100 , the user makes selections within the web form, indicating which attributes will be improved, in which specific order, and the degree of maturity to be attained within a defined time period. Once the user makes user selections, the Marketing Improvement Plan (MIP) 330 is published on-screen to the user at the client device, along with the calculated confidence percentage of attaining goal values within the selected time period. The MIP 330 details the specific capability maturity improvements that must be implemented by the user to achieve the users' KPI goals. In addition the MIP illustrates optimal sequencing of improvement initiatives; business case metrics showing the likely economic outcomes form optimization; capability benchmarks showing maturity level before and after optimization; and KPI benchmarks showing KPI measurements before and after optimization. In this way, MIP 330 comes from user decisions regarding specific outputs that are developed by the game and discussed above, which, taken together, address the needs of marketing executives in the modern era, including: (1) attainment of KPI targets, (2) optimization of improvement initiatives, and (3) reductions in computer processing time and resource consumption. [0080] Once the user acts on the initiatives and measures the outcomes, the outcomes are entered into the game through interactive game interface 100 , and, following the method described above, new scenarios are developed, leading to increasing levels of optimization, and improved outcomes. After a user executes on the MIP 330 , the impact of the actions taken can be expressed in terms of payoffs and other outcomes. These real measures can be recursively added to the particular company's record that becomes part of the normative database. Additional information regarding the difference between actual and predicted performance aids in making further predictions calculated from the NDB 220 more statistically representative. This approach, also known as closed-loop measurement, facilitates the evaluation of progress and is used to make new suggestions for the future, with a high degree of confidence that, once the suggestions are activated, the desired outcomes will be achieved. [0081] Measured outcomes are stored in NDB 220 based on a data model that allows identification of each data element based on user id, session id, company id, department or division within company, and USC, USD, MUSC, and external evidence element id. Based on this data model, USC, USD, MUSC and external evidence from many different game sessions may be stored in the database and used for modeling. [0082] Because this data model and database are hosted off-premise from the user, and maintained in a centralized, secure, internet cloud architecture, the marketing capabilities computer processing and resource consumption from an individual user are dramatically reduced, and total computer processing and resource consumption is optimized across many users and user sessions. [0083] The user may revisit MIP 330 in multiple, subsequent game sessions, to update the USC and USD with current period USC and USD. Following each game session, MIP 330 may be refreshed with new action optimization suggestions. With each new user session, the underlying statistical associations become more statistically representative at a higher level of confidence. [0084] Turning now to FIG. 7 , the KPI Pyramid is used to illustrate the body of knowledge (BoK) for marketing performance. The framework enables benchmarking of marketing performance (i.e.; not just marketing capability). Current and target KPIs required for game play are organized into a specific hierarchy for marketing performance known as the KPI pyramid. Current and target Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) are organized into a logical hierarchy, from top to bottom, with customer value organized at the top of the hierarchy. The KPIs that are accretive to customer value are organized logically below, and make up the body of the pyramid. The individual KPIs that are depicted on the screen are an illustration of the entire BoK for marketing KPIs. The BOK contains the full set of KPIs that are available to players of the game. An individual simulation session may include some, or all, of the KPIs, as determined by the simulation player in defining game scenarios. [0085] During simulation, the player enters the current and target KPIs, and KPI measurements (values). These data elements are essential in certain implementations to game play. The KPI Pyramid is used as an element in the methodology, which connects marketing KPIs with marketing maturity capabilities. The simulation leverages all of the elements of this invention described above, as well as the architecture that is illustrated. [0086] Turning now to FIG. 8 —Prioritized Country Sequencing a table diagram is shown illustrating the optimal sequencing of improvement initiatives, and the metrics showing the likely outcomes from optimization. The data correlation module ( FIG. 4 ) has two major components that ultimately produce information that populates other tables, including FIG. 8 —Prioritized Country Sequencing: (1) the Body of Knowledge (BOK) represented by the records in the anonymized normalized database NDB 220 , and (2) all of the information supplied by a user or authorized third party acting on behalf of a company or company division. Combining these two components is what allows the game to assimilate information from a user and generate predictions regarding various outcomes and payoffs [0087] The present invention has been described with reference to the foregoing specific implementations. These implementations are intended to be exemplary only, and not limiting to the full scope of the present invention. Many variations and modifications are possible in view of the above teachings. The invention is limited only as set forth in the appended claims. All references cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the extent not inconsistent with the disclosure herein. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, flows depicted herein do not require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. In addition, other steps may be provided, or steps may be eliminated, from the described flows, and other components may be added to, or removed from, the described systems. Accordingly, other implementations are within the scope of the following claims. Any disclosure of a range is intended to include a disclosure of all ranges within that range and all individual values within that range.

An interactive web-based marketing simulation game relying on a proprietary body of knowledge (BoK), techniques and methods allows marketing business leaders to simulate the likely outcomes arising from strategic choices made by the user or by management. A tool enabling modification to create evidence-based, objectively validated modified user data to increase the confidence in the predictability of the outcomes arising from strategic choices enables anonymous conversations between users through comments, questions and feedback. The result is a management planning and decision support tool capable of suggesting to the user that the user activate certain specific initiatives in a specific order to achieve desired outcomes within a desired timeframe.

This is a division, of application Ser. No. 917,038 issued 11/13/79 filed on June 19, 1978 now U.S. Pat. No. 4,174,209. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention belongs to the field of agricultural chemistry, and provides new herbicides, herbicidal methods and herbicidal compositions. Since the discovery of 2,4-D in the 1940's, research in herbicides has been conducted at a high pitch and with excellent results in many fields. Herbicides are now in demand and in wide use for killing and controlling weeds growing in cropland, and also for the control of unwanted vegetation of all kinds, such as on fallow land and industrial property. Paraquat, 1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium ion, usually used as the dichloride, is an excellent quick-acting contact herbicide. It is chemically quite remote from the compounds of the present invention. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention provides new compounds of the formula ##STR1## wherein R represents methyl or ethyl; R 1 represents halo, methoxy, C 1 -C 4 alkylthio, benzylthio or dimethylamino; R 2 represents hydrogen, phenoxy, phenylthio, C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 4 alkoxy, C 1 -C 4 alkylthio, phenyl or phenyl monosubstituted with chloro, bromo, fluoro, trifluoromethyl, C 1 -C 3 alkyl or C 1 -C 3 alkoxy; R 3 represents C 1 -C 3 alkyl, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, trifluoromethyl, chloro, fluoro or bromo; E represents an anion capable of forming a pyridinium salt; and n represents an integer of 1 to 3. The invention also provides a method of reducing the vigor of unwanted herbaceous plants which comprises contacting the plants with a herbicidally-effective amount of a compound described above, and herbicidal compositions which comprise an agriculturally-acceptable carrier and a compound described above. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT In the above formulae, the general chemical terms are used in their usual meanings in the organic chemical art. For example, the term halo refers to bromo, chloro, fluoro and iodo. The terms C 1 -C 4 alkyl, C 1 -C 4 alkoxy, C 1 -C 4 alkylthio, C 1 -C 3 alkyl and C 1 -C 3 alkoxy refer to such groups as methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, butyl, t-butyl, methoxy, ethoxy, isopropoxy, t-butoxy, s-butoxy, methylthio, ethylthio, propylthio, isobutylthio and butylthio. As organic chemists will understand, the anions used in the present compounds include any and all anions, having valences from 1 to 3, which are capable of forming pyridinium salts. Typical illustrative anions include such as chloride, bromide, iodide, fluoride, trifluoromethanesulfonate, methanesulfonate, fluorosulfonate, sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, phenylsulfonate, phenylsulfonate substituted with C 1 -C 3 alkyl or alkoxy groups, particularly toluenesulfonate, nitrate, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate, monosodiumsulfonate, mono- or disodium phosphate, and the like. Thus, it will be understood that multivalent anions such as sulfate, phosphate and the like may have one or more cations associated with them, as for example protons or alkali metal cations. It will further be understood that, when the anion is multiply charged, as the sulfate anion for example, each anion will be associated with an appropriate number of pyridinium radicals. For example, in the case of the sulfate anion, two pyridinium radicals are associated with each sulfate anion. Agricultural chemists will immediately understand that the addition of commonly-used substituents to the compounds of this invention may be expected to produce active compounds equivalent to those explicitly described herein. For example, such substituents as halogen atoms, C 1 -C 3 alkoxy, alkylthio and alkyl groups, and trifluoromethyl groups, as well as functional groups such as hydroxy, alkoxycarbonyl and cyano groups, may be added to the compounds. In particular, phenoxy and phenylthio R 2 groups may be substituted with such groups, particularly with halogen atoms, methyl and methoxy groups and trifluoromethyl groups, with the expectation of producing pyridinium salts equivalent in activity to the other compounds described herein. It will be understood that the present invention may be practiced in a number of different ways, making use of various subclasses of compounds within the scope of this invention. For example, the following subclasses of compounds are contemplated, both as new compositions of matter and for use in the herbicidal methods and compositions of this invention. Each numbered subparagraph below describes an independent subclass of compounds of the invention; in each subclass, the variable substituents have the general meanings above if not otherwise stated. Compounds wherein: 1. R 1 represents halo; 2. R 1 represents methoxy or methylthio; 3. R 1 represents halo, methylthio or methoxy; 4. R 1 represents dimethylamino; 5. R 2 represents hydrogen, phenoxy, phenylthio, phenyl or substituted phenyl; 6. R 2 represents hydrogen, alkyl, alkoxy or alkylthio; 7. R 2 represents phenoxy, phenylthio, phenyl or substituted phenyl; 8. R 2 represents alkyl, alkoxy or alkylthio; 9. R 2 represents alkyl, phenyl or phenyl monosubstituted with chloro, bromo, fluoro, trifluoromethyl, methyl or methoxy; 10. R 3 represents methyl, methoxy, trifluoromethyl, chloro, fluoro or bromo; 11. the anion is halide, trifluoromethanesulfonate, methanesulfonate or toluenesulfonate; 12. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1 and 5; 13. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1 and 6; 14. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1 and 7; 15. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1 and 8; 16. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1 and 9; 17. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1 and 10; 18. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1 and 11; 19. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2 and 5; 20. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2 and 6; 21. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2 and 7; 22. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2 and 8; 23. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2 and 9; 24. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2 and 10; 25. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2 and 11; 26. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3 and 5; 27. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3 and 6; 28. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3 and 7; 29. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3 and 8; 30. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3 and 9; 31. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3 and 10; 32. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3 and 11; 33. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4 and 5; 34. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4 and 6; 35. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4 and 7; 36. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4 and 8; 37. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4 and 9; 38. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4 and 10; 39. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4 and 11; 40. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 5 and 10; 41. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 5 and 11; 42. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 6 and 10; 43. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 6 and 11; 44. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 7 and 10; 45. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 7 and 11; 46. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 8 and 10; 47. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 8 and 11; 48. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 9 and 10; 49. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 9 and 11; 50. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 10 and 11; 51. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 5 and 10; 52. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 6 and 10; 53. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 7 and 10; 54. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 8 and 10; 55. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 9 and 10; 56. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 5 and 10; 57. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 6 and 10; 58. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 7 and 10; 59. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 8 and 10; 60. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 9 and 10; 61. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 5 and 10; 62. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 6 and 10; 63. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 7 and 10; 64. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 8 and 10; 65. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 9 and 10; 66. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 5 and 10; 67. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 6 and 10; 68. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 7 and 10; 69. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 8 and 10; 70. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 9 and 10; 71. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 5, 10 and 11; 72. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 6, 10 and 11; 73. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 7, 10 and 11; 74. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 8, 10 and 11; 75. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 9, 10 and 11; 76. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 5, 10 and 11; 77. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 6, 10 and 11; 78. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 7, 10 and 11; 79. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 8, 10 and 11; 80. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 1, 9, 10 and 11; 81. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 5, 10 and 11; 82. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 6, 10 and 11; 83. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 7, 10 and 11; 84. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 8, 10 and 11; 85. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 2, 9, 10 and 11; 86. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 5, 10 and 11; 87. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 6, 10 and 11; 88. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 7, 10 and 11; 89. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 8, 10 and 11; 90. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 3, 9, 10 and 11; 91. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 5, 10 and 11; 92. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 6, 10 and 11; 93. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 7, 10 and 11; 94. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 8, 10 and 11; 95. the compounds as described by subparagraphs 4, 9, 10 and 11; A number of compounds typical of the invention will be named, to assure that agricultural chemists understand and can obtain the compounds of this invention. 4-chloro-1-ethyl-3-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(3-propylphenyl)pyridinium sulfate 4-bromol-ethyl-3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(4-ethylphenyl)pyridinium chloride 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenoxy-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium hydrogen sulfate 3-(3-ethoxyphenyl)-4-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium phosphate 4-dimethylamino-1-ethyl-3-phenylthio-5-(3-propoxyphenyl)pyridinium phenylsulfonate 3-ethoxy-1-ethyl-4-iodo-5-(3-isopropylphenyl)pyridinium fluoride 3-butoxy-1-ethyl-5-(3-fluorophenyl)-4-methylthiopyridinium nitrate 4-bromo-3-ethyl-1-methyl-5-(3-methylphenyl)pyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate 4-chloro-1-ethyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-propylphenyl)pyridinium iodide 1-ethyl-3-(s-butylthio)-4-fluoro-5-(3-methoxyphenyl)pyridinium hydrogen phosphate 1-ethyl-3-(2-fluorophenyl)-4-dimethylamino-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium methanesulfonate 3-(3-bromophenyl)-4-dimethylamino-1-methylpyridinium p-toluenesulfonate 3-(3-ethylphenyl)-1-ethyl-4-methoxy-5-(2-propylphenyl)pyridinium potassium sulfate 3-(3-chlorophenyl)-1-ethyl-4-methylthio-5-phenoxypyridinium disodium phosphate 4-chloro-3-(3-fluorophenyl)-1-methyl-5-propylpyridinium bromide 4-bromo-3-methoxy-1-methyl-5-(3-propoxyphenyl)pyridinium hydrogen sulfate 3-(3-bromophenyl)-4-iodo-1-methyl-5-phenylthiopyridinium nitrate 3-(3-ethylphenyl)-4-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium bromide 4-bromo-3-(3-methylphenyl)-1-methyl-5-phenylthiopyridinium p-ethylphenylsulfonate 3-isopropylthio-4-methoxy-5-(3-methoxyphenyl)-1-methylpyridinium dihydrogen phosphate 3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(3-isopropoxyphenyl)-1-ethyl-4-methylthiopyridinium lithium sulfate 4-dimethylamino-1-ethyl-3-(3-ethoxyphenyl)-5-phenoxypyridinium ethanesulfonate 3-(2-bromophenyl)-5-(3-chlorophenyl)-4-dimethylamino-1-ethylpyridinium fluoride 3-(3-isopropoxyphenyl)-5-isopropyl-4-methoxy-1-methylpyridinium sulfate 4-chloro-1-ethyl-3-(3-ethylphenyl)pyridinium methanesulfonate 4-bromo-3-isobutyl-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium hydrogen phosphate 4-fluoro-3 -(3-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-methylphenyl)-1-methylpyridinium dihydrogen phosphate 4-iodo-3-isobutyl-1-methyl-5-(3-propylphenyl)pyridinium potassium sulfate 1-methyl-4-methylthio-3-phenylthio-5-(3-propoxyphenyl)pyridinium phenylsulfonate 3-(3-bromophenyl)-5-(4-ethoxyphenyl)-4-fluoro-1-methylpyridinium nitrate 4-dimethylamino-3-(3-ethoxyphenyl)-1-ethyl-5-(3-isopropoxyphenyl)pyridinium fluoride 4-bromo-1-ethyl-3-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)5-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium chloride 4-iodo-1,3-dimethyl-5-(3-propylphenyl)pyridinium phosphate 4-bromo-1-ethyl-3-(2-isopropylphenyl)-5-(3-isopropylphenyl)pyridinium phenylsulfonate 4-chloro-1-ethyl-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium fluoride 1-ethyl-4-fluoro-3-(3-methylphenyl)-5-phenoxypyridinium chloride 1-ethyl-4-iodo-3-(3-isopropylphenyl)-5-(3-propoxyphenyl)pyridinium disodium phosphate 3-(t-butoxy)-1-ethyl-4-methoxy-5-(3-propoxyphenyl)pyridinium nitrate 3-butyl-1-ethyl-4-iodo-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium hydrogen phosphate 3-(t-butyl)-4-chloro-5-(3-ethylphenyl)-1-methylpyridinium m-ethylphenylsulfonate The compounds of this invention are made by processes which are modifications of known organic chemical methods. Most of the compounds are most readily made from correspondingly 3- and 5-substituted 4(1H)-pyridinones. Such pyridinones are the subject of U.S. Pat. No. 4,152,136 issued May 1, 1979, and the synthesis of such pyridinones is fully described in the patent. The disclosure of U.S. Pat. No. 4,152,136 is incorporated herein by reference as a teaching of how to prepare the starting materials used in the synthesis of the compounds of this invention. The compounds of this invention wherein R 1 represents halo are easily made from the corresponding 1-unsubstituted 4(1H)-pyridinone. The 4-position of the pyridinone is first halogenated with any convenient halogenating agent, such as phosphorus oxychloride, phosgene, phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorus oxybromide, and the like. The halogenation goes best in the presence of a catalyst such as dimethylaniline or dimethylformamide. The halogenations are carried out in an inert solvent, such as chloroform, diethyl ether or simply in excess halogenating agent. Temperatures from 0° C. to 50° C. are appropriate but the reflux temperature of the reaction mixture is usually the best reaction temperature. The nitrogen atom of the pyridine ring is then quaternized. Reagents such as methyl iodide, ethyl chloride, methyl bromide and ethyl fluoride readily react with the 4halopyridine to form the desired pyridinium salts. Usually, the reactions are carried out at room temperature although elevated temperatures up to the reflux temperature of the mixture are satisfactory. Inert reaction solvents including the halogenated solvents, the alcohols, the ethers and the like may be used. Other useful alkylating agents include methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate, methyl fluorosulfonate, methyl methanesulfonate, methyl p-toluenesulfonate and dimethyl sulfate. The nitrate salt may be obtained from a halide salt and silver nitrate. The compounds having 4-methoxy and methylthio groups are most readily made from the corresponding 1-substituted pyridinone or pyridinethione. The starting compound is reacted with a methylating agent to form the pyridinium derivative. For example, methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate is a particularly useful methylating agent, producing trifluoromethanesulfonate pyridinium salts. The formiminium halide route for the preparation of pyridinone starting compounds is particularly useful. A Villsmeier reagent prepared from dimethylformamide and phosgene is used. A solvent is generally used in the reaction of the starting 2-propanone with the Villsmeier reagent, and brief reaction times at the reflux temperature of the reaction mixture are appropriate. The aminoformylated propanone is then reacted with ammonia or ammonium hydroxide to form the 1-unsubstituted pyridine having either a 4-chloro or a 4-dimethylamino substituent. Some of each product is usually formed. The 1-unsubstituted pyridine is then N-alkylated as described above. The various reaction steps described above are carried out in the usual inert reaction solvents. No catalysts or unusual operating conditions are required. Alkanes such as hexane, aromatics such as benzene and toluene, ethers such as tetrahydrofuran, diethyl ether and diisopropyl ether, and halogenated solvents such as chloroform and methylene chloride are all appropriate. The alkylation steps are particularly advantageously performed in chloroform. The following specific preparative examples are provided as assistance to the chemist, to assure that all of the compounds of this invention are readily accessible. In the examples below, the products were identified by elemental microanalysis, thin layer chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance analysis, infrared analysis, ultraviolet analysis and mass spectroscopy as was required or convenient in each case. All temperatures in the examples below are on the Celsius scale. EXAMPLE 1 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-pyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate A 556 g. portion of 1-phenyl13-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)2-propanone was added to 4000 ml. of tetrahydrofuran containing 284 g. of sodium methoxide at 10°-15°. The addition was carried out over a 20 minute period with constant stirring while the temperature was held below 15°, and the mixture was then stirred for 15 minutes more. Then 370 g. of ethyl formate was added over a 30 minute period, and the complete mixture was stirred 1 hour more at 10°-15°. A second portion of 296 g. of ethyl formate was then added slowly and the mixture was stirred overnight while it was allowed to warm to room temperature. A solution of 336 g. of methylamine hydrochloride in 1300 ml. of water was then added, and the mixture was stirred for 1/2 hour more. The phases were then allowed to separate, and the organic layer was concentrated under vacuum. The residue was dissolved in methylene chloride, dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to an oil, which weighed 723 g. The oil was added to 4000 ml. of tetrahydrofuran, 284 g. of sodium methoxide was added, and the process described above was repeated, using the same weights of ethyl formate and of methylamine hydrochloride. The oily residue obtained from evaporation of the reaction mixture was dissolved in methylene chloride, washed with water and dried over sodium sulfate. The methylene chloride was evaporated under vacuum, and the residue crystallized upon standing. A small amount of diethyl ether was added to form a thick slurry which was chilled overnight. Filtration of the chilled slurry produced 430 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone, m.p. 153°. A 3.2 g. portion of the above intermediate pyridinone was combined with 1.8 g. of methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate in 50 ml. of methylene chloride. The mixture was allowed to stand for 3 days, and was then evaporated under vacuum to a glassy residue. The residue was taken up in chloroform and recrystallized by the addition of diethyl ether to produce 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate, m.p. 126°-127°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 51.12% 50.42%H 3.47 3.72N 2.84 2.94______________________________________ EXAMPLE 2 3-(3-bromophenyl)-4-methoxy-1-methyl-5-phenylpyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate A 10 g. portion of 3-(3-bromophenyl)-1-methyl-5-phenyl-4(1H)-pyridinone was made from 22 g. of the corresponding 2-propane as described in Example 1. A 3.4 g. portion of the intermediate pyridinone was dissolved in chloroform and 1.8 g. of methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate was added. The reaction mixture was allowed to stand overnight, and the volatile portions were then evaporated under vacuum. The residue was identified as 3-(3-bromophenyl)-4-methoxy-1-methyl-5-phenylpyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate, molecular weight 339 by mass spectroscopy. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 47.36% 47.42%H 3.40 3.54N 2.78 3.05______________________________________ EXAMPLE 3 4-chloro-3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide A 10 g. portion of 1-(3-chlorophenyl)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-2-propanone was reacted with 20 ml. of dimethylformamide dimethylacetal overnight at reflux temperature. In the morning, volatile portions of the reaction mixture were removed under vacuum, and the residue was dissolved in 50 ml. of denatured ethanol. Twenty ml. of concentrated ammonium hydroxide was added to the ethanol solution, and the mixture was refluxed for 6 hours. The alkaline mixture was cooled and filtered, and the solid product was thoroughly washed with chloroform to produce 10 g. of 3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(-4-chlorophenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone. Eight g. of the pyridinone was combined with 25 ml. of phosphorus oxychloride and 1 ml. of dimethylformamide, and was stirred at reflux temperature for 3 hours. Volatile materials were then removed from the mixture under vacuum, and the residue was dissolved in chloroform and poured into a large amount of water. The organic layer was separated, washed with water and evaporated to dryness under vacuum. The residue was recrystallized from chloroform-hexane to produce 4 g. of 4-chloro-3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)pyridine. A 2 g. portion of the above pyridine was dissolved in 10 ml. of chloroform, and 10 ml. of methyl iodide was added. The mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for 4 days. The reaction mixture was filtered, and the solids were washed with chloroform-hexane. The dried washed product was identified as 4-chloro-3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide, m.p. 214°-217°, yield 2.1 g. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 45.37% 45.56%H 2.75 2.92N 2.94 3.07______________________________________ EXAMPLE 4 4-chloro-3-(3-fluorophenyl)-1-methyl-5-phenylpyridinium iodide Twelve g. of 1-(3-fluorophenyl)-3-phenyl-2-propanone was reacted with dimethylformamide dimethylacetal and ammonium hydroxide as in Example 3 to prepare 8.6 g. of 3-(3-fluorophenyl)-5-phenyl-4(1H)-pyridinone. A 7.5 g. portion of the pyridinone was chlorinated with 25 ml. of phosphorus oxychloride in the presence of 1.5 ml. of dimethylformamide as in Example 3 to produce 2.5 g. of 4-chloro-3-(3-fluorophenyl)-5-phenylpyridine. Two g. of the chloropyridine was mixed with 10 ml. of methyl iodide in 50 ml. of chloroform and allowed to stand for 5 days. The volatile portions of the mixture were then removed under vacuum, and the solid residue was crystallized from chloroform-diethyl ether. The product was identified as 2.5 g. of 4-chloro-3-(3-fluorophenyl)-1-methyl-5-phenylpyridinium iodide, m.p. 195°-197°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 50.79% 50.71%H 3.32 3.23N 3.29 3.58______________________________________ EXAMPLE 5 4-chloro-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide Following the scheme of Example 3, 12 g. of 1-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-propanone was reacted with diemthylformamide dimethyl acetal and ammonium hydroxide to form 8 g. of the corresponding 1-unsubstituted pyridinone. Seven g. of the pyridinone was chlorinated with phosphorus oxychloride to prepare 5.4 g. of the corresponding 4-chloropyridine, 2 g. of which was alkylated and quaternized with 10 ml. of methyl iodide to obtain 1.5 g. of 4-chloro-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 251°-254°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 44.74% 44.99%H 2.57 2.49N 2.75 2.89______________________________________ EXAMPLE 6 4-chloro-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide The scheme of Example 3 was used, starting with 14 g. of 1 -phenyl-3-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-propanone which was cyclized with dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal and ammonium hydroxide to prepare 9.7 g. of 3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone. Eight grams of the pyridinone was chlorinated with phosphorus oxychloride to obtain 3 g. of the corresponding 4-chloropyridine, of which 2 g. was reacted with methyl iodide to prepare 1 g. of 4-chloro-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 184°-186°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 49.40% 48.90%H 3.03 3.15N 3.03 3.21______________________________________ EXAMPLE 7 4-chloro-3,5-bis(3-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide The scheme of Example 3 was again used, starting with 8 g. of 1,3-bis(3-chlorophenyl)-2-propanone and dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal and ammonium hydroxide to prepare 4.5 g. of 3,5-bis(3-chlorophenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone. Chlorination of the pyridinone was phosphorus oxychloride produced 1.8 g. of the corresponding 4-chloropyridine, of which 1.5 g. was alkylated and quaternized with methyl iodide to prepare 1.2 g. of 4-chloro-3,5-bis(3-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide, m.p. 215°-218° C. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 45.37% 45.66%H 2.75 2.81N 2.94 3.12______________________________________ EXAMPLE 8 4-chloro-1-ethyl-3-(3-methylphenyl)-5-phenylpyridinium iodide Following the scheme of Example 3 again, 12 g. of 1-(3-methylphenyl)-3-phenyl-2-propanone was converted to 8.1 g. of 3-(3-methylphenyl)-5-phenyl-4-(1H)-pyridinone by reaction with dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal and ammonium hydroxide. A 7.5 g. portion of the pyridinone was chlorinated with phosphorus oxychloride to prepare 4.2 g. of the corresponding 4-chloropyridine, and 2 g. of the chloropyridine was reacted with 10 ml. of ethyl iodide in chloroform to prepare 0.4 g. of 4-chloro-1-ethyl-3-(3-methylphenyl)-5-phenylpyridinium iodide, m.p. 191°-194°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 55.13% 54.86%H 4.40 4.33N 3.21 3.30______________________________________ EXAMPLE 9 4-bromo-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide A 10 g. portion of 1-hydroxy-4-phenyl-2-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-1-butene-3-one was heated with 20 ml. of dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal for 12 hours at steam bath temperature. Volatile substances were then removed under vacuum and the residue was dissolved in 50 ml. of denatured ethanol and 20 ml. of concentrated ammonium hydroxide. The mixture was stirred at reflux temperature for 6 hours. The solids were filtered from the cooled reaction mixture and were washed with chloroform. The solids, 4 g. of 3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone, were combined with 3.6 g. of phosphorus oxybromide in dimethylformamide and the mixture was stirred at steam bath temperature for 5 hours. The mixture was then poured over ice and filtered to obtain 1.7 g. of 4-bromo-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridine. A 1.5 g. portion of the bromopyridine was reacted with 7 ml. of methyl iodide as in Example 3 to prepare 1.2 g. of 4-bromo-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 173°-176°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 43.88% 43.85%H 2.71 2.64N 2.69 2.60______________________________________ EXAMPLE 10 4-methoxy-3-(3-methoxyphenyl)-1-methyl-5-phenylpyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate A 9.96 g. portion of 3-methoxyphenyl acetic acid was converted to the acid chloride by reaction with oxalyl chloride on the steam bath for 30 minutes. The acid chloride was dissolved in diethyl ether and added dropwise to a diethyl ether solution of 10.3 g. of N,N-diethylstyrylamine containing 5 g. of pyridine at 0° under a nitrogen blanket. The reaction mixture was stirred at 0° for 2 hours after the addition was complete. The mixture was then filtered, and the filtrate was evaporated under vacuum to produce 12 g. of 1-dimethylamino-4-(3-methoxyphenyl)-2-phenyl-1-buten-3-one. The butenone was combined with 12 g. of dimethylformamide dimethyl acetal and was stirred at reflux temperature for 12 hours. Volatile materials were then removed under vacuum. The residue was dissolved in 50 ml. of methanol, and 12 g. of methylamine hydrochloride was added. The methanol solution was stirred at reflux temperature for 12 hours, and was then evaporated under vacuum. The residue was purified by column chromatography over silica gel using 1:1 benzene:ethyl acetate. The purified intermediate product was 1.7 g. of 3-(3-methoxyphenyl)1-methyl-5-phenyl-4(1H)-pyridinone. The pyridinone was combined with 3 g. of methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate in 25 ml. of chloroform and allowed to stand at room temperature for 7 days. The solvent was then evaporated, and the product was crystallized from chloroform-hexane to obtain 1.2 g. of 4-methoxy-3(3-methoxyphenyl)-1-methyl-5-phenylpyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate, m.p. 139°-142°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 55.38% 55.53%H 4.43 4.42N 3.08 3.02______________________________________ EXAMPLE 11 4-bromo-3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide The procedures of Example 3 were followed. A 4 g. portion of the intermediate 4(1H)-pyridinone of Example 3 was brominated with phosphorus oxybromide to produce 1.4 g. of the corresponding 4 -bromopyridine, of which 1 g. was reacted with methyl iodide to produce 0.4 g. of 4-bromo-3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide, m.p. 175°-180°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 41.49% 41.25%H 2.52 2.54N 2.69 2.65______________________________________ EXAMPLE 12 4-bromo-1-ethyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide EXAMPLE 13 1-ethyl-4-iodo-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide A 2 g. portion of the 4-bromopyridine intermediate of Example 9 was combined with 10 ml. of ethyl iodide and allowed to stand at room temperature for 3 days. Volatile materials were then evaporated under vacuum, and the solids were crystallized from chloroform-hexane, yield 0.25 g., m.p. 235°-238°. Analysis by nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry techniques identified the product as consisting of approximately 60 percent of the compound of Example 12, and approximately 40 percent of the compound of Example 13. EXAMPLE 14 3-(3-bromophenyl)-1-methyl-4-methylthio-5-phenylpyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate Five g. of the intermediate 4(1H)-pyridinone of Example 2 was reacted with 5 g. of phosphorus pentasulfide in pyridine for 2 hours at reflux temperature. The reaction mixture was then poured slowly into water, and the aqueous mixture was filtered. The solids were air dried and crystallized from denatured ethanol to obtain 3.1 g. of 3-(3-bromophenyl)-1-methyl-5-phenylpyridinethione. A 1 g. portion of the thione was mixed with 5 ml. of methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate and allowed to stand at room temperature for 4 days. The mixture was then evaporated to dryness under vacuum and the residue was crystallized from chloroform-hexane to obtain 1.1 g. of 3-(3-bromophenyl)1-methyl-4-methylthio-5-phenylpyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate, m.p. 165°-168°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 46.15% 46.61%H 3.27 3.43N 2.69 2.66______________________________________ EXAMPLE 15 1-methyl-4-methylthio-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate Five g. of the intermediate 1-methyl-4(1H)-pyridinone of Example 1 was reacted with 5 g. of phosphorus pentasulfide in 50 ml. of pyridine was described in Example 14 to produce 3.6 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinethione. A 1.5 g. portion of the pyridinethione was reacted with 4 ml. of methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate as described in Example 14 to prepare 1.3 g. of 1-methyl-4-methylthio-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate, m.p. 157°-159°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 49.51% 49.65%H 3.36 3.43N 2.75 2.72______________________________________ EXAMPLE 16 4-chloro-1,3-diethyl-5-phenylpyridinium iodide A Villsmeier reagent was prepared from 20 g. of phosgene and 15 g. of dimethylformamide in chloroform. A 24 g. portion of 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-pentanone was added, and the mixture was stirred at reflux temperature for 30 minutes. Eighty ml. of concentrated ammonium hydroxide was then added, and the mixture was stirred on the steam bath to evaporate chloroform. About 50 ml. of additional ammonium hydroxide was then added, and the mixture was stirred on the steam bath for 30 minutes more. The reaction mixture was then cooled, and extracted with diethyl ether. The ether layer was washed with water, dried over magnesium sulfate, and evaporated under vacuum. The residue was first chromatographed over a silica gel column with 10 percent ethyl acetate in benzene. The fourth fraction was rechromatographed over alumina with 50 percent ethyl acetate in benzene. The second fraction was freed of solvent under vacuum to produce 5.5 g. of 4-chloro-3-ethyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridine, an oily liquid. A 2 g. portion of the above chloropyridine was reacted with ethyl iodide at room temperature to prepare 1.5 g. of 4-chloro-1,3-diethyl-5-phenylpyridinium iodide, m.p. 138°-139°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 43.51% 43.79%H 3.65 3.79N 3.17 3.21______________________________________ EXAMPLE 17 4-dimethylamino-3-ethyl-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide The third fraction from the chromatography over alumina in Example 16 was concentrated and found to consist of 3 g. of 4-dimethylamino-1-ethyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridine. The intermediate was dissolved in chloroform and reacted with methyl iodide at room temperature to prepare 4-dimethylamino-3-ethyl-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 138°-139°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 43.51% 43.79%H 3.65 3.79N 3.17 3.21______________________________________ EXAMPLE 18 4-dimethylamino-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide A 28 g. portion of 1-phenyl-3-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-propanone was reacted with a Villsmeier reagent, formed from 45 g. of phosphorus oxychloride and 22 ml. of dimethylformamide, at reflux temperature in chloroform for 11/2 hours. The mixture was then reacted with ammonium hydroxide as described in Example 16. The oily product was purified over a silica gel column with 20 percent ethyl acetate in benzene to produce 6.5 g. of 4-dimethylamino-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridine. Two g. of the intermediate pyridine was reacted with methyl iodide in chloroform at room temperature overnight. The mixture was then evaporated to dryness under vacuum, and the residue was triturated in diethyl ether. The solids were taken up in acetone, and crystallized in the freezer to produce 0.5 g. of 4-dimethylamino-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 173°-175°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 52.08% 52.13%H 4.16 3.90N 5.78 5.57______________________________________ EXAMPLE 19 5-(3-bromophenyl)-4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenylpyridinium methanesulfonate A mixture of 4.0 g. of 5-(3-bromophenyl)-1-methyl-3-phenyl-4(1H)-pyridinone and 20 ml. of methyl methanesulfonate in benzene was heated under reflux for 6 hours. The mixture was cooled and the solvent removed in vacuo. The product failed to crystallize. The product was passed over a silica gel column in ethyl acetate. After the front-running spot was removed the column was flushed with ethanol. The ethanol fractions were again placed on a silica gel solumn and front-running impurities removed. The column was flushed with ethanol and the ethanol removed to yield 0.75 g. of a hard glass. The nmr spectrum of the product was consistent with the structure of the expected salt. For example, there was an N--CH 3 peak at 4.4 ppm and a peak at 8.7 ppm attributed to the hydrogens at the 2- and 6-positions of the pyridine ring. As is characteristic of pyridinium salts, both these peaks were shifted from the corresponding peaks in the starting pyridinone. EXAMPLE 20 4-ethylthio-1-methyl-3 -phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide A mixture of 2.0 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinethione in 10 ml. of ethyl iodide was heated on a steam bath for 10 minutes (until solution occurred). The mixture was then allowed to stand at room temperature for 3 days. The precipitate which formed was collected to yield 2.7 g. of 4-ethylthio-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 140°-143°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 50.31% 50.12%H 3.82 3.94N 2.79 2.62______________________________________ EXAMPLE 21 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-methoxy-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium fluorosulfonate To a solution of 2.0 g. of 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone in 15 ml. of chloroform was added 5.0 ml. of methyl fluorosulfonate and the mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for 2 days. The solvent was removed in vacuo and the residue was dissolved in chloroform and the solution washed with water. The chloroform was removed and the residue was crystallized from chloroform-hexane to obtain 0.4 g. of product, m.p. 224°-227°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 47.78% 51.29%H 3.06 3.70N 2.65 2.93______________________________________ EXAMPLE 22 4-iodo-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide A mixture of 1.0 g. of the product from Example 9 and 2.0 g. of sodium iodide in dimethylformamide was heated on a steam bath for 4 hours and was then poured into water. The precipitate that formed was removed and discarded. Upon standing, the desired compound precipitated from the aqueous solution. It was collected by filtration to yield 0.155 g. of 4-iodo-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 220°-224°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 40.24% 40.49%H 2.49 2.61N 2.47 2.46______________________________________ EXAMPLE 23 1-methyl-4-methylthio-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium methanesulfonate A mixture of 20 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinethione and 6.0 g. of methyl methanesulfonate in benzene was heated under reflux overnight (about 16 hours). The solvent was removed in vacuo and the residue was crystallized from chloroform-ether to yield 1.9 g. of 1-methyl-4-methylthio-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium methanesulfonate, m.p. 154°-157°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 55.37% 55.60%H 4.43 4.20N 3.07 3.32______________________________________ EXAMPLE 24 4-isopropylthio-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium bromide A mixture of 2.0 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinethione and 20 ml. of 2-bromopropane in benzene was heated under reflux overnight. The residue was crystallized from chloroform-hexane to yield 1.5 g. of 4-isopropylthio-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium bromide, m.p. 71°-74°. EXAMPLE 25 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-(3-methylphenyl)-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium fluorosulfonate A mixture of 2.0 g. of 1-methyl-3-(3-methylphenyl)-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone and 5 ml. of methyl fluorosulfonate was allowed to stand at room temperature for 2 days. Excess methyl fluorosulfonate was removed in vacuo and the residue taken up in chloroform. The chloroform solution was washed 3 times with water and dried over magnesium sulfate. The chloroform was removed in vacuo and the residue crystallized from chloroform-ether to yield 0.8 g. of 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-(3-methylphenyl)-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium fluorosulfonate, m.p. 123°-126°. EXAMPLE 26 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenoxy-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium fluorosulfonate To a solution of 2.0 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenoxy-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone in 10 ml. of chloroform was added to 4.0 ml. of methyl fluorosulfonate and the mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for 4 days. The mixture was washed with water and the chloroform removed in vacuo to yield 1.2 g. of an oil identified as 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenoxy-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium fluorosulfonate. Attempts to crystallize the product failed. EXAMPLE 27 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium methanesulfonate A mixture of 2.5 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinone and 10 ml. of methyl methanesulfonate in 100 ml. of benzene was heated under reflux for 2 days. The mixture was cooled and the benzene removed in vacuo to give an oil which solidified from ether-acetone to yield 1.5 g. of 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium methanesulfonate, m.p. 55°-59°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 57.40% 57.22%H 4.59 4.68N 3.19 3.21______________________________________ EXAMPLE 28 4-bromo-5-(3-bromophenyl)-1-methyl-3-phenylpyridinium iodide To 1.0 g. of 4-bromo-5-(3-bromophenyl)-3-phenylpyridinium was added 5 ml. of methyl iodide. An oil began to form after about 1 hour. After standing overnight the excess methyl iodide had evaporated to leave a yellow solid which was recrystallized from chloroform-hexane to yield 1.1 g. of 4-bromo-5-(3-bromophenyl)-1-methyl-3-phenylpyridinium iodide, m.p. 184°-187°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 40.71% 40.90%H 2.66 2.56N 2.64 2.64______________________________________ EXAMPLE 29 4-benzylthio-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium chloride A mixture of 2.0 g. of 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinethione and 10 ml. of benzyl chloride in benzene was heated under reflux for 6 hours. The mixture was cooled and the benzene was removed in vacuo. The residue was put on a silica gel column in benzene and the column was flushed with benzene. The product was then removed from the column with denatured ethanol. The ethanol was removed and the residue was crystallized from ether yielding 0.7 g. of 4-benzylthio-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium chloride, m.p. 70°-73°. EXAMPLE 30 1-methyl-4-methylthio-3-n-propyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide A solution of 1.0 g. of 1-methyl-3-n-propyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-4(1H)-pyridinethione and 3.0 ml. of methyl iodide was heated on a steam bath for 1/2 hour. The mixture was cooled and the solid product was collected by filtration. The product was crystallized from chloroform-hexane to yield 0.7 g. of 1-methyl-4-methylthio-3-n-propyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, m.p. 76°-80°. ______________________________________ Theoretical Found______________________________________C 45.04% 44.76%H 4.22 4.03N 3.09 3.20______________________________________ The compounds described above have been tested in a number of herbicidal test systems to determine the range of their herbicidal efficacy. The results produced by the compounds in the representative tests reported below are exemplary of the outstanding activity of the compounds. Compound application rates are expressed in kilograms of the compound per hectare of land (kg./ha.) throughout this document. Blank spaces in the tables below indicate that the compound was not tested against the named species. In some instances, the results of testing a compound repeatedly against a plant species have been averaged. Untreated control plants or plots were included in all tests. Ratings of the control produced by the compounds were made by comparison of the treated plants or plots with the controls. Test 1 broad spectrum greenhouse test Square plastic pots were filled with a sterilized sandy loam soil and were planted to seeds of tomato, large crabgrass and pigweed. Each pot was individually fertilized. Test compounds were applied postemergence to some pots and preemergence to others. Postemergence applications of the compounds were sprayed over the emerged plants about 12 days after the seeds were planted. Preemergence applications were sprayed on the soil the day after the seeds were planted. Each test compound was dissolved in 1:1 acetone: ethanol at the rate of 2 g. per 100 ml. The solution also contained about 2 g. per 100 ml. of an anionic-nonionic surfactant blend. One ml. of the solution was diluted to 4 ml. with deionized water, and 11/2 ml. of the resulting solution was applied to each pot, resulting in an application rate of 16.8 kg./ha. of test compound. After the compounds were applied, the pots were moved to the greenhouse, watered as necessary, and observed and rated about 10-13 days after application of the compounds. Untreated control plants were used as standards in every test. The table below reports results of testing typical compounds of the invention. The compounds are identified by their example numbers above. Herbicidal effect was rated on a 1-5 scale, where 1 indicates normal plants, and 5 indicates death of the plants or no emergence. Table 1______________________________________Compoundof Preemergence PostemergenceExample Crab- Pig- Crab- Pig-No. Tomato grass weed Tomato grass weed______________________________________3 4 5 5 4 5 57 3 4 4 3 4 39 5 5 5 4 3 3______________________________________ Test 2 seven-species greenhouse test The test was conducted in general like that described in Test 1. In this test, the seeds were planted in flat metal trays, rather than in pots. The compounds were formulated according to the procedure above, except that about 6 g./100 ml. of the compound was dissolved in the surfactant-containing solvent, and about 1 part of the organic solution was diluted with 12 parts of water before application to the trays. The compounds were applied at the rate of 9.0 kg./ha., and the results of testing against the species named below were as follows. Table 2__________________________________________________________________________Com- Preemergence Postemergencepound of Large LargeExample Crab- Pig- Velvet- Morning- Crab- Pig- Velvet Morning-No. Corn grass weed Foxtail leaf glory Zinnia Corn grass weed Foxtail leaf glory Zinnia__________________________________________________________________________1 2 5 5 4 4 4 2 4 4 4 4 4 3 22 2 4 4 4 3 4 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 23 2 5 5 5 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 24 2 4 3 4 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 25 2 4 5 5 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 26 3 5 4 5 4 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 27 3 5 4 4 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 3 2 28 2 2 2 4 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 110 1 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 311 2 5 4 5 4 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 219 4 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 320 2 4 1 3 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 221 2 3 4 3 2 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 222 4 5 5 5 5 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 223 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 3 4 3 3 4 2 224 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 3 3 2 2 2 225 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 3 4 4 3 3 2 226 3 4 1 3 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 2 227 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 4 4 3 3 3 328 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 2 2 2 229 4 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 2 2 230 1 4 2 5 3 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 2__________________________________________________________________________ TEST 3 multiple-species greenhouse test In general, the test method was the same as the method of the test above. Various compounds were tested preemergence and postemergence at different application rates which are indicated in the tables below. A number of additional weed and crop species were used in the preemergence tests as is shown in Table 3. Typical postemergence results are shown in Table 4. Table 3 Preemergence Com- pound Rate of of Su- Cu- Barn- Large Vel- Jim- Morn- Ex. Appln. Soy- gar cum- yard Lambs- Crab- Pig- Fox- Wild- vet- son ing- No. Kg./ha. Corn Cotton bean Wheat Alfalfa Beet Rice ber Tomato Grass quarter grass Mustard weed tail oat leaf Weed glory Zinnia 1 1.1 2 1 2 1 2 4 1 1 2 2 4 4 4 5 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 4.5 2 1 2 3 3 5 2 1 2 2 4 4 4 3 3 1 3 2 3 2 5 1.1 1 1 2 2 2 4 1 2 1 2 4 3 4 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 6 0.28 3 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 4 5 3 3 5 3 2 2 3 2 2 7 1.1 3 1 3 2 5 5 2 2 5 3 4 5 3 5 4 3 3 2 2 2 19 4.5 4 1 4 4 5 5 12 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 2.24 3 2 4 4 5 4 1 1 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 5 3 1.1 3 1 3 3 4 5 1 1 2 4 5 5 4 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 20 4.5 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 2.24 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 1 2 3 2 1 1.1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 22 1.1 4 1 2 2 3 -- 2 1 2 3 5 5 3 5 1 2 3 3 2 2 0.56 3 1 1 2 2 -- 1 1 1 3 4 4 2 5 1 2 3 2 1 1 0.28 2 1 1 1 1 -- 2 1 1 2 4 4 2 5 4 2 2 2 1 1 24 4.5 3 1 3 2 3 5 1 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 4 3 4 4 3 3 2.24 3 1 2 1 3 5 2 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 1.1 1 1 1 2 2 4 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 5 1 2 1 1 2 2 26 4.5 3 1 2 3 5 5 1 2 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 2 3 4 4 3 2.24 2 1 2 2 3 5 1 1 2 4 5 5 4 5 4 2 2 2 2 2 1.1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 4 4 3 5 3 2 1 2 2 2 28 4.5 3 1 3 2 3 4 1 2 3 3 5 5 4 5 5 3 3 2 4 3 2.24 3 1 2 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 5 5 3 5 5 3 3 2 2 2 1.1 2 1 2 2 3 4 1 1 3 3 5 5 4 5 4 2 2 2 2 2 29 4.5 2 1 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 3 5 5 4 5 5 4 3 2 3 2 2.24 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 4 5 3 5 4 2 2 2 2 2 1.1 2 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 4 3 2 1 1 2 2 30 4.5 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 -- 2 1 3 2 3 2 2 1 2.24 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 -- 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 -- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Table 4__________________________________________________________________________Postemergence Rate ofCompound of Appln. Large Morning-Example No. Kg./ha. Corn Crabgrass Pigweed Foxtail Velvetleaf glory Zinnia__________________________________________________________________________23 4.5 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 2.24 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 1.1 2 2 3 2 2 3 225 4.5 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2.24 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1.1 3 3 3 3 2 3 327 4.5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2.24 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 1.1 4 4 3 2 3 3 3__________________________________________________________________________ The broad-spectrum activity of the compounds of this invention is clearly illustrated by the above examples. The test results point up the efficacy of the compounds against annual grasses and broadleaf weeds. Plant scientists will recognize that the exemplified activity of the compounds shows that the compounds are broadly effective against herbaceous weeds. As the above test results demonstrate, an important embodiment of this invention is a method of reducing the vigor of unwanted herbaceous plants which comprises contacting the plants with a herbicidally-effective amount of one of the compounds described above. In the context of this invention, the term "reducing the vigor of" is used to refer to the effects of the compounds both in killing unwanted herbaceous plants, and in injuring, stunting, dwarfing, and otherwise preventing the normal growth and development of such plants. The term "herbicidally-effective amount" refers to an amount of a compound of this invention which is sufficient to bring about such effects on unwanted herbaceous plants. In some instances, as is clear from the test results, the whole population of the contacted plant is killed. In other instances, some of the plants are killed and some of them are injured, and in still other instances, none of the plants are killed but are merely injured by application of the compound. It will be understood that reducing the vigor of the unwanted plant population by injuring the individual plants, or by killing some and injuring some, is beneficial even though some part of the plant population survives application of the compound. The plants, the vigor of which has been reduced, are unusually susceptible to the stresses, such as disease, drought, lack of nutrients and so forth, which normally afflict plants. Thus, the treated plants, even though they survive application of the compound, are likely to expire due to stress of the environment. Further, if the treated plants are growing in cropland, the crop, growing normally, tends to shade out the treated plants of reduced vigor. The crop, therefore, has a great advantage over the treated unwanted plants in the competition for nutrients and sunlight. Still further, when the treated plants are growing in fallow land, or industrial property which is desired to be bare, the fact that their vigor is reduced necessarily tends to minimize the treated plants' consumption of water and nutrients, and also minimizes the fire hazard and nuisance which the plants present. The compounds are herbicidally effective when applied both preemergence and postemergence. Thus, they can be applied to the soil to kill and injure weeds by soil contact when the weed seeds are germinating and emerging, and can also be used to kill and injure growing weeds by direct contact with the exposed portions of the weeds. Preemergence application of the compounds, wherein the unwanted herbaceous plants are contacted with the compound through application to the soil before emergence of the plants, is preferred. Seeds of unwanted plants, which are contacted with the compounds by soil application, are here regarded as plants. Preemergence applications of the compounds are effective, as the examples show, whether the compounds are applied to the surface of the soil or are incorporated in the soil. The preferred compounds of this invention, which are also the compounds with which the herbicidal method is preferably carried out, and with which the herbicidal compositions are preferably prepared, are 4-methoxy-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate, 4-chloro-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, 4-chloro-1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)pyridinium iodide, 4-chloro-3,5-bis(3-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide and 4-bromo-3-(3-chlorophenyl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide. As the examples above illustrate, the compounds are acceptably safe to a number of crops, such as cotton, cucumber, wheat and rice when applied at proper rates and at appropriate times. The best application rate of a given compound of the invention for the control of a given plant varies, of course, depending upon the method of compound application, climate, soil texture, water and organic matter contents of the soil and other factors known to those skilled in plant science. It will be found, however, that the optimum application rate is in the range of from about 0.25 to about 20 kg./ha. in virtually every case. The optimum rates will usually be found to be within the preferred range of from about 1 to about 10 kg./ha. The time when the compounds should be applied to the soil or the unwanted plants is widely variable, since the compounds are effective both preemergence and postemergence. At least some control will result from application of the compounds at any time when plants are growing or germinating. They may also be applied to the soil during a dormant season to kill weeds germinating during the following warm season. When the compounds are used for weed control in an annual crop, it is usually best to apply a preemergence application of the compound to the soil at the time the crop is being planted. If the compound is to be soil incorporated, it will usually be applied and incorporated immediately before planting. If it is to be surface applied, it is usually simplest to apply the compound immediately after planting. The compounds are applied to the soil or to emerged plants in the manners usual in agriculture. They may be applied to the soil in the form of either water-dispersed or granular formulations, the preparation of which will be discussed below. Usually, water-dispersed formulations will be used for the application of the compounds to emerged weeds. The formulations are applied with any of the many types of sprayers and granular applicators which are in wide use for the distribution of agricultural chemicals over soil or standing vegetation. When a compound is to be soil-incorporated, any of the usual soil incorporation equipment, such as the disc harrow, the power-driven rotary hoe and the like, are effective. The compounds are useful for the control of aquatic weeds, as well as terrestrial undesired plants. Such aquatic weeds as duckweed, water milfoil, hydrilla and the like are controlled when the compounds are dispersed in the infested water at concentrations in the range of from about 0.1 to about 10 p.p.m. by weight. The compounds are applied to water in the form of the same types of herbicidal compositions used for other herbicidal uses. The compounds are normally used in the practice of the method of this invention in the form of the herbicidal compositions which are an important embodiment of the invention. An herbicidal composition of this invention comprises a compound useful in the method of the invention and an inert carrier. In general, the compositions are formulated in the manners usual in agricultural chemistry, and are novel only because of the vital presence of the herbicidal compound. Very often, the compounds are formulated as concentrated compositions which are applied either to the soil or the foliage in the form of water dispersions or emulsions containing in the range of from about 0.1 percent to about 5 percent of the compound. Water-dispersible or emulsifiable compositions are either solids usually known as wettable powders, or liquids usually known as emulsifiable concentrates. Wettable powders comprise an intimate, finely-divided mixture of the compound, an inert carrier and surfactants. The concentration of the compound is usually from about 10 percent to about 90 percent. The inert carrier is usually chosen from among the attapulgite clays, the kaolin clays, the montmorillonite clays, the diatomaceous earths or the purified silicates. Effective surfactants, comprising from about 0.5 percent to about 10 percent of the wettable powder, are found among the sulfonated lignins, the condensed naphthalenesulfonates, the naphthalenesulfonates, the alkylbenzenesulfonates, the alkyl sulfates and nonionic surfactants such as ethylene oxide adducts of phenol. Typical emulsifiable concentrates of the compounds comprise a convenient concentration of the compound, such as from about 100 to about 500 g. per liter of liquid, dissolved in an inert carrier which is a mixture of water-immiscible solvent and emulsifiers. Useful organic solvents include the aromatics, especially the xylenes, and the petroleum fractions, especially the high-boiling naphthalenic and olefinic portions of petroleum. Many other organic solvents may also be used such as the terpenic solvents, and the complex alcohols such as 2-ethoxyethanol. Suitable emulsifiers for emulsifiable concentrates are chosen from the same types or surfactants used for wettable powders. When a compound is to be applied to the soil, as for a preemergence application of the compound, it is convenient to use a granular formulation. Such a formulation typically comprises the compound dispersed on a granular inert carrier such as coarsely ground clay. The particle size of granules usually ranges from about 0.1 to about 3 mm. The usual formulation process for granules comprises dissolving the compound in an inexpensive solvent and applying the solution to the carrier in an appropriate solids mixer. Somewhat less economically, the compound may be dispersed in a dough composed of damp clay or other inert carrier, which is then dried and coarsely ground to produce the desired granular product. It has become customary in agricultural chemistry to apply two or even more agricultural chemicals simultaneously in order to control weeds of many different types, or weeds and other pests, with a single application of chemicals. The compounds of this invention lend themselves well to combination with other agricultural chemicals and may usefully be combined with insecticides, fungicides, nematicides and other herbicides as may be desirable and convenient.

A class of 1-alkyl-3-phenylpyridinium salts are useful herbicides. The compounds bear a meta-substituent on the phenyl ring and optional 4- and 5-substituents.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a multilayer recording medium for optical information, which can be used for a single recording operation and essentially comprises a support and a layer comprising an unsubstituted naphthalocyanine dye. Optical recording media for the recording of data are well known. In these media, the information is recorded in so-called "information pits" (diameter approx. 1 μm), which are present in concentric or spiral-shaped tracks. The information can be recorded at a high packing density and read by optical means. In general, information is recorded in such a way that the energy of a laser diode, which has been focused to form a spot, is irradiated through a transparent support layer and absorbed by a layer that is present on the support layer and comprises a dye and a binder. In the process, the dye/binder layer is strongly heated for a short time, and as a result of changes in the physical state, for example, due to evaporation, melting and flow processes, the above-mentioned "information pits" are generated in the dye/binder system. The above-described recording process produces a difference in the optical characteristics (such as reflection and transmission) of the irradiated and non-irradiated areas of the layer. The different intensities of the light reflected by the irradiated and non-irradiated areas are used in the reading process for identifying the information. A great number of patent publications describe optical recording media for use in a single recording operation, which contain organic dyes, in particular, phthalocyanine derivatives. In the form of so-called "light-absorbing layers" these phthalocyanine derivatives exhibit a high degree of stability and they are also used in combination with light-reflecting layers, for example, comprising the metals Au, Te, and Al, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,241,355; U.S. Pat. No. 4,298,975; and in DE-A-34 46 418. It is a disadvantage of such metallized, light-reflecting layers that they have a high heat conductivity which often results in a reduction of the speed of recording information on media of this kind. Phthalocyanine derivatives in the so-called light-absorbing layers, in general, show low absorption values in the emission range of the laser diodes (λ=800-840 nm) used for irradiation. Particular phthalocyanines are therefore often post-treated, in a thermal process or by means of solvent vapors, in order to shift their absorption peak further into the longer wavelength region (U.S. Pat. No. 4,529,688). In contrast, absorption in the longer wave-length region (above 800 nm) is, as a rule, achieved, when naphthalocyanine derivatives are used. It is, however, usually necessary for these naphthalocyanine derivatives to be substituted, for example, by tertiary butyl groups attached to an aromatic ring, or they must carry longer chain organic substituents on the central atom, e.g., silicon, to ensure a sufficiently high solubility in the binder layer (U.S. Pat. No. 4,492,750; EP-A-0 188 331; EP-A-0 191 215; EP-A-0 191 970; WO 8701-076-A). The substituted naphthalocyanine derivatives have the disadvantage that they are difficult to synthesize and must be purified. Since they are dissolved in binders before being homogeneously applied to the supports (in particular by a spin-coating process) the reflectivity of the recording media is often considerably reduced. On the other hand, too low a binder content in these layers increases the close arrangement of the naphthalocyanine molecules and, as a consequence, recrystallization is more likely to occur, which, in turn, has an adverse influence on the optical characteristics of the recording media. Due to the difficulties that are still presented by the substituted naphthalocyanine derivatives in view of their solubility, the selection of suitable solvents for the binder layers is strongly restricted, when support layers comprising plastic materials, such as polycarbonate, polymethyl methacrylate, etc., are to be used. DE-A-36 22 590 describes recording media comprising a support carrying a usually vapor-deposited naphthalocyanine layer which may be covered by a protective layer. A pigment layer having light-reflecting properties can, in particular, be arranged between the support and the naphthalocyanine layer or on top of the naphthalocyanine layer, optionally below the protective layer, if the latter is used. However, the recording sensitivity of these recording media still needs to be improved. Multilayer arrangements are also known from other patent publications. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,032,691 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,636,804 describe recording media comprising a support, a light-absorbing layer which is mainly formed of metals such as, for example, nickel, aluminum, palladium, or gold and also contains specific dyes, and a porous binder layer disposed between these two layers. This version has the disadvantage that the preparation of the porous binder layer is expensive and difficult, and that the dye systems used in the absorbing layer are not very stable and show only a relatively low absorption in the required wavelength range of laser diodes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide a multilayer recording medium for use in a single recording operation, which has a high recording sensitivity, has a high baseline reflectivity, has a high stability to light and atmospheric conditions, exclusively comprises non-toxic organic materials that are readily prepared, shows a low thermal conductivity, and can be used in laser-diode arrangements, i.e., has a corresponding absorption peak in the emission range of laser diodes. These and other objects of the present invention are achieved by providing a multilayer recording medium for optical information, which can be used for a single recording operation and essentially comprises a support and a layer comprising an unsubstituted naphthalocyanine dye, wherein a binder layer is present between the support and the naphthalocyanine-dye layer. Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a layer arrangement according to the present invention. FIG. 2 shows an alternative layer arrangement according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for the recording media described in Example 2. FIG. 4 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for the recording media described in Example 1. FIG. 5 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for the recording media described in Example 3. FIG. 6 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for the recording media described in Example 4. FIG. 7 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for the recording medium described in Example 6. FIG. 8 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for recording media described in Example 7. FIG. 9 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for recording media described in Example 7. FIG. 10 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for the recording medium described in Example 8. FIG. 11 is a plot of contrast ratio versus write-pulse energy for the recording media described in Example 9. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS It was entirely unexpected to find that the arrangement according to the present invention, as compared with a layer sequence comprising a support and a naphthalocyanine layer, shows a considerably higher recording sensitivity and a high contrast ratio, when using light in the wavelength region from λ=800 to 850 nm. Suitable supports comprise transparent materials, which means that the recording and reading operations can be performed from the reverse side, as is usually done. The materials used include glass plates and, in particular, plastic materials, such as acrylic resins, for example, polymethyl methacrylate, polycarbonates, epoxy resins, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrenes, polyolefins and mixtures thereof. The thicknesses of the supports are about 1 mm and are, in particular, in the range from 0.9 to 1.4 mm, particularly preferably from 1.1 to 1.3 mm. In order to be suitable for recording media, the supports must also have a high optical quality, i.e., they must exhibit favorable values, for example, with regard to smoothness of the surface and birefringence. In addition, supports of this kind are provided with concentric or spiral-shaped track grooves which are applied, in particular to one side, by means of injection molding or by a photopolymerization process. The light-absorbing layer comprises a thin film of an unsubstituted naphthalocyanine compound corresponding to the general formula I: ##STR1## wherein Me denotes either two hydrogen atoms or a metal, such as Cu, Zn, Al (e.g., in the form of AlX 2+ ), Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn (e.g., in the form of SnX 2 2+ ), Pb, Mg, Ti, V (e.g., in the form of VO 2+ ), Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni or Pd. X stands for halogen, in particular chlorine or bromine and, in the case of more than bivalent metal ions, corresponds to the ligand which is in an axial position with respect to the naphthalocyanine plane. These compounds are prepared according to methods known in the art, for example, by condensing 2,3-naphthalocyanines in a high-boiling solvent in the presence of metal salts or metal oxides to form the corresponding naphthalocyanine-metal complexes which are then purified [S. A. Mikhalenko, E. A. Luk'yanets, Zh. Ob. Khimii, Vol. 39 (11), 2554-2558 (1969)]. Thin layers of the dyes according to the general formula I have a high absorptivity in the longer wavelength or near infrared region, i.e., from 750 to 860 nm. However, preference is given to dyes having an absorption peak in the region from 770 to 830 nm. Such dyes include complex compounds of the general formula I, in which Me represents VO 2+ , AlCl 2+ , SnCl 2 2+ or Zn and others. They are preferred because their absorption peak corresponds to the emission of the laser diodes used. These dyes not only have a favorable absorptivity but also an excellent reflectivity (baseline reflectivity) of more than 20% (as measured through the support). It is thus possible, and also preferred, to use very thin and compact layers of these naphthalocyanine dyes. Measurements to determine the transmission, reflection and layer thickness (by means of a profilometer) can be made on dye layers of different thicknesses, comprising compounds of the general formula I. It can be demonstrated that optimum conditions for obtaining a reflection peak are present when the layer thickness is in the range from 90 to 120 nm. While absorption increases with an increasing layer thickness of the naphthalocyanine dye, reflectivity and recording sensitivity each pass through a peak and decrease again. The layer thicknesses used are therefore in the range from 30 to 200 nm, in particular, from 60 to 130 nm, and particularly preferably from 90 to 120 nm. These thin layers are also advantageous in view of their good adhesive properties, both on treated and untreated support materials. Unexpectedly, however, adhesion is particularly good on the binder layer and, according to the present invention, the dye layer is therefore applied to this binder layer. Processes which can be used for applying the naphthalocyanine dyes to support materials, especially in the method according to the present invention, include cathodic sputtering, plasma polymerization, ionic plating, spin-coating, electrostatic spraying, and immersion. Particularly preferred is, however, deposition of the dye in vacuum, because this process yields optically dense, mostly olive-green colored and particularly adherent layers of superior homogeneity. What is more, by this vapor deposition process the dye is additionally purified and a readily controllable, homogeneous thickness distribution is ensured by means of an oscillating crystal. Thermal stability is a further advantage of the dyes used according to the present invention and, in this connection, the naphthalocyanine dye of the VO 2+ ion is particularly preferred. On the one hand, thermal stability is an advantage, when the dye is to be applied according to the above-described vapor deposition process, on the other hand, a thermal stability of the dye that is too high is disadvantageous, since this can prove unfavorable to the recording process in the dye layer, the recording speed and the contrast ratio. According to the present invention a binder layer is arranged between the support and the dye layer. It is unexpectedly found that this layer sequence results in very sensitive optical recording media. At the same time, a high adhesive strength of the vapor-deposited naphthalocyanine layer is ensured in multilayer systems of this kind. The preferred binders are thermoplastic materials which, compared with the dye, have a low softening temperature and a low flowability in the cold. Also preferred are binders which decompose at temperatures, in particular, of 200° C. and above (cf. cellulose nitrates). The binders used comprise cellulose derivatives, such as cellulose acetates, cellulose propionates and cellulose acetobutyrates, in particular, cellulose nitrates. Polyurethanes, polyesters, polycarbonates, polyamides, hydrocarbon resins, cyclized rubbers, polyacrylates and polymethyl methacrylates, polystyrenes and polystyrene copolymers, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl acetals, polyvinyl chloride/polyvinyl acetate copolymers, polyvinyl alcohols and phenoxy resins are also used. Styrene/acrylic resin copolymers and polyvinylidene chloride are, for example, employed for aqueous dispersions. Cellulose nitrates and polystyrenes have proved particularly favorable. Apart from individual binders, binder mixtures are also preferably used. When untreated supports are employed, i.e., supports that do not have an additional coating, for example, of a polyvinyl alcohol, care must be taken that the solvents of the binders to be applied to the support do not incipiently dissolve the support material, in particular, if the latter comprises a polycarbonate or polymethyl methacrylate. An optionally present coating of a polyvinyl alcohol is prepared in such a way that an aqueous or alcoholic, particulary methanolic, solution of a polyvinyl alcohol is coated upon the support and the coating is subsequently dried. The binders used for supports that have not been pretreated as described above preferably comprise those which dissolve in aliphatic or cyclic hydrocarbons, alcohols, glycol ethers, in particular, propylene glycol methyl ether, and others, or which form aqueous dispersions. In the coating of supports such as glass plates or plastic substrates, which have, for example, been pretreated or have a photocrosslinked surface any of the above-indicated binders can generally be used. Since unsubstituted naphthalocyanine dyes are vapor-deposited onto the binder layer according to the method of the present invention, there is no risk of the dyes being incipiently dissolved or even actually dissolved by the solvents of the binders. The binder solutions are applied to the previously cleaned supports by knife-coating, spin-coating, dip-coating or electrostatic spray-coating. The coated supports are then dried in the air, optionally in a vacuum. Coating is particularly preferably carried out according to the spin-coating process, by means of which binder layers having a thickness below 1 μm, in particular, below 250 nm can be obtained. In the layer arrangement of the present invention, the layer thicknesses of the binder layers are, in particular, in the range from 30 to 300 nm, particularly preferably in the range from 50 to 150 nm. Non-porous, continuous binder layers of constant thickness are obtained. FIG. 1 shows the layer arrangement according to the present invention, in which a support (T) is coated with a binder layer (B) and then with a dye layer (F) which has light-absorbing and also light-reflecting properties and produces, in combination with the other layers, the above-described advantageous characteristics of the recording medium. The invention also relates to a multilayer system as shown in FIG. 2. In this recording medium, a naphthalocyanine-dye layer is vapor-deposited directly onto the support; on top of this dye layer a binder layer and another naphthalocyanine-dye layer are present. Due to the fact that the dyes are absolutely insoluble in the binders, there is no risk of dye particles migrating into the binder layer. The dye layer and the binder layer in this multilayer recording medium preferably have a thickness of 40 to 120 nm each. The multilayer recording media of the present invention can, moreover, be used to form composite systems. For this purpose two units each of a multilayer recording medium are joined in such a way that the supports are, in each case, on the outside of the composite system produced. Systems of this kind also include a composite material formed of two recording media, each of which merely comprises a support and dye layer. Both asymmetric and symmetric composite systems are feasible; symmetric systems are, however, preferred. In the composite systems of the present invention, the multilayer recording media which are used in particular, are bonded together by means of adhesive layers. Preferred are thermoplastic adhesives, hot setting adhesives and two-component adhesives and optionally also adhesives that are cross-linked with ultraviolet light. The composite systems can, moreover, be joined by double-side adhesive tapes or films. The thickness of the bonding adhesive layers should amount to at least 0.1 mm and should preferably be below an upper limit of 0.6 mm. By using the multilayer recording media of the present invention, which make it possible to vary the layer sequence and choose particular layer compositions, and also by using the composite systems of the present invention, which permit a considerable extension of the variations possible, the two groups of parameters which have an influence on the formation of holes, i.e., on the recording of information in the form of a pit-hole structure, can be brought into accord, layer by layer, and the layers can be arranged in such a way that both the recording sensitivity and the contrast ratio exhibit optimum values. The two groups of parameters include optical characteristics, such as absorption, reflection, etc., and thermal characteristics, such as softening range, flow behavior, etc. The examples below are intended to explain the invention in further detail without, however, being limitative of the invention. EXAMPLE 1 A 1.2 mm thick support of polycarbonate is spin-coated with a 1.5% by weight solution of cellulose nitrate (1.5 g of cellulose nitrate in 98.5 g of propylene glycol methyl ether containing about 35% by weight of n-butanol) such that a layer thickness of about 60 to 70 nm is obtained. The binder layer is dried and then an approximately 100 nm thick film of a naphthalocyanine dye, with Me=AlCl 2+ , is vapor-deposited on the binder layer. The homogeneous recording layer has an olive-green color. The dye layer is vapor-deposited in such a way that the dye which is present in an induction-heated tungsten vessel is deposited, in a vacuum of 1.3·10 -7 to 10 -8 bars, onto a rotating disk of polycarbonate. The vapor-deposition speed is approx. 0.3 nm/s. For comparison, a polycarbonate support of the same thickness, however, without a binder layer, is coated with an equally thick layer of the above naphthalocyanine dye. The two samples are subjected to reflection and transmission measurements. In the process, the beam of a laser diode (λ=816 nm, beam diameter=4.5 mm, power=3 mW) passes through the support which is rotated by means of an electromotor and reflection or, alternatively, transmission is measured. With the aid of an X-Y recorder the beam employed in each case is characterized according to its angle of rotation or via its radius. The reflection (baseline reflectivity) of the sample according to the present invention is 23%, as measured through the support, while the reflection of the comparative sample is 25%. The recording sensitivity, on the other hand, is measured by means of a laser diode having a variable recording power. A laser diode of λ=813 nm is used and measurement is made in the recording power range from 2.2 to 12 mW, with an adjustment to write-pulse times of 100 to 250 ns. Focusing of the radiation on the surface of the dye layer (the optimum diameter is 0.9 μm) and the entire measuring process are computer-controlled: After fixing ten power values in the range from 2.2 to 11.8 mW and a specific exposure time, e.g., of 250 ns, reflection and transmission are fully automatically recorded by means of a reading pulse (having a power of 0.5 mW for 100 ns); thereafter a write pulse is emitted and reflection and transmission are again measured. In this manner, the focus for all ten power values is scanned in steps of 0.5 μm. The optimum reflection differences, R before and R after emitting the write pulse (R bef . and R aft .), which are determined in each case, are plotted as the quotient (R bef . -R aft .)/R bef . ×100(ΔR/R) versus the write-pulse energy (e.g., 0.55 to 2.95 nJ). By the irradiated energy the layer is heated for a short time at the point of irradiation and, depending on the write-pulse energy, holes are obtained, which have different reflection values. The write-pulse energy, at which a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of, e.g., 50%, is obtained is a measure of the recording sensitivity. As can be seen from FIG. 4, the recording sensitivity of the recording medium according to the present invention (□), at a write-pulse time of t=100 ns and ΔR/R=50%, is considerably higher than that of the comparative sample (+), since the sample according to the present invention requires a write-pulse energy of 0.8 nJ, which is substantially lower than the energy required by the comparative sample (0.97 nJ). EXAMPLE 2 A support made of glass having a thickness of 1.1 mm is spin-coated with an approximately 100 nm thick layer of cellulose nitrate (solution according to Example 1). A naphthalocyanine-dye layer, with Me=VO 2+ , is then vapor-deposited onto this binder layer, as described in Example 1. The vapor-deposited layer has a thickness of 100 nm. For comparison, a polycarbonate support without binder layer is coated as described above, using the above-indicated dye in the same layer thickness. The sample precoated with a binder layer shows a reflection of 22%, whereas the comparative sample has a reflection of 24%. The recording sensitivities of the two recording media are shown in FIG. 3. At a write-pulse time of 250 ns and a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of 50% the multilayer recording medium (□) according to the present invention requires a write-pulse energy of only 1.45 nJ, whereas the comparative sample without binder layer (+) requires an energy of 2.15 nJ. EXAMPLE 3 Polycarbonate supports having a thickness of 1.2 mm are spin-coated with 2% by weight solutions of different binders to give layer weights ranging from 80 to 120 mg/m 2 . The binders used comprise: (a) a polyamide resin (®Versalon 1112) (b) a polyvinylacetal resin (®Mowital B 60 HH) (c) a polystyrene resin (®PS 2) (d) a hydrocarbon resin (®Resen 130/140). According to Example 2, the precoated polycarbonate supports are homogeneously coated by vapor deposition with 100 nm thick layers of naphthalocyanine dyes, with Me=VO 2+ . The multilayer recording media (a), (c) and (d) exhibit reflection values of 20%, while sample (b) has a reflection of 27%. FIG. 5 shows the recording sensitivities at a write-pulse time of 250 ns. The write-pulse energy required at a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of 50% is: for sample (a) 1.75 nJ (□), for samples (b) (+) and (d) (Δ) 1.55 nJ and for sample (c) 1.4 nJ (). EXAMPLE 4 A polycarbonate support having a thickness of 1.2 mm is spin-coated with a cellulose nitrate solution to give an 80 nm thick layer after drying. A naphthalocyanine dye (Me=SnCl 2 2+ ) is then homogeneously vapor-deposited onto this layer, in a vacuum of 1.3×10 -7 to 10 -8 bars. The vapor-deposited layer has a thickness of approximately 90 nm. For comparison, a polycarbonate support which has not been coated with a binder layer is coated in the same manner with the same naphthalocyanine dye. The multilayer recording medium according to the present invention shows a reflection of 22%, whereas the medium which has not been pretreated has a reflection of 23%. FIG. 6 shows the recording sensitivities of these recording media at a write-pulse time of 100 ns. The write-pulse energies required at a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of 50% are 0.74 nJ for the sample according to the present invention (□) and 0.8 nJ for the comparative sample (+). EXAMPLE 5 In this example, the temperature stability of the vapor-deposited dye layer is determined. Two polycarbonate supports, one of which has been coated with a cellulose nitrate solution to produce a layer of 80 mg/cm 2 , are homogeneously coated by vapor deposition with a naphthalocyanine dye (Me=VO 2+ ). The pretreated support carries a 150 nm thick dye layer. The support which has not been pretreated has a dye layer thickness of 130 nm. Both recording media are stored for 7 days at 80° C. After the termination of this long-term test, transmission and reflection are determined as described in Example 1. It is found that the recording medium without precoating does not show any reduction of its transmission of 6% and its reflection of 20%, just as the recording medium according to the present invention, in which the transmission of 4% and the reflection of 18% remain constant. EXAMPLE 6 According to Example 2, a 50 nm thick layer of a naphthalocyanine dye (Me=VO 2+ ) is vapor-deposited onto a polycarbonate support. This layer is coated with a 100 nm thick cellulose nitrate layer and then another 50 nm thick layer of the same naphthalocyanine dye as used for the first layer is applied by vapor deposition. Reflection as measured through the support is 17%. The recording sensitivity is shown in FIG. 7. Recording sensitivity is determined at a write-pulse time of 250 ns. At a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of 50% the write-pulse energy is 1.42 nJ (□). EXAMPLE 7 A polycarbonate support is coated with a naphthalocyanine dye (Me=VO 2+ ) up to a layer thickness of 130 to 140 nm. A transfer adhesive tape (®Scotch) with spacing film is laminated to the dye layer after removing the first protective film from the adhesive tape, such that the dye layer and the adhesive layer (in this case an acrylate adhesive) are in intimate contact with each other. After removing the second protective film from the transfer adhesive tape, another polycarbonate support is laminated on top to form an asymmetric, entirely adhesive-bonded sandwich structure (composite system). FIG. 8 shows the recording sensitivities of the vapor-coated polycarbonate support material (□), of the material that additionally carries the transfer adhesive tape (+) and of the complete sandwich structure (). As in Example 1, the values are determined by means of measurement through the support at a write-pulse time of 250 ns. FIG. 9 shows the recording sensitivities of the material carrying the transfer adhesive tape (+) and of the sandwich structure () at a write-pulse time of 500 ns. According to 1, measurement is effected through the dye-coated support. It is also possible to determine, in each case, the write-pulse energy at a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of 50%, which amounts to 3.75 nJ for the sandwich structure and 4.3 nJ for the material carrying the adhesive tape. EXAMPLE 8 A 1.1 mm thick polycarbonate support is coated by vapor deposition with a layer of a naphthalocyanine dye (Me=VO 2+ ) having a thickness of 140 nm. The dye layer is spin-coated with a binder layer of polyvinyl acetal (®Mowital) up to a layer weight of about 100 mg/m 2 . The binder layer is dried and then a transfer adhesive tape with spacing film (®Scotch) from which one protective film has been peeled off is laminated to the binder layer. After removing the second protective film another polycarbonate support is superposed to produce a composite system. According to Example 1, this material is subjected to measurement through the dye-coated support. The recording sensitivity is shown in FIG. 10. At a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of 50% a write-pulse energy of 4.2 nJ is required. EXAMPLE 9 A polycarbonate support is coated by vapor deposition with a 140 nm thick layer of a naphthalocyanine dye (Me=VO 2+ ). After removing the protective film from a self-adhesive, high-efficiency bonding system (®Scotch-VHB: "Acrylic Foam" Y 4930), the latter is laminated to the dye layer. Then the second protective film is removed from the bonding system and another polycarbonate support is pressed on so that, also in this case, an asymmetric composite system is formed. FIG. 11 shows the recording sensitivity measured through the dye-coated support, as described in Example 1. At a write-pulse time of 500 ns the write-pulse energy required for a contrast ratio (ΔR/R) of 50% is found to be 5.5 nJ.

The invention described a multilayer recording medium for optical information for use in a single recording operation and the process for its production. The multilayer recording medium essentially comprises a support and a layer comprising an unsubstituted naphthalocyanine dye. A binder layer is disposed between the support and the dye layer or the dye layer carries a binder layer which, in turn, is coated with a dye layer. Moreover, the invention describes composite systems, in particular, adhesive-bonded systems constructed from these multilayer recording media. As compared to recording media of the prior art, the media and composite systems according to the present invention exhibit a high reflectivity and require a lower write-pulse energy, while maintaining a particular contrast ratio.

TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to drill bits, and more particularly to drill bits having a support spindle with a conical thrust face for supporting a rotatable cutting cone. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Drill bits utilizing rotary cones for earth boring operations are well known in the art of drilling. The bits generally include a threaded upper portion that attaches to a drill string and a body portion with three downwardly and inwardly facing support spindles. Each support spindle consists of a cylindrical base pin and a smaller, cylindrical pilot pin further projecting along the longitudinal axis of the spindle. A cutting cone is rotatably mounted on each of the support spindles. Each cutting cone includes spaced rows of cutting teeth distributed around the outer surface of the cone. During operation of an earth boring drill bit, the weight of the drill string places a load on the lower face of the cutting cone. The load generally causes contact between an inner surface of the cutting cone and a surface of the support spindle. The friction resulting from this contact between the rotating cutting cone and the stationary support spindle causes wear on the contacting surfaces that limits the useful life of the drill bit. To combat this problem, many bits use lubricant on the contacting surfaces between the support spindle and the cutting cone to slow the rate of surface wear. Drill bits or prior designs, however, prevent uniform lubrication of the spindle and causes some parts of the spindle to wear out more rapidly than others. In a drill bit of a prior design, the load generally causes contact between an inner surface of the cutting cone and a surface of the support spindle on the lower, or load, side. The load also causes a corresponding gap between the inner surface of the cutting cone and a surface of the support spindle on the upper, or non-load, side. To maintain lubrication of the spindle, conventional bits rely on a process by which the rotation of the cone carries lubricant from the gap on the non-load side of the spindle to the contacting surfaces on the load side of the spindle. The exact location of the contact between the spindle and cutting cone surfaces depends on the location of the load applied to the bit. Earth boring bits operate in two basic modes. Most cutting cones are designed so that the load is primarily applied to the outer one or two rows of cutting teeth. Bits with cutting cones of this type operate in a "cocked" mode. Cutting cones that are designed so that the load is applied closer to the centerline of the bit body operate in a "normal" mode. The operative mode is determined by the location of the load applied to the cutting cone when engaging rock at the hole bottom. The location of the load applied to the cone is a function of the cone design. In both the "normal" and "cocked" mode, the rotation of the cutting cone delivers sufficient lubricant to the contacting surfaces of the base pin and pilot pin to provide effective lubrication of those surfaces. However, conventional drill bits also include a flat thrust face at the transition between the base pin and the pilot pin for supporting axial loads applied to the cutting cone. When the cutting cones of these conventional bits are loaded in the "normal" mode, the axial component of the load causes a radial inner surface of the cutting cone to substantially contact the entire thrust face surface. When the bits operate in a "cocked" mode, there is a gap on the non-load side of the thrust face, although this gap is smaller than the gaps on the lateral surfaces of the spindle. The reduced size or absence of a gap on the non-load side reduces the ability of the rotating cutting cone to carry lubricant to the load side. In either the "normal" or "cocked" mode, therefore, the thrust face does not lubricate as efficiently as do the lateral surfaces of the spindle. The lack of lubrication on the thrust face increases heat generated by friction thereby promoting galling of the spindle and often causing premature failure of the spindle. Consequently, the useful life of the drill bit is limited by the inability to maintain sufficient lubrication of the spindle thrust face. The present invention addresses these friction-related problems by shaping the support spindle to promote lubrication of the thrust face. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention comprises a rotary cone drill bit with an improved support spindle. The earth boring drill bit of the present invention includes two or more support spindles that project downwardly and inwardly from a drill bit body, each spindle supporting a rotatable cutting cone. Each support spindle includes a cylindrical base pin and a smaller cylindrical pilot pin extending along a longitudinal axis of the base pin. In accordance with the present invention, the support spindle further includes a conical thrust face at the transition between the base pin and the pilot pin. The inner surface of the cutting cone also includes a conical thrust face surface for mating with the spindle thrust face when the cutting cone is mounted on the drill bit. The conical shape of the thrust face increases clearance between the non-load side of the support spindle and an inner surface of the cutting cone in both a "normal" and a "cocked" mode of operation. In the "normal" mode, the inner surface of the cutting cone does not contact the thrust face on the non-load side of the spindle as in a conventional drill bit with a flat thrust face. Lubrication of the thrust face is improved because the rotation of the cutting cone carries lubricant from the gap on the non-load side to the contacting surfaces on the load side. When the bit is operating in a "cocked" mode, on the other hand, the conical shape of the thrust face produces a larger gap on the non-load side of the spindle than there is on a spindle with a flat thrust face. The larger gap enables the rotating cone to more efficiently deliver lubricant to the contacting thrust face surfaces on the load side of the drill bit. By improving lubrication of the spindle thrust face in both the "cocked " and "normal" modes of operation, a drill bit of the present invention has a longer useful life and generates less heat by friction than conventional drill bits with a flat thrust face. In accordance with another feature of the present invention, the support spindle includes an annular groove that encircles the thrust face surface. The groove is filled with a hard metal or ceramic insert to reduce the rate of wear on the thrust face. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete understanding of the present invention may be had by reference to the following Detailed Description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a cross section view of a rotary cone drill bit having a support spindle with a conical thrust face in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross section view of a cutting cone having hard metal inserts, and a support spindle, having a conical thrust face in accordance with the present invention; and FIG. 3 is a cross section view of a cutting cone having cutting teeth integral with the cone, and a support spindle having a conical thrust face in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Reference is now made to the Drawings wherein like reference characters denote like or similar parts throughout the various Figures. Referring to FIG. 1, there is illustrated a section of an earth boring drill bit 100. The drill bit includes an upper threaded portion 110 for connection to the lowest section of a drill string (not shown). A body 120 of the drill bit 100 extends from the lower part of the threaded portion 110 and contains a lubrication chamber 124 for storing lubricant. The drill bit body 120 has three (only one shown) inwardly and downwardly directed support spindles 130 adapted to rotatably support a cutting cone 150 such that each spindle is oriented to form a longitudinal axis of rotation 141 that passes through a vertical axis 106 of the bit body 120. It should be understood that the axis of rotation 141 in accordance with some bit designs does not pass through the vertical axis 106. Referring now to FIG. 2, one support spindle 130 and cutting cone 150 of the present invention are shown in more detail. The cutting cone 150 includes hard metal insert cutting teeth 155 that are distributed in rows across the outer surface of the cutting cone 150. The cutting cone 150 is retained on the support spindle 130 by the use of conventional retainer balls 174 inserted into a ball race. The ball race comprises a ball race groove 177 having a semicircular trough-like configuration encircling the inner surface of the cutting cone 150 and a ball race groove 178 having a corresponding semicircular trough-like configuration encircling the support spindle 130. The retainer balls 174 are inserted into the ball race through a passageway 135 that is also a part of a lubrication conduit in the support spindle 130. The passageway 135 is in communication with the lubrication chamber 124 (shown in FIG. 1) by channel 122. A pin 136 is inserted in the passageway 135 and secured in place by a plug 134 to hold the retainer balls 174 in the ball race. The support spindle 130 includes three main parts: a base pin 131, a pilot pin 133, and a conical thrust face 132. The cylindrical base pin 131 forms the upper part of the spindle 130 and includes an outer surface that functions as the primary load bearing support and provides radial support for the cutting cone 150. The cylindrical pilot pin 133 projects from the lower end of the base pin 131 along the longitudinal axis 141 of the support spindle 130. The pilot pin 133 is smaller in diameter than the base pin 131 and includes a load bearing outer surface that provides additional radial support and substantially minimizes cocking of the cutting cone 150 during a drilling operation. The conical thrust face 132 is the surface of the spindle 130 between the base pin 131 and the pilot pin 133. The thrust face 132 provides a load bearing surface to axially support the cutting cone 150. Similarly configured inner surfaces of the cutting cone 150 mate with the base pin 131, pilot pin 133, and thrust face 132 of the support spindle 130. A groove 180 encircles the middle section of the base pin 131 adjacent to the retainer balls 174. Another groove 184 encircles the pilot pin 133, and a substantially ring shaped groove 182 encircles the conical thrust face 132. The grooves are filled in a conventional manner with hard metal or ceramic to form bearing inserts 181, 183, and 185. A spindle bearing is provided in the cutting cone 150 in a position opposite the bearing insert 181 of the base pin 131 and provides a bearing surface that is in rotating contact with the base pin 131. Referring again to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, lubrication of the spindle 130 is provided by a system of channels and passageways through the drill bit body 120. Lubricant is supplied through a passageway 122 to one end of the passageway 135. A channel 140 further extends along the spindle axis 141 and carries lubricant to an opening 142 in the end surface of the pilot pin 133 to lubricate the outer surface of the support spindle 130 and the inner surface of the cutting cone 150. The passageway 135 provides for additional lubrication by the flow of lubricant from the lower end of the base pin 131. Finally, a short passageway 137 carries lubricant from the passageway 135 for lubricating the spindle bearing. An O-ring seal 172 restricts lubricant from escaping out of the gap between the spindle 130 and the cutting cone 150. During a drilling operation, the cutting teeth 155 engage rock at the bottom of a hole, thereby generating a load on the cutting cone 150 and a resultant force on the support spindle 130. The location of the load on the cutting cone 150 primarily depends on the design of the cone. The design of most cutting cones causes most of the load to be applied to the outer two rows of cutting teeth. This load causes the cutting cone 150 to tilt or cock at an angle to the longitudinal axis 141. The location of the load causes inner surfaces of the cutting cone 150 and outer surfaces of the support spindle 130 to contact on the lower, or load, side of the drill bit 100. Specifically, contact is made at the lower side of the thrust face 132 and base pin 131 and the pilot pin 133. There is a corresponding increase in the gap between non-load surfaces of the support spindle 130 and the cutting cone 150. Specifically, the load causes an increased gap on the non-load side of the thrust face 132, and the base pin 131 and the pilot pin 133. The rotation of the cutting cone 150 on the support spindle 130 carries lubricant from the gaps on the non-load sides of the base pin 131, the pilot pin 133, and the thrust face 132 to the load side on the opposite side of the support spindle, thereby providing lubrication for the load bearing surfaces of the support spindle. Referring to FIG. 3, there is illustrated a drill bit with roller bearings and a conical thrust face in accordance with the present invention wherein the cutting cone 150 includes cutting teeth 155 integral with the cone surface. The inner surfaces of the cutting cone 150 include a bearing channel 190 provided with roller bearings 192 in contact with the support spindle 130 on the load side of the base pin 131. The pilot pin 133 and the thrust face 132 of the embodiment of FIG. 3 are similar to the corresponding parts of the drill bit of FIG. 2. The load also causes a corresponding gap on the non-load side of the base pin 131, the pilot pin 133, and the thrust face 132. Rotation of the cutting cone 150 delivers lubricant from the gap on the non-load side to the load side. Referring again to FIG. 2, an included angle 170 of the thrust face 132 is illustrated as the interior angle defined by the conical thrust face surface. The included angle 170 of the thrust face 132 varies in accordance with the drill bit design. Drill bits with a smaller included angle have increased clearance between the thrust face 132 and the inner surface of the cutting cone 150 on the non-load side. Increased clearance provides for improved lubrication of the thrust face 132 because more lubricant is available for delivery to the contacting surface of the thrust face. In contrast, drill bits with larger included angles provide less effective thrust face lubrication because there is less clearance on the non-load side. The range of possible values for the included angle 170, however, is limited as a practical matter. If the included angle 170 becomes too small, the conical thrust face projects too far into the interior of the cutting cone 150 and there is no room for a pilot pin 133. Because a pilot pin 133 is necessary to minimize cocking of the cutting cone 150 during drilling, the included angle cannot be smaller than about 90 degrees. On the other hand, as the included angle 170 of the cutting cone 150 becomes too large, the design approaches that of a bit with a flat thrust face and the advantages of the present invention are dissipated. As a practical matter, therefore the included angle 170 of the thrust face 132 is about 150 degrees. In a preferred embodiment, the included angle of the thrust face 132 is 120 degrees. Although a preferred embodiment of the invention has been illustrated in the accompanying drawings and described in the foregoing Detailed Description, it will be understood that the invention is not limited to the embodiment disclosed, but is capable of numerous rearrangements and modifications of parts and elements without departing from the spirit of the invention.

A rotary cone drill bit includes a drill bit body having two or more support spindles extending inward and downward toward a vertical axis of the drill bit body. Each support spindle of the drill bit includes a base pin and further includes a pilot pin extending from the base pin along a longitudinal axis of the support spindle. A conical-shaped thrust face forms the transition from the base pin to the pilot pin. A cutting cone is rotatably mounted on each support spindle and includes a conical internal surface to run in contact with the conical thrust face of the support spindle. Rotation of the cutting cone carries lubricant from the non-load side of the spindle to the contact surfaces on the load side of the spindle.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS [0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 61/661,701 filed Jun. 19, 2012, which is hereby incorporated by reference to the extent not inconsistent with the disclosure herein. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT [0002] This invention was made with government support under contract number N00014-12-1-0014 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND [0003] For a liquid droplet on a solid substrate, the contact angle may be defined as the interior angle formed by the substrate and the tangent to the interface between the liquid and gas or vapor at the apparent intersection of the substrate, liquid and gas or vapor phases (see FIG. 1 a ). The dimension of the droplet is often comparable to or smaller than the capillary length of the liquid. The contact angle may be measured or calculated from images of the droplet on the substrate. The substrate is characterized as being wetted if the contact angle between the droplet and the substrate is less than 90°; or non-wetted if the contact angle between the droplet and the substrate is greater than 90°. When the liquid is water, the surface is considered hydrophobic when the contact angle between the water droplet and the substrate is greater than 90°. Similarly, when the liquid is an oil, the surface is considered oleophobic when the contact angle between the refrigerant droplet and the substrate is greater than 90°. [0004] On a relatively smooth surface, the relationship between the contact angle and the relevant surface and interfacial energies may be given by Young's equation (Equation 1). However, on a rough surface, the apparent contact angle of the droplet may differ from that measured on a smooth surface. In some cases, the droplet may sit on top of surface features so that a composite (solid-liquid-vapor) interface is formed, as shown in FIG. 1 c (right, labeled Cassie-Baxter). Tuteja et al. (Science, 318, 1618, 2007) describe formation of composite interfaces on re-entrant curved surfaces with the drop sitting partially on air; contact angle measurements are given for octane on a silane coated smooth surface (advancing contact angle approx. 55°, receding approx.) 50° and a rough “microhoodo” surface (advancing contact angle approx. 163°, receding approx. 145°). Re-entrant curvature may be characterized by a surface topography which cannot be described by a simple univalued function z=h(x,y) and for which a vector projected normal to the x-y plane intersects the texture more than once (Tuteja et al, 2008, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci, 105(47), 18200-18205). [0005] Condensation of a liquid phase from a vapor phase occurs in condenser heat transfer devices used in power generation and refrigeration systems. When the latent heat of vaporization is released during condensation on a surface, heat is transferred to the surface. During the condensation process, the condensing liquid may form a film over the entire surface in a process termed filmwise condensation. Alternately the condensed liquid may form as drops on the surface in a process termed dropwise condensation. Higher heat transfer coefficients have been reported for dropwise condensation of steam than filmwise condensation at atmospheric pressure (Rose 2002, Dropwise condensation theory and experiment: a review, Proc Instn Mech Engrs, 216(Part 4): 115-128). BRIEF SUMMARY [0006] Provided herein are methods and devices related to heat transfer, such as by dropwise condensation of a refrigerant vapor on a surface. In an aspect, the surface and various aspects of the system are configured to ensure the surface is refrigerant repelling. In an embodiment, the refrigerant repelling surface is configured so that a refrigerant that may normally wet a surface is instead repelled The surface and various aspects of the system may also be configured to enhance droplet mobility, condensation rate and/or the heat transfer coefficient. [0007] In an embodiment, the systems and devices of the invention are configured so as to increase the contact angle between a condensed droplet and a surface. For example, the contact angle may be increased as compared to the contact angle on a droplet of the same liquid on a flat smooth surface of the same material. Relevant aspects that facilitate an increase in contact angle include surface characteristics, fluid characteristics, and physical process characteristics. Surface characteristics include surface composition and/or surface geometry, such as position and geometry of relief or recessed features. Relevant fluid characteristics include molecular weight, surface tension, liquid-vapor interfacial energy, liquid-solid interfacial energy, solid-vapor interfacial energy, vapor pressure, saturation temperature, saturation pressure, critical temperature, and critical pressure. Accordingly, any of the methods and devices provided herein can relate to selection of any one or more of these aspects so as to ensure a maximal or acceptable increase in contact angle. Whether or not a surface is considered a repelling surface may be influenced by contact angle between a condensed droplet and the contact surface. In an embodiment, a refrigerant-repelling surface may be textured to provide a nonwetting surface even for surface-refrigerant systems that may normally be considered as wetting systems. [0008] Examples of relevant physical process characteristics affecting the refrigerant-repellency of a surface include pressure, temperature and composition of the atmosphere. Another process characteristic that may affect the refrigerant-repellency of the surface is the condensation rate within the heat transfer device. Provided herein are methods and devices for accurately operating at atmospheric pressure or at non-atmospheric pressures, including below atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure and substantially above atmospheric pressure. In addition, many conventional systems suffer from the limitation of having air present in the atmosphere of the heat transfer system. Provided herein are methods and devices wherein the atmosphere composition is substantially vapor of the refrigerant, including an atmosphere which contains either no air or negligible amounts of air. It has been observed that the vapor pressure of refrigerant in the atmosphere can affect the contact angle of a droplet on a surface; in some cases the characteristic or apparent contact angle may be lower in a vapor saturated atmosphere as compared to an air atmosphere (see Example 2 and FIG. 17 ). In these cases, increasing the contact angle of a liquid droplet on a surface when the atmosphere is substantially vapor of the refrigerant may be more difficult than for a droplet exposed to an atmosphere which is essentially air. In this manner, precise control over operating parameters are achieved, providing the ability tailor the process and device to particular refrigerant/substrate systems to achieve maximum possible increase in contact angle, thereby increasing the repellency of the surface to condensed droplets of refrigerant vapor. [0009] In one aspect, the invention provides methods for condensation heat transfer which lead to dropwise condensation of refrigerant or working fluid. In an embodiment, the dropwise condensation heat transfer methods of the invention can lead to heat transfer exceeding 1 kW/cm 2 . In different embodiments, the condensation heat transfer processes of the invention take place under saturation conditions, under near saturation conditions, under conditions where the vapor is superheated, under conditions where the surface is undercooled or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the condensation heat transfer processes of the invention take place under saturation conditions. [0010] In an embodiment, the invention provides a method for condensation heat transfer comprising condensing a refrigerant vapor on a textured portion of an interior surface of a chamber to form a plurality of refrigerant droplets at a user selected pressure, thereby transferring heat from the refrigerant vapor to the interior surface wherein the user selected pressure is not atmospheric pressure, the textured portion of the interior surface comprises surface features, the surface features comprising a surface material and the apparent contact angle of the refrigerant droplets on the surface features is non-zero and greater than the characteristic contact angle of the refrigerant droplets on the surface material of the surface features. [0011] In the methods of the invention, the apparent contact angle may be greater than the characteristic contact angle by at least 20 degrees or by at least 45 degrees. The methods of the invention may comprise condensing a refrigerant vapor on a textured surface to form a plurality of refrigerant droplets having an apparent contact angle greater than 90°. In different embodiments, the apparent contact angle of the droplets may be greater than 90° to less than or equal to 180°, 160°, 150°, 140°, 130°, 120°, or 110°. The refrigerant may comprise a halocarbon or hydrocarbon refrigerant and a lubricant such as a polyol ester or polyalkylene glycol lubricant. The composition of the refrigerant vapor may vary with position in the heat exchanger. In different embodiments, the refrigerant vapor may contain up to 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 45% or 50% by mass lubricant. The textured surface may comprise elevated or relief surface features. The surface features may form a “waffle” pattern as schematically illustrated in FIGS. 3A and 3B , Other surface features may have a reentrant geometry and may take the general form of “micromushrooms” schematically illustrated in cross-section in FIG. 19 . In addition, the textured surface comprises a surface material. The surface material may be a material with relatively low surface energy such as a fluorosilane or a polymer formed as a coating on the interior of the chamber. Other suitable type of surface coating materials is a mixture comprising a polymer such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and a filler material, such as zinc oxide or silica. In an embodiment, nonwetting refrigerant droplets can be achieved on the textured surface even though droplets of the refrigerant wet nontextured surface material. In different embodiments of the present invention, the characteristic contact angle of the refrigerant on the surface materials is less than 75°, less than 60°, less than 50°, less than 40°, less than 30°, less than 20°, less than 10° or less than 5°. In other embodiments, a plurality of refrigerant droplets on the textured surface have an apparent contact angle of 90° or less than 90°, but the apparent contact angle is greater than the characteristic contact angle of the refrigerant on the surface material. The temperature of the interior surface of the chamber where condensation occurs may be in a preselected temperature range and the surface tension of the refrigerant in the preselected temperature range may be from 5 mN/m to 25 mN/m, 5 mN/m to 20 mN/m, 5 mN/m to 15 mN/m or 5 mN/m to 10 mN/m. [0012] The textured surface may be located inside a chamber such as a pressure vessel or vacuum chamber. The condensation process can take place under saturation conditions or near saturation conditions. The vapor may also be superheated and/or the surface may be supercooled in at least a portion of the chamber. In an embodiment, the pressure in the vessel may be from 5 kPa to 5 MPa, including specific subranges thereof such as above atmospheric pressure, below atmospheric pressure, or a pressure that is not atmospheric, including substantially not atmospheric. In an embodiment, standard atmospheric pressure may be taken as approximately 101.3 kPa. In an embodiment, the pressure in the vessel may be greater than atmospheric pressure and less than 5 MPa. “Substantially not atmospheric” refers to a pressure range that is at least 20% different from atmospheric. The temperature of the interior surface of the chamber where condensation occurs may be in a preselected range; the preselected range may be the saturation temperature of the refrigerant vapor+/−20%, 15%, 10% or 5%. [0013] The methods of the invention may also comprise condensing a refrigerant vapor on a textured surface comprising a surface material to form a plurality of refrigerant droplets, wherein the mobility of the droplets is higher on the textured surface than the mobility of droplets formed on an “untextured” or “smooth” surface of the surface material, the condensation rate is higher on the textured surface than the condensation rate of an “untextured” or “smooth” surface of the surface material, and/or the heat transfer coefficient is higher for the textured surface than the heat transfer coefficient on an “untextured” or “smooth” surface of the surface material. [0014] In another aspect, the invention provides a heat exchanger system which is a closed system containing both liquid and vapor phases. In an embodiment, at least a portion of the heat exchanger system comprises a textured portion, the textured portion of the system facilitating dropwise condensation of refrigerant vapor. The surface features of the texture may vary within the heat exchanger system in accordance with variations in vapor composition, pressure and temperature within the system. The portion of the heat exchanger system comprising the textured portion may be located in a condenser, and the system heat exchanger system may further comprises an evaporator configured to produce a vapor from a source liquid, the evaporator being in fluid communication with the condenser. FIG. 35 schematically illustrates a heat exchanger system comprising a condenser (100), evaporator (200) and compressor (300). [0015] In an aspect, the invention provides a heat exchanger system for condensation heat transfer through condensation of a refrigerant vapor into droplets of the refrigerant, the heat exchanger system comprising: a chamber comprising an interior hollow portion and an interior surface, the interior surface comprising a textured portion, the textured portion of the surface comprising surface features, the surface features comprising a surface material wherein the apparent contact angle of the refrigerant droplets on the surface features is greater than the characteristic contact angle of the refrigerant droplets on the surface material of the surface features. [0016] In another aspect, the invention provides a heat exchanger system for condensation heat transfer, the heat exchanger system comprising: a) a chamber comprising an interior hollow portion and an interior surface, the interior surface comprising a textured portion, the textured portion of the surface comprising surface features, the surface features comprising a surface material; and b) a refrigerant positioned in the hollow portion of the chamber, the refrigerant being selected from the group consisting of halocarbon, hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) and hydrocarbon (HC) wherein the characteristic contact angle of a refrigerant droplet on the surface material in an atmosphere substantially comprising refrigerant vapor is less than 50° under saturation conditions. [0019] In another aspect, the invention provides a heat exchanger system for condensation heat transfer, the heat exchanger system comprising: a) a chamber comprising an interior hollow portion and an interior surface, the interior surface comprising a textured portion, the textured portion of the surface comprising surface features, the surface features a surface material; and b) a refrigerant positioned in the hollow portion of the chamber, the refrigerant being selected from the group consisting of halocarbon, hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) and hydrocarbon (HC) wherein as measured under saturation conditions or near saturation conditions the mobility of the droplets is higher on the textured surface than the mobility of droplets formed on an smooth surface of the surface material, the condensation rate is higher on the textured surface than the condensation rate of a smooth surface of the surface material, and/or the heat transfer coefficient is higher for the textured surface than the heat transfer coefficient on a smooth surface of the surface material. [0022] In the methods and devices of the invention, the refrigerant may be any suitable refrigerant known to the art. In an embodiment, the refrigerant may comprise a component selected from the group consisting of halocarbon, hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), hydrofluoroolefin (HFO), hydrocarbon (HC) and water or may be selected from the group consisting of halocarbon, hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) and hydrocarbon (HC). [0023] In an aspect of the invention, the surface characteristics are selected to contribute to refrigerant repellency, increased droplet mobility, increased condensation rate and/or higher heat transfer coefficient. In an embodiment, the surface features on the interior surface of the pressure vessel comprise nanoparticles. In an embodiment, the average diameter of the nanoparticles is 2-300 nm and the average spacing between nanoparticles is 10-1000 nm. In an embodiment, the elevated features form a network of “walls” surrounding features of lower elevation (relative depressions) to form a “waffle” pattern. The elevated “wall” features may have an average width between 5 nm and 10 microns and an average spacing or pitch between 50 nm and 250 micron or from 5 micron to 100 micron, 10 to 50 microns or from 15 microns to 30 microns. The depth of the depressions may be from 50 nm to 250 microns, from 5 micron to 100 micron, 5 to 50 microns or from 15 microns to 30 microns. The pitch may be greater than the depth of the depressions. [0024] In another embodiment the surface features comprise elevated features shaped like “micromushrooms” with a “cap” typically wider than the “stem”. FIG. 19 illustrates several parameters which can be used to characterize such “micromushroom” structures. Suitable ranges of these parameters for the refrigerants described herein include, but are not limited to: D=40-70, W=20-100, R=25-40 and H=65-110, D=40-60, W=80-100, R=25-40 and H=90-110 and D=45-55, W=90-100, R=30-40 and H=100-110 and intermediate ranges. [0025] A refrigerant repelling surface may have any surface texture capable of contributing to refrigerant repellency and may be such that the surface features of the textured surface provide a re-entrant geometry or such that surface features form a “waffle” or grid pattern. The surface material composing the refrigerant repelling material may have a relatively low surface energy and may comprise a polymer or a surface treatment material such as a silane coating. In some embodiments, the surface material comprises a fluoropolymer or a fluorosilane. Other materials proposed for use as relatively low surface energy coatings include diamond-like carbon and fluorinated diamond-like coatings. [0026] In an embodiment, the atmosphere in the pressure vessel substantially comprises refrigerant vapor. For example, the amount of air present in the atmosphere of the pressure vessel may be less than 50%, less than 25%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or about zero. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0027] FIGS. 1 a - 1 c : Standard conceptual models for a liquid droplet on a flat surface ( 1 a ), on a wetted rough surface ( 1 b ), and on a partially wetted surface ( 1 c ). The wetting state in the middle ( 1 b ) is the Wenzel mode, and the wetting state on the right ( 1 c ) is the Cassie-Baxter mode. [0028] FIG. 2 : Graphical Representation of T C γLV [0029] FIGS. 3A-B : Schematic top view of a hexagonal waffle structure ( FIG. 3A ) and a grid-like waffle structure ( FIG. 3B ). [0030] FIGS. 4A-4C : Schematic top view of different configurations of pillar elements: hexagonal arrangement ( FIG. 4A ), square arrangement ( FIG. 4B ), and honeycomb arrangement ( FIG. 4C ). [0031] FIG. 5 : Experimental apparatus [0032] FIG. 6 : Contact angles plotted at the saturation pressure of water for a given temperature between 25 and 250° C. [0033] FIG. 7 : Image of a droplet of distilled water on a waffle patterned Si wafer coated in PTFE inside of pressure vessel. Image taken at 35.8° C. and 62.0 kPa. Vapor is water. [0034] FIG. 8 : Image sequence of a droplet of water evaporating on a flat Si wafer coated in PTFE inside of the pressure vessel. Images taken at labeled temperatures and corresponding saturation pressures. [0035] FIG. 9 : Plot of temperature dependent contact angle for a textured surface (pillars, d=50 μm h=50 μm p=100 μm) compared to a flat surface and the mathematical model. Vapor is water. [0036] FIGS. 10 a - 10 b : Image sequence of water droplet on waffle patterned Si wafer coated in PTFE. Droplet heated from 31.7° C. to 54.1° C. Droplet triple line expands outward due to expansion of trapped pockets of water vapor between droplet and surface until reaching a maximum at 46.4° C. Vapor is water. FIG. 10 a shows 31.7° C. to 43.2° C. FIG. 10 b shows 46.4° C. to 54.1° C. [0037] FIG. 10 c : magnified image of vapor expansion inside of water droplet. (from FIG. 10 b ) Vapor is water. [0038] FIG. 11 : Image sequence of water droplet on waffle textured (25 μm squares 50 μm pitch) Si wafer coated with PTFE inside pressure vessel. As triple line expands, Er decreases from ˜90° to ˜32° after the trapped water vapor completes expansion inside droplet. Vapor is water. [0039] FIG. 12 : Droplet of water on a glass slide with micro textured surfaces coated in silane inside of pressure vessel. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. Vapor is water. Apparent contact angle 113°. [0040] FIG. 13 : droplet of water on a glass slide with micro textured surfaces without silane coating inside of pressure vessel. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. Vapor is water. Apparent contact angle 60°. [0041] FIG. 14 : Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of microtextures on glass slide. [0042] FIG. 15 : Water droplet on zinc-oxide nano particle coated glass slide. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. Apparent contact angle 170 degrees. Vapor is water. [0043] FIGS. 16 a and b : SEM images of a PDMS:ZnO coating at two different magnfications [0044] FIG. 17 : Water droplets on a flat PTFE coated surface and various micro textured surfaces as indicated. All images taken at 22° C. [0045] FIG. 18 a : Apparent contact angle of water droplets on flat and square pillar textured surfaces in saturated water vapor. Model predictions also shown. [0046] FIG. 18 b Apparent contact angle of water droplets on flat and square waffle textured surfaces in saturated water vapor. Model predictions also shown. [0047] FIG. 19 : Schematic cross-sectional view of “micromushroom” features. Partial micromushroom shown at right and left edges. [0048] FIGS. 20 a - f : SEM images of micro mushrooms of various configurations. [0049] FIGS. 21 a - d show sessile drops on a micromushroom texture with D=53 μm W=66 μm R=35 μm and H=85 μm. FIG. 21 a : water on uncoated surface. FIG. 21 b : oleic acid on uncoated surface. FIG. 21 c : water on surface coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 21 d : oleic acid on surface coated with Teflon® AF. [0050] FIGS. 22 a - d show sessile drops on a micromushroom texture with D=68 μm W=58 μm R=30 μm H=90 μm. FIG. 22 a : water on uncoated surface. [0051] FIG. 22 b : oleic acid on uncoated surface. FIG. 22 c : water on surface coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 22 d : oleic acid on surface coated with Teflon® AF. [0052] FIGS. 23 a - d show sessile drops on a micromushroom texture with D=44 μm W=92 μm R=28 μm H=107 μm. FIG. 23 a : water on uncoated surface. [0053] FIG. 23 b : oleic acid on uncoated surface. FIG. 23 c : water on surface coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 23 d : oleic acid on surface coated with Teflon® AF. [0054] FIGS. 24 a - d show sessile drops on a micromushroom texture D=55 μm W=19 μm R═NA μm H=94 μm. FIG. 24 a : water on uncoated surface. [0055] FIG. 24 b : oleic acid on uncoated surface. FIG. 24 c : water on surface coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 24 d : oleic acid on surface coated with Teflon® AF. [0056] FIGS. 25 a - d show sessile drops on a micromushroom texture D=48 μm W=96 μm R=35.7 μm H=107 μm. FIG. 25 a : water on uncoated surface. [0057] FIG. 25 b : oleic acid on uncoated surface. FIG. 25 c : water on surface coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 25 d : oleic acid on surface coated with Teflon® AF. [0058] FIGS. 26 a - d show sessile drops on a micromushroom texture D=60 μm W=31.5 μm R=30 μm H=67 μm. FIG. 26 a : water on uncoated surface. [0059] FIG. 26 b : oleic acid on uncoated surface. FIG. 26 c : water on surface coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 26 d : oleic acid on surface coated with Teflon® AF. [0060] FIG. 27 : Images of halocarbon 200 oil on ZnO particle coated slide. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. [0061] FIG. 28 a : Image of RL 68H oil droplet on ZnO particle coated surface (5% ZnO, 2:1fPDMS). The apparent contact angle was measured as 25.4°. [0062] FIG. 28 b : Image of contact angle obtained for a PDMS:ZnO 2:1 coating at standard temperature and pressure (STP). The apparent contact angle obtained was 138.6°. [0063] FIG. 28 c : Image of RL 68H oil droplet on micropillar textured surface (d=10, p=22, h=20) coated with PTFE. The apparent contact angle was measured as 122.0°. [0064] FIGS. 29 a - f : Image of various R-134:RL 68H compositions at saturation on a micromushroom textured surface (D=68 μm W=58 μm R=30 μm H=90 μm) coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 29 a : 0% R-134a; FIG. 29 b : 25% R-134a. FIG. 29 c : 33% R-134a. FIG. 29 d : 50% R-134a. FIG. 29 e : 60% R-134a. FIG. 29 f : 80% R-134a. [0065] FIGS. 30 a - f : Image of various R-134:RL 68H compositions at saturation on a micromushroom textured surface (D=55 μm W=19 μm R═NA μm H=94 μm) coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 30 a : 0% R-134a; FIG. 30 b : 25% R-134a. FIG. 30 c : 33% R-134a. FIG. 30 d : 50% R-134a. FIG. 30 e : 60% R-134a. FIG. 30 f : 80% R-134a. [0066] FIGS. 31 a - f : Image of various R-134:RL 68H compositions at saturation on a micromushroom textured surface (D=48 μm W=96 μm R=35.7 μm H=107 μm) coated with Teflo® n AF. FIG. 31 a : 0% R-134a; FIG. 31 b : 25% R-134a. FIG. 31 c : 33% R-134a. FIG. 31 d : 50% R-134a. FIG. 31 e : 60% R-134a. FIG. 31 f : 80% R-134a. [0067] FIGS. 32 a - f : Image of various R-134:RL 68H compositions at saturation on a square waffle textured surface (p=12 μm) coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 32 a : 0% R-134a; FIG. 32 b : 25% R-134a. FIG. 32 c : 33% R-134a. FIG. 32 d : 50% R-134a. FIG. 32 e : 60% R-134a. FIG. 32 f : 80% R-134a. [0068] FIGS. 33 a - f : Image of various R-134:RL 68H compositions at saturation on a square waffle textured surface (p=22 μm) coated with Teflon® AF. FIG. 33 a : 0% R-134a; FIG. 33 b : 25% R-134a. FIG. 33 c : 33% R-134a. FIG. 33 d : 50% R-134a. FIG. 33 e : 60% R-134a. FIG. 33 f : 80% R-134a. [0069] FIG. 34 : Image of R-134a droplet with a relatively high apparent contact angle on PTFE coated waffle pattern Si wafer in pressure vessel. Image taken at 24° C. and 645.8 kPa. Vapor is R134a. [0070] FIG. 35 : Schematic of heat exchanger system including a condenser, evaporator and compressor. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0071] As used herein, a refrigerant is a substance used in a heat cycle that undergoes a phase change between gas and liquid. Accordingly, a refrigerant vapor is the gas phase of a refrigerant. If the refrigerant is a mixture of components, the composition of the vapor phase may differ from that of the liquid. For example if the refrigerant is a mixture of a halocarbon refrigerant and a lubricant, the vapor of the mixture may be mostly halocarbon refrigerant vapor. [0072] Refrigerants include inorganic refrigerants, halocarbon refrigerants, and hydrocarbon refrigerants. Refrigerants also include mixtures of inorganic refrigerants, halocarbon refrigerants and hydrocarbon refrigerants with additional components in the system such as lubricants. The methods and devices provided herein are compatible with a wide range of refrigerants, so long as the vapor is capable of condensing into liquid droplets on a surface, including onto a surface that is refrigerant repelling. Examples of certain refrigerants of interest in the context of the methods and devices provided herein include: R-11 Trichlorofluoromethane, R-12 Dichlorodifluoromethane, R-13 B1 Bromotrifluoromethane, R-22 Chlorodifluoromethane, R-32 Difluoromethane R-113, Trichlorotrifluoroethane, R-114 Dichlorotetrafluoroethane, R-123 Dichlorotrifluoroethane, R-124 Chlorotetrafluoroethane, R-125 Pentafluoroethane, R-134a Tetrafluoroethane, R-143a Trifluoroethane, R-152a Difluoroethane and R-245a Pentafluoropropane, 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (HFO 1234yf) and rans-1,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (HFO 1234zeE), R290 propane, R600 n-butane, R600a isobutene (2-methyl propane), R1150 ethylene and R1270 propylene, R-401A (53% R-22, 34% R-124, 13% R-152a), R-401B (61% R-22, 28% R-124, 11% R-152a), R-402A (38% R-22, 60% R-125, 2% R-290), R-404A (44% R-125, 52% R-143a, R-134a), R-407A (20% R-32, 40% R-125, 40% R-134a), R-407C (23% R-32, 25% R-125, 52% R-134a), R-502 (48.8% R-22, 51.2% R-115) 0.283 4.1 and R-507 (45% R-125, 55% R-143). [0073] Inorganic refrigerants known to the art include air, ammonia, carbon dioxide sulfur dioxide and water. In an embodiment, water may be used as a refrigerant in the methods of the invention under selected process conditions (e.g. under saturation or near saturation conditions and the pressure is less than atmospheric pressure). The surface tension of water is 72.8 mN/m @ 20° C. [0074] As used herein, the term halocarbon refers to a chemical compound including carbon and one or more of the halogens (bromine, chlorine, fluorine, iodine). In an embodiment, the halocarbon may also include hydrogen. Exemplary halocarbon refrigerants include R-11 Trichlorofluoromethane, R-12 Dichlorodifluoromethane, R-13 B1 Bromotrifluoromethane, R-22 Chlorodifluoromethane, R-32 Difluoromethane R-113, Trichlorotrifluoroethane, R-114 Dichlorotetrafluoroethane, R-123 Dichlorotrifluoroethane, R-124 Chlorotetrafluoroethane, R-125 Pentafluoroethane, R-134a Tetrafluoroethane, R-143a Trifluoroethane, R-152a Difluoroethane and R-245a Pentafluoropropane. [0075] In an embodiment, the halocarbon refrigerant is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) or hydrofluoroolefin (HFO). Exemplary HFC refrigerants include, but are not limited to, R-125 Pentafluoroethane, R-134a Tetrafluoroethane, R-143a Trifluoroethane, R-152a Difluoroethane and R-245a Pentafluoropropane. Exemplary hydrofluorolefin refrigerants include but are not limited to 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (HFO 1234yf) and rans-1,3,3-tetrafluoroprop-1-ene (HFO 1234zeE). Surface tension of R-134a is 14.6 mN/m @-20° C.; surface tension of HFO-1234yf is 2.0 @ 55° C., 9.5 @ 0° C. [0076] As used herein, the term hydrocarbon refers to a chemical compound consisting of carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbon refrigerants include, but are not limited to R290 propane, R600 n-butane, R600a isobutene (2-methyl propane), R1150 ethylene and R1270 propylene. [0077] Refrigerant mixtures are also possible. The mixture may be an azeotropic: mixture whose vapor and liquid phases retain identical compositions over a wide range of temperatures. The mixture may also be a zeotropic mixture whose composition in liquid phase differs from that in vapor phase. Zeotropic refrigerants therefore do not boil at constant temperatures unlike azeotropic refrigerants. Exemplary refrigerant mixtures are R-401A (53% R-22, 34% R-124, 13% R-152a), R-401B (61% R-22, 28% R-124, 11°/o R-152a), R-402A (38% R-22, 60% R-125, 2% R-290), R-404A (44% R-125, 52% R-143a, R-134a), R-407A (20% R-32, 40% R-125, 40% R-134a), R-407C (23% R-32, 25% R-125, 52% R-134a), R-502 (48.8% R-22, 51.2% R-115) 0.283 4.1R-507 (45% R-125, 55% R-143). [0078] A variety of lubricants suitable for use in heat exchanger systems are known to the art. In different embodiments, the lubricant may be a polyol ester (POE) or a polyalkylene glycol (PAG). Polyol esters include, but are not limited to neopentyl glycols, trimethylolpropanes, pentaerythritols and dipentaerytrhitols. Specific polyol esters include, but are not limited to RL68H. In an embodiment, the viscosity of the lubricant may be described by an ISO viscosity grade number such as ISO 68, ISO 46 or ISO 100. [0079] In the methods of the invention, the temperature and pressure of the vapor is generally less than the critical temperature and pressure of the refrigerant. The temperature and pressure of the vapor may vary within the heat exchanger apparatus. For example, the vapor may be superheated after exiting a compressor and be at a lower temperature, such as at or near its saturation temperature, adjacent to a surface of surface of the condenser. Under saturation conditions, the refrigerant can exist in both liquid and vapor form. The saturation temperature is the temperature where a substance changes between its liquid and its vapor phase (at a given pressure). Similarly, the saturation vapor pressure is the vapor pressure where a substance changes between its liquid and its vapor phase (at a given temperature). The relationship between the pressure and the temperature is fixed under saturation conditions. Near saturation conditions, where the pressure and temperature are close to but not at the steady state values, can also support evaporation and condensation. In different embodiments, near saturation conditions capable of supporting evaporation and condensation may involve pressures and temperatures which are within 20%, 15%, 10% or 5% of their saturation values. In an embodiment, the condensation heat transfer processes of the invention take place in an enclosure such as a pressure vessel under saturation or near saturation conditions. [0080] As used herein, “characteristic contact angle” refers to the static contact angle of a droplet of refrigerant on an essentially flat or smooth solid surface of a given material, including under standard conditions. The characteristic contact angle may be taken as the mean or median of several measurements of contact angle. The characteristic contact angle is also referred to as θ. In different embodiments of the present invention, the characteristic contact angle of the refrigerant on a surface material is less than 50°, less than 40°, less than 30°, less than 20°, less than 10° or less than 5°. The characteristic contact angle may be a static contact angle, an advancing contact angle or a receding contact angle. [0081] As used herein, “apparent contact angle” refers to the contact angle of a droplet of refrigerant on a textured surface and may also be referred to as θ*. In an embodiment, the size of the droplet is greater than or equal to the size of the features creating the surface texture. For example, if the surface texture is created by particles on the surface, the droplet size may be greater than the particle size. In an embodiment, the apparent contact angle of a droplet of refrigerant on a textured surface of a given material is greater than the characteristic contact angle of the refrigerant on the same material (without texture) when the droplet size is greater than the size of the features creating the surface texture, the surrounding atmosphere, temperature and pressure being the same in both cases. In different embodiment, the apparent contact angle may be greater than the characteristic contact angle by greater than 45°. In an embodiment, the apparent contact angle of at least some of the droplets is greater than 90°. In an embodiment, the apparent contact angle on a given surface texture is assessed in the temperature or pressure range of interest under saturation conditions. The contact angle of a droplet may also depend on whether the measurement is a static measurement or a dynamic measurement. [0082] In an aspect, the contact angle of a droplet with a surface may change during droplet formation. Accordingly, any of the methods and devices provided herein may measure contact angle at a user-defined times or stages, thereby providing the ability to better characterize and compare different systems. For example, the time point may be at specified time after droplet condensation begins, or may be at a specific stage of the process, such as immediately prior to exit of the moving droplet from the system or any stage between formation to exit, such as at a half-way point. Other relevant parameters may include rates or speed at which maximum contact angle is achieved as certain fluids may initially condense with a rather flat contact angle and then increased in contact angle as the droplet further forms. With this in mind, any of the devices and methods provided herein may be characterized in terms of a surface repellency ratio defined as θ*/θ for a given system, such as a surface repellency ratio that is greater than or equal 2, including selected from a range that is greater than or equal to 2 and less than or equal 150, greater than or equal to 5 and less than or equal 100 ratio, or greater than or equal to 5 and less than or equal 15, or about 10 or more, with θ*>90° and θ< 90 °. [0083] Surface composition (e.g. use of low energy surfaces or low energy surface coatings) can influence the wettability of the surface by the liquid. In some embodiments, the surface may comprise a fluoropolymer or fluorosilane. Suitable fluoropolymers include, but are not limited to, Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and amorphous PTFE (e.g. Teflon® AF). Commercially available fluorosilanes such as Dow Corning 2604, 2624, and 2634; DK Optool DSX™; Shintesu OPTRON™; heptadecafluoro silane (manufactured, for example, by Gelest); FLUOROSYL™ (manufactured, for example, by Cytonix). [0084] In one aspect, textured surfaces useful for the invention have surface textures which facilitate droplet mobility along the surface. In this manner, as droplets form on a surface, the droplets move along the surface thereby avoiding film formation. In an embodiment, the refrigerant repelling surfaces of the invention facilitate droplet movement along the surface. One way to measure the ease of roll-off is to determine the angle of tilt from the horizontal needed before a drop will roll off a surface. The lower the tilt angle, the more easily the drop rolls off the surface. [0085] As used herein, “surface texture” can refer to three-dimensional features on a surface that intrudes into an interior volume that contains the refrigerant. In an aspect, surface texture may comprise relief and recess features. In this manner, an elevated surface feature is considered a relief feature, and the corresponding non-elevated portion may be considered, relative to the relief feature, a recess feature. For example, the “micromushroom” features shown in FIG. 19 may be considered to be relief features. Refrigerant behavior on textured surfaces may be compared to that on smooth surfaces. In an embodiment, a “smooth” surface has a surface roughness significantly less than (e.g. less than ½ of, less than ¼ of or less than 1/10 of) the characteristic depth or height of features on the textured surface. In an embodiment, the surface texture of the interior of the pressure vessel includes topographically complex, three-dimensional microstructures or nanostructures with reentrant geometries. Surfaces having a reentrant geometry typically include a protruding portion configured to protrude toward a liquid and a reentrant portion opposite the protruding portion. Such reentrant structures can be formed by particles or fibers, whose curvature provides the reentrant feature. The reentrant structures can also be made with etching techniques. Nonwoven or woven fabrics, including fabrics woven of metal fibers, can also provide reentrant geometry. [0086] In another embodiment, the surface features on the interior surface of the pressure vessel comprise nanoparticles. In an embodiment, the average diameter of the nanoparticles is 2-300 nm and the average spacing between nanoparticles 10-1000 nm. In an embodiment, the nanoparticles may be selected from the group consisting of ZnO and other metal oxides as well as silica and silicon dioxide. The surface of the nanoparticle may also be treated to adjust the wettability of the nanoparticle. For example, the nanoparticles can be halogenated, perhalogenated, perfluorinated, or fluorinated nanoparticles, for example, perfluorinated or fluorinated silsesquioxanes. Particle coatings are also described in Steele et al., 2009, Nano Letters, 9, 501-505, hereby incorporated by reference. [0087] In another embodiment the features of the textured surface form a periodically repeating array. FIG. 3A schematically illustrates a top view of features forming a “waffle” pattern of interconnected elevated “wall” or “ridge” features (indicated by double lines in the figure) surrounding hexagonal depressions. FIG. 3B schematically illustrates a top view of features forming a “waffle” pattern interconnected elevated grid-like “wall” or “ridge” features (indicated by double lines in the figure) surrounding square depressions. Such features may be characterized by the dimension of the depression (e.g. w or w), the pitch or microstructure period (dimension of depression+dimension of wall, e.g. p or p) and the depth of the depression (e.g. d or d) or height of the wall (e.g. h or h). In an embodiment, the elevated wall features in the “waffle” have an average width between 5 nm and 10 microns and an average spacing between 50 nm and 250 microns. The depth of the depressions/height of the elevated features may be on the order of the width of the depressions (spacing between the elevated features. In different embodiments, the depth of the depressions may be from 5 nm to 250 microns or 50 nm to 250 microns. The dimensions of the surface features are selected in accordance with operating conditions and refrigerant composition so as to ensure increase in the contact angle of a condensed droplet on the textured surface. In an embodiment, the surface texture is selected so that the surface is considered refrigerant repelling, even though refrigerant may wet a flat surface of the surface material. [0088] In another embodiment, the features of the textured surface resemble mushrooms, with a top cap portion that is wider than its stem. As illustrated by FIG. 19 , this type of structure can be characterized by its cap width (2W), the height between the bottom of the cap and the surface (H), the cap radius (R) and the spacing between neighboring caps (2D). Suitable ranges of these parameters for the refrigerants described herein include: D=40-70, W=20-100, R=25-40 and H=65-110. [0089] All references cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the extent not inconsistent with the disclosure herewith. All references throughout this application, patent application publications; and non-patent literature documents or other source material; are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties, as though individually incorporated by reference, to the extent each reference is at least partially not inconsistent with the disclosure in this application (for example, a reference that is partially inconsistent is incorporated by reference except for the partially inconsistent portion of the reference). [0090] All patents and publications mentioned in the specification are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. References cited herein are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety to indicate the state of the art, in some cases as of their filing date, and it is intended that this information can be employed herein, if needed, to exclude (for example, to disclaim) specific embodiments that are in the prior art. For example, when a compound is claimed, it should be understood that compounds known in the prior art, including certain compounds disclosed in the references disclosed herein (particularly in referenced patent documents), are not intended to be included in the claim. [0091] Every formulation or combination of components described or exemplified can be used to practice the invention, unless otherwise stated. Specific names of compounds are intended to be exemplary, as it is known that one of ordinary skill in the art can name the same compounds differently. When a compound is described herein such that a particular isomer or enantiomer of the compound is not specified, for example, in a formula or in a chemical name, that description is intended to include each isomers and enantiomer of the compound described individual or in any combination. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that methods, device elements, starting materials, and synthetic methods other than those specifically exemplified can be employed in the practice of the invention without resort to undue experimentation. All art-known functional equivalents, of any such methods, device elements, starting materials and synthetic methods, and are intended to be included in this invention. Whenever a range is given in the specification, for example, a temperature range, a time range, or a composition range, all intermediate ranges and subranges, as well as all individual values included in the ranges given are intended to be included in the disclosure. [0092] As used herein, “comprising” is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized by,” and is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. As used herein, “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim element. As used herein, “consisting essentially of” does not exclude materials or steps that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the claim. Any recitation herein of the term “comprising”, particularly in a description of components of a composition or in a description of elements of a device, is understood to encompass those compositions and methods consisting essentially of and consisting of the recited components or elements. The invention illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, limitation or limitations which is not specifically disclosed herein. [0093] The terms and expressions which have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention claimed. Thus, it should be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the appended claims. [0094] In general the terms and phrases used herein have their art-recognized meaning, which can be found by reference to standard texts, journal references and contexts known to those skilled in the art. The following definitions are provided to clarify their specific use in the context of the invention. [0095] Although the description herein contains many specificities, these should not be construed as limiting the scope of the invention but as merely providing illustrations of some of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention. For example, thus the scope of the invention should be determined by the appended claims and their equivalents, rather than by the examples given. [0096] The invention may be further understood by the following non-limiting examples. Example 1 Surface Tension and Contact Angle Calculations [0097] Equations 1 and 2 give relationships between the flat surface contact angle and the relevant surface free energies and the variation in the surface free energy with temperature. [0000] Cos  ( θ C ) = γ SG - γ SL γ LV ( Equation   1 ) γ  ( T ) = γ  ( T 0 ) + Tc γ * ( Δ   T ) ( Equation   2 ) [0098] Where θ c : Flat surface contact angle, γ LV : Surface tension of water, γ SG : Surface free energy (SFE) of surface (e.g. PTFR), γ SL : SFE between surface and water, γ(T 0 ): Value of γ at temperature T 0 ., T C γ : Temperature coefficient of the substance., ΔT: (T 0 −T). [0099] FIG. 1 a illustrates the contact angle on a flat surface; in FIG. 1 a θ is equivalent to θ c in equation 1. [0100] FIG. 2 shows water surface tension as a function of temperature. [0000] Cos  ( θ int ) = γ SG  ( T int ) - γ SL  ( T int ) γ LG  ( T int ) ( Equation   3 ) Cos  ( θ crit ) = γ SG  ( T crit ) - γ SL  ( T crit ) γ LG  ( T crit ) ( Equation   4 ) Tc γ SL = γ SL  ( T crit ) - γ LV  ( T int ) T crit - T int ( Equation   5 ) [0101] Where γ SLcrit : Critical surface tension. Defined as Cos(θ c )=1 @ γ LV (T crit )=γ crit , T crit : Temperature where γ LV (T)=γ crit , θ int :θ c at T int . Use Equation 2 to solve Equations 3-5 simultaneously. This determines T C γSL , γ SL @ 25 °, and T C γSL . Once these values are known, Equation 1 can be solved at any temperature. Tables 1 and 2 show initial conditions and unknowns related to interfacial energy related parameters and contact angle parameters respectively. [0000] TABLE 1 γ γ @ 25° C. (mN/m) T Cγ (mN/m*K) γ LV 72.04 −0.1514 γ SG 19.71 −0.0580 γ SL ?? ?? γ SLcrit 18.00 N/A [0000] TABLE 2 θ Angle (°) T (° C.) θint 95 T int 25 θcrit  0 T crit ?? [0102] FIG. 1 b illustrates a liquid droplet on a rough surface in the Wenzel state. This state may be described by cos θ w =r cos θ (Equation 6), where r is the Wenzel roughness factor. FIG. 1 c illustrates a liquid droplet on a rough surface in the Cassie-Baxter state, where the droplet sits on top of the surface roughness. This state may be described by cos θ CB =f (cos θ+1)−1=f cos θ−(1−f) (Equation 7) where f is the Cassie roughness factor. For a surface with pitch p, A elements per area p 2 , surface area of element top s, element height h and perimeter of element top L, the Wenzel roughness factor may be described by r=1+(A/p 2 ) hL (Equation 8). Similarly the Cassie roughness factor may be described by f=(A/p 2 ) S (Equation 9). Example 2 Measurements for Water and Oleic Acid [0103] FIGS. 3A-B and 4A-C schematically illustrate some of the waffle and pillar surface textures fabricated for testing. FIG. 3 is a schematic top view of a hexagonal waffle structure ( FIG. 3A ) and a grid-like waffle structure ( FIG. 3B ). FIG. 4 is a schematic top view of different configurations of pillar elements: hexagonal arrangement ( FIG. 4A ), square arrangement ( FIG. 4B ), and honeycomb arrangement ( FIG. 4C ). [0104] Tables 3 and 4 respectively provide additional information about waffle and pillar surface textures. In Table 2, h is element height, p is pitch and w is width of square or hexagonal depression. In Table 4, A is elements per area p 2 , d is diameter of the pillar, p is pitch, and h is element height. [0000] TABLE 3 Square Waffles h (μm) p(μm) w (μm) 3 22 20 Hexagonal Waffles h (μm) p(μm) w (μm) 3 12 10 [0000] TABLE 4 Square Pillars A d (μm) h (μm) p (μm) 1 50 50 100 Hexagonal Pillars A d (μm) h (μm) p (μm) 1.57 50 300 100 [0105] FIG. 5 shows an experimental setup used for contact angle measurements. The apparatus includes a pressure chamber 10 , a pump 20 , which may be an infusion pump, a camera 30 , a light source 40 and data acquisition unit 50 . [0106] Table 5 shows the contact angle (CA) measured for water and oleic acid oil on smooth and microtextured surfaces. The surfaces are either smooth, textured with a waffle pattern of FIG. 3 as either hexagons or squares, or textured with a standard lotus leaf type pattern consisting of dense pillar structures ( FIG. 4 ). w is feature width, d is diameter, p is microstructure period, and h is feature height (or depth of waffles). [0000] TABLE 5 w or d p h Water Oleic Acid Pattern μm μm μm CA° CA° Smooth — — — 118 66 Hexagon Waffles 20 22 0.3 144 135 Hexagon Waffles 20 22 1.0 142 137 Square Waffles 20 22 151 151 139 Square Waffles 20 22 146 146 140 Square Pillars 10 20 148 149 68 [0107] FIG. 6 shows a graph for θ values between 25 and 250° C. Contact angles plotted at the saturation pressure of water for a given temperature for different surface textures (values from model). [0108] FIG. 7 shows an image of a droplet of distilled water on a waffle patterned Si wafer coated in PTFE inside of pressure vessel. Image taken at 35.8° C. and 62.0 kPa. Vapor is water. [0109] FIG. 8 shows an image sequence of a droplet of water evaporating on a flat Si wafer coated in PTFE inside of the pressure vessel. Images taken at labeled temperatures and corresponding saturation pressures. [0110] FIG. 9 shows a plot of temperature dependent contact angle for a textured surface (pillars, d=50 μm h=50 μm p=100 μm) compared to a flat surface and the mathematical model. Vapor is water. [0111] FIGS. 10 a - 10 b show an image sequence of water droplet on waffle patterned Si wafer coated in PTFE. Droplet heated from 31.7° C. to 54.1° C. Droplet triple line expands outward due to expansion of trapped pockets of water vapor between droplet and surface until reaching a maximum at 46.4° C. Vapor is water. FIG. 10 c shows a magnified image of vapor expansion inside of water droplet. (see FIG. 10 b ) Vapor is water. Waffle pattern 10 micrometer squares, 20 micrometer pitch. [0112] FIG. 11 shows an image sequence of water droplet on waffle textured (25 μm squares 50 μm pitch). Si wafer coated with PTFE inside pressure vessel. As triple line expands, θ* decreases from ˜90° to ˜32° after the trapped water vapor completes expansion inside droplet. Vapor is water. [0113] FIG. 12 shows a droplet of water on a glass slide with micro textured surfaces coated in silane inside of pressure vessel. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. Vapor is water. Apparent contact angle 113°. [0114] FIG. 13 shows a droplet of water on a glass slide with micro textured surfaces without silane coating inside of pressure vessel. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. Vapor is water. Apparent contact angle 60°. [0115] FIG. 14 shows an SEM image of microtextures on glass slide (see FIGS. 12 and 13 ). [0116] FIG. 15 shows a water droplet on zinc-oxide nano particle coated glass slide. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. Vapor is water [0117] FIGS. 16 a - b show SEM images of a 2PDMS:1ZnO coating at two different magnfications. [0118] FIG. 17 shows water droplets on flat and microtextured PTFE coated surfaces, when the surrounding environment is air, low pressure air, or water vapor. The apparent contact angle of the droplets decreased for both the square pillar and square waffle textured surfaces when the vapor phase was changed from air to water vapor. These measurements demonstrate that the vapor environment around the water droplet influences how the water droplet wets the surface (All images taken at 22° C.). FIG. 18 a shows apparent contact angles for flat and square pillar textured surfaces while FIG. 18 b shows apparent contact angles for flat and square waffle surfaces in saturated water vapor at various temperatures. [0119] FIG. 19 illustrates relevant dimensions for surface features having a “mushroom” or “micro mushroom” geometry. W is width from the center of the stem to the edge of the cap. R is the radius of the cap. H is the distance between the lower portion of the surface and the bottom of the cap. 2D is the spacing between the edges of the caps. Θ is the characteristic contact angle, ψ is the local geometry angle, h1 is a sagging height and h2 is a pore depth (Tuteja et al., 2008, PNAS, 107(47), 18200-19205). Table 6 lists relevant dimensions for several micromushroom surface textures. [0000] TABLE 6 D W R H Sample No. (μm) (μm) (μm) (μm) 1 53 66 35 85 2 67.5 58 30 90 3 44 92 28 107 4 55 19 N/A 94 5 48 96 35.7 107 6 60 31.5 30 67 [0120] FIG. 20 a shows a SEM image of micromushroom sample texture 1 (see Table 6), FIG. 20 b shows an SEM image of micromushroom sample texture 2, FIG. 20 c shows a SEM image of micromushroom sample texture 3, FIG. 20 d shows an SEM image of micromushroom sample texture 4, FIG. 20 e shows a SEM image of micromushroom sample texture 5, and FIG. 20 f shows a SEM image of micromushroom sample texture 6 (samples 1-6 as given in Table 6) [0121] Table 7 lists apparent contact angles measured and calculated for water and oleic acid for the coated and uncoated micromushroom geometries of Table 6. [0000] TABLE 7 GEOMETRY COATING LIQUID θ Calc θ Measured Flat None Water N/A 68.5 Flat Teflon AF Water N/A 127.1 Flat None Oleic Acid N/A 28.6 Flat Teflon AF Oleic Acid N/A 45.0 μMushroom - 1 None Water 153.5 30.7 μMushroom - 1 Teflon AF Water 172.3 147.5 μMushroom - 1 None Oleic Acid 150.5 N/A μMushroom - 1 Teflon AF Oleic Acid 147.8 132.0 μMushroom - 2 None Water 158.2 142.3 μMushroom - 2 Teflon AF Water 170.2 146.5 μMushroom - 2 None Oleic Acid 155.5 N/A μMushroom - 2 Teflon AF Oleic Acid 153.3 147.3 μMushroom - 3 None Water 147.6 131.1 μMushroom - 3 Teflon AF Water 171.1 137.8 μMushroom - 3 None Oleic Acid 143.9 N/A μMushroom - 3 Teflon AF Oleic Acid 140.5 147.9 μMushroom - 4 None Water 167.8 148.2 μMushroom - 4 Teflon AF Water 172.2 157.7 μMushroom - 4 None Oleic Acid 166.5 N/A μMushroom - 4 Teflon AF Oleic Acid 165.2 147.9 μMushroom - 5 None Water 148.0 146.7 μMushroom - 5 Teflon AF Water 173.4 145.7 μMushroom - 5 None Oleic Acid 144.3 N/A μMushroom - 5 Teflon AF Oleic Acid 142.0 139.0 μMushroom - 6 None Water 163.7 152.9 μMushroom - 6 Teflon AF Water 171.9 165.9 μMushroom - 6 None Oleic Acid 161.8 N/A μMushroom - 6 Teflon AF Oleic Acid 160.1 126.8 [0122] FIGS. 21 a - d show sessile drops on micromushroom texture 1. FIGS. 21 a - b respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the uncoated texture while FIGS. 21 c - d respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the texture as coated with Teflon® AF. [0123] FIGS. 22 a - d show sessile drops on micromushroom texture 2. FIGS. 22 a - b respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the uncoated texture while FIGS. 22 c - d respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the texture as coated with Teflon® AF. [0124] FIGS. 23 a - d show sessile drops on micromushroom texture 3. FIGS. 23 a - b respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the uncoated texture while FIGS. 23 c - d respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the texture as coated with Teflon® AF. [0125] FIGS. 24 a - d show sessile drops on micromushroom texture 4. FIGS. 24 a - b respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the uncoated texture while FIGS. 24 c - d respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the texture as coated with Teflon® AF. [0126] FIGS. 25 a - d show sessile drops on micromushroom texture 5. FIGS. 25 a - b respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the uncoated texture while FIGS. 25 c - d respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the texture as coated with Teflon® AF. [0127] FIGS. 26 a - d show sessile drops on micromushroom texture 6. FIGS. 26 a - b respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the uncoated texture while FIGS. 26 c - d respectively show a drop of water and a drop of oleic acid on the texture as coated with Teflon® AF. [0128] Advancing and receding contact angles were measured using the sliding angle method. A droplet was deposited on a tilted surface. A camera captures the droplet movement as it slides down the inclined surface. [0000] TABLE 7 Saturated Water Advancing Contact Angles T sat = 20° C., T sat = 40° C., T sat = 60° C., T sat = 80° C., T sat = 100° C., Sample P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa Flat 87 78 86 89 88 Pillar (h = 3 μm) 140 149 110 89 84 Pillar (h = 10 μm) 150 135 127 128 130 Pillar h = 20 μm) 154 150 152 138 128 Waffle (p = 12 μm) 120 123 127 110 19 Waffle (p = 12 μm) 133 134 136 110 91 [0000] TABLE 8 Saturated Water Receding Contact Angles T sat = 20° C., T sat = 40° C., T sat = 60° C., T sat = 80° C., T sat = 100° C., Sample P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa P sat = 2.3 kPa Flat 73 65 70 73 78 Pillar (h = 3 μm) 102 105 68 66 75 Pillar (h = 10 μm) 111 106 105 112 106 Pillar (h = 20 μm) 118 110 116 113 110 Waffle (p = 12 μm) 104 102 100 90 90 Waffle (p = 12 μm) 106 108 104 102 71 Example 3 Measurements for HC-200 [0129] The contact angle of halocarbon oil HC-200 was measured on smooth and square waffle patterns. The experimental methods were the same as above, with only the liquid type being different. HC-200 is a liquid polymer oil with the chemical name chlorotrifluoroethylene. HC-200 has a surface tension about 0.025 N/m, which is lower than the surface tension for oleic acid. Table 9 shows the results, where the square waffle patterns are oleophobic, while a smooth surface of the same material is oleophillic. In Table 9, w is feature width, p is microstructure period, and d is feature depth. [0000] TABLE 9 w p d Oil Pattern Liquid μm μm μm CA° Smooth HC 200 — — —  40 Square Waffles HC 200 20 22 0.3 122 [0130] FIG. 27 shows images of halocarbon 200 oil on ZnO particle coated slides; these images illustrate the change in contact angle over 20 seconds. Image taken at 22° C. and 100. 3 kPa. Example 4 Measurements for RL 68H and Mixtures of R134a and RL 68H [0131] The contact angle of polyol ester oil RL 68H was measured on various textured surfaces. RL 68H is a commonly used oil in pumps for refrigeration systems. [0132] Sessile drop measurements were obtained for some coatings including zinc oxide nanoparticles. FIG. 28 a shows the contact angle obtained for a 5% ZnO, 2:1fPDMS coating. The apparent contact angle was 25.4°. FIG. 28 b shows the contact angle obtained for a PDMS:ZnO 2:1 coating at STP. The apparent contact angle obtained was 138.6°. The coating of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles and PDMS in FIG. 28 b was formed by mixing the ZnO particles into suspension of Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and spraying the mixture onto a silicon wafer. The particle coated substrate was then coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) before measuring contact angles. [0133] FIG. 28 c shows the contact angle of 122.0° obtained on a PTFE coated textured surface (pillars, d=10 μm h=20 μm p=22 μm). FIGS. 29 a , 30 a , and 31 a illustrate drops obtained on micromushroom structures and FIGS. 32 a and 33 a illustrate drops obtained on waffle structures. [0134] The mixing process for R-134a and RL 68H was as follows. A quantity of RL 68H was measured to +/−0.5 g. The RL 68H was then added to the pressure vessel. The pressure vessel was then evacuated to 0.15 psi at 22 c to remove air and water vapor. The pressure vessel was then cooled to 10 C. A quantity of R-134a was then measured to within +/−0.5 g and added to the pressure vessel. The mixture was then recovered into a sampling vessel. [0135] The contact angle of mixtures of R134a and RL 68H was measured for several Teflon coated textured surfaces. Table 10 lists contact angle measurements for several mixtures. For comparison, the contact angle measured on flat surfaces ranged from zero to 70 degrees depending on the mixture. [0000] TABLE 10 Psat = Psat = Psat = Psat = Psat = 270 kpa, 363 kpa, 384 kpa, 430 kpa, 441 kpa, Tsat = Tsat = Tsat = Tsat = Tsat = 10.1° C. 11.5° C. 11.0° C. 12.3° C. 14.2° C. Sample θ θ θ θ θ 25% R-134a, 33% R-134a, 50% R-134a 60% R-134a, 80% R-134a, 75% RL 68H 66% RL 68H 50% RL 68H 20% RL 68H 20% RL 68H μμMushroom 120 59 51 44 12 D = 68 μm W = 58 μm R = 30 μm H = 90 μm μMushroom 100 58 47 31 25 D = 55 μm W = 19 μm R = N/A H = 94 μm μMushroom 139 125 111 87 51 D = 48 μm W = 96 μm R = 35.7 μm H = 107 μm Waffle (p = 12 113 94.5 81 75 19 μm) Waffle (p = 22 119 116 112 70 40 μm) [0136] FIGS. 29 a - f illustrate sessile drops of mixtures of R134a and RL68H on a micro mushroom patterned surface (D=67.5 micron, W=58 micron, R=30 micron, H=90 micron, see micromushroom texture 2). FIG. 29 a : 0% R-134a, Psat=101 kPa, Tsat=10.3° C. FIG. 29 b : 25% R-134a, Psat=270 kPa, Tsat=10.1° C. FIG. 29 c : 33% R-134a, Psat=363 kPa, Tsat=11.5° C. FIG. 29 d : 50% R-134a, Psat=384 kPa, Tsat=11.0° C. FIG. 29 e : 60% R-134a, Psat=430 kPa, Tsat=12.3° C. FIG. 29 f : 80% R-134a, Psat=441 kPa, Tsat=14.2° C. [0137] FIGS. 30 a - f illustrate sessile drops of mixtures of R134a and RL68H on a micro mushroom patterned surface (D=55 micron, W=19 micron, R═N/A micron, H=94 micron, see micromushroom texture 4). FIG. 30 a : 0% R-134a, Psat=101 kPa, Tsat=10.3° C. FIG. 30 b : 25% R-134a, Psat=270 kPa, Tsat=10.1° C. FIG. 30 c : 33% R-134a, Psat=363 kPa, Tsat=11.5° C. FIG. 30 d : 50% R-134a, Psat=384 kPa, Tsat=11.0° C. FIG. 30 e : 60% R-134a, Psat=430 kPa, Tsat=12.3° C. FIG. 30 f : 80% R-134a, Psat=441 kPa, Tsat=14.2° C. [0138] FIGS. 31 a - f illustrate sessile drops of mixtures of R134a and RL68H on a micro mushroom patterned surface (D=48 micron, W=96 micron, R=35.7 micron, H=107 micron, see micromushroom texture 5). FIG. 31 a: 0% R-134a, Psat=101 kpa, Tsat=10.3° C. FIG. 31 b : 25% R-134a, Psat=270 kpa, Tsat=10.1° C. FIG. 31 c : 33% R-134a, Psat=363 kpa, Tsat=11.5° C. FIG. 31 d : 50% R-134a, Psat=384 kpa, Tsat=11.0° C. FIG. 31 e : 60% R-134a, Psat=430 kpa, Tsat=12.3° C. FIG. 31 f : 80% R-134a, Psat=441 kpa, Tsat=14.2° C. [0139] FIGS. 32 a - f illustrate sessile drops of mixtures of R134a and RL68H on a waffle pattern with a pitch of 12 micrometers (h=10 micrometers, w=10 micrometers). FIG. 32 a : 0% R-134a, Psat=101 kpa, Tsat=10.3° C. FIG. 32 b : 25% R-134a, Psat=270 kpa, Tsat=10.1° C. FIG. 32 c : 33% R-134a, Psat=363 kpa, Tsat=11.5° C. FIG. 32 d : 50% R-134a, Psat=384 kpa, Tsat=11.0° C. FIG. 32 e : 60% R-134a, Psat=430 kpa, Tsat=12.3° C. FIG. 32 f : 80% R-134a, Psat=441 kpa, Tsat=14.2° C. [0140] FIGS. 33 a - f illustrate sessile drops of mixtures of R134a and RL68H on a waffle pattern with a pitch of 22 micrometers (h=10 micrometers, w=20 micrometers). FIG. 33 a : 0% R-134a, Psat=101 kpa, Tsat=10.3° C. FIG. 33 b : 25% R-134a, Psat=270 kpa, Tsat=10.1° C. FIG. 33 c : 33% R-134a, Psat=363 kpa, Tsat=11.5° C. FIG. 33 d : 50% R-134a, Psat=384 kpa, Tsat=11.0° C. FIG. 33 e : 60% R-134a, Psat=430 kPa, Tsat=12.3° C. FIG. 33 f : 80% R-134a, Psat=441 kPa, Tsat=14.2° C. Example 5 Measurement for R134a [0141] FIG. 34 . shows an image of R-134a droplet with a relatively high apparent contact angle on PTFE coated textured Si wafer in pressure vessel. Image taken at 24° C. and 645.8 kPa. Vapor is R134a. The surface texture was a waffle pattern, 25 μm squares, 50 μm pitch. The contact angle for R-134a on a flat surface coated with PTFE was less than 10 degrees Surface tension of R-134a is 14.6 mN/m @−20° C.

Methods and devices for dropwise condensation of a refrigerant vapor on a surface are provided. The surface and various aspects of the system are configured to ensure the surface is refrigerant repelling, enhances droplet mobility, increases condensation rate and/or increases heat transfer rate. The refrigerant repelling surface may be configured so that a refrigerant that may normally wet a flat non-textured surface is instead repelled

TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a microscope technology that observes a sample surface topology using electrons. BACKGROUND ART There is an electron microscope as an observation device for magnifying a sample surface topology. The operation of a scanning electron microscope (in the following, referred to as an SEM) is shown. Primary electrons accelerated by a voltage applied to an electron source are focused at an electron lens, and the focused primary electrons are scanned over a sample using a deflector. Secondary electrons emitted from the sample by irradiating the primary electrons are detected at a detector. Secondary electron signals are detected in synchronization with scanning signals to form an image. The amount of the secondary electrons emitted from the sample is varied depending on the sample surface topology. In the case where a sample is an insulator, the sample surface inevitably becomes charged due to the irradiation of electrons. Charging due to the irradiation of electrons causes an image drift under observation, for example, to produce an image failure. A method is known as a method for addressing an image failure caused by the charging in which an electric conductor is coated over the sample surface. Metals such as gold and platinum are used for the electric conductor. Moreover, Patent Literature 1 discloses a method in which a sample is applied with an ionic liquid hardly volatilized in a vacuum to provide electrical conductivity on the electron irradiation surface. Furthermore, Patent Literature 2 discloses a low-energy SEM that can provide stable observation using low-energy electrons even with charging. CITATION LIST Patent Literature Patent Literature 1: International Publication No. WO2007/083756 Patent Literature 2: Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open Publication No. 2000-195459 SUMMARY OF INVENTION Technical Problem In these years, with a high resolution SEM, a low-energy SEM is used for inspection and measurement of a sample surface topology. However, even though low-energy electrons are used, the sample surface is charged. Thus, in the case where a sample surface topology is in a microstructure, an image failure due to charging such as the elimination of a contrast at the edge portion becomes a problem. In the case where a metal film is coated over an insulator sample in order to suppress an image failure in a low-energy SEM, a contrast caused by the grain boundary of the metal film is superposed on the shape contrast of the sample. Moreover, in the case where an ionic liquid is applied to the electron irradiation surface, the entire pattern surface is filled with the ionic liquid, and it is not enabled to observe the sample surface topology using a low-energy SEM. It is an object of the present invention to provide an observation specimen for an electron microscopic method, an electron microscopic method, an electron microscope, and an observation specimen preparation device that address the problems above and suppress an image failure due to charging. Solution to Problem In order to address the problems above, in an observation specimen for an electron microscopic method according to the invention of the present application, a liquid medium including an ionic liquid on a sample is in a thin film shape or in a mesh film shape. The thin film or mesh film of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid of the observation specimen is coated according to a sample shape whether the film is along the sample surface topology or a low-energy primary electron can pass through the film thickness, so that a clear edge contrast can be obtained. Here, in the observation specimen according to the invention of the present application, a film thickness of a portion to which the liquid medium including an ionic liquid is applied is one monolayer or more and 100 monolayers or less. One monolayer means the thickness of a single molecular layer of an ionic liquid. Moreover, an electron microscopic method according to the invention of the present application includes the steps of: measuring a film thickness of a liquid medium including an ionic liquid in a thin film shape or in a mesh film shape on a sample; and controlling an irradiation condition for a primary electron based on the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid. According to this method, the irradiation condition for a primary electron can be controlled according to the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid, so that the edge contrast is improved. Furthermore, the electron microscopic method according to the invention of the present application further includes the steps of: applying the liquid medium including an ionic liquid to an observation surface of the sample; and forming the liquid medium including an ionic liquid into a thin film. Generally, the film state of the applied liquid medium including an ionic liquid depends on the type of the ionic liquid and the material or shape of the sample. According to this method, the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid can be controlled depending on the type of the ionic liquid or the sample. Here, in the electron microscopic method according to the invention of the present application, an observation specimen is used that the liquid medium including an ionic liquid on the sample is in a thin film shape or in a mesh film shape. Here, in the electron microscopic method according to the invention of the present application, the method may perform, for plural times, the steps of: applying the liquid medium including an ionic liquid to the observation surface of the sample; forming the liquid medium including an ionic liquid into a thin film; and measuring the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid. According to this method, the liquid medium including an ionic liquid can be processed step by step until the liquid medium has a predetermined film thickness, so that the controllability of the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid is improved. Here, in the electron microscopic method according to the invention of the present application, the step of measuring the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid may be the step of measuring the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid from a primary electron acceleration voltage dependence of a secondary electron emission yield that is enabled to be analyzed using a pulsed primary electron. According to this method, the acceleration voltage at which a primary electron passes through the film of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid can be analyzed from a change in the secondary electron emission yield with respect to the acceleration voltage, and the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid can be analyzed from the range of the primary electron at the acceleration voltage. Here, in the electron microscopic method according to the invention of the present application, the step of measuring the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid may be the step of measuring the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid from a primary electron acceleration voltage dependence of a substrate current under the irradiation of primary electrons. Here, a displacement current that occurs due to electric charges stored when a primary electron passes to the sample is measured as a substrate current. According to this method, the acceleration voltage at which a primary electron passes through a film of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid can be analyzed by a change in the substrate current with respect to the acceleration voltage, and the film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid can be analyzed from the range of the primary electron at the acceleration voltage. Moreover, an electron microscope according to the invention of the present application includes: an electron source configured to emit a primary electron; a sample holder configured to hold a sample; an exhaust chamber on which the sample holder is placed and configured to exhaust air; a lens system configured to focus the primary electron on the sample; a deflector configured to scan the primary electron; a detector configured to detect a secondary electron emitted from the sample by the primary electron; an image generating unit configured to form an image using the secondary electron; a sample chamber on which the sample holder is placed; a measuring mechanism configured to measure a film thickness of a liquid medium including an ionic liquid on the sample; and an irradiation condition control unit for the primary electron based on the film thickness of the liquid medium on the sample. Here, in the electron microscope according to the invention of the present application, the measuring mechanism configured to measure a film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid may include: a pulse forming unit configured to form a pulse electron that the primary electron is pulsed; a secondary electron signal analyzing unit configured to analyze a secondary electron emission yield from a secondary electron signal that a secondary electron emitted from the sample by the pulse electron is detected at the detector; and a secondary electron emission yield analyzing unit configured to analyze an acceleration voltage at which the primary electron passes through a film of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid from an acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield and to analyze a film thickness from a range of the primary electron at the acceleration voltage. Moreover, in the electron microscope according to the invention of the present application, the measuring mechanism configured to measure a film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid may include a substrate current measuring unit configured to measure a substrate current induced when the primary electron passes to the sample; and a substrate current analyzing unit configured to analyze an acceleration voltage at which the primary electron passes through a film of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid from an acceleration voltage dependence of the substrate current and to measure a film thickness from a range of the passing primary electron. Here, in the electron microscope according to the invention of the present application, an applying unit configured to apply the liquid medium including an ionic liquid to an observation surface of the sample may be included on the sample holder or the sample chamber on which the sample is held. Furthermore, in the electron microscope according to the invention of the present application, a mechanism configured to form the liquid medium including an ionic liquid on the sample into a thin film may be included on the sample holder or the sample chamber on which the sample is held. In addition, an observation specimen preparation device that prepares the observation specimen according to the invention of the present application includes: an exhaust chamber; an exhaust mechanism; an applying unit configured to apply the liquid medium including an ionic liquid to an observation surface of a sample; a mechanism configured to form the liquid medium including an ionic liquid on the sample into a thin film; and a measuring mechanism configured to measure a film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid. Here, the measuring mechanism configured to measure a film thickness of the liquid medium including an ionic liquid may include: an electron source configured to emit a primary electron; a substrate current measuring unit configured to measure a substrate current induced when the primary electron is irradiated to the sample; and a substrate current analyzing unit configured to analyze a primary electron acceleration voltage dependence of the substrate current. Advantageous Effects of Invention In accordance with the observation specimen, the electron microscopic method, the electron microscope, and the observation specimen preparation device according to the present invention, it is possible to suppress charging due to primary electrons, to obtain a clear edge contrast from the observation specimen, and to highly accurately measure a sample surface topology. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a top view of an exemplary observation specimen according to a first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1B is a cross sectional view of the exemplary observation specimen according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2A is a top view of an exemplary observation specimen according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2B is a cross sectional view of the exemplary observation specimen according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3A is an illustration of the presence or absence of a liquid medium including an ionic liquid on a sample. FIG. 3B is a diagram of the time variations of secondary electron signals corresponding to the presence or absence of a liquid medium including an ionic liquid on a sample. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an exemplary electron microscope according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5A is an illustration of the cross sectional structures of observation specimens. FIG. 5B is a diagram of SEM images of the observation specimens. FIG. 5C is a diagram of the profiles of image lightness of the observation specimens. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an exemplary electron microscope according to a second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a diagram of an exemplary flowchart of an electron microscopic method according to the second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8A is an illustration of the relationship between the acceleration voltage and range of primary electrons according to the second embodiment. FIG. 8B is an illustration of the relationship between the acceleration voltage of primary electron and the substrate current according to the second embodiment. FIG. 9A is a diagram of an SEM image obtained through an electron microscopic method according to the second embodiment. FIG. 9B is an illustration of the profile of image lightness obtained through the electron microscopic method according to the second embodiment. FIG. 10 is a block diagram of an exemplary observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to a third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a diagram of an exemplary flowchart of an electron microscopic method according to the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a block diagram of an exemplary electron microscope according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 is a diagram of an exemplary flowchart of an electron microscopic method according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 is an illustration of the relationship between the acceleration voltage of primary electrons and the secondary electron emission yield. FIG. 15A is an illustration of the structure of an observation specimen for use in the fifth embodiment. FIG. 15B is a diagram of the profile of image lightness of the observation specimen for use in the fifth embodiment. FIG. 16 is a block diagram of an exemplary observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 17 is a block diagram of an exemplary observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 is a block diagram of an exemplary observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to an eight embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 19 is a diagram of an exemplary GUI for setting irradiation conditions for primary electrons according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS In the following, embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the drawings. However, the embodiments are merely examples for implementing the present invention, which will not limit the technical scope of the present invention. First Embodiment FIG. 1A is a top view of an observation specimen that a liquid medium including an ionic liquid on a sample is in a thin film shape, and FIG. 1B is a cross sectional view of the observation specimen that the liquid medium including an ionic liquid is in a thin film shape. A sample 2 is a sample including groove patterns, and a liquid medium 3 including an ionic liquid is an ionic liquid in a thin film shape on the groove patterns. In the embodiment, an electron microscopic method will be described using the observation specimen that the liquid medium including an ionic liquid on the sample is in a thin film shape as illustrated in FIG. 1 . It is noted that the ionic liquid for use in the present invention is 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate, 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide, and 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis (trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide, for example. In the embodiment, a liquid medium including an ionic liquid was used in which the ionic liquid was diluted at 10% with pure water. In the embodiment, pure water was mixed in the ionic liquid. However, ethanol, methanol, acetone, and hexane, for example, may be mixed. Moreover, fine particles whose secondary electron emission yield is different from the secondary electron emission yield of the ionic liquid may be mixed in the ionic liquid in order to obtain a clear image contrast. The secondary electron emission yield means a rate that the number of secondary electrons emitted is divided by the number of primary electrons irradiated. The liquid medium including an ionic liquid means a liquid medium including an ionic liquid and a substance other than the ionic liquid. In the following, the ionic liquid refers to an ionic liquid or a liquid medium including an ionic liquid. FIG. 5A is the cross sectional structures of observation specimens used in the embodiment. In the embodiment, the sample 2 is an SiO 2 sample having line groove patterns. The sample 2 to which an ionic liquid is not applied (A in FIG. 5A ), an observation specimen that an ionic liquid is dropped onto the sample 2 using a micropipet (B in FIG. 5A ), and an observation specimen that an ionic liquid on the sample 2 is in a thin film shape in which the ionic liquid is applied to the sample 2 using a dip coater (C in FIG. 5A ). FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an electron microscope according to the embodiment. The electron microscope is configured of an electro-optical system, a stage system, a control system, an image processing system, a manipulation interface 27 , a sample chamber 32 , and an exhaust chamber 82 . The electro-optical system is configured of an electron source 10 , a condenser lens 11 , a diaphragm 12 , a deflector 13 , an objective lens 14 , and a detector 18 . The stage system is configured of a sample stage 15 , a sample holder 16 , and a sample 17 . The control system is configured of an electron source control unit 20 , a condenser lens control unit 21 , a deflection signal control unit 22 , a detector control unit 31 , and an SEM control unit 26 . The image processing system is configured of a detection signal processing unit 23 , an image generating unit 24 , and an image display unit 25 . The irradiation conditions controlled in the embodiment are the acceleration voltage of primary electrons, an irradiation electric current, and a primary electron scanning speed. The acceleration voltage is controlled using a voltage applied to the electron source 10 by the electron source control unit 20 , and the irradiation electric current is controlled using an excitation current applied to the condenser lens 11 by the condenser lens control unit 21 . Moreover, the scanning speed is controlled by a deflection signal from the deflection signal control unit 22 to the deflector 13 . FIG. 5B is SEM images acquired at an acceleration voltage of 1.0 kV, an irradiation electric current of 8 pA, and a primary electron scanning speed of 300 nm/μs. A in FIG. 5B is an SEM image of the sample 2 to which the ionic liquid is not applied, in which pattern portions become dark due to charging to cause shading. On the other hand, B in FIG. 5B is an SEM image of the observation specimen that the ionic liquid is dropped onto the sample 2 using the micropipet. In the case where the ionic liquid is applied using the micropipet, the ionic liquid does not take a thin film shape, and primary electrons are not enabled to pass through the ionic liquid, and thus it is not enabled to recognize patterns. C in FIG. 5B is an SEM image of the observation specimen that the ionic liquid on the sample 2 is in a thin film shape. Shading on pattern portions is suppressed, and patterns can also be recognized. FIG. 5C is the profiles of image lightness analyzed in the direction across groove patterns. A portion showing the maximum image lightness corresponds to the edge portion of a groove. In A in FIG. 5C , the signal of the maximum portion corresponding to the edge portion is weak, and the edge contrast is small. Moreover, B in FIG. 5C , it is difficult to recognize the profile of the edge portion. On the other hand, in C in FIG. 5C , the signal of the maximum portion is strong, and a clear edge contrast is obtained. In accordance with the electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, it is possible to improve an edge contrast expressing the sample shape using the observation specimen that an ionic liquid on the sample is in a thin film shape. Second Embodiment In this embodiment, an electron microscopic method will be described in which the film thickness of an ionic liquid is measured and the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons are controlled based on the measured film thickness. In the embodiment, the observation specimen was used that the ionic liquid on the sample is in a thin film shape in C in FIG. 5A shown in the first embodiment. In consideration of the film thickness of the ionic liquid and the range of low-energy primary electrons, the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons are controlled. Here, the range of electrons means the length of electrons passing through the inside of a substance. As described in a reference (K. Kanaya, S. Okayama, J. Phys. D. Appl. Phys. 5, 43 (1972)), a range R (μm) of the primary electrons is expressed by Equation 1. R = 0.0276 ⁢ ⁢ ( eV ) 5 ⁢ / ⁢ 3 ⁢ A ρ 8 ⁢ / ⁢ 9 ⁢ Z [ Equation ⁢ ⁢ 1 ] ρ (g/cm 3 ) is the density of a substance through which electrons pass, Z is an atomic number, A (g/mol) is an atomic weight, V (kV) is the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons, and e is an elementary electric charge. Equation 1 expresses that the range of the primary electrons depends on the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons as well as depends on the density of a substance and the atomic weight. Here, since the thickness of a single molecular layer of an ionic liquid depends on the density and molecular weight of the ionic liquid, the range of the primary electrons can be prescribed by a monolayer in a unit of the thickness of a single molecular layer (in the following, the thickness of a single molecular layer is referred to as a monolayer). It is important to adjust the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons based on the range of the primary electrons prescribed by a monolayer and the film thickness of the ionic liquid. Moreover, even in the case where the irradiation conditions are determined and the film thickness of the ionic liquid can be adjusted, it is important to adjust the film thickness of the ionic liquid in consideration of the range of the primary electrons. The acceleration voltage of the primary electrons ranges from a voltage of 0.1 to 1.5 kV, for example. In the ionic liquid used in the embodiment, the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons passing through the film thickness of 100 monolayers is a voltage of 1.5 kV, and the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons passing through the film thickness of one monolayer is a voltage of 0.1 kV. In the estimation from the density, the molecular weight, and the composition, one monolayer of a typical ionic liquid was a thickness of 1 nm. The film thickness of a portion to which the liquid medium including an ionic liquid is applied in the observation specimen is to be one monolayer or more and 100 monolayers or less, for example. FIG. 3A is a sample 2 and an observation specimen that the ionic liquid on the sample 2 is in a thin film shape. In the embodiment, the sample 2 is an insulator. Moreover, FIG. 3B is the time variations of secondary electron signals emitted when low-energy primary electrons are irradiated to the sample 2 and the observation specimen that the ionic liquid on the sample 2 is in a thin film shape. As illustrated in B in FIG. 3B , when low-energy primary electrons are irradiated to the sample 2 , secondary electrons are emitted greater than the number of the primary electrons irradiated, and the sample surface is positively charged. At this time, since the amount of the secondary electrons emitted is reduced due to the positively charged surface, the secondary electron signal is attenuated immediately after the primary electrons are irradiated. On the other hand, as illustrated in A in FIG. 3A , in the observation specimen that the ionic liquid on the sample 2 is in a thin film shape, since charging in the irradiation region of the primary electrons is suppressed, the secondary electron signal is not attenuated under the irradiation of the primary electrons, and takes a constant value. Thus, even in the case where the ionic liquid is in a thin film shape, it is shown that the effect of suppressing charging is exerted. A, B, and C in FIGS. 5B and 5C are images and the profiles of image lightness in which the sample 2 with patterns, the observation specimen including an ionic liquid on the sample 2 , and the observation specimen that the ionic liquid on the sample 2 is in a thin film shape are observed using low-energy primary electrons. As illustrated in A in FIG. 5B , when no ionic liquid is present, the pattern portion is in a low contrast due to the charged surface. As illustrated in B in FIG. 5B , when the ionic liquid is not a thin film, the pattern portion is filled with the ionic liquid, and the edge contrast is eliminated. As illustrated in C in FIG. 5B , when the ionic liquid is in a thin film shape, a high contrast is obtained from the pattern portion. Moreover, as illustrated in A in FIG. 5C , when no ionic liquid is present, the signal of the edge portion is reduced due to the charged sample, and the profile of image lightness is in asymmetry. On the other hand, as illustrated in C in FIG. 5C , when the ionic liquid is in a thin film shape, the profile of image lightness is in symmetry, and such a contrast is obtained in which the edge portion of the sample 2 is more highlighted. When the observation specimen includes an ionic liquid in a thin film shape on the sample, the edge contrast of the sample 2 is obtained even using low-energy electrons while the effect of suppressing charging is provided. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an electron microscope according to the embodiment. The electron microscope is configured of an electro-optical system, a stage system, a control system, an image processing system, a manipulation interface 27 , a sample chamber 32 , an exhaust chamber 82 , and a substrate current measurement system. The substrate current is an electric current carried from the observation specimen to the stage system (a sample holder 16 ) by irradiating primary electrons. The electro-optical system is configured of an electron source 10 , a condenser lens 11 , a diaphragm 12 , a deflector 13 , an objective lens 14 , and a detector 18 . The stage system is configured of a sample stage 15 , the sample holder 16 , and a sample 17 . The control system is configured of an electron source control unit 20 , a condenser lens control unit 21 , a deflection signal control unit 22 , a detector control unit 31 , and an SEM control unit 26 . The image processing system is configured of a detection signal processing unit 23 , an image generating unit 24 , and an image display unit 25 . The substrate current measurement system is configured of an ammeter 28 and a substrate current analyzing unit 29 . FIG. 7 is a flowchart of the electron microscopic method. The electron microscopic method according to the embodiment will be described with reference to the flowchart in FIG. 7 . First, the film thickness of the ionic liquid of the observation specimen is measured (Step 42 ). In the embodiment, a substrate current was measured under the irradiation of the primary electrons using the electron microscope illustrated in FIG. 6 , and the film thickness of the ionic liquid was analyzed. Here, a displacement current induced by electric charges stored on the sample under the irradiation of the primary electrons can be measured as a substrate current. First, the electron source control unit 20 controls the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons using the voltage applied to the electron source 10 , and changes the acceleration voltage, and substrate currents at the individual acceleration voltages are measured at the ammeter 28 . FIG. 8 A is a schematic diagram of the relationship between the acceleration voltage and range of the primary electrons. When the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons is increased as in A, B, and C, the range of a primary electron 5 is increased. When the range of the primary electron is the film thickness of a liquid medium 3 including an ionic liquid or more (C in FIG. 8A ), the primary electron reaches the sample 2 , and electric charges are stored on the sample. At this time, a displacement current occurs due to stored charges, and can be measured as a substrate current. FIG. 8B is changes in the substrate current when the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons is changed from a voltage of 0.1 kV to a voltage of 1.5 kV. It is shown from FIG. 8B that the substrate current is suddenly increased at an acceleration voltage of 1.0 kV. The acceleration voltage when this substrate current is suddenly increased is an acceleration voltage at which the primary electron passes through the film thickness. As a result that the range is analyzed by Equation 1, since the range at an acceleration voltage of 1.0 kV is 60 monolayers, the film thickness of the ionic liquid is 60 monolayers. The process step of analyzing the acceleration voltage dependence of the substrate current described in the embodiment is processed at the substrate current analyzing unit 29 , and the film thickness can be automatically obtained. Next, the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons are controlled based on the film thickness with reference to the flowchart in FIG. 7 (Step 43 ). In the embodiment, in order to detect secondary electrons from the sample, the acceleration voltage was controlled at a voltage of 1.2 kV in such a way that the range of the primary electrons is longer than 60 monolayers. At this time, the primary electrons pass through the ionic liquid thin film, and reach the sample. Thus, in order to restrict the number of electrons irradiated to the sample in consideration of the sample damage, the irradiation electric current was controlled at 5 pA, and the scanning speed was controlled at 300 nm/μs. Lastly, an image is acquired under the set irradiation conditions for the primary electrons based on the flowchart in FIG. 7 , and the image is displayed on the image display unit 25 (Step 44 ). FIG. 19 is a graphical user interface (in the following, referred to as a GUI) that sets the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons according to the embodiment. The GUI in FIG. 19 is displayed on the monitor of the manipulation interface 27 . On a window 130 , information about a sample and an ionic liquid inputted to the SEM control unit 26 are displayed. On a window 131 , the acceleration voltage dependence of the substrate current of the observation specimen and the film thickness of the ionic liquid are displayed. On a window 132 , the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons corresponding to the film thickness of the ionic liquid are displayed. FIG. 9A is an image obtained by observing the observation specimen, and FIG. 9B is the profile of image lightness analyzed in the direction across groove patterns according to the embodiment. The maximum value of image lightness expressing the edge portion of the pattern is great, and a clear edge contrast can be obtained. In accordance with the electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, the film thickness of the ionic liquid thin film is measured, and the optimum irradiation conditions can be set, so that it is possible to improve an edge contrast expressing the sample shape. Third Embodiment In the embodiment, an electron microscopic method will be described using an observation specimen in which an ionic liquid is applied to a sample and then formed into a thin film. In the embodiment, a resist sample having line groove patterns was used. FIG. 10 is a block diagram of an observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to the embodiment. Here, the observation specimen preparation device is a device that applies an ionic liquid to a sample and prepares an observation specimen, including an ionic liquid adjusting unit 72 that mixes an ionic liquid with a substance different from the ionic liquid, an ionic liquid discharging unit 73 , a sample 74 , a sample holder 75 , a sample holding unit 76 , a sample holding unit rotating mechanism 77 , a valve 80 , an exhaust mechanism 81 , an exhaust chamber 82 , and a control system. The control system is configured of an ionic liquid adjustment control unit 84 , a discharge control unit 85 , a rotation control unit 86 , and an exhaust control unit 87 . Although the observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method is a part of an electron microscope, the device may be independent of the electron microscope. An electron microscope according to the embodiment is in the configuration similar to FIG. 4 . FIG. 11 is a flowchart of the electron microscopic method. The electron microscopic method according to the embodiment will be described with reference to the flowchart in FIG. 11 . First, an ionic liquid is applied to the sample 74 (Step 52 ). In the embodiment, the ionic liquid was applied using the observation specimen preparation device in FIG. 10 . First, an ionic liquid adjusted at the ionic liquid adjusting unit 72 is controlled by the discharge control unit 85 and discharged from the discharging unit 73 , and the ionic liquid is applied to the sample 74 . In the embodiment, pure water was mixed in the ionic liquid as a solvent, and the ionic liquid whose viscosity was 20 mPa·s was discharged onto the sample. Subsequently, based on the flowchart in FIG. 11 , the applied ionic liquid is formed into a thin film (Step 53 ). In the embodiment, the ionic liquid was formed into a thin film using the observation specimen preparation device in FIG. 10 by rotating the sample holding unit 76 using the sample holding unit rotating mechanism 77 . The rotation control unit 86 controlled the rotation speed and rotation time in such a way that the sample holding unit 76 was rotated at 500 rpm for 10 seconds and then rotated at 3,000 rpm for 60 seconds. Subsequently, the sample 74 was put into the exhaust chamber 82 for vacuum exhaust. When the ionic liquid includes a substance that is vaporized under a vacuum, the substance that is vaporized under a vacuum is vaporized by vacuum exhaust, so that the ionic liquid can be formed into a thin film. In the embodiment, vacuum exhaust was performed until the pressure of the exhaust chamber 82 reached a pressure of 1×10 −4 Pa, which is almost the same vacuum degree in electron microscopic observation. Here, in the embodiment, the ionic liquid is applied and then vacuum exhaust is performed. However, it may be fine that an ionic liquid is applied under a vacuum and the process of forming a thin film is performed. Lastly, based on the flowchart in FIG. 11 , an image of the observation specimen is acquired (Step 54 ). In the embodiment, the acceleration voltage of the primary electrons is a voltage of 0.1 kV, the electric current is 5 pA, and the scanning speed is 200 nm/μs. The image obtained by observing the prepared observation specimen according to the embodiment is similar to the image in C in FIG. 5B , and the profile of image lightness analyzed in the direction across groove patterns is similar to the profile in C in FIG. 5C . The maximum value of image lightness expressing the edge portion of the pattern is great, and a clear edge contrast can be obtained. In accordance with the electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, the film thickness of the ionic liquid thin film can be controlled, and the image can be acquired, so that it is possible to improve an edge contrast expressing the sample shape. Fourth Embodiment In the embodiment, an electron microscopic method will be described in which the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons are set, it is determined whether the film thickness is an appropriate film thickness to the set irradiation conditions for the primary electrons, and then an image is acquired. In the embodiment, the observation specimen described in the third embodiment was used. FIG. 12 is a block diagram of an electron microscope according to the embodiment. The electron microscope is configured of an electro-optical system, a stage system, a control system, an image processing system, a manipulation interface 27 , a sample chamber 32 , and an exhaust chamber 82 . The electro-optical system is configured of an electron source 10 , a condenser lens 11 , a diaphragm 12 , a deflector 13 , an objective lens 14 , a detector 18 , and a pulse forming unit 19 . The stage system is configured of a sample stage 15 , a sample holder 16 , and a sample 17 . The control system is configured of an electron source control unit 20 , a condenser lens control unit 21 , a deflection signal control unit 22 , a detector control unit 31 , an SEM control unit 26 , and a pulse control unit 30 . The image processing system is configured of a detection signal processing unit 23 , an image generating unit 24 , and an image display unit 25 . FIG. 13 is a flowchart of the electron microscopic method. The electron microscopic method according to the embodiment will be described with reference to the flowchart in FIG. 13 . First, the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons are set (Step 62 ). In the embodiment, the electron microscopic method is performed using the electron microscope in FIG. 12 . Here, the irradiation condition for the primary electrons was an acceleration voltage of 0.3 kV at which the secondary electron emission yield is high. In the embodiment, in order to prevent the sample from being damaged due to the direct irradiation of the primary electrons to a resist, a thin film is formed in such a way that the film thickness of an ionic liquid is thicker than the range of the primary electrons at a voltage of 0.3 keV and the ionic liquid film reflects the sample surface topology. Here, since the primary electrons do not pass through the ionic liquid film, the irradiation conditions for the primary electrons were controlled in which the irradiation electric current was 20 pA and the scanning speed was 100 nm/μs at which the SN ratio of an image is high. Subsequently, the film thickness of the ionic liquid of the observation specimen was measured based on the flowchart in FIG. 13 (Step 65 ). The observation specimen used in the embodiment is the observation specimen described in the third embodiment. In the embodiment, the film thickness of the ionic liquid was analyzed by measuring the secondary electron emission yield using pulse electrons with the electron microscope in FIG. 12 . Here, a method for measuring the secondary electron emission yield will be described. When low-energy primary electrons are irradiated, the insulator is positively charged, and the number of the secondary electrons to be emitted is reduced. When the number of the primary electrons irradiated is matched with the number of the secondary electrons emitted, the secondary electron emission yield becomes one in the stationary state. In other words, the secondary electron emission yield of one corresponds to the strength of the secondary electron signal in which the pulse electrons formed at the pulse forming unit 19 are irradiated and secondary electrons detected at the detector 18 are reduced under the irradiation of the primary electrons and become stationary. The strength of the secondary electron signal when the primary electrons are irradiated is divided by the strength of the secondary electron signal in the stationary state, and the secondary electron emission yield is obtained. FIG. 14 is the acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield of the observation specimen used in the embodiment. In the embodiment, since it is necessary to compare the secondary electron emission yield of the ionic liquid with the secondary electron emission yield of the resist, the acceleration voltage dependences of the secondary electron emission yields of the ionic liquid and the resist were complied into a database. FIG. 14 is the secondary electron emission yield of the observation specimen as well as the acceleration voltage dependence of a secondary electron emission yield 91 of the resist and the acceleration voltage dependence of a secondary electron emission yield 92 of the ionic liquid called from the database. The secondary electron emission yield of the observation specimen was matched with the acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield 92 of the ionic liquid at an acceleration voltage of 0.8 kV or less, and was almost matched with the acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield 91 of the resist at an acceleration voltage of 1.5 kV or more. On the other hand, at the acceleration voltage ranging from a voltage of 0.8 kV to a voltage of 1.5 kV, the secondary electron emission yield of the observation specimen takes the median value between the acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield 92 of the ionic liquid and the acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield 91 of the resist. Thus, it can be determined from FIG. 14 that the ionic liquid is passed at an acceleration voltage of 0.8 kV. As a result that the range was analyzed from Equation 1, since the range at an acceleration voltage of 0.8 kV is 50 monolayers, the film thickness of the ionic liquid is 50 monolayers. Here, in the ionic liquid used in the embodiment, the thickness of one monolayer is 0.5 nm. Subsequently, it was determined whether the film thickness of the ionic liquid is appropriate based on the flowchart in FIG. 13 (Step 66 ). Since the range at a voltage of 0.3 kV, which is the acceleration voltage according to the embodiment, is 20 monolayers, and is the film thickness (50 monolayers) measured in the embodiment or less, it was determined that the film thickness is appropriate. Here, in the case where the film thickness is thinner than 20 monolayers, the ionic liquid is again applied, the ionic liquid is processed into a thin film, the film thickness is measured (Steps 63 , 64 , and 65 ), and the processes are repeated until a predetermined film thickness is obtained. Lastly, based on the flowchart in FIG. 13 , an image is acquired under the set irradiation condition for the primary electrons, and the image is displayed on the image display unit 25 (Step 67 ). An image obtained by observing the prepared observation specimen according to the embodiment is similar to FIG. 9A , and the profile of image lightness analyzed in the direction across groove patterns is similar to FIG. 9B . The maximum value of image lightness expressing the edge portion of the pattern is great, and a clear edge contrast can be obtained. In accordance with the electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, the film thickness of the ionic liquid thin film can be highly accurately controlled, so that the edge contrast reflecting the sample shape can be improved. Fifth Embodiment FIG. 2A is a top view of an observation specimen that an ionic liquid is in a mesh film shape, and FIG. 2B is a cross sectional view of the observation specimen that the ionic liquid is in a mesh film shape. In this embodiment, an electron microscopic method will be described using an observation specimen that an ionic liquid is in a mesh film shape as illustrated in FIG. 2 . In the embodiment, the configuration of the electron microscope illustrated in FIG. 12 was used. Moreover, in the embodiment, an SiO 2 sample having groove patterns of different pitches and sizes wads used. A hydrophobic ionic liquid was used, and was applied to the sample pattern surface using a dip coater. Since the wettability between the ionic liquid and the sample is varied depending on the pattern pitch and pattern size of the sample, the state of an ionic liquid film is different for individual patterns. FIG. 15A is the structure of the observation specimen used in the embodiment. As illustrated in FIG. 15A , in the observation specimen, the state of an ionic liquid film is varied depending on the pattern pitch and pattern size of the sample. FIG. 15B is the profile of image lightness analyzed in the direction across groove patterns of an SEM image of this observation specimen acquired at an acceleration voltage of 1.0 kV, an irradiation electric current of 8 pA, and a scanning speed of 300 nm/μs. As illustrated in FIG. 15B , contrasts are observed corresponding to the pattern pitch and pattern size of the sample. In accordance with the electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, it is possible to highly accurately measure the sample shape from the observation specimen including an ionic liquid. Sixth Embodiment In this embodiment, an observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method will be described, which is in another configuration different from the method described in the third embodiment. FIG. 16 is a block diagram of an observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to the embodiment. The observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method is configured of a sample 101 , a sample supporting unit 102 that supports a sample, a drive unit 103 that freely moves up and down the sample supporting unit 102 , the drive control unit 104 that controls the position and the rate of travel of the sample supporting unit 102 , an ionic liquid adjusting unit 106 that fills an ionic liquid or an ionic liquid 105 mixed with a substance other than the ionic liquid in a liquid bath 108 , and an ionic liquid adjustment control unit 107 that controls the adjustment of the ionic liquid or the ionic liquid 105 mixed with a substance other than the ionic liquid. It is noted that the configuration of the observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method may be a configuration in which the device is installed on the sample chamber or the exhaust chamber of an electron microscope. A method for applying an ionic liquid according to the embodiment will be described. In the embodiment, the sample 101 is an SiO 2 sample having line groove patterns, and the ionic liquid 105 is 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide containing 95% of pure water. First, the sample 101 is supported on the sample supporting unit 102 , the sample supporting unit 102 is lowered, and the sample 101 is put into the liquid bath 108 filled with the ionic liquid adjusted by the ionic liquid adjusting unit 106 beforehand. Subsequently, the sample supporting unit 102 is pulled up while controlling the rate of travel of the drive unit 103 by the drive control unit 104 , and the ionic liquid 105 is applied to the sample 101 . The rate of travel of the drive unit 103 is controlled, so that the film thickness of the ionic liquid 105 can be controlled. In the embodiment, the velocity of pulling up the sample supporting unit 102 from the liquid bath 108 was controlled at 5 cm/min, and the ionic liquid 105 was applied over the thin film. After that, the sample 101 was placed in the exhaust chamber for air purge. Pure water contained in the ionic liquid is vaporized by air purge, and the ionic liquid can be formed into a thin film. In the embodiment, vacuum exhaust was performed until the pressure of the exhaust chamber reached a pressure of 2×10 −2 Pa. It was shown that the film thickness of the ionic liquid 105 formed on the sample 101 was 100 monolayers by the method for measuring the film thickness according to the second embodiment. With the use of the observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, it is possible to highly accurately control the film thickness of the ionic liquid on the sample. Seventh Embodiment In this embodiment, an observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method will be described, which is in another configuration different from the method described in the third embodiment. FIG. 17 is a block diagram of an observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to the embodiment. The observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method is configured of a sample 111 , a sample supporting unit 112 that supports the sample 111 , a heater 113 , a temperature control unit 114 , an ionic liquid film 115 , a film supporting unit 116 that supports the ionic liquid film 115 , a drive unit 117 that moves the film supporting unit 116 , and a drive control unit 118 . Here, the ionic liquid film is an ionic liquid in a plate shape or film shape. It is noted that the configuration of the observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method may be a configuration in which the device is installed on the sample holder, the sample chamber, or the exhaust chamber of an electron microscope. A method for applying an ionic liquid according to the embodiment will be described. In the embodiment, the sample 111 is an SiO 2 sample having line groove patterns. First, the sample 111 is supported on the sample supporting unit 112 , the film supporting unit 116 is lowered while controlling the rate of travel of the drive unit 117 by the drive control unit 118 , and the ionic liquid film 115 is brought into intimate contact with the sample 111 . The temperature of the heater 113 is controlled by the temperature control unit 114 according to the type of the sample 111 and the type of the ionic liquid film 115 , and an ionic liquid is applied to the sample 111 . Since the viscosity of the ionic liquid is reduced at high temperature, the ionic liquid can be applied to the sample. In the embodiment, the temperature of the heater was controlled at a temperature of 60° C., and the ionic liquid was applied to the sample 111 while bringing the ionic liquid film 115 into intimate contact with the sample ill. It was shown by the method for measuring the film thickness according to the second embodiment that the film thickness of the formed ionic liquid on the sample 111 was one monolayer. With the use of the observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, it is possible to highly accurately control the film thickness of the ionic liquid of the observation specimen by controlling the temperature of the heater. Eighth Embodiment In the embodiment, an observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method will be described, which is in another configuration different from the method described in the third embodiment. In the embodiment, FIG. 18 is a block diagram of an observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to the embodiment. The observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method is configured of a sample 121 , a sample supporting unit 122 that supports the sample, an ozone application source 123 , an ozone application source control unit 124 , an ionic liquid discharging unit 125 , a discharge control unit 126 , a driving mechanism 127 that moves the ionic liquid discharging unit 125 , a drive control unit 128 that controls the position and rate of travel of the ionic liquid discharging unit 125 , an ionic liquid adjusting unit 129 that mixes an ionic liquid with a substance other than the ionic liquid, an ionic liquid adjustment control unit 140 that controls the adjustment of the ionic liquid, a valve 141 , an exhaust mechanism 142 , an exhaust chamber 143 , an exhaust control unit 144 , a heater 145 , and a temperature control unit 146 . It is noted that the configuration of the observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method may be a configuration in which the device is installed on the sample chamber or the exhaust chamber of an electron microscope. A method for applying an ionic liquid according to the embodiment will be described. First, an ionic liquid or an ionic liquid mixed with a substance other than the ionic liquid at the ionic liquid adjusting unit 129 beforehand is prepared according to the sample 121 . In the embodiment, since the sample 121 is an SiO 2 sample having line groove patterns, pure water was mixed in 1-Butyl-3-methylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate to prepare a concentration of 1%. Subsequently, the application conditions for the ozone application source 123 are controlled by the ozone application source control unit 124 depending on the types of the sample 121 and the ionic liquid, and ozone is applied to the sample 121 supported on the sample supporting unit 122 . Since the applied ozone improves the surface state on the sample 121 , the wettability to the liquid is changed. In the embodiment, ozone was applied to the sample 121 for a second. After that, the amount of the ionic liquid discharged is controlled by the discharge control unit 126 , and the ionic liquid is applied. In the embodiment, the ionic liquid was discharged by an ink jet method. Moreover, in order to prevent the solvent of the ionic liquid at one-percent concentration from being vaporized due to heat before discharging, the ionic liquid was discharged by a piezo method, not by a thermal method. The amount of the ionic liquid discharged per discharge depends on the nozzle diameter and the applied voltage, and can be controlled in the range of femtoliter to microlitter. In the embodiment, the amount per discharge was set to two picoliters. Since the ionic liquid was coagulated in association with vaporization of the solvent when the number of discharges was 1,000 times or more, the number of discharges per place was set to 500 times. After that, similarly, the driving mechanism 127 is controlled by the drive control unit 128 , the ionic liquid discharging unit 125 is moved, and the ionic liquid is applied. When the ionic liquid is applied or after the ionic liquid is applied, the temperature of the heater 145 is controlled by the temperature control unit 146 , and the temperature of the sample 121 is adjusted depending on the type of the sample, the type of the ionic liquid, and the amount of discharge. The temperature of the sample 121 is adjusted to change the wettability between the sample and the ionic liquid, so that it is possible to form a state in which the form of the ionic liquid to be applied is advantageous to form a thin film. In the embodiment, the temperature of the sample 121 was set at a temperature of 40° C. when the ionic liquid was applied. After that, the exhaust mechanism 142 is controlled by the exhaust control unit 144 , and the exhaust chamber 143 is subjected to vacuum exhaust. When the ionic liquid contains a substance that is vaporized under a vacuum, the substance that is vaporized under a vacuum is vaporized by vacuum exhaust, so that the ionic liquid can be formed into a thin film. In the embodiment, vacuum exhaust was performed until the pressure of the exhaust chamber 143 reached a pressure of 1×10 −4 Pa, which is almost the same vacuum degree in electron microscopic observation, and pure water was vaporized. With the use of the observation specimen preparation device for an electron microscopic method according to the embodiment, it is possible to highly accurately control the film thickness of the ionic liquid of the observation specimen by controlling the ozone application conditions, the adjustment of the ionic liquid, the control of the amount of the ionic liquid discharged, the temperature control of the sample, and the control of air purge. It is noted that in the embodiment, ozone is applied. However, ultraviolet rays or plasma may be applied. REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 2 Sample 3 Liquid medium including an ionic liquid 5 Primary electron 6 Region to which a primary electron reaches 10 Electron source 11 Condenser lens 12 Diaphragm 13 Deflector 14 Objective lens 15 Sample stage 16 Sample holder 17 Sample 18 Detector 19 Pulse forming unit 20 Electron source control unit 21 Condenser lens control unit 22 Deflection signal control unit 23 Detection signal processing unit 24 Image generating unit 25 Image display unit 26 SEM control unit 27 Manipulation interface 28 Ammeter 29 Substrate current analyzing unit 30 Pulse control unit 31 Detector control unit 32 Sample chamber 72 Ionic liquid adjusting unit 73 Ionic liquid discharging unit 74 Sample 75 Sample holder 76 Sample holding unit 77 Sample holding unit rotating mechanism 80 Valve 81 Exhaust mechanism 82 Exhaust chamber 84 Ionic liquid adjustment control unit 85 Discharge control unit 86 Rotation control unit 87 Exhaust control unit 91 Acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield of a resist 92 Acceleration voltage dependence of the secondary electron emission yield of an ionic liquid 101 Sample 102 Sample supporting unit 103 Drive unit 104 Drive control unit 105 Ionic liquid or ionic liquid mixed with a substance other than the ionic liquid 106 Ionic liquid adjusting unit 107 Ionic liquid adjustment control unit 108 Liquid bath 111 Sample 112 Sample supporting unit 113 Heater 114 Temperature control unit 115 Ionic liquid film 116 Film supporting unit 117 Drive unit 118 Drive control unit 121 Sample 122 Sample supporting unit 123 Ozone application source 124 Ozone application source control unit 125 Ionic liquid discharging unit 126 Discharge control unit 127 Driving mechanism 128 Drive control unit 129 Ionic liquid adjusting unit 130 , 131 , 132 Window 140 Ionic liquid adjustment control unit 141 Valve 142 Exhaust mechanism 143 Exhaust chamber 144 Exhaust control unit 145 Heater 146 Temperature control unit

The electrical charging by a primary electronic is inhibited to produce a clear edge contrast from an observation specimen (i.e., a specimen to be observed), whereby the shape of the surface of a sample can be measured with high accuracy. An observation specimen in which a liquid medium comprising an ionic liquid is formed in a thin-film-like or a webbing-film-like form on a sample is used. An electron microscopy using the observation specimen comprises: a step of measuring the thickness of a liquid medium comprising an ionic liquid on a sample; a step of controlling the conditions for irradiation with a primary electron on the basis of the thickness of the liquid medium comprising the ionic liquid; and a step of irradiating the sample with the primary electron under the above-mentioned primary electron irradiation conditions to form an image of the shape of the sample.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to a method for producing frozen aerated confections, such as ice cream. In particular, it relates to a method for manufacturing frozen aerated confections containing oils which are high in polyunsaturated fat by low temperature extrusion. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION [0002] Frozen aerated confections, such as ice creams, sorbets and the like are popular foodstuffs. Typically they are aerated to an overrun of about 100%. Fat is an important constituent of such confections. Fats which are at least about 50% crystalline at 5° C. are conventionally considered essential for the production of good quality ice cream which can be aerated to the desired overrun (see for example page 69 of “Ice Cream”, 6 Edition R. T. Marshall, H. D. Goff and R. W. Hartel, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York 2003). Fats such as dairy fat and coconut oil are therefore used. However, these fats contain high proportions of saturated fat (typically 60-65% and 90% respectively). Briefly, the reasons for using these fats are as follows. [0003] The standard manufacturing process for frozen aerated confections is described in detail in, for example, “Ice Cream”, 6 th Edition, chapters 6, 7 and 9. It consists of a number of steps: (i) mixing the ingredients, (ii) pasteurisation and homogenisation, (iii) ageing, (iv) aerating and partially freezing the mix in an ice cream freezer (v) drawing the partially frozen aerated confection from the freezer and (vi) hardening. After pasteurization and homogenisation the fat exists as small droplets. During freezing and aeration, the mix is sheared. The shear causes the fat droplets collide with each other. When the fat droplets are partly liquid and partly solid, they partially coalesce, i.e. they form a cluster but retain some of their individual identity. Partially coalesced fat (also known as de-stabilized or de-emulsified fat) stabilizes the air bubbles. Increasing the amount of shear on the mix increases the degree of partial coalescence. Saturated fats are conventionally used because they are mostly solid at the temperatures at which freezing and aeration take place in an ice cream freezer, and therefore they undergo partial coalescence. Liquid fat droplets on the other hand coalesce completely to form a single large spherical droplet, which leads to an unstable air phase resulting in low overrun. [0004] Health-conscious consumers are now looking for frozen aerated confections which have all the properties of these traditional products but which are healthier. Attempts have therefore been made to produce frozen aerated confections in which saturated fats are replaced by polyunsaturated fats. However, it has not been possible simply to replace the saturated fats in ice cream formulations with unsaturated fats (which are liquid at ambient temperatures) because unsaturated fats do not contain sufficient solid fat. The mix is difficult to aerate in the ice cream freezer and as a result, the ice cream has a very low overrun. Furthermore, the resulting product lacks the structure provided by the partially coalesced fat and therefore suffers from poor texture and rapid meltdown. [0005] WO 97/30600 discloses an unaerated ice cream formulated with sunflower oil and mono/di-glycerides. Since the ice cream is unaerated, there is no need to use solid fat. [0006] EP-A 1212948 discloses aerated ice cream compositions which comprise a fat component having liquid properties at processing temperatures and a process for preparing such compositions by cold extrusion. The proportion of the fat phase which is liquid at −5° C. is from 45 to 55% w/w. A blend of walnut oil and butterfat having a liquid fat content of 53% w/w at −5° C. is exemplified. This blend has a polyunsaturated fatty acid content of 27%. [0007] Japanese Patent Application 57/036944 describes the production of ice cream with oils that are high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as safflower oil and sunflower oil. It was found that an overrun of only 30% could be achieved with a standard formulation containing a conventional emulsifier. To overcome the problem of producing good ice cream with liquid fat, it was found necessary to use a specific emulsifier, namely a sucrose fatty acid ester. However, such additives can detract from the natural and healthy perception of the product by consumers. [0008] There remains a need therefore to provide frozen aerated confections containing high levels of polyunsaturated fats which have good processing and consumer properties (such as aeration, texture and meltdown), but which do not suffer from this disadvantage. [0000] Tests and Definitions [0009] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art (e.g. in frozen confectionery manufacture). Definitions and descriptions of various terms and techniques used in frozen confectionery manufacture are found in “Ice Cream”, 6 th Edition. With the exception of percentages cited in relation to the overrun, all percentages, unless otherwise stated, refer to the approximate percentage by weight of the total composition. [0000] Frozen Aerated Confection [0010] The term “frozen aerated confection” as used in this specification means a sweet-tasting fabricated foodstuff intended for consumption in the frozen state (i.e. under conditions wherein the temperature of the foodstuff is less than 0° C., and preferably under conditions wherein the foodstuff comprises a significant amount of ice). The term “aerated” means that the frozen confection has an overrun of at least 30%. Frozen aerated confections are made by freezing a pasteurised mix of ingredients. Overrun is typically produced by intentionally incorporating gas into the product, such as by mechanical agitation. The gas can be any food-grade gas such as air, nitrogen or carbon dioxide. Typical examples of frozen aerated confections include ice creams. [0000] Fats [0011] Fats are largely made up of triglycerides (approximately 98%), together with minor amounts of other components such as phospholipids and diglycerides. Triglycerides are esters of glycerol with three fatty acids. Fatty acids which have no carbon-carbon double bonds are said to be saturated (herein abbreviated as SAFA), whereas fatty acids that contain one or more carbon-carbon double bonds are said to be monounsaturated (abbreviated as MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) respectively. Fats that are liquid at ambient temperatures are often referred to as oils. In this specification the term “fat” includes such oils. The SAFA, MUFA and PUFA contents of fats and oils are given in “The Lipid Handbook”, Second Edition, Authors Frank D Gunstone, John L Harwood, Fred B Padley, published by Chapman & Hall 1994. [0000] Proteins [0012] Proteins include milk proteins, soy protein, wheat protein, barley protein and lupin protein. Sources of milk protein include milk, concentrated milk, milk powders (such as skimmed milk powder), caseins, caseinates (such as sodium and/or calcium caseinates) whey, whey powders and whey protein concentrates/isolates. Sources of milk protein generally also comprise other materials. For example, skimmed milk powder typically comprises 37% milk protein, 55% lactose and 8% milk minerals. [0000] Sweetener [0013] Sweetener means a mono-, di- or oligo-saccharide containing from three to ten monosaccharide units joined in glycosidic linkage, or a corn syrup, or a sugar alcohol, or a mixture thereof. Sweeteners include sucrose, fructose, lactose (for example from the source of milk protein), dextrose, invert sugar, corn syrup and sorbitol. [0000] Free Sugars [0014] The term “free sugars” is defined as in “Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases”— Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation , WHO Technical Report Series 916, WHO, Geneva, 2003. Thus free sugars are all mono and disaccharides added by the manufacturer, cook or consumer plus sugar naturally present and sourced from honey, syrups and juices. Free sugars do not include sugars naturally present and sourced from fruit or milk. [0000] Emulsifiers [0015] Emulsifiers are described in “Ice Cream”, 6 th Edition, pages 85-86. Emulsifiers include mono- and di-glycerides of saturated or unsaturated fatty acids (e.g. monoglyceryl palmitate—MGP), polyoxyethylene derivatives of hexahydric alcohols (usually sorbitol), glycols, glycol esters, polyglycerol esters, sorbitan esters, stearoyl lactylate, acetic acid esters, lactic acid esters, citric acid esters, acetylated monoglyceride, diacetyl tartaric acid esters, polyoxyethylene sorbitan esters (such as polysorbate 80), sucrose esters, lecithin, egg and egg yolk. The term also includes mixtures of any the above. As pointed out above, fats and oils may include small amounts of substances such as mono or diglycerides or phospholipids. The term “emulsifier” does not include such molecules when they are naturally present in the fat in small quantities. [0000] Low Temperature Extrusion [0016] Low temperature extrusion is a process which can be used the manufacture of ice cream, and is described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 5,345,781, WO 00/72697, “Ice Cream”, 6 th Edition, page 190 and “The Science of Ice Cream”, C. Clarke, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 2004, pages 81-82. In low temperature extrusion, aerated, partially frozen ice cream leaves the ice cream freezer and is passed through a screw extruder as it is cooled to typically −15° C. The extruder applies a higher shear stress (and lower shear rate) to the ice cream than a conventional freezer, which means that it can operate at low temperatures when the ice cream has very high viscosity. The higher shear stress also enhances fat droplet coalescence. The extrusion apparatus may be either a single or twin screw. [0000] Overrun [0017] The overrun of ice cream (and other frozen aerated confections) is defined by overrun ⁢   ⁢ % = density ⁢   ⁢ of ⁢   ⁢ mix - density ⁢   ⁢ of ⁢   ⁢ ice ⁢   ⁢ cream density ⁢   ⁢ of ⁢   ⁢ ice ⁢   ⁢ cream × 100 [0018] Overrun is measured at atmospheric pressure. [0000] Measuring Overrun [0019] The density of the unaerated mix is determined by weighing a standard overrun cup containing mix at approximately 4° C., subtracting the mass of the cup and dividing by the known volume of the cup (density=mass/volume). A minimum of three repeat measurements is taken. The density of the (aerated) ice cream is determined by repeating the procedure using the same overrun cup with freshly extruded ice cream. Again a minimum of three repeat measurements is taken. With a knowledge of the density of both unaerated mix and aerated ice cream, the overrun can be calculated using the equation given above. [0000] Meltdown [0020] Resistance to meltdown and to serum leakage is determined by measuring the rate at which ice cream melts in a constant temperature environment, as follows. Stainless steel wire mesh grids having a size of 25×25 cm, with 3 mm holes, 1 mm thick wire are placed on a 60° funnel with a bore size of 2 cm suspended over a collecting vessel (of large enough volume to collect the entire sample tested). The collecting vessel is placed on a balance for weighing the material collected in the vessel. The balances are connected to a data logging system to record the mass collected. The apparatus consisting of grid, funnel, vessel and balance, is contained in a cabinet set at a constant temperature of 20° C. The cabinet is capable of holding up to 12 of these sets of apparatus simultaneously. [0021] Ice cream samples in the form of rectangular blocks measuring 14.5×9×3.8 cm are equilibrated in a freezer at −25° C., and then weighed on a zeroed balance with the grid (one of the largest flat faces of the sample is in contact with the grid). The samples are then arranged randomly over the available positions in the meltdown cabinet. Once all samples are in place on the funnels, the data logging system records the amount of collected material every minute. From the mass of the sample collected over this period, the percentage mass loss of the samples is calculated using the following formula. % ⁢   ⁢ MassLoss = M t - M 0 F × 100 wherein: M t =mass recorded on the balance (gram) at time t minute M 0 =mass recorded on the balance (gram) at start of analysis, t=0 minute F=Initial mass of product (gram) Meltdown Initiation Time [0025] The meltdown initiation time is defined as the time that elapses before 4% of the initial weight of the sample has dropped into the collecting vessel. At least three samples are measured per product, and the mean of these is recorded. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0026] Processing ice cream made from highly unsaturated fats in a conventional ice cream freezer is known to result in an unstable fat phase. Contrary to the expectation that using a low temperature extruder would result in an even more unstable fat phase as a result of the higher shear stress, we have found that the ice cream thus produced actually has good overrun, texture and meltdown. Accordingly in a first aspect the present invention provides a process for manufacturing a frozen aerated confection comprising the steps of: a) producing a mix comprising water, a fat component in which at least 35% by weight of the fatty acids in the fat component are polyunsaturated fatty acids, protein and sweetener; b) homogenising and pasteurising the mix; and c) freezing and aerating the mix in an ice cream freezer to form a partially frozen aerated confection; characterized in that after step c), the partially frozen aerated confection is further frozen in a low temperature extruder. [0030] Preferably the frozen aerated confection leaves the low temperature extruder at a temperature of below −9° C., more preferably below −10° C. or −12° C. most preferably below −14° C. It has been found that the lower the temperature at which the frozen aerated confection leaves the extruder, the slower its meltdown. [0031] Preferably the low temperature extruder is a single screw or a twin screw extruder. More preferably the low temperature extruder is a single screw extruder. [0032] Optionally, the frozen aerated confection may be hardened after low temperature extrusion. Typically the hardening temperature is in the range −17 to −40° C., preferably −20 to −35° C. [0033] The higher the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids, the greater the health benefit. Thus it is preferable that the fat comprises at least 40% polyunsaturated fatty acids by weight of the fat, more preferably at least 45% or 50% and optimally at least 60%. [0034] Preferably the fat comprises at least 80% more preferably at least 90%, and even more preferably at least 95% by weight of the fat of a vegetable oil selected from the group consisting of sunflower oil, safflower oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, walnut oil, corn oil, grape seed oil, sesame oil, wheat germ oil, cottonseed oil and mixtures thereof. Particularly preferred is sunflower oil owing to its clean flavour, high poly-unsaturated fat content and wide availability. [0035] Preferably the fat component comprises at least 2% fat by weight of the confection, more preferably at least 4% and most preferably at least 6%. Preferably the fat component comprises at most 15% fat by weight of the confection, more preferably at most 12% and most preferably at most 10%. [0036] Preferably the overrun is at least 60%, more preferably at least 70%, most preferably at least 80%. It is preferable that the overrun does not exceed 200%, however, otherwise the confection does not exhibit the cold mouth-feel conventionally associated with frozen confections. More preferably the overrun is less than 150%, most preferably less than 130%. [0037] In order to aid in aeration during manufacture of the frozen confection it is preferable that the confection comprises protein in an amount of at least 1% by weight of the frozen confection, more preferably greater than or equal to 2%. In order to prevent the confection from exhibiting a chalky mouth-feel, however, it is also preferable that the protein content is less than or equal to 8%, more preferably less than or equal to 6% by weight of the frozen confection. [0038] Preferably the protein is selected from the group consisting of milk protein, soy protein, wheat protein, barley protein and lupin protein and mixtures thereof. More preferably the protein is milk protein. Milk proteins have superior flavour, heat stability and surface activity. [0039] In order to provide the customary sweetness associated with frozen aerated confections and to avoid the confection being unduly hard, it is preferable that the frozen aerated confection comprises sweeteners in an amount of at least 10% by weight of the frozen confection, more preferably at least 15%, most preferably at least 17%. To avoid the frozen aerated confection being too sweet, the amount of sweeteners should be at most 35%, preferably at most 30%, most preferably at most 25% by weight of the confection. [0040] A preferred sweetener is lactose, especially when added as part of the milk solids. This is because lactose has a relatively low molecular weight (and therefore provides excellent freezing point depression) but is neither overly sweet nor counted among the unhealthy free sugars (when added as part of the milk solids). Thus it is preferable that lactose is present in an amount of at least 3% by weight of the frozen confection, preferably at least 4%. In order to avoid crystallisation of the lactose, however, it is also preferred that the lactose is present in an amount of less than 9%, preferably less than 8% by weight of the frozen confection. [0041] In order to increase the appeal of the frozen aerated confection to health conscious consumers, it is preferable that the amount of free sugars is less than 17% by weight of the frozen aerated confection, preferably less than 15%. [0042] The frozen aerated confections may include emulsifiers. However, we have found that the frozen confections can be aerated even in the absence of emulsifiers and, in general, the air phase is actually more stable in the absence of emulsifiers. Thus in a preferred embodiment the frozen aerated confection is substantially free from emulsifier. In particular, the frozen aerated confection comprises less than 0.04%, more preferably less than 0.02%, even more preferably less than 0.01% total emulsifier by weight of the frozen confection. Most preferably, the frozen aerated confection comprises no emulsifier. Emulsifiers can also detract from the natural image of the product. [0043] The frozen aerated confections may include optional ingredients e.g. stabilisers such as alginates, gum arabic, gum ghatti, gum karaya, gum tragacanth, locust bean gum, carrageenans, xanthan gum, guar gum, gelatine, agar, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, methyl and methylethyl celluloses, hydroxypropyl and hydroxypropylmethyl celluloses, low and high methoxyl pectins and mixtures thereof. [0044] The frozen aerated confections may also include colours and flavours. We have found that frozen aerated confections according to the invention have a good taste even though they contain no milk fat provided that flavours are added. [0045] In a second aspect the present invention provides a frozen aerated confection comprising water, a fat component in which at least 35% by weight of the fatty acids in the fat component are polyunsaturated fatty acids, protein and sweetener, which confection has a meltdown initiation time of greater than 35 minutes, preferably greater than 50 minutes, more preferably greater than 70 minutes when measured at 20° C. in the test described above. We have found that ice creams made from fats rich in polyunsaturated acids have increased meltdown initiation times when they are produced by low temperature extrusion. [0046] A third object is to provide a product obtained by the methods of the invention. Also provided is a product obtainable by the methods of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0047] The present invention will be further described in the following examples which are illustrative only and non-limiting, and by reference to the figures which show meltdown results for ice creams processed conventionally and according to the invention. [0048] FIG. 1 is a plot of the meltdown results for ice creams with formulation 1 drawn from the ice cream freezer at −5.6° C. (comparative example) and from the low temperature extruder at temperatures of −12.0, −12.9, −14.1 and −14.6° C. [0049] FIG. 2 is a plot of the meltdown results for ice creams with formulation 2 drawn from the ice cream freezer at −5.8° C. (comparative example) and from the low temperature extruder at −11.0 and −13.3° C. [0050] FIG. 3 is a plot of the meltdown results for ice creams with formulation 3 drawn from the ice cream freezer at −5.0° C. (comparative example) and from the low temperature extruder at −9.7 and −1.5° C. [0051] FIG. 4 is a plot of the meltdown results for ice creams with formulation 4 drawn from the ice cream freezer at −5.3° C. (comparative example) and from the low temperature extruder at −9.0 and −11.5° C. EXAMPLES [0052] Ice creams were prepared from four different ice cream formulations labelled 14 in Table 1. These differ in their sugars, total solids and flavours, and include formulations with and without emulsifier. TABLE 1 Formulations of the example mixes (ingredient amounts are % w/w). Ingredient (% w/w) 1 2 3 4 Skim milk powder 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 Whey powder 30% 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 Sucrose 5.0 5.0 11.0 10.5 Dextrose 5.8 5.8 Fructose 4.4 4.4 Raftilose P95 4.0 4.0 63DE corn syrup 10.5 10.5 28DE corn syrup 4.0 Locust bean gum 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 Guar gum 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 Carrageenan L100 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 Sunflower oil 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 HP60 0.2 Strawberry flavour 0.5 Beetroot red 0.14 Vanillin 0.012 0.012 0.012 Vanilla flavour 0.1729 0.1729 0.1729 Water to 100 to 100 to 100 to 100 [0053] Raftilose P95 is 95% oligofructose in powder form supplied by Orafti. HP60 is saturated mono-diglyceride containing 60% monoglyceride supplied by Danisco. The corn syrups were supplied by Cerestar. 63DE is a glucose-fructose syrup (C*Sweet F 017Y4) containing 22% water, 55% mono and disaccharides and 23% other solids. 28DE is a spray-dried glucose syrup (C*Dry GL01924) containing 4% water, 14% mono and disaccharides and 82% other solids. [0054] The mixes were prepared as follows. Water at 80° C. was added into a tank equipped with a turbo mixer. The dry sugars were mixed with the stabilisers and added to the tank followed by the skimmed milk powder, liquid sugars, oil and flavours. The mix was blended for about 10 minutes at 60-70° C. The mix was then homogenised at 150 bar and pasteurised at 82° C. for 25 seconds in a plate heat exchanger. The mix was then cooled to 4° C. in the plate heat exchanger and aged overnight in an ageing tank at 4° C., with gentle stirring. [0055] The mixes were aerated (with a target overrun of 100%) and frozen on an ice cream freezer (Crepaco WO4 scraped surface heat exchanger) fitted with a series 15 open dasher. Partially frozen ice cream was drawn from the freezer at between −6.5 and −7.5° C. and passed to a low temperature single screw extruder. On leaving the extruder, the ice cream was filled into 500 ml cardboard boxes, blast frozen at −35° C. for 3 hours and then stored at −25° C. until required for testing. Comparative examples were made by the conventional process, in which partially frozen ice cream was drawn from the freezer at between −5 and −6° C., filled into 500 ml cardboard boxes, blast frozen at −35° C. for 3 hours and then stored at −25° C. [0056] The temperature at which the ice cream leaves the screw extruder is controlled by the torque on the screw which is automatically coupled to the refrigerating power. Higher torque allows ice cream to be extruded at higher viscosity (i.e. lower temperature). Torques of 500, 750, 900 and 1200 Nm were used. The torque and extrusion temperature for each formulation are shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 Processing conditions for the examples according to the invention Extrusion temperature (° C.) Torque (Nm) 1 2 3 4 500 −12.0 −11.0 −9.7 −9.0 750 −12.9 −13.3 −11.5 −11.5 900 −14.1 1200 −14.6 [0057] Formulations 1-4 processed very well through the ice cream freezer and through the low temperature extruder for all the processing regimes. The ice cream flow was generally smooth and continuous with reasonably constant overrun and few air pockets. The overrun was measured using an overrun cup as described above. Both the low temperature extruded ice creams according to the invention and the comparative examples achieved the target overrun of 100% (+/−10%). [0058] Meltdown tests as described above were performed on each sample. The meltdown data are shown in FIGS. 1-4 . The data for the examples according to the invention are labelled by the extrusion temperature from the low temperature screw extruder. Data for the comparative examples is shown by the thick lines and labelled by the temperature at which the ice cream was drawn from the ice cream freezer. [0059] FIG. 1 shows that for formulation 1 the meltdown behaviour is better (i.e. the ice cream loses mass more slowly) for ice cream which has been through the low temperature extruder than for the comparative example of ice cream which had not been through the extruder. The meltdown improves as the exit temperature from the extruder is reduced. The slowest meltdown is achieved with the lowest exit temperature (−14.6° C.). [0060] FIG. 2 shows that for formulation 2 (no emulsifier), the meltdown behaviour is again better for ice cream which has been through the low temperature extruder than for the comparative example. FIGS. 3 and 4 show similar results for formulations 3 (different sweeteners and no emulsifier) and 4 (higher solids and no emulsifier). In each case, the slowest meltdown is achieved with the lowest extrusion temperature. [0061] Table 3 shows the extrusion temperature and meltdown initiation time for each sample. It is apparent from this data that ice creams made with a fat rich in PUFA have longer meltdown initiation times when they have been processed in a low temperature extruder, (36 minutes or greater) compared to the ice cream produced by the conventional process (21-30 minutes). The lower the extrusion temperature, the longer the meltdown initiation time. The lowest extrusion temperature (−14.6° C. for formulation 1) had the longest meltdown initiation time (129 minutes). TABLE 3 Extrusion temperature and meltdown initiation time for each sample Meltdown initiation time Formulation Extrusion temperature (° C.) (minutes) 1 Comparative Example 21 −12.0 74 −12.9 63 −14.1 97 −14.6 129 2 Comparative Example 24 −11.0 41 −13.3 51 3 Comparative Example 30 −9.7 36 −11.5 46 4 Comparative Example 21 −9.0 38 −11.5 51 [0062] The ice cream samples were also tasted. Ice creams produced according to the invention had a smooth texture and good flavour and were preferred by an informal taste panel over the conventionally processed comparative examples. [0063] In summary, these results show that ice creams made with a fat rich in PUFA have improved meltdown properties and texture when they have been through a low temperature extruder, compared to the ice cream produced by the conventional process. The lower the extrusion temperature, the slower the meltdown. [0064] The various features of the embodiments of the present invention referred to in individual sections above apply, as appropriate, to other sections mutatis mutandis. Consequently features specified in one section may be combined with features specified in other sections as appropriate. [0065] All publications mentioned in the above specification are herein incorporated by reference. Various modifications and variations of the described methods and products of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention which are apparent to those skilled in the relevant fields are intended to be within the scope of the following claims.

A process for manufacturing a frozen aerated confection is provided, the process comprising the steps of: a) producing a mix comprising water, a fat component in which at least 35% by weight of the fatty acids in the fat component are polyunsaturated fatty acids, protein and sweetener; b) homogenising and pasteurising the mix; and c) freezing and aerating the mix in an ice cream freezer to form a partially frozen aerated confection; characterized in that after step c), the partially frozen aerated confection is further frozen in a low temperature extruder.

This is a continuation of co-pending application Ser. No. 455,836 filed on Dec. 15, 1989, itself a continuation of Ser. No. 262,451, filed Oct. 25, 1988, both now abandoned. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an interactive home shopping system which can deliver to a subscriber particular television video frames depicting shopping items of interest which the subscriber has requested, along with an accompanying audio message. The system permits a shopper, in the comfort of his home, to browse through an "electronic mall" of different shops, obtain detailed information on particular items, and make purchases. More particularly, this invention relates to and describes a digital audio video presentation display system for use in an interactive home shopping system, in which all the necessary video and audio information is stored in digital form, and wherein the information is further manipulated in digital form to provide the proper timing which ensures that the shopping presentation is transmitted to a particular subscriber in the appropriate time sequence. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Home shopping by use of the television has been growing in popularity in recent years. Generally, home shopping channels are transmitted on a community antenna television (CATV) facility. The CATV facility, which has the capacity for transmitting a multiplicity of commercial and public television signals, is usually connected to a large number of homes via coaxial cable. In most of the home shopping systems being offered to date, subscribers passively view the home shopping channel, watch items and pricing being presented by television sales people, and if interested in any particular item, can place an order over the telephone with a sales person. These systems are non-interactive, in the sense that a viewer can only passively watch items as they are presented on the television screen, but cannot control the course of the shopping presentation. A more advanced interactive home shopping system has been designed and implemented, in which viewers are able to request particular items to be presented for display and can control the shopping presentation as they proceed. A system of this sort is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,734,764, entitled "Cable Television System Selectively Distributing Pre-recorded Video and Audio Messages". This prior art invention describes a system which conveys still-frame television-quality video with overlaid graphics information and an appropriate audio message (when desired), to a multiplicity of CATV subscribers who tune to a particular cable channel. The subscriber, by use of a Touch Tone telephone, transmits particular codes in response to message prompts which are displayed in menu form on the TV screen, and requests video displays and information on specific products, as well as make purchases. The user of this system requires no additional equipment other than a Touch-Tone telephone and a television. In order to interactively operate this type of home shopping system, a subscriber tunes to the CATV channel which is being used for transmission, and dials a telephone number to access the system. Each subscriber is given a particular identification number upon subscribing to the service. When this identifying number is entered via the telephone Touch-Tone keypad, the system recognizes the subscriber and his location Based upon succeeding codes which are displayed on the television screen, and which the subscriber enters on the Touch Tone keypad, his television screen begins to display still frame video, having overlaid graphics where appropriate, and possibly accompanied by a sound track to present information which he has requested on an item. Graphic overlays depicting menus and directories of the "electronic stores" which are on the system are also displayed, and by responding to these menus with a sequence of Touch-Tone commands, the subscriber may browse through a particular store of his choice (e.g. a particular aisle in a supermarket), select a particular product of interest, make purchases or request additional information or help in response to prompts on the television screen. This interactive home shopping system uses a CATV cable network to transmit the video presentations and accompanying audio messages as requested by subscribers. In conventional video transmission, video frames are transmitted at the rate of 30 frames per second (the North American or Japanese standard), or 25 frames per second (the European standard). A video frame is an interleaved composition of two video fields, with each video-field being further composed of a plurality of scan lines referred to as the "vertical blanking interval, and a larger plurality of scan lines which contains the video image information. The interactive home shopping system described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,734,764 makes use of the vertical blanking interval (which consist of the first 21 lines of the video field) to store information which identifies the particular subscriber to whom the requested video and audio data will be sent and his location. The control center of the CATV system (the CATV headend) transmits the video and audio data with this addressing information in the vertical blanking interval down the main "trunk" coaxial cables of the system. In order to compensate for signal losses which naturally occur down the transmission line, most CATV cable systems incorporate amplifiers at strategic locations called "nodes", which are downstream from the control center. At each node an amplifier amplifies the signals from the control center, and transmits the amplified signals down a plurality of secondary distribution cables. Each of the secondary distribution cables is generally provided with a plurality of tertiary distribution cables known as "taps", and finally each of these taps is further split into a plurality of "drop" cables which terminate at the subscriber's home. In order to accommodate a large number of concurrent subscribers, the interactive shopping system described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,734,764 utilizes a device known as a frame store unit typically located at each node of the distribution system. Each frame store unit services a small number of cable drops, and functions to capture the video frame that is destined for a subscriber whose particular ID code, encoded in the vertical blanking interval, is associated with the unit. Thus, a frame store unit captures video frames having a particular address encoded in the vertical blanking interval of the frame and stores the video information of that frame into its memory. The video frame store then replays the stored video information 30 times per second (according to the U.S. National Television Standards Committee (NTSC) requirement), and transmits the video along with any accompanying audio message to the particular subscriber that it is servicing. In the prior art system of U.S. Pat. No. 4,734,764, which has been briefly described above, the video and audio data which comprise a particular presentation offering by a merchant, must first be processed and encoded onto conventional laser video discs. A plurality of conventional video disc players at the central system site transmit the appropriate video and audio information in analog form, under control of a central processing unit. This information is then time multiplexed in the proper sequence, and appropriately modulated and frequency converted for transmission down the CATV cable channel. Numerous problems and limitations are associated with this type of "analog" video display system. First, a large number of video disc players are required, making the cost and physical size of the electronics for the interactive home shopping system exorbitant. Second, the response time between a subscriber keying in a particular code on the telephone keypad and the appearance of a display in response to that code is too slow to provide for a comfortable interactive session. The response time in the analog system is limited by the time it takes for the video disc player to access a particular frame which can be on the order of three seconds. The slow response time is compounded by the graphics overlay process, in which a graphics decoder receives the graphics information that is associated with a particular video frame from the central processing unit, generates the appropriate graphics display data and routes this data to a video combiner, which receives the video frame from the video player and overlays the graphics information onto the video frame. Further, in the prior art analog system, the audio information is stored on the video disc in the electronic format of the video frame. This imposes a maximum limit of ten seconds for the duration of the audio portion associated with a particular frame. In many cases, this time limitation is too restrictive for practical use. An additional limitation arises from the use of a laser disc as the storage medium for the video and audio data. A merchant who desires to put a particular presentation for his business onto the interactive home shopping system of the prior art must undertake a lengthy premastering procedure, required to convert his original material (possibly in the format of catalog photographs, video tape information, etc.) into a format which is encoded onto a video disc master. Multiple copies of the master disc must then be made so that each video disc player in the system can have access to the information when it is called upon to deliver a particular frame to a requesting subscriber. This premastering and duplication process is a time-consuming, linear and batch-oriented procedure which provides no mechanism for making minor modifications at a later date Thus, no reusable archiving is possible. If changes are required, a new video disc must be mastered and reproduced. Finally, the prior art system has general problems which are fundamentally related to storing and copying data in analog form. Analog signals are more prone to degradation by noise sources that arise in any electronic system Further, the maximum signal to noise of the video signals which are attainable at the output of a video disc player is several orders of magnitude below the noise figure for studio quality video broadcast. Degradation of analog signals as they are transmitted down the long lengths of coaxial line which comprises the CATV system is inevitable. This further degrades the video image seen by the subscriber. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is the objective of the present invention to provide for a digital audio video presentation display system as part of a new and improved interactive communications system for merchandising products and services to subscribers. It is a further object of the present invention to overcome the deficiencies of the analog display system used in the prior art .system described above, by providing a digital audio-video display system which utilizes a different conceptual approach, but which is embodied in a system of hardware and software that is nevertheless downward compatible with the overall home shopping system, as practiced by the prior art U.S. Pat. No. 4,734,764. It is another object of the digital audio-video presentation display system of the present invention, to maintain and process the video and audio signals in a digital format, thereby providing for more accurate reproduction of the original signals. It is yet another object of this invention to provide for a digital audio video presentation display system which is considerably more cost effective and of physically smaller size than the prior art analog video display system. It is still another object of the invention to provide for a digital audio-video presentation display system having markedly decreased response time to a subscriber's input, when compared to the prior art analog system, and which does not impose severe constraints on the length of audio information which can be transmitted along with the video data. Another object of this invention is to provide for a digital audio-video presentation display system which obviates the need for a cumbersome premastering procedure, as is required in the prior art analog system to prepare masters of video discs which carry the appropriate commercial presentations designed by merchants, and which does not require the making of a plurality of copies of these master discs. It is another object of this invention to provide for a digital audio video presentation display system which has an innovative digital mass storage subsystem for storage and retrieval of video and audio data, which can be shared easily among a plurality of digital audio-video display subsystems as described further herein, and which provides for a reusable archiving capability. It is an additional object of this invention to provide a novel encoding technique for storing large amounts of data in the digital mass storage subsystem which permits rapid retrieval of a particular set of data from the large database of information stored on the digital mass storage subsystem. The present invention is directed to a digital audio-video presentation display system which can be used in conjunction with other elements of an interactive shopping system which allows a subscriber to choose a shopping presentation comprising particular items for display and purchase by keying in codes on a standard Touch Tone telephone keypad as prompted by menus, graphics, and audio which are presented on the television screen. The digital audio-video presentation display system of the present invention comprises a digital mass storage subsystem for storing compressed audio and video data, and one or more digital audio-video display subsystems. Each of these digital audio-video display subsystems includes means for retrieving compressed data which corresponds to the selected audio and video presentation from the digital mass storage subsystem, means for expanding and reformatting the video data into a format compatible for television transmission, means for transforming and modulating the audio data onto appropriate television carrier frequencies, and means for performing the transmission of the audio and video data in proper sequence to a requesting subscriber. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a fuller understanding of the nature and objects of the invention, reference should be made to the following detailed description, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is block diagram of the overall home shopping system which illustrates the major functional components of the system. FIG. 2 shows the configuration and functions of the digital mass storage subsystem chassis. FIG. 3 illustrates the disc storage volume, which is the building block of the digital mass storage subsystem. FIG. 4 represents a scheme for connecting the interchassis communications modules. FIG. 5 shows a non-redundant method of connecting the digital audio-video display subsystems to the DMSS chassis. FIG. 6 illustrates a fault-tolerant redundant method of connecting the digital audio video display subsystems to the DMSS chassis. FIG. 7 is block diagram of the major functional components of a digital audio-video display subsystem (DAVDS). FIG. 8 illustrates the hardware interconnection for the display system controller (DSC). FIG. 9 is a software process diagram representing the major soft tasks implemented in the display system controller (DSC). FIG. 10 is a block diagram illustrating the hardware configuration of the digital video distribution unit (DVDU). FIG 11 is a process flow diagram illustrating the major software tasks implemented by the digital video distribution unit (DVDU). FIG. 12 is a block diagram which illustrates the hardware configuration of the digital audio distribution unit (DADU). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION With reference to FIG. 1, the digital audio-video presentation display system is shown in its relationship to the other major elements of the overall interactive home shopping system. At least one telephone management subsystem 10 (TMS) is present in the overall system to receive telephone requests from the subscribers (in the form of Touch Tone signals) and to relay those requests to the central processing unit of the host computer 20, which in a preferred embodiment is a Tandem VLX mainframe system. The digital audio-video presentation display system 30 comprises a digital mass storage subsystem 40 (DMSS) which holds the database of digitized and compressed video and audio presentations, and at least one digital audio-video display subsystem 50 (DAVDS). A preferred embodiment of the digital audio video display system 30 uses seven active digital audio-video display subsystems each one of which is capable of servicing approximately 200 concurrent subscribers. The overall system is protected by a single independent DAVDS. This DAVDS, when requested by the host computer, can replace any one of the seven active DAVDS which may suffer a failure or a reduced performance condition. The overall interactive shopping system incorporates the use of both on-line and off-line measurement techniques to ensure that failures which may cause the system degradation or reduced performance, are rapidly detected. The output of the digital audio-video display system 30 is transmitted to the CATV headend 80, and then down the CATV cable lines where it is intercepted by the particular frame store unit 60 (FSU) which services the particular subscriber. The frame store unit 60 replays the video frame at an appropriate rate to provide a still-video image, along with any accompanying audio, of selected items in the presentation. A production system 70 is interfaced to DMSS 40. The production system 70 is used by merchants to prepare their commercial presentations, which are then stored in DMSS 40. DEFINITIONS It is helpful at this point to define some of the terminology that is used in this disclosure, and which relates particularly to the presently preferred embodiment of the digital audio video presentation display system. 1. Segment: This is a series of audio frames (usually 0-4 followed by a series of video frames (usually 0-7). 2. Presentation: A presentation consists of a series of segments, as initially set up and defined by the merchant. 3. Script: A script is a data structure generally of several hundred to several thousand bytes in length, which contains information that defines the time sequence for the display of audio and video images within a presentation. The script also contains information as to what kind of data (e.g. video or audio) is contained within the frame, as well as overlay graphics information. 4Data Object: A data object is a generic term for any string of data. The object string generally includes structural information about itself. THE DIGITAL MASS STORAGE SUBSYSTEM The Digital Mass Storage Subsystem (DMSS) comprises the database of digitized/compressed video and audio presentations. As such, it is a repository for a plurality of large data objects, each of which contains a compressed video image or a portion of digitized audio. The objects range in size from about 200 bytes up to about 100,000 bytes. The average size is about 40,000 bytes. The DMSS, in a preferred embodiment, can accommodate 1,000,000 such objects (each individually named), can accept "retrieve" commands for individual objects by name and deliver the named object within 80 milliseconds. Additionally, it can accommodate seven active digital audio-video display subsystems (DAVDS) and one spare DAVDS, and provide a bandwidth for delivering objects to any one DAVDS of 4 megabytes/second. When an object is requested by a DAVDS which is not present in the DMSS, it can be fetched automatically through a gateway device to an archival version of the digital mass storage subsystem which contains a backup copy of all data objects. The DMSS can accept commands through the gateway to either delete or store data objects. Further, when traffic demands can not be satisfied instantaneously, the DMSS provides for queuing of commands to be serviced on a priority basis. In order to meet these requirements, a set of up to eight standard, Multibus II chassis are provided in a preferred embodiment. Multibus II is an "open system" bus architecture which is commonly used by many people in the computer industry. The actual number of chassis required by the system depends upon the number of data objects which need to be contained. Each chassis is populated with 19 identical, single board computers (SBCs) of the Intel 386/100 class, each SBC having two industry standard Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) ports and built in diagnostics. The functions of the SBCs, as described more fully below, provide for disc volume management, object location, gateway connection, inter-chassis communication, and communication with each DAVDS. Test and future expansion slots are also available. The hardware layout of a preferred embodiment of the DMSS is depicted in FIG. 2, which shows the configuration and functions of a standard chassis. The basic building block of the DMSS is called a "disc storage volume". Data objects are stored on the disc storage volumes. A disc storage volume 300, as illustrated in FIG. 3, comprises a disc drive unit 310 such as the Maxtor 760 megabyte unit, a controller 320 for the disc drive unit connected to the drive via an industry standard Enhanced Small Disc Interface (ESDI) interface, and a single board computer (SBC) which acts as the disc storage volume manager 330, and which is connected to the controller via a SCSI interface. With reference to FIG. 2, the single board computers (SBCs) on board each chassis provide different software functions to the system. The disc storage volume managers 330, of which there may be up to ten on a chassis, have the function of storing, retrieving, and deleting data objects. Each disc storage volume manager 330 also stores a record of the object name index of its associated disc storage volume for recovery purposes. A volume manager 330 also sends messages to each of the object locator modules 350 (OLMs), reporting its own slot and chassis number, and describing the data groups which it contains. The interchassis communication modules 360 (ICCMs) route messages which are received from the Multibus II backplane to other chassis of the DMSS over the SCSI ribbon cables and correspondingly route messages which are received over the ribbon cables to the appropriate slots on their chassis. The display system command modules 370 (DSCMs) are connected to the display system controllers of the DAVDS, which are described more fully below, via SCSI interface links. The software function performed by the DSCM 370 is to receive requests for data objects from the display system controllers, and deliver corresponding data objects to the display system controllers for further processing. As shown, the preferred embodiment has two DSCMs 370 per chassis. The display system controllers deliver their requests for a desired data object to the DSCM 370. This message is routed to the onboard object locator module 350 via the Multibus II backplane, or to object locator modules on different chassis via the interchassis communication module 360 (ICCM). The object locator module 350 (OLM) performs a mapping function described with more particularity below, which determines the data storage volume where the data object resides, and transmits a retrieval message to that volume requesting that the particular data object be sent to the digital audio-video display subsystem (DAVDS). The gateway module 380 imports and exports data objects and messages upon command from other digital mass storage devices, or from object locator modules 350. Additionally, each chassis contains a central services module 390 (CSM) which performs housekeeping functions for the chassis and which is a required component in a Multibus II application system. Test equipment and additional expansion slots 395 are also available on each chassis for development testing and future expansion. FIG. 4 shows with more particularity the parallel connection pathways for connecting the interchassis communication modules 360 which reside on different chassis to each other. As shown, each of the single board computers which provide the ICCM functionality have dual SCSI interface ports. As illustrated, data and command flow between the chassis is provided by up to four of these SCSI connections per chassis, with each pair of ports from a particular ICCM 360 being connected in parallel fashion to all the other chassis of the system. The parallel pathways and the built-in redundancy ensure that communications between chassis occurs rapidly, even under high system load conditions. The number of such connections which are actually necessary depends upon the number of digital audio-video display systems (DAVDS) that are connected to the DMSS. The display system controllers of each of the digital audio-video display subsystems, which are described more fully below, may be connected with the chassis which comprise the DMSS in the manner shown in FIGS. 5 and 6. The connection arrangement is flexible and may be determined for each installation according to the number of data objects that will be stored and the number of digital audio-video display subsystems which will be needed to service traffic at the operating site. For example, in FIG. 5, a non redundant connection, in which each of the digital display system controllers 315 is connected via a SCSI interface link to a display system control module 370. FIG. 6 shows an alternative embodiment wherein each display system controller 315 is connected to two display system control modules 370, each of which is on a different chassis. In turn, each display system control module is seen to service two display system controllers 315 over its dual port SCSI interface. The redundant connection shown in FIG. 6 may be desirable for fault tolerance purposes and to ensure overall system integrity. Each data object stored in the DMSS must be given an identifying name. In order to provide the system with sufficient flexibility for name allocation purposes, each object name is stored in a data field which is 20 bytes long. An exceedingly large number of possibilities of names is (256 20 ) is thereby provided for. A novel encoding methodology has been implemented in the DMSS which permits rapid search and access of this potentially large set of data objects. The methodology utilizes the notion that the domain which comprises the large set of distinct data object names may be mapped, by any number of straight-forward algorithms, into a range comprising a much smaller set of numbers. Each member of this smaller set, which is designated as a "data group" is then associated with a particular volume. Since the mapping is not one to one, each data group represents a plurality of distinct data object names. However, since each data group is associated with a particular volume, the volume containing the desired data object may be rapidly accessed. A second stage search within the data volume, which has a lookup table of manageable size containing all the distinct data object names that are stored in the data volume, permits rapid location of the desired named data object. Association of a particular data group with a particular data volume is performed by the object locator module 350 (OLM) in each DMSS standard chassis, which at all times knows how many active data volumes are on the system, and which data volumes provide storage for any data group. In order to distribute objects uniformly throughout the different data volumes, the mapping must be performed in such a way that a small region of the large domain of distinct data object names is mapped uniformly over the complete range comprising the data group set. This is required to ensure that data object names are sufficiently randomized during the mapping process so that they are uniformly distributed over the different active data volumes of the system. The following example serves to illustrate how such a mapping may be performed to map 20 bytes into 2 bytes (or 16 bits), thereby providing for a total of 65,536 possible data group elements. This example illustrates only one of many ways in which a domain of 20 bytes which represents the totality of possible data object names can be mapped uniformly into a 2 byte range. Data object name formats may differ depending upon the particular type of object being named. In this illustrative example we assume that there are three different kinds of data object names. For example, a name for a presentation data object may have the following format: ##STR1## In this naming scheme, the type of data object is allocated a 4 byte field denoted by "T"s, the client name is allocated a 5 byte field denoted by "C"s, the presentation number is a 5 byte field denoted by "P"s. Similarly, the particular frame number is denoted by the F field and the frame type (audio or video) is denoted by the f field. A name for a subscriber identification data object may have the following format: ##STR2## in which the "T" field again designates the type of object, the "L" field designates the operating center and the N field designates the subscriber's telephone number. The name for an order data object may be likewise designated as ##STR3## in which the object type field is again designated by "T"s, the local operating center that has taken the order is designated by the "L" field and the order number is designated by the "N" field. By appropriately selecting bytes from these different types of data object names which display the most variability, and by performing a series of operations on these bytes which lead to further randomization, one may obtain a two byte range which maps the entire 20 byte domain in a highly uniform manner. For example, it may be determined by analysis of the data object names that the most variable byte in the presentation object name is byte 14 (the lowest order digit of the presentation number), and that similarly the most variable bytes of the data object name which denotes subscriber identification information are the two last digits of the subscriber's telephone number (bytes 19 and 20). Likewise, it may further be determined that bytes 15 and 16 of the object names as number of which designate orders are the most variable. After selecting the most variable bytes (e.g. byte 14 from the presentation object name, bytes 19 and 20 from the subscriber identification object name, and bytes 15 and 16 from the order object name), one can perform a highly randomized mapping of the original 20 bytes into 2 bytes by following a set of rules such as: 1. Concatenate bytes 14, 19, 20, 15 and 16. Bytes 14, 19, 20 may be designated by A and 15 and 16 as B. ##STR4## 2. Add B to A, dropping any carry. This leaves a 3 byte result. 3. Add the first 8 bits of the sum (byte 14) to the low order 16 bits, again dropping any carry. In this manner, a 16 bit (2 byte) number is obtained which by virtue of its construction, is designed to map any section of the domain of the large 20 byte set uniformly over the full range of the much smaller 2 byte set. In operation, as a particular data object is presented for storage in the DMSS, a mapping function of this type is performed by the object locator module 350 (OLM) which converts the name of the data object into a particular data group of the small range. The OLM 350 allocates a particular data volume for that data group. As other data objects names come into the system, the mapping again forces the same data groups to be stored in the same volume. The full object name is stored in a lookup table at the disc storage volume manager 330 that is associated with each disc drive. Since each disc drive holds at most 20,000 objects, the lookup table of object names in each volume manager 330 is of manageable size. In order to retrieve a particular data object, the same mapping is performed, which immediately tells the object locator module 350 (OLM) which data volume contains that particular object. Once the volume is accessed, a second stage of the search, which searches the object name in the particular volume's lookup table is then performed to find and retrieve the data object. This two step data allocation and retrieval approach permits a very large data base structure to be searched rapidly. Rapid retrieval of data objects is essential in order to provide acceptable response times for the interactive video display system. THE DIGITAL AUDIO-VIDEO DISPLAY SUBSYSTEM Each digital audio-video display subsystem 50 of FIG. 1 (DAVDS) is comprised of five major units as shown in FIG. 7, which, with reference to that figure, include: 1. A Display System Controller The display system controller 100 (DSC) coordinates and orders the transfer of data from the DMSS 40 to other components of the DAVDS, such as to the digital audio-video distribution units 110 (DVDU) and the digital audio distribution units 120 (DADU) which are described below. It also maintains the time synchronization of the DVDUs 110 and DADUs 120 to provide minimum response times to the subscriber and to maintain high presentation data transfer rates. The transfer of audio and video data, as well as control and status information to and from the DADUs and DVDUs is done via standard Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) links. 2. A Digital Video Distribution Unit (DVDU) It is the function of the digital audio-video distribution unit 110 (DVDU) to transform compressed video data into full frames of video in standard RGB format. In a preferred embodiment each DAVDS contains two or three DVDUs. Each DVDU in turn contains two Digital Video Expanders (DVEs). The two DVDUs, working in combination will provide frames at a rate of about 24 per second. This will serve 200 concurrent users at expected consumption rates. Three DVDUs are needed to provide thirty frames per second, the maximum permitted in the NTSC video format. 3. A Digital Audio Distribution Unit (DADU) The function of the digital audio distribution unit 120 is to transform audio data which comprises the audio program, and which may be in compressed form, into baseband audio, which is then sent to the audio transmitters 130 for modulation onto an audio subcarrier. In a preferred embodiment, there are twenty channels of audio per DADU and ten DADUs per DAVDS. Thus each DAVDS has two hundred independent audio channels for concurrently serving 200 active subscribers. 4. Audio Transmitters Each of the audio transmitters 130 receive audio signals from the DADU 120 and in a preferred embodiment, modulate these audio signals onto one of five hundred and seventy two discrete frequencies in the 41-46 megahertz band. This frequency range corresponds to the standard intermediate frequency (IF) of a CATV upconverter which further converts the audio for transmission to any standard CATV channel. The typical audio system may thus occupy any four-megahertz channel in the CATV distribution network or alternatively, or two groups of audio channels may be combined into a single six-megahertz channel. 5. Scheduler Control Unit (SCU) The scheduler control unit 140 (SCU) accepts the RGB outputs from the DVDUs 110 and converts them into the standard NTSC video format (with all required addresses and audio tuning codes included in the vertical blanking interval) for presentation to the CATV headend control center which injects the signals into the CATV transmission network. A more detailed description of each of these five functional elements of the DAVDS now follows. 1. The Display System Controller (DSC) In a preferred embodiment, the hardware of the DSC 100 is configured in an open system bus structure such as the Multibus II chassis (which includes a twenty slot Multibus II backplane, a central services module, and a power supply). With reference to FIG. 8, a processor board, which in the preferred embodiment is an Intel 186/530 processor functions as the DSC 100 scheduler 210 and receives presentation segment requests from the host computer via its internal local area network interface 220. The processor schedules the presentation requests, and responds to the host computer with status information when the requests are completed. The function of the DSC 100 is to generate the timing for properly interspersing and collating the video frames for all concurrent subscribers who have shopping sessions in progress (up to approximately 200 per DAVDS). The information which describes the playback of the presentation to the subscriber is contained in "a script", which as defined above, is a data structure of several hundred to several thousand bytes which contains the time sequence information for properly displaying audio and video images within a presentation. Upon capturing the script from the host, the DSC 100 ascertains that the script is played out properly to the particular subscriber who has requested it. Moreover, the DSC 100 properly intersperses the scripts to different subscribers in such a way that timing delays caused by system load conditions are minimized so that the video and audio are presented as closely as possible to what was intended. The script information resides in the presentation database of the host computer. DSC 100 is connected to the DMSS 40 by a plurality of SCSI boards 230. These boards carry the fetch requests to, and return compressed audio and video data from the DMSS 40. Two additional SCSI boards 250 connect DSC 100 to the digital audio distribution units. Control information and audio data, are transmitted from the DSC 100 to the DADUs 120 along this interface, which also functions to return the response information from DADUs 120. Two more SCSI boards 240 connect the DSC 100 to the DVDUs 110. These boards permit the transmission of control information for the text and video data to the digital video display units, and return response information from the video display units back to DSC 100. An additional four Intel 186/100 processor boards, known as DSC image controllers 260 perform supervisory control over the SCSI interfaces which connect DMSS 40, DVDUs 110 and DADUs 120. An additional Intel 186/100 board known as the DSC 100 queuer 270 is provided to allocate requests to, and monitor the loading of the four DSC 100 image controllers 260. Software Functions Of The DSC In addition to a number of system processes and support processes, application processes are provided in the DSC 100 system which are responsible for processing the segment messages from the host computer. A process flow diagram for the DSC 100 is shown in FIG. 9. With reference to that figure, the major software tasks which are provided in the preferred embodiment of the DSC 100 are briefly described as follows: A. Scheduler: As individual steps contained in the script received from the host computer become due, the scheduler 400 sends request messages to the queuer task 410 to initiate the presentation of the image to the appropriate subscriber. B. Queuer: The queuer task 410 partitions the requests it receives from the scheduler, and spreads them across the available image controllers 420 in order to achieve and maintain a proper system load balance. The queuer 410 also selects which DVDU will be used to process the request. C. Image Controller: This process provides the appropriate command sequences for synchronizing the audio and video generation and the delivery of the data to a subscriber's frame store unit. It monitors the DVDU and the DADU throughput and attempts to initiate the audio part of the presentation as closely a possible to the delivery of the first video frame. 2. The Digital Video Distribution Unit (DVDU)" The function of the digital video distribution unit (DVDU) is to transform compressed frames of video into full frames of video in standard RGB video format so that when requested, these frames can be presented to the scheduler control unit (SCU) 280 for transmission to the cable system. In the preferred embodiment, the hardware configuration of the DVDU, as shown in FIG. 10, is contained in a chassis which has a passive IBM PC-AT backplane, an 80386 AT-compatible CPU card with four megabytes of memory 500, a SCSI interface card having an integral floppy disc controller 510, a floppy disc drive 520 and two digital video expander (DVE) units 530. The SCSI interface provides the pathway for receipt of compressed video data and control information and for transmission of status information to the display system controller (DSC 100). The two digital video expander (DVE) boards 530 each comprise a pair of video processors. Compressed video data is read by the first processor, which produces a block of data in expanded format. The expanded data is then processed by the second processor to produce the video frame in RGB format for subsequent presentation to the scheduler control unit. An additional function of the DVDU which is provided by the second video processor is to produce graphics image overlays of a variety of fonts, having different colors (background and foreground), sizes and other artistic attributes such as drop shadows, and kerning. The graphics data for these image overlays is produced either during the initial set up of the presentation by the merchant, or interactively by the host computer in response to particular requests made by the subscriber during the shopping session. The appropriate scripts for the overlay graphics are stored in the host computer. The compression of video data is performed at the time of initial presentation encoding by the merchant. The result of this compression is data which represents the original video image and which also contains a set of algorithms which are needed to reconstruct the original image. Software Functions Of The DVDU The basic function of the DVDUs 110 is to expand compressed video data, combine it with any associated text/graphics data and deliver RGB formatted video to the video switch of the SCU. The software structure for the DVDU is illustrated in FIG. 11. The three basic tasks required to perform the above functions are briefly described as follows: A. Scheduler: The scheduler task 600 provides a communication capability to the DVDU and the DSC 100 via a SCSI interface 625 and also provides for synchronization of the operations within the DVDU. B. Overlay Manager: The overlay manager task 610 controls the translation of text/graphics commands into the proper microcode instructions which are acceptable by the second digital video expander 612. C. Display Management: The display manager task 620 controls the expansion of the video by digital video expander 614, and its display in response to commands from the DSC 100. 3. The Digital Audio Distribution Unit (DADU) The digital audio distribution unit transforms the audio data, which may be in compressed format, into original baseband audio form. This is then presented to the transmitters for modulation onto a channel of the CATV cable system. With reference to FIG. 12, the hardware configuration of the DADU in a preferred embodiment is contained in a chassis which has an IBM PC AT backplane, and 80386 AT-compatible CPU card 700 with four megabytes of memory, a parallel interface card 710 which serves as a communications port to the transmitter, a SCSI interface card having an integral floppy disc controller 720, a floppy disc drive 730 and 10 dual-channel audio playback boards 740. The audio portion of the shopping presentations may be encoded and compressed using an Adaptive Differential-Pulse-Code Modulation (ADPCM) during the initial presentation processing. The ADPCM group of algorithms is widely used and exhibits well characterized behavior. The compressed audio data as well as appropriate control information is transmitted from the DSC 100 along the SCSI interface to the DADU. The parallel interface provides tuning control of the transmitters and monitors their status. The CPU manages the data flow into and out of system memory and ensures that the audio data is routed to the appropriate audio playback circuits. Each of the audio boards contains a digital signal processor with enough buffer memory to provide continuous audio playback while the CPU performs other tasks. The Software Functions Of The DADU The DADU software, upon receipt of audio playback requests from the DSC 100, manages the audio data associated with these requests and controls the loading of this data into the audio playback circuits. The DADU software also provides proper interfacing to the audio transmitters. The software includes both utility tasks as well as supervisory tasks. Among the utility tasks, there is a SCSI driver which provides a data path for receiving audio data from the DSC 100 and for properly routing it to a buffer memory from which it is transferred back to the audio boards, a tuner driver which communicates over the parallel port to the DADU to pass signals to the transmitter tuner hardware, and an audio driver which provides the proper protocol for transferring data to and from the audio boards. The most important of the supervisory tasks is performed by the schedule control program which acts to receive new audio loads from the DSC 100, sets up appropriate audio channels, and tunes the transmitters. 4. The Audio Transmitter The audio transmitter in the preferred embodiment, consists of 10 dual transmitter cards, an interface card and a power supply mounted in a chassis. It functions to amplitude-modulate up to twenty baseband audio channels which are received from the DADU and then mixes and places them onto a carrier frequency associated with a specified audio IF channel. In particular, in the preferred embodiment, each transmitter card consists of two single transmitters having combined outputs. The audio signal is double-side band amplitude modulated onto a 10.738635 MHz carrier, and this amplitude modulated IF signal is then up converted to the desired CATV channel output frequency by standard mixing techniques. 5. The Scheduler Control Unit The scheduler control unit 140 (SCU), as shown in FIG. 7, comprises, in a preferred embodiment, an RGB video switch 142, an RGB to NTSC encoder 144 and an address inserter 146. The RGB video switch 142 accepts the multiple RGB outputs from the DVDUs 110 110, and switches these outputs into a signal path which forms the RGB signal stream. The NTSC encoder 144 operates on this signal stream and produces NTSC formatted video output which is passed to the address inserter 146. In countries which do not utilize the NTSC transmission standard, a similar encoder would be utilized to perform the function of producing formatted video output compatible with that country's transmission standard. In particular, systems designed for use in most Western European countries (as well as some South American countries), which utilize the PAL transmission standard would convert the RGB output to the PAL format. Similarly, the RGB signals would be converted to SECAM format in systems designed for use in France and the USSR. In the address inserter, the address of the particular frame store unit and the audio receiver tuning code are inserted into the vertical blanking interval of the frame. In a preferred embodiment, the SCU hardware is configured within the DSC 100 and communicates, via a number of parallel input/output lines with the address inserter and the RGB switch. To summarize, a digital audio-video presentation display system (DAVDS) has been disclosed which overcomes the deficiencies present in analog video display systems used in the prior art. The digital audio-video presentation display system disclosed herein comprises a digital mass storage subsystem and a digital audio video display subsystem. A novel method of encoding a large set of object names required by the interactive home shopping system has been presented which permits rapid retrieval of a particular data object from the DMSS 40. Further, both the hardware and software functionalities of the major components of the DAVDS have been described. Although the invention herein has been described with reference to particular embodiments, it is to be understood that these embodiments are merely illustrative examples of the different aspects of the invention. Thus, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that numerous modifications may be made to the illustrative embodiments and other arrangements may be devised to implement the invention which do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention. Such modifications and arrangements are therefore intended to be embraced by the claims presented herein.

An audio-video presentation display system based on manipulation of digitized information is disclosed for use in an interactive communications system wherein a subscriber may select for viewing on a television screen a plurality of audio-video presentations consisting of particular sequences of selected video frames and accompanying audio information. The audio-video presentation display system is responsive to commands from a host computer which designates and prepares the presentation for playback to the television of the subscriber who has requested it. The audio-video presentation display system includes a digital mass storage subsystem which provides for digital storage of compressed video and digitized audio information, and a plurality of digital audio-video display subsystems which include mechanisms for retrieving the selected digitized information from the storage subsystem, a subsystem for expanding and reformatting the data into a format suitable for television transmission, and another subsystem for controlling the transmission of the information to the subscriber who has requested it.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §371 to international application number PCT/US2004/032677, filed on Oct. 4, 2004, which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional application No. 60/508,533, filed on Oct. 2, 2003. The subject matters of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. This applications claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/508,533, filed on Oct. 2, 2003, the contents of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to self-contained, portable dispensing systems that can store and dispense fluids such as fragrances, colognes, gels, and creams. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Many consumer products, such as those used for personal care and hygiene, come in the form of liquids, creams, or gels that are sprayed or otherwise applied to the skin, eyes, or mouth. Such products are typically stored in jars, tubes, or bottles that contain sufficient quantities of the product to provide multiple applications, but are not always convenient or safe for travel or for being carried in a purse or pocket. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention provides a unique packaging solution in the form of a highly functional and portable dispensing system for commercially available consumer products by way of metered dose(s). The range of products that the new systems can store and dispense is limited only by their size and internal pump design(s). In general, the invention features fluid dispensing devices that include a hollow housing comprising one or more walls; an orifice arranged to pass through a wall of the housing; an optional reservoir that fits into the hollow interior of the housing; a pump that fits into the reservoir and includes a nozzle that contacts the orifice; and an actuating mechanism that contacts the pump; wherein a force applied to a portion of the actuating mechanism in a first direction causes the actuating mechanism to move the pump in a second direction, and causing it to expel fluid from the reservoir through the nozzle and out of the device through the orifice. In these devices, the housing can include a lower shell and an upper shell connected to the lower shell to enclose a hollow interior. The devices can further include a dispensing button arranged in a wall of the housing to contact a portion of the actuating mechanism. In certain embodiments, the pump and the reservoir move together as one unit upon actuation. In some embodiments, the actuating mechanism can include one or more front arms that contact the pump via a pressure plate secured to the pump, and one or more rear arms that rest against the housing. For example, the one or more rear arms can rest against a recess in, or protrusion extending from, a wall (e.g., bottom wall or floor) of the housing. In other embodiments, the actuating mechanism can include a body having a front portion and a rear portion connected by a hinge, wherein the front portion includes a first cutout and two front arms, one front arm being located on each side of the first cutout, configured to fit over the pump, and wherein the rear portion includes a second cutout and two rear arms, one rear arm being located on each side of the second cutout, configured to fit over the pump. The actuating mechanism can further include a tab attached to the rear portion that extends through a third cutout in the front portion when the actuating mechanism is bent at the hinge. The actuating mechanism can be made of plastic, and the hinge can be a living hinge. In other embodiments, the actuating mechanism can include two elongated parts, each part having a front arm, a rear arm, and hinge connecting the two arms, and wherein the two elongated parts are arranged one on each side of the pump. For example, the two elongated parts can be attached to each other by a connecting bar, and the parts can be made of plastic, with the hinge being a living hinge. In these devices, the reservoir can include two fluid chambers arranged one on each side of the pump chamber, and that are in fluid communication with each other and the pump chamber. The reservoir can include at least one fluid chamber and a pump chamber, and the pump fits into the pump chamber. The pump can include a body, a nozzle, and a spring within the body to press the nozzle out of the pump when pressed into the body by an external force, wherein the body, nozzle, and spring are aligned along one central axis. The devices can further include an orifice cup configured to fit into the orifice, for controlling the dispensing pattern of the fluid as it is expelled from the nozzle, e.g., as a spray, stream, mist, or drop of fluid. In certain embodiments, the actuating mechanism includes one or more actuating arms having an angled face; and the device further includes a pump mount connected to the pump having a wedge surface that is arranged to contact the angled face of the actuating arm. In this arrangement, pressure on a portion of the actuating mechanism in a first direction causes the one or more actuating arms to move, causing the angled face to press against the wedge surface, causing the wedge surface and the pump to move in a second direction, and causing the pump to expel fluid from the reservoir through the nozzle and out of the device through the orifice. In these devices, the first and second directions can be at approximately 80 to 100 degrees, e.g., approximately 90 degrees, to each other. In another aspect, the invention also includes cases for the new fluid dispensing devices. These cases include a container configured to enclose the dispensing device, and a cover configured to allow the dispensing device to be inserted into and removed from the container. The covers of these cases can further include a portion that covers a dispensing button of the dispensing device. The cases can have a round, square, or rectangular profile, or have the shape of an animal, a flower, a heart, or a face. In another aspect, the invention includes methods of dispensing a fluid by obtaining one of the new dispensing devices and applying a force to a portion of the actuating mechanism to expel one measured dose of fluid in the device. The device can be obtained pre-filled with a fluid, or the user can fill a desired fluid into the device. In these methods, applying a force to a portion of the actuating mechanism includes applying a downward force on a hinged actuation mechanism that converts the downward force into a force in a second direction within the dispensing device, and causes the pump to move and to expel fluid through the nozzle and out of the device through the orifice. The methods can be used to dispense perfume, water, mouthwash, deodorant, antiperspirant, cologne, pepper spray, or skin lotion. The new dispensing systems are relatively inexpensive and disposable and can be used for many different products and for many different occasions, and are thus ideal for mass-market distribution. Metal versions of the same designs can be made to be more durable and non-disposable. Other embodiments include ornamental and/or fashion accessories, e.g., cases, as well as external designs of the device and/or case that are in the shape of animals or other “fun” shapes. These devices can be filled with, e.g., “younger” scents and/or aroma type products that are designed to appeal to children or teenagers. The new devices have clear advantages over similar size sampling type dispensers, offering their users the convenience of multiple uses in metered doses in the form of a spray, mist, stream, or drops. The device can be personally stored between uses. In addition, the new devices offer a scalable design that can be altered for both functional and ornamental presentation. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a cross-section of one embodiment of the new portable dispensing device. FIGS. 1B to 1D are side, top, and cross-sectional views, respectively, of the outer shell of the dispensing device of FIG. 1A . FIGS. 2A to 2C are side, top, and cross-sectional views, respectively, of the outer shell lid and dispensing button. FIGS. 3A to 3C are front, top, and side views, respectively, of a pressure plate that fits over and contacts the end of a pump. FIGS. 4A to 4C are front, bottom, and side views, respectively, of a one-piece hinged actuating mechanism that fits over and is used to actuate the pump. FIG. 4D is a schematic view of an alternative embodiment of a hinged actuating mechanism with two separate parts, optionally attached to each other by a connecting bar. FIGS. 5A and 5B are front views of a reservoir cover and reservoir, respectively. FIG. 5C is a front view of the reservoir and cover as assembled. FIG. 5D is a top view of the reservoir. FIG. 5E is a back view of the reservoir. FIG. 5F is a side view of a suitable pump for use in the new dispensing devices. FIG. 6A is a side, cross-sectional view of a dispensing device in its resting position. FIG. 6B is a top, cut-away view of the dispensing device in its resting position. FIG. 7A is a side, cross-sectional view of the dispensing device at its end of stroke position. FIG. 7B is a top, cut-away view of the dispensing device at its end of stroke position. FIGS. 8A to 8C are side, top, and top with open case views, respectively, of a round case embodiment. FIGS. 9A to 9C are side, top, and top with open case views, respectively, of a rectangular case embodiment. FIGS. 10A to 10C are side, top, and top with open case views, respectively, of a square case embodiment. FIG. 11 is a three-quarter view of the dispensing device minus the outer lid (cover or top “shell”) and dispensing button. FIG. 12 is a three-quarter view of the actuating assembly with mounted pump. FIG. 13 is a top-front view of the dispensing device without the cover (top “shell”) showing the orifice cup. FIG. 14 is a side view of the actuating mechanism and pump minus reservoir and pump housing. FIG. 15A is a three-quarter view of an alternative embodiment of a portable dispensing device. FIG. 15B is an “exploded” view of the embodiment of FIG. 15A . FIG. 16 is a top view of the assembled device of FIG. 15A . FIG. 17 is a side cross-sectional view of the device of FIG. 15A . FIG. 18A is three-quarter view of a dispensing actuator button of the device of FIG. 15A . FIG. 18B is a side view of the dispensing actuator button as inserted in the device of FIG. 15A . Like reference numerals refer to like elements of the devices represented in these figures. Any dimensions shown in the figures are exemplary. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1A shows a side, cross-sectional view of dispensing device 20 having a housing 21 that in this embodiment includes a bottom shell 30 , a top shell 32 that connects to, e.g., fits into, the bottom shell, e.g., with a press fit (and/or glue or other mechanism, e.g., a heat seal), and a dispensing button 40 situated in the top shell. Bottom shell 30 has a sidewall 31 that includes an opening 26 at one end and recesses 28 at an end opposite the opening 26 . The bottom and top shells fit, e.g., snap, together to form the device 20 with a hollow interior 22 . All other parts of the device fit within this hollow interior 22 . Dispensing button 40 can also be hollow, and is arranged in top shell 32 so that it can be depressed into the device. Dispensing button 40 can be made of any elastic material, including rubber or neoprene, and can be fixed, e.g., glued, onto the top shell 32 . The top and bottom shells can be made of any plastic, e.g., polyolefin or polystyrene, and can be made by various known methods, such as injection molding or machining solid plastic. Housing 21 , e.g., shells 30 and 32 , can also be made of metal, e.g., by stamping and/or machining. In other embodiments, housing 21 includes separate sidewalls (e.g., a cylinder), a bottom, and a top, that fit together to form a sealed container, which houses the other parts of the system. The top can be flexible or compressible, so that it forms dispensing button 40 without the need for a separate button. Instead, the user merely presses on the flexible top to contact and apply force to the actuating mechanism 60 , described in further detail below. The contents of the dispensing device include a pump 50 including a nozzle 52 at one end (e.g., the “top”), and a pressure plate 45 , which fits over and is secured to the top of pump 50 . A reservoir 70 is also included within hollow interior 22 of device 20 . Pump 50 includes an internal spring 51 (as seen through the clear plastic of the pump in FIG. 14 ). An orifice cup 35 fits into opening 26 in sidewall 31 of the bottom shell 30 , and has an opening at the bottom that fits snugly over nozzle 52 with a watertight seal (e.g., by glue or press fit). Orifice cup 35 controls the dispensing pattern of the dispensing device. The device can dispense the liquid as a fine mist, spray, stream, or droplets. Interior space 22 also contains an actuating mechanism 60 , e.g., a hinged actuating mechanism, which will be described in further detail below for various embodiments. FIGS. 1B-1C show side, top, and side cross-sectional views of the bottom shell 30 . FIG. 1C shows the bottom shell having a round configuration, but various other shapes can be made. FIGS. 2A-2C show side, top, and side cross-sectional views of the top shell 32 . FIG. 2C shows how dispensing button 40 extends slightly beyond the plane of the top shell. In other embodiments, the button can be flush with the surface, or slightly below the surface. FIGS. 3A-3C show various views of pressure plate 45 . This plate is designed to fit over the standard pump 50 , and to provide a contact point for the front arms 62 of the hinged actuating mechanism 60 . Pressure plate 45 can be made of metal, e.g., stainless steel or aluminum, and can be manufactured by stamping and bending metal sheeting. Pressure plate 45 can also be made from stiff plastic, e.g., by injection molding or milling. FIGS. 4A-4C show various views of hinged actuating mechanism 60 . Mechanism 60 includes an upward jutting tab 66 that rests against the underside of dispensing button 40 . The mechanism also includes downward facing sidewalls 67 (that provide rigidity) and front and rear cutouts 68 A and 68 B that allow the mechanism to be bent at its hinge 63 , and still fit over pump 50 . In certain embodiments, actuating mechanism 60 is made of one part, e.g., of plastic, with a living hinge 63 in the middle, or can be made of two or more parts and connected, e.g., by glue or by melting the two parts together, to form hinge 63 . Tab 66 fits within cutout 61 . Living hinges are thin sections of very flexible plastic, such as polyethylene or polypropylene, which connect two segments of a part to keep them together and allow the part to be bent repeatedly. These hinges must be processed properly. For example, the molecules of plastic in the hinge should be oriented along the hinge line for the hinge to have an acceptable life. For example, one can orient the gate location to allow the plastic to flow across the hinge for maximum strength. In addition, when the hinge is removed from a mold, it can be flexed a minimum of two times while it is still hot, for optimum strength. The actuating mechanism 60 includes two front arms 62 and two rear arms 64 (as best seen in FIG. 4B ). The front arms rest against pressure plate 45 . Rear arms 64 of the hinged actuating mechanism can rest within recesses 28 in sidewall 31 of the bottom shell 30 . In this embodiment, hinge 63 of the actuating mechanism 60 extends above the plane of the top shell 32 through an opening 33 . Dispensing button 40 is located over, or covers, hinge 63 . Actuating mechanism 60 can be made by injection molding or casting and/or machining. This part can also be made of metal. In other embodiments, all parts of actuating mechanism 60 are within, and do not extend beyond, housing 21 . In alternative embodiments, actuating mechanism 60 can be formed of two separate elongated parts ( 60 A and 60 B), each with its own living hinge, e.g., as shown in FIG. 4D . In this embodiment, each of the two parts comprises a front arm 62 A and a rear arm 64 A connected by living hinge 63 A. The two parts are inserted into housing 21 on either side of pump 50 . The front arms 62 A contact pressure plate 45 (e.g., with a cutout recess), and the rear arms 64 A can contact recesses 28 , much the same way as the front and rear arms of the one-piece design shown in FIGS. 4A-C . The two separate parts can be attached to each other with connecting bar 69 . Alternatively, rear arms 64 A can contact a ridge or protrusion 64 B on the floor of bottom shell 30 . This approach can also be used with the one-piece actuating mechanism described above. In both embodiments, the actuating mechanism translates force applied to the dispensing button 40 in a first direction (e.g., a downward force) into a force on the pressure plate 45 in a second direction (e.g., a lateral force) to move the pump towards a sidewall of the housing 21 and dispense liquid from the nozzle 52 and orifice cup 35 . The first direction can be about 70 to 110°, 75 to 105°, or 80 to 100°, e.g., about 90° (e.g., perpendicular), to the second direction. FIGS. 5A to 5E show different views of a reservoir 70 , which contains the liquid or gel consumer product, such as perfume, mouth wash, purified water, deodorant, antiperspirant, cologne, pepper spray, skin lotion, aroma therapy, or metered eye or nose sprays or drops. Reservoir 70 is made of hollow plastic or metal, has a cover 72 , and includes a pump chamber 55 , into which pump 50 is inserted, e.g., with a press fit, but that allows liquid from the other chambers of the reservoir to reach the back end of the pump. Reservoir 70 includes at least one, e.g., two, liquid chambers 70 a and 70 b (as best seen in FIG. 5D ), and these are both in fluid communication with pump chamber 55 , so that when pump 50 is inserted into pump chamber 55 , and reservoir 70 is filled with a liquid, pump 50 is immersed in the liquid and can withdraw liquid from the reservoir though its back end 58 . The back end of the two liquid chambers and the pump chamber 55 are in fluid communication via cross-chamber 71 . Recesses 73 in the top of the reservoir provide space for the rear arms 64 of the actuating mechanism to contact recesses 28 in the lower shell 30 . In certain embodiments, the housing (which can be made watertight) itself forms the reservoir, and no separate reservoir is included. Thus, the reservoir is optional. Pump 50 is a stock item, e.g., it can be a so-called “Replica™” pump made by Valois America. Other pumps of the appropriate size and configuration can be used. For example, the Replica pump is shown in FIG. 5F . The neck gasket 56 and ferrule 57 of the pump are connected to pressure plate 45 and reservoir 70 . Pressure plate 45 has a hole and fits over the pump 50 from the rear and is stopped at the top of pump 50 by neck gasket 56 . Pump 50 and pressure plate 45 are then inserted into reservoir 70 , which secures the pressure plate 45 , e.g., by being “sandwiched.” Pump 50 dispenses liquids and gels from nozzle 52 , and liquids and gels enter into back end 58 . The main aspects of the pump are that it has a nozzle that extends into the orifice cup or out of the housing, and has an internal spring that allows the nozzle to be pressed into the pump and then be forced out of the pump by the spring. Pump 50 is pressure fitted into, glued, or otherwise connected to the hole at the front of reservoir 70 to form a liquid-tight seal. The reservoir can be filled in the factory before the cover is secured to the reservoir (e.g., for disposable embodiments). Reusable embodiments of the device can include an access port and stopper, e.g., a threaded or press fit stopper (not shown) in the reservoir to enable consumers to fill various liquid or gel products into the reservoir. From its resting position as illustrated in ( FIGS. 6A and 6B ) device 20 is operated by pointing the orifice cup 35 in the direction one wishes to manually release its contents, and pressing outer dispensing button 40 , mounted in the top shell 32 (or in some embodiments, by merely pressing on the top shell if it is flexible). This action starts the actuating process by means of pressure, e.g., downward pressure (arrow 80 ), applied to tab 66 of hinged actuating mechanism 60 (or directly on living hinge 63 ). The hinged actuating mechanism 60 moves in a downward motion causing it to flatten lengthwise and move pressure plate 45 towards the orifice cup 35 in the direction of arrow 81 . Rear arms 64 of hinged actuating mechanism 60 are securely seated in recesses 28 in the lower shell 30 (or contact projections 64 A in the floor of the housing), and thus cannot move laterally within the lower shell 30 . Front arms 62 are seated on the pressure plate 45 , which is fitted over horizontally mounted pump 50 , and when button 40 (or top shell 32 ) is pressed downwards, these arms are the only part of the actuating mechanism that can move laterally within the bottom shell 30 . As a result, pressure plate 45 moves laterally, and pulls the entire pump 50 and reservoir 70 with it, towards orifice cup 35 as shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B . This lateral movement causes the nozzle 52 to be pressed into pump 50 , causing it to expel one measured dose of the contents of reservoir 70 in a predetermine discharge pattern, e.g., a spring, stream, and drop, depending on the liquid and dosage or amount to be dispensed. By releasing dispensing button 40 , spring 51 inside pump 50 causes nozzle 52 to be pressed out of the pump, thereby moving pressure plate 45 laterally away from the orifice cup, and moving the pump and the reservoir away from the orifice cup as well. As a result, hinged actuating mechanism 60 is bent upwards, in preparation for the next actuation. Mounting the dispensing button 40 flush into the top shell 32 provides an accidental discharge safety feature. The new dispensing devices offer high consumer portability and same package multi-application(s), with an ornamental design that can be cosmetically altered by way of production materials or methods and/or after market accessories. Thus, the housing 21 of the devices themselves can be circular, elliptical, rectangular, triangular, or other shapes. In addition, as shown in FIGS. 8A-C , sturdy plastic or metal cases 80 can be manufactured to allow the new dispensing devices 20 to fit inside. Each case 80 includes a cover 82 that includes a portion 84 that covers dispensing button 40 , and can be provided with a company name, advertising slogan, or other insignia, e.g., by engraving or laser or other printing techniques. Dispensing devices 20 can be disposable or refillable, and case 80 can be reused over and over by inserting a new device 20 . Case 80 can be made of machined or stamped and bent metal, such as aluminum. Alternatively, case 80 can be made of clear or colored plastic using standard techniques. FIG. 11 shows a view of a prototype of dispensing device 20 with top shell 32 and dispensing button 40 removed. Orifice cup 35 is inserted into opening 26 and rear arms 64 of actuating mechanism 60 are inserted into recesses 28 . Pump 50 is seen below actuating mechanism 60 . FIG. 12 shows a view of the “insides” of dispensing device 20 , including reservoir 70 , pump 50 with nozzle 52 connected to orifice cup 35 , pressure plate 45 , and actuating mechanism 60 . FIG. 13 shows a front view of device 20 showing orifice cup 35 inserted in opening 26 in sidewall 31 of bottom shell 30 . FIG. 14 shows actuating mechanism 60 connected to pressure plate 45 by its front arms 62 , which, in turn, is connected to pump 50 (including spring 51 ). FIG. 15A shows an alternative embodiment of the portable dispensing device. FIG. 15B shows an “exploded” view of this device. This second embodiment of the device includes a housing 100 with a base 102 , and a lid 104 . Dispensing button 106 is inserted into housing 100 and protrudes through lid 104 . Button 106 has a flange 107 that prevents it from being pulled out of the device through opening 105 in lid 104 . Reservoir 108 fits inside housing 100 and is connected, e.g., by a pressure fit, to pump mount 110 . Pump 50 fits securely in pump mount 110 , and is inserted into reservoir 108 . Reservoir neck 109 is press fit or threaded into opening 111 in pump mount 110 , thereby sealing pump 50 inside reservoir 108 . FIG. 16 shows a top view of this device. FIG. 17 is a side cross-sectional view of the device along section line A-A in FIG. 16 . When pump 50 is moved forwards (to the right in FIG. 17 ), nozzle 52 is pressed into the pump, thereby drawing liquid from reservoir 108 and expelling it through orifice 101 in housing 100 . In this embodiment, there is no need for an orifice cup, but one can be used. FIG. 18A shows dispensing button 106 and its actuating arms 120 (the second arm is not visible in this figure). The two actuating arms straddle pump mount 110 (which is similar to pressure plate 45 ). As best seen in FIG. 18B , each actuating arm 120 has an angled face 122 that contacts a wedge 112 on either side of pump mount 110 . When dispensing button 106 is pushed downward, the two angled faces 122 are pressed against the two wedges 112 on either side of pump mount 110 . This pressure, in turn, forces the wedges, and thus the pump mount, pump, and reservoir, to move horizontally (laterally) forwards (right in FIG. 18B ). This causes nozzle 52 of pump 50 to be pressed into the pump causing it to expel liquid drawn from reservoir 108 . In other respects, this device is similar to the first embodiment described herein. Thus, in all embodiments, a force in a first direction (e.g., downwards) is applied to a surface of the device, or a dispensing button, which contacts an actuator mechanism that translates the force into a second direction (e.g., horizontally or laterally), which is approximately (or exactly) at 90° to the first direction. The force in the second direction moves an internal pump towards a wall of the device, causing a nozzle of the pump to be pushed into the pump to dispense liquid contained in the housing or reservoir in the housing. OTHER EMBODIMENTS It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims.

A disposable dispensing device for storing and dispensing fluids, such as liquids and gels is disclosed. The dispensing device is a scalable packaging solution including an outer protective housing or shell, optionally a fluid reservoir, and an orifice from which the materials are expelled. The dispensing device can also include a dispensing button that activates an internal pumping system via an actuator mechanism that translates a force in a first direction into a force in a second direction. The dispensing device is particularly useful for liquids such as fragrances or colognes, gels, purified water, dry powders, creams, and pharmaceutical products such as eye ear drops or sprays. The device by design has many uses, is highly portable, and can include an outer reusable and decorative case.

[0001] The present invention generally relates to a rotary seal that is used in a high speed, high pressure, high temperature environment where seal life and seal life predictability are very important. A more specific and typical application is with a wash pipe used in a drilling rig where a seal failure requires system shutdown. Seal life is a function of wear. The lower the pressure velocity (PV) value, the longer the seal life. PV is seal contact pressure multiplied by the velocity for a rotary seal. At high pressures the seals are energized by the operating pressure. This invention provides for increasing seal life by the use of multiple tandem mounted seals and reducing the pressure (i.e. PV values) sequentially for each seal. The invention configuration provides for detecting incipient seal failure so that otherwise required and untimely maintenance shutdown can anticipate and schedule as routine maintenance. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0002] A pressure differential sealing system in accordance with this invention for providing sealing between a rotating member and a stationary member that includes an excluder seal and one or more pressure-reduction pistons that are used to reduce the pressure between sealing stages. The sealing system is lubricated by grease packs. The excluder seal is designed to protect the sealing system from the media, which in the case of drilling operations can be very abrasive and under pressures as high as 7500 lb/square inch and temperatures as high as 360 Fahrenheit. The excluder seal isolates the rest of the sealing system from the media. The subsequent seals in the system are exposed only to the grease pack and are lubricated by the grease pack which results in lower friction and longer seal life. [0003] A floating pressure-reducing piston reduces the pressure drop across one or more sequential sealing stages and thus each seal in those stages experiences a lower PV thereby increasing seal life. The pressure-reducing piston has an area differential between two ends of the piston to produce the pressure drop. [0004] The rear seals have metal retaining rings to prevent rotation and provide retention. All seals in the system are energized by canted coil springs and by the media pressure. A canted coil retaining spring is provided to retain the sealing system in place during assembly. [0005] The grease packs have pressure monitors. Under normal operation, the system will have a standard pressure differential. As the sealing system wears to the extent that fluid leakage into the system is encountered, that pressure differential will be reduced. This reduced pressure differential provides an early indication of seal wear and thus system shutdown for maintenance can be scheduled instead of having an unplanned event. [0006] Various embodiments of the present invention include the following: [0007] A) The seals can be arranged sequentially, in tandem and coaxial about the rotating shaft (see FIGS. 2 a and 2 b ); in such case using first a balanced-pressure floating-excluder seal, next the pressure reducing step-piston, and then two tandem rotary pressure seals. [0008] B) The seals can be arranged sequentially in tandem about the rotating shaft ( FIGS. 3 a and 3 b ), in such case using first a balanced-pressure floating-excluder seal, next two sequential pressure reducing step-piston arrangements, and then two tandem rotary pressure seals. [0009] C) The seals can be arranged sequentially in tandem about the rotating shaft ( FIGS. 4 a and 4 b ), in such case using first a balanced-pressure floating-excluder seal, and then two tandem rotary pressure seals, and the pressure reducing piston are arranged as three or more small pressure-step pistons located around the circumference and ported so as to decrease the system pressure to each successive level of pressure seals. [0010] D) The seals can be arranged sequentially in tandem about the rotating shaft ( FIGS. 5 a and 5 b ), in such case using first a balanced-pressure floating-excluder seal, and then two tandem rotary pressure seals, and the pressure reducing piston are arranged as a larger piston located concentrically about the fluid seal system, ported so as to decrease the system pressure to each successive level of pressure seals. Seals can also be arranged sequentially in tandem about the rotating shaft, in such case using first a balanced-pressure floating-excluder seal, and then two tandem rotary pressure seals, and the pressure reducing pistons are arranged as three or more small pressure-step pistons located around the circumference and ported so as to decrease the system pressure to each successive level of pressure seals, and in this case, two stages of pressure reducing pistons are used. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0011] The present invention may be more clearly understood with reference to the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the appended drawings, in which: [0012] FIG. 1 is an elevation view illustrating a wash pipe and a system in accordance with the present invention for providing sealing between a rotatable conduit and a stationary member; [0013] FIGS. 2 a and 2 b shows one embodiment of the present invention utilizing a single pressure reducing piston; [0014] FIGS. 3 a and 3 b shows another embodiment of the present invention similar to that shown in FIG. 2 a , but with two pressure reductions stages; [0015] FIGS. 4 a and 4 b show a pressure gradient sealing system in accordance with the present invention with one or more side mounted pressure reducing pistons; and [0016] FIGS. 5 a and 5 b show a pressure gradient rotary sealing system in accordance with the present invention utilizing annular ring pressure-reducing piston. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0017] With reference to FIG. 1 , there is shown a pressure gradient sealing system 10 as it may be installed on an oil rig top drive 12 . [0018] Embodiment 20 for a sealing system in accordance with the present invention as shown in FIG. 2 a generally includes a rear sealing system cartridge housing 22 , a sealing assembly guide bushing 24 , a rear fixed seal housing 26 , a rear fixed seal 28 ; a front fixed seal housing 30 and a front fixed seal 32 , the fixed seal 28 being disposed proximate an atmosphere pressure end of the system 20 . [0019] A rear grease pack 34 is provided along with a rear seal 36 abutting a floating pressure reducing piston 38 . [0020] A front sealing cartridge housing 40 is provided along with a front seal 42 for the floating piston 38 . [0021] A grease pack 44 is disposed between the front seal 42 and a floating excluder seal 46 . As will be described hereinafter in greater detail the system 20 also includes a plurality of static system O-rings 48 and all of the seals utilized canted coil springs 22 and seals 28 , 32 include metal retaining rings 51 . [0022] A cartridge assembly canted coil spring 50 is shown along with a threaded ring 52 , a tightening washer 54 , locking ring 56 , and locking bolt 58 . [0023] A front pressure port 60 is provided and interconnected with the front grease pack 44 along with a middle pressure port 62 and an rear pressure port 64 interconnected with the rear grease pack 34 . [0024] The wash pipe attachment 52 is coupled into a wash pipe tube 66 via threads 68 , the tube 66 having drilling mud (not shown) flowing inside at high pressure. Drilling mud is usually a mixture of clay chemicals and water or oil and thus is an abrasive slurry. [0025] The sealing system in accordance with the present invention has several functions in order to accomplish extended seal life. 1 First, the seal system 20 isolates the harsh abrasive media by utilizing a floating pressure-balanced excluder seal 46 . The subsequent seals seals 28 , 32 , 42 ) in the system 20 are exposed only to the grease pack 34 , 44 fluid, which is a design benefit because this provides lower friction and longer seal life. 2. The fluid sealing system effectively reduces the pressure across one or more sequential sealing zones in a state of force-equilibrium, therefore each seal experiences a lower PV and increasing the life of the sealing system. This is accomplished by the floating piston 38 having a smaller area on the energizing end. The pressure transferred is lower in direct proportion to the projected area differential of each end of the piston 38 . 3. The rear seals 28 , 32 support the remaining pressure differential with a tandem seal combination. This redundant seal provided added life to the sealing system. 4. The rear seals 28 , 32 are mounted with metal retaining rings 51 to help prevent rotation in the mounting glands 26 , 30 , and to prevent OD shrinkage upon after a high temperature cycle. 5. All the seals utilize a filled polymer or PTFE material, which has lower friction, and can withstand higher temperatures that typical elastomers. 6. The polymer seals are energized with the canted coil spring technology to better energize the seals to close the seal gap after seal wear occurs, to ensure proper energizing with the media pressure. 7. In order to provide the user a prediction of the seal condition, the transducer/sensor 67 is the grease packs 34 , 44 , from the front to the rear, monitors for pressure and temperature. Under normal operation, the pressure will have a predicted pressure differential as described in paragraph 2) above. Failures of the portions of the seal system will be detected with the monitoring equipment (not shown). 8. A guide bushing 2 at the rear helps hold the assembly concentric with the rotary shaft 66 , and also provides a method for pushing out the seal cartridge. 9. A canted coil spring 50 provides a positive retention of the seal system cartridge into the seal housing 1 . 10. O-rings 48 provide static sealing on the seal cartridge OD to prevent flow-around leakage. [0036] With reference to FIG. 2 b , there is shown the pressure gradient sealing system 10 with many of the character references not shown in order to more clearly illustrate the pressures areas and forces. [0037] High pressure P 1 pushes the floating extruder seal 46 until equilibrium is achieved with pressure P 2 in the grease pack 44 . Pressure P 2 in the grease pack 44 produces a force F 1 on a surface area A 1 of the pressure reducing piston 38 which produces a force F 2 over area A 2 of an appropriate end of the piston 38 , which provides a reduced pressure P 3 on the rear grease pack 34 . The pressure P 3 activates a seal 32 at the reduced pressure P 3 thereby providing lower PV and longer seal life. [0038] A pressure transducer/temperature sensor 67 ( FIG. 2 a ) is interconnected with the pressure ports 60 , 64 for determining a pressure differential therebetween which, in turn, provides incipient seal failure detection as hereinafter discussed in greater detail. [0039] With reference to FIGS. 3 a and 3 b , there is shown a pressure gradient rotary sealing system 100 with two pressure reduction stages. In this embodiment 100 , a rear sealing cartridge assembly housing 102 is provided along with a guide bushing 104 , a rear fixed seal housing 106 , a rear fixed seal 108 , a front fixed seal housing 110 , and a front fixed seal 112 . [0040] A grease pack 114 is disposed between the front seal 112 and a rear seal 116 for a rear floating pressure reducing piston 118 . A front seal 120 for the piston 118 abuts a middle grease pack 122 which, in turn, abuts a rear seal 124 for a front pressure reducing piston 126 . [0041] A cartridge housing 128 for the floating seals 118 , 128 is provided along with a front seal 130 separated from a front floating excluder seal 132 by a front grease pack 134 . [0042] As in the embodiment 20 , a plurality of static system o-rings 136 are provided. A cartridge assembly retaining canted coil spring 140 is provided along with a locking ring 142 and locking bolt 144 . A center vent 146 for the front floating piston 126 is provided along with a center vent port 148 for the floating piston 118 . [0043] A pressure port 150 for the rear grease pack 114 is provided along with a pressure port 152 for the middle grease pack 122 and a pressure port 154 communicates with the front grease pack 134 . A tightening washer 156 is provided along with a pressure transducer 158 , which is in communication with the pressure ports 150 , 152 , and 154 for determining pressure differential useful for determining seal life. [0044] FIG. 3 b shows the pressures, areas and forces for the pressure gradient rotary sealing system 100 with two-pressure-reducing stages. The pressure P 1 pushes the seal 46 to provide the pressure P 2 in the front grease pack 134 . Pressure on the grease pack P 2 then produces a force F 1 on a surface area A 1 of the first pressure reducing piston 126 . The force acting over the area A 2 produces a reduced pressure P 3 , F 2 which is the force acting over the area A 2 producing a reduced pressure P 3 in the middle grease pack 122 . Pressure P 3 on the grease pack 122 produces a force F 3 on surface area A 3 of the second pressure reducing piston 118 . F 4 is the force acting over the area A 3 producing a further reduced pressure P 4 in the rear grease pack 114 . A pressure P 2 thereafter activates the seal 112 with the further reduced pressure with resulting lower PV and longer seal life. [0045] With reference to FIG. 4 a , there is shown an alternative embodiment 200 of the pressure-gradient sealing system in accordance with the present invention utilizing a one or more side mounted pressure producing pistons 202 . [0046] More particularly, in this embodiment 200 , a rear seal cartridge system housing 204 is provided along with a sealing system guide bushing 206 , a rear seal support housing 208 along with a rear fixed seal 210 . [0047] A rear grease pack 212 is disposed between the rear fixed seal 210 and a center seal fixed-support housing 214 which abuts a center fixed seal 216 adjoining a front grease pack 218 which, in turn is disposed between a wash tube 220 and a sealing system cartridge housing 222 . Also shown is a front floating extruder seal 224 along with a plurality of static o-rings 226 . [0048] Also shown in the FIG. 4 a is a wash pipe attachment retaining threaded ring 228 , a tightening washer 230 , a tension ring 232 , and retention-ring bolts 234 . [0049] Associated with the side mounted pressure reducing piston 202 is a rear cylinder plug 236 and a front cylinder plug 238 , a rear cover seal 240 , and a front cover seal 242 . [0050] Disposed between the guide bushing 206 and rear seal housing 208 is a spacer washer 204 . [0051] A front pressure port 246 and a rear pressure port 248 are provided and interconnected with a pressure transducer 250 . [0052] Also shown in FIG. 4 a is a cartridge assembly retaining canted coil spring 252 , and a vent port 254 disposed during a center 256 of the side mounted piston 202 . [0053] FIG. 4 b shows pressures areas and forces for the sealing system 200 with the side mounted pressure producing piston 202 . A pressure P 1 on the excluder seal 224 pushes the seal 224 to produce an equilibrium pressure P 2 in the front grease pack 218 , i.e. P 1 =P 2 . [0054] This pressure P 2 is translated through the front pressure port 246 to a pressure P 3 (P 3 =P 2 ) against an area A 1 of the piston 202 creating a force F 1 through a change in diameter of the piston 202 . The force F 2 acting over the area A 2 on the piston 202 , produces a reduced pressure P 4 which translates through the port 248 to a pressure P 5 , which is equal to pressure P 4 , on the grease pack 212 producing the reduce pressure P 5 on the rear seal 210 thus providing longer seal life. [0055] With the reference now to FIG. 5 a , there is shown yet another embodiment 300 of a pressure-gradient rotary sealing system in accordance with the present invention utilizing an annular ring pressure-reducing piston 302 for a wash pipe attachment 304 having a wash tube 306 . [0056] As shown in FIG. 5 a , the system 300 includes a rear sealing housing 308 , spacer washer 310 , a rear seal housing 312 and a rear fixed seal 314 abutting a rear grease pack 316 which, in turn, abuts a center seal fixed port housing 318 and a center fixed seal 320 . A front grease pack 322 is disposed between the fixed seal 320 and a front floating excluder seal 324 . [0057] A with previous embodiments 20 , 100 and 200 , the system includes a plurality of o-rings 326 . Also, a sealing system cartridge retention canted coil spring 328 is provided along with a tightening washer 330 , retaining ring 332 , and retaining bolts 334 . [0058] A pressure port 336 is interconnected with the front grease pack 322 , which is supported by a housing 338 . A front cover seal 340 , and a rear cover seal 342 are provided for the annular ring piston 302 and a rear pressure port 344 is provided for the rear grease pack 316 , the port 344 being formed in a rear housing attached to a cylinder cap 348 by bolt 350 . A vent 352 is provided for the piston 302 . [0059] FIG. 5 b shows the pressures, areas, and forces for the pressure gradient rotary sealing system 300 shown in FIG. 5 a . Pressure P 1 pushes the excluder seal 324 to produce the pressure P 2 in the front grease pack 322 with P 1 =P 2 . [0060] The pressure P 2 translated through the fort 336 so that P 2 =P 3 . This produces a force F 1 on the area A 1 of the annular reducing piston 302 which then produces a force F 2 acting on area A 2 of the piston 302 to produce a reduced pressure P 4 which is forwarded to the rear grease pack 316 and seal 314 through the port 344 , producing a pressure P 5 in the grease pack P 5 =P 4 . [0061] This reduced pressure P 5 provides for a longer seal life as hereinabove discussed. The pressure differentials is measured by a pressure transducer 346 similar to the embodiments hereinbefore described. [0062] The purpose of the sealing system invention in accordance with the present invention is to provide a longer and more predictable seal-life solution to prevent fluid-media leakage through an interface between the sealing system 20 , 100 , 200 , 300 and a wash pipe. The configuration illustrated in FIG. 2 a sealing system includes of a two-piece housing. The pieces are held together during assembly by the retention canted-coil spring, FIG. 2 item 50 . Five O-rings 48 , FIG. 2 a are used to block any leakage around the static periphery. The system 20 is mounted in place by the locking ring 56 and for locking bolts 58 tightening washers 54 which are used to prevent any distortion when the unit is assembled. [0063] The front floating excluder seal 46 prevents any media from entering the sealing system. Grease packs 34 , 49 are used to lubricate the seals 32 , 42 and to transfer the pressures as herein described earlier. Media pressure will push the front floating excluder seal 46 against the grease pack 44 producing pressure, P 1 shown in FIG. 2 b . Pressure P 1 acting against area A 1 will produce a force F 1 as shown in FIG. 2 b. [0064] The piston is a pressure-reduction piston that will move until forces F 1 and F 2 shown in FIG. 2 b are in equilibrium. The front piston seal 42 exerts pressure P 2 shown in FIG. 2 b against the front of the pressure-reducing piston 38 . [0065] The pressure-reducing piston will move until forces F 1 and F 2 shown in FIG. 2 b are in equilibrium. F 1 is equal to P 1 ×A 1 . P 2 is equal to F 2 divided by A 2 . Since A 1 is less than A 2 , P 2 will be less that P 1 . The ratio between P 1 and P 2 is directly proportional to the ratio between A 1 and A 2 . [0066] A 50% ratio between A 1 and A 2 will provide a 50% reduction in pressure from P 1 to P 2 resulting in a 50% reduction in PV for seal 32 . Pressures P 1 and P 2 are measured by the pressure transducer 66 that is connected to the pressure ports 62 , 64 . [0067] Note that the pressure-reduction piston 38 can move in either direction until the forces are in equilibrium. Under normal operations the pressure differential will remain constant. As the seals wear, grease will be extruded from the grease pack until the grease pack 34 volume approaches zero. As that happens the pressure differential will decrease indicating seal wear and a reduced seal life expectancy as the seal lubricate is extruded. Therefore this pressure differential value can be monitored and used as a tool to predict seal life. [0068] With reference to FIGS. 3 a and 3 b , the pressure gradient pressure reduction system 100 can have multiple pressure reduction stages for further reductions in PV values. For example, FIG. 3 a shows a system 100 with two pressure reduction stages produced by pressure-reducing pistons 118 , 126 . System pressures, areas, and forces are shown in FIG. 3 b . The excluder seal 132 is a floating seal, so the pressure, P 1 shown in FIG. 3 b will be the same on both sides of the seal. Due to the difference in area from the front to the rear of the pressure-reduction pistons, pressure P 2 will be less than P 1 , and P 3 will be less than P 2 . [0069] With reference to FIGS. 4 a and 4 b , a pressure reducing system 200 utilizes a side-mounted pressure-reducing piston, or multiple pistons 202 , than can be spaced around a periphery of the system 200 . Here the pressure-reduction piston, or pistons 200 have front areas, A 1 as shown in FIG. 4 b that are less than the rear area, A 2 of the piston or pistons. The piston will move until the forces, F 1 and F 2 are in equilibrium. The pressure, P 3 will be less than the pressure P 2 thus reducing the seal PV for seal 210 . [0070] FIG. 5 a shows a pressure gradient rotary seal system 300 with an annular ring pressure-reduction piston 302 . Here again, the area difference between the front and the rear of the piston-seal will reduce the pressure P 4 shown in FIG. 4 b . The use of the annular ring-floating piston permits an increase in the volume of the grease pack without increasing the length of the sealing system. [0071] It should be appreciated that a plurality of side mounted or annular pressure reducing pistons may be employed in accordance with the present invention. [0072] Although there has been hereinabove described a specific pressure gradient rotary sealing system in accordance with the present invention for the purpose of illustrating the manner in which the invention may be used to advantage, it should be appreciated that the invention is not limited thereto. That is, the present invention may suitably comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of the recited elements. Further, the invention illustratively disclosed herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element which is not specifically disclosed herein. Accordingly, any and all modifications, variations or equivalent arrangements which may occur to those skilled in the art, should be considered to be within the scope of the present invention as defined in the appended claims.

A pressure gradient rotary sealing system is described which uses a pressure-reducing piston in several configurations with surface area differentials thereby reducing the pressure times velocity (PV) value for each of the sequential seals to extend seal system life and provide early indication of impending seal failure.

RELATED APPLICATION DATA [0001] This application claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. Section 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/296,331 filed Jun. 6, 2001. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] 1. Field of the Invention [0003] This invention relates to underdrains and gravity filters and, more particularly, to a filter media support system for underdrain blocks. [0004] 2. Description of Related Art [0005] Granular media filtration units are typically used to filter water, wastewater and industrial fluids. Filtration units typically employ underdrain systems to collect filtrate, channel it away from the filter bed, and also to distribute backwash gases and fluids into the filter bed. Several underdrain assemblies for filter bottoms are known in the art. U.S. Pat. No. 4,619,765 to Roberts; U.S. Pat. No. 5,108,627 to Berkible; U.S. Pat. No. 5,328,608 to Bergmann and U.S. Pat. No. 5,489,388 to Brown describe known underdrain systems. A typical filter media bottom comprises a main flume with multiple parallel rows of filter blocks, also known as laterals, arranged perpendicularly to the main flume across the filter bottom. Filter media of varying particle size covers the filter bottom. Frequently a layer of gravel separates the filter media and the filter blocks to prevent the filter media from penetrating apertures in the top of the filter blocks. [0006] Fluid to be filtered typically enters the filtration unit from above and flows down through the filter media by gravitational forces. The filtrate then flows into the block underdrains, through the main flume to the outlet. The filter media is typically cleansed at predetermined intervals by backwashing. During the backwash cycle, gas and/or liquid is directed through the main flume to the lateral underdrain blocks and upwardly through the filter media to loosen and remove contaminants collected by the filter media. The gravel support layer above the filter blocks may typically be up to 18 inches in height and contain several layers of varying size gravel. The gravel may be layered according to size in an hour glass configuration in which a fine size gravel layer is sandwiched between layers of progressively larger gravel sizes. The innermost fine size gravel layer prevents the filter media from penetrating the underdrain block, while the coarse size layer prevents plugging of the fine gravel layer. Gravel, however, may be difficult and costly to install and may require the use of deeper filter units. In addition, the hour-glass configuration of the gravel layers may be disturbed during backwash, necessitating restoration of the desired layered configuration. In other prior art arrangements, filter media retaining caps supported on the filter blocks may be used in conjunction with, or as a substitution for, the gravel support layer to block the media from entering the filter blocks. Several filter media retaining caps are known in the art. [0007] U.S. Pat. No. 2,716,490 to Barstow discloses a means for securing porous plates to the supporting filter block so that they may be quickly and easily set and held in position to provide an integral porous partition between upper and lower chambers. [0008] U.S. Pat. No. 4,882,053 to Ferri discloses a porous filter support plate of the kind used in traveling bridge filters for the support of granular filter media. The support plates are formed of porous, heat-fusible materials, for example, a thermoplastic organic material, joined together by heat fused butt joints and/or reinforced by vertical zones which extend vertically through the plates in which the material has been brought to a molten state and pressed together to form a dense, solid, nonporous mass. [0009] U.S. Pat. No. 5,019,259 to Hambley discloses a filter underdrain apparatus comprising plate means and a screen arrangement which may be included to screen the liquid and gas orifices from filter media exterior of the distributor conduits. The screen may comprise perforated grids and may extend across the trough between adjacent distributor conduits. [0010] U.S. Pat. No. 5,089,147 to Ross discloses a bed of granular medium such as sand supported on a screen within a filter tank cell. An underdrain structure supports the screen while a hold down grating secures the screen in place from above. The grating is held in place by adjustable hold down means secured to tank walls. [0011] U.S. Pat. No. 5,149,427 to Brown discloses a cap for filter underdrain blocks, wherein the cap has a porous body. The cap is installed on a filter block having a plurality of orifices in a top wall of the filter block for channeling fluids to and from an overlying filter media. The cap eliminates the need for a separate gravel support layer to be installed between the fine grain filter media and the underdrain blocks. [0012] U.S. Pat. No. 5,269,920 to Brown discloses a cap for underdrains and gravity filters which has a top surface and a bottom surface with a plurality of tapered screen members defining slots in the top surface. The slots provide communication with a filter bed without passage of the fine grain filter media therethrough. [0013] International Application WO 97/40907 discloses a system for supporting fluid-treatment media above a lower surface that reduces media clogging and head loss in granular fluid-treatment media systems by providing a layered porous plate. The porous plate can have multiple layers of fine sized and course sized pores. The system for supporting fluid-treatment media is securely anchored to the infrastructure of the underdrain. [0014] It is an object of the present invention to provide a cap for underdrain blocks which support fine grain filter media without resulting in an excessive pressure drop. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0015] The invention includes a filtration tank having a plurality of underdrain filter blocks positioned beneath a media bed filter. Porous plates, used to prevent flow of media into the underdrain filter blocks, are attached to the top surfaces of the filter blocks by a grid arrangement. The grid arrangement permits the employment of thin porous plates that would otherwise be thought to be too fragile for use with the underdrain filter blocks. The grid arrangement supports the porous plates against shearing forces applied to portions of the porous plates during backwashing and that would otherwise tear the porous plates, particularly in the areas of the porous plates around screws used to secure the plates to the underdrain filter blocks. The use of a combination of a grid arrangement and thin porous plates with underdrain filter blocks successfully prevents shearing or tearing of the plates even during the backwashing operation, and the use of thin porous plates permits the employment of finer pore sizes without clogging of the pores of the thin porous plates or other permeability loss. Thin plates have the advantage of being manufactured with greater control of the pore size to thereby achieve greater media retention properties and permitting use of very fine media such as garnet sand having a media size as small as 150 microns. Use of such fine media improves the efficiency and the effectiveness of the filtration tank in removing contaminants from the liquid flowing through the filtration tank. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] The accompanying drawings are illustrative of the preferred embodiment of this invention. [0017] [0017]FIG. 1 is a sectional elevation view of a gravity filter embodying the present invention, including a plurality of filter underdrain blocks; [0018] [0018]FIG. 2 is a plan view of the gravity filter shown in FIG. 1; [0019] [0019]FIG. 3 is an enlarged view of a portion of the gravity filter shown in FIG. 1; [0020] [0020]FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a filter underdrain block shown in FIG. 1; [0021] [0021]FIG. 5 is an elevation view of the underdrain block shown in FIG. 4; [0022] [0022]FIG. 6 is a cross section view taken along line 6 - 6 in FIG. 5; [0023] [0023]FIG. 7 is a cross section taken along line 7 - 7 in FIG. 6; and [0024] [0024]FIG. 8 is an end view of the hold down grid shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0025] [0025]FIG. 1 illustrates a filtration tank 10 embodying the invention and which may be formed of concrete or other structural materials, such as metal. It will also be understood that although the tank, as shown, is rectangular in horizontal cross section, other shapes may be used. The filtration tank 10 includes a bottom wall 12 and two side walls 14 . A plurality of underdrain blocks 16 are placed end-to-end in parallel rows across the bottom wall 12 . As best shown in FIG. 4, filter media retaining caps 70 are disposed on underdrain blocks 16 to support a filter bed 20 (FIG. 1). Filter bed 20 is typically comprised of several layers of filter media. The choice of filter media to be used in the filter bed is dependent on the type of liquid to be filtered and the degree of filtration desired. Some typical filter media include, but are not limited to: granular activated carbon, anthracite, coal, magnesium oxide, ilmenite and sand, including garnet, silica, and quartz. The filter bed of a preferred embodiment of the invention comprises at least one layer of garnet with a particle size of approximately 180 microns. [0026] Fluid inlet 22 directs fluids into the filtration tank and fluid outlet 24 directs filtrate away from filtration tank 10 . Fluid inlet 22 may be an open pipe discharging onto the top of filter bed 20 . Additionally, fluid outlet 24 may serve as a gas and/or fluid inlet for backwashing. The term gas as used herein is defined as air or other gases suitable for backwashing filter bed 20 . The term fluid as used herein is defined as water or other liquids suitable for filtering or backwashing filter bed 20 . [0027] FIGS. 4 - 6 show a modular underdrain block 16 with bottom wall 26 , top wall 28 and two side walls 30 . Modular underdrain blocks 16 are shown as rectangular, although it is understood that they may be constructed in any shape that is convenient for installation. Inclined wall surfaces 32 separate primary conduit 40 and secondary conduits 42 . Primary conduit 40 serves to channel filtrate to the fluid exit and away from filter unit 10 . Secondary conduits 42 serve as equalization chambers during filtration and backwash. Orifices 34 (FIG. 4) through inclined wall 32 provide fluid communication between the primary conduit 40 and the secondary conduits 42 . Orifices 36 (FIG. 6) through top wall 28 provide fluid communication between secondary conduits 42 and filter media retaining cap 70 . Orifices 36 serve to receive effluent from filter bed 20 when filtration tank 10 is operating in the downflow mode. Orifices 36 also serve to discharge gas and/or liquid backwash into filter bed 20 when filtration tank 10 is operating in an upflow mode. During backwash, liquid and contaminants are typically drawn from the top of filtration tank 10 via a spillway (not shown). [0028] Modular underdrain blocks 16 are typically installed on the floor of the filter bed. They may be placed end-to-end in parallel adjacent rows, also called laterals, which are connected to a flume 17 . The modular underdrain blocks may first be connected to one another and then cemented or grouted in place. The connection may be a simple butt placement or a snap-fit closure. In one embodiment of the invention, the underdrain block has a male connector 62 (FIG. 5) and a female connector 64 on either end of the underdrain block. Male connector 62 may have a protrusion or wedge 66 sized and shaped to be inserted into hole 68 on female connector 64 . In one embodiment, the male connector 62 of one underdrain block is placed adjacent to the female connector 64 of another underdrain block. A clamping tool, not shown, is placed on both underdrain blocks in such a way as to pull the underdrain blocks 16 together so that the protrusion 66 on the male connector 62 removably slides into the hole 68 in the female connector 64 . Cement may also be used to secure the modular underdrain blocks to the floor as well as to one another. [0029] The construction embodying the invention further includes a filter media retaining cap 70 fixed to the underdrain blocks 16 and used to prevent filter media from penetrating and clogging the underdrain blocks. The filter media retaining cap 70 typically is comprised of a plate of porous material having pores sized to support the filter media particles with little or no media penetration into the underdrain blocks 16 , but also provide for fluid flow through the retaining cap. While the pore size may be smaller than the particular media size, in one preferred form of the invention, the pore size is somewhat larger than the particular media size. A bridging effect by the media prevents the smaller particles from entering the pores of the media retaining cap 70 . For example, the media retaining cap 70 may have a pore size of 250 microns and support a garnet sand media having a typical particle size of 180 microns. In other constructions, the media retaining cap 70 includes pores having an average pore size of 200 microns or less. In still other constructions, the average pore size can be less than 50 microns. The pores within the media retaining cap may be configured in a variety of shapes and directions and may be multi-directional. In a preferred construction, at least 70% of the pores are multidirectional. [0030] The filter media retaining cap 70 includes a bottom surface 44 a top surface 46 . Media retaining cap 70 is disposed on the underdrain block 16 so its bottom surface 44 is supported by top wall 28 . [0031] The filter media retaining cap 70 is comprised of porous, planar body or plate, sized and shaped to cover the top surface 28 of one or more underdrain blocks 16 . In a preferred embodiment, media retaining cap 70 has a width and length which corresponds to the width and length of the underdrain block 16 . Media retaining cap 70 has a thickness of approximately less than one inch, preferably one half inch and most preferably one quarter inch. The porous media retaining cap 70 is constructed from a material having a pore size of approximately 250 microns or less. Media retaining cap 70 may be formed of ceramics; metals, in particular sintered metals such as nickel, titanium, stainless steel; and polymers, such as high density polyethylene, polypropylene or styrene. In one preferred embodiment, the porous media retaining cap 70 is molded from sintered plastic beads, as may be obtained from Porex® Technologies of Atlanta, Ga., and Porvair plc of Wrexham, U.K. [0032] In a preferred form of the invention, the filter media retaining cap 70 is also supported by a hold down grid 50 having longitudinal bar 52 and transverse bars 54 defining orifices 56 . Hold down grid 50 is disposed on filter media retaining cap 70 , and screws 58 can extend through orifices to secure hold down grid 50 and the filter media retaining cap 70 to underdrain block 16 . The use of the hold down grid 50 allows for the use of a thinner filter media retaining cap 70 , thereby reducing the pressure drop of the flow passing through the filter media retaining cap 70 . The hold down grid 50 illustrated in FIG. 7 is one of many possible hold down grids. For example, additional longitudinal bars 52 or transverse bars 54 could be used to further increase the strength of the hold down grid 50 . Additional bars 52 , 54 allow for a further reduction in the thickness of the filter media retaining cap 70 . However, the addition of longitudinal bars 52 and transverse bars 54 reduces the overall flow area and can reduce the flow capacity of the underdrain block 16 . Therefore, a person having ordinary skill in the art must weigh the benefit of a thickness reduction of the filter media retaining cap 70 versus the potential reduced flow capacity into the underdrain block 16 when choosing a configuration for the hold down grid 50 . [0033] Although the invention has been described in detail with reference to certain preferred embodiments, variations and modifications exist within the scope and spirit of the invention as described and defined in the following claims.

The invention recites a filtration tank including a chamber for holding liquid to be filtered, the filtration tank comprising a fluid inlet for providing liquid to the chamber. The filtration tank further includes a fluid outlet and at least one filter block disposed between the inlet and the outlet, wherein the at least one filter block includes a porous cap having an average pore size of up to about 250 microns.

BACKGROUNDS OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a device of synthesizing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation/deallocation, and a method of synthesizing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation/deallocation. 2. Description of the Related Art Different languages have been used as input to high-level synthesis. Hardware Description Languages (HDLs), such as Verilog HDL and VHDL, are the most commonly used. However, designers often write system-level models using programming languages, such as C or C++, to estimate the system performance and verify the functional correctness of the design. Using C/C++ offers higher-level of abstraction, fast simulation as well as the possibility of leveraging a vast amount of legacy code and libraries, which facilitates the task of system modeling. The use of C/C++ or a subset of C/C++ to describe both hardware and software would accelerate the design process and facilitate the software/hardware migration. Designers could describe their system using C. The system would then be partitioned into software and hardware blocks, implemented using synthesis tools. The new SystemC initative is an attempt to standardize a C/C++-based language for both hardware and software design. C was originally designed to develop the UNIX operating system. It provides constructs to directly access memory (through pointers) and to manage memories and I/O using the standard C library (malloc, free, . . . ). These constructs are widely used in software. Nevertheless, many of the networking and multimedia applications implemented in hardware or mixed hardware/software systems are also using complex data structures stored in one or multiple memory banks. As a result, many of the C/C++ features which were originally designed for software applications are now making their way into hardware. In order to help designers refine their code from a simulation model to a synthesizable behavioral description, this inventors are trying to efficiently synthesize the full ANSI C standard. This task turns out to be particularly difficult because of dynamic memory allocation/deallocation, function calls, recursions, goto's, type castings and pointers. In the past few month, different synthesis tools have been announced to ease the mapping of C code into hardware (Abhijit Ghosh, Joachim Kunkel, Stan Liao, “Hardware Synthesis from C/C++,” proceedings of the Design, Automation and Test in Europe DATE'99, pp.387-389, Munich, 1999.), (Kazutoshi Wakabayashi, “C-based Synthesis with Behavioral Synthesizer, Cyber,” proceedings of the Design, Automation and Test in Europe DATE'99, pp.390-391, Munich, 1999.). And other many more companies and research projects work on synthesis of hardware from C. All of these tools support a subset of the language (e.g. restrictions on pointers, function calls, etc.). In particular, they do not support dynamic memory allocation/deallocation using the ANSI standard library functions malloc and free In this inventors tool SpC (Luc Semeria, Giovanni De Micheli, “SpC: Synthesis of Pointers in C.Application of Pointer Analysis to the Behavioral Synthesis from C”, proceedings of the International Conference on Computer-Aided Design ICCAD'98, pp.321-326, San Jose, November 98.), pointer variables are resolved at compile-time to synthesize c functional models in hardware efficiently. In description of the preferred embodiment, this inventors will focus on an implementation of dynamic memory allocation/deallocation (malloc, free) in hardware. By definition, in general, storage for dynamically allocated data structures cannot be assigned at compile time. The synthesis of C code involving dynamic memory allocation/deallocation requires access to some allocation and deallocation primitives implemented either in software, as in an operating system, or in hardware. Dynamic memory allocation/deallocation is tightly coupled with pointers and the notion of a single address space. Pointer dereferences (load, stores, etc.) as well as memory allocation/deallocation are all referring to a main memory. However, in application-specific hardware, designers may want to optimize the memory architecture by using register banks, multiple memories etc. Therefore, memory allocations may be distributed onto multiple memories and pointers may reference data stored in registers, memories or even wires (e.g. output of a functional unit). To enable efficient mapping of C code with pointers and malloc's into hardware, the synthesis tool has to automatically generate the appropriate circuit to dynamically allocate, access (read/write) and deallocate data. Memory management as well as accurate pointers resolution are key features for C-based synthesis. They are enablers for the efficient design of applications involving complex data structures. The contribution of description of the preferred embodiment is to present a solution for efficiently mapping arbitrary program code with pointers and dynamic allocation allocation/deallocation into hardware. This solution fits current memory management methodologies. It consists of instantiating a hardware allocator tailored to an application and a memory architecture. This work also supports the resolution and optimization of pointers without restriction on the data structures. METHODOLOGY AND RELATED WORK For decades, memory management has been one of the major development area both for software and computer architecture. In software, at the user-level, memory management is typically performed by the operating system. In hardware, memory bandwidth is often a bottleneck in applications such as networking, signal processing, graphics and encryption. Memory architecture exploration and efficient memory management technology are key to the design of new high-performance systems. Memory generators commercially available today enable fast integration of memories in a system. Scheduling of memory accesses has also been integrated into most commercial high level synthesis (ELS) tools. Most of the refinement and compilations steps developed for software applications can also be used for hardware. Nevertheless, a software methodology usually assumes a fixed memory architecture which may be general purpose or application specific like in a DSP or ASIP. In hardware, at the behavioral level, designers would typically explore different memory architectures in order to trade-off area and power for a given timing constraint. A few projects and tools have recently been announced to ease the mapping of C models into hardware. In practice, current tools don't support dynamic memory allocation/deallocation and have restriction on pointers' usage (Giovanni De Micheli , “Hardware Synthesis from c/c++,” in the proceeding of the Design, Automation and Test in Europe DATE'99, pp.382-383, Munich, 1999.). SpC , enables the behavioral synthesis of C code with pointer variables to variables and arrays. In description of the preferred embodiment, this inventors present how pointers in general (e.g. array of pointers, pointers in structures, pointers to structures etc.) and dynamic memory allocation/deallocation can also be efficiently synthesized. A methodology for the design of custom memory systems has been described by Catthoor et al. (Francky Catthoor, Sven Wuytack, Eddy De Greef, Florin Balasa, Lode Nachtergaele, Arnout Vandecappelle, “Custom Memory Management Methodology,” Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, June 98.). It is defined for two sets of applications, networking and signal processing, and supports a limited subset of C/C++. The basic concepts presented in Catthoor's work can be generalized to support a larger subset of the C syntax for an extended set of applications. Two main steps can be distinguished in the methodology: this inventors describe briefly here the transformations performed first at the system level, and then at the architectural level. At the system level, the functionality of the algorithm is verified. Data formats are refined. For example, after quantization, the format of data can be refined from floating-point to fixed-point (H. Keding, M. Willems, M. Coors, H. Meyr, “FRIDGE: A Fixed-Point Design And Simulation Environment,” proceedings of the Design Automation and Test in Europe DATE'98, pp.429-435, 1998.). Data structures can also be refined for example to reduce the number of indirect memory references. Examples of such transformations for networking applications have been studied by Wuytack et al. in (Sven Wuytack, Julio da Silva Jr., Francky Catthoor, Gjalt de Jong, Chantal Ykman, “Merrory Management for Embedded Network Applications,” transactions on Computer Aided Design, Volume 18, number 5, pp. 533-544, May 99.), (Sven Wuytack, Francky Catthoor, Hugo De Man, “Transforming set data types to power optimal data structures,” IEEE Transactions on Computer Aided Design, pp.619-629, June 1996.). At the architectural level, after partitioning, the system typically consists of multiple communicating processes to be mapped to hardware or software (Abhijit Ghosh, Joachim Kunkel, Stan Liao, “Hardware Synthesis from C/C++,” proceedings of the Design, Automation and Test in Europe DATE'99, pp.387-389, Munich, 1999.). Memory segments are defined for internal storage and/or shared memory. These memory segments can then be mapped to one or multiple memories during synthesis. Some of the storage area (e.g. internal variables, etc.) can be statically allocated during synthesis or compilation. However, to support dynamic storage allocation/deallocation (e.g. for recursive data structures), allocation and deallocation primitives implemented in software or hardware shall be defined. In software, memory allocation and deallocation are implemented as primitives part of the operating system (OS). These primitives can be called in a C program using the functions defined in the standard library (e.g. malloc, free, etc.) Many schemes have been developed for OS to manage memory. An extensive survey of the techniques used for memory allocation and deallocation can be found in (Paul Wilson, Mark Johnstone, David Doles, “Dynamic Storage Allocation: A Survey and Critical Review,” presented at Int. Workshop Memory Management, Kinross, Scotland, September 95.). Memory management can also be implemented in hardware. For memory allocation and deallocation, instead of the system calls to the OS, requests are sent through signals to an allocator block (AKA. virtual memory manager) implemented in hardware. Its interface is shown on FIG. 10 . Internally, the allocator stores a list of the free blocks in memory as well as a list of the allocated blocks. To allocate memory, the size of the block to be allocated (malloc_size) is sent. The allocator then searches in its free list a big enough block and returns the address of the beginning of this block (malloc_address). Two techniques are often used: first fit where the first acceptable free block is returned or best fit where the block of minimal size is returned. To free previously allocated memory, the address of the block to be deallocated (free_address) is sent to the allocator. The allocator then searches inside of the allocated list the block and adds it back to the free list. Adjacent free blocks can then be merged. The implementation itself of the allocator can vary according to the application and the data structures. A number of these implementations are presented by Wuytack et al. (Sven wuytack, Jullio da Silva Jr., Francky Catthoor, Gjalt de Jong, Chantal Ykman, “Memory Management for Embedded Network Applications,” transactions, on Computer Aided Design, Volume 18, number 95, pp. 533-544, May 99.), (J. Morris Chang, Edward R. Gehringer “A High-Performance Memory Allocator for Object-Oriented Systems,” IEEE trans. on Computers, vol. 45, no. 3, march 96.). FIG. 10 is a diagram for explaining the interface of the allocator block implementing malloc and free functions. Once an architecture is decided, hardware can be implemented using synthesis tools and compilers can be used for software. As far as memory management is concerned, memory accesses scheduling, register/memory allocation and address generation can be integrated into synthesis tools and compilers. The latest development for hardware synthesis have been presented by Catthoor et al (Francky Catthoor, Sven Wuytack, Eddy De Greef, Florin Balasa, Lode Nachtergaele, Arnout Vandecappelle, “Custom Memory Management Methodology,” Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, June 98.) and Panda et al. (Preeti Ranjan Panda, Nikil D.Dutt, Alexandru Nicolau, “Memory Issues in Embedded Systems-On-Chip Optimizations and Exploration,” Kluwer Academic Pub, October 1998.). This contribution fits in the methodology described above. In particular, this inventors present techniques to automate the synthesis of program code with pointers and dynamic memory allocation/deallocation into hardware. The outcome of this research is a tool that maps and optimizes hardware models in program code with pointers and dynamic memory allocation/deallocation into verilog HDL synthesizable by commercially available synthesis tools. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide the circuit synthesis method of synthesizing the semiconductor circuit of executing the program containing pointer and dynamic allocation/deallocation. According to the first aspect of the invention, a circuit synthesis method of a semiconductor circuit for executing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation, comprising the steps of: resolving pointer and dynamic allocation in the code of the program; and changing the code of the program into the code which does not contain the pointer and the dynamic allocation; wherein synthesizing the semiconductor circuit which executes the program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation. In the preferred construction, the program is C-language program. In another preferred construction, the circuit synthesis method further comprising a step of changing the code changed by the resolution step into the code of Hardware Description Languages, and a step of synthesizing the semiconductor circuit based on the code of Hardware Description Languages. In another preferred construction, the resolution step including a step of checking the kind of the variable which is the object of dynamic allocation and the quantity of a memory assigned in the code, a step of performing beforehand variable declaration of the variable which is the object of the dynamic allocation statically in the converted code, a step of replacing the command which performs dynamic allocation in the code with the command which gives the pointer to the variable by which variable declaration was carried out. According to the second aspect of the invention, a circuit synthesis method of a semiconductor circuit for executing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation, comprising the steps of: resolving pointer and dynamic allocation in the code of the program; and changing the code of the program into the code which does not contain the pointer and the dynamic allocation; and the resolution step including a step of checking the kind of the variable which is the object of dynamic allocation and the quantity of a memory assigned in the code, a step of performing beforehand variable declaration of the variable which is the object of the dynamic allocation statically in the converted code, a step of replacing the command which performs dynamic allocation in the code with the command which gives the pointer to the variable by which variable declaration was carried out, wherein synthesizing the semiconductor circuit which executes the program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation. According to the third aspect of the invention, a circuit synthesis method of a semiconductor circuit for executing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation, comprising the steps of: resolving pointer and dynamic allocation in the code of the program; and changing the code of the program into the code which does not contain the pointer and the dynamic allocation; and the resolution step including a pointer analysis step of finding pointer variable in the code, and checking the information on the variable which substitutes an address to each pointer variable, a step of executing variable declaration of a structure object comprising a variable tag and a integer variable index in the code after the conversion corresponding to each pointer variable, which variable tag shows the kind of variable substituted to a pointer variable, and which integer variable index records the addition-and-subtraction processing in the code to the pointer variable, a step of replacing the command which substitutes the address of other variables to the pointer variable in the code with the command which substitutes the information on the kind of other variables to the variable tag and substitutes value “0” to the variable index, a step of replacing the command which fluctuates the value of the pointer variable in the code with the command which fluctuates the value of the variable index of the structure object corresponding to the pointer variable, a step of replacing the command which refers to the address shown by the pointer variable with the command which refers to the value of the arrangement position of the value of the variable index in the variable shown by the variable tag, a step of checking the kind of the variable which is the object of dynamic allocation and the quantity of a memory assigned in the code, a step of performing beforehand variable declaration of the variable which is the object of the dynamic allocation statically in the converted code, a step of replacing the command which performs dynamic allocation in the code with the command which gives the pointer to the variable by which variable declaration was carried out, wherein synthesizing the semiconductor circuit which executes the program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation. In another preferred construction, the circuit synthesis method further comprising recording the number of block allocated to block of the pointer variable, accessing the block by specifying the number of block in free area by allocator, wherein synthesizing the semiconductor circuit which executes management of optimized free area. In another preferred construction, the resolution step including when the size of the variable to be allocated has to be constant, and dynamically-allocated variable have to be both allocated and deallocated within the same unbounded loop, a step of performing beforehand statically variable declaration of the array variable which is the same size as the dynamically-allocated variable in the converted code, a step of replacing the command which performs dynamic allocation with the command which references the variable to the array variable by which variable declaration was carried out, a step of removing the command performs dynamic deallocation in the code. According to another aspect of the invention, a circuit synthesis system of a semiconductor circuit for executing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation, comprising: a means for resolving pointer and dynamic allocation in the code of the program; and a means for changing the code of the program into the code which does not contain the pointer and the dynamic allocation; wherein synthesizing the semiconductor circuit which executes the program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation In another preferred construction, the program is C-language program. In another preferred construction, the circuit synthesis system further comprising a means for changing the code changed by the resolution meaning into the code of Hardware Description Languages, and a means for of synthesizing the semiconductor circuit based on the code of Hardware Description Languages. In another preferred construction, the resolution meaning including a means for checking the kind of the variable which is the object of dynamic allocation and the quantity of a memory assigned in the code, a means for performing beforehand variable declaration of the variable which is the object of the dynamic allocation statically in the converted code, a means for replacing the command which performs dynamic allocation in the code with the command which gives the pointer to the variable by which variable declaration was carried out. According to another aspect of the invention, a circuit synthesis system of a semiconductor circuit for executing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation, comprising: a means for resolving pointer and dynamic allocation in the code of the program; and a means for changing the code of the program into the code which does not contain the pointer and the dynamic allocation; and the resolution meaning including a means for checking the kind of the variable which is the object of dynamic allocation and the quantity of a memory assigned in the code, a means for performing beforehand variable declaration of the variable which is the object of the dynamic allocation statically in the converted code, a means for replacing the command which performs dynamic allocation in the code with the command which gives the pointer to the variable by which variable declaration was carried out, wherein synthesizing the semiconductor circuit which executes the program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation. According to another aspect of the invention, a circuit synthesis system of a semiconductor circuit for executing a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation, comprising: a means for resolving pointer and dynamic allocation in the code of the program; and a means for changing the code of the program into the code which does not contain the pointer and the dynamic allocation; and the resolution meaning including a pointer analysis means for finding pointer variable in the code, and checking the information on the variable which substitutes an address to each pointer variable, a means for executing variable declaration of a structure object comprising a variable tag and a integer variable index in the code after the conversion corresponding to each pointer variable, which variable tag shows the kind of variable substituted to a pointer variable, and which integer variable index records the addition-and-subtraction processing in the code to the pointer variable, a means for replacing the command which substitutes the. address of other variables to the pointer variable in the code with the command which substitutes the information on the kind of other variables to the variable tag and substitutes value “0” to the variable index, a means for replacing the command which fluctuates the value of the pointer variable in the code with the command which fluctuates the value of the variable index of the structure object corresponding to the pointer variable, a means for replacing the command which refers to the address shown by the pointer variable with the command which refers to the value of the arrangement position of the value of the variable index in the variable shown by the variable tag, a means for checking the kind of the variable which is the object of dynamic allocation and the quantity of a memory assigned in the code, a means for performing beforehand variable declaration of the variable which is the object of the dynamic allocation statically in the converted code, a means for replacing the command which performs dynamic allocation in the code with the command which gives the pointer to the variable by which variable declaration was carried out, wherein synthesizing the semiconductor circuit which executes the program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation. Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become clear from the detailed description given herebelow. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be understood more fully from the detailed description given herebelow and from the accompanying drawings of the preferred embodiment of the invention, which, however, should not be taken to be limitative to the invention, but are for explanation and understanding only. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a flow chart showing synthesis operation of the synthesizing system according to one embodiment of the present embodiment; FIG. 2 is a flow chart showing remove pointers operation of the synthesizing system according to one embodiment of the present embodiment; FIG. 3 is a diagram showing an example of representation for an array of structures; FIG. 4 is a diagram for explaining the encoding of pointers in array; FIG. 5 is a diagram for explaining the implementation of *(q+1)=*p+1; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing an example of architecture for multiple memory and allocator; FIG. 7 is a diagram showing an example of allocator; FIG. 8 is a flow chart showing resolution of dynamic memory allocation and pointers for hardware synthesis from C; FIG. 9 is a diagram showing a table of result for the different examples and optimizations; FIG. 10 is a diagram for explaining the interface of the allocator block implementing malloc and free functions. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The preferred embodiment of the present invention will be discussed hereinafter in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. It will be obvious, however, to those skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. In other instance, well-known structures are not shown in detail in order to unnecessary obscure the present invention. In software, the semantics of pointers is the address of an element in memory. This definition implies that the C program is targeted to a virtual architecture consisting of one memory in which everything is stored. Even though register declaration may allow programmers to specify the variables to place in registers, the assignment of variables to registers is generally done by the compiler. The notions of caches and memory pages are transparent to programmers. In hardware, at the behavioral level, designers want to have control on where data are stored and want to optimize the locality of the storage. Typically, a chip design contains multiple memory banks, register files, registers and wires. Pointers may be used to reference any variable no matter where its information is available. Pointers must be considered as references: references to memory elements, registers, wires or ports. In particular, pointers can be used to allocate, read, write and deallocate data. In this description of the preferred embodiment this inventors call the action of reading data using a pointer a load. Subsequently, a store is the action of writing data using a pointer. Allocation and deallocation are performed through the standard library functions malloc and free. Their implementation is however tailored for a given application and memory architecture. The synthesis of pointers in general consists of generating the appropriate circuit for allocating and accessing data. For this purpose, this inventors change the addresses into numbers (i.e. encode pointers values) and replace loads and stores by some assignments directly accessing the data the pointer may reference (i.e. resolve pointers). Functions malloc and free are subsequently changed as memory allocation/deallocation can be distributed onto multiple memories. EXAMPLE 1 Consider an application, where a hardware block receives objects of different sizes and processes them. Some of these objects are copied in a register (reg) Some other are only used within this block and are stored in private memory (local_RAM). Finally some, larger, may also to be accessed by other blocks and are stored in a shared memory (shared_RAM). . . . if(object.is_reg) p=&req; if(object.is_internal) //allocate memory in local_RAM p=malloc(4); else //allocate memory in shared_RAM p=malloc(8); . . . //store in reg, local_RAM or shared_RAM *p=object.data; . . . if(!object.is_reg) //free storage in local_RAM or in shared_RAM free(p); In order to implement the store (*p=object.data), the tool has to schedule a write operation into the register reg, the memory local_RAM or the memory shared_RAM. It also needs to instantiate the correct circuit (steering logic) to access these locations. For this purpose, this inventors need to know at compile-time the set of locations the pointer p may point to (points-to set). To implement free(p), assuming that each memory local_RAM and shared_RAM is managed by a specific allocator, the tool also needs to schedule a deallocation operation on one allocator or the other. The points-to information for the pointer p is also necessary. As this inventors can see in Example 1, in order to map loads, stores as and free operations into hardware, this inventors need to know at compile-time the set of locations the pointers may reference (points-to information). Such information is also widely used in compilers. In order to parallelize programs onto distributed architectures, the independent sets of data which can be processed in parallel have to be extracted. The problem there is to find statements in the program that may read or write the same locations (aliasing problem). For this purpose, the aliasing information has to be determined between pointers. The points-to information and the aliasing information are equivalent and can be determined by recent analysis techniques called pointer-analysis or alias-analysis. FIG. 1 is a flow chart showing synthesis operation of the synthesizing system according to one embodiment of the present embodiment. FIG. 2 is a flow chart showing remove pointers operation of the synthesizing system according to one embodiment of the present embodiment. Pointer Analysis Pointer analysis is a compiler technique to identify at compile-time the potential values of the pointers in the program. This information is used to determine the set of locations the pointer may point to. For synthesis, in the case of loads, stores, and free, this inventors want to synthesize the logic to access, modify or deallocate the location referenced by the pointer. For this purpose, the points-to information must be both safe and accurate: safe because this inventors have to consider all of the locations the pointer may reference and accurate because the smaller the points-to set is, the less logic this inventors have to generate. Two main types of analyses can be distinguished. First flow- and context-insensitive analyses (Djarne Steensgaard “Point-to Analysis by Type Inference of Programs with Structures and Unions”, proceedings of the 1996 International Conference on Compiler Construction, pp.136-150, April 96.) don't distinguish the order in which the statements are executed (flow-insensitivity) and the different calls of a function (context-insensitivity). They are the least accurate but the relative simplicity of their implementation makes them more suitable for very large programs. Flow- and context-sensitive analyses, such as by Wilson and Lam (Robert Wilson, “Efficient, Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis For C Programs”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1997., Robert Wilson, Monica Lam, “Efficient Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis for C Programs”, proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN'95 Conference on Programming Languages Design and Implementation, pp.1-12, June 95 ), on the other hand, provide more accuracy with an increased complexity. Even though the complexity of flow- and context-sensitive analyses may be exponential, it is not a limitation for hardware synthesis because this inventors deal with rather small and simple programs with limited calling contexts for functions and often no recursions. Beside these analyses leads to more accurate results, which makes them more suitable for hardware synthesis. Most of the inaccuracy comes from the way memory in represented. Different techniques have been used to identify the different locations in memory. Memory Representation The simplest memory representation consists of a single address space in which all data are stored. This trivial representation however prevents from optimizing the locality and parallelizing the code. On the other hand, the most accurate representation, which would distinguish each element of arrays or of recursive data structures, is not practical. As a result, most analysis techniques combine elements within a single data structure. Some techniques combine elements based on their allocation contexts (Robert Wilson, “Efficient, Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis For C Programs”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1997., Robert Wilson, Monica Lam, “Efficient Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis for C Programs”, proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN'95 Conference on Programming Languages Design and Implementation, pp.1-12, June 95.) or on limiting the length of access paths to some fixed constant (k-limiting). Shape analysis (Alain Deutsh, “Interprocedural may-alias analysis for pointers: Beyond k-limiting,” proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN'94 Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pp. 230-241, June 94., Rakesh Ghiya and Laurie Hendren, “Is it a tree, a DAG, or a cyclic graph? A shape analysis for heap-directed pointers in C,” proceedings of the 23th Annual ACM Symposium on Principle of Programming Languages.) gives the most accurate representation as they may distinguish trees from DAGs, linear lists from cyclic lists and so on. However its implementation to support large C programs remains challenging. In order to find both an accurate and practical representation for hardware synthesis, this inventors propose to use the notion of location sets defined in (Robert Wilson, “Efficient, Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis For C Programs”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1997., Robert Wilson, Monica Lam, “Efficient Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis for C Programs”, proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN'95 Conference on Programming Languages Design and Implementation, pp.1-12, June 95.). Locations sets support any of the data structures available in C including arrays, structures, arrays of structures and structures containing arrays. This representation is also relatively simple as it combines the different elements of an array or of recursive data structures. It can therefore be used for large C programs. A location set <f,s>εN×Z (N:natural number, Z:integer) represents the set of locations with offsets {f+is:iεZ} in a particular block of memory That is, f is an offset within a block and s is the stride. If the stride is zero, the location set contains a single element. Otherwise, it is assumed to be an unbounded set of locations. Table 1 shows the location sets for various expressions. TABLE 1 LOCATION SET EXAMPLES (F = OFFSET OF FIELD F), (s = STRIDE OR ARRAY ELEMENT SIZE) Type Expression Location Set Int a a <0,0> Struct {int F; } s s.F <F,0> Int a[]; a[i] <0,s> Struct{int F; } r[ ]; r[i].F <f,s> Struct{int F[10];} r; r.F[i] <f mod s, s> FIG. 3 is a flow chart showing synthesis operation of the synthesizing system according to one embodiment of the present embodiment: For simple data structures (arrays, structures, array of structures), offsets are used to identify the different fields of structures whereas strides are used to record array-element sizes. FIG. 3 gives an example of representation for an array of structures. The representation doesn't distinguish the different elements within the array but it distinguishes the different instantiations of variables and structures. This makes sense since all elements of an array are usually alike. Nested arrays and structures, type casting and pointer arithmetic are making things more complicated, leading to some more inaccuracies. Example 2 shows how references to array nested in structures are represented approximately. The array bound information in the declared type cannot be used because the C language does not provide array-bounds checking. A reference to an array nested in a structure could access other elements of the structure by using out-of-bound array indices. EXAMPLE 2 Consider the array r.F[ ] nested in a structure r: struct { char a; char b; int F[8];} r; References to one of the array element (e.g. r.F[2]) are represented approximately by the locations set <0, sizeof(int)>which regroups all of the elements of the array as well as r.a. Dynamically allocated memory locations (heap-allocated objects) are represented by a specific location set. As far as accuracy, the goal is to distinguish complete data structures. The different elements of a recursive data structure would typically be combined. For example, this inventors want to distinguish one list from another hut this inventors do not want to distinguish the different elements of a list. Heuristics are used to partition the heap. Storage allocated in the same context is assumed to be part of the same equivalence class. These heuristics have been proven to work well as long as the program uses the standard memory allocation routines (Robert Wilson, “Efficient, Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis For C Programs”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1997.). Definition of the Sunset The pointer analyses and memory representation presented in “Memory representation” support the complete ANSI C syntax. In this description of the preferred embodiment however, this inventors define synthesizable subset. This subset includes malloc/free as well as all types of pointers and type casting. Nevertheless this inventors set the following two restrictions. The first restriction applies to systems described as a set of parallel processes: pointers that reference data outside of the scope of a process (e.g. global variables or data internal to some other process) are not allowed. Their resolution would require the synthesis of some kind of interface between the processes. Such interface is usually defined during system partitioning and, hence, before synthesis. As a result, memory allocated in one process is assumed to be accessed and deallocated only within this same process. The second limitation stems from the fact that most commercial synthesis tools also have restrictions on functions. Recursions are usually not supported. Procedures that are mapped to components typically have restrictions both on their functionality and their parameters. For example, the same function called within different contexts may usually not be shared. Besides, most synthesis tools do not synthesize parameter passed by reference, because this is not supported by most HDL syntax. The synthesis of functions in C, and therefore the resolution of pointers and malloc/free inside of functions, is beyond the scope of this description of the preferred embodiment. Other restrictions are also added in the implementation section in order to be able to translate C models into Verilog synthesizable by commercial high-level synthesis tools. These restrictions are however not required for the resolution of pointers and dynamic memory allocation and do not apply for the next “SYNTHESIZING MALLOC AND FREE”. Synthesizing Malloc and Free Resolution of pointers in complex data structures This implementation uses a flow- and context-sensitive pointer analysis (Robert Wilson, “Efficient, Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis For C Programs”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1997., Robert Wilson, Monica Lam, “Efficient Context-Sensitive Pointer Analysis for C Programs”, proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN'95 Conference on Programming Languages Design and Implementation, pp.1-12, June 95.) in which memory locations are represented by location sets. The points-to information is then used to encode the pointers' value and to generate the appropriate logic for accessing and deallocating data. After encoding, the size of the pointers can be reduced as shown in (Luc Semeria, Giovanni De Micheli, “SpC: Synthesis of Pointers in C.Application of Pointer Analysis to the Behavioral Synthesis from C”, proceedings of the International Conference on Computer-Aided Design ICCAD'98, pp.321-326, San Jose, November 98., Luc Semeria, Giovanni De Micheli, “Encoding of Pointers for Hardware Synthesis,” proceedings of the International Work-shop on IP-based Synthesis and System Design IWLAS'98, pp. 57-63, Grenoble, December 98.). However, in order to support type casting and out-of-bound array accesses, this inventors assume that pointers have a fixed size. The size of a pointer itself is not defined by the ANSI standard. It is therefore implementation (or compiler in this case) dependent. In order to map pointers into hardware, the addresses (i.e. pointers' values) are encoded. Memory locations are represented by location sets. Next, it explains using an example using two items, a tag and an index. Definition 1. The encoded value of a pointer p consists of two fields: the tag p.tag (left part of the code) corresponds to the location set referenced by the pointer, the index p.index (right part of the code) stores the number of strides corresponding to the data referenced within the location set. These fields don't have to be fields of a structure. They are a notation for “sections” of the code named tag and index. FIG. 4 is a diagram for explaining the encoding of pointers in array. EXAMPLE 3 FIG. 4 gives an illustration of pointers' encoding inside of an array: int *table_p[]; If the element table_p[i] were to point to s[2].b defined on FIG. 3, index table_p[i].index would be equal to 2. The index part of the code is stored within the first bits (least significant bits) to support pointer arithmetic, especially when a pointer is type-cast into an integer. This encoding scheme has limitations on the number of location sets in the points-to set and on the number of elements addressable within each location set. For example, if this inventors allocate 8 bits for the tag and 8 bits for the index. The pointer can reference at most 256 location sets and the index can grave at most 256 values (e.g. from −127 to 128). These limitations should hardly be a problem in most designs. EXAMPLE 4 Consider the expression (*(q+1)=*p+1), in which pointer p points to variables a and b and pointer q points to an element of array table. The value of p is encoded. Its tag p.tag is defined as follows: the value 0 is associated with variable a and the value 1 is associated with variable b. Since pointer p doesn't point to any array element, its indexp.index is not used. On the other hand, pointer q points to a single location set which represents the elements of array table. Only q.index is being used. After removing the pointers, this inventors end up with the following code for *(q+1)=*p+1, where tmp_p and tmp_q are two temporary variables: switch p.tag: case 0: tmp_p=a; case 1: tmp_p=b; tmp_q=tmp_p+1; table[q.index+1]=tmp_q; An implementation for this code segment is shown in FIG. 5 . The load is implemented using a 2-input multiplexer controlled by p.tag. Assuming the array table is mapped to a memory. The index q.index is used directly as the data address in memory. FIG. 5 is a diagram for explaining the implementation of *(q+1)=*p+1. This inventors have presented simple techniques to transform a C code with pointers into a code without pointers. The resolution of pointers can be further optimized. When the pointers' location set contains a single element (e.g. pointer variable), the number of live variables before loads and stores can be reduced (Luc Semeria, Giovanni De Micheli, “SpC: Synthesis of Pointers in C.Application of Pointer Analysis to the Behavioral Synthesis from C”, proceedings of the International Conference on Computer-Aided Design ICCAD'98, pp.321-326, San Jose, November 98.). Heuristics can also be applied to encode the pointers' values (tag part) (Luc Seneria, Giovanni De Micheli, “Encoding of Pointers for Hardware Synthesis,” proceedings of the International Work-shop on IP-based Synthesis and System Design IWLAS 98, pp. 57-63, Grenoble, December 98.). Resolution of Malloc and Free In order to support dynamic memory allocation and deallocation, the hardware needs to access an allocator. In general the allocator could be implemented in software (for mixed hardware/software implementations) or completely in hardware. Since this work is on the hardware synthesis of C code, only a hardware implementation is presented. Nevertheless, the techniques presented here could also be targeted to a software implementation. In software, malloc and free are implemented as standard library functions. Similarly, for hardware synthesis, this inventors use a library of hardware components implementing malloc and free. The idea here is have one component, called allocator, implementing both the malloc and free functions as introduced in description of the related art. In order to efficiently manage memory, the memory space is partitioned into different memory segments in which data can be allocated. Definition 2. A memory segment is defined as an array of finite size in which data are allocated by unique allocator. This array may later on be mapped to one or more memories during synthesis. In this tool, the partitioning of the memory into the different memory segments is done by the designer. Other tools could be used to assist this task at the system-level. For each malloc in the code, the designer selects in which memory segment the storage is allocated. Since the size of the dynamically allocated memory is a priori unknown at compile time, the designer also sets the size of each memory segment. The tool instantiates then the allocators corresponding to each memory segment and synthesizes the appropriate circuit to allocate, access and deallocate data. For each memory segment, a different allocator is instantiated. Each malloc mapped to this memory segment is then replaced by a call to the specific allocator. The pointer that takes the result of the malloc function is defined as follows: its tag is set according to the corresponding memory segment and its index is set by the allocator. When multiple malloc calls are mapped to a single memory segment., the corresponding allocator is shared. For a call free(p), the data to be deallocated may be in one memory segment or another depending on the value of the pointer p. This inventors generate a branching statement in which the different allocators corresponding the different memory segments may be called according to the pointer's tag. The pointer's index is then sent to the allocator to indicate which block should be deallocated. Loads, stores and addresses are resolved as shown in “Resolution of pointers in complex data structures”. Examples 5 and 6 illustrate how malloc and free calls are resolved while removing pointers. EXAMPLE 5 Consider the following code segment. p=malloc(1); out=*p; free(p); If malloc is mapped to a memory segment called seg1 of size 32 bytes, this inventors generate the following code (assuming that the size of char is one byte): char seg1[32]; //memory segment: seg1 p.index=alloc_seg1(SPC_MALLOC,1); out=seg1[p.index]; alloc_seg1(SPC_FREE,p.index); The allocator component corresponding to the function alloc_seg1 is called for both malloc and free. It implements both the allocation and deallocation functions. EXAMPLE 6 Now consider a more complex example where pointer p can point to different memory segments: if(i==0) p=malloc(1); //malloc1 else p=malloc(4); //malloc2 out=*p; free(p); This inventors assume malloc1 is mapped to the memory segment seg1 and malloc2 is mapped to the memory segment seg2. Both memory segment are of size 32 bytes (set by the user). The resulting code, after removing malloc/free is the following: if(i==0){ p.tag=0; p.index=alloc 13 seg1(SPC_MALLOC,1); }else{ p.tag=1; p.index=alloc_seg2(SPC_MALLOC,4); } . . . if(p.tag==0) out=seg1[p.index]; else out=seg2[p.index]; . . . if(p.tag==0); alloc_seg1(SPC_FREE,p.index); else alloc_seg2(SPC_FREE,p.index); If each memory segment is mapped to a different RAM during synthesis, this inventors end up with the architecture on FIG. 6 . FIG. 6 is a diagram showing an example of architecture for multiple memory and allocator. FIG. 7 is a diagram showing an example of allocator. Allocators and Optimizations This inventors present three optimizations. The first two optimizations aim at simplifying the allocator architecture. The goal for the last optimization is to automatically remove some of the dynamic memory allocation/deallocation for sequences of malloc and free. This library of allocator components contains three main types of allocators synthesized directly from C using SpC. the notion a hardware allocator, which implements both the malloc and free functions, was introduced. This inventors define as general purpose an allocator that can allocate blocks of any size. In “Optimized general purpose allocator” this inventors present an optimized general purpose allocator, for which the deallocation scheme is optimized. When the size of the block to be allocated is a fixed constant, the architecture of the allocator can be greatly simplified. The specific purpose allocator presented in “Specific purpose allocator” can be used in such case. Different implementations of these allocators can be generated by changing the allocation and deallocation schemes as well as the data structures internal to the allocator (Sven Wuytack, Julio da Silva Jr., Francky catthoor, Gjalt de Jong, Chantal Ykman, “Memory Management for Embedded Network Applications,” transactions on Computer Aided Design, Volume 18, number 5, pp. 533-544, May 99.). They can be added to this framework as new components in the library. The designer or the tool would select which allocator fits the application best. Optimized General Purpose Allocator When a block is freed using the free function call, the address of the beginning of the block is passed as an argument. The allocator then searches for the exact block characteristics (e g. size) in the list of allocated blocks before adding it back to the list of free blocks. In order to simplify the process of looking up for a given block during deallocation, this inventors propose to encode the characteristics of the allocated block inside of the pointer's tag. In this implementation, the allocator stores the list of allocated blocks in an array. The index corresponding to an allocated block in this array is then encoded inside of the tag. During deallocation, the allocator can then directly find the allocated block according to this index, without having to search the entire array. The resulting optimized allocator is called optimized general purpose. Specific Purpose allocator The malloc function takes one argument: the size of the block to be allocated. When this size is a unique constant K for all of the malloc mapped a single memory segment, this memory segment can then be represented as an array of elements of size K. Allocating memory in this segment can simply be performed by returning the first available element in the array. For deallocation, the address of the block to deallocate can easily be derived from its address. The architecture of the corresponding allocator can then be simplified. For example a simple bit-vector can be used to keep track of the allocated and free blocks in the memory segment. Such an allocator, which can only deal with blocks of one size, is called specific purpose. Constant propagation can be performed before selecting the allocator in order to have as many malloc as possible with constant size. Removing Sequences of Malloc and Free Calls Some of the dynamic memory allocations are sometimes not necessary and can be removed at compile-time. This is especially true for legacy code in which malloc/free are used to manually control storage. The idea here is to isolate the finite sequences of malloc calls which can be replaced by references to statically allocated data. EXAMPLE 7 Consider the following code segment. p[1]=malloc(4); //malloc1 p[2]=malloc(8); /malloc2 . . . free(p[1]); //free1 free(p[2]); //free2 In this example, a finite number of objects (two) are allocated by malloc1 and malloc2. Later on, these blocks are freed by free1 and free2. The dynamic memory allocation in this case can be optimized by creating the two temporary array elements tmp_malloc1[4] and tmp_malloc2[8]. The size of these elements corresponds to the size of the object allocated at each malloc. The malloc calls are then replaced by references to these temporary variables arid the free calls are removed. This inventors end up with the following code segment in which memory is statically allocated. char tmp_malloc1[4]; char tmp_malloc2[8]; p[1]=tmp_malloc1; //malloc(4) p[2]=tmp_malloc2; //malloc(8) . . . //free(p[1]); //free(p[2]); This optimization can be performed under two conditions. First, the size of the data to be allocated has to be constant. If the size of the data to be allocated is not known at compile-time, a general purpose allocator would have to be used. Second, dynamically-allocated data have to be both allocated and deallocated within the same unbounded loop (e.g. cannot optimize malloc in a while loop). Using the results of the pointer analysis, this inventors have implemented a dataflow analysis which finds at compile time the malloc and free calls that can be optimized (i.e. removed). The idea is to have a counter for each dynamically-allocated location set. During the analysis, the counter is incremented each time an element of the corresponding location set is allocated. Subsequently, each time an element of the location set is deallocated (result from the pointer analysis), the associated counter is decremented. This way, location sets allocated and not deallocated within these locations cannot be optimized. Otherwise, they can be optimized. During optimization a temporary variable is created for each malloc which can be removed. The size of the temporary variables corresponds to the size in the malloc call. These temporary variables are then statically allocated during synthesis. The corresponding free calls are removed. Another sequence optimization as the second example is provided in this tool. The above sequence optimization considers the constant size of the dynamic allocated area. Another can deal with the variable size. p=malloc(x); // assigned to RAM1 . . . q=malloc(y); // assigned to RAM2 . . . free(p); p is allocated with the size x on RAM1 and q is allocated with the size y on RAM2. Finally, p is freed. Focusing on the same kind of the memory segment, p=malloc(x) is followed by free(p). The condition inside the allocator before p=malloc(x) is the same as just after free(p). It turns out that changing the free-list at the allocation and merging the free area at the deallocation are not necessary. Therefore, another mode of the allocation is provided. In this mode the free area is only searched and free() can be removed. The performance of the circuit can be improved thereby. In the case of the above example, the following code can be generated. p=alloc_seg1(SPC_MALLOC2, x); // assigned to RAM1 . . . q=alloc_seg2(SPC_MALLOC1, y); // assigned to RAM2 . . . // free(p); this can be removed. SPC_MALLOC1 is the regular allocation and SPC_MALLOC2 is the above new allocation. Implementation and Results Tool flow In “SYNTHESIZING MALLOC AND FREE”, this inventors have shown how pointers and malloc/free can be resolved at compile-time. It is the first step for the synthesis of C code involving pointers and dynamically allocated memory. This inventors present an implementation based on today's commercial synthesis tools. This inventors are not trying to solve the problem of efficiently synthesizing all of the ANSI C syntax at once here. As a result, the examples used here do not contain type casting and structures which are hard to translate into efficient synthesizable HDL code. This inventors have implemented the different techniques presented here using the SUIF environment (R. P. Wilson et al. “SUIF: An Infrastructure for Research on Parallelizing and Optimizing Compilers”, ACM SIPLAN Notices 28(9), pp.67-70, Sept.1994.). The toolflow is shown on FIG. 8 . This implementation takes a C function with pointers and malloc/free and generates a Verilog module. This module can then be synthesized using the Behavioral Compiler of Synopsys. In addition to the C input function, the designer defines a set of memory segments as well as the mapping of each malloc call to one of these memory segments. The malloc/free calls that are not removed by the optimization are then replaced by calls to the custom allocator function (specific, general purpose or optimized general purpose). Pointers are then removed and the code gets translated into Verilog. Each type of allocator is defined as an hardware component in a library. During the translation into HDL, the different allocators corresponding to each memory segment are instantiated and the custom allocator functions are mapped to these allocator modules. The communication between each allocator and the main module is done using hand-shakes. The resulting HDL code can then be synthesized using traditional high-level synthesis tools. FIG. 8 is a flow chart showing resolution of dynamic memory allocation and pointers for hardware synthesis from C. Experimental Results and Discussion For the set of examples presented here, this inventors have synthesized three types of allocators in this library. In the results presented in Table 2, allocators are designed to allocate up to 16 blocks of memory. They are synthesized directly from C using SpC and Synopsys Behavioral Compiler. The general purpose allocators use first-fit to allocate blocks and merge adjacent free blocks during deallocation. The first row presents the results for the general purpose allocator without any optimization. The second row shows the size of the optimized general purpose allocator for which the deallocation scheme has been optimized using the modified tag as presented in “Optimized general purpose allocator”. Even though the complexity of controller is reduced (from 52 states to 46), the size of the optimized allocator is roughly the same because of an increase in the steering logic The latency of the deallocation task will however be reduced as this inventors see in the examples below. Finally the third row presents the results for the specific purpose allocator introduced in “Specific purpose allocator”. As expected its size is much smaller than the general purpose allocators. TABLE 2 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE DIFFERENT ALLOCATORS (AREA IN LIBRARY UNITS USING THE TSMC.35 TARGET LIBRARY; comb. AND non-comb. REPRESENT RESPECTIVELY THE AREA OF COMBINATIONAL LOGIC AND NON-COMBINATIONAL LOGIC (i.e. REGISTERS, etc.) AT 100 MHz) lines size allocator C HDL comb. noncomb general purpose 297 353 204,191 80,193 general purpose (opt) 289 349 212,065 81,652 specific purpose 85 135  33,579 19,830 Table 3 shows the results for three different examples. The first two examples test1 and test2 consists of three malloc calls and two free calls. All malloc calls allocate objects of the same constant size. Hence a specific purpose allocator can be used. For the first example, all calls malloc and free can be removed during optimizations. For the second example, one of the mallocs is called inside of a unbounded loop and cannot be removed. The third example is a filter used in the JPEG library of Synopsys COSSAP and is used, for example, for RGB to YCrCb transformations. The filter implements the operation Y[i]=clip(A·X[i]+B,C) for i={1,2, . . . , n}, where A is a 3*3 matrix, B and C are vectors and Y and X are 3*n dynamically-allocated matrix. For each example, the first set of results illustrates the case where malloc calls are mapped to two general-purpose allocators (no sharing). For the other results, one allocator is shared. As expected, the latency (measured by simulation at the RTL level) increases without sharing with a decrease in area. In the table, this inventors can also verify that the total latency of the design decreases when the optimized general purpose allocator (gen. alloc. optimized) is used. The use of a specific purpose allocator (spec. alloc.)when possible provides significant reduction both in latency and area. Finally, further optimizations can be performed when sequences of malloc and free calls can be removed (sequence). Conclusion This inventors have presented an extension of the synthesizable C subset to pointers and malloc/free. Moreover, this extension is realizable similarly to other a program with a function of pointers and dynamic allocation/deallocation, C++, Java. The resolution of dynamic memory allocation/deallocation and pointers enables the implementation of complex data structures into hardware. This solution fits into current application specific memory management methodology. In order to efficiently partition the storage among the different data structures during analysis and synthesis, memory is represented by location sets. Dynamic memory allocation and deallocation are performed within each user-defined memory segments by an optimized hardware allocator. This tool SpC takes a C function with pointers and malloc/free and generates a Verilog module which can be synthesized by commercial tools. This inventors provide a library of hardware allocators. The different allocators are selected and optimized according to the application and the memory architecture. According to another aspect of the invention, a computer readable memory that records a circuit synthesizing program for synthesizing a circuit of executing a C-language program, wherein the circuit synthesizing program causes the computer to carry out the processes of pointer analysis and Resolution of pointer and malloc/free Optimizations and Removing sequences of malloc and free calls. Although the invention has been illustrated and described with respect to exemplary embodiment thereof, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that the foregoing and various other changes, omissions and additions may be made therein and thereto, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

One of the greatest challenges in C/C++-based design methodology is to efficiently map C/C++ models into hardware. Many of the networking and multimedia applications implemented in hardware or mixed hardware/software systems are making use of complex data structures stored in one or multiple memories. As a result, many of the C/C++ features which were originally designed for software applications are now making their way into hardware. Such features include dynamic memory allocation/deallocation and pointers used to manage data. This inventors present a solution for efficiently mapping arbitrary C code with pointers and malloc/free into hardware. This solution fits current memory management methodologies. It consists of instantiating a hardware allocator tailored to an application and a memory architecture. This work also supports the resolution of pointers without restriction on the data structures. An implementation using the SUIF framework is presented, followed by some case studies such as the realization of a video filter.

FIELD [0001] (1) Technical Field [0002] The field of invention relates to systems and methods for the efficient repositioning of assets, such as a rental inventory which may comprise but not be limited to; handheld digital media content containing articles, digital video disks (DVDs), and/or video games, in rental article-dispensing machine, or, kiosk enabled provider-user rental transaction scenarios. [0003] (2) Background Art [0004] Currently, systems and methods are known where a user may interface with an article-dispensing machine in order to obtain a rental article, or, an asset from a provider of such rental services. In these rental transactions, a standard contract is generated in real time between the user and the provider to rent the article, or, asset for a period of time the length of which is usually left to the user's discretion. Users may typically return their rental article or articles to the same article-dispensing machine, or, alternatively, may return their rental article(s) to an alternate article-dispensing machine positioned at a different location from the location of the article-dispensing machine where the rental article was originally rented. The standard contract generated by the rental provider and accepted by the user may charge a fixed rate for every day a rental article is being rented, or, is in the possession or custody of the user. An invoice generated upon conclusion of the transaction, presumably at the time of the return of the rental article to an article-dispensing machine of the same provider, includes a total cost that is calculated based upon the length of time, for example, a specific number of days, that a rental article was rented for in a particular rental transaction as well as the number, type, and/or content of the rental article(s) themselves. The current methods and systems fail to incorporate, into the total cost of a transaction, value-affecting factors associated with the locations at which a user rents and returns the rental article and, if a plurality of rental articles are involved, the summation of location based value influencing factors for all of the rental articles in combination. Examples of the herein described provider-user rental transactional scenarios and descriptions of related and associated systems shall be herein described in more detail as set forth below. [0005] U.S. Patent Application Publication Number 2012/0046786 describes a method for facilitating rapid return of an article to a rental article-dispensing kiosk. The application does not discuss repositioning rental articles. Additionally, U.S. Patent Application Publication Number 2012/0290423 describes a system and method for selling a rental media product. The method is described as providing an offer to sell a rental media product if a plurality of sales decision criteria are satisfied, and the system is described as vending a rental product from a vending apparatus to a user if the user accepts the offer for sale. The application also fails to mention repositioning the rental inventory. Furthermore, U.S. Pat. No. 8,060,247 describes a system and method for communicating secondary vending options for a vendible media product. The method is said to involve a vending controller at a vending location that receives a user request signal for a DVD. The system is said to then determine whether the DVD is available in a vending inventory at the vending location. The reference also does not mention repositioning the rental article. [0006] Additionally, World Intellectual Property Organization Publication Number WO2013/012874 describes a system and method for providing the identification of geographically closest article-dispensing machines. While the reference may suggest providing a user with an alternate article-dispensing machine, it does not teach or suggest a scenario or transaction in which a user repositions a rental article. [0007] Furthermore, World Intellectual Property Organization Publication Number WO2007/038839 discloses a vehicle rental system and method. The system and method are described for processing a transaction between a user and a rental vehicle provider. In use, the system is said to improve the ability to control the movements and/or distribution of rental vehicles between different depots so that, for example, adjustments in the number of rental vehicles located at each of the depots can be made in accordance with demand. The publication further describes a network in which a hub is communicatively coupled to multiple terminals for respective vehicle depots. The hub may be able to process depot status information for plural rental depots and use that information to influence the production of an agreement. For example, in one embodiment of the disclosure, a networked embodiment of a system may include means for identifying a rental provider preferred return depot (based on status information for the rental depots) to which a selected vehicle is to be returned at the end of a rental period and, further, to include, in an agreement, an incentive offer for the user to return the selected vehicle to that depot. By way of example presented in the publication, an incentive may include a reduction in the cost of the rental. The reference is limited to the description of vehicle rental transactions and does not describe a kiosk based rental environment for renting handheld, digital media content containing rental articles nor does the reference suggest rental transactions or scenarios wherein users rent multiple articles in a single rental transaction. [0008] In U.S. Patent Application Publication Number 2002/0186144, a system and method for automating a vehicle rental process is described. The application describes an allocation manager system for geographically allocating vehicles. In one instance, the described method involves users in the redistribution of vehicles. Methods are presented to modify the demand curve for rental vehicles to prevent or reduce vehicle imbalances between locations. In one embodiment, the reference describes a system in which a rental vehicle provider offers incentives, for example, monetary incentives, to users for moving vehicles on behalf of the rental vehicle provider. This application is also limited to the description of vehicular rental transactions. [0009] As such, systems and methods have been described for renting articles in article-dispensing kiosk environments as well as systems and methods for offering incentives for users to move vehicles on behalf of a provider. However there are distinct problems that arise in rental article kiosk based settings, scenarios, and transactions that are not addressed by solutions previously described as being suitable for rental transactions involving vehicles. The prior art fails to provide a solution for ensuring the return of a rental article to an alternate, preferable rental article-dispensing kiosk in order to, for example, satisfy a higher demand market or to lower overhead costs incurred by field operations support and logistics. The related disclosures also fail to provide a method to selectively reposition rental inventory where the rental inventory comprises handheld, digital media content containing articles, DVDs, and/or video games intended for subsequent rental and re-rental. The described references additionally fail to describe methods for repositioning a plurality of handheld rental articles in a single transaction and methods wherein a user provides the transportation necessary to reposition such handheld rental articles. The methods described in the references presented herein also fail to describe solutions for moving a selection of DVDs to an alternate rental article-dispensing kiosk based on stored user metadata. The publications further fail to describe methods and systems for offering an incentive to a user in real time that is expressed within an alternate contract, or, an agreement presented by a rental provider for acceptance by a user, that has been altered to include conditions providing for the return of a selected rental article, or, a plurality of selected rental articles to an alternate rental article-dispensing machine, or, kiosk. While references described herein do mention preferential repositioning of rental articles, those references are limited to the use of automobiles, or, vehicles as rental products, assets, or inventory to be repositioned. The references described herein further fail to describe systems and methods for providing a rental transaction wherein a desirable, beneficial, or optimal repositioning of at least one handheld, electronic, digital media content containing rental article is achieved through the assistance of a user, or, customer. These shortcomings of the prior are art are addressed in the systems, methods, and embodiments of the present invention as described, presented, and set forth herein. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0010] While the present invention is often described herein with reference to a DVD distribution system, an application to which the present invention is advantageously suited, it will be readily apparent and appreciated that the systems and methods presented herein are not meant to be limited to that particular application. The systems and methods of the present invention are envisioned as be applicable in multiple article dispensing machine provider-user transactional scenarios and as being used in the repositioning of a wide variety of dispensable rental articles, or, any rental article or articles capable of being vended by or returned to an article-dispensing machine by a user. [0011] Conventional stand-alone vending machines, also referred to herein as rental article dispensing machines, or, kiosks, are configured to store, dispense, and receive rental articles. They provide users, or, customers with an automated service that obviates the need of human assistance at the initial rental stage of the rental transaction process. Such dispensing machines typically store rental articles in discrete, identifiable locations. A selection process enables the user to select among a browse mode, a rent mode, and a return mode. An article selection feature enables the user to select at least one desired rental article to be vended, or, rented to the user through the article-dispensing machines by the rental service provider. The article-dispensing machines may preferably have a main graphical user interface comprising a touch screen with option display, user input detection, and output display capabilities. The rental article dispensing machines may also comprise a user interface having an article return slot for receiving rented articles such as DVDs contained within a case, or, video cassette sized complimentary to the slot for receiving rented articles being returned. The rental article-dispensing machine may further comprise a user interface capable of detecting and accepting a payment means, such as, for example, a credit card swipe, reader, or, any other payment means detecting sensor that is used for initiating the rental transaction, identifying a user, and/or beginning the payment portion of the rental process. [0012] In one embodiment of the present invention a new, alternate rental contract may be presented to a user for consideration and/or acceptance. This new, alternate rental contract may include repositioning conditions that, when satisfied, result in realized incentives to a user, or, in the case of multiple transactions, to a customer base consisting of many users. Upon assent and execution of the alternate contract through the specific performance of relocating the at least one rental article by the user, both the provider and the user realize benefits. A renter, or, user receives an incentive and a provider obtains a relocation service from the renter, or, user who, without having been presented the alternate rental contract and the incentive contained therein, would typically and likely have returned the selected rental article or plurality of rental articles to the same rental article-dispensing machine. Among other benefits, the systems and methods presented herein effectively aid in the repositioning of rental inventory in higher demand areas thus increasing the utilization and profitability of individual units of existing inventory. [0013] Furthermore, the systems and methods presented herein assist in resolving multiple problematic, or, non-desirable situations. Additional benefits may be realized upon implementation of the systems and methods of the present invention in a kiosk based rental environment. Some of the problematic situations that the herein described invention resolves include those in which, for example, a user uploads a “wish list” to a provider offered personal profile but wherein the “wish list” items are not readily accessible in kiosks in a close proximity to the user, unbalanced situations wherein a single rental-article dispensing machine contains an undesirably large amount of duplicative rental articles, which effectively limits the number of rental choices that a user may select from, situations where captured metadata but the extrapolated value from that metadata is not fully realized without utilization and implementation of the systems and methods of the present invention, other situations in which digital media content containing articles are not preferentially distributed or allocated amongst kiosks or user bases, ongoing situations wherein the supply and demand for a particular rental article fluctuates resulting in underutilization of existing inventory, situations resulting in undue and excessive provider incurred overhead costs commonly attributed to, or associated with, logistical content manipulation and manual movement of inventory, situations involving the unrestricted movement of rental inventory across city, county, state, or international borders, situations in which repositioning of a plural number of digital media content containing articles, such as DVDs, in a single rental transaction by a single user would be beneficial, situations wherein asset positioning may be predicted based on known or estimated customer rent or return dates and/or locations but wherein such knowledge does not otherwise provide value to a rental service provider, a general decrease in user satisfaction due to selected media content unavailability or stagnant inventory distributions, situations where known timings exist, such as those of upcoming trips of the user, but wherein knowledge of such timing information by the rental service provider is not otherwise used to add value for the provider, and, other situational transaction scenarios and settings herein described in greater detail. These examples are not meant to be limiting and the systems and methods of the present invention may otherwise add perceived or actual value to both providers of such rental goods and services as well as the customers, or, users of such rental goods and services. BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE FIGURES [0014] FIG. 1 shows a flowchart representing a user kiosk interface transaction scenario. [0015] FIG. 2 shows an option presented to a user to return a rental article to another location. [0016] FIG. 3 shows an option presented to a user to select a zip code in which a rental article may be returned. [0017] FIG. 4 shows an option presented to a user to select an alternate kiosk address for return. [0018] FIG. 5 shows an option presented to a user to input upcoming trip locations and dates. DETAILED DESCRIPTION [0019] Currently, there are systems and methods for renting and returning digital media articles through kiosks, or, article-dispensing machines that are dispersed throughout article-dispensing machine served markets. These digital media articles may consist of digital DVDs. It is within the contemplations of the present invention to incorporate and include all types of digital media that may be stored on a DVD. Forms and formats of data capable of being saved or stored on DVDs include multiple media forms such as: movies, video games, music and other forms known to those familiar with the art but not explicitly delineated in the herein described invention. These forms of digital media are not meant to be limiting and are meant to be included within the bounds of the current invention as are other articles that may not necessarily be vended in the form of a DVD containing video cassette. [0020] The kiosks as herein described may contain at least three user interface portions. One of the user interface portions may consist of a touch screen wherein the touch screen is capable of recognizing a user input and interpreting the user input based on the area of the touch screen at which a user's finger makes contact. The touch screen first user interface may include a display function capable of providing a user with a multiplicity of options at multiple points during the user interface transaction scenario. The point of contact between a user's finger and the touch screen may determine which option a user has selected. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a user may be presented with an option to return an asset, or, digital entertainment media containing rental article to an alternate kiosk based on several factors or criteria, both on the side of the user and on the side of a provider, that a centralized computer system is capable of including in its computations and calculation in real time. The kiosk may contain a second manual user interface portion consisting of a vending or receiving portion where a user can obtain an asset device or return an asset to the kiosk. This second portion is usually in the form of a slot sized complimentarily to and for accepting and/or dispensing, for example, a DVD containing video cassette. It is further contemplated that a second interface portion may comprise a hand input area similar to a typical beverage or snack vending machine. A third user interface included on rental article dispensing machines of the present invention is comprises a credit card reader and is capable of reading credit cards or other encoded magnetic strip containing cards such as, for example, coupon and gift cards. The third user interface may also comprise a wireless interface capable of determining a user's identity, payment credentials, and/or other data wirelessly through and in communicable conjunction with, for example, radio-frequency identification signal omitting and/or receiving devices, Bluetooth™ enabled devices, Wi-Fi™ enabled devices, satellite communication enabled devices, and/or other near field or far field communication technology enabled device or devices or combinations thereof for signaling and receiving data and/or other information or otherwise. [0021] The methods and systems of the present invention effectively utilize a user base to reposition rental inventory consisting of digital or electronic entertainment media. A shown in FIG. 1 , a user ( 1 ) may interface with a kiosk ( 2 ) at a touch screen first interface ( 3 ). The first interface ( 3 ) may present the user ( 1 ) with the option to rent or return a rental article. If the user selects that they desire to rent an article, then a system will calculate whether the selected rental article or plurality of selected rental articles meets a selection of repositioning criteria. If the selection does not meet the repositioning criteria, the touch screen first interface ( 3 ) will provide, by displaying such to the user ( 1 ), a standard rental contract. If the selected rental article or plural rental articles meets a set of repositioning criteria, then the user ( 1 ) will be provided with an alternate rental contract. The alternate rental contract's successful execution may be conditional upon the return of selected rental article or plural rental articles, such as entertainment media containing disks, to an article-dispensing machine different than the article-dispensing machine or kiosk ( 2 ) at which the rental article or plural rental articles were originally rented. Note, the alternate contract may include an “on-or-after” provision stating that the offer will only be valid if a user ( 1 ) adheres to a date or plurality of dates based restriction for returning said selected rental article or plural rental articles. Upon return of the rental article or plural rental articles to the different article dispensing machine, and adherence to any date restrictions and/or other conditional provisions, the alternate contract may be considered fully executed and a user ( 1 ) may have realized some incentive that was presented in the alternate contract. Non-limiting examples of such incentives include; reduction rental costs, reduction in future rental costs, vouchers or coupons for future rentals, credits or points that can accrue and be spent in a manner similar to credit card points or frequent flier miles, and preferred status with the provider which may make user ( 1 ) eligible for benefits he or she may otherwise not have been privileged to, two for one type deals or offers, as well as offers to businesses other than the rental provider but with whom the provider has an agreement with to allow for such cross-incentives to be offered to a user . It is further envisioned that said other business could have an address for a place of business at coordinates in close proximity to rental article dispensing machines but is not meant to be limiting. [0022] During the point, in real time, at which a central system, said central system capable of being a computer or system of networked computers residing within or located separately from but in communication with article dispensing machine(s), computes and calculates whether or not to offer an alternate rental contract, several metrics, factors, and/or other variables associated with the selected rental article, the selected plurality of rental articles, and/or user related data will by taken into account by a computer algorithm programmed to decide whether or not to offer an alternate rental contract to the user. Non-limiting examples of such metrics, factors, and/or variables may include; current on-hand count of selected rental article(s) in the rental article dispensing machine at which the user originally rents the article, current on-hand count of selected rental article(s) in rental article dispensing machines different than but in a proximity to or having a significant geographical relational significance to the rental article dispensing machine at which the user originally rents the article, a last maximum out-of-rent value, a sold-out date value, a predicted or forecasted availability of selected rental article(s) at multiple kiosks and at multiple times, cost of rental article to provider, amortized or depreciated value of a selected rental article or plural rental articles, information or data on how a particular rental article or plurality of rental articles was or were obtained such as through revenue sharing agreements and license agreements with studios and game publishers, or through distributors or other suppliers as well as the dates of such agreements, information on whether or not a rental article is perceived as balanced with regards to its current rental article dispensing machine allocation and in comparison to that same rental article or plurality of rental articles at other rental article dispensing machines or the same for a like genre of rental article, predicted or forecasted supplies and demands for selected rental articles at different individual kiosks and/or combinations of related kiosks whether the relationship is geographic or proximity based or otherwise i.e., digitally created relationships based on stored metadata and/or other patterned or otherwise predictable temporal datasets, data based of the physical coordinates of a kiosk and space uptake, article dispensing machine specific inventory capacities and/or that of multiple proximal or otherwise related kiosks, public transportation data such as routes and/or timetables, other provider related data such as those associated with new releases, selection specific pre-DVD release data such as gross global box office revenue, selection specific pre-DVD release data such as geographic box office revenues, inventory planned phase-out data, labor, freight, maintenance and/or service schedule related data, other stored information or metadata that may include user frequented kiosks, user profile preferences, upcoming user input or uploaded travel plans, location specific information and historical rental data for that location, a user home address, average lengths of rental terms specific to a user, average lengths of rental terms specific to rental article machines and not user specific, or, a combination or statistical relation to an average length of rental for a specific user at a specific rental article dispensing machine or multiple rental article dispensing machines, entertainment content based historical rental data for a specific rental article dispensing machine or plurality of rental article dispensing machines, selected rental article specific historical rental information, and combinations thereof. The method may further provide an offer to reposition a selected rental article or multiple rental articles if a plurality of repositioning decision criteria are satisfied, and may vend a rental article from a second user interface portion capable of vending a selected digital media content containing rental article to a user if and when said user accepts the offer to reposition the rental article, or plurality of rental articles, on behalf of the provider. In making a determination on whether or not to offer the repositioning provision to the user, the computer system may further utilize a best fit equation to compute a or “trend” line. This gives a straight line that best represents related data in a series the values of which will vary along the series. Additionally, the computer system may utilize a threshold value calculation when determining whether to present the alternate rental contract to the user. Such a threshold value calculation will define upper and lower limits that will be used to determine whether the selection of rental articles meets a set of repositioning criteria. For example, if derivative value particular to a selection of rental article(s) surpasses a calculated threshold value, then the alternate rental agreement will be presented to the user and vice versa. It is envisioned that a liability waiver may be incorporated into an alternate contact so that a provider may mitigate risk and liability associated with and during the physical movement of selected rental article or multiple rental articles from an original rental article dispensing machine, at which a rental article was originally rented, to a different article dispensing machine. The above listed data types, variables, factors, metadata, and/or other rental scenario user and/or provider specific data that may be uploaded into said central system programmed for a specific set of algorithmic computations, calculations, and/or determinations, while herein delineated, are not meant to be limiting. [0023] In a specific embodiment of the present invention having to do with the calculation determining whether or not an alternate contract offer will be provided to a user, specific attention may be paid to the occurrence of cases in which a plurality of digital media containing rental articles are requested by a user in a single transaction. It is contemplated that central system, such as a computer, network of computers, or combination thereof, will determine an independent threshold value for each selected rental article and then compute a calculation based on the combined values for each of the individual rental article. Thus, a weighted result will be taken into account for the final determination of whether or not to provide user with an alternate contract and, if so, the weighted result will be taken into account by said central system to further determine the specific provisions and/or conditions that will be included in the alternate contract, said alternate contract having been generated and offered for acceptance by user in real time, being specific to that particular user interface transaction or scenario. It is also envisioned in methods and systems of the present invention that a user may be provided with the option to return a selected rental article or plurality of rental articles at the time of return, not the time of rental. That is, a user could be offered an incentive to return a rental article or plurality of rental articles to a different rental article dispensing machine, if for example, the rental article dispensing machine is at full inventory capacity and unable to accept additional inventory or if repositioning said selected rental article or plurality of rental articles would otherwise be of or provide some value to a provider. [0024] Typically, rental articles will consist of electronically stored media or multimedia although this is not limiting and the content library, also herein collectively referred to as assets, may consist of movies and video games available for rent or purchase. While the preferred embodiment of the present invention entails the renting of a multimedia entertainment content containing rental articles, other rental articles are also envisioned. For example, other rental articles could include various objects wherein an effective increase in efficiency or realized benefit to a user and/or a provider could be realized if a user is capable of returning the rental article to an alternate location and saving the provider from having to incur the costs of doing so. [0025] Direct operating costs that are currently and normally incurred by a provider and could be reduced and/or altogether avoided by implementation of the preferred systems and methods of the present invention include those associated with the logistical handling of inventories of media content and specifically those associated with field operations support such as field technician labor compensation and benefits, other overhead such as insurance associated therewith, gas, freight and other shipping costs, as well as vehicle purchase, operating, and maintenance costs. In addition to the methods and systems of the present invention providing benefit to a provider of rental goods and services, a user will also find appreciation from the realization of the incentive present in the alternate rental contract agreement. The methods of the present invention will also realize an increase in the use of existing inventory by repositioning said rental article inventory assets in a manner such that the rental article itself will spend more time during its lifecycle in a users possession, generating revenue, as opposed to remaining stored in a kiosk for long periods of time. Furthermore, it has been noticed that rental inventories within kiosks are beginning to include older yet high demand movies and video games and are beginning to resemble A-Z libraries of the rental article selections that more closely resemble the rental selection of a store-front type digital media rental provider. The methods and systems of the present invention will be well suited to assist in repositioning or rental assets to achieve such described preferred rental article allocation, positioning, and repositioning. [0026] As is shown in FIG. 2 , a user is provided, through display on a touch screen first user interface, with an option to return a rental article to a separate location. The user is also given an option to return a selected rental article to a specific zip code in exchange for one free DVD rental. The user is also provided with the option to return the rental article to a specific kiosk in exchange for two free DVD rentals. A further method of the present invention, as illustrated in FIG. 3 , provides a user an option to choose from a selection of zip codes for rental article repositioning. The user, in this embodiment, is given the option to select between three zip codes wherein a DVD, other rental article, or plurality of rental articles is to be returned. The invention is further described in FIG. 4 , which also shows a display on a touch screen first user interface wherein a user has been provided with the option to choose between three specific kiosk locations for subsequent return of a rental article selection. As is shown in FIG. 5 , a user has been given an option to input his or her travel plans so that when a central system makes a decision to offer a user with an alternate rental contract, said alternate rental contract including rental article repositioning conditions, said central system may take into account a user's travel plans and incorporate those data when making a final alternate offer calculation and determination. [0027] While this specification contains many particulars, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of an invention or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features specific to particular embodiments of the invention. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or a variation of a subcombination. [0028] Only a few implementations are disclosed. However, it is understood that variations and enhancements may be made.

A system and method is presented in which a mobile customer base is incentivized to reposition inventory in rental article-dispensing machine served areas. By utilizing the systems and methods presented herein, an effective increase in the utilization of existing inventory is realized thus making for an overall more efficient system. In part, the system and method entails providing incentive to a mobile customer base through the real time generation of alternative rental contracts during user interface interactions.

This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 035,746, filed Apr. 8, 1987, now abandoned. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to hinges and more particularly to a novel multiple leaf hinge whose leaves reinforce one another against bending deflection under bending loads on the hinge, particularly vibrational bending loads which could cause fatigue stress failure of the hinge. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ART As will become evident from the ensuing description, the improved hinge of this invention may be used to advantage in many diverse applications. A particularly important application of the hinge, however, is on so-called ultra-light airplanes for pivotally mounting their elevators, rudders and ailerons. Such ultra-light airplanes are commonly referred to simply as ultralights and will be so referred to in this disclosure. Ultralights are relatively small, simple, lightweight airplanes powered by a small gasoline engine and designed to hold one or two persons. An ultralight is used for relatively low cost recreational flying which is restricted to unoccupied areas. While they vary widely in size and design, most ultralights have a lightweight frame structure constructed of aluminum tubing and covered by a suitable fabric. An ultralight like a conventional airplane has pivotal control surfaces operable by the pilot. These control surfaces are ailerons, an elevator, and a rudder. The ailerons, rudders and elevators of ultralights are commonly pivotally supported by FAA approved hinges which will be discussed later. Suffice to say here, that these FAA approved hinges are essentially conventional so-called piano hinges. The leaves of these hinges are riveted to frame tubes of the ailerons, rudders and elevator and their respective supporting parts, i.e. wings, and vertical and horizontal stabilizers. The existing hinges suffer from a defect which this invention overcomes. This defect resides in the fact that the hinge leaves have essentially unsupported cantilevered portions between the rivets which secure the leaves to the frame tubes and the outer edges of the leaves along which the leaves are pivotally joined. The loads imposed on the contral surfaces in flight produce substantial bending stresses in these unsupported portions of the hinge leaves which thus constitute high stress points or regions in the hinges. Moreover, during flight, these high stress points of the hinges are subjected to continuous load reversals due to engine vibrations and other fluctuating load factors. As a consequence, over even a relatively brief lifetime, the leaves of the existing hinges are subjected to many hundreds of thousands or more of alternating stress cycles which tend to produce fatigue stress in the leaves and can conceiveably cause catastrophic failure of the hinges. The present invention overcomes this inherent defect in the existing ultralight control surface hinges. As will appear from the later description, however, the improvement features of the present hinge which overcomes the defect in the existing ultralight control surface hinges avoids similar problems in other hinge applications. Accordingly, it is significant to note at the outset that while the improved hinge of the invention is particularly adapted for use on ultralight airplanes, the hinge may be used for other purposes. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to its broader aspects, the present invention provides a hinge having at least three and in some cases four hinge leaves pivotally joined along edges of the leaves and adapted to attachment to two members to be pivotally connected. One member or each member is attached to a pair of the leaves which are inclined to one another so that each of the two leaves of a pair resists bending of the other leaf of the pair. In other words, the improved hinge has at least one pair of leaves which are attached to one member with the leaves inclined to one another to resist bending of each leaf and at least one additional leaf, and in some cases an additional pair of leaves, for connection to the other member. Thus, the hinge has at least three leaves including one leaf pair and may have four leaves including two leaf pairs. Whether a hinge according to this invention has three or four leaves depends on the intended use of the hinge and more specifically on whether a particular use produces a leaf bending stress at only one side of the hinge pivot axis or at both sides of this axis. In some applications, notably the ultralight application discussed above, the hinge is subjected to bending stress at both sides of its pivot axis. Accordingly, the hinge must have four leaves including a first leaf pair for attachment to one member and a second leaf for attachment to the other member. Each leaf pair is attached to their respective member with the two leaves inclined to one another so that each leaf resists bending of the other. Other applications exist, however, in which the hinge is subjected to a bending stress at one side only of its pivot axis. One such application which is pivotally mounting a door, will be described. In this case, the hinge need have only three leaves including a leaf pair for connection to the door support, with the two leaves inclined to resist bending of each leaf, and one additional leaf for attachment to the door. The two leaves of a leaf pair of a present hinge may be pivotally or rigidly joined. Both types of hinges will be described. Pivotally joining the two hinge leaves of a leaf pair has the advantage of adjustability to accommodate attachment of the hinge to members of various sizes and shapes. If such adjustability is not a consideration, however, the two leaves may be rigidly joined. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side elevation of an ultralight airplane rudder assembly utilizing the existing FAA approved hinges; FIG. 2 is a section taken on line 2--2 in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an improved four leaf hinge according to this invention; FIGS. 4a, 4b, 4c and 4d are enlarged sections taken on the corresponding numbered lines in FIG. 4; FIG. 5 is a section similar to FIG. 2 showing the existing hinge replaced by the improved hinge of FIGS. 3 and 4; FIG. 6 illustrates a four leaf hinge according to the invention used as an ultralight alerion or rudder hinge; FIG. 7 is a section through a three leaf door hinge according to this invention. FIG. 8 is an exploded section through a modified hinge according to the invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PRIOR ULTRALIGHT HINGE As mentioned, a particularly important use of the improved hinge of this invention is on ultralights, i.e. ultralight airplanes, for pivotally mounting their rudders, ailerons, and elevators. Before describing the improved hinge, it is worthwhile to briefly consider the prior ultralight hinge for these purposes and the inherent defect in such hinges. To this end, refer to FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrating the prior hinge 10 as it is used on an ultralight rudder assembly 12. The rudder assembly includes a vertical stabilizer 14 riged on the tail of the ultralight fuselage (not shown) and a rudder 16 proper at the rear of the stabilizer. The rudder assembly, like the remainder of the ultralight, has a frame structure constructed of aluminum tubing covered with a suitable fabric. The stabilizer frame includes an upright trailing edge tube 18 and an inclined leading edge tube 20 rigidly fixed to one another and to the ultralight fuselage (not shown). The rudder frame includes a leading edge tube 22 adjacent and parallel to the stabilizer trailing edge tube 18, smaller diameter tubing 24 extending between and rigidly fixed at its ends to the upper and lower ends of the leading edge tube 22 and forming the upper, trailing, and lower edges of the rudder 16, and rib tubes extending between and rigidly fixed to the tube 22 and trailing edge tube. The stabilizer and rudder frames are covered with fabric 26. The prior rudder hinge 10 comprises an essentially conventional so-called piano hinge, having two leaves 28 pivotally joined by a hinge pin 30 extending through interfitting bearing portions 32 of the leaves. As shown best in FIG. 2, the hinge leaves 28 are attached by rivets 34 to the stabilizer trailing edge tube 18 and the rudder leading edge tube 22 with the axis of the hinge pin 30 located midway between and in a plane containing the axes of the tubes. The rudder 16 is thereby supported on the stabilizer 14 for pivoting or rotation about the axis of the hinge pin 30. An inherent defect of this prior rudder hinge is obvious from FIG. 2. Thus, each hinge leaf 28 has an unsupported, essentially cantilevered portion 28a between its rivets 34 and the hinge pin 30. It is evident that each hinge leaf portion 28a is subjected to substantial bending stresses in flight which are resisted only by the leaf itself. In other words, these hinge leaf portions 28a constitute stress points at which the leaves are prone to bending under the action of the forces exerted thereon in flight. Any bending of the leaves, of course, could seriously impair the rudder function. The existence of the stress points 28a in the leaves of the existing hinges also presents a more serious hazard than simple bending of the leaves. Thus, during flight of an ultralight, the engine and aerodynamic forces produce vibrational and other alternating bending moments in the hinge stress points 28a which render the hinge leaves prone to fatigue failure. The existing ultralight ailerons and elevators are mounted with the same type of hinges as the rudder. The aileron and elevator hinges are thus defective in the same way as the rudder hinge. The improved hinge of this invention eliminates the above defects of the existing ultralight rudder, aileron, and elevator hinges. This improved hinge will now be described primarily in the context of its use on ultralights. As noted earlier and will become evident from the ensuing description, however, the improved hinge may be used for other purposes. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring first to FIGS. 3-5 there is illustrated an improved hinge 100 according to the invention for use as an ultralight rudder hinge. In contrast to the prior rudder hinge 10 of FIGS. 1 and 2, the improved hinge 100 has four leaves 102, 104, 106 and 108. Leaves 102,104 constitute a first leaf pair 110. Leaves 106, 108 constitute a second leaf pair 112. These leaf pairs are pivotally joined by pivot means 114 along edges of the leaves for relative pivotal rotation of the leaf pairs about a pivot axis 116 extending along the leaf edges. Referring to FIG. 5, the improved hinge 100 is installed in an ultralight rudder assembly 12 between the trailing edge tube 18 of the vertical stabilizer 14 and the leading edge tube 22, of the rudder 16. The stabilizer tube 18 is disposed between and attached by rivets 118 to the two leaves 102, 104 of hinge leaf pair 110. The rudder tube 22 is disposed between and attached by rivets 118 to the two leaves 106, 108 of the hinge leaf pair 112. The pivot axis 116 of the hinge is located between and in a plane containing the central axes of the tubes 18, 22 and parallels the tube axes. An ultralight rudder assembly may have two or more of the hinges 100 spaced along the tubes 18, 22 or a single hinge extending the length of the tubes. The illustrated rudder assembly has a pair of aligned hinges 100. A significant advantage of the improved rudder hinge 100 over the prior FAA approved hinge 10 of FIGS. 1 and 2 is obvious from FIG. 5. Thus, it will be observed that the two leaves 102, 104 of leaf pair 110 are inclined to one another so that each leaf reinforces the other leaf against bending in the region between its attachment rivets 118 and the hinge pivot means 114. Similarly, the two leaves 106, 108 of leaf pair 112 are inclined to one another so that each leaf resists bending of the other leaf in the region between its attachment rivets 118 and the hinge pivot means. Thus, the present improved hinge 100 eliminates the hinge leaf stress points 28a of the rudder prior hinge 10 at which its hinge leaves were prone to bending and, more seriously, to fatigue stress failure. Referring in more detail to the illustrated hinge 100, the two hinge leaves 102, 104 of leaf pair 110 and the two hinge leaves 106, 108 of leaf pair 112, as well as the leaf pairs themselves, are pivotally joined by the pivot means 114. Thus, not only can the hinge leaf pairs pivot relative to one another but so also can the two leaves of each hinge pair. This ability of the two leaves of each hinge pair to pivot relative to one another has the advantage of permitting adjustment of the leaves to accommodate tubes of different diameters. To this end, each hinge leaf 102, 104, 106, 108 is a metal strip or plate having one edge portion slotted and curled to form a plurality of coaxial bearing sleeves 120 opposed along the leaf edge. The bearing sleeves of the four hinge leaves are designated 120a, 120b, 120c and 120d, respectively. These several bearing sleeves are staggered axially of the pivot axis 116, as shown and are coaxially aligned. Extending through the several bearing sleeves is a pivot pin 122. It will be observed that the several bearing sleeves are axially sized so that the ends of adjacent sleeves are contiguous or in contact so that they restrain the hinge leaves against relative movement or displacement along the pivot axis 116. The improved hinge 100 is thus essentially a modified piano hinge having four leaves instead of two. FIG. 6 illustrates the four leaf hinge 100 of the invention used as an ultralight flap or elevator hinge. In this figure, reference numerals 124, 126 denote, respectively, the trailing edge frame tube of an ultralight wing and the leading edge frame tube of an ultralight flap, or the trailing edge frame tube of an ultralight horizontal stabilizer and the leading edge frame tube of an ultralight elevator. The hinge 100 is attached to the tubes 124, 126 in essentially the same way as the rudder hinge except that the hinge pivot means 114 is located in a plane tangent to both tubes when the flap or elevator, as the case may be, is in its neutral position. The two hinge leaves 104, 108 are then substantially coplanar and effectively bridge the space between the wing and flap or stabilizer and elevator to preserve smooth airflow over their lower surface. It is evident that in the ultralight applications discussed above, both halves of the hinge are subject to bending moments which would bend or cause fatigue failure of the hinge leaves if they did not resist bending of one another as explained. Accordingly both halves of the hinge must comprise a pair of hinge leaves which reinforce one another against bending. FIG. 7 illustrates an application of the hinge in which only one-half of the hinge is subjected to a bending moment so that only this hinge half need comprise a pair of hinge leaves. Accordingly, the hinge need have only three leaves. In FIG. 7, 130 is a door attached to a door frame 132 by three leaf hinges 134 according to the invention. Each hinge 134 is identical to the four leaf hinge 100 except that one leaf is omitted, and the hinge pivot means 136 is modified accordingly. Hinge 134 has a single leaf 138 secured to the door 130 and a pair of leaves 140, 142 secured to the door frame 132 with the leaves inclined at right angles to one another. In the application, it is evident that the single hinge leaves 138 attached to the door 130 are subjected only to in-plane forces, that is forces acting edgewise of the leaves. These leaves are thus not subjected to any bending moments which need be resisted by second hinge leaves attached to the door at angles to the leaves 138. Rotation of the door 130 about its hinge axis, on the other hand, produces bending mements on the door frame hinge leaves 140, 142 which could cause bending of the leaves if either leaf were omitted. Each leaf 140, 142 of each hinge leaf pair attached to the door frame resists bending of the other leaf of the pair in the same manner as in the four leaf hinge 100. The two hinge leaves of each leaf pair of the hinges described to this point are pivotally joined by the hinge pivot means. As noted earlier, one advantage of this pivotal joining of the two leaves of a leaf pair is the ability to adjust the two leaves relative to one another. In the absence of any need for this adjustment or other reasons for pivotally joining the two leaves of a leaf pair, the two leaves of either or both leaf pairs of a present hinge may be rigidly joined. FIG. 8 illustrates a modified four leaf hinge 144 according to the invention with such rigidly joined hinge leaves. Hinge 144 includes two hinge members 146, 148 to be pivotally joined by hinge means 150 including staggered bearing sleeves 152 through which extends a pivot pin 154. Each hinge member 146, 148 has a pair of hinge leaves 156, 158 rigidly joined to one another and to the respective bearing sleeves 152 with leaves disposed at a desired fixed angle to one another. The hinge members 146, 148 may be fabricated in various ways, such as by bending the members from sheet metal and then slotting them to form the staggered bearing sleeves. The hinge members could also be formed by extrusion and then slotted to form the bearing sleeves.

A hinge having at least three leaves pivotally joined along edges of the leaves and adapted for attachment to two members to be pivotally connected with at least one member secured to a pair of the leaves which are mutally inclined in such a way that each leaf of the pair resists bending of the other leaf of the pair. A present best mode embodiment of the hinge has four leaves and is designed primarily for use on so-called ultralight airplanes as aileron, rudder, and elevator hinges which are immune to fatigue stress failure. Another hinge embodiment is designed for use as a door hinge and has only three leaves.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0001] The present invention relates to the determination of total concentration of analyte in fluid samples wherein the analyte may at least partially be in complex form, typically as an immune complex. More particularly, the invention relates to an assay method where preformed analyte complexes are dissociated prior to determining the analyte, as well as a kit for performing the method. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0002] In order to reliably perform immunoassays, unrestricted access to selected epitopes on target molecules, or analytes, as defined by selected antibodies, are necessary for quantitative determination of the analytes. If two or more different proteins, capable of interacting with each other under physiological conditions, have formed complexes, the component at lower concentration will, depending on the interaction properties and concentrations of the two interactants, partly appear in complexed form with the counterpart. This may prove disadvantageous for quantification particularly of the counterpart in lower concentration as some epitopes used for the assay might be hidden in the complex. [0003] Certain types of proteins may form homo-multimers, e.g. fibrillating proteins, where critical epitopes essential for assaying will not be fully accessible in protein aggregates. If the monomer has a limited number of epitopes this might contribute to underestimation of the monomer protein concentration when multimerization is prone to occur (1). [0004] In order to preserve homeostasis, protein complexes may be formed between active enzymes and their inhibitors in a pre-determined ratio complicating accurate determination of the enzyme. This may lead to certain epitopes being inaccessible in immunoassays and hence an immunoassay may generate inaccurate concentration estimates (2). [0005] Intermittent release of intracellular proteins over longer periods of time due to cell damage of e.g. cardiac cells (3) or tumour cells (4) may generate immune responses against intracellular proteins. These may in a later stage contribute to the formation of immune complexes composed of target molecules and auto-antibodies. Given the amplification properties of the immune system, antibodies may be formed at much higher relative concentrations compared to the target protein leading to formation of immune complexes complicating accurate quantification of target protein. [0006] The above examples represent situations where quantification of target analyte may generate significant deviations from the true target analyte value, often greatly underestimating the true concentration. [0007] Also in biochemical purification processes similar phenomena may occur. In recent years a whole new class of therapeutics, recombinant monoclonal antibodies, has been introduced for treatment of various disorders such as inflammatory diseases, cancer and infection (5). Many of the original therapeutic monoclonal antibodies are purified from cell culture by sequential purification steps employing affinity chromatography, ion exchange chromatography and possibly gel filtration (6). Quite commonly the affinity purification step is based on the interaction between IgG and protein A from Staphylococcus aureus . Protein A immobilized to suitable resins is used as a capturing agent for cell culture containing monoclonal antibodies. This step is very efficient in enriching the desired molecule while contaminants from the cell culture are significantly reduced. [0008] Unfortunately, the ligand used for purification may leach from the resin during the process and end up as an impurity in the purified material. Leaching may occur as a consequence of the dissociation conditions used, for example, proteolytic cleavage of ligand by components from the cell culture, but also the property of resins used, the immobilization chemistry and other aspects related to manufacturing of the affinity resin, as well as the forces involved in the bio-specific interaction between the interactants, may all contribute to ligand leaching to some degree. Irrespective of which specific mechanism is involved, the ligand may contaminate the product being purified on the affinity resin. Depending on the specific biological properties of the impurity ligand, administration of therapeutic proteins purified according to these principles, which may contain biologically active impurities, may induce non-desired side effects, e.g. allergic shock or complement activation, increasing the risk-profile of the treatment. [0009] Native protein A, produced by staphylococci, interacts with immunoglobulins in two principally different manners: The classical interaction involving the Fc portion of human IgG (7). The alternative interaction involving immunoglobulins, irrespective of immunoglobulin class (8), that belongs to the V H III (9) group of the variable domain of the heavy chains. [0012] Native protein A has five immunoglobulin binding domains (10), each of which can interact independently with IgG portions Fcγ and Fab, respectively. This creates a multitude of interaction possibilities between IgG and protein A, even forming precipitates at equimolar proportions (7). However, it is likely that also under conditions when the proportions of interactants are very dissimilar, heterogeneous complexes will be formed engaging several of the potential interactions in complex formation. [0013] Native protein A has been modified using recombinant technologies (11). One example is when native, staphylococcal protein A or recombinant versions of the same molecule, Fragment Z in multimer version (11), or MabSelect SuRe™ ligand (GE Healthcare Life Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden), a protein A-derived molecule and modified with respect to alkaline tolerance (12) (immobilized on agarose in chromatography medium MabSelect SuRe™) to improve stability upon repeated cleaning-in-place procedures, are used as ligand in the purification process. Thus, during the purification procedure native protein A or its recombinant relatives, respectively, may leach from the resin and form complexes with the eluted IgG once buffer conditions during the continued purification process reach a pH allowing complex formation between protein A and IgG. Attempts to quantify the amount of protein A in relation to IgG expressed as ppm in neutral pH are likely to be severely affected by limited access to relevant epitopes on protein A. This is likely to lead to underestimation of the real concentration of protein A. In order to avoid patient exposure for too high concentrations of leached protein A these levels should be less than 12-14 ppm (13). [0014] Two different principles have been applied to disrupt protein A-IgG complexes to make protein A accessible for quantification: Heat denaturation of the IgG component present in the sample used for quantification of protein A in the presence of compounds assisting in the denaturation process (14). Protein A is considered to resist denaturation from such treatment. Once the IgG component of the complex is denatured the process will release the protein A moiety for accurate quantification (15). Acid treatment of sample to dissociate preformed complexes and performance of immunoassay under acid conditions (16; WO 91/10911). Here immune reagents used in the immunoassay must tolerate the selected acid conditions. Optimally the selected pH should, on the one hand, quantitatively dissociate complexes between protein A and IgG (i.e. dissociate protein A from the Fc and/or Fab regions) while, on the other hand, the assay is still functional, a combination that has proven difficult to fulfill. [0017] In many cases heat denaturation is not feasible. One example is when using an analytical system of a type exemplified by the Gyrolab™ system (Gyros AB, Uppsala, Sweden) where assays are performed in microfluidic structures provided in a spinnable compact disc (CD). Firstly, the heat treatment of the sample would have to be performed outside the CD and the instrument as there is no heating mechanism available therein. Secondly, it is likely that intra-CD heat treatment would destroy critical functions incorporated in the CD, potentially also generating protein aggregates which are incompatible with microfluidic-based assay principles. When heating is performed outside the CD, it is possible that protein particulates might be formed with the risk of clogging microstructures unless appropriate precautions are taken. [0018] WO 2008/033073 A1 discloses a method of determining the total concentration of an analyte in a fluid sample, wherein at least part of the analyte is present as a complex with an analyte-binding species. The method comprises the steps of: a) subjecting the sample to conditions that reduce the binding affinity between analyte and analyte-binding species sufficiently to dissociate substantially any analyte complex and provide substantially all analyte in free form, b) subjecting the sample to conditions that restore the binding affinity between analyte and analyte-binding species, and c) immediately after the binding affinity has been restored, and before any substantial re-complexing of the analyte has taken place, determining the concentration of free analyte in the sample. In one embodiment, the method is performed in a flow system using label-free detection, such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR). [0019] WO 2009/022001 A1 discloses a method based on surface plasmon resonance for detection of anti-drug antibodies (ADAs) against a therapeutic drug. Drug interference in the presence of drug in the patient sample to be analysed is overcome by acidifying the sample (pH 2.5 or 3), and then neutralizing the sample before analysis. [0020] It is an object of the present invention to provide a method for quantifying total analyte in a sample, including analyte in complexed form, which is based on complex dissociation by acid treatment and which is generally functional for a variety of analytes and capturing agents, especially antibodies. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0021] The above-mentioned object is achieved by an improved method wherein separate acidic pH's are used for, on the one hand, dissociating preformed complexes (e.g. protein A-IgG complexes) in fluid samples and, on the other hand, performing the immunoassay, viz. at a pH where reformation of complexes is largely prevented, and at which the capture molecule, typically antibody, is sufficiently active to generate a dose response for the analyte, even in presence of large amounts of complexing component. [0022] In one aspect, the present invention therefore provides a method of quantitatively determining an analyte in a fluid sample by an immunoassay comprising binding of the analyte to a ligand capable of specifically binding to the analyte, wherein at least part of the analyte is present as an analyte complex, and wherein the method comprises the steps of: a) subjecting the sample to a first acidic pH to at least substantially dissociate any analyte complex present and provide substantially all analyte in free form, b) raising the first acidic pH to a second acidic pH where re-formation of complexes is (at least largely) prevented but where binding of analyte to the ligand is permitted, and c) determining the binding of analyte to the ligand to quantitatively determine the analyte in the sample. [0026] The term “analyte complex” as used herein includes complexes with specifically as well as non-specifically binding species, and also includes multimers, such as dimers or trimers, of the analyte. [0027] The ligand may, for example, be an antibody. The term “antibody” as used herein is to be interpreted in a broad sense and refers to an immunoglobulin which may be natural or partly or wholly synthetically produced and also includes active fragments, including Fab antigen-binding fragments, univalent fragments and bivalent fragments. The term also covers any protein having a binding domain which is homologous to an immunoglobulin binding domain. Such proteins can be derived from natural sources, or partly or wholly synthetically produced. Exemplary antibodies are the immunoglobulin isotypes and the Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)2, scFv, Fv, dAb, and Fd fragments. [0028] Typically, the ligand is immobilized to a solid support. [0029] In one embodiment, the analyte is selected from protein A, protein G, protein A/G, protein L or derivatives thereof (including native variants and recombinantly produced proteins or polypeptides), and the sample contains IgG. [0030] In another embodiment, the first acidic pH is selected in the range from about 1.5 to about 3.2 (especially 1.5 to 3.2), and the second acidic pH is selected in the range from about 2.7 to about 4.5 (especially 2.7 to 4.5), more preferably from about 2.8 to about 4.5 (especially 2.8 to 4.5). The second acidic pH may, for example, be selected in the range of from about 3.0 to about 4.5 (especially 3.0 to 4.5). [0031] In one embodiment, the first acidic pH is selected in the range from about 2.3 to about 2.5 (especially 2.3 to 2.5) and/or the second acidic pH is selected in the range from about 2.8 to about 3.2 (especially 2.8 to 3.2). Alternatively, the second acidic pH is selected in the range from about 3.3 to about 3.5 (especially 3.3 to 3.5) or from about 3.0 to about 3.2 (especially 3.0 to 3.2). [0032] The method may conveniently be performed in a microfluidic system. [0033] Another aspect the present invention provides a kit for performing an immunoassay of an analyte which is present in a fluid sample at least partially in complex form, comprising: a detection reagent capable of binding to the analyte, a first acidic buffer, preferably having a pH in the range from about 1.5 to about 3.2, and a second acidic buffer having a higher pH than the first acidic buffer, preferably a pH in the range from about 2.7 to about 4.5. [0037] In one kit embodiment, the analyte is capable of binding to a ligand immobilized to a solid phase, and the kit further comprises a capture reagent for the analyte, wherein the capture reagent is capable of binding to the solid phase. [0038] Preferably, the capture reagent is biotinylated and the ligand is avidin or streptavidin. [0039] Other preferred embodiments are set forth in the dependent claims. [0040] A more complete understanding of the invention, as well as further features and advantages thereof, will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description and drawings. [0041] For simplicity and brevity, the term “MabSelect SuRe™ ligand” will in the following frequently be referred to as “MabSelect SuRe”. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0042] FIG. 1 is a plan view of a microstructure for performing an embodiment of the method of the present invention. [0043] FIG. 2 is an illustration of pH intervals for protein A/IgG complex dissociation and analysis of released protein A, respectively. [0044] FIG. 3 is an illustration of a method for automated acid dissociation and analysis of MabSelect SuRe™ ligand in the presence of IgG at 5 mg/ml. [0045] FIG. 4 is a diagram showing in overlay format dose response relationship of assaying standard curves for (1) MabSelect SuRe in buffer only; (2) Mabselect SuRe+hIgG at 5 mg/ml after processing at pH 2.5 and 3.5; (3) (control) MabSelect SuRe+5 mg/ml hIgG, dissociation at pH 2.5 and assay at pH 8.0; and (4) (control) MabSelect SuRe at 5 mg/ml of hIgG, no dissociation and assay at pH 7.4. [0046] FIG. 5 is a diagram showing a standard curve of MabSelect SuRe in the presence of hIgG at 5 mg/ml. [0047] FIG. 6 is a diagram showing a standard curve for Mab Select SuRe in the presence of hIgG at 5 mg/ml. [0048] FIG. 7 is a diagram showing a standard curve for native protein A in the presence of polyclonal, human IgG at 5 mg/ml (pH for dissociation of complexes 2.3, and pH for analysis 3.3). [0049] FIG. 8 is a diagram showing overlayed standard curves for two different molecular forms of protein A [native (1) and MabSelect SuRe (2)] in the presence of human polyclonal IgG (Octagam™) at a concentration of 5 mg/ml. [0050] FIG. 9 is a diagram showing in overlay format standard curves for MabSelect SuRe in the presence of different concentrations of Humira™ (a therapeutic monoclonal antibody). (1) is MabSelect SuRe in buffer only; (2) is MabSelect SuRe in 10 mg per ml Humira™; (3) is MabSelect SuRe in 5 mg per ml Humira™; and (4) is MabSelect SuRe in 2 mg per ml Humira™. [0051] FIG. 10 is a diagram showing in overlay format standard curves for residual MabSelect SuRe (1) in buffer only; (2) in the presence of 5 mg per ml Herceptin™ (a therapeutic monoclonal antibody); and (3) in the presence of 5 mg per ml Humira™. [0052] FIG. 11 is a diagram showing a standard curve for MabSelect SuRe in the presence of Humira™ at 5 mg/ml. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION [0053] As mentioned above, the present invention is based on the principle of using separate acidic pH's for the dissociation of preformed complexes in a sample and for performing the immunoassay, and more specifically by first using a relatively low pH for efficient complex dissociation, and subsequently performing the assay at a higher acidic pH where restoration of complexes is largely prevented, while the capture agent (typically antibody) is sufficiently active for efficient capture of the analyte to be quantified. [0054] The method may be performed using a wide variety of assay systems and assay formats. [0055] Preferably, a heterogeneous assay system comprising a solid support surface with an immobilized analyte-specific ligand is used for measuring analyte concentration by detecting directly or indirectly the amount of binding to the solid support surface, either of the analyte (direct assay, including sandwich assay; or displacement assay) or of a detectable analyte analogue (competition assay). The solid support surface may have a variety of shapes as is per se known in the art and may, for example, be particles in a packed bed, typically provided in a microfluidic channel or cavity; or may be a surface area of a cuvette or well, such as a micro-well or a flow cell or channel, or the like. [0056] While the method of the invention is generally applicable to a wide variety of analytes and analyte complexes, it will in the following be described primarily with regard to the quantification of protein A and protein A derivatives in the presence of IgG in a liquid sample, and with regard to performing the assay in a microfluidic system specifically the above-mentioned Gyrolab™ platform. [0057] Examples of other analytes when present at least partially in complex form that may be contemplated for determination by the method of the invention include: Troponin I which is dissociated from IgG autoantibody in analysis of Troponin I. Dissociation of autoantibody against cancer antigen in determination of antibody when screening for cancer. Dissociation of homomer (aggregates and fibrils) of Amyloid beta when determining Amyloid beta. Dissociation of enzyme/enzyme inhibitor in determination of enzyme by immunochemical methodology, e.g. dissociation of metalloproteases/TIMP inhibition. [0062] As mentioned in the background section, it has previously been suggested to use a selected acidic pH for the complex dissociation and to perform the immunoassay at the same pH. In the inventors' experience it is difficult to completely eliminate the quantitative implications of inefficient dissociation of preformed protein A-IgG complexes using one selected pH for dissociation and quantification, at least with currently available immunoreagents used in the assay. [0063] However, it was also noted that in some cases, the selected pH for immunoassay is efficient for preventing the formation of complexes, e.g. when IgG and protein A solutions are acidified before being mixed, a situation which of course is quite far from the real analytical situation. However, this observation fits with basic biochemical principles demonstrating “hysteresis effects” on the conditions required for, on the one hand, dissociating pre-formed complexes and, on the other hand, the conditions required for preventing complex re-formation (17). Thus it takes more energy to dissociate preformed complexes than preventing the formation of new complexes. [0064] The present invention is based on transferring the above observations into practice, i.e. that it would be attractive to quantitatively dissociate complexes at a first low pH, and perform the assay at a second higher acidic pH, which is compatible with functional properties of the antibodies used, but selected such that re-formation of complexes is prevented (at least to a substantial degree). It should be emphasized that performing immunoassays at a mildly acidic pH, such as 3.5, is still very demanding on most antibodies. The present invention takes advantage of the hysteresis seen in interactions between molecules displaying natural affinity and of which at least one of the counterparts is subject to quantification using immunoassay. [0065] The method of the invention will now be described in the context of being used with a Gyrolab™ immunoassay platform (Gyros AB, Uppsala, Sweden). The Gyrolab™ system, or workstation, uses compact discs (CD) with a plurality of microfluidic structures. For more detailed information on this type of microfluidic analytical technology it may be referred to, for example, WO 99/058245, WO 02/074438 A2, WO 02/075312 A1, WO 03/018198 A1, WO 2004/083108 A1 and WO 2004/083109 A1 (the relevant disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein). [0066] FIG. 1 illustrates one of the microstructures of Gyrolab™ CD, CDMX1, containing two liquid inlets ( 1 ), two volume definition units ( 2 ), an overflow channel ( 3 ), a mixing chamber ( 4 ), an enforced finger valve ( 5 ), and a capture column ( 6 ) where reactions take place and which contains beads coupled with ligand, here typically streptavidin to be coupled to biotinylated capture antibody (the streptavidin-biotin interaction is stable in the acid pH conditions used in the present method). A hydrophobic barrier (not shown) separates the mixing chamber ( 4 ) from the capture column ( 6 ). Reagents and buffers for performing the immunoassay are introduced in the left inlet ( 1 ), and samples and reagents for sample pre-treatment are introduced in the right inlet ( 1 ). The mixing chamber ( 4 ) is located upstream of the capture column ( 6 ), i.e. spinning of the CD will cause liquid to flow from the mixing chamber ( 4 ) to the capture column ( 6 ). [0067] Aliquots of sample and buffers aimed for pre-treatment of sample can sequentially be added in portions of, typically, 200 nl after volume definition within the CD into the mixing chamber ( 4 ). In principle any type of liquid compatible with the microfluidic principles can be added. By first introducing sample that is subsequently mixed with a selected acid buffer with appropriate buffer capacity, thereby drastically changing the pH of the mixture, preformed complexes of protein A and IgG are effectively dissociated. In the next step, another buffer is added aimed at raising the pH in the direction towards neutral pH, but only to a pH at which re-formation of complexes is fully prevented, a pH which can be tolerated by the immunoassay. Typically buffers aimed for efficient dissociation will generate a resulting pH of 1.5 to 3.2, whereas buffers intended to prepare samples for analysis will generate a resulting pH of 2.7 to 4.5, or more specifically 2.8 to 4.5, e.g. 3.0-4.5, depending on the nature of interactants, concentrations of interactants and the tolerability vs acid pH of the reagents used for the assay. These principles are schematically illustrated in FIG. 2 , which shows exemplary pH intervals for protein A/IgG complex dissociation, and analysis of released protein A at mildly acidic pH preventing re-association of protein A-IgG complexes. [0068] The dissociating effect of acid buffer addition is usually very rapid. In the protein A-IgG system, it seems that the dissociation is quantitative after 1-5 min generating a resulting pH of 2.5. The next step of adjusting the pH of the sample to running conditions for the assay is also very rapid. [0069] The analysis step is initiated by increasing the spinning speed of the CD to overcome the resistance of the hydrophobic barrier separating the mixing chamber ( 4 ) from the capture column ( 6 ) ( FIG. 1 ). The capture column is functionalized with an appropriate capture antibody and the capture column may have to be prewashed with the same buffer composition as the sample to prevent any momentary re-formation of protein A-IgG complexes. Once the sample has been processed through the capture column, it may have to be washed with acid buffer 2-4 times at the same pH as the sample to prevent reformation of protein A-IgG complexes, now between protein A captured on the column and any remaining IgG present in the microfluidic paths utilized during processing. Eventually, before addition of detecting reagent, the pH of the capture column is elevated to neutral to facilitate the formation of a sandwich immunoassay. The process is finalized by necessary column washes prior to detection. EXPERIMENTAL PART Materials and Preparation of Reagents [0070] Capture antibodies A polyclonal chicken anti-Protein A antibody was purchased from Cygnus Technologies, Southport, N.C., U.S.A. (www.cygnustechnologies.com). Aliquots of the antibody were labelled with biotin using EZ-link Sulpho NHS-LC-Biotin (21338, Thermo Scientific, Rockford, Ill., USA—www.piercenet.com) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Rexxip™ ADA buffer was used (Gyros AB, Uppsala, Sweden). [0071] A biotinylated mouse monoclonal antibody directed against protein A was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.A. (cta no B3150; www.sigmaaldrich.com). [0072] A proprietary polyclonal antibody directed against protein A and designed to sustain low pH conditions was provided. An aliquot of the antibody was labelled with biotin using EZ-link Sulpho NHS-LC-Biotin (21338, Thermo Scientific). Detection Antibodies [0073] Aliquots of the anti-Protein A antibody from Cygnus Technologies and the proprietary anti-Protein A antibody, respectively, described under the heading “Capture antibodies” above, were labelled with a fluorophore using Alexa Fluor™ 647 (A20186, Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif., U.S.A.) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Rexxip™ ADA buffer was used (Gyros AB, Uppsala, Sweden). IgG [0074] Polyclonal human IgG (hIgG) for intravenous administration, Octagam™ (Octapharma AB, Stockholm Sweden), 50 mg/ml, was purchased from the pharmacy on prescription. This preparation is purified by alcohol fractionation and has never been in contact with protein A or any derivative of protein A. [0075] Humira™ (a therapeutic antibody, marketed by Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, Ill., USA) was purchased from the pharmacy on prescription. [0076] Herceptin™ (a therapeutic antibody, marketed by F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland) was purchased from the pharmacy on prescription. Buffers [0077] Buffers were prepared from solid chemicals at appropriate buffer capacity and pH. Protein A [0078] Protein A (native, 17-0872-05) and derivatives thereof (MabSelect SuRe™ ligand, 28-4018-60) were purchased from GE Healthcare Life Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden (www.gelifesciences.com). CDs [0079] CDMX1 (P0020026), also called “Gyrolab ADA CD”, was from Gyros AB, Uppsala, Sweden (www.gyros.com). Column packing was (15 μm) streptavidin-derivatised Dynospheres™ (Invitrogen Dynal A.S., Oslo, Norway). Preparation of Samples [0080] Standard curves were prepared by dilution of protein A in 5 mg/ml of polyclonal IgG in PBS, pH 7.4, allowing complexes between protein A and IgG to be formed. [0081] Quality control (QC) samples were prepared in separate dilutions with known concentrations of protein A in the presence of polyclonal or monoclonal IgG at 5 mg/ml. Gyrolab™ Method [0082] A method for automated acid dissociation of samples prior to analysis was developed in CDMX1. This method for automated acid dissociation and analysis of MabSelect SuRe™ ligand in the presence of IgG at 5 mg/ml is illustrated in FIG. 3 , where the two panels illustrate processes on the capture column and in the sample prior to analysis. W=Column wash, C=Capture reagent, S=Sample, 1=Acid dissociation 1, 2=Acid dissociation 2, SA=Sample application on capture column, and D=Detection reagent. Arrows indicate how different process steps are interlinked. [0083] Experiments were performed basically as outlined in FIG. 3 but using three different capture antibodies for protein A, viz. a commercial chicken polyclonal antibody, a commercial mouse monoclonal antibody, and a proprietary polyclonal antibody, respectively, varied concentrations of IgG and protein A or protein A derivative (MabSelect SuRe) in the sample as well as varied washing treatments of the capture column. The results are presented below. Experiments [0084] As will be described in the following, experiments performed as outlined above using CDMX1 demonstrated the principle of using separate pH's to, on the one hand, dissociate preformed protein A-IgG complexes in samples and, on the other hand, perform the immunoassay at a pH where reformation of complexes is largely prevented, and at which the capture antibody is sufficiently active in generating a dose response for MabSelect SuRe™ ligand in the presence of IgG at 5 mg/ml. [0085] Data obtained indicate that the protein A derivative MabSelect SuRe can be determined at sub-ppm levels in concentrations of IgG at 5 mg/ml. Thus, the assay used for MabSelect SuRe spans from approximately 1 ng/ml and upwards generating a sensitivity of approximately 0.2 ppm (w/w). [0086] Experiments using the three different capture antibodies mentioned above will now be described. Chicken Polyclonal Anti-Protein a Antibody as Capture and Detection Antibodies (Dissociation at pH 2.5 and Capture at pH 3.5) Mab Select SuRe [0087] Early on there were indications that some minor remaining effects from presence of huge excess of IgG compared to MabSelect SuRe™ ligand afflicted recovery outcome somewhat. This is seen in FIG. 4 by comparing curves 1 and 2. FIG. 4 illustrates the dose response relationship of assaying standard curves containing MabSelect SuRe™ ligand only (1), and Mabselect SuRe+hIgG at 5 mg/ml after processing at pH 2.5 and 3.5 (2) as described for the method. As controls, standard curves of MabSelect SuRe containing 5 mg/ml hIgG were subject to dissociation at pH 2.5, but the assay was performed after neutralization at pH 8.0 (3), and finally where a standard curve (dose-response curve) of MabSelect SuRe at 5 mg/ml of hIgG was not subject to dissociation and the assay was run at pH 7.4 (4). [0088] It was found that the above identified problem could potentially be solved by incorporating IgG in the MabSelect SuRe standard. When this was tried deviating recovery figures returned to the expected levels for most MabSelect SuRe/IgG ratios tested, as demonstrated in FIG. 5 and Table 1 below. [0089] FIG. 5 shows a standard curve of MabSelect SuRe in the presence of hIgG at 5 mg/ml. The capture column was washed prior to the capture step using a glycine-citrate buffer, pH 3.5, and further washed twice before the column was neutralized using PBS before the analytical process was finalized. [0090] Table 1 shows the average bias of QC samples when using the standard curve in FIG. 5 . [0000] TABLE 1 IgG MabSelect Average QC contents SuRe Bias samples n (mg/ml) (ng/ml) (%) QC1 3 5 1 34.1 QC2 3 5 2.5 0.3 QC3 3 5 5 −4.1 QC4 3 5 10 −0.8 [0091] After further modifying the method slightly, avoiding separate acidification of the capture column prior to the capture step, and using neutral pH during the first 2 washes after capture, the average bias was improved slightly, as demonstrated in FIG. 6 and Table 2 below. [0092] FIG. 6 shows a dose response curve for MabSelect SuRe in presence of hIgG at 5 mg/ml. The capture column was kept in PBS, pH 7.4, during the entire process. [0093] Table 2 shows the average bias of QC samples when using the standard curve in FIG. 6 . [0000] TABLE 2 IgG MabSelect Average QC contents SuRe Bias samples n (mg/ml) (ng/ml) (%) QC1 3 5 1 18.5 QC2 3 5 2.5 0.4 QC3 3 5 5 −6.7 QC4 3 5 10 −8.5 Mouse Monoclonal Anti-Protein a Antibody as Capture Antibody and Chicken Polyclonal Anti-Protein a Antibody as Detection Antibody (Dissociation at pH 2.3 and Capture at pH 3.3) [0094] Native protein A [0095] The possibility to analyze native protein A using the same principle procedure as above was also evaluated. In this case a standard curve containing native protein A was prepared in the range of 30-0.12 ng/ml in the presence of 5 mg/ml of polyclonal human IgG. The dissociation step was performed at pH 2.3, and the analysis step at pH 3.3. In all other aspects the same principle was followed as for analysis of MabSelect SuRe ligand. Data from this experiment is shown in FIG. 7 and Table 3 below. [0096] FIG. 7 shows a dose response curve for native protein A in the presence of polyclonal, human IgG at 5 mg/ml. The pH selected for dissociation of protein A-IgG complexes was 2.3 and the pH selected for analysis was 3.3. [0097] Table 3 shows analysis of QC samples containing different concentrations of native protein A in the presence of polyclonal human IgG at 5 mg/ml employing dissociation at pH 2.3 and analysis at pH 3.3 in the assay. As can be seen the bias is within ±20% from protein A concentrations exceeding 2.5 ng/ml. [0000] TABLE 3 IgG Protein Average QC contents A Bias samples n (mg/ml) (ng/ml) (%) QC1 3 5 1 −70.9 QC2 3 5 2.5 11.2 QC3 3 5 5 8.1 QC4 3 5 10 −11.2 Proprietary Polyclonal Anti-Protein a Antibody as Capture and Detection Antibodies (Dissociation at pH 2.5 and Capture at pH 2.8) Mab Select SuRe [0098] Experiments basically corresponding to those described above were performed in CDMX1 using a proprietary capturing polyclonal antibody instead of the commercial chicken polyclonal antibody following the procedure as shown in FIG. 3 , i.e. processing at pH 2.5 and pH 2.8, etc. [0099] FIG. 8 shows an overlay chart of standard curves for (1) protein A and (2) MabSelect SuRe in the presence of human polyclonal IgG (Octagam™) at a concentration of 5 mg/ml. [0100] FIG. 9 shows an overlay chart of standard curves for (1) MabSelect SuRe in buffer only, (2) MabSelect SuRe in 10 mg/ml Humira™ (a therapeutic monoclonal antibody), (3) MabSelect SuRe in 5 mg/ml Humira™, and (4) MabSelect SuRe in 2 mg/ml Humira™. [0101] Using the standard curves in FIG. 9 , QC samples containing different concentrations of MabSelect SuRe, prepared in different concentrations of Humira™, were analyzed for concentration of MabSelect SuRe in CDMX1. The average bias in relation to the expected concentration was determined. The results are illustrated in Table 4 below. [0000] TABLE 4 Humira ™ Measured conc MabSelect IgG MabSelect CV Average SuRe contents SuRe Conc Bias (μg/L) (g/L) n (μg/L) (%) (%) QC1 2 0 2 2.1 4.1 5.9 2 2 1.7 17.0 −12.8 5 2 2.1 7.8 3.9 10 2 2.3 3.9 15.3 QC2 5 0 2 4.4 3.4 −11.9 2 2 4.3 3.2 −13.8 5 2 5.2 5.6 4.2 10 2 5.9 9.7 18.1 QC3 10 0 2 8.9 1.9 −10.9 2 2 9.2 0.1 −8.3 5 2 8.9 4.5 −10.5 10 2 9.6 6.8 −4.2 QC4 20 0 2 17.7 9.7 −11.7 2 2 15.3 9.3 −23.4 5 2 16.8 8.5 −16.0 10 2 19.7 2.1 −1.3 CV = coefficient of variation [0102] FIG. 10 shows an overlay chart of standard curves for residual MabSelect SuRe (1) in buffer only, (2) in the presence of 5 mg per ml Herceptin™, and (3) in the presence of 5 mg per ml Humira™. [0103] Using the standard curves in FIG. 10 , residual MabSelect SuRe in samples containing recombinant antibodies at 5 mg/ml (Herceptin™ and Humira™, respectively) were quantified. The results are presented in Table 5 below. [0000] TABLE 5 In Buffer In Herceptin ™ In Humira ™ Measured Measured Measured Conc Conc Conc IgG MabSelect CV MabSelect CV MabSelect CV contents SuRe Conc SuRe Conc SuRe Conc n (g/L) (μg/L) (%) (μg/L) (%) (μg/L) (%) Sample A 2 5 2.0 2.5 1.3 25.8 2.2 2.2 Sample B 2 5 4.4 11.0 3.4 5.7 4.6 8.5 Sample C 2 5 6.5 1.2 4.7 1.8 5.3 0.3 Determination of Unknown Concentrations of MabSelect SuRe in Samples [0104] IgG containing (Humira™) samples contaminated with residual MabSelect SuRe were provided. Samples were first normalized by diluting them to a concentration of 5 g/L. Samples were then analyzed for protein A using the above outlined procedure involving acid dissociation at pH 2.5 and capture at pH 2.8. A standard curve for dose-response vs concentration of MabSelect SuRe was prepared as shown in FIG. 11 . The concentration of residual MabSelect SuRe in the original samples were then determined using the standard curve and calculated by compensating for the dilution factor. The precision (CV %) of duplicate determinations is reported. The results are shown in Table 6 below. [0000] TABLE 6 Diluted Measured conc IgG to IgG MabSelect SuRe contents conc compensated for CV Conc n (g/L) (g/L) dilution (μg/L) (%) Sample 2 10 5 4.6 16.6 A Sample 2 10 5 17.8 0.4 B Sample 2 10 5 49.9 3.6 C Sample 2 20 5 4.6 17.8 D Sample 2 20 5 16.5 8.3 E Sample 2 20 5 55.6 5.7 F Sample 2 40 5 3.8 27.5 G Sample 2 40 5 18.5 10.2 H Sample 2 40 5 45.6 9.7 I CONCLUSIONS [0105] As demonstrated above, a fully automated, microfluidic procedure where MabSelect SuRe™ ligand, a potential leachate from affinity chromatograpy of immunoglobulins, can be accurately quantified in the presence of large concentrations of IgG, has been successfully implemented. [0106] It has further been demonstrated that the procedure can be performed in a CD containing microfluidic structures, each having a mixing chamber upstream the capture column in which pretreatment of sample with different buffers at different pH can be performed in a standardized manner. [0107] The procedure takes, depending on the specific set up, on average approximately one hour. [0108] The relative concentration of MabSelect SuRe™ ligand that can be detected is in the range of 0.2-0.5 ppm at 5 mg/ml of IgG (w/w), a relative concentration that is far below the regulatory accepted level of impurity ( 13 ). [0109] The principal dissociation and analysis procedure is also compatible with native protein A in polyclonal, human IgG at 5 mg/ml. Kit Composition—Assay for Residual Protein A [0110] An exemplary kit for performing analysis of residual protein A (or MabSelect SuRe) in the presence of IgG comprises the following reagents A to I. Reagents A, B and C are provided as stock solutions intended to be diluted with diluent reagents G, H and I, respectively. The entire kit is composed of nine different types of liquids sufficient for 5 Gyrolab™ ADA CDs (Gyros AB) generating 240 data points (48/CD). [0000] Reagent A: Capture reagent, biotinylated anti-protein A antibody, 625 μg/ml. Reagent B: Detection reagent, fluorophore labelled anti-protein A antibody, 200 nM. Reagent C: Native Protein A, 1000 μg/L. Reagent D: Acid Dissociation Buffer 1, 0.25 M Glycine-HCl, pH 2.5. [0111] Reagent E: Acid Dissociation Buffer 2, 0.1 M Citrate buffer, pH 3.4. Reagent F: Acidic Wash buffer, one part Reagent D mixed with one part Reagent E. Reagent G (2 vials): Neutral wash buffer and for diluting capture reagent A. Reagent H (2 vials): Sample Dilution Buffer, Rexxip™ ADA (P0020027, Gyros AB) for diluting samples. Reagent I: Detecting Antibody Buffer, Rexxip™ F (P0004825, Gyros AB) for diluting detecting reagent B (0.5 ml) [0112] It is to be noted that when the sample volume is 200 nl, addition of 200 nl 0.1 M Citrate buffer, pH 3.4, to a mixture of 200 nl sample and 200 nl Acid Dissociation Buffer 1 (pH 2.5) gives a resulting pH of 2.8. [0113] The present invention is not limited to the above-described preferred embodiments. Various alternatives, modifications and equivalents may be used. Therefore, the above embodiments should not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention, which is defined by the appending claims. REFERENCES [0000] 1. Randall Slemmon J., Meredith J., Guss V., Andreasson U., Andreasen N., Zetterberg H., Blennow K. Measurement of Ab1-42 in cerebrospinal fluid is influenced by matrix effects. J. Neurochem. 212, 325-333, 2012. 2. Murphy G., Nagase H. Progress in matrix metalloproteinase research. Mol. Aspects. Med. 29, 290-308, 2008. 3. 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A method of quantitatively determining an analyte in a fluid sample by an immunoassay comprises binding of the analyte to a ligand capable of specifically binding to the analyte, wherein at least part of the analyte is present as an analyte complex is disclosed. The method comprises the steps of: a) subjecting the sample to a first acidic pH to at least substantially dissociate any analyte complex present and provide substantially all analyte in free form, b) raising the first acidic pH to a second acidic pH where re-formation of complexes is prevented but where binding of analyte to the ligand is permitted, and c) determining the binding of analyte to the ligand to quantitatively determine the analyte in the sample.