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[ "Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists in recent years have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide can be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish. The hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to catalysts such as manganese dioxide.\n", "Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a major contributor to water quality. Not only do fish and most other aquatic animals need it, but aerobic bacteria help decompose organic matter. When oxygen concentrations become low, anoxic conditions may develop which can decrease the ability of the water body to support life.\n", "Reoxygenating the system water is a crucial part to obtaining high production densities. Fish require oxygen to metabolize food and grow, as do bacteria communities in the biofilter. Dissolved oxygen levels can be increased through two methods aeration and oxygenation. In aeration air is pumped through an air stone or similar device that creates small bubbles in the water column, this results in a high surface area where oxygen can dissolve into the water. In general due to slow gas dissolution rates and the high air pressure needed to create small bubbles this method is considered inefficient and the water is instead oxygenated by pumping in pure oxygen. Various methods are used to ensure that during oxygenation all of the oxygen dissolves into the water column. Careful calculation and consideration must be given to the oxygen demand of a given system, and that demand must be met with either oxygenation or aeration equipment.\n", "Most hydrogens in heterotrophic tissues come from water not from diet sources, but the proportion coming from water varies. In general, Hydrogen from water is transferred to NADPH and then taken up to the tissues. An apparent trophic effect (compounding effect) can be observed for δD in heterotrophs, so significant D-enrichments result from the intake of surrounding water the in aquatic food webs. The δD of proteins in animal tissues are in cases affected more by diet sources than by surrounding water.\n", "The amount of dissolved oxygen in a water body is frequently the key substance in determining the extent and kinds of organic life in the water body. Fish need dissolved oxygen to survive, although their tolerance to low oxygen varies among species; in extreme cases of low oxygen some fish even resort to air gulping. Plants often have to produce aerenchyma, while the shape and size of leaves may also be altered. Conversely, oxygen is fatal to many kinds of anaerobic bacteria.\n", "It just so happens that hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are both diatomic molecules, thus we have H and O. To form water, one of the O atoms breaks off from the O molecule and react with the H compound to form HO. But, there is one oxygen atom left. It reacts with another H molecule. Since it took two of each atom to balance the compound, we put the coefficient 2 in front of HO:\n", "Water is fully oxidized hydrogen. Hydrogen itself is a high-energy, flammable substance, but its useful energy is released when water is formed. Water will not burn. The process of electrolysis can split water into hydrogen and oxygen, but it takes as much energy to take apart a water molecule as was released when the hydrogen was oxidized to form water. In fact, some energy would be lost in converting water to hydrogen and then burning the hydrogen because some waste heat would always be produced in the conversions. Releasing chemical energy from water, in excess or in equal proportion to the energy required to facilitate such production, would therefore violate the first or second law of thermodynamics.\n" ]

[ "Although it is unknown what led Lanning to use an alias, aliases were common in the Civil War, often used to prevent people's families from finding them. Lanning was additionally estranged from a number of people in his family; in his widow's pension file, Lanning remarks to his aunt about his deceased parents in Iowa:\n", "All of the Union and Confederate generals from the American Civil War have had their signatures forged. Many were faked during the 1880s, a period that included the fad of aging soldiers in collecting Civil War autographs. Most deceptions were of mere signatures on a small piece of paper, but extensively written letters were forged as well. Collectors should be cautious of \"clipped signatures\". The bogus autograph is glued onto an authentic steel-engraved portrait of the subject. Some steel engravings may have reprinted the autograph of the portrayed subject; this is known as a \"facsimile autograph\", and it may appear to be real.\n", "During the American Civil War from 1861–1865, some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stenciled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of their army belt buckle.\n", "Silas Chandler (1838 - September 1919) was an enslaved African American who accompanied his owners, Andrew and Benjamin Chandler, referred to as a \"manservant\" in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. He is often falsely considered to be an example of a black Confederate soldier. He was also a carpenter and he helped found and build the first black church in his hometown, West Point, Mississippi.\n", "Such cases led to branding becoming obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except in the case of deserters from the army, who were marked with the letter D, not with hot irons but by tattooing with ink or gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were also branded with BC (bad character). The British Mutiny Act of 1858 provided that the court-martial might, in addition to any other penalty, order deserters to be marked on the left side, 2 inches (5 cm) below the armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than an inch long. In 1879 this was abolished.\n", "Corps badges in the American Civil War were originally worn by soldiers of the Union Army on the top of their army forage cap (kepi), left side of the hat, or over their left breast. The idea is attributed to Maj. Gen. Philip Kearny, who ordered the men in his division to sew a two-inch square of red cloth on their hats to avoid confusion on the battlefield. This idea was adopted by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker after he assumed command of the Army of the Potomac, so any soldier could be identified at a distance.\n", "Frances Hook (1847–March 17, 1908), disguised as a man, enlisted as a soldier in the Union Army during the U.S. Civil War. At the time, women were not allowed to serve in the Union Army so Hook had to masquerade as a man and use an alias. Her known aliases were Pvt. Frank Miller, Frank Henderson, Frank Martin and Frank Fuller.\n" ]

[ "The vast majority of bottle cages consist of a single hoop of metal tubing or rod bent to hold the bottle snugly and engage the top, or an indentation in the case of larger bottles, to prevent it from bouncing out.\n", "To shotgun a beverage, a small hole is punched in the side of the can, close to the bottom. In order to prevent the liquid from spilling out while the cut is made, the can is held horizontally and the hole is made in the resulting air pocket. The hole can be made with any sharp object—typically a key, bottle opener, pen or knife. The drinker then places their mouth over the hole while rotating the can straight up. When the can's tab is pulled, the liquid will quickly drain through the hole into the drinker's mouth.\n", "BULLET::::15. In the event that the bottle/jar is broken, they will be stronger as they are now freed and there is nothing to restrain/control them. The owner will also be punished for breaking the bottle. The owner will then have to get the bottle replaced and get it refilled with corpse oil.\n", "Because of the seemingly paradoxical nature of the glass (being both extremely durable and extremely fragile), Bologna bottles are often used as props in magic tricks, where the bottle can be shattered by rattling a small object inside it.\n", "BULLET::::- In folklore, taverns had a steel pin set vertically in the bar. The empty bottle would be thrust bottom-end down onto this pin, puncturing a hole in the top of the punt, guaranteeing the bottle could not be refilled.\n", "Glass bottles have a variety of closures to seal up the bottle and prevent the contents escape. Early bottles were sealed with wax, and later stoppered with a cork. More common today are screw caps and stoppers.\n", "BULLET::::- Side-door type. A side-door bottle trap consists of a bottle with cap of which the higher end of one upright side is cut open. A simple rectangular shape is cut out, taking care that it stays attached to the bottle on its upside. This plastic flap is then bend upward, effectively forming a rain shield over the entrance. After adding some bait the trap is put in its place.\n" ]

[ "Improving appearance is the most-cited reason. Studies show that tanned skin has semiotic power, signifying health, beauty, youth and the ability to seduce. Women, in particular, say not only that they prefer their appearance with tanned skin, but that they receive the same message from friends and family, especially from other women. They believe tanned skin makes them look thinner and more toned, and that it covers or heals skin blemishes such as acne. Other reasons include acquiring a base tan for further sunbathing; that a uniform tan is easier to achieve in a tanning unit than in the sun, and a desire to avoid tan lines. Proponents of indoor tanning say that tanning beds deliver more consistent, predictable exposure than the sun, but studies show that indoor tanners do suffer burns. In two surveys in the US in 1998 and 2004, 58% of indoor tanners said they had been burned during sessions.\n", "Excessive tanning increases the risk of developing certain types of skin cancer. People that are addicted to tanning are dealing with a body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). People with tanorexia dislike the color of their skin but in reality the perceived defect may be only a slight imperfection or non-existent. Commonly, people who are suffering from tanorexia also suffer from anxiety disorders such as obsessive compulsive disorder, depression and eating disorders.\n", "Studies have shown that due to societal influences, people associate beauty with lighter skin. This is especially evident in children. This belief has led dark-skinned children to feel inadequate in who they are and inferior when compared to people with lighter skin. African American women believe they would have better luck dating if they were of lighter skin especially when dating African American men.\n", "A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. Generally, those who start out with darker skin color and more melanin have better abilities to tan. Individuals with very light skin and albinos have no ability to tan. The biggest differences resulting from sun exposure are visible in individuals who start out with moderately pigmented brown skin: the change is dramatically visible as tan lines, where parts of the skin which tanned are delineated from unexposed skin.\n", "Reasons cited for indoor tanning include improving appearance, acquiring a pre-holiday tan, feeling good and treating a skin condition. Tanners often cite feelings of well-being; exposure to tanning beds is reported to \"increase serum beta-endorphin levels by 44%\". Beta-endorphin is associated with feelings of relaxation and euphoria, including \"runner's high\".\n", "The wearing of clothes while tanning results in creation of tan lines, which many people regard as un-aesthetic. Many people want to avoid tan lines on those parts of the body which will be visible when they are fully clothed. Some people try to achieve an all-over tan or to maximize their tan coverage. To achieve an all-over tan, tanners need to dispense with clothing; and to maximize coverage, they need to minimize the amount of clothing they wear while tanning. For women who cannot dispense with a swimsuit, they at times tan with the back strap undone while lying on the front, or removing shoulder straps, besides wearing swimsuits which cover less area than their normal clothing. Any exposure is subject to local community standards and personal choice. Some people tan in the privacy of their backyard where they can at times tan without clothes, and some countries have set aside clothing-optional swimming areas (popularly known as nude beaches), where people can tan and swim clothes-free. Some people tan topless, and others wear very brief swimwear, such as a microkini or thong.\n", "Another form of behavior that is still being investigated is obsessive sun tanning as a behavioral addiction. In a recent study, researchers have proved that many frequent tanners demonstrate signs and symptoms adapted from substance abuse or dependence criteria. Many people who admit to being frequent tanners say they tan to look good, feel good, and to relax. People who partake in excessive tanning are usually completely aware of the health risks associated with it, just like addicted smokers are completely aware of the health risks of smoking. The health hazards are even more severe for high-risk age groups such as teenagers and young adults. Due to the fact that the health risks do not deter tanners from their habit, they are exhibiting self-destructive behavior that resembles the characteristics of those who suffer from substance abuse.\n" ]

[ "The center of this world view was not exclusionary in nature, and outer groups, such as ethnic minorities and foreign people, who accepted the mandate of the Chinese Emperor were themselves received and included into the Chinese \"tianxia\". In classical Chinese political thought, the \"Son of Heaven\" (Emperor of China) (), having received the Mandate of Heaven (), would nominally be the ruler of the entire world. Although in practice there would be areas of the known world which were not under the control of the Emperor, in Chinese political theory the rulers of those areas derived their power from the Emperor.\n", "Unlike the Japanese emperor for example, Chinese political theory allowed for a change of dynasty as imperial families could be replaced. This is based on the concept of \"Mandate of Heaven\". The theory behind this was that the Chinese emperor acted as the \"Son of Heaven\". As the only legitimate ruler, his authority extended to \"All under heaven\" and had neighbors only in a geographical sense. He holds a mandate to which he had a valid claim to rule over (or to lead) everyone else in the world as long as he served the people well. If the ruler became immoral, then rebellion is justified and heaven would take away that mandate and give it to another. This single most important concept legitimized the dynastic cycle or the change of dynasties regardless of social or ethnic background. This principle made it possible for dynasties founded by non-noble families such as Han Dynasty and Ming Dynasty or non-ethnic Han dynasties such as the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and Manchu-led Qing Dynasty. It was moral integrity and benevolent leadership that determined the holder of the \"Mandate of Heaven.\" Every dynasty that self-consciously adopted this administrative practice powerfully reinforced this Sinocentric concept throughout the history of imperial China. Historians noted that this was one of the key reasons why imperial China in many ways had the most efficient system of government in ancient times.\n", "Traditional Chinese political theory held that \"All lands under Heaven belong to the emperor, all people under Heaven belong, are subjects of the emperor.\" (普天之下，莫非王土;率土之濱,莫非王臣). Thus, a foreign monarch would also be referred to as \"Wang\", implying that one was inferior in rank and thus subject to the Chinese Emperor.\n", "In premodern times, the theory of foreign relations of China held that the Chinese Empire was the Celestial Dynasty, the center of world civilization, with the Emperor of China being the leader of the civilized world. This view saw China as equivalent to \"all under heaven\". All other states were considered to be tributaries, under the suzerain rule of China. Some were direct vassals. Theoretically, the lands around the imperial capital were regarded as \"five zones of submission\", - the circular areas differentiated according to the strength of the benevolent influence from the Son of Heaven.\n", "At the center of the system stood China, ruled by the dynasty that had gained the Mandate of Heaven (天命 Tiānmìng). This \"Celestial Dynasty\" (天朝 Tiāncháo), distinguished by its Confucian codes of morality and propriety, regarded itself as the most prominent civilization in the world; the emperor of China (\"Huangdi\") was regarded as the only legitimate Emperor of the entire world (lands \"all under heaven\" or 天下 Tiānxià).\n", "In Imperial China, the Emperor was considered the Son of Heaven. The scion and representative of heaven on earth, he was the ruler of all under heaven, the bearer of the Mandate of Heaven, his commands considered sacred edicts. A number of legendary figures preceding the proper imperial era of China also hold the honorific title of emperor, such as the Yellow Emperor and the Jade Emperor.\n", "This idea may be traced back to the ancient shamanic beliefs of the king being the axle between the sky, human beings, and the Earth. The emperors of China were considered agents of Heaven, endowed with the Mandate of Heaven. They hold the power to define the hierarchy of divinities, by bestowing titles upon mountains, rivers and dead people, acknowledging them as powerful and therefore establishing their cults.\n" ]

[ "The zoo witnessed a series of animal deaths in 2004 and 2005. In August 2004, a Lion-tailed macaque was found mysteriously dead. An emu and a tiger were also reported to have died mysteriously. On 4 September 2004, an elephant died, reportedly of acute hemorrhagic enteritis and respiratory distress. It was reported that the illness in elephants was due to poisoning. As a safety measure, the zoo authority suspended several staff members who were allegedly responsible for the \"gruesome killings\". Laboratory tests later confirmed that the two elephants, named Ganesha and Roopa, had been poisoned. This was followed by another elephant death (Komala) on 7 September despite heightened security. Komala had been scheduled to be transferred to Armenia in about a month.\n", "In 2008 some 51 animals died in the zoo. A series of controversial deaths also unfolded in 2010 when the 39-year-old elephant of the zoo died on April 26, followed by a camel on May 26, and a bison on May 31. The city administration and the zoo authorities blamed poisoning of the animals as cause of the deaths, while animal rights activists accused the substandard living conditions, negligent handling and unqualified zoo administration.\n", "The Temporary Management Team transferred 378 animals from the zoo to 6 conservation organizations. However, several of the animals were in bad condition, and eventually died. An autopsy performed on the animals found plastic and wood inside the animals. The death of Melani the tiger, one of only a few hundred Sumatran tigers left in the world, outraged animal activists when it was discovered that the tiger was suffering from extreme digestive disorders before being rescued from the zoo.\n", "After a number of animal deaths in 2009, the zoo curator and deputy curator were temporarily suspended and a committee was formed to investigate the deaths. Zoo administration claimed that its main problem was the lack of veterinary doctors (it had only one doctor), and that it had already requested additional veterinary staff.\n", "In the course of the next few months the situation deteriorates even more. The rain and the wind destroy the animals' cages, and subsequently they have to be kept in Pulchris's basement. One morning one of the lions gets loose and attacks and kills the singer, as well as a number of employees. As a consequence, the other lions are shot—and thus lions as a species become extinct. (There is just one surviving lion in the San Diego Zoo left.)\n", "On January 8, 2008, a stray dog entered the Memphis Zoo through a service door and leapt into the tiger exhibit before officials could apprehend it. Zoo staff distracted the tigers, and the dog, although with various wounds, was able to walk out of the exhibit and survived.\n", "On October 4, 2013, the zoo euthanized one of its four elephants, the matriarch, a 41-year-old female known as Connie (AKA Pinky), who had been suffering from kidney disease and had lost nearly 1,000 pounds. Later, on October 11, another one of the zoo's elephants named Patience, (who had been reported as \"hesitant and submissive\" since the death of its Matriarch,) made a sudden movement and killed the zoo's head of elephants zookeeper John Bradford, age 62, who had been with the zoo since 1990. It is thought that Patience, (not understanding the reason for the euthanasia,) may have blamed the head zookeeper for Connie's death. The city said no disciplinary action would be taken against Patience, adding: \"The animal will not be euthanized.\"\n" ]

[ "Due to the different array of markers expressed in these cells, it is difficult to specify their exact cell-type and function. Newer findings propose that pituitary FS cells are made up of groups of cells with disparate immunophenotypes and are not a homogeneous population; however, it still isn't clear if these groups of cells are actually different or are simply cells at varying stages in their development. Multiple FS cell lines have been developed to try to observe the location and function of these cells. mRNA levels of FS cells has been investigated via laser capture microdissection and RT-PCR, so progress is being made in terms of understanding the expression and function of these non-endocrine cells of the pituitary. As they have multiple markers, it is plausible that these cells are a hybrid of several different cell types.\n", "Memory and naïve B cells normally exist in relatively small numbers. As the body needs to be able to respond to a large number of potential pathogens, it maintains a pool of B cells with a wide range of specificities. Consequently, while there is almost always at least one B (naive or memory) cell capable of responding to any given epitope (of all that the immune system can react against), there are very few exact duplicates. However, when a single B cell encounters an antigen to which it can bind, it can proliferate very rapidly. Such a group of cells with identical specificity towards the epitope is known as a \"clone\", and is derived from a common \"mother\" cell. All the \"daughter\" B cells match the original \"mother\" cell in their epitope specificity, and they secrete antibodies with identical paratopes. These antibodies are monoclonal antibodies, since they derive from clones of the same parent cell. A polyclonal response is one in which clones of multiple B cells react to the same antigen.\n", "Three basic categories of cells make up the mammalian body: germ cells, somatic cells, and stem cells. Each of the approximately 37.2 trillion (3.72x10) cells in an adult human has its own copy or copies of the genome except certain cell types, such as red blood cells, that lack nuclei in their fully differentiated state. Most cells are diploid; they have two copies of each chromosome. Such cells, called somatic cells, make up most of the human body, such as skin and muscle cells. Cells differentiate to specialize for different functions.\n", "It is important to mention that Long-Term Hematopoietic Stem Cells (LT-HSCs) in mice and humans are the hematopoietic cells with the greatest self-renewal capacity. Human HSCs express the CD34 marker.\n", "It has been reported that the limited replicative capability of human fibroblasts observed in cell culture is far greater than the number of replication events experienced by non-stem cells in vivo during a normal postnatal lifespan. In addition, it has been suggested that no inverse correlation exists between the replicative capacity of normal human cell strains and the age of the human donor from which the cells were derived, as previously argued. It is now clear that at least some of these variable results are attributable to the mosaicism of cell replication numbers at different body sites where cells were taken.\n", "HAP1 cells are a cell line used for biomedical and genetic research. They are near haploid, having one copy of almost every chromosome and are smaller than the average human cell, growing to about 11 micrometers in diameter. HAP1 cells are derived from a line of cancerous cells, which means they are able to divide indefinitely.\n", "BULLET::::- Senescent cells: most of the cells with DNA damages that can't be fixed do apoptosis but some cells don't. Those cells are related to many diseases such as kidney failure and diabetes. In 2016, in a study, the removal of those cells in mice has extended their lifespans by 20% to 30%. Another study shows that this issue is related to the p16 and β-galactosidase. Significant results have been obtained by some companies to extend mouse lifespan focusing on senescent cells.\n" ]

[ "The 999 phone charging myth is an urban myth which claims that if a mobile phone has low battery then dialing 999 (or any regional emergency number) charges the phone so it has more power. This was confirmed as a myth by several British police forces who publicly cited the dangers of making such calls.\n", "The phone shipped with an extra battery and extra stylus. The supplied power cable could be used as a travel charger or to plug into the included cradle, which could charge the phone and an extra battery simultaneously. Despite two batteries, the phone needed to be plugged in regularly. Swapping charged batteries would eventually result in a phone reset---a complete loss of user data.\n", "The phone's battery powers the phone for 300 minutes talk time, or up to 160 hours if left in stand-by mode. It is a dual-band mobile phone, supporting both GSM 900 and GSM 1800 network frequencies. It supports up to 21 monophonic ringtones. It also supports SMS sending and receiving.\n", "The phone's built-in battery is large enough to power the phone for 330 minutes, or up to 300 hours if left in stand-by mode. It takes two hours to charge the battery to full capacity. The phone can be used to create own text files of many charactersets, create HTML pages, ZIP archive and own skins (SCS format). This phone has a fast browser and a 1.5 MB cached Java system. The phone is not equipped with Bluetooth or the ability to change covers, nor does it have an MP3 player. The network frequency of the phone is Triple Band EGSM 900 / GSM 1800 / GSM 1900.\n", "The phone uses a GSM method of activation via a SIM card. The Nokia BL-5C battery has a long standby and talk time – this battery is used in more advanced models that have increased power needs for their features, but in the basic 1100 it consumes a fraction of the power and therefore lasts for up to 400 hours between charges. The phone is offered for use with a wide range of mobile phone networks.\n", "Mobile phones generally obtain power from rechargeable batteries. There are a variety of ways used to charge cell phones, including USB, portable batteries, mains power (using an AC adapter), cigarette lighters (using an adapter), or a dynamo. In 2009, the first wireless charger was released for consumer use. Some manufacturers have been experimenting with alternative power sources, including solar cells.\n", "The phone once again has the same OnePlus quick charging capabilities named Dash Charge with the ability to gain 60% of the charge in 30 minutes. According to the company, this is accomplished by doing all the power transforming required for direct input to the battery in the power brick supplied, not within the phone itself, reducing heat on the device. Additionally, the power brick can contain larger, dedicated electronics, whereas any power processing on a phone has to use smaller and cooler equipment, reducing the speed of charging.\n" ]

[ "Haze is caused by \"hotspots\" (zones with high temperature levels as seen via satellite imagery) in Malaysia and Indonesia. Lingering smoke from forest fires on the Indonesian island of Sumatra are identified as the primary cause. Farmers regularly burn scrub and forest to clear land during the dry season for agricultural purposes, but this had been the worst haze to hit Malaysia since the 1997 haze.\n", "The fires are caused by firms and farmers engaging in illegal slash-and-burn practices as a relatively inexpensive means to clear their land of unwanted vegetation and peat. Sumatra and Kalimantan possess large areas of peatland, which is highly combustible during dry season. Peat, which is made up of layers of dead vegetation and other organic matter, contributed heavily to carbon emissions because of the substance's high density and carbon content. The haze was particularly severe in 2015 due to the El Niño phenomenon, which caused drier conditions, causing the fires to spread more.\n", "The haze is largely caused by illegal agricultural fires due to industrial-scale slash-and-burn practices in Indonesia, especially from the provinces of South Sumatra and Riau in Indonesia's Sumatra island, and Kalimantan on Indonesian Borneo. Burned land can be sold at a higher price illegally, and eventually used for activities including oil palm and pulpwood production. Burning is also cheaper and faster compared to cutting and clearing using excavators or other machines.\n", "The haze was caused by Indonesian agricultural fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan. The fires are attributed to illegal slash-and-burn practices by companies and individual farmers, which remove vegetation to make way for plantations of palm oil, pulp and paper.\n", "Climatic factors contribute to Australia's high incidence of bushfires, particularly during the summer months. Low relative humidity, wind and lack of rain can cause a small fire, either man-made or caused by lightning strikes, to spread rapidly. Low humidity, the heat of the sun and lack of water cause vegetation to dry out becoming a perfect fuel for the fire. High winds fan the flames, increasing their intensity and the speed and distance at which they can travel.\n", "The Ash Wednesday bushfires occurred in south-eastern Australia on 16 February 1983. Over its twelve-hour rampage, more than 180 fires fanned by winds of up to 110 km/h caused widespread destruction across Victoria and South Australia. Years of severe drought and extreme weather combined to create one of Australia's worst fire days since Black Friday in 1939. In Victoria, 47 people died, while in South Australia there were a further 28 deaths. Over 16,000 firefighters combatted the blazes and a variety of equipment was used, including 400 vehicles (fire-trucks, water tankers and dozers) and 40 aircraft including 11 RAAF Iroquois and commercial helicopters. The Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser then directed the RAAF to supply a CH47 Chinook to support remote firefighting operations on Mount Buffalo transporting large quantities of personnel and cargo onto the plateau. Forests Commission annual expenditure on fire suppression for 1982-83 rose to $16.8 million.\n", "On 19 June 2013, NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites captured images of smoke from illegal wildfires on the Indonesian island of Sumatra blowing east toward southern Malaysia and Singapore, causing thick clouds of haze in the region. As stated by a local Indonesian official, the source of the haze might be a 3,000 hectare peatland in Bengkalis Regency, Riau Province, which was set ablaze by an unknown party on 9 June. As many as 187 hotspots were picked up by satellites on 18 June, down to 85 on 20 June.\n" ]

[ "On working with feature movies: \"You need to be honest, because this way your audience will be able to identify with the topic and the hero. My role, as an artist, is to prepare a text with open questions and hide the fact that I have an answer key. Questions will provoke audience to discuss the film and seek new perspectives. The film is supposed to make a difference, and maybe offer a therapeutic effect.\"\n", "One review from \"The Baltimore Sun\", said that it \"... is one of the most eloquent and socially conscious films the premium cable channel has ever presented,\" and \"USA Today\", said \"A small, almost perfectly realized gem of a movie, \"Taking Chance\" is also precisely the kind of movie that TV should be making.\" On the other end is \"Slant Magazine\", saying \"Instead of well-drawn characters or real human drama, we are presented with a military procedural on burial traditions. The film desperately wants the viewer to shed tears for its fallen hero without giving a single dramatic reason to do so.\"\n", "Kenneth Turan in the \"Los Angeles Times\" wrote: \"While films are admired for making fantasy real, some manage a reverse, unwanted kind of alchemy, turning involving reality into meaningless piffle. It is that kind of regrettable transformation that \"Dangerous Minds\" achieves… none of it, with the exception of Pfeiffer's performance, seems even vaguely real. This is especially true of the film's excessively melodramatic climactic events, a bogus tragedy that does not occur in the book and has contrived written all over it… Given how few the opportunities are for women to carry a motion picture, and with the chance to be a positive role model thrown into the bargain, it's not surprising to find Pfeiffer starring in \"Dangerous Minds\", and she is as believable as the film allows her to be. But if this trivialization of involving subject matter is the best a star of her considerable abilities can latch onto, today's actresses have it worse than we've imagined.\"\n", "The films advise the public on what to do in a multitude of situations ranging from crossing the road to surviving a nuclear attack. They are sometimes thought to concern only topics related to safety, but there are PIFs on many other subjects, including animal cruelty, protecting the environment, crime prevention and how to vote in an election or fill in a census form.\n", "Amongst contemporary reviews, \"Variety\" noted that \"the thriller gimmicks come off with the desired impact under Reginald Le Borg's direction\"; and similarly positive, \"The Motion Picture Exhibitor\" wrote that the film \"may scare the kiddies and please the addicts of such entries\", though concluded that \"The cast is fair, the direction and production average, and the story of medium interest.\" More recently, author and film critic Leonard Maltin awarded the film two out of a possible four stars, calling it \"boring\"; and \"TV Guide\" gave it one out of five stars, calling it \"a terrible film\" On his website \"Fantastic Movie Musings and Ramblings\", Dave Sindelar criticized the film's dialogue as \"painfully self-conscious\", LeBorg's direction, and Karloff's \"clumsy\" performance; although he also stated that the actor's presence helped the film. Sindelar also noted that the film managed to avoid the usual voodoo cliches, and enjoyed the killer plants, concluding \"This is just one of those movies that calls for a little patience.\"\n", "In the UK, Peter Bradshaw of \"The Guardian\" awarded the film a maximum five stars, calling it \"a gripping psychological thriller about big pharma and mental health that cruelly leaves you craving one last fix\". He praised the lead performance from Rooney Mara as \"compelling\" who \"lays down the law with her presence. She demonstrates a potent Hitchcockian combination: an ability to be scared and scary at the same time, and Soderbergh's film manages to introduce its effects in some insidious, almost intravenous way\". \"The A.V. Club\"'s Scott Tobias called Mara \"superb as the glue that binds this fractured psychological puzzle,\" and commended Soderbergh's sophisticated direction: \"\"Side Effects\" screws around in its own thriller architecture, toying with feints of structure and clever bits of misdirection, and otherwise playing the audience like a fiddle. At this point in his career, Soderbergh pulls it off with the unpracticed ease of a maestro.\"\" \"Robbie Collin of \"The Daily Telegraph\" awarded \"Side Effects\" a maximum five stars and also acknowledged its debt to earlier psychological thrillers. He wrote: \"There's a lot of Alfred Hitchcock in what follows, but even more Henri-Georges Clouzot, with whose classic spine-tingler \"Les Diaboliques\" (1954) Soderbergh's film shares a poisonous tang\". Peter Travers of \"Rolling Stone\" praised the film's performances, the script and direction, writing \"Soderbergh delivers ticking-bomb suspense laced with psychological acuity about a world where mood-altering meds are as disturbingly prevalent as social media\".\n", "Todd McCarthy said, \"\"A Serious Man\" is the kind of picture you get to make after you've won an Oscar.\" Awarding the film five stars in \"The Guardian\", Peter Bradshaw said, \"this strange and wonderful film is rounded off with a gloriously well-crafted apocalyptic vision and a chilling intimation of divine retribution for earthly wrongdoing. The Coens have finished the noughties as America's preeminent filmmakers\".\n" ]

[ "If you slowly approach a perched individual during hot weather then it may repeatedly fly up and grab any mosquitoes or freeloader flies circling around you, often returning to its original perch to feed for several minutes after each catch.\n", "In 2010 the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) issued a warning to pilots about the potential dangers of flying through a locust swarm. CASA warned that the insects could cause loss of engine power and loss of visibility, and blocking of an aircraft's pitot tubes, causing inaccurate airspeed readings.\n", "Bee hives are transported cross-country in trucks nonstop or with little break. Bees are severely stressed from confinement, heat, weather changes and sudden change in their daily tasks. While on the road for two to three days, it is difficult for the truck driver or the beekeeper to check on the temperature and food level in the hives. Proper nutrition of the bees is affected and there is high risk of bees starving to death on the road trip. One study points to impaired food gland development in migratory bees resulting in improper feeding of brood. North Carolina State University news states that providing bees access to huge amount of food while on road may ease stress due to transportation \n", "They are often found roaming in a home and can cover great distances in a house. They are quite a safe spider to be in a home and can deal with other insect problems because of the amount they travel in a short period of time.\n", "On the evening of July 23, 2014 in the La Crosse, Wisconsin area, the insects were airborne in such large numbers that they were detectable on weather radar, the enormous swarm resembling a rainstorm. They are attracted to lights, and their bodies pile up in yards, on roadways and bridges. A triple vehicle accident injuring two people was reported in nearby Trenton, believed to be caused by the slippery conditions caused by the green slime from the squashed corpses.\n", "In 2004 the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds asked British motorists to attach a PVC film to their number plate to measure the number of insects that collided with it during car journeys. This splat-o-meter estimated one insect squashed every five miles of driving, and represents one of the few pieces of data directly relevant to the windscreen phenomenon. Although the study did not have historical data for comparison, it was reported that many participants in the study were astounded by how few insects their traps collected.\n", "The males of \"A. maculosum\" drive out all flower-visiting insects except for conspecific females. However, if the female refuses to copulate with the male, they too will be driven out. \"A. maculosum\" can expect an intruder every 3–4 minutes. As a result, they are constantly defending their territories but not to an unmanageable degree. They spend most of their day flying around their territory making sure it is not being invaded by intruders. If they come across an intruder, both insects will clash and occasionally grapple.\n" ]

[ "With the potential future creation of man-made unicellular organisms, some are beginning to consider the effect that these organisms will have on biomass already present. Scientists estimate that within the next few decades, organism design will be sophisticated enough to accomplish tasks such as creating biofuels and lowering the levels of harmful substances in the atmosphere. Scientist that favor the development of synthetic biology claim that the use of biosafety mechanisms such as suicide genes and nutrient dependencies will ensure the organisms cannot survive outside of the lab setting in which they were originally created. Organizations like the ETC Group argue that regulations should control the creation of organisms that could potentially harm existing life. They also argue that the development of these organisms will simply shift the consumption of petroleum to the utilization of biomass in order to create energy. These organisms can harm existing life by affecting the prey/predator food chain, reproduction between species, as well as competition against other species (species at risk, or act as an invasive species).\n", "Modular organisms save energy by using asexual reproduction during their life. Energy reserved in this way allows them to put more energy towards colony growth, regenerating lost modules (due to predation or other cause of death), or response to environmental conditions.\n", "A major technological application of this information is metabolic engineering. Here, organisms such as yeast, plants or bacteria are genetically modified to make them more useful in biotechnology and aid the production of drugs such as antibiotics or industrial chemicals such as 1,3-propanediol and shikimic acid. These genetic modifications usually aim to reduce the amount of energy used to produce the product, increase yields and reduce the production of wastes.\n", "Unfortunately an 'off target' outcome of the genetic engineering process has been the creation of plastic plants, which many of the creatures, such as the Hells Angel, prefer to eat rather than our disgusting plastic waste.\n", "A lot of people do not like genetically modified organisms. People opposed to these modified plants often claim that they are not safe for the environment or for human consumption. There are many videos and reports in circulation that discredit the safety of genetically modified organisms. King Corn is one video that claims that corn is bad for humans to consume.\n", "Entire organisms have yet to be created from scratch, although living cells can be transformed with new DNA. Several ways allow constructing synthetic DNA components and even entire synthetic genomes, but once the desired genetic code is obtained, it is integrated into a living cell that is expected to manifest the desired new capabilities or phenotypes while growing and thriving. Cell transformation is used to create biological circuits, which can be manipulated to yield desired outputs.\n", "Genetically modified plants have been engineered for scientific research, to create new colours in plants, deliver vaccines, and to create enhanced crops. Many plant cells are pluripotent, meaning that a single cell from a mature plant can be harvested and then under the right conditions form a new plant. This ability can be taken advantage of by genetic engineers; by selecting for cells that have been successfully transformed in an adult plant a new plant can then be grown that contains the transgene in every cell through a process known as tissue culture.\n" ]

[ "Since these currents are larger than in the original standard, the extra voltage drop in the cable reduces noise margins, causing problems with High Speed signaling. Battery Charging Specification 1.1 specifies that charging devices must dynamically limit bus power current draw during High Speed signaling; 1.2 specifies that charging devices and ports must be designed to tolerate the higher ground voltage difference in High Speed signaling.\n", "Apple designed the charger so that the batteries draw less energy from the national power grid than other comparable chargers; as a result, energy efficiency is improved. According to Apple, at 30 mW, the standard power usage of the charger is ten times better than the industry average.\n", "Some devices can use their USB ports to charge built-in batteries, while other devices can detect a dedicated charger and draw more than 500 mA (0.5 A), allowing them to charge more rapidly. OTG devices are allowed to use either option.\n", "The port can charge the battery and power the phone while it is connected to, for example, a hands-free solution in a car. The FastPort became the only way to get external power to the phones. Chargers comes in several varieties, from 12/24 volt DC to use in cars, to 100-250 volt AC to use elsewhere. Some charger-models can only charge the phone (the cable is attached at the middle), in others all the connector pins through to the plug end, thus supporting data/signal transfer while the phone is being charged.\n", "Since a battery charger is intended to be connected to a battery, it may not have voltage regulation or filtering of the DC voltage output; it is cheaper to make them that way. Battery chargers equipped with both voltage regulation and filtering are sometimes termed battery eliminators.\n", "Note that the less resistance there is between the capacitor and the charging power supply, the faster it will charge. Thus, in this design, those closer to the power supply will charge quicker than those farther away. If the generator is allowed to charge long enough, all capacitors will attain the same voltage.\n", "The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. The process for an on-board charger is best explained as AC power being converted into DC power, resulting in the battery being charged. On-board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size, and by the limited capacity of general-purpose AC outlets. Dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles.\n" ]

[ "Historian Grzegorz Rossoliński-Liebe, writing in \"H-Soz-Kult\", reviewed three books: \"Judenjagd\" by Grabowski, \"It Was Such a Beautiful Sunny Day\" by Barbara Engelking, and \"Golden Harvest\" by Jan T. Gross. He wrote that all three studies are noteworthy explorations of the Polish participation in the Holocaust, challenging both the German tendency to neglect non-German perpetrators and the Polish perspective of viewing Poles solely as victims. According to Rossoliński-Liebe, Grabowski demonstrates that a broad spectrum of Polish society took part in \"Judenjagd\" (hunts for the Jews). But Rossoliński-Liebe wrote that he did not think these 2011 works would trigger a new Holocaust debate, as had occurred following Gross's \"\", a decade prior.\n", "When the book was published, the Nazi program of extermination of the Jews had been well documented. The fact that ordinary Poles in Jedwabne following Soviet–German invasion participated in the massacre of their Jewish neighbors in the presence of Nazi German soldiers, was less known. The book has generated much controversy and vigorous debate in Poland and abroad. It has led to more forensic studies and discussions with regards to Polish-Jewish relations.\n", "Gross's latest book, \"Golden Harvest\", co-written with his wife Irena Grudzińska-Gross and published in March 2011, is about Poles enriching themselves at the expense of Jews murdered in the Holocaust. Critics in Poland have alleged that Gross dwelt too much on wartime pathologies emerging during wartime, drawing \"unfair generalizations\".\n", "The book was met with mixed opinions among Polish historians. Professor Andrzej Nowak called it \"harmful and unwise\", adding that it \"fulfills the wish of Russian and other propagandists, who claim that Poland dreamed of joining Hitler to murder Jews, but did not do it because of her own stupidity.\" Professor Stanisław Salmonowicz, a renowned expert on German-Polish relations, described the ideas of the book as \"insane\", pointing out several flaws in Zychowicz's reasoning. Adam Stohnij of the military portal www.1939.pl calls the book a \"military Blitzkrieg\", writing that Zychowicz \"comes up with a daring argument. In the situation that Poland found itself right before the war, the only chance to survive was an alliance with the Third Reich.\" Piotr A. Maciążek, a publicist of portal politykawschodnia.pl, calls the book \"a Polish \"Icebreaker\"\", writing that \"Pakt Ribbentrop - Beck\" is \"undoubtedly one of the most interesting and controversial books published in Poland in 2012. A heated discussion that ensued after its publication shows that this book was much needed.\"\n", "Historians Lucy Dawidowicz and Abraham Brumberg object to Davies' historical treatment of the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Poland. They accuse him of minimising historic antisemitism, and of promoting an idea that academic views of the Holocaust in international historiography largely overlook the suffering of non-Jewish Poles. \n", "Chodakiewicz's book was reviewed by Joanna B. Michlic, who wrote: \"It does not accept the complicated history of Poland and the complex image of (ethnic) Poles, which depicts them not only as heroes and victims but also as evildoers committing crimes against Polish Jews and representatives of other ethnic and cultural minorities living in Poland.\" \n", "Gross begins the book with a subject statement: “The collusion of the Polish population in the pillaging and killing of Jews at the periphery of the Holocaust.\" He claims that the interpretation of the Polish role in pillaging and killing Jews as a \"deviant\" behavior of \"scum\" during wartime is wrong; indeed, he sees the murder of Jews and plunder of Jewish property throughout Europe as a collective \"effort\", headed by the Nazi regime but openly and visibly benefiting many others.\n" ]

[ "Duration is perceived as how \"long\" or \"short\" a sound is and relates to onset and offset signals created by nerve responses to sounds. The duration of a sound usually lasts from the time the sound is first noticed until the sound is identified as having changed or ceased. Sometimes this is not directly related to the physical duration of a sound. For example; in a noisy environment, gapped sounds (sounds that stop and start) can sound as if they are continuous because the offset messages are missed owing to disruptions from noises in the same general bandwidth. This can be of great benefit in understanding distorted messages such as radio signals that suffer from interference, as (owing to this effect) the message is heard as if it was continuous. Figure 2 gives an example of duration identification. When a new sound is noticed (see Figure 2, Green arrows), a sound onset message is sent to the auditory cortex. When the repeating pattern is missed, a sound offset messages is sent.\n", "The second type of S-curve is more apt for longer cross-fades, since they are smooth and have the ability to have both of the crossfades in the overall level; so that they are audible for as long as possible. There is a short period at the start of each of the cross-fades where the outgoing sound drops toward 50% quickly (with the incoming sound rising just as fast to 50%). This acceleration of sound slows and both sounds will appear as if they are at the same level for most of the cross-fade (in the middle) before the changeover happens. \n", "Similar to the Gestalt principle of good continuation (see: principles of grouping), sounds that change smoothly or remain constant are often produced by the same source. Sound with the same frequency, even when interrupted by other noise, is perceived as continuous. Highly variable sound that is interrupted is perceived as separate.\n", "When the delay of the repeated sound is too large, the observer perceives an echo; when the delay of the repeated sound is generally smaller than 30 ms, he perceives the original sound only, but with a tonality (coloration, pitch) superimposed. Therefore, this perceptual phenomenon has been named Repetition Pitch (RP). In general, the perceived RP (expressed in Hz-equivalent) is equal to the reciprocal value of the delay time (T) between the original and the repeated sound, or in formula: RP = 1/T (with T expressed in seconds). RP is most salient when the original sound is wide-band in frequency content and does not produce pitch itself (like white noise, which contains all audible frequencies in equal strength).\n", "Loudness is perceived as how \"loud\" or \"soft\" a sound is and relates to the totalled number of auditory nerve stimulations over short cyclic time periods, most likely over the duration of theta wave cycles. This means that at short durations, a very short sound can sound softer than a longer sound even though they are presented at the same intensity level. Past around 200 ms this is no longer the case and the duration of the sound no longer affects the apparent loudness of the sound. Figure 3 gives an impression of how loudness information is summed over a period of about 200 ms before being sent to the auditory cortex. Louder signals create a greater 'push' on the Basilar membrane and thus stimulate more nerves, creating a stronger loudness signal. A more complex signal also creates more nerve firings and so sounds louder (for the same wave amplitude) than a simpler sound, such as a sine wave.\n", "BULLET::::- Sound duration: The duration of the sound varies among patients. While the ISCD-2 established limits between 2 and 49 s, authors have described other ranges including short duration as of 0.5 s. Review of reported cases indicates two types of patients whose produced sound can either be short lasting (0.5 to 1.5 s) or longer lasting (2 to 20 s). Nonetheless, it is not clear if the sounds are in fact single long noises fragmented by brief expirations.\n", "The concept of Reverberation Time implicitly supposes that the decay rate of the sound is exponential, so that the sound level diminishes regularly, at a rate of so many dB per second. It is not often the case in real rooms, depending on the disposition of reflective, dispersive and absorbing surfaces. Moreover, successive measurement of the sound level often yields very different results, as differences in phase in the exciting sound build up in notably different sound waves. In 1965, Manfred R. Schroeder published \"A new method of Measuring Reverberation Time\" in the \"Journal of the Acoustical Society of America\". He proposed to measure, not the power of the sound, but the energy, by integrating it. This made it possible to show the variation in the rate of decay and to free acousticians from the necessity of averaging many measurements.\n" ]

[ "The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) has stated that discontinuing the dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin would save the U.S. government approximately $5.5 billion over thirty years primarily through seigniorage. The Federal Reserve has refused to order the coin from the mint for distribution citing a lack of demand, according to ex-Mint director Philip Diehl in November 2012.\n", "The Federal Reserve announced the removal of large denominations of United States currency from circulation on July 14, 1969. The one-hundred-dollar bill was the largest denomination left in circulation. All the Federal Reserve Notes produced from \"Series 1928\" up to before \"Series 1969\" (i.e. 1928, 1928A, 1934, 1934A, 1934B, 1934C, 1934D, 1950, 1950A, 1950B, 1950C, 1950D, 1950E, 1963, 1966, 1966A) of the $100 denomination added up to $23.1708 billion. Since some banknotes had been destroyed, and the population was 200 million at the time, there was less than one $100 banknote per capita circulating.\n", "In 1979, President Carter appointed Paul Volcker Chairman of the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve tightened the money supply and inflation was substantially lower in the 1980s, and hence the value of the U.S. dollar stabilized.\n", "The Federal Reserve does not publish an average life span for the $2 bill. This is likely due to its treatment as a collector's item by the general public; it is, therefore, not subjected to normal circulation.\n", "By mid October 2010, the dollar had dropped 7% since a 27 August speech by Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke in which he said there was a possibility of further easing monetary policy. On 18 October, US Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner stated \"It is very important for people to understand that the United States of America and no country around the world can devalue its way to prosperity and competitiveness.\" Following this statement the value of the dollar rose as speculators calculated that at least in the short term it would be less likely for the US to intentionally devalue its currency.\n", "The Federal Reserve began taking high-denomination currency out of circulation (destroying large bills received by banks) in 1969. , only 336 $10,000 bills were known to exist; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 remaining $1,000 bills. Due to their rarity, collectors pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. Some are in museums in other parts of the world.\n", "In 1970, rising inflation and inflow of foreign exchange led to pressures on the dollar. The government was concerned that massive and expensive interventions in the foreign exchange market would be required to maintain the dollar within the fixed rate band. In May 1970, the government announced that it would allow the dollar to float. Although the decision was criticised by the International Monetary Fund, which continued to favour the Bretton Woods approach, within three years all major currencies were floating against the United States dollar. The Canadian dollar has had a floating exchange rate ever since.\n" ]

[ "The mechanism causes the lower portion of the spindle to rotate clockwise like an ordinary record player, while the top half of the spindle rotates counterclockwise to permit the bottom of the record to be played in the correct direction. The spindle contains three sets of retractable claws which hold the records in the upper and lower playing positions, and permit one record at a time to be dropped from the upper to the lower playing position.\n", "Most records have a locked groove at the end of each side or individual band. It is usually a silent loop that keeps the needle and tonearm from drifting into the label area. However, it is possible to record sound in this groove, and some artists have included looping audio in the locked groove.\n", "Unlike the rubber mat which is made to hold the record firmly in sync with the rotating platter, slipmats are designed to slip on the platter, allowing the DJ to manipulate a record on a turntable while the platter continues to rotate underneath. This is useful for holding a record still for slip-cueing, making minute adjustments during beatmatching and mixing and pulling the record back and forth for scratching. They are also very commonly used simply as decoration for when a record isn't on the turntable.\n", "In addition to recreating recorded sounds by placing the stylus on the cylinder or disc and rotating it in the same direction as during the recording, one could hear different sounds by rotating the cylinder or disc backwards. In 1878, Edison noted that, when played backwards, \"the song is still melodious in many cases, and some of the strains are sweet and novel, but altogether different from the song reproduced in the right way\". The backwards playing of records was advised as training for magicians by occultist Aleister Crowley, who suggested in his 1913 book \"Magick (Book 4)\" that an adept \"train himself to think backwards by external means\", one of which was to \"listen to phonograph records, reversed\". In the movie \"Gold Diggers of 1935\", the end of the dancing pianos musical number \"The Words Are in My Heart\" is filmed in reverse motion with the accompanying instrumental score incidentally being reversed.\n", "Slip-cueing is a turntable-based DJ technique which consists of holding a record still while the platter rotates underneath the slipmat and releasing it at the right moment. In this way the record attains the right speed almost immediately, with no need to wait for the heavy platter to accelerate.\n", "Typically, a new steel needle is required for every record played on an old acoustic phonograph. This is because the record contains abrasive material. In the first few silent tracks this abrasion hones the steel needle to a profile that tracks the grooves properly. The needle continues to wear as it plays the record, so that by the end its diameter has increased to the point where the sharp edges may damage the grooves on subsequent plays.\n", "The records were played on turntables, but since the timing – the clock synchronization – between the two SIGSALY terminals had to be precise, the turntables were by no means just ordinary record-players. The rotation rate of the turntables was carefully controlled, and the records were started at highly specific times, based on precision time-of-day clock standards. Since each record only provided 12 minutes of key, each SIGSALY had two turntables, with a second record \"queued up\" while the first was \"playing\".\n" ]

[ "However, the most striking feature of \"Beer Bad\" is the twin moral: Beer and casual sex are bad. In a BBC interview, Petrie states: \"Well, very young people get unlimited access to alcohol and become horrible! We all do it — or most of us do it — and live to regret it, and we wanted to explore that.\"\n", "Beer bottles are sometimes used as makeshift clubs, for instance in bar fights. As with pint glasses, the use of glass bottles as weapons is known as glassing. Pathologists determined in 2009 that beer bottles are strong enough to crack human skulls, which requires an impact energy of between 14 and 70 joules, depending on the location. Empty beer bottles shatter at 40 joules, while full bottles shatter at only 30 joules because of the pressure of the carbonated beer inside the bottle. A test performed by the television show \"MythBusters\" suggested that full bottles are significantly more dangerous than empty bottles. They concluded that full bottles inflict more damage in terms of concussion and skull fracture. However, they found that both full and empty bottles do the same amount of scalp damage.\n", "The perception that bottles lead to a taste that is superior to canned beer is outdated, as most aluminum cans are lined with a polymer coating that protects the beer from the problematic metal. However, since drinking directly from a can may still result in a metallic taste, most craft brewers recommend pouring beer into a glass prior to consumption. In June 2014, the BA estimated 3% of craft beer is sold in cans, 60% is sold in bottles, and kegs represent the remainder of the market.\n", "Food critic and writer Waverley Root described the common American near beer as \"such a wishy-washy, thin, ill-tasting, discouraging sort of slop that it might have been dreamed up by a Puritan Machiavelli with the intent of disgusting drinkers with genuine beer forever.\"\n", "Most 500 mL beer bottles (local brands such as Goldstar and Maccabee plus certain imported ones like Carlsberg and Tuborg) have a deposit of ₪1.20, and are willingly accepted even by smaller businesses (plastic water bottles, glass wine bottles and soda cans are mostly accepted by larger supermarket chains, some of which possess reverse vending machines).\n", "This popular cola comes in a 12-ounce bottle as well as larger, 20 ounce bottles and aluminum cans. It is a common drink with older adults, but is more heavily marketed to teens and young adults. One can contains as much caffeine as one cup of coffee.\n", "In January 2017, Sierra Nevada issued a voluntary recall of certain 12-ounce bottles of different beers in 36 states due to a manufacturing defect that had possibly introduced chipped pieces of glass into the bottle.\n" ]

[ "Gold has worked to evaluate the hypothesis that hedonistic overeating is a pathological attachment to food like any other addiction. Gold is a co-editor of the 2012 textbook, \"Food and Addiction\", published by Oxford Press. More recently, Gold also co-authored: Why are we consuming so much sugar despite knowing too much can harm us? and Overlaps in the nosology of substance abuse and overeating: the translational implications of “food addiction”.\n", "Like most commodities, the price of gold is driven by supply and demand, including speculative demand. However, unlike most other commodities, saving and disposal play larger roles in affecting its price than its consumption. Most of the gold ever mined still exists in accessible form, such as bullion and mass-produced jewelry, with little value over its fine weight — so it is nearly as liquid as bullion, and can come back onto the gold market. At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totalled . The investor Warren Buffett has said that the total amount of gold in the world that is above ground could fit into a cube with sides of just (which is roughly consistent with 158,000 tonnes based on a specific gravity of 19.3). However, estimates for the amount of gold that exists today vary significantly and some have suggested the cube could be a lot smaller or larger.\n", "\"Don't try to get rich with gold because the corresponding risk is too high. Gold is a volatile asset whose daily price action can be far more dramatic than blue-chip stocks and many other asset classes\"\n", "Gold has been used as money for many reasons. It is fungible, with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell. Gold is also easily transportable, as it has a high value to weight ratio, compared to other commodities, such as silver. Gold can be re-coined, divided into smaller units, or re-melted into larger units such as gold bars, without destroying its metal value. The density of gold is higher than most other metals, making it difficult to pass counterfeits. Additionally, gold is extremely unreactive, hence it does not tarnish or corrode over time.\n", "Gold played a role in western culture, as a cause for desire and of corruption, as told in children's fables such as Rumpelstiltskin—where Rumpelstiltskin turns hay into gold for the peasant's daughter in return for her child when she becomes a princess—and the stealing of the hen that lays golden eggs in Jack and the Beanstalk.\n", "Gold farming has been discussed as a tool for socioeconomic development by the United Kingdom's Department for International Development and University of Manchester professor Richard Heeks. The money involved is small enough to flow easily from many first-world players but large enough to make a difference to the people doing the work. Gold farmers receive a higher percentage of sale revenue from their work than do farmers of fair trade coffee.\n", "Then I asked further, \"Why should we not eat the gold and silver which are already in existence instead of taking the trouble to make them? What are made will not be real gold and silver but just make-believes.\"\n" ]

[ "Overcrowding soon became a big concern, as well as poor sanitation. The jails turned into breeding houses of illness. Furthermore, the jails were even unable to fulfill their basic purpose of containing offenders within its walls. Escapes were very frequent. The prisons held not only those who were awaiting trial but also people who owed money, called debtors. These people were free during the day so they could work to pay off their debt but they returned to the jail at night. Other prisoners included the homeless, unemployed, or impoverished. They were expected to learn good work ethic during their stay.\n", "Conditions in most large prisons were harsh and life-threatening. During the year an unknown number of persons died in prisons due to neglect; MONUC reports indicated that at least one person died each month in prisons in the country. The penal system continued to suffer from severe shortages of funds, and most prisons were severely overcrowded, in poor a state of repair, lacked sanitation facilities, or were not designed to be used as detention facilities. Health care and medical attention remained inadequate and infectious diseases were rampant. In rare cases, prison doctors provided care; however, they often lacked medicines and supplies.\n", "The onset of the Great Depression flooded the prison with new inmates, and Montana state further curtailed the use of inmate labor to provide jobs for civilians. In another blow to the prisoners, in 1934, the state prohibited the sale of convict-made goods to civilians. Prisoners now had almost no legitimate, worthwhile industries to keep themselves busy, and to exacerbate the situation further, most of the prison yard within the walls had been converted into a vegetable garden, eliminating exercise as a pastime.\n", "Prisoners would often take their families with them, which meant that entire communities sprang up inside the debtors' jails. The community created its own economy, with jailers charging for room, food, drink and furniture, or selling concessions to others, and attorneys charging fees in fruitless efforts to get the debtors out. Prisoners' families, including children, often had to find employment simply to cover the cost of the imprisonment.\n", "Employment rates and earnings histories of people in prisons and jails are often low before incarceration as a result of limited education experiences, low skill levels, and the prevalence of physical and mental health problems; incarceration only exacerbates these challenges.\n", "Prisoners had to pay rent, feed and clothe themselves and, in the larger prisons, furnish their rooms. One man found not guilty at trial in 1669 was not released because he owed prison fees from his pre-trial confinement, a position supported by the judge, Matthew Hale. Jailers sold food or let out space for others to open shops; the Marshalsea contained several shops and small restaurants. Prisoners with no money or external support faced starvation. If the prison did supply food to its non-paying inmates, it was purchased with charitable donations—donations sometimes siphoned off by the jailers—usually bread and water with a small amount of meat, or something confiscated as unfit for human consumption. Jailers would load prisoners with fetters and other iron, then charge for their removal, known as \"easement of irons\" (or \"choice of irons\"); this became known as the \"trade of chains\".\n", "The unfortunates in prisons felt that there was no chance for regaining liberty once the prison doors closed upon them. This hopelessness kindled prison revolts, which led to fearful slaughter, to the destruction of all that the years of earnest work had done to modify conditions by building up humane prisons, caring for juvenile offenders, and giving the condemned hope or opportunity once more to be free. \n" ]

[ "The tidal force on Earth due to a perturbing body (Sun, Moon or planet) is expressed by Newton's law of universal gravitation, whereby the gravitational force of the perturbing body on the side of Earth nearest is said to be greater than the gravitational force on the far side by an amount proportional to the difference in the cubes of the distances between the near and far sides. If the gravitational force of the perturbing body acting on the mass of the Earth as a point mass at the center of Earth ( which provides the centripetal force causing the orbital motion ) is subtracted from the gravitational force of the perturbing body everywhere on the surface of Earth, what remains may be regarded as the tidal force. This gives the paradoxical notion of a force acting away from the satellite but in reality it is simply a lesser force towards that body due to the gradient in the gravitational field. For precession, this tidal force can be grouped into two forces which only act on the equatorial bulge outside of a mean spherical radius. This couple can be decomposed into two pairs of components, one pair parallel to Earth's equatorial plane toward and away from the perturbing body which cancel each other out, and another pair parallel to Earth's rotational axis, both toward the ecliptic plane. The latter pair of forces creates the following torque vector on Earth's equatorial bulge:\n", "The tidal accelerations at the surfaces of planets in the Solar System are generally very small. For example, the lunar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Moon-Earth axis is about 1.1 × 10 g, while the solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface along the Sun-Earth axis is about 0.52 × 10 g, where g is the gravitational acceleration at the Earth's surface. Hence the tide-raising force (acceleration) due to the Sun is about 45% of that due to the Moon. The solar tidal acceleration at the Earth's surface was first given by Newton in the \"Principia\".\n", "The Earth is in free fall but the presence of tides indicates that it is in a non-uniform gravitational field. This non-uniformity is more due to the moon than the sun. The total gravitational field due to the sun is much stronger than that of the moon but it has a minor tidal effect compared with that of the moon because of the relative distances involved. Weight of the earth is essentially due to the sun's gravity. But its state of stress and deformation, represented by the tides, is more due to non uniformity in the gravitational field of the nearby moon.\n", "Note that although solar heating is responsible for the largest-amplitude atmospheric tides, the gravitational fields of the Sun and Moon also raise tides in the atmosphere, with the lunar gravitational atmospheric tidal effect being significantly greater than its solar counterpart.\n", "The gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun (also the cause of the tides) have a very small effect on the apparent strength of Earth's gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 µm/s (0.2 mGal) over the course of a day.\n", "One additional tidal constituent results from the centrifugal forces due, in turn, to the so-called polar motion of the Earth. The latter has nothing to do with the gravitational torques acting on the Earth by the Sun and Moon, but is \"excited\" by geophysical mass transports on or in the Earth itself given the (slight) oblateness of the Earth's shape, which actually gives rise to an Euler-type rotational motion with a period of about 433 days for the Earth known as the Chandler wobble (after its first discoverer Seth Chandler in the late 1900s). Incidentally the Eulerian wobble is analogous to the wobbling motion of a spinning frisbee thrown not-so-perfectly. Observationally, the (excited) Chandler wobble is a major component in the Earth's polar motion. One effect of the polar motion is to perturb the otherwise steady centrifugal force felt by the Earth, causing the Earth (and the oceans) to deform slightly at the corresponding periods, knowns as the pole tide. Like the long period tides the pole tide has been assumed to be in equilibrium and an examination of the pole tide at ocean-basin scales seems to be consistent with that assumption. The equilibrium amplitude of the pole tide is about 0.5 cm at it maximum at 45 degrees N. and S. latitudes. At regional scales, though, the observational record is less clear. For example, tide gauge records in the North Sea show a signal that seemed to be non-equilibrium pole tide which Wunsch has suggested is due to a resonance connected with the excitation of barotropic Rossby waves, but O'Connor and colleagues suggest it is actually wind-forced instead.\n", "Earth tides or terrestrial tides affect the entire Earth's mass, which acts similarly to a liquid gyroscope with a very thin crust. The Earth's crust shifts (in/out, east/west, north/south) in response to lunar and solar gravitation, ocean tides, and atmospheric loading. While negligible for most human activities, terrestrial tides' semi-diurnal amplitude can reach about at the Equator— due to the Sun—which is important in GPS calibration and VLBI measurements. Precise astronomical angular measurements require knowledge of the Earth's rotation rate and polar motion, both of which are influenced by Earth tides. The semi-diurnal \"M\" Earth tides are nearly in phase with the Moon with a lag of about two hours.\n" ]

[ "Elementary calculus is the calculus of real-valued functions of one real variable, and the principal ideas of differentiation and integration of such functions can be extended to functions of more than one real variable; this extension is multivariable calculus.\n", "Elementary Functions- a study of the elementary functions (power functions, polynomials, rational, exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric) with an emphasis on their behavior and applications. Some analytic geometry and elements of the calculus as well as the application of matrices to the solution of linear systems is also included.\n", "The mathematical definition of an elementary function, or a function in elementary form, is considered in the context of differential algebra. A differential algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation). Using the derivation operation new equations can be written and their solutions used in extensions of the algebra. By starting with the field of rational functions, two special types of transcendental extensions (the logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary functions.\n", "In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of one variable which is the composition of a finite number of arithmetic operations , exponentials, logarithms, constants, trigonometric functions, and solutions of algebraic equations (a generalization of \"n\"th roots).\n", "Most elementary functions, including the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and all polynomial functions, extended appropriately to complex arguments as functions formula_21, are holomorphic over the entire complex plane, making them \"entire\" \"functions\", while rational functions formula_22, where \"p\" and \"q\" are polynomials, are holomorphic on domains that exclude points where \"q\" is zero. Such functions that are holomorphic everywhere except a set of isolated points are known as \"meromorphic functions\". On the other hand, the functions formula_23, formula_24, and formula_25 are not holomorphic anywhere on the complex plane, as can be shown by their failure to satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann conditions (see below).\n", "The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations. More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. Because it is usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical way of computing definite integrals. It can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration.\n", "The \"fundamental theorem of calculus\" is the statement that differentiation and integration are inverse operations: if a continuous function is first integrated and then differentiated, the original function is retrieved. An important consequence, sometimes called the \"second fundamental theorem of calculus\", allows one to compute integrals by using an antiderivative of the function to be integrated.\n" ]

[ "This happens due to elastic properties of the lungs, as well as the internal intercostal muscles which lower the rib cage and decrease thoracic volume. As the thoracic diaphragm relaxes during exhalation it causes the tissue it has depressed to rise superiorly and put pressure on the lungs to expel the air. During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.\n", "Injury to the external laryngeal nerve causes weakened phonation because the vocal folds cannot be tightened. Injury to one of the recurrent laryngeal nerves produces hoarseness, if both are damaged the voice may or may not be preserved, but breathing becomes difficult.\n", "During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n", "It occurs during forced expiration when intrapleural pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure (positive barometric values), and not during passive expiration when intrapleural pressure remains at subatmospheric pressures (negative barometric values). Clinically, dynamic compression is most commonly associated to the wheezing sound during forced expiration such as in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD).\n", "The main symptom is choking and difficulty or inability to breathe or speak, a feeling of suffocation, which may be followed by hypoxia-induced loss of consciousness. As the airway reopens, breathing may cause a high-pitched sound called stridor. The episode seldom lasts over a couple of minutes before breathing is back to normal.\n", "During the occlusion of the stop, pulling the glottis downward rarefies the air in the vocal tract. The stop is then released. In languages whose implosives are particularly salient, that may result in air rushing into the mouth before it flows out again with the next vowel. To take in air sharply in that way is to implode a sound.\n", "Respiratory symptoms and signs that may be present include shortness of breath, wheezes, or stridor. The wheezing is typically caused by spasms of the bronchial muscles while stridor is related to upper airway obstruction secondary to swelling. Hoarseness, pain with swallowing, or a cough may also occur.\n" ]

[ "Some generic products may try to leverage their existing cost advantage (due to lack of promotion) further by using inferior ingredients for production. This can damage the reputation and lead to customers avoiding future purchase. Prevalence of such acts necessitates the customer crosschecking the crimp for list of ingredients and verifying that it is comparable to a name-brand.\n", "Branding emerged as a top management priority in the last decade due to the growing realization that a brand is one of the most valuable assets that firms can have. A brand is more than just a name on a stationery, clothes, plant, or equipment. It carries meaning to all stakeholders and represents a set of values, promises, even a personality of its own. Most companies with the biggest increases in brand value operate as single brands all over the world. \n", "\"Branded generics\" on the other hand are defined by the FDA and NHS as \"products that are (a) either novel dosage forms of off-patent products produced by a manufacturer that is not the originator of the molecule, or (b) a molecule copy of an off-patent product with a trade name.\" Since the company making branded generics can spend little on research and development, it is able to spend on marketing alone, thus earning higher profits and driving costs down. For example, the largest revenues of Ranbaxy, now owned by Sun Pharma, came from branded generics. \n", "Manufacturers may be able to leverage their existing brand names by developing new product lines. For example, Heinz started out as a brand for pickles but branched out into ketchup. Some brand extensions may involve a risk of damage to the original brand if the quality is not good enough. Coca-Cola, for example, refused to apply the Coke name to a diet drink back when artificial sweeteners had a significantly less attractive taste. Coke created Tab Cola, but only when aspartame (NutraSweet) was approved for use in soft drinks did Coca-Cola come out with a Diet Coke.\n", "BULLET::::- Debranding (transitioning into \"generic\") occurs when a company with a well-known brand opts to appear more generic. This means the company will eliminate advertising and reduce prices and debranding in this sense can increase profit margins.\n", "This approach usually results in higher promotion costs and advertising. This is due to the company being required to generate awareness among consumers and retailers for each new brand name without the benefit of any previous impressions. Multibranding strategy has many advantages. There is no risk that a product failure will affect other products in the line as each brand is unique to each market segment. Although, certain large multiband companies have come across that the cost and difficulty of implementing a multibranding strategy can overshadow the benefits. For example, Unilever, the world's third-largest multination consumer goods company recently streamlined its brands from over 400 brands to centre their attention onto 14 brands with sales of over 1 billion euros. Unilever accomplished this through product deletion and sales to other companies. Other multibrand companies introduce new product brands as a protective measure to respond to competition called fighting brands or fighter brands.\n", "Private branding (also known as reseller branding, private labelling, store brands, or own brands) have increased in popularity. Private branding is when a company manufactures products but it is sold under the brand name of a wholesaler or retailer. Private branding is popular because it typically produces high profits for manufacturers and resellers. The pricing of private brand product are usually cheaper compared to competing name brands. Consumers are commonly deterred by these prices as it sets a perception of lower quality and standard but these views are shifting.\n" ]

[ "Zhang Daqian or Chang Dai-chien (; 10 May 1899 – 2 April 1983) was one of the best-known and most prodigious Chinese artists of the twentieth century. Originally known as a \"guohua\" (traditionalist) painter, by the 1960s he was also renowned as a modern impressionist and expressionist painter. In addition, he is regarded as one of the most gifted master forgers of the twentieth century.\n", "About present day Songzhuang, native artist Cheng Da Qing said, “ The future of Chinese fine art is in Songzhuang ”. The artistic community now has over one thousand artists, centered mainly in the village of Xiaopu and spreading throughout Tuanli, Liuhe, Daxing, Xindian, Lamazhuang, Renzhuang, Beisi, Baimiao and Xiaoyang. Painters, sculptors, photographers, writers, conceptual/new media artists and dreamers live side-by-side, the largest gathering of contemporary artists certainly in China if not in the world.\n", "Fan Tchunpi or Fang Junbi (; 1898–1986), was a Chinese artist known for her brush-and-ink paintings in the traditional \"guóhuà\" style. Trained in Western painting techniques while living in France, her work is known for its combination of European and Chinese formal elements. Called \"one of the most important and prolific Chinese artists of the modern era,\" her work has been the subject of retrospective exhibitions at the Hood Museum of Art, the Musée Cernuschi, and the Fung Ping Shan Museum.\n", "Li Keran (; 26 March 1907 – 5 December 1989), art name Sanqi, was a contemporary Chinese \"guohua\" painter and art educator. Considered one of the most important Chinese artists in the latter half of the 20th century, he was also an influential professor at the Central Academy of Fine Arts where he taught a generation of Chinese artists. Although trained in Western oil painting, he was known for his traditional literati paintings with influences from Qi Baishi and Huang Binhong, two renowned masters in Chinese painting.\n", "Hung Liu (刘虹) (born February 17, 1948) is a Chinese-born American contemporary artist. One of the first Chinese artists to establish a career in the West, Liu is regarded by many as \"the greatest Chinese painter in the US.\"\n", "Tang Yin is one of the most notable painters in the history of Chinese art. He is one of the \"Four Masters of Ming dynasty” (Ming Si Jia), which also includes Shen Zhou (1427–1509), Wen Zhengming (1470–1559) and Qiu Ying (c. 1495-1552). His influence on the art of contemporaries, like Cai Han, is notable. Tang was also a talented poet, and together with his contemporaries Wen Zhengming, Zhu Yunming (1460–1526), and Xu Zhenqing, he was one of the \"Four Literary Masters of the Wuzhong Region\".\n", "World Artists Association (Chinese 世界艺术家协会{}, is an organization of artists around the world and is one of the largest with a broad international influence of arts groups. It promotes the development of arts in the world and hosts international art exchanges. It has organized “International Chinese Artists’ Art Exhibition\" successfully for 12 years. The \"Reference News\" of Xinhua News Agency said in 1998: “This is the largest exchange of Chinese art in the world”. This exhibition has become an important stage for the art exchange of world artists.\n" ]

[ "the original research are implemented. Other file sharing networks, such as the Kad network, use distributed hash tables to index files and for keyword searches. BitTorrent creates individual overlay networks for sharing individual files (or archives). Searches are \"performed\" by other mechanisms, such as locating torrent files indexed on a web site. A similar mechanism can be use on the Gnutella network with magnet links. For instance Bitzi provides a web interface to search for magnet links.\n", "Public or open trackers can be used by anyone by adding the tracker address to an existing torrent, or they can be used by any newly created torrent, like OpenBitTorrent. The Pirate Bay operated one of the most popular public trackers until disabling it in 2009 amid legal trouble, and thereafter offered only magnet links.\n", "A small torrent file is created to represent a file or folder to be shared. The torrent file acts as the key to initiating downloading of the actual content. Someone interested in receiving the shared file or folder first obtains the corresponding torrent file, either by directly downloading it, or by using a magnet link. The user then opens that file in a BitTorrent client, which automates the rest of the process. In order to learn the Internet locations of peers which may be sharing pieces, the client connects to the trackers named in the torrent file, and/or achieves a similar result through the use of distributed hash tables. Then the client connects directly to the peers in order to request pieces and otherwise participate in a swarm. The client may also report progress to trackers, to help the tracker with its peer recommendations.\n", "The eXeem network used super-peers that were used to track torrents (as ordinary bittorrent trackers). These super-peers were also responsible for maintaining file lists, comments and ratings for part of the files in the network. When a peer that was tracking a torrent was closed or went down, a new peer was assigned to be the tracker for that particular torrent.\n", "This system also allows webmasters to easily distribute files using the BitTorrent protocol without requiring the visitors of their sites to install and know how to use a BitTorrent client. To do that, a webmaster needs to find a tracker that directs the BitTorrent downloads and uploads of his file, host the .torrent file, and then display a link in his site, prefixing a URL code to the torrent's online location. The BitLet site provides a code generator to create the HTML for that link; some sites that distribute torrent files already provide such links along with the URL to their torrents, including Fenopy and Suprnova. However, no means of embedding the applet and player into third-party sites exists as of July 2009.\n", "1337x is a website that provides a directory of torrent files and magnet links used for peer-to-peer file sharing through the BitTorrent protocol. According to the TorrentFreak news blog, 1337x is the third most popular torrent website as of 2018.\n", "A bittorrent client is capable of preparing, requesting, and transmitting any type of computer file over a network, using the protocol. Up until 2005, the only way to share files was by creating a small text file called a \"torrent\". These files contain metadata about the files to be shared and the trackers which keep track of the other seeds and peers. Users that want to download the file first obtain a torrent file for it, and connect to the tracker or seeds. In 2005, first Vuze and then the Bittorrent client introduced distributed tracking using distributed hash tables which allowed clients to exchange data on swarms directly without the need for a torrent file. In 2006, peer exchange functionality was added allowing clients to add peers based on the data found on connected nodes.\n" ]

[ "Many species have so-called sex chromosomes that determine the gender of each organism. In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. In evolution, this chromosome has lost most of its content and also most of its genes, while the X chromosome is similar to the other chromosomes and contains many genes. The X and Y chromosomes form a strongly heterogeneous pair.\n", "The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by Nettie Stevens at Bryn Mawr College in 1905 during a study of the mealworm \"Tenebrio molitor\". Edmund Beecher Wilson independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the Y chromosome was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by Hermann Henking. She realized that the previous idea of Clarence Erwin McClung, that the X chromosome determines sex, was wrong and that sex determination is, in fact, due to the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. Stevens named the chromosome \"Y\" simply to follow on from Henking's \"X\" alphabetically.\n", "All animals have a set of DNA coding for genes present on chromosomes. In humans, most mammals, and some other species, two of the chromosomes, called the X chromosome and Y chromosome, code for sex. In these species, one or more genes are present on their Y chromosome that determine maleness. In this process, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome act to determine the sex of offspring, often due to genes located on the Y chromosome that code for maleness. Offspring have two sex chromosomes: an offspring with two X chromosomes will develop female characteristics, and an offspring with an X and a Y chromosome will develop male characteristics.\n", "The X and Y chromosomes are thought to have evolved from a pair of identical chromosomes, termed autosomes, when an ancestral animal developed an allelic variation, a so-called \"sex locus\" – simply possessing this allele caused the organism to be male. The chromosome with this allele became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to (or had no effect on) females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired through the process of translocation.\n", "The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes but few, if any, of these have anything to do directly with sex determination. Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is randomly and permanently inactivated in nearly all somatic cells (cells other than egg and sperm cells). This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or Lyonization, and creates a Barr body. If X-inactivation in the somatic cell meant a complete de-functionalizing of one of the X-chromosomes, it would ensure that females, like males, had only one functional copy of the X chromosome in each somatic cell. This was previously assumed to be the case. However, recent research suggests that the Barr body may be more biologically active than was previously supposed.\n", "Allosomes not only carry the genes that determine male and female traits, but also those for some other characteristics as well. Genes that are carried by either sex chromosome are said to be sex linked. Sex linked diseases are passed down through families through one of the X or Y chromosomes. Since only men inherit Y chromosomes, they are the only ones to inherit Y-linked traits. Men and women can get the X-linked ones since both inherit X chromosomes. \n", "Other species that do not follow the previously discussed conventions of XX females and XY males must find alternative ways to equalize X-linked gene expression among differing sexes. For example, in \"Caenorhabditis elegans\" (or \"C. elegans\"), sex is determined by the ratio of X chromosomes relative to autosomes; worms with two X chromosomes (XX worms) develop as hermaphrodites, whereas those with only one X chromosome (XO worms) develop as males. This system of sex determination is unique, because there is no male specific chromosome, as is the case in XX/XY sex determination systems. However, as is the case with the previously discussed mechanisms of dosage compensation, failure to express X-linked genes appropriately can still be lethal.\n" ]

[ "HRT has been more strongly associated with risk of breast cancer in women with a lower range body mass indices (BMIs). No breast cancer association has been found with BMIs of over 25. It has been suggested by some that the absence of significant effect in some of these studies could be due to selective prescription to overweight women who have higher baseline estrone, or to the very low progesterone serum levels after oral administration leading to a high tumor inactivation rate.\n", "Certain health problems in men such as liver disease, kidney failure, or low testosterone can cause breast growth in men. Drugs and liver disease are the most common cause in adults. Other medications known to cause gynecomastia include methadone; aldosterone antagonists (spironolactone and eplerenone); HIV medication; cancer chemotherapy; hormone treatment for prostate cancer; heartburn and ulcer medications; calcium channel blockers; antifungal medications such as ketoconazole; antibiotics such as metronidazole; tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline; and herbals such as lavender, tea tree oil, and dong quai. The insecticide phenothrin possesses antiandrogen activity and has been associated with gynecomastia.\n", "A contemporary woman's lifetime probability of developing breast cancer is approximately one in seven; yet there is no causal evidence that fat grafting to the breast might be more conducive to breast cancer than are other breast procedures; because incidences of fat tissue necrosis and calcification occur in every such procedure: breast biopsy, implantation, radiation therapy, breast reduction, breast reconstruction, and liposuction of the breast. Nonetheless, detecting breast cancer is primary, and calcification incidence is secondary; thus, the patient is counselled to learn self-palpation of the breast and to undergo periodic mammographic examinations. Although the mammogram is the superior diagnostic technique for distinguishing among cancerous and benign lesions to the breast, any questionable lesion can be visualized ultrasonically and magnetically (MRI); biopsy follows any clinically suspicious lesion or indeterminate abnormality appeared in a radiograph.\n", "Although a number of independent reviews, including the Institute of Medicine in the United States, subsequently indicated that silicone breast implants do not cause breast cancers or any identifiable systemic diseases, on 21 March 2017, the FDA issued a statement indicating that women with breast implants have a \"very low but increased risk\" of getting a rare form of cancer called anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL). The cancer is associated with nine deaths, the FDA said. These findings have caused an uptick in breast implant removal surgeries.\n", "The authors' proposal that bras block the lymphatic system which leads to accumulated toxins and cancer was likewise contradicted by scientific study. The National Institutes of Health examined cancer rates among women who had their underarm lymph nodes removed as part of melanoma treatment: \"The surgery, which is known to block lymph drainage from breast tissue, did not detectably increase breast cancer rates, the study found, meaning that it is extremely unlikely that wearing a bra, which affects lymph flow minimally if at all, would do so.\"\n", "Obesity has been linked to an increased risk of developing breast cancer by many scientific studies. There is evidence to suggest that excess body fat at the time of breast cancer diagnosis is associated with higher rates of cancer recurrence and death. Furthermore, studies have shown that obese women are more likely to have large tumors, greater lymph node involvement, and poorer breast cancer prognosis with 30% higher risk of mortality.\n", "~90% of females with LFS develop breast cancer by age 60 years; the majority of these occur before age 45 years. Females with this syndrome have almost a 100% lifetime risk of developing cancer. This compares with 73% for affected males. The difference may be due to much smaller breast tissue in males as well as increased estrogen levels in females.\n" ]

[ "Iron or steel, when heated to above 900 °F (460 °C), glows with a red color. The color of any heated object changes predictably (due to black-body radiation) from dull red through orange and yellow to white, and can be a useful indicator of its temperature. Good quality iron or steel at and above this temperature becomes increasingly malleable and plastic. Iron or steel having too much sulfur, on the other hand, becomes crumbly and brittle. This is due to the sulfur forming iron sulfide/iron mixtures in the grain boundaries of the metal which have a lower melting point than the steel.\n", "Metals are only transparent to light with a frequency higher than the metal's plasma frequency. For typical metals such as aluminium or silver, \"formula_3\" is approximately 10 cm, which brings the plasma frequency into the ultraviolet region. This is why most metals reflect visible light and appear shiny.\n", "Most metals show more plasticity when hot than when cold. Lead shows sufficient plasticity at room temperature, while cast iron does not possess sufficient plasticity for any forging operation even when hot. This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations on metals. Most metals are rendered plastic by heating and hence shaped hot.\n", "Often, the metal's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used can reverse or remove heat treating, therefore is not advised whatsoever. No visual signs reveal how the material is internally damaged. Much like welding heat treated, high strength link chain, all strength is now lost by heat of the torch. The chain is dangerous and must be discarded.\n", "Metal fires represent a unique hazard because people are often not aware of the characteristics of these fires and are not properly prepared to fight them. Therefore, even a small metal fire can spread and become a larger fire in the surrounding ordinary combustible materials. Certain metals burn in contact with air or water (for example, sodium), which exacerbates this risk. Generally speaking, masses of combustible metals do not represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal \"fines\", which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition sources that would start other common fires.\n", "Metals are heat resistant materials, marking metals requires high-density laser irradiation. Basically, the average laser power leads to melting and the peak power causes evaporation of the material .\n", "Because of its cryogenic nature, liquid oxygen can cause the materials it touches to become extremely brittle. Liquid oxygen is also a very powerful oxidizing agent: organic materials will burn rapidly and energetically in liquid oxygen. Further, if soaked in liquid oxygen, some materials such as coal briquettes, carbon black, etc., can detonate unpredictably from sources of ignition such as flames, sparks or impact from light blows. Petrochemicals, including asphalt, often exhibit this behavior.\n" ]

[ "The \"barbat\" is held similar to a guitar, but care must be taken to have the face vertical so that it is not visible to the player, and to support the weight with the thigh and right arm so that the left hand is free to move around the fingerboard. Note the idiosyncratic manner of holding the \"mizrab\" (Turkish) or \"risha\" (Arabic, lit. \"feather\") or pick; although it seems awkward it is in reality easier than a conventional flatpick and gives the \"right\" tonal shading to the plucked note.\n", "Some Rickenbacker models feature a stereo \"Rick-O-Sound\" output socket, allowing each pickup to be routed to different amplifiers or effects chains. Another feature is the use of two truss rods to correct twists and curvature in the neck. Rickenbacker guitars typically have a set neck made of multiple pieces of wood laminated together lengthwise, while their basses have a one-piece neck that extends through the entire body. Rickenbacker instruments are known for narrower necks (41.4 mm versus 43 mm at the nut for most competitors) and lacquered rosewood fingerboards, giving them a different feel.\n", "The cümbüş is shaped like an American banjo, with a spun-aluminum resonator bowl and skin soundboard. Although originally configured as an oud, the instrument has been converted to other instruments by attaching a different set of neck and strings. The standard cümbüş is fretless, but guitar, mandolin and ukulele versions have fretboards. The neck is adjustable, allowing the musician to change the angle of the neck to its strings by turning a screw. One model is made with a wooden resonator bowl, with the effect of a less tinny, softer sound.\n", "Chime bars can be arranged on a table to be played by a single player, or played by a group in a similar fashion to handbells, with each member holding a chime in one hand and a mallet in the other. They are used from professional music to classrooms. \n", "A turnbuckle, stretching screw or bottlescrew is a device for adjusting the tension or length of ropes, cables, tie rods, and other tensioning systems. It normally consists of two threaded eye bolts, one screwed into each end of a small metal frame, one with a left-hand thread and the other with a right-hand thread. The tension can be adjusted by rotating the frame, which causes both eye bolts to be screwed in or out simultaneously, without twisting the eye bolts or attached cables.\n", "Unlike a standard 6-string guitars, Babicz anchors their strings fanned out along the edge of the soundboard near the side. The strings pass through the string retainer and over the saddle. By anchoring the strings in this fashion the overall tension of the strings is spread across the top and not concentrated in the center, which is the weakest part of the top. This allows Babicz to use a lighter form of bracing on the top other than the rigid X-brace which can impede the vibration of the top often dampening the sound of the guitar.\n", "The top, back and sides of a classical guitar body are very thin, so a flexible piece of wood called \"kerfing\" (because it is often scored, or \"kerfed\" so it bends with the shape of the rim) is glued into the corners where the rim meets the top and back. This interior reinforcement provides 5 to 20 mm of solid gluing area for these corner joints.\n" ]

[ "An individual with this condition has an especially difficult time maintaining a steady beat, and even has difficulty following along to a steady rhythm. Before it was a known disorder, it was thought that these individuals were just severely uncoordinated, and therefore were unable to follow along with the music. It has been discovered recently that problems with rhythm in Schizophrenia, Parkinson's, and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder are also found to have a correlation to rhythm deficiencies.\n", "Recent studies have found people who do not have any issue processing musical tones or beat, yet receive no pleasure from listening to music. Specific musical anhedonia is distinct from Melophobia, the fear of music.\n", "Generally, humans have the ability to hear musical beat and rhythm beginning in infancy. Some people, however, are unable to identify beat and rhythm of music, suffering from what is known as beat deafness. Beat deafness is a newly discovered form of congenital amusia, in which people lack the ability to identify or “hear” the beat in a piece of music. Unlike most hearing impairments in which an individual is unable to hear any sort of sound stimuli, those with beat deafness are generally able to hear normally, but unable to identify beat and rhythm in music. Those with beat deafness are also unable to dance in step to any type of music. Even people who do not dance well can at least coordinate their movements to the song they are listening to, because they can easily keep time to the beat.\n", "Auditory arrhythmia can also be confused with something called beat deafness. Beat deafness is a form of congenital amusia, which is a person's inability to move in time to the music, or feel a musical rhythm. It is believed by researchers that beat deafness stems from a connection problem between the brain's auditory cortex and inferior frontal lobe. A postdoctoral researcher with the International Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound Research at the University of Montreal studied a case where a man could not feel a rhythm in any sense. Not only did he have difficulty dancing, but he was unable to tap his foot or snap his fingers along with the beat of the music. The major difference between beat deafness and auditory arrhythmia, however, is that beat deafness is most likely something you are born with, whereas the arrhythmia most likely comes from damage, which was the case in the research done on \"Mathieu,\" the first known case of beat-deafness. In another case, a former musician known as H.J. suffered damage from a temporoparietal infarct, which is an area of dead tissue due to lack of adequate blood supply. The infarct was believed to have been caused by a problem during a coronary angiography, which is a test to show the insides of an individual's coronary arteries. H.J. suffered difficulties with creating a steady beat, an inability to distinguish between different sets of rhythms, and also experienced difficulties when playing his instruments.\n", "In his television series \"How Music Works\", Howard Goodall presents theories that human rhythm recalls the regularity with which we walk and the heartbeat . Other research suggests that it does not relate to the heartbeat directly, but rather the speed of emotional affect, which also influences heartbeat. Yet other researchers suggest that since certain features of human music are widespread, it is \"reasonable to suspect that beat-based rhythmic processing has ancient evolutionary roots\" . Justin London writes that musical metre \"involves our initial perception as well as subsequent anticipation of a series of beats that we abstract from the rhythm surface of the music as it unfolds in time\" . The \"perception\" and \"abstraction\" of rhythmic measure is the foundation of human instinctive musical participation, as when we divide a series of identical clock-ticks into \"tick-tock-tick-tock\" (; ).\n", "One starting point is to notice that we rely on a sense of rhythm to perform ordinary activities such as walking, running, hammering nails or chopping vegetables. Even speech and thought has a rhythm of sorts. So one way to work on rhythms is to work on bringing these into music, becoming a \"rhythm antenna\" in Andrew Lewis's words. Until the nineteenth century in Europe, people used to sing as they worked, in time to the rhythms of their work. Musical rhythms were part of daily life, Cecil Sharp collected some of these songs before they were forgotten. For more about this see Work song and Sea shanties. In many parts of the world music is an important part of daily life even today. There are many accounts of people (especially tribal people) who sing frequently and spontaneously in their daily life, as they work, and as they engage in other activities.\n", "Rhythm is marked by the regulated succession of opposite elements, the dynamics of the strong and weak beat, the played beat and the inaudible but implied rest beat, the long and short note. As well as perceiving rhythm humans must be able to anticipate it. This depends on repetition of a pattern that is short enough to memorize.\n" ]

[ "The \"Cambrian explosion\" can be viewed as two waves of metazoan expansion into empty niches: first, a coevolutionary rise in diversity as animals explored niches on the Ediacaran sea floor, followed by a second expansion in the early Cambrian as they became established in the water column. The rate of diversification seen in the Cambrian phase of the explosion is unparalleled among marine animals: it affected all metazoan clades of which Cambrian fossils have been found. Later radiations, such as those of fish in the Silurian and Devonian periods, involved fewer taxa, mainly with very similar body plans. Although the recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction started with about as few animal species as the Cambrian explosion, the recovery produced far fewer significantly new types of animals.\n", "The end of the 2nd series of the Cambrian is marked by the first major biotic extinction of the Paleozoic. Changes in ocean chemistry and the marine environment are posited as the most likely cause of these extinctions.\n", "The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record, and many more phyla now extinct. This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms. Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple, composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies. Over the following 70 or 80 million years the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today, although they did not resemble the species of today.\n", "The fossil record of the earliest Cambrian, just after the Ediacaran period, shows a sudden increase in burrowing activity and diversity. However, the Cambrian explosion of animals that gave rise to body fossils did not happen instantaneously. This implies that the \"explosion\" did not represent animals \"replacing\" the incumbent organisms, and pushing them gradually to extinction; rather, the data are more consistent with a radiation of animals to fill in vacant niches, left empty as an extinction cleared out the pre-existing fauna.\n", "The Cambrian is the first period of the Paleozoic Era and starts from . The Cambrian sparked a rapid expansion in evolution in an event known as the Cambrian Explosion during which the greatest number of creatures evolved in a single period in the history of Earth. Plants like algae evolved, and the fauna was dominated by armored arthropods, such as trilobites. Almost all marine phyla evolved in this period. During this time, the super-continent Pannotia began to break up, most of which later recombined into the super-continent Gondwana.\n", "As understanding of the events of the Cambrian becomes clearer, data have accumulated to make some postulated causes for the Cambrian explosion look improbable. Some examples are the evolution of herbivory, vast changes in plate tectonic rates or orbital motion, or different evolutionary mechanisms in force.\n", "The opening of the Cambrian period is marked by a number of biological changes, including the extinction of the Ediacara biota, the preponderance of armoured organisms (e.g. the small shelly fossils), and a \"widening of the behavioural repertoire\" indicated primarily by an increase in vertical burrowing, first for protection and later for feeding - the Cambrian substrate revolution.\n" ]

[ "Rocket propellant may be expelled through an expansion nozzle as a cold gas, that is, without energetic mixing and combustion, to provide small changes in velocity to spacecraft by the use of cold gas thrusters.\n", "The rocket booster would place the vehicle onto a suborbital, but exoatmospheric, trajectory, resulting in a brief spaceflight followed by recontact with the atmosphere. Instead of a full reentry and landing, the vehicle would use the lift from its wings to redirect its glide angle upward, trading horizontal velocity for vertical velocity. In this way, the vehicle would be \"bounced\" back into space again. This skip-glide method would repeat until the speed was low enough that the pilot of the vehicle would need to pick a landing spot and glide the vehicle to a landing. This use of hypersonic atmospheric lift meant that the vehicle could greatly extend its range over a ballistic trajectory using the same rocket booster.\n", "A low-propellant space drive has long been a goal for space exploration, since the propellant is dead weight that must be lifted and accelerated with the ship all the way from launch until the moment it is used (see Tsiolkovsky rocket equation). Gravity assists, solar sails, and beam-powered propulsion from a spacecraft-remote location such as the ground or in orbit, are useful because they allow a ship to gain speed without propellant. However, some of these methods do not work in deep space. Shining a light out of the ship provides a small force from radiation pressure, i.e., using photons as a form of propellant, but the force is far too weak, for a given amount of input power, to be useful in practice.\n", "Kourou is located approximately north of the equator, at a latitude of 5°. It is a common misconception that the main advantage of launching a rocket from the equator is the extra boost provided by the speed of the Earth's rotation. For example, the eastward boost provided by the Earth's rotation is about at the Guiana Space Centre, as compared to about at the United States east coast Cape Canaveral and Kennedy Space Center spaceports which are at 28°27′N latitude in Florida. This means that rockets need around 60 m/s more delta-v to reach Low Earth Orbit (LEO) from Cape Canaveral, which is an insignificant disadvantage.\n", "The high accelerations that rockets naturally possess means that rocket vehicles are often capable of vertical takeoff, and in some cases, with suitable guidance and control of the engines, also vertical landing. For these operations to be done it is necessary for a vehicle's engines to provide more than the local gravitational acceleration.\n", "In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere. Multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary reaction engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin, or gravity.\n", "Therefore, another trick to achieve lower stresses is that rather than picking up a cargo from the ground at zero velocity, a rotovator could pick up a moving vehicle and sling it into orbit. For example, a rotovator could pick up a Mach 12 aircraft from the upper atmosphere of the Earth and move it into orbit without using rockets, and could likewise catch such a vehicle and lower it into atmospheric flight. It is easier for a rocket to achieve the lower tip speed, so \"single stage to tether\" has been proposed. One such is called the Hyper-sonic Airplane Space Tether Orbital Launch (HASTOL). Either air breathing or rocket to tether could save a great deal of fuel per flight, and would permit for both a simpler vehicle and more cargo.\n" ]

[ "Bateson suggested that all evolution is driven by the double bind, whenever circumstances change: If any environment becomes toxic to any species, that species will die out unless it transforms into another species, in which case, the species becomes extinct anyway.\n", "According to Thomas S. Ray and others, this may allow for more \"open-ended\" evolution, in which the dynamics of the feedback between evolutionary and ecological processes can itself change over time (see evolvability), although this claim has not been realized – like other digital evolution systems, it eventually reaches a point where novelty ceases to be created, and the system at large begins either looping or ceases to 'evolve'. The issue of how true open-ended evolution can be implemented in an artificial system is still an open question in the field of artificial life.\n", "The dictionary definition of Evolution is any process of formation, growth or development. In biological evolution the main principle behind this development is survival, we evolved to become stronger and quicker, we also evolved to become intelligent. But as we became intelligent biological evolution subsided to a new concept, cultural evolution. Cultural evolution moves at a much faster rate than biological evolution and this is one reason why it isn't very well understood. But as survival is still the main driving force behind life and that intelligence and knowledge is currently the most important factor for that survival, we can reasonably assume that cultural evolution will progress in the direction of furthering intelligence and knowledge.\n", "Around 1890, he formulated a hypothesis on the irreversible nature of evolution, known later as \"Dollo's law\". According to his hypothesis, a structure or organ lost during the course of evolution would not reappear in that organism. This hypothesis was largely accepted until Michael F. Whiting's 2003 discovery that certain insects that had lost their wings regained them millions of years later. However, it was redeemed on the molecular level in 2009 as a result of a study on glucocorticoid receptors.\n", "The alternatives in question do not deny that evolutionary changes over time are the origin of the diversity of life, nor deny that the organisms alive today share a common ancestor from the distant past (or ancestors, in some proposals); rather, they propose alternative mechanisms of evolutionary change over time, arguing against mutations acted on by natural selection as the most important driver of evolutionary change. (In most cases, they do not deny that mutations or natural selection occur, or that they play a role in evolutionary change, but instead deny that they are fully sufficient primary causes for the evidence of evolutionary change that is observed in the natural world.)\n", "Ideas that evolution might proceed along pre-ordained patterns or that evolutionary lineages might age, deteriorate, and die like individual animals became popular starting in the late , but were superseded by the Neo-Darwinian synthesis. The aftermath of this transition brought renewed interest to the extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Paleontologists began dabbling in the subject, proposing environmental changes during the Cretaceous like mountain-building, dropping temperatures or volcanic eruptions as explanation for the extinction of the dinosaurs. Nevertheless, much of the research occurring during this period lacked rigor, evidential support or depended on tenuous assumptions. Michael J. Benton called the years between 1920 and 1970 the \"Dilettante Phase\" of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction research.\n", "Evolution has no privilege line of descent and no designated end. Evolution has arrived at many millions of interim ends and organisms are still evolving. Evolution is directional, progressive and even predictable.\n" ]

[ "During World War II, between 1941 and 1944, the german Wehrmacht ran a prisoner-of-war camp (Stalag 333) there for Soviet soldiers. More than 30,000 of them died from harsh treatment and malnutrition.\n", "During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and the United Kingdom occupation zones received 1,200 calories a day. Meanwhile, non-German Displaced Persons were receiving 2,300 calories through emergency food imports and Red Cross help.\n", "In total, the number of German soldiers who surrendered to the Western Allies in northwest Europe between D-Day and April 30 1945 was over 2,800,000 (1,300,000 surrendered up to March 31 1945, and over 1,500,000 surrendered in the month of April).\n", "During World War II, German prisoners of war began arriving and at peak numbered 10,000. At the same time, the camp held 90,000 GIs, making it \"one of the largest army training and transshipment camps in Texas\" according to Krammer.\n", "At the time of the end of World War II in Europe on 8 May 1945, there were twenty-one Fw 28s, one Bf 110 and two or three Storchs at Herdla. The German troops organized their own evacuation, which went via Voss. On 20 May a \n", "By the end of World War II, the Soviet Union amassed a huge number of German and Japanese and other Axis Powers POW, estimated over 5 million(of which estimated 15% died in captivity), as well as interned German civilians used as part of the reparations.\n", "Immediately after the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941 the conditions in camps worsened drastically: quotas were increased, rations cut, and medical supplies came close to none, all of which led to a sharp increase in mortality. The situation slowly improved in the final period and after the end of the war.\n" ]

[ "Many men in Western cultures shave their facial hair, so only a minority of men have a beard, even though fast-growing facial hair must be shaved daily to achieve a clean-shaven or hairless look. Some men shave because they cannot grow a \"full\" beard (generally defined as an even density from cheeks to neck) because their beard color is different from their scalp hair color, or because their facial hair grows in many directions, making a groomed look difficult. Some men shave because their beards are very coarse, causing itchiness and irritation. Some men grow a beard or moustache from time to time to change their appearance.\n", "A relatively small number of women are able to grow enough facial hair to have a distinct beard. It is usually the result of a fairly common condition: polycystic ovary syndrome, which causes excess testosterone, and also an over-sensitivity to testosterone, and thus (to a greater or lesser extent) results in male pattern hair growth, among other symptoms. In some cases, female beard growth is the result of a hormonal imbalance (usually androgen excess), or a rare genetic disorder known as hypertrichosis. In some cases a woman’s ability to grow a beard can be due to hereditary reasons without anything medically being wrong.\n", "Throughout the course of history, societal attitudes toward male beards have varied widely depending on factors such as prevailing cultural-religious traditions and the current era's fashion trends. Some religions (such as Islam, Traditional Christianity, Orthdox Judaism and Sikhism) have considered a full beard to be absolutely essential for all males able to grow one and mandate it as part of their official dogma. Other cultures, even while not officially mandating it, view a beard as central to a man's virility, exemplifying such virtues as wisdom, strength, sexual prowess and high social status. In cultures where facial hair is uncommon (or currently out of fashion), beards may be associated with poor hygiene or an uncivilized, dangerous demeanor. In countries with colder climates, beards help protect the wearer's face from the elements.\n", "Evolutionary psychology explanations for the existence of beards include signalling sexual maturity and signalling dominance by the increasing perceived size of jaws, and clean-shaved faces are rated less dominant than bearded. Some scholars assert that it is not yet established whether the sexual selection leading to beards is rooted in attractiveness (inter-sexual selection) or dominance (intra-sexual selection). A beard can be explained as an indicator of a male's overall condition. The rate of facial hairiness appears to influence male attractiveness. The presence of a beard makes the male vulnerable in hand-to-hand fights (it provides an easy way to grab and hold the opponent's head), which is costly, so biologists have speculated that there must be other evolutionary benefits that outweigh that drawback. Excess testosterone evidenced by the beard may indicate mild immunosuppression, which may support spermatogenesis.\n", "A beard is the unshaven hair that grows on the chin, upper lip, cheeks and neck of humans and some non-human animals. In humans, usually only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. Some women with hirsutism, a hormonal condition of excessive hairiness, may develop a beard.\n", "Facial hair grows primarily on or around one's face. Both men and women experience facial hair growth. Like pubic hair, non-vellus facial hair will begin to grow in around puberty. Moustaches in young men usually begin to grow in at around the age of puberty, although some men may not grow a moustache until they reach late teens or at all. For some cases facial hair development may take longer to mature than in the late teens but a lot of men experience no facial development even at an older age. Facial hair development has often been associated with stress levels.\n", "Some relationship to \"beardism\" discrimination based on facial hair is claimed, and a difference in cultures is noted. Some association with claims of unhygienic beards (\"e.g.\", among homeless men) and fashion preferences of women. That various religious groups treat beards more or less reverently is also a factor, for example in Judaism and in Islam. Similarly, some groups require beards and forbid shaving, which has an effect on that society's norms and perceptions.\n" ]

[ "The Muslims lay in a semicircle east of the city facing inwards towards Acre. The Crusader army lay in between, with lightly armed crossbowmen in the first line and the heavy cavalry in second. At the later Battle of Arsuf the Christians fought coherently; here the battle began with a disjointed combat between the Templars and Saladin's right wing. The Crusaders were so successful that the enemy had to send reinforcements from other parts of the field. Thus the steady advance of the Christian centre against Saladin's own corps, in which the crossbows prepared the way for the charge of the men-at-arms, met with no great resistance. Saladin's centre and right flanks were put to flight.\n", "Tactics followed by Crusaders varied according to the commander at the time and depended on the strengths of the different armies. The Crusaders were generally less mobile than their foes especially the Seljuk Turks who regularly used horse archers. However, the Crusader heavy cavalry had a powerful charge that could and did turn many battles. Where records are available several common threads on tactics may be found. Surprise attacks and ambushes were common and generally effective and were used by both the Crusaders and their enemies. Examples of surprise attacks included the Battle of Dorylaeum (1097), the Battle of Ascalon (1099) and the Battle of Lake Huleh (1157). Against horse archers such as those used by the Seljuks, running battles were common. In these instances, the Crusaders kept in close marching formation while being harassed by mobile horse archers. Generally the forces opposing the Crusaders were unable or unwilling to attempt breaking the formation. This type of battle usually resulted in no clear result. Examples of running battles include the Battle of Bosra (1147) and the Battle of Aintab (1150). This use of relatively heavily armoured troops to shield the less armoured foot soldiers and archers was also seen in the formation used by Bohemund of Taranto during the Battle of Dorylaeum (1097). Although often no clear result appeared in running battles, there could be a chance for the Crusaders to charge into unprepared and disorganised enemy forces after some time had passed. This could result in a decisive victory, as happened in the Battle of Arsuf (1191) although it was not part of the original battle plan. Against the Fatimid forces, which used foot archers and light melee cavalry, the Crusaders could use their heavy cavalry more effectively, achieving decisive results. This can be seen in the first and third battles of Ramla. In the Second Battle of Ramla, faulty intelligence had resulted in the near-destruction of a small Crusader force. \n", "The Muslim armies under Saladin captured or killed the vast majority of the Crusader forces, removing their capability to wage war. As a direct result of the battle, Muslims once again became the eminent military power in the Holy Land, re-conquering Jerusalem and most of the other Crusader-held cities. These Christian defeats prompted the Third Crusade, which began two years after the Battle of Hattin.\n", "In the Battle of al-Buqaia (Al-Buqai'a al-Hosn) in 1163, the Crusaders and their allies inflicted a rare defeat on Nur ad-Din Zangi, the Emir of Aleppo and Damascus. King Amalric I led the army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, together with contingents from the northern Latin states, a substantial body of pilgrims who had just arrived from France, and a force brought by the Byzantine governor of Cilicia. For the Christian forces, this victory only gave a brief respite from the sustained Muslim offensive.\n", "The Islamic armies too had a sophisticated military organization, their armies consisted of the Central Asian Turkish Mamluk or the Ghulam infantry. Further, local Turks, Kurds, Arabs, Armenians, Persians, were also recruited from all over the Mediterranean. Their weapons were no different from the crusaders, using daggers, axes, spears, bows and arrows. The bows were differently crafted, using multiple strips of different kinds of wood glued together to maximize the range and penetration power of said bow. Their swords also had a slightly different design, Muslim Cavalry used swords for close combat and their armour was often worn beneath their cloths, to protect themselves from the sun overheating the iron pieces. Muslim troops also carried with them round and kite shaped shields.\n", "The Muslims engaged the Byzantines at their camp by the village of Musharif and then withdrew towards Mu'tah. It was here that the two armies fought. Some Muslim sources report that the battle was fought in a valley between two heights, which negated the Byzantines' numerical superiority. During the battle, all three Muslim leaders fell one after the other as they took command of the force: first, Zayd, then Ja'far, then 'Abdullah. After the death of the latter, some of the Muslim soldiers began to rout. Thabit ibn Al-Arqam, seeing the desperate state of the Muslim forces, took up the banner and rallied his comrades thus saving the army from complete destruction. After the battle, Al-Arqam took the banner, before asking Khalid bin Walid to take the lead.\n", "As soon as reconnaissance patrols revealed the Muslim leader's maneuver, the Frankish leaders determined to move their field army into close contact with Saladin's army. After adding reinforcements by stripping nearby castles of most of their garrisons, the Crusader army marched to Tiberias then turned south. In the vicinity of Belvoir castle (Arabic name: Kaukab al-Hawa), Baldwin's men spent the night in their closely guarded camp. The next morning, the Ayyubid army confronted the Crusaders.\n" ]

[ "Due to spontaneous fission a supercritical mass will undergo a chain reaction. For example, a spherical critical mass of pure uranium-235 will have a mass of 52 kg and will experience around 15 spontaneous fission events per second. The probability that one such event will cause a chain reaction depends on how much the mass exceeds the critical mass. If there is uranium-238 present, the rate of spontaneous fission will be much higher. Fission can also be initiated by neutrons produced by cosmic rays.\n", "Nuclear fusion occurs when the nuclei of two atoms approach closely enough for the nuclear force to pull them together into a single larger nucleus. The strong force is opposed by the electrostatic force created by the positive charge of the nuclei's protons, pushing the nuclei apart. The amount of energy that is needed to overcome this repulsion is known as the Coulomb barrier. The amount of energy released by the fusion reaction when it occurs may be greater or less than the Coulomb barrier. Generally, lighter nuclei with a smaller number of protons and greater number of neutrons will have the greatest ratio of energy released to energy required, and the majority of fusion power research focusses on the use of deuterium and tritium, two isotopes of hydrogen.\n", "The energy given off during either nuclear fusion or nuclear fission is the difference of the binding energies of the \"fuel,\" i.e. the initial nuclide(s), from that of the fission or fusion products. In practice, this energy may also be calculated from the substantial mass differences between the fuel and products, which uses previous measurements of the atomic masses of known nuclides, which always have the same mass for each species. This mass difference appears once evolved heat and radiation have been removed, which is required for measuring the (rest) masses of the (non-excited) nuclides involved in such calculations.\n", "In nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons). The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or absorption of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in atomic \"binding energy\" between the atomic nuclei before and after the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or \"main sequence\" stars, or other high magnitude stars.\n", "Nuclear fusion produces energy by combining the very lightest elements into more tightly bound elements (such as hydrogen into helium), and nuclear fission produces energy by splitting the heaviest elements (such as uranium and plutonium) into more tightly bound elements (such as barium and krypton). Both processes produce energy, because middle-sized nuclei are the most tightly bound of all.\n", "The total energy output, 17.6 MeV, is one tenth of that with fission, but the ingredients are only one-fiftieth as massive, so the energy output per unit mass is approximately five times as great. In this fusion reaction, 14 of the 17.6 MeV (80% of the energy released in the reaction) shows up as the kinetic energy of the neutron, which, having no electric charge and being almost as massive as the hydrogen nuclei that created it, can escape the scene without leaving its energy behind to help sustain the reaction – or to generate x-rays for blast and fire.\n", "Nuclear energy is released by the splitting (fission) or merging (fusion) of the nuclei of atom(s). The conversion of nuclear mass-energy to a form of energy, which can remove some mass when the energy is removed, is consistent with the mass-energy equivalence formula:\n" ]

[ "Water must be purified of harmful living organisms and chemicals. Some commercial filters can remove most organisms and some harmful chemicals, but they are not 100% effective. Distillation filters, purifies, and removes some harmful chemicals. Chemicals with a lower or about equal boiling point of water are not eliminated by distilling. Iodine or chlorine dioxide solutions or tablets can be used to purify water. It can be boil water in a fire-resistant pot or water bottle. Water can be boiled in some flammable materials like bark because the water absorbs the heat. Pasteurization takes place at temperatures lower than boiling point, but knowing the temperature of the water and calculating the duration of treatment can be difficult. This technique is useful when only non-durable containers are available. Sunlight can be used with a clear container. Filters made from heat-treated diatomaceous earth can also be used.\n", "In general, non-purified water could cause or interfere with chemical reactions as well as leave mineral deposits after boiling away. One method of removing impurities from water and other fluids is distillation.\n", "A significant problem with using any sort of water as a coolant is that the water tends to dissolve the fuel and other components and ends up becoming highly radioactive. This is mitigated by using particular alloys for the tubes and processing the fuel into a ceramic form. While effective at reducing the rate of dissolution, this adds to the cost of processing the fuel while also requiring materials that are susceptible to neutron embrittlement. More of an issue is the fact that water has a low boiling point, limiting the operating temperatures. A material with a higher boiling point can be run at higher temperatures, increasing the efficiency of the power extraction and allowing the core to be smaller.\n", "Boiling suspect water for one minute is the surest method to make water safe to drink and kill disease-causing microorganisms such as \"Giardia lamblia\" if in doubt about whether water is infected. Chemical disinfectants or filters may be used.\n", "As a method of disinfecting water, bringing it to its boiling point at , is the oldest and most effective way since it does not affect the taste, it is effective despite contaminants or particles present in it, and is a single step process which eliminates most microbes responsible for causing intestine related diseases. Water's boiling point rests at around 100.0 degrees Celsius, when at an elevation of 0. In places having a proper water purification system, it is recommended only as an emergency treatment method or for obtaining potable water in the wilderness or in rural areas, as it cannot remove chemical toxins or impurities.\n", "Heat kills disease-causing micro-organisms, with higher temperatures and/or duration required for some pathogens. Sterilization of water (killing all living contaminants) is not necessary to make water safe to drink; one only needs to render enteric (intestinal) pathogens harmless. Boiling does not remove most pollutants and does not leave any residual protection.\n", "Purified water has many uses, largely in the production of medications, in science and engineering laboratories and industries, and is produced in a range of purities. It can be produced on site for immediate use or purchased in containers. Purified water in colloquial English can also refer to water which has been treated (\"rendered potable\") to neutralize, but not necessarily remove contaminants considered harmful to humans or animals.\n" ]

[ "Areas with large trees and branches falling on lines are a problem for aerial bundled cables as the line degrades over time. Due to the very large strain forces cracking and breaking insulation can lead to short circuit failures which can then lead to ground fires due to dripping of molten insulation.\n", "Trees and plants are felled and transported to the roadside with top and limbs intact. There have been advancements to the process which now allows a logger or harvester to cut the tree down, top, and delimb a tree in the same process. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used. The trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing. In areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the entire tree including branches and tops. This technique removes both nutrients and soil cover from the site and so can be harmful to the long term health of the area if no further action is taken, however, depending on the species, many of the limbs are often broken off in handling so the end result may not be as different from tree-length logging as it might seem.\n", "In electrical engineering, treeing is an electrical pre-breakdown phenomenon in solid insulation. It is a damaging process due to partial discharges and progresses through the stressed dielectric insulation, in a path resembling the branches of a tree. Treeing of solid high-voltage cable insulation is a common breakdown mechanism and source of electrical faults in underground power cables.\n", "Treeing has been a long-term failure mechanism for buried polymer-insulated high voltage power cables, first reported in 1969. In a similar fashion, 2D trees can occur along the surface of a highly stressed dielectric, or across a dielectric surface that has been contaminated by dust or mineral salts. Over time, these partially conductive trails can grow until they cause complete failure of the dielectric. Electrical tracking, sometimes called \"dry banding\", is a typical failure mechanism for electrical power insulators that are subjected to salt spray contamination along coastlines. The branching 2D and 3D patterns are sometimes called Lichtenberg figures.\n", "The reason for elevating the lines (cables) at the head end is to assist in pulling the logs free of obstructions on the ground. Also if the trees are being partially lifted as they are transported it is less disruptive to the ground which can be an environmental issue.\n", "Electrical treeing often occurs in high-voltage equipment prior to causing complete breakdown. Following these Lichtenberg figures within the insulation during post-accident investigation of an insulation failure can be useful in finding the cause of breakdown. An experienced high-voltage engineer can see from the direction and the shape of trees and their branches where the primary cause of the breakdown was situated and possibly find the initial cause. Broken-down transformers, high-voltage cables, bushings and other equipment can usefully be investigated in this manner. The insulation is unrolled (in the case of paper insulation) or sliced in thin slices (in the case of solid insulating materials). The results are then sketched or photographed to create a record of the breakdown process.\n", "Airplanes and airstrips require trees to be cut down, as they are a nuisance to pilots. Some 3,000 trees will be chopped due to obstruction issues at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. On the other hand, trees next to rail lines can often become a hazard during winter storms, with several German media calling for trees to be cut down following autumn storms in 2017.\n" ]

[ "Rust is a mixture of iron(III) oxide and oxide-hydroxide that usually forms when iron metal is exposed to humid air. Unlike the passivating oxide layers that are formed by other metals, like chromium and aluminum, rust flakes off, because it is bulkier than the metal that formed it. Therefore, unprotected iron objects will in time be completely turned into rust\n", "Rust is an iron oxide, a usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Several forms of rust are distinguishable both visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances. Rust consists of hydrated iron(III) oxides FeO·\"n\"HO and iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH)).\n", "After-rust is a form of rust which sometimes develops on a non-ferrous metal surface when that surface has been finished, deburred, or cleaned with a carbon steel brush or steel wool. It is caused by microscopic deposits of the steel which become embedded in the metal surface and which over time begin to oxidize. This oxidation causes the surface to become dull and may impart a brown color to it. After-rust can be avoided by cleaning such surfaces only with non-ferrous brushes/ wools including rustless bronze, aluminum, and stainless steel wool and nonferrous wools such as those made of brass.\n", "Rust is associated with degradation of iron-based tools and structures. As rust has a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its buildup can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent parts — a phenomenon sometimes known as \"rust packing\". It was the cause of the collapse of the Mianus river bridge in 1983, when the bearings rusted internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support.\n", "Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar used in underwater concrete pillars, which generates green rust, is an example. Although rusting is generally a negative aspect of iron, a particular form of rusting, known as \"stable rust,\" causes the object to have a thin coating of rust over the top, and if kept in low relative humidity, makes the \"stable\" layer protective to the iron below, but not to the extent of other oxides, such as aluminum.\n", "For iron rust to occur the metal has to be in contact with oxygen and water, although chemical reactions for this process are relatively complex and not all of them are completely understood. It is believed the causes are the following:\n", "\"Rust\" is an online multiplayer survival game, based on games such as \"Minecraft\" and \"DayZ\". \"Rust\"s inception stemmed from Facepunch's frustration with \"DayZ\"s gameplay; inheriting its cruel player versus player model and \"Minecraft\"s crafting and building aspects. \"Rust\"s grand concept was to develop a game where the players would be able to mold the environment: hunting, scavenging, gathering, and looting for survival; and players themselves impeding or assisting each other's success.\n" ]

[ "A gravitational lens is a distribution of matter (such as a cluster of galaxies) between a distant light source and an observer, that is capable of bending the light from the source as the light travels towards the observer. This effect is known as gravitational lensing, and the amount of bending is one of the predictions of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. (Classical physics also predicts the bending of light, but only half that predicted by general relativity.)\n", "Unlike an optical lens, a gravitational lens produces a maximum deflection of light that passes closest to its center, and a minimum deflection of light that travels furthest from its center. Consequently, a gravitational lens has no single focal point, but a focal line. The term \"lens\" in the context of gravitational light deflection was first used by O.J. Lodge, who remarked that it is \"not permissible to say that the solar gravitational field acts like a lens, for it has no focal length\". If the (light) source, the massive lensing object, and the observer lie in a straight line, the original light source will appear as a ring around the massive lensing object. If there is any misalignment, the observer will see an arc segment instead. This phenomenon was first mentioned in 1924 by the St. Petersburg physicist Orest Chwolson, and quantified by Albert Einstein in 1936. It is usually referred to in the literature as an Einstein ring, since Chwolson did not concern himself with the flux or radius of the ring image. More commonly, where the lensing mass is complex (such as a galaxy group or cluster) and does not cause a spherical distortion of space–time, the source will resemble partial arcs scattered around the lens. The observer may then see multiple distorted images of the same source; the number and shape of these depending upon the relative positions of the source, lens, and observer, and the shape of the gravitational well of the lensing object.\n", "Gravitational lensing is an effect of Einstein's general relativity, which says that all matter bends light that passes by it. Strong gravitational lensing drastically alters the shape of an object on the sky; weak gravitational lensing slightly alters the shape of the object; and gravitational microlensing alters only the brightness of the object, instead of its shape. Gravitational lensing in general, and especially microlensing, has had a vast impact on astronomy, specifically in the search for extrasolar planets.\n", "Gravitational lensing occurs when light from a distant star is bent and magnified by the gravitational field of a foreground star. A \"gravitational microlensing\" event occurs when a planet accompanying this foreground star can cause an additional small increase in the intensity of magnified light as it passes between the background star and the observer as well.\n", "Gravitational lensing occurs when a distant object and a massive intermediate object form a straight line as seen from Earth. Then the gravitational field of the intermediate object bends the light from distant object, magnifying it. When the two objects are stars, as opposed to galaxies, it is called gravitational microlensing. The alignment must be very precise, in fact so precise that Albert Einstein concluded \"there is no great chance of observing this phenomenon\". However, modern surveys such as the Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment (OGLE) observe millions of stars each night, and see microlensing many times each year.\n", "Gravitational lenses act equally on all kinds of electromagnetic radiation, not just visible light. Weak lensing effects are being studied for the cosmic microwave background as well as galaxy surveys. Strong lenses have been observed in radio and x-ray regimes as well. If a strong lens produces multiple images, there will be a relative time delay between two paths: that is, in one image the lensed object will be observed before the other image.\n", "The possibility of gravitational lensing was suggested in 1924 and clarified by Albert Einstein in 1936. In 1937, Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898 - 1974), working at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California, realized that galaxies and galaxy clusters far out in space may be sufficiently compact and massive to observably bend the light from even more distant objects through gravitational lensing. His ideas were confirmed in 1979, when the first example of a cosmic mirage was discovered, the Twin Quasar.\n" ]

[ "Brackets are commonly found in major North American professional sports leagues and in U.S. college sports. Often, at the end of the regular season, the league holds a post-season tournament (most commonly called a playoff) to determine which team is the best out of all of the teams in the league. This is done because often in American professional sports there are at least two different conferences, and teams mostly play other teams in their own conference. Examples of this are the American Football Conference and the National Football Conference in the NFL, the American League and the National League in Major League Baseball, and the Eastern Conference and the Western Conference in the NBA or NHL.\n", "Under the NFL's current scheduling formula, each team plays each of the other three teams in their own division twice. In addition, a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team's schedule are against the two teams in the team's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play who finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in their conference that also finished first in its respective division). The pre-set division pairings for 2014 were as follows:\n", "Under the NFL's scheduling formula, each team plays each of the other three teams in their own division twice (one home and one away). In addition, a team plays against all four teams in one other division within the conference, on a 3-year rotation; and one division from the opposite conference, on a 4-year rotation. Two games on a team's schedule are against the two teams in the team's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play who finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in their conference that also finished first in its respective division). The pre-set division pairings for 2015 are as follows:\n", "Under the NFL's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition, a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team's schedule are against the two remaining teams in the same conference that finished in the same position in their respective divisions (e.g., the team that finished fourth in its division will play all three other teams in the conference that also finished fourth). The division pairings for 2018 will be as follows:\n", "Under the NFL's current scheduling formula, each team played each of the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition, a team played against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team's schedule were against the two teams in the team's own conference in the two divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season played each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The pre-set division pairings for 2016 were:\n", "Division 2 is composed of two groups of 10 teams (North and South). Each of these is further divided into two groups of 5. The top two in each group play semi-finals and finals, with the North champions and the South champions advancing to the NFL quarter-finals and being promoted.\n", "Under the NFL's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team's schedule are against the two teams in the team's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The preset division pairings for 2017 will be as follows.\n" ]

[ "\"The Sun\" first gained notice for its central role in the Great Moon Hoax of 1835, a fabricated story of life and civilization on the Moon which the paper falsely attributed to British astronomer John Herschel and never retracted. On April 13, 1844, \"The Sun\" published as factual a story by Edgar Allan Poe now known as \"The Balloon-Hoax\", retracted two days after publication. The story told of an imagined Atlantic crossing by hot-air balloon.\n", "The articles from the \"Sun\" were combined into a 1919 book, \"Splendors of the Sky\", and her articles before 1922 in \"Science and Invention\" were included in the second part of her book \"Astronomy for Young Folks\". In addition, in \"News of the Stars\" she gave lectures on the local radio station (WRC) and made presentations at schools and churches.\n", "The Birth and Death of the Sun is a popular science book by theoretical physicist and cosmologist George Gamow, first published in 1940, exploring atomic chemistry, stellar evolution, and cosmology. The book is illustrated by Gamow. It was revised in 1952.\n", "One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was not the chariot of Helios, but instead a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun. For teaching this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BC as \"of stadia myriads 400 and 80000\", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the 1st century AD, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius of Earth, approximately .\n", "The Sun () is a wordless novel by Flemish artist Frans Masereel (1889–1972), published in 1919. In sixty-three uncaptioned woodcut prints, the book is a contemporary retelling of the Greek myth of Icarus.\n", "Rudolf Wolf studied the historical record in an attempt to establish a history of solar variations. His data extended only to 1755. He also established in 1848 a relative sunspot number formulation to compare the work of different astronomers using varying equipment and methodologies, now known as the Wolf (or Zürich) sunspot number.\n", "The first clear mention of a sunspot in Western literature, around 300 BC, was by the ancient Greek scholar Theophrastus, student of Plato and Aristotle and successor to the latter. On 17 March AD 807 Benedictine monk Adelmus observed a large sunspot that was visible for eight days; however, Adelmus incorrectly concluded he was observing a transit of Mercury.\n" ]

[ "brwhy this tape sounds the way it does.bralthough it could be argued that the tape sounds this way because I'm dumb, I would prefer you think it's because rooms, recording tape and tape machines are not invisible.br-- Al.\n", "To prevent the recording on the tape from being erased, there is a small write-protect tab that can be moved to one of two positions, labeled \"REC\" and \"SAVE\". Comparing the sliding tab to a door, the tape is in the \"REC\" position when the \"door\" is open and in the \"SAVE\" position when it is closed. (Not all tape cases have markings for this information.) The tape can only be recorded onto (or recorded over) when this tab is in the \"REC\" position. This is an improved version of the VHS write-protect tab, which prevents erasure after it has been broken off, requiring covering with adhesive tape or filling with an obstruction to remove the write protection.\n", "Beginning in 1981, the British Phonographic Industry began a campaign against so-called \"home taping\", or recording songs from the radio onto cassettes, due to fears that home taping would decrease album sales. Iconic of the campaign is a picture of the silhouette of a cassette tape, with two crossed bones underneath, with the words \"HOME TAPING IS KILLING MUSIC\" written across the top, and the words \"AND IT'S ILLEGAL\" printed in smaller letters at the bottom.\n", "The video cassette recorder is sensitive to changes in temperature and humidity. If the machine (or tape) was moved from a cold to a hotter environment there could be condensation of moisture on the internal parts, such as the rotating video head drum. Some later models were equipped with a moisture detector which would prevent operation in this case, but it could not detect moisture on the surface of a tape.\n", "The tape was reportedly found during a house party. Richard D. James had passed out, and one of the guests went into James' room and made a copy of one of his DATs. Since it was hastily copied, the sound quality is poor and it plays at the wrong speed. Subsequent copying further degraded the clarity.\n", "While VHS and Beta tapes have a break-off tab to protect recordings from erasure (as in audio Compact Cassettes and, once broken, the cavity left by the missing tab must be covered or filled before the tape can be reused), VCCs employ a reversible solution: a switch on the tape edge can be turned to red/orange to protect the recordings, and back to black/brown (depending on the colour of the cassette housing) to re-record. The switch covers/uncovers a hole along the tape edge which is detected by a sensor in the machine.\n", "Another invention, Cousino patented was a graphite coating bottom side the audio tape, suppressing crumpling when pulling the endless tape from the inner reel. The coating was also used on 8-Track tape, causing the gray appearance of the tape bottom side.\n" ]

[ "During the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), the Acadians were expelled from Grand-Pré during the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755). There were various British soldiers who kept a journal of the deportation from Grand-Pré such as Lt. Col. John Winslow and Jeremiah Bancroft. The site of Grand-Pré during the expulsion was later immortalized by American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow with his epic poem Evangeline.\n", "During the French and Indian War, on February 26, 1756, with the Expulsion of the Acadians in full force, Pierre led a daring escape from Fort Cumberland, formerly French Fort Beauséjour, at Chignecto. Eighty Acadians escaped via a tunnel they had dug with discarded horse bones. These families escaped to the woods and managed to elude the British for two years, but they paid a terrible price in doing so, suffering from starvation.\n", "In 1643, Royalists escaping from Nantwich \"sacked\" Over. The situation during the English Civil War was very dangerous to everyone – proof of this was discovered when workmen in Nixon Drive found a little black ale mug full of silver coins, with a date range from Queen Elizabeth I to 1643. The coins were declared treasure trove and are now at the Grosvenor Museum in Chester.\n", "Following the British defeat in the American War of Independence over 1,100 Black Loyalist troops who had fought on the losing side were transported to Britain, but they mostly ended up destitute on London's streets and were viewed as a social problem. The Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor was formed. They distributed relief and helped the men to go overseas, some to what remained of British North America. In 1786, the committee funded an expedition of 280 black men, forty black women and seventy white wives and girlfriends to Sierra Leone. The settlement failed and within two years all but sixty of the migrants had died.\n", "Following their rebellion and surrender to the colonial government in the Second Maroon War of 1796, just under 600 Jamaican Maroons from Trelawny Town were deported to Nova Scotia. Tired of the cost of maintaining order, the Jamaican government had decided to rid themselves of \"the problem\". Immediate actions were put in place for the removal of the Trelawny Maroons to Lower Canada (Quebec); Upper Canada (Ontario) had also been suggested as a suitable place. The British decided to send this group to Halifax, Nova Scotia, until any further instructions were received from England. William Quarrell and Alexander Ochterlony were sent from Jamaica with the Maroons as Commissioners. During the course of his administration, Ochterlony took half a dozen Maroon women as mistresses. Quarrell tried in vain to break up the Maroons as a community.\n", "With the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, the British government allowed Acadians who had been expelled from Nova Scotia in 1755 and afterwards to return if they chose to do so. Many did so choose, but as most of their former lands had been seized by New Englanders they were forced to re-settle to other areas, such as Pubnico. MacKinnon was willing to lease some of his lands to Acadians in the area of Ste. Anne du Ruisseau, much to the disgust of the New Englanders, who were prejudiced against the Acadians as Papists.\n", "By the end of the campaign, more than seven thousand Acadians had been deported to the New England States. The French, Native and Acadians would conduct a guerrilla war against the British over the next four years, such as the raids on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia. The second wave of the expulsion began after the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). The British would then engage in the St. John River Campaign, the Petitcodiac River Campaign, the Ile Saint-Jean Campaign, and the removal of Acadians in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758).\n" ]

[ "After the death of Menander (c. 130 BC), the Kingdom appears to have fragmented, with several 'kings' attested contemporaneously in different regions. This inevitably weakened the Greek position, and territory seems to have been lost progressively. Around 70 BC, the western regions of Arachosia and Paropamisadae were lost to tribal invasions, presumably by those tribes responsible for the end of the Bactrian kingdom. The resulting Indo-Scythian kingdom seems to have gradually pushed the remaining Indo-Greek kingdom towards the east. The Indo-Greek kingdom appears to have lingered on in western Punjab until about 10 AD, at which time it was finally ended by the Indo-Scythians.\n", "The Indo-Greek kingdoms lost most of their eastern territories in the 1st century BC following the death of Menander. The Arjunayanas and the Yaudheya Republic mention military victories on their coins (\"Victory of the Arjunayanas\", \"Victory of the Yaudheyas\"). These entities would remain independent until being conquered by the Saka King Rudradaman I of the Western Satraps.\n", "The History of the Indo-Greek Kingdom covers a period from the 2nd century BCE to the beginning of the 1st century CE in northern and northwestern India. There were over 30 Indo-Greek kings, often in competition on different territories. Many of them are only known through their coins.\n", "After Ashoka's death the Mauryan empire collapse, just as in the west the Seleucid power was rising. The Greek princes of neighboring Bactria (in modern Afghanistan) took advantage of the power vacuum to declare their independence. The Bactrian kingdoms were then attacked from the west by the Parthians and from the north (about 139 BCE) by the Sakas, a Central Asian tribe. Local Greek rulers still exercised a feeble and precarious power along the borderland, but the last vestige of Greek dominion was extinguished by the arrival of the Yueh-chi.\n", "The Indo-Greek period (180 BCE – 20 CE) marks a time when Bactrian Greeks established themselves directly in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent following the fall of the Maurya Empire and its takeover by the Sunga.\n", "By mid century, however, the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon was becoming dominant in Athenian affairs. In 338 BC the armies of Philip II defeated Athens at the Battle of Chaeronea, effectively limiting Athenian independence. During the winter of 338 BC /337 BC Macedonia, Athens and other Greek states became part of the League of Corinth. Further, the conquests of his son, Alexander the Great, widened Greek horizons and made the traditional Greek city state obsolete. Antipater dissolved the Athenian government and established a plutocratic system in 322 BC (see Lamian War and Demetrius Phalereus).\n", "As a result of the Greek War of Independence, which had begun in 1821, and the Great Powers' intervention in the conflict in the Battle of Navarino (1827), the creation of some form of Greek state in southern Greece had become certain. In 1827, the Greek Third National Assembly entrusted the governance of the fledgling nation to Ioannis Kapodistrias, who arrived in Greece in January 1828. Alongside his efforts to lay the foundations for a modern state, Kapodistrias undertook negotiations with the Great Powers as to the extent and constitutional status of the new Greek state.\n" ]

[ "In 2005, Jackson was criminally tried for several counts of child molestation charges following concerns raised in the 2003 documentary \"Living with Michael Jackson\". He was seen holding hands in the documentary with 12-year-old Gavin Arvizo and talked about sharing a bed. Jackson was acquitted of all charges. In 2011, choreographer and former friend of Jackson, Wade Robson approached John Branca, co-executor of the Michael Jackson Estate, about directing the Michael Jackson-Cirque du Soleil joint production \"\". Robson wanted the job badly, but the Estate chose someone else for the production. In 2012, Robson stated he had a nervous breakdown caused by his obsessive quest for success. He said, during this time, his career began to \"crumble.\" In the same year, Robson failed to find a publishing deal for book alleging that he was sexually abused by Jackson.\n", "Jackson had previously been accused of child sexual abuse in 1993. He denied the allegations and settled with the accuser's family out of court, which ended the lawsuit. Prosecutors dropped the criminal investigation after the accuser refused to cooperate following his settlement. In the 2005 case, Jackson was accused of abusing Arvizo at his Neverland Ranch estate in Los Olivos, California. The investigation was touched off by a 2003 documentary, \"Living with Michael Jackson\", that showed Jackson holding hands with Arvizo and defending his practice of giving his bed to children.\n", "BULLET::::- 3 February – UK screening of the Martin Bashir documentary \"Living with Michael Jackson\" on ITV1. The revelations of Jackson's controversial personal life in the programme is one of the many factors that leads to his trial for child molestation.\n", "Further accusations of child sexual abuse were made in 2003, by 13-year-old Gavin Arvizo. The allegations came after Jackson and the boy appeared in the documentary \"Living with Michael Jackson\", in which the entertainer stated that he shared his bed with children in a non-sexual fashion. The singer was subsequently indicted on four counts of molesting a minor, four counts of intoxicating a minor, one count of abduction, and one count of conspiring to hold the boy and his family captive at Neverland Ranch. During the five-month trial, Jackson faced allegations of child molestation and assertions that he had attempted to abduct the Arvizo family in a hot air balloon. He denied all the charges, and family members proclaimed that he was the victim of an extortion attempt. One friend, Firpo Carr, expressed amazement at the allegations leveled against the singer, who at the time was living at Neverland Ranch. \"I'm surprised they haven't accused him of bestiality because he also has a zoo there. I mean, it gets ridiculous after a while.\" On June 13, 2005, the jury found Jackson not guilty on all charges.\n", "Also while at \"Hard Copy\", Dimond interviewed NAMBLA member Victor Gutierrez, who claimed that a new investigation centered on Michael Jackson had begun surrounding a videotape of Jackson molesting a boy. The young boy in question was Jeremy Jackson, the son of Jackson's brother Jermaine. On January 9, 1995, Dimond repeated Gutierrez's claims, while on a KABC-AM morning show, hosted by Roger Barley and Ken Minyard. The allegation was later proven untrue. Jackson subsequently filed a $100 million slander lawsuit against Dimond, Paramount Pictures Corp (producer of \"Hard Copy\"), and KABC-AM. The boy's mother, Margaret Maldonaldo, in her book \"Jackson Family Values\" denied the allegations, saying, \"I’d never met the man [Gutierrez]. There was no tape. Michael never paid me for my silence. He had never molested Jeremy. Period.\"\n", "BULLET::::- Victor M. Gutierrez, a freelance writer who appeared on the U.S. tabloid television show \"Hard Copy\" to claim that there was a videotape of Michael Jackson molesting a boy, see 1993 child sexual abuse accusations against Michael Jackson.\n", "Melville allowed prosecutors to introduce testimony about past allegations against Jackson, including the 1993 case, to establish whether the entertainer had a propensity to commit such crimes. The prosecution hoped to show that Jackson had engaged in a pattern of sexual abuse with boys. They called on witnesses to describe earlier incidents, including Jackson's alleged 1993 abuse of Jordan Chandler. The prosecution argued that Jackson used Neverland, his \"fantasy hideaway\" with candy and theme park attractions, to lure boys and groom them into sex, and flattered their parents with gifts. The prosecution also said that, after \"Living With Michael Jackson\" aired, Jackson and his entourage had attempted to hold the Arvizo family virtually captive at Neverland and force them to participate in a rebuttal film.\n" ]

[ "HSI noise is caused by transonic flow shock formation on the advancing rotor blade, and is distinct from loading noise. The source of HSI noise is the flow volume around the advancing blade tip, hence it cannot be captured by examining only the acoustic sources on the surface of the blade, HSI noise is typically directed in the rotor plane forward of the helicopter, like thickness noise.\n", "BULLET::::- Some of the helicopter crashes are caused by resonance too. The eyeballs of the pilot resonate because of excessive pressure in the upper air, making the pilot unable to see overhead power lines. As a result, the helicopter is out of control.\n", "The NTSB report quotes other documents warning against the excessive application of collective pitch during autorotation, stating that it could \"result in a hard landing with corresponding damage to the helicopter\" and that it should \"never be applied to reduce rpm for extending glide distance.\"\n", "Static Rollover is a rolling action when the helicopter blades are not in rotation. When the rotor blades stop, the helicopter has the same principles of any other object and will roll if the static rollover critical angle is exceeded. Each helicopter has its own critical angle; this is a byproduct of its center-of-gravity. \n", "BULLET::::2. Weathercock stability - Wind from the tail (6 o'clock) can cause the helicopter to attempt to weathervane into the wind. The winds passing on both sides of the tail rotor make it teeter between being effective (providing thrust) and ineffective (not providing thrust). This creates a lot of pedal work for the pilot to eliminate unintended yaw.\n", "A large crashing sound occurred, possibly as a result of the gear failing, at which point the turbine began to oscillate strongly. The rotor then suddenly stopped but immediately started turning again. The rotor did not at first turn very fast, but it was now impossible to control the speed of rotation.\n", "Statements were obtained from 91 witnesses. A consensus of their observations indicates that the helicopter was proceeding along a normal flightpath when a loud noise or unusual sound was heard. A main rotor blade was either observed to separate or was seen separated in the vicinity of the main rotor disc. As the helicopter fell in variously described gyrations, the tail cone either folded or separated. In order to establish an approximate altitude for the flight, several comparative flights were conducted in a similar helicopter. Most witnesses indicated the flights at to appeared to be most accurate.\n" ]

[ "The habitable zone for this star, defined as the locations where liquid water could be present on an Earth-like planet, is at a radius of 0.26–0.56 AU, where 1 AU is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun.\n", "The habitable zone for this star, defined as the locations where liquid water could be present on an Earth-like planet, is at a radius of 0.11–0.24 AU, where 1 AU is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun.\n", "The habitable zone for this star, defined as the locations where liquid water could be present on an Earth-sized planet, is at a radius of 0.55–1.16 AU, where 1 AU is the average distance from the Earth to the Sun.\n", "The SETI Institute mentioned what caught their eye and made them take on the research themselves: \"Even more interesting, the timing of the present dip (in light) suggests that whatever this material is, it is situated at just the right distance from the star to be in the 'habitable zone,' where we believe life like ours could develop as it has on Earth.\"\n", "The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star, so that the habitable zone can be at different distances for different stars. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet: desert planets (also known as dry planets), with very little water, will have less water vapor in the atmosphere than Earth and so have a reduced greenhouse effect, meaning that a desert planet could maintain oases of water closer to its star than Earth is to the Sun. The lack of water also means there is less ice to reflect heat into space, so the outer edge of desert-planet habitable zones is further out. Rocky planets with a thick hydrogen atmosphere could maintain surface water much further out than the Earth–Sun distance. Planets with larger mass have wider habitable zones because the gravity reduces the water cloud column depth which reduces the greenhouse effect of water vapor, thus moving the inner edge of the habitable zone closer to the star.\n", "The habitable zone around a star is the region where the temperature is just right to allow liquid water to exist on a planet; that is, not too close to the star for the water to evaporate and not too far away from the star for the water to freeze. The heat produced by stars varies depending on the size and age of the star so that the habitable zone can be at different distances. Also, the atmospheric conditions on the planet influence the planet's ability to retain heat so that the location of the habitable zone is also specific to each type of planet.\n", "Since the 1950s, astronomers have proposed that \"habitable zones\" around stars are the most likely places for life to exist. Numerous discoveries of such zones since 2007 have generated numerical estimates of many billions of planets with Earth-like compositions. , only a few planets had been discovered in these zones. Nonetheless, on 4 November 2013, astronomers reported, based on \"Kepler\" space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs in the Milky Way, 11 billion of which may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists. Astrobiologists have also considered a \"follow the energy\" view of potential habitats.\n" ]

[ "The terms \"left\" and \"right\" were not used to refer to political ideology per se, but only to seating in the legislature. After 1848, the main opposing camps were the \"democratic socialists\" and the \"reactionaries\" who used red and white flags to identify their party affiliation. With the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871, the terms were adopted by political parties: the Republican Left, the Centre Right and the Centre Left (1871) and the Extreme Left (1876) and Radical Left (1881). The beliefs of the group called the Radical Left were actually closer to the Centre Left than the beliefs of those called the Extreme Left. Beginning in the early twentieth century, the terms \"left\" and \"right\" came to be associated with specific political ideologies and were used to describe citizens' political beliefs, gradually replacing the terms \"reds\" and \"the reaction\". Those on the Left often called themselves \"republicans\", while those on the Right often called themselves \"conservatives\". The words Left and Right were at first used by their opponents as slurs.\n", "The political terms \"Left\" and \"Right\" were first used during the French Revolution (1789–1799) and referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament: those who sat to the right of the chair of the parliamentary president were broadly supportive of the institutions of the monarchist Old Regime. The original Right in France was formed as a reaction against the \"Left\" and comprised those politicians supporting hierarchy, tradition, and clericalism. The use of the expression (\"the right\") became prominent in France after the restoration of the monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the Ultra-royalists. The people of English-speaking countries did not apply the terms \"right\" and \"left\" to their own politics until the 20th century.\n", "Earlier time periods (the past) are associated with the left side of space and later time periods (the future) with the right. It is typically thought of as being presented left to right for populations who read left to right (e.g. English) and right to left for populations who read right to left (e.g. Arabic).\n", "The terms \"left\" and \"right\" appeared during the French Revolution of 1789 when members of the National Assembly divided into supporters of the king to the president's right and supporters of the revolution to his left. One deputy, the Baron de Gauville, explained: \"We began to recognize each other: those who were loyal to religion and the king took up positions to the right of the chair so as to avoid the shouts, oaths, and indecencies that enjoyed free rein in the opposing camp\". However, the Right opposed the seating arrangement because they believed that deputies should support private or general interests but should not form factions or political parties. The contemporary press occasionally used the terms \"left\" and \"right\" to refer to the opposing sides.\n", "The terms \"right\" and \"left\" refer to political affiliations originating early in the French Revolutionary era of 1789–1799 and referred originally to the seating arrangements in the various legislative bodies of France. As seen from the Speaker's seat at the front of the Assembly, the aristocracy sat on the right (traditionally the seat of honor) and the commoners sat on the left, hence the terms right-wing politics and left-wing politics.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Left\" and right\" – These political terms originated in this era and derived from the seating arrangements in the legislative bodies. The use of the terms is loose and inconsistent, but in this period \"right\" tends to mean support for monarchical and aristocratic interests and the Roman Catholic religion, or (at the height of revolutionary fervor) for the interests of the bourgeoisie against the masses, while \"left\" tends to imply opposition to the same, proto-laissez faire free marketeers and proto-communists.\n", "Human cultures are predominantly right-handed, and so the right-sided trend may be socially as well as biologically enforced. This is quite apparent from a quick survey of languages. The English word \"left\" comes from the Anglo-Saxon word \"lyft\" which means \"weak\" or \"useless\". Similarly, the French word for left, \"gauche\", is also used to mean \"awkward\" or \"tactless\", and \"sinistra\", the Latin word from which the English word \"sinister\" was derived, means \"left\". Similarly, in many cultures the word for \"right\" also means \"correct\". The English word \"right\" comes from the Anglo-Saxon word \"riht\" which also means \"straight\" or \"correct.\"\n" ]

[ "If the King were to die without a male Heir his wife not being pregnant, or if she were pregnant but the pregnancy was not to result in an Heir to the Throne, then the Crown would be retained by His Royal Highness Prince Al-Hassan Al-Rida who would become the origin of future successions to continue through His line according to the rulings of our Order to reorganise the Royal Household issues on 20 October 1954.\n", "Queen Richeza bore exclusively daughters as long as her spouse was alive. King Eric died in 1216. Dowager Queen Richeza was pregnant at the time and then gave birth to her only surviving son, the future Eric XI of Sweden, after the death of her spouse. The family of King Eric X, however, was driven to exile from Sweden as the House of Sverker heir, John I of Sweden, was elected king there, to succeed Richeza's husband. It was in Denmark that Richeza herself died, without seeing her son's accession to the throne (in 1222), nor her daughters' marriages. She was buried in Ringsted. While nothing is concretely known about her person, the occurrence of the name Rikissa (Richeza) among her descendants may indicate that she was well-liked.\n", "Not all wives of the monarchs became consorts, as they may have died, been divorced, or had their marriage declared invalid prior to their husband's accession to the throne, or married him after his abdication. Such cases include\n", "In earlier centuries, perhaps in every second or every third generation on average, the male line often became extinct and females were needed to trace the line of succession. During this period, male lines tended to become extinct relatively quickly, usually due to violent death. Therefore, \"pure\" agnatic succession was impossible to maintain, and frequent exceptions were made—eligibility being granted to the eldest sons of sisters or other female relatives of the monarch.\n", "The Queen regnant with the most pregnancies was Anne, who had 17, but only 5 resulted in live-born children (two of whom survived past the age of one, one reached the age of two, but all of them died before their mother). \n", "Not all wives of monarchs have become consorts, as they may have died, been divorced, had their marriage declared invalid prior to their husbands' ascending the throne, or married after abdication. Such cases include:\n", "Not all wives of monarchs have become consorts, as they may have died, been divorced, had their marriage declared invalid prior to their husbands' ascending the throne, or married after abdication. Such cases include:\n" ]

[ "Natural DNA is a molecule carrying the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. DNA is a polynucleotide as it is composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides; when double-stranded, the two chains coil around each other to form a double helix.\n", "DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes. In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of 34 angstroms (Å) (3.4 nanometres). The pair of chains has a radius of 10 angstroms (1.0 nanometre). According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured 22 to 26 angstroms wide (2.2 to 2.6 nanometres), and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long. Although each individual nucleotide is very small, a DNA polymer can be very large and contain hundreds of millions, such as in chromosome 1. Chromosome 1 is the largest human chromosome with approximately 220 million base pairs, and would be 85 mm long if straightened.\n", "Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, and their location within the genome are referred to as genetic loci, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.\n", "DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes. Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation, which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In alternative fashion, a cell may simply copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication. The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome.\n", "DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. Its molecular structure was first identified by Francis Crick and James Watson at the Cavendish Laboratory within the University of Cambridge in 1953, whose model-building efforts were guided by X-ray diffraction data acquired by Raymond Gosling, who was a post-graduate student of Rosalind Franklin. DNA is used by researchers as a molecular tool to explore physical laws and theories, such as the ergodic theorem and the theory of elasticity. The unique material properties of DNA have made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro- and nano-fabrication. Among notable advances in this field are DNA origami and DNA-based hybrid materials.\n", "DNA is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones. The set of chromosomes in a cell and any other hereditary information found in the mitochondria, chloroplasts, or other locations is collectively known as a cell's genome. In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is localized in the cell nucleus, or with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete assemblage of this information in an organism is called its genotype.\n", "Extrachromosomal DNA is any DNA that is found outside the nucleus of a cell. It is also referred to as extranuclear DNA or cytoplasmic DNA. Most DNA in an individual genome is found in chromosomes but DNA found outside the nucleus also serves important biological functions.\n" ]

[ "Water left stagnant in the pipes of showers can be contaminated with pathogens that become airborne when the shower is turned on. If a shower has not been used for some time, it should be left to run at a hot temperature for a few minutes before use.\n", "If, for example, someone flushes a toilet while the shower is in use, the fixture suddenly draws a significant amount of cold water from the common supply line, causing a pressure drop. In the absence of a compensating mechanism, the relatively higher pressure in the hot water supply line will cause the shower temperature to rise just as suddenly, possibly reaching an uncomfortable or even dangerous level. Conversely, if someone opens a hot water faucet elsewhere, the relatively higher pressure in the cold water supply line will cause the shower temperature to drop suddenly.\n", "The effects of dousing are usually more intense and longer-lasting than just a cold shower. Ending a shower with cold water is an old naturopathic tradition. There are those who believe that this fever is helpful in killing harmful bacteria and leaving the hardier beneficial bacteria in the body.\n", "Refraining from taking hot baths or showers may help if the condition is generalized (i.e. all over), as well as possibly for localized cases (i.e. in a specific area). If taking hot showers helps, it may be a condition called shower eczema. If it affects mainly the head, it may be psoriasis. In rare cases, allergy tests may uncover substances the patient is allergic to.\n", "Cold-induced diuresis, or cold diuresis, is a phenomenon that occurs in humans after exposure to a hypothermic environment, usually during mild to moderate hypothermia. It is currently thought to be caused by the redirection of blood from the extremities to the core due to peripheral vasoconstriction, which increases the fluid volume in the core. Overall, acute exposure to cold is thought to induce a diuretic response due to an increase mean arterial pressure.\n", "Severe reactions can be seen with exposure to cold water; swimming in cold water is the most common cause of a severe reaction. This can cause a massive discharge of histamine, resulting in low blood pressure, fainting, shock and even loss of life. Cold urticaria is diagnosed by dabbing an ice cube against the skin of the forearm for 1 to 5 minutes. A distinct hive should develop if a patient suffers cold urticaria. This is different from the normal redness that can be seen in people without cold urticaria. Patients with cold urticaria need to learn to protect themselves from a hasty drop in body temperature. Regular antihistamines are not generally efficacious. One particular antihistamine, cyproheptadine (Periactin), has been found to be useful. The tricyclic antidepressant doxepin has been found to be effective blocking agents of histamine. Finally, a medication named ketotifen, which keeps mast cells from discharging histamine, has also been employed with widespread success.\n", "Colder dense air outside and hot less dense air inside causes higher air pressure on the outside to force the shower curtain inwards to equalise the air pressure, this can be observed simply when the bathroom door is open allowing cold air into the bathroom.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Probably the main economic benefit that workers in rich countries obtain directly from poor countries is cheap consumer goods, but in fact the monetary value of these goods is statistically only a small part of their \"total\" budget. The big ticket foreign-made items in working class budgets are foreign computer hardware, foreign-made appliances and foreign cars (i.e. durable consumer goods), but out of that total expenditure only a small fraction represents goods from poor countries.\n", "It is important to note that in most of these Asian countries, it is not just that the rich are getting richer, but the poor are becoming less poor. For example, poverty has dropped dramatically in Thailand. Research in the 1960s showed that 60 percent of the people in Thailand lived below a poverty level estimated with cost of basic necessities. By 2004, however, similar estimates showed that poverty there was around 13 to 15 percent. Thailand has been shown by some World Bank figures to have had the best record for reducing poverty per increase in GNP of any nation in the world.\n", "For example, in Western nations the incomes of the relatively affluent are taxed partly to provide the money used to assist the relatively poor. As a result of the taxes (and associated subsidies to the poor), incentives are changed for both groups. The relatively rich are discouraged from declaring income and from earning marginal (extra) income, because they know that any additional money that they earn and declare will be taxed at their highest marginal tax rates. At the same time the poor have an incentive to conceal their own taxable income (and usually their assets) so as to increase the likelihood of their receiving state assistance (welfare trap). It can be argued that the distortion of incentives (the move away from a fiscally neutral stance that does not affect incentives) does more harm than good.\n", "One of the proposed ways to help poor countries that emerged during the 1980s has been debt relief. Given that many less developed nations have gotten themselves into extensive debt to banks and governments from the rich nations, and given that the interest payments on these debts are often more than a country can generate per year in profits from exports, cancelling part or all of these debts may allow poor nations \"to get out of the hole\". If poor countries do not have to spend so much on debt payments, they can use the money instead for priorities which help reduce poverty such as basic health-care and education. Many nations began offering services, such as free health care even while overwhelming the health care infrastructure, because of savings that resulted from the rounds of debt relief in 2005.\n", "Bad Governance in a Small Country: Terrible governance and policies can destroy an economy with alarming speed. The reason small countries are at a disadvantage is that though they may have a low cost-of-living, and therefore be ideal for labor-intensive work, their smallness discourages potential investors, who are unfamiliar with the local conditions and risks, who instead opt for better known countries like China and India.\n", "Most things are cheaper in poor (low income) countries than in rich ones. Someone from a \"first world\" country on vacation in a \"third world\" country will usually find their money going a lot further abroad than at home. For instance, a Big Mac cost $7.84 in Norway and $2.39 in Egypt in January 2013, at the prevailing USD exchange rate for those two local currencies, despite the fact the two products are essentially the same.\n", "The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It is a 2007 book by Paul Collier, Professor of Economics at Oxford University, exploring the reasons why impoverished countries fail to progress despite international aid and support. In the book Collier argues that there are many countries whose residents have experienced little, if any, income growth over the 1980s and 1990s. On his reckoning, there are just under 60 such economies, home to almost 1 billion people.\n" ]

[ "The most commonly seen consequence of dispersion in optics is the separation of white light into a color spectrum by a prism. From Snell's law it can be seen that the angle of refraction of light in a prism depends on the refractive index of the prism material. Since that refractive index varies with wavelength, it follows that the angle that the light is refracted by will also vary with wavelength, causing an angular separation of the colors known as \"angular dispersion\".\n", "Dispersion occurs when different frequencies of light have different phase velocities, due either to material properties (\"material dispersion\") or to the geometry of an optical waveguide (\"waveguide dispersion\"). The most familiar form of dispersion is a decrease in index of refraction with increasing wavelength, which is seen in most transparent materials. This is called \"normal dispersion\". It occurs in all dielectric materials, in wavelength ranges where the material does not absorb light. In wavelength ranges where a medium has significant absorption, the index of refraction can increase with wavelength. This is called \"anomalous dispersion\".\n", "The most familiar example of dispersion is probably a rainbow, in which dispersion causes the spatial separation of a white light into components of different wavelengths (different colors). However, dispersion also has an effect in many other circumstances: for example, group velocity dispersion (GVD) causes pulses to spread in optical fibers, degrading signals over long distances; also, a cancellation between group-velocity dispersion and nonlinear effects leads to soliton waves.\n", "In optics, one important and familiar consequence of dispersion is the change in the angle of refraction of different colors of light, as seen in the spectrum produced by a dispersive prism and in chromatic aberration of lenses. Design of compound achromatic lenses, in which chromatic aberration is largely cancelled, uses a quantification of a glass's dispersion given by its Abbe number \"V\", where \"lower\" Abbe numbers correspond to \"greater\" dispersion over the visible spectrum. In some applications such as telecommunications, the absolute phase of a wave is often not important but only the propagation of wave packets or \"pulses\"; in that case one is interested only in variations of group velocity with frequency, so-called group-velocity dispersion.\n", "When the conditions for dispersion staining are met (the particle is mounted in a liquid with a matching refractive index in the visible range of wavelengths but with a very different refractive index) then the particle has a high refractive index in the red part of the spectrum and a lower refractive index in the blue. This is because liquids tend to have a steeper dispersion curve than colorless solids. As a result, when the particle is dropped out of focus the red wavelengths are focused inward. For the blue wavelengths the particle behaves like a concave lens and the blue Becke` Line moves out into the liquid.\n", "Modal dispersion should not be confused with chromatic dispersion, a distortion that results due to the differences in propagation velocity of different wavelengths of light. Modal dispersion occurs even with an ideal, monochromatic light source. \n", "Dichromatism (or polychromatism) is a phenomenon where a material or solution's hue is dependent on both the concentration of the absorbing substance and the depth or thickness of the medium traversed. In most substances which are not dichromatic, only the brightness and saturation of the colour depend on their concentration and layer thickness.\n" ]

[ "There is common academic agreement that significant systems of trading existed between the cultures of Mesoamerica, Aridoamerica and the American Southwest, and the architectural remains and artifacts share a commonality of knowledge attributed to this trade network. The routes stretched far into Mesoamerica and reached as far north to ancient communities that included such population centers in the United States such as at Snaketown, Chaco Canyon, and Ridge Ruin near Flagstaff (considered some of the finest artifacts ever located).\n", "Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica—and especially along the west coast—have been the subject of considerable research. There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau, and going down to the Pacific coast. These trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far as Central America. These networks operated along the west coast with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times and up to the Late Classical Period (600–900 CE).\n", "The making of good for trade as well as local use was established in the region relatively early in the pre Hispanic period because the state, especially the Central Valley, was on the trade route that connected central Mexico with Central America. One example of this is the archeological site of El Palmillo, which was a major weaving center, with the weaving of various fibers established by the Classic Period. Then as now, production was centered in households with the households varying in the intensity and type of production. One other common trade good was worked seashells, which the raw material coming from the Oaxacan coast despite the rough terrain, to be worked and then traded here.\n", "In North America, Europeans began to interact with pre-existing native American trade systems during the 16th century. Colonists created factories, known as trading posts, at which furs could be traded, in Native American territory.\n", "The first explorers to conduct trade with Native Americans were Giovanni da Verrazzano and Jacques Cartier in the 1520s-1540s. Verrazzano noted in his book, \"If we wanted to trade with them for some of their things, they would come to the seashore on some rocks where the breakers were most violent while we remained on the little boat, and they sent us what they wanted to give on a rope, continually shouting to us not to approach the land.\" As visits from Europeans became more frequent and some Europeans began to settle in North America, Indians began to establish regular trade relations with these new colonists. The ideal locations for fur trading were near harbors where ships could come in.\n", "Explorers searching for the fabled Northwest Passage and large inland seas in North America continued to pass through this region. Fort Beauharnois was built by the French in 1721 on Lake Pepin to facilitate exploration. In the 17th century a lucrative trade developed between Native Americans who trapped animals near the Great Lakes and traders who shipped the animal furs to Europe. For two centuries this trade network was the prime economic driver in the area. A notable result of this trade network was the Métis people, a mixed-race community descended from Native Americans and French traders, as well as other mixed-race peoples. In particular during the latter 18th century numerous French and English traders in the Minnesota region purchased Sioux wives in order to establish kinship relationships with the Sioux so as to secure their supply of furs from the tribes.\n", "The exact nature of the trade pre-European contact is not known, but general inferences may be drawn. Trade was extensive between tribal communities since luxury goods such as copper, shells, and stone moved great distances. Trade of useful commodities such as perishable goods was limited to local neighboring tribes.\n" ]

[ "Methane (density 0.716 g/L at STP, average molecular mass 16.04 g/mol), the main component of natural gas, is sometimes used as a lift gas when hydrogen and helium are not available. It has the advantage of not leaking through balloon walls as rapidly as the smaller molecules of hydrogen and helium. Many lighter-than-air balloons are made of aluminized plastic that limits such leakage; hydrogen and helium leak rapidly through latex balloons. However, methane is highly flammable and like hydrogen is not appropriate for use in passenger-carrying airships. It is also relatively dense and a potent greenhouse gas.\n", "A common helium-filled toy balloon is something familiar to many. When such a balloon is fully filled with helium, it has buoyancy—a force that opposes gravity. When a toy balloon becomes partially deflated, it often becomes neutrally buoyant and can float about the house a meter or two off the floor. In such a state, there are moments when the balloon is neither rising nor falling and—in the sense that a scale placed under it has no force applied to it—is, in a sense perfectly weightless (actually as noted below, weight has merely been redistributed along the Earth's surface so it cannot be measured). Though the rubber comprising the balloon has a mass of only a few grams, which might be almost unnoticeable, the rubber still retains all its mass when inflated.\n", "Because it is lighter than air, airships and balloons are inflated with helium for lift. While hydrogen gas is more buoyant, and escapes permeating through a membrane at a lower rate, helium has the advantage of being non-flammable, and indeed fire-retardant. Another minor use is in rocketry, where helium is used as an ullage medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to pre-cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles. For example, the Saturn V rocket used in the Apollo program needed about 370,000 m (13 million cubic feet) of helium to launch.\n", "Helium II also exhibits a creeping effect. When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, against the force of gravity. Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates. It moves in a 30 nm-thick film regardless of surface material. This film is called a Rollin film and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, Bernard V. Rollin. As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium. Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate. Waves propagating across a Rollin film are governed by the same equation as gravity waves in shallow water, but rather than gravity, the restoring force is the van der Waals force. These waves are known as \"third sound\".\n", "BULLET::::- Because the hydrogen molecule is very small, it can easily diffuse through many materials such as latex, so that the balloon will deflate quickly. This is one reason that many hydrogen or helium filled balloons are constructed out of Mylar/BoPET.\n", "Fully inflated, a balloon of this size would contain just over of helium. Helium's lift capacity at sea level and 0 °C is 1.113 kg/m (0.07 lbs/ft) and decreases at higher altitudes and at higher temperatures. The volume of helium in the balloon has been estimated as being able to lift a total load, including the balloon material and the structure beneath it, of at sea level and at .\n", "Helium was initially selected for the lifting gas because it was the safest to use in airships, as it is not flammable. One proposed measure to save helium was to make double-gas cells for 14 of the 16 gas cells; an inner hydrogen cell would be protected by an outer cell filled with helium, with vertical ducting to the dorsal area of the envelope to permit separate filling and venting of the inner hydrogen cells. At the time, however, helium was also relatively rare and extremely expensive as the gas was available in industrial quantities only from distillation plants at certain oil fields in the United States. Hydrogen, by comparison, could be cheaply produced by any industrialized nation and being lighter than helium also provided more lift. Because of its expense and rarity, American rigid airships using helium were forced to conserve the gas at all costs and this hampered their operation.\n" ]

[ "Drinking fountains are used especially during the summer, yet a lot of people are reluctant to drink the water due to fear of disease. According to the Public Health Office of Slovakia (), all drinking water fountains supply the same tap water as residents have in their homes and the water is safe to drink. Drinking fountains in Bratislava do not feature any instructions on how to operate them.\n", "Fountains are a popular method of surface aerators because of the aesthetic appearance that they offer. However, most fountains are unable to produce a large area of oxygenated water. Also, running electricity through the water to the fountain can be a safety hazard.\n", "A water fountain or drinking fountain is designed to provide drinking water and has a basin arrangement with either continuously running water or a tap. The drinker bends down to the stream of water and swallows water directly from the stream. Modern indoor drinking fountains may incorporate filters to remove impurities from the water and chillers to reduce its temperature. In some regional dialects, water fountains are called \"bubblers\". Water fountains are usually found in public places, like schools, rest areas, libraries, and grocery stores. Many jurisdictions require water fountains to be wheelchair accessible (by sticking out horizontally from the wall), and to include an additional unit of a lower height for children and short adults. The design that this replaced often had one spout atop a refrigeration unit.\n", "The poor are not the only beneficiaries of these installations. Even if the aim of the fountains was to allow people of modest means to have access to drinking water, they are not the only ones who use them. Anyone passing by may quench his thirst, fulfilling this vital need. There was already a programme of constructing temperance fountains in both the United States and in the United Kingdom.\n", "This is a history and list of drinking fountains in the United States. A drinking fountain, also called a water fountain or bubbler, is a fountain designed to provide drinking water. It consists of a basin with either continuously running water or a tap. The drinker bends down to the stream of water and swallows water directly from the stream. Drinking water fountains are most commonly found in heavy usage areas like public amenities, schools, airports, and museums. \n", "A drinking fountain, also called a water fountain, is a fountain designed to provide drinking water. It consists of a basin with either continuously running water or a tap. The drinker bends down to the stream of water and swallows water directly from the stream. Modern indoor drinking fountains may incorporate filters to remove impurities from the water and chillers to lower its temperature. Drinking fountains are usually found in public places, like schools, rest areas, libraries, and grocery stores. Many jurisdictions require drinking fountains to be wheelchair accessible (by sticking out horizontally from the wall), and to include an additional unit of a lower height for children and short adults. The design that this replaced often had one spout atop a refrigeration unit.\n", "Fountains are used today to decorate city parks and squares; to honor individuals or events; for recreation and for entertainment. A Splash pad or spray pool allows city residents to enter, get wet and cool off in summer. The musical fountain combines moving jets of water, colored lights and recorded music, controlled by a computer, for dramatic effects. Fountains can themselves also be musical instruments played by obstruction of one or more of their water jets.\n" ]

[ "A microphone splitter is a device with an input from a microphone and multiple outputs. It is also known as a \"rathouse\" due to the large amount of cabling involved. A splitter is often used at larger venues to provide feeds from microphones or other sources to both a front of house mixing desk and a monitor desk. This allows the monitor mix to be different from the house mix, so that the musicians may hear a mix with certain instruments emphasized, which can assist in achieving a feeling of \"tightness\".\n", "In recording environments, the 4038 is often used as drum overheads and on brass instruments. The microphone became a favourite of British recording engineers in the 1950s and 60s, but did not receive widespread use in the United States. The microphone was described as recording sounds \"bigger than\n", "\"Coathanger Antennae\" is an album Diesel recorded himself, playing virtually live to tape - a method Diesel swears \"worked well for the Beatles\". \"There's an old joke about a band in a recording studio, and after they've done a take the sound engineer says into their headphones: 'Yeah, it sounds like shit, come on in!' That's the way making records is these days - everything can be fixed later, and it's easy to get sucked into that method of recording, brick by brick, layer upon layer.\" \n", "Overhead microphones are those used in sound recording and live sound reproduction to pick up ambient sounds, transients and the overall blend of instruments. They are used in drum recording to achieve a stereo image of the full drum kit, as well as orchestral recording to create a balanced stereo recording of full orchestras.\n", "Miniature binaural \"in-ear\" or \"near-ear\" microphones can be linked to a portable Digital Audio Tape (DAT) or MiniDisc recorder, bypassing the need for a dummy head by using the recordist's own head. The first clip-in binaural microphones using the recordist's own head were offered by Sennheiser in 1974. The first clip-on binaural microphones using the recordist's own head were offered by Core Sound LLC in 1989. The first completely \"in-ear\" binaural microphones using the recordist's own head were offered by Sound Professionals in 1999. Roland Corporation also offers its CS-10EM in-ear binaural microphone set.\n", "To facilitate handling as the user threaded the wire across the recording head and affixed it to the take-up spool, some manufacturers attached a strip of plastic to each end of the wire. This was designed to press-fit snugly into either spool. To prevent the wire from piling up unevenly on the spool as it was recorded, played or rewound, on the majority of machines the head assembly slowly oscillates up and down or back and forth to distribute the wire evenly. On some machines, moving wire guides perform this function, like the mechanism that distributes line across a fishing reel. After recording or playback, the wire has to be rewound before any further use can be made of the machine. Unlike with reel-to-reel tape recorders, the take-up reel on most wire recorders is not removable.\n", "Most external microphone designs are of either omnidirectional or noise-canceling type. Noise-canceling microphone headsets use a bi-directional microphone as elements. A bi-directional microphone's receptive field has two angles only. Its receptive field is limited to only the front and the direct opposite back of the microphone. This creates an \"8\" shape field, and this design is the best method for picking up sound only from a close proximity of the user, while not picking up most surrounding noises.\n" ]

[ "United Ireland (also referred to as Irish reunification) is the proposition that all of Ireland should be a single sovereign state. At present, the island is divided politically; the sovereign Republic of Ireland has jurisdiction over the majority of Ireland, while Northern Ireland is part of the United Kingdom. Achieving a united Ireland is a central tenet of Irish nationalism, particularly of both mainstream and dissident Irish republican political and paramilitary organisations. Unionists support Northern Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom, and therefore oppose Irish unification. The exit of the United Kingdom from the European Union has increased the likelihood of a united Ireland, in order to avoid the requirement for a hard border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.\n", "Growing desire for Irish self-governance led to the Irish War of Independence, which resulted in most of Ireland seceding from the Union and forming the Irish Free State in 1922. Northern Ireland remained part of the Union, and the state was renamed to the current United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in 1927. The modern-day United Kingdom is the same country—a direct continuation of what remained after Ireland's secession—not an entirely new successor state.\n", "Northern Ireland has been a major factor in Irish politics since the island of Ireland was divided between Northern Ireland and what is now the Republic in 1920. The creation of Northern Ireland led to conflict between northern nationalists (mostly Roman Catholic) who seek unification with the Republic and Unionists (mostly Protestant) who opposed British plans for Irish Home Rule and wished for Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom. After the formation of Northern Ireland in 1921 following its opt out from the newly formed Irish Free State, many Roman Catholics and Republicans were discriminated against. The abolition of Proportional Representation and the gerrymandering of constituency boundaries led to Unionists being over-represented at Stormont and at Westminster. Even James Craig who was prime minister of Northern Ireland boasted of his Protestant Parliament for a Protestant People. In the 1960s NICRA was set up to end discrimination between Catholics and Protestants. There was a massive backlash to this from sections of the Unionist community. This conflict exploded into violence in the late sixties with the beginning of the Troubles, involving groups such as the Provisional IRA, loyalist paramilitaries, the police and the British army, the latter originally drafted in to protect Catholic communities from loyalist violence. These clashes were to result in the suspension of the Stormont Parliament and unsuccessful efforts by the British Government to encourage a power-sharing Executive in Northern Ireland which were only realised following the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. The Troubles caused thousands of deaths in Northern Ireland but also spilled over into bombings and acts of violence in England and the Republic.\n", "Ireland has been partitioned since May 1921, when the implementation of the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the state of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom. The Anglo-Irish Treaty, which led to the independence of the Irish Free State, recognised partition, but this was opposed by anti-Treaty republicans. When the anti-Treaty Fianna Fáil party came to power in the 1930s, it adopted a new constitution which claimed sovereignty over the entire island. The Irish Republican Army (IRA) had a united Ireland as its goal during the conflict with British security forces and loyalist paramilitaries from the 1960s to the 1990s known as The Troubles. The Good Friday Agreement signed in 1998, which ended the conflict, acknowledged the legitimacy of the desire for a united Ireland, while declaring that it could only be achieved with the consent of a majority of the people of Northern Ireland. In 2016, Sinn Féin called for a referendum on a united Ireland in the wake of the decision by the United Kingdom to leave the European Union (EU). Taoiseach Enda Kenny said that in the event of reunification, Northern Ireland should be allowed to rejoin the EU, as East Germany joined it after the fall of the Berlin Wall. (although the EU did not exist prior to German reunification)\n", "Unionism in Ireland is a political ideology that favours the continuation of political union between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. Since the partition of Ireland, unionism in Ireland has focused on maintaining and preserving the place of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom. In this context, a distinction may be made between the unionism in the province of Ulster and unionism elsewhere in Ireland.\n", "Since partition, a key aspiration of Irish nationalists has been to bring about a reunited Ireland, with the whole island forming one independent state. This goal conflicts with that of the unionists in Northern Ireland, who want the region to remain part of the United Kingdom. The Irish and British governments agreed, under the 1998 Belfast Agreement, that the status of Northern Ireland will not change without the consent of a majority of its population. In its white paper on Brexit, the United Kingdom government reiterated its commitment to the Belfast Agreement. With regard to Northern Ireland's status, it said that the UK Government's \"clearly-stated preference is to retain Northern Ireland’s current constitutional position: as part of the UK, but with strong links to Ireland\".\n", "Almost a century later, the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the 1800 Acts of Union. The United Kingdom thus became the union of the kingdoms of England, Ireland, and Scotland. Eventually, disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish home rule led to the partition of the island: The Irish Free State received dominion status in 1922, while Northern Ireland remained part of the UK. As a result, in 1927, the formal title of the UK was changed to its current form, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.\n" ]

[ "As German rulers of Saxon dynasties took over the enslavement (and slave trade) of Slavs in the 10th century, Jewish merchants bought slaves at the Elbe, sending caravans into the valley of the Rhine. Many of these slaves were taken to Verdun, which had close trade relations with Spain. Many would be castrated and sold as eunuchs as well.\n", "\"Brycg stowe\" was a major centre for the Anglo-Saxon slave trade. Men, women and children captured in Wales or northern England were traded through Bristol to Dublin as slaves. From there the Viking rulers of Dublin would sell them on throughout the known world. The Saxon bishop of Worcester, Wulfstan, whose diocese included Bristol, preached against the trade regularly and eventually it was forbidden by the crown, though it carried on in secret for many years.\n", "Before the arrival of the British, Arabs involved in slave trade and their caravans passed at the southern edges of the Agĩkũyũ nation. Slavery as an institution did not exist amongst the Agĩkũyũ, nor did they make raids for the capture of slaves. The Arabs who tried to venture into Agĩkũyũ land met instant death. Relying on a combination of land purchases, blood-brotherhood (partnerships), intermarriage with other people, and their adoption and absorption, the Agĩkũyũ were in a constant state of territorial expansion. Economically, the Agĩkũyũ were great farmers and shrewd businesspeople.\n", "In the early years of conquest, \"encomienda\" rights effectively meant rights to pillage and round up slaves, usually in the form of a group of mounted \"conquistadores\" launching a lightning slave raid upon an unsuspecting population centre. Prisoners would be branded as slaves, and taken to a port to be sold, in order that the \"conquistadores\" could purchase weapons, supplies, and horses. In some cases the \"conquistadores\" would round up the elders, chain them up, whip them and set their war dogs upon them, in order to force the natives to hand over tribute such as food and clothing.\n", "In Britain, slavery continued to be practiced following the fall of Rome and sections of Hywel the Good's laws dealt with slaves in medieval Wales. The trade particularly picked up after the Viking invasions, with major markets at Chester and Bristol supplied by Danish, Mercian, and Welsh raiding of one another's borderlands. At the time of the \"Domesday Book\", nearly 10% of the English population were slaves. William the Conqueror introduced a law preventing the sale of slaves overseas. According to historian John Gillingham, by the year 1200, slavery in the British Isles was non-existent. The slave trade was abolished by the Slave Trade Act 1807, although slavery itself remained legal in possessions outside Europe until the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 and the Indian Slavery Act, 1843.\n", "Capture in war, voluntary servitude and debt slavery became common within the British Isles before 1066. Slaves were routinely bought and sold. Running away was also common and slavery was never a major economic factor in the British Isles during the Middle Ages. Ireland and Denmark provided markets for captured Anglo-Saxon and Celtic slaves. Pope Gregory I reputedly made the pun, \"Non Angli, sed Angeli\" (\"Not Angles, but Angels\"), after a response to his query regarding the identity of a group of fair-haired Angles, slave children whom he had observed in the marketplace. After the Norman Conquest, the law no longer supported chattel slavery and slaves became part of the larger body of serfs.\n", "Casper Van Senden was an Elizabethan Lübeck merchant who bargained for a deal in 1596 whereby through ensuring the safe return of eighty-nine of Queen Elizabeth's subjects who had been detained in the Catholic realms of Portugal and Spain, sought to gain a licence to deport Africans from England. This incident has been quoted to suggest a consistent policy of racial exclusion in sixteenth century England. \n" ]

[ "Freezing behavior or the freeze response is a reaction to specific stimuli, most commonly observed in prey animals. When a prey animal has been caught and completely overcome by the predator, it may respond by \"freezing up\" of in other words by staying complety still. Studies typically assess a conditioned freezing behavior response to stimuli that typically or innately do not cause fear, such as a tone or shock. Freezing behavior is most easily characterized by changes in blood pressure and lengths of time in crouching position, but it also is known to cause changes such as shortness of breath, increased heart rate, sweating, or choking sensation. However, since it is difficult to measure these sympathetic responses to fear stimuli, studies are typically confined to simple crouching times. A response to stimuli typically is said to be a \"fight or flight\", but is more completely described as \"fight, flight, or freeze.\" In addition, freezing is observed to occur before or after a fight or flight response.\n", "Excessively fast shutter speeds can cause a moving subject to appear unnaturally frozen. For instance, a running person may be caught with both feet in the air with all indication of movement lost in the frozen moment.\n", "A freeze is a b-boying technique that involves halting all body motion, often in an interesting or balance-intensive position. It is implied that the position is hit and held from motion as if freezing in motion, or into ice. Freezes often incorporate various twists and distortions of the body into stylish and often difficult positions.\n", "\"Freezes\" are stylish poses that require the breaker to suspend himself or herself off the ground using upper body strength in poses such as the pike. They are used to emphasize strong beats in the music and often signal the end of a set. Freezes can be linked into chains or \"stacks\" where breakers go from freeze to freeze to freeze in order to hit the beats of the music which displays musicality and physical strength.\n", "There is also a \"freeze\" rule used in some occasions (in some places it's renamed \"challenge\", or \"reach\"), wherein whenever a player catches the ball from a long distance away from the wall, any other player may call out \"freeze\", meaning the person who has caught the ball must stop where they stand and throw the ball. When reaching the wall is impossible for the player, some games allow for the player to call \"relay\" and pass the ball to a player within reach of the wall. An American variation of this rule allows the \"frozen\" player 2 options: throw the ball and risk a life on if it hits the wall, or drop it directly onto the ground below them and run for the wall.\n", "Conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. It is now known that fast freezing produces smaller ice crystals, which cause less damage to the tissue structure. When 'slow' frozen foods thaw, cellular fluids leak from the ice crystal-damaged tissue, giving the resulting food a mushy or dry consistency upon preparation. Birdseye solved this problem.\n", "Freezing – or the complete halt of movement – has been documented in the family Sclerosomatidae. While this can mean an increased likelihood of immediate survival, it also leads to reduced food and water intake.\n" ]

[ "The United States Declaration of Independence was approved there on July 4, 1776, and the Declaration was read aloud to the public in the area now known as Independence Square. This document unified the colonies in North America who declared themselves independent of the Kingdom of Great Britain and explained their justifications for doing so. These historic events are celebrated annually with a national holiday for U.S. Independence Day.\n", "The United States Declaration of Independence contains 27 grievances against the decisions and actions of British King George III. Historians have noted the similarities with John Locke's works and the context of the grievances. Historical precedents such as the Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights 1689 had established the principle that the King was not to interfere with the Rights of Englishmen held by the people. In the view of the American colonies, the King had opposed the very purpose of government by opposing laws deemed necessary for the public good and by constantly meddling in the local affairs of the colonists.\n", "The proclamation's origin dates back to a 1763 petition submitted to King George III by Acadian exiles in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Because the King never responded to the petition, Warren A. Perrin, a Cajun attorney and cultural activist from Erath, Louisiana, in the 1990s resurrected the petition and threatened to sue Elizabeth II (great-great-great-great-granddaughter of George III), as Queen in Right of the United Kingdom, if the British government refused to acknowledge the illegality of the Grand Dérangement.\n", "On October 1, 1774, in response to the deteriorating relationship between the American Colonies and Britain, the First Continental Congress decided to prepare a statement to King George III of Great Britain. The goal of the address was to persuade the King to revoke unpopular policies such as the Coercive Acts, which were imposed on the Colonies by the British Parliament. The committee appointed to prepare the Address consisted of Richard Henry Lee, John Adams, Thomas Johnson, Patrick Henry, and John Rutledge, with Lee designated as the committee chairman.\n", "The Declaration of Independence is a very important written document that was drafted by the original thirteen colonies, as a form of print culture that would declare their independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain and explained the justifications for doing so. While it was explicitly documented on July 4, 1776, it was not recognized by Great Britain until September 3, 1783, by the Treaty of Paris.\n", "BULLET::::- The thirteen British colonies declare independence, as the United States of America, in 1776 – at least 35 of the signatories of the Declaration of Independence, including John Hancock and Benjamin Franklin, are armigerous.\n", "Eventually, after his continued letters home to the Assembly and Committee of Safety in New Hampshire, William Whipple and Matthew Thornton were added to the delegation in Philadelphia. When the question of declaring independence from Great Britain was officially brought up in 1776, as a representative of the northernmost colony Bartlett was the first to be asked, and answered in the affirmative. He eventually became one of the delegates to sign the Declaration of Independence.\n" ]

[ "As the hermit crabs grow, they must exchange their shell for a larger one. Since intact gastropod shells are not an unlimited resource, there is frequently strong competition for the available shells, with hermit crabs fighting over shells. The availability of empty shells depends on the abundance of the gastropods and hermit crabs, but most importantly on the frequency of organisms that prey on gastropods but leave the shells intact. A hermit crab with a shell which is too tight cannot grow as fast as hermit crabs with well-fitting shells, and is more likely to be eaten. Although hermit crabs need to change shells regularly, they will not abandon their old shell unless they have a larger and newer one to change into and unless they feel safe.\n", "Hermit crabs display quite interesting behaviours during the shell trading process. The trade usually involves two crabs, they engage in a sort of physical fight probing, rocking and knocking each other's shells around. This type of behaviour gives the crabs the chance to check out the quality and size of one another's shells and actually usually results in both crabs benefitting from the trade. Large numbers of crabs can trade shells at once and it can take place in a very short period of time. Once they have traded it will not take the crab long to decide whether or not the shell is suitable.\n", "As hermit crabs grow, they require larger shells. Since suitable intact gastropod shells are sometimes a limited resource, vigorous competition often occurs among hermit crabs for shells. The availability of empty shells at any given place depends on the relative abundance of gastropods and hermit crabs, matched for size. An equally important issue is the population of organisms that prey upon gastropods and leave the shells intact. Hermit crabs kept together may fight or kill a competitor to gain access to the shell they favour. However, if the crabs vary significantly in size, the occurrence of fights over empty shells will decrease or remain nonexistent. Hermit crabs with too-small shells cannot grow as fast as those with well-fitting shells, and are more likely to be eaten if they cannot retract completely into the shell.\n", "Because the hermit crab lives in the bottom of rock pools and ocean floors, and due to its size, its predator list is long. It is easy prey for the likes of fish, and octopus. Other crabs are also known to eat the smaller and more unprotected species, like the hermit crab, hence the need for shells to protect the soft body. Because the hermit crab \"sifts\" through the sediment at the bottom of the ocean, smaller invertebrates are known to utilize this as an opportunity for themselves.\n", "The snail lives on rocky mountain slopes, taking shelter in talus and rockslides. During the dry conditions common in its habitat, the snail seals its shell aperture to solid rock to avoid desiccation. The rock should be rich in calcium carbonate, which the snail uses to form its shell. It is associated with local plant species such as saguaro cactus (\"Carnegiea gigantea\"), yellow paloverde (\"Parkinsonia microphylla\"), brittlebush (\"Encelia farinosa\"), foxtail brome (\"Bromus madritensis\"), Natal grass (\"Melinis repens\"), creosote bush (\"Larrea tridentata\"), and Coulter's lupine (\"Lupinus sparsiflorus\").\n", "BULLET::::- Almost all genera of hermit crabs use or \"wear\" empty marine gastropod shells throughout their lifespan, in order to protect their soft abdomens, and in order to have a strong shell to withdraw into if attacked by a predator. Each individual hermit crab is forced to find another gastropod shell on a regular basis, whenever it grows too large for the one it is currently using.\n", "Hermit crabs are usually easy to identify because of the colouration of their antenna and their antennules (a small structure resembling antennae which sits in front of the actual antennae). The hermit crab is approximately about the size of a coin and on average about 56mm in length, but this is slightly limited by the size of the shells available. The crab abdomen is spiral shaped, and can twist and is flexible, so they can fit easily and comfortably into the different shells they take on throughout their life. The crab protects and shields itself from predators and potential danger by contracting rapidly back into its shell out of reach, it uses its large chela as a door which protects it once it has retreated back into the safety of its shell. Throughout their lifetime hermit crabs use and adopt empty mollusk and gastropod shells, such as cats eyes, snails and periwinkles to protect their soft and vulnerable abdomens. The crabs carry their shells around on their backs with small legs which are modified so that there back end can grip into the shell, they use their abdominal muscles to hold the themselves securely in place. Over time, as hermit crabs grow they must switch shells to accommodate their expanding bodies as they need to find larger shells for protection.\n" ]

[ "The film focuses on the life of a group of riot control force policemen, the \"Celerini\", and their life in Rome \"cleansing\" stadiums of Ultras, public demonstrations, evictions and everyday family life.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Rome\": A historical drama set in Ancient Rome that primarily chronicles the lives and deeds of the rich, powerful and historically significant, but also focuses on the lives, fortunes, families and acquaintances of two common men, Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo. They both manage to witness and often influence many of the historical events presented in the series. Primrose Hill Productions was not created yet, but the whole show was executive produced by Bruno Heller, who also served as head writer.\n", "In Rome, hundreds of students clashed with police and threw firecrackers outside a university where government ministers were attending a conference. \"Our university isn’t a catwalk for those who peddle austerity\" read a banner. Clashes have been also reported in Ventimiglia, a locality on the Italian-French border.\n", "Rome is being pursued by police lieutenant Candella (Victor Mature), and his partner, Lieutenant Collins (Fred Clark). Candella knows Rome's family well, having grown up in the neighborhood. Rome, feverish from his bullet wounds and exceedingly tired, goes to his parents' apartment seeking his mother's help. His teenage brother, Tony, himself skirts the law assisting the brother he worships. Their mother tells Rome he must leave; while she is preparing him some food, Candella shows up. He suspects Rome is hiding in the apartment and tells the woman, whom he calls 'Mama', he must search. Rome and Tony appear; Rome holds a gun on Candella, Tony makes sure the coast is clear and Rome escapes. Afterwards, Candella tells Tony to sit down for a talk. \n", "The story is told from the view points of several of those involved and the action moves between Rome, the extreme northern province of Alto Adige, an Italian enclave and tax haven in Switzerland, and several provincial Italian cities.\n", "Director Umberto Lenzi was offered a script titled \"Roma ha un segreto\" (\"Rome Has a Secret\"), a spy story set in the popular Roman district Trastevere. Lenzi felt that the script made no sense and trashed the script. He then asked the producer to make a film about the violence that was surrounding Rome at the time. Within a week, Lenzi improvised a script.\n", "The film is loosely based on real events that occurred within the Roman Empire in the latter half of the 2nd century AD. As Ridley Scott wanted to portray Roman culture more accurately than in any previous film, he hired several historians as advisors. Nevertheless, some deviations from historical fact were made to increase interest, maintain narrative continuity, and for practical or safety reasons. Scott also stated that due to the influence of previous films affecting the public perception of what ancient Rome was like, some historical facts were \"too unbelievable\" to include. For instance in an early version of the script, gladiators would have been carrying out product endorsements in the arena; while this would have been historically accurate, it was not filmed for fear that audiences would think it anachronistic.\n" ]

[ "Very thin crystals of MoTe can be made using sticky tape. When they are thin around 500 nm thick red light can be transmitted. Even thinner layers can be orange or transparent. An absorption edge occurs in the spectrum with wavelengths longer than 6720 Å transmitted and shorter wavelengths heavily attenuated. At 77 K this edge changes to 6465 Å. This corresponds to deep red.\n", "Gold is the most malleable of all metals. It can be drawn into a monoatomic wire, and then stretched about twice before it breaks. Such nanowires distort via formation, reorientation and migration of dislocations and crystal twins without noticeable hardening. A single gram of gold can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be beaten thin enough to become semi-transparent. The transmitted light appears greenish blue, because gold strongly reflects yellow and red. Such semi-transparent sheets also strongly reflect infrared light, making them useful as infrared (radiant heat) shields in visors of heat-resistant suits, and in sun-visors for spacesuits. Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity.\n", "Studies have shown that the size of the gold particle must be enlarged (40 nm) to view the cells in low magnification, but gold particles that are too large can decrease the efficiency of the binding of the gold tag. Scientists have concluded the usage of smaller gold particles (1-5 nm) should be enlarged and enhanced with silver. Although osmium tetroxide staining can scratch the silver, gold particle enhancement was found not to be susceptible to scratching by osmium tetroxide staining; therefore, many cell adhesion studies of different substrates can use the immunogold labeling mechanism via the enhancement of the gold particles.\n", "BULLET::::- The darkest possible tones in the prints are lighter than silver-based prints. Recent studies have attributed this to an optical illusion produced by the gelatin coating on RC and fiber-based papers. However, platinotypes that have been waxed or varnished will produce images that appear to have greater D-max than silver prints.\n", "The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on the thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently thin (e.g., in a thin section for petrography), it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in a hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite, are opaque even in thin-section.\n", "Most high quality gold-filled pieces have the same appearance as high carat gold, and gold-filled items, even with daily wear, can last 10 to 30 years though the layer of gold will eventually wear off exposing the metal underneath.The layer of gold on gold-filled items is 5 to 10 times thicker than that produced by regular gold plating, and 15 to 25 times thicker than that produced by gold electroplate (sometimes stamped HGE for \"heavy gold electroplate\" or HGP for \"heavy gold plate\", neither of which has any legal meaning and indicates only that the item is gold plated).\n", "A rich sapphire blue colored gold of 20–23K can also be obtained by alloying with ruthenium, rhodium and three other elements and heat-treating at 1800 °C, to form the 3–6 micrometers thick colored surface oxide layer.\n" ]

[ "Atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion () atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of contains about 10 sextillion (10) atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.\n", "An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are extremely small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (, a ten-millionth of a millimeter, or 1/254,000,000 of an inch). They are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using classical physics – as if they were billiard balls, for example – is not possible. This due to quantum effects. Current atomic models now use quantum principles to better explain and predict this behavior.\n", "Several scientists, such as William Prout and Norman Lockyer, had suggested that atoms were built up from a more fundamental unit, but they envisioned this unit to be the size of the smallest atom, hydrogen. Thomson in 1897 was the first to suggest that one of the fundamental units was more than 1,000 times smaller than an atom, suggesting the subatomic particle now known as the electron. Thomson discovered this through his explorations on the properties of cathode rays. Thomson made his suggestion on 30 April 1897 following his discovery that cathode rays (at the time known as Lenard rays) could travel much further through air than expected for an atom-sized particle. He estimated the mass of cathode rays by measuring the heat generated when the rays hit a thermal junction and comparing this with the magnetic deflection of the rays. His experiments suggested not only that cathode rays were over 1,000 times lighter than the hydrogen atom, but also that their mass was the same in whichever type of atom they came from. He concluded that the rays were composed of very light, negatively charged particles which were a universal building block of atoms. He called the particles \"corpuscles\", but later scientists preferred the name electron which had been suggested by George Johnstone Stoney in 1891, prior to Thomson's actual discovery.\n", "For an atom the critical width is around 10 metres, while it is already down to 10 metres for a mass of one microgram. The regime where the mass is around 10 atomic mass units while the width is of the order of micrometers is expected to allow for an experimental test of the Schrödinger–Newton equation in the future. A possible candidate are interferometry experiments with heavy molecules, which currently reach masses up to 10,000 atomic mass units.\n", "The subatomic scale is the domain of physical size that encompasses objects smaller than an atom. It is the scale at which the atomic constituents, such as the nucleus containing protons and neutrons, and the electrons, which orbit in spherical or elliptical paths around the nucleus, become apparent.\n", "Most molecules are far too small to be seen with the naked eye, although molecules of many polymers can reach macroscopic sizes, including biopolymers such as DNA. Molecules commonly used as building blocks for organic synthesis have a dimension of a few angstroms (Å) to several dozen Å, or around one billionth of a meter. Single molecules cannot usually be observed by light (as noted above), but small molecules and even the outlines of individual atoms may be traced in some circumstances by use of an atomic force microscope. Some of the largest molecules are macromolecules or supermolecules.\n", "Such a number may be incomprehensibly huge. If the Big Bang is reckoned to have occurred 13.8 billion years ago, there have been \"only\" about 4.35 x 10 seconds since the birth of the universe. It is estimated that the Earth is made up of roughly 5.5 x 10 atoms; the number of atoms in the Milky Way Galaxy is approximately 5 x 10, and the number of atoms in the \"universe\" is estimated to be 3.5 x 10.\n" ]

[ "Professional wrestling, in the sense of traveling performers paid for mass entertainment in staged matches, began in the post-Civil War period in the late 1860s and 1870s. During this time, wrestlers were often athletes with amateur wrestling experience who competed at traveling carnivals with carnies working as their promoters and bookers. Grand circuses included wrestling exhibitions, quickly enhancing them through colorful costumes and fictional biographies for entertainment, disregarding their competitive nature. Wrestling exhibits during the late 19th century were also shown across the United States in countless \"athletic shows\" (or \"at shows\"), where experienced wrestlers offered open challenges to the audience. It was at these shows, often done for high-stakes gambling purposes, that the nature of the sport changed through the competing interests of three groups of people: the impresarios, the carnies, and the barnstormers.\n", "Professional wrestling, in the sense of traveling performers paid for mass entertainment in staged matches, began in the post-Civil War period in the late 1860s and 1870s. During this time, wrestlers were often athletes with amateur wrestling experience who competed at traveling carnivals with carnies working as their promoters and bookers. Grand circuses included wrestling exhibitions, quickly enhancing them through colorful costumes and fictional biographies for entertainment, disregarding their competitive nature. Wrestling exhibits during the late 19th century were also shown across the United States in countless \"athletic shows\" (or \"at shows\"), where experienced wrestlers offered open challenges to the audience. It was at these shows, often done for high-stakes gambling purposes, that the nature of the sport changed through the competing interests of three groups of people: the impresarios, the carnies, and the barnstormers.\n", "The history of professional wrestling, as a performing art, started in the early 20th century, with predecessors in funfair and variety strongman and wrestling performances (which often involved match fixing) in the 19th century.\n", "While professional wrestling has been staged, or preplanned, from the time it was a sideshow attraction, the scripted nature of the performances has been hinted at over time. In 1934 a show held at Wrigley Field in Chicago billed one of the matches as \"the last great shooting match\", subtly disclosing that the other matches were kayfabe (in reality, even the \"shooting\" match was scripted). In 1957 comedian Groucho Marx described watching wrestlers \"practice their match\", hinting at the scripted nature of professional wrestling.\n", "Professional wrestling has a long running tradition of holding shows that feature several championship matches, and at times actually promotes shows as an \"all championship matches\" show. The earliest documented \"All-Championship\" show is the EMLL Carnaval de Campeones (\"Carnival of Champions\") held on January 13, 1965. In 2007 WWE held a pay-per-view called , making WWE Night of Champions a recurring theme. Starting in 2008 the Mexican \"lucha libre\" promotion International Wrestling Revolution Group (IWRG) has held a regular major show labeled \"Caravana de Campeones\", Spanish for \"Caravan of Champions\" using the same concept for a major annual show. All \"Caravana de Campeones\" shows have been held in Arena Naucalpan, IWRG's home arena, the location of all of their major shows through the years. The April 2012 show was the fourth time IWRG has held a \"Caravana de Campeones\" show, having not held one in 2010 but held twice in 2012.\n", "Professional wrestling has a long running tradition of holding shows that feature several championship matches, and at times actually promotes shows as an \"all championship matches\" show. The earliest documented \"All-Championship\" show is the EMLL Carnaval de Campeones (\"Carnival of Champions\") held on January 13, 1965. In 2007 WWE held a pay-per-view called , making WWE Night of Champions a recurring theme. Starting in 2008 the Mexican \"lucha libre\" promotion International Wrestling Revolution Group (IWRG) has held a regular major show labeled \"Caravana de Campeones\", Spanish for \"Caravan of Champions\" using the same concept for a major annual show. All \"Caravana de Campeones\" shows have been held in Arena Naucalpan, IWRG's home arena, the location of all of their major shows through the years. The August 2012 show was the fifth time IWRG has held a \"Caravana de Campeones\" show, having not held one in 2010 but held twice in 2012.\n", "Professional wrestling has a long running tradition of holding shows that feature several championship matches, and at times actually promotes shows as an \"all championship matches\" show. The earliest documented \"All-Championship\" show is the EMLL Carnaval de Campeones (\"Carnival of Champions\") held on January 13, 1965. In 2007 WWE held a pay-per-view called , making WWE Night of Champions a recurring theme. Starting in 2008 the Mexican \"lucha libre\" promotion International Wrestling Revolution Group (IWRG) has held a regular major show labeled \"Caravana de Campeones\", Spanish for \"Caravan of Champions\". They did not hold a \"Caravana de Campeones\" show in 2010, but in both 2012 and 2013 held two shows during the year under the \"Caravana de Campeones\" banner.\n" ]

[ "Concerns about the militarization of police have been raised by both ends of the political spectrum in the United States, with both the right-of-center/libertarian Cato Institute and the left-of-center American Civil Liberties Union voicing criticisms of the practice. The Fraternal Order of Police has spoken out in favor of equipping law enforcement officers with military equipment, on the grounds that it increases the officers' safety and enables them to protect civilians.\n", "Concerns about the militarization of police have been raised by both ends of the political spectrum in the United States, with both the right-of-center/libertarian Cato Institute and the American Civil Liberties Union voicing criticisms of the practice. The Fraternal Order of Police has spoken out in favor of equipping law enforcement officers with military equipment, on the grounds that it increases the officers' safety and enables them to protect members of the public and other first responders (e.g., firefighters and emergency medical services personnel). However, a 2017 study showed that police forces which received military equipment were more likely to have violent encounters with the public, regardless of local crime rates.\n", "The 1829 Metropolitan Police Act created a modern police force by limiting the purview of the force and its powers, and envisioning it as merely an organ of the judicial system. Their job was apolitical; to maintain the peace and apprehend criminals for the courts to process according to the law. This was very different to the \"continental model\" of the police force that had been developed in France, where the police force worked within the parameters of the absolutist state as an extension of the authority of the monarch and functioned as part of the governing state.\n", "In 2016, he and Joscha Legewie co-authored a study that found that in the United States, police killings of blacks were higher in cities with more racial polarization, especially when the city has two ethnic groups of equal population. They also found that this effect can be reduced by hiring more black police officers.\n", "The American police officers live and work in a society full of prejudices against minorities. In addition, police officers usually deal with high crime rates in minority neighborhoods. These experiences reinforce their existing prejudices by ignoring that most people with a non-white ethnic background don't become criminals. This leads to discrimination against minorities. Other factors that lead to discrimination by the police are institutionalized language barriers between police and some ethnic groups, experiences with disrespectful or hostile residents in certain minority neighborhoods and low punishment for police officers who misbehave towards minorities.\n", "With the unification of laws and centralization of state power (\"e.g.\" the Municipal Police Act of 1844 in New York City, United States), such formations became increasingly incorporated into state-run police force (see metropolitan police and municipal police).\n", "Society would like to believe that police officers and protectors are not biased towards the victims of police brutality, we hope that everything law enforcement does is to better protect us. As history repeats and more and more Black Americans lose their lives, this gives reason to believe that different geographic locations carry different political and social views, therefore police officers are biased towards those they decide to abuse, instead of allowing the justice system to properly serve justice.\n" ]

[ "Music is the only form of communication that saves us from an overwhelming amount of small talk. This is not only a human phenomenon, but happens throughout the animal world. Thomas makes examples of animals from termites and earthworms to gorillas and alligators that perform some sort of rhythmic noise making that can be interpreted as music if we had full range of hearing. From the vast number of animals that participate in music it is clear that the need to make music is a fundamental characteristic of biology. Thomas proposes that the animal world is continuing a musical memory that has been going since the beginning of time.\n", "The ability to perceive and generate music is frequently studied as a way to further understand human rhythmic processing. Research projects, such as Brain Beats, are currently studying this by developing beat tracking algorithms and designing experimental protocols to analyze human rhythmic processing. This is rhythm in its most obvious form. Human beings have an innate ability to listen to a rhythm and track the beat, as seen here \"Dueling Banjos\". This can be done by bobbing the head, tapping of the feet or even clapping. Jessica Grahn and Matthew Brett call this spontaneous movement \"motor prediction\". They hypothesized that it is caused by the basal ganglia and the supplementary motor area (SMA). This would mean that those areas of the brain would be responsible for spontaneous rhythm generation, although further research is required to prove this. However, they did prove that the basal ganglia and SMA are highly involved in rhythm perception. In a study where patients brain activity was recorded using fMRI, increased activity was seen in these areas both in patients moving spontaneously (bobbing their head) and in those who were told to stay still.\n", "The evolutionary switch to bipedalism may have influenced the origins of music. The background is that noise of locomotion and ventilation may mask critical auditory information. Human locomotion is likely to produce more predictable sounds than those of non-human primates. Predictable locomotion sounds may have improved our capacity of entrainment to external rhythms and to feel the beat in music. A sense of rhythm could aid the brain in distinguishing among sounds arising from discrete sources and also help individuals to synchronize their movements with one another. Synchronization of group movement may improve perception by providing periods of relative silence and by facilitating auditory processing. The adaptive value of such skills to early human ancestors may have been keener detection of prey or stalkers and enhanced communication. Thus, bipedal walking may have influenced the development of entrainment in humans and thereby the evolution of rhythmic abilities. Primitive hominids lived and moved around in small groups. The noise generated by the locomotion of two or more individuals can result in a complicated mix of footsteps, breathing, movements against vegetation, echoes, etc. The ability to perceive differences in pitch, rhythm, and harmonies, i.e. “musicality,” could help the brain to distinguish among sounds arising from discrete sources, and also help the individual to synchronize movements with the group. Endurance and an interest in listening might, for the same reasons, have been associated with survival advantages eventually resulting in adaptive selection for rhythmic and musical abilities and reinforcement of such abilities. Listening to music seems to stimulate release of dopamine. Rhythmic group locomotion combined with attentive listening in nature may have resulted in reinforcement through dopamine release. A primarily survival-based behavior may eventually have attained similarities to dance and music, due to such reinforcement mechanisms . Since music may facilitate social cohesion, improve group effort, reduce conflict, facilitate perceptual and motor skill development, and improve trans-generational communication, music-like behavior may at some stage have become incorporated into human culture.\n", "The sounds that are heard in everyday life are not characterized by a single frequency. Instead, they consist of a sum of pure sine frequencies, each one at a different amplitude. When humans hear these frequencies simultaneously, we can recognize the sound. This is true for both \"non-musical\" sounds (e.g. water splashing, leaves rustling, etc.) and for \"musical sounds\" (e.g. a piano note, a bird's tweet, etc.). This set of parameters (frequencies, their relative amplitudes, and how the relative amplitudes change over time) are encapsulated by the \"timbre\" of the sound. Fourier analysis is the technique that is used to determine these exact timbre parameters from an overall sound signal; conversely, the resulting set of frequencies and amplitudes is called the Fourier series of the original sound signal.\n", "Auditory arrhythmia can also be confused with something called beat deafness. Beat deafness is a form of congenital amusia, which is a person's inability to move in time to the music, or feel a musical rhythm. It is believed by researchers that beat deafness stems from a connection problem between the brain's auditory cortex and inferior frontal lobe. A postdoctoral researcher with the International Laboratory for Brain, Music, and Sound Research at the University of Montreal studied a case where a man could not feel a rhythm in any sense. Not only did he have difficulty dancing, but he was unable to tap his foot or snap his fingers along with the beat of the music. The major difference between beat deafness and auditory arrhythmia, however, is that beat deafness is most likely something you are born with, whereas the arrhythmia most likely comes from damage, which was the case in the research done on \"Mathieu,\" the first known case of beat-deafness. In another case, a former musician known as H.J. suffered damage from a temporoparietal infarct, which is an area of dead tissue due to lack of adequate blood supply. The infarct was believed to have been caused by a problem during a coronary angiography, which is a test to show the insides of an individual's coronary arteries. H.J. suffered difficulties with creating a steady beat, an inability to distinguish between different sets of rhythms, and also experienced difficulties when playing his instruments.\n", "In acoustics, a beat is an interference pattern between two sounds of slightly different frequencies, \"perceived\" as a periodic variation in volume whose rate is the difference of the two frequencies.\n", "Generally, humans have the ability to hear musical beat and rhythm beginning in infancy. Some people, however, are unable to identify beat and rhythm of music, suffering from what is known as beat deafness. Beat deafness is a newly discovered form of congenital amusia, in which people lack the ability to identify or “hear” the beat in a piece of music. Unlike most hearing impairments in which an individual is unable to hear any sort of sound stimuli, those with beat deafness are generally able to hear normally, but unable to identify beat and rhythm in music. Those with beat deafness are also unable to dance in step to any type of music. Even people who do not dance well can at least coordinate their movements to the song they are listening to, because they can easily keep time to the beat.\n" ]

[ "In many species, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons, with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences. The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size, or \"C-value\", among species, represent a long-standing puzzle known as the \"C-value enigma\". However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression.\n", "The number of genes in the human genome is not entirely clear because the function of numerous transcripts remains unclear. This is especially true for non-coding RNA (see below). The number of protein-coding genes is better known but there are still on the order of 1,400 questionable genes which may or may not encode functional proteins, usually encoded by short open reading frames. Table 2 gives estimates from various projects and shows these discrepancies.\n", "Humans are estimated to have approximately 20,000 protein-coding genes, which account for about 1.5% of DNA in the human genome. The primary goal of the ENCODE project is to determine the role of the remaining component of the genome, much of which was traditionally regarded as \"junk.\" The activity and expression of protein-coding genes can be modulated by the regulome - a variety of DNA elements, such as the promoter, transcriptional regulatory sequences, and regions of chromatin structure and histone modification. It is thought that changes in the regulation of gene activity can disrupt protein production and cell processes and result in disease. Determining the location of these regulatory elements and how they influence gene transcription could reveal links between variations in the expression of certain genes and the development of disease.\n", "In eukaryotes, genome size, and by extension the amount of noncoding DNA, is not correlated to organism complexity, an observation known as the C-value enigma. For example, the genome of the unicellular \"Polychaos dubium\" (formerly known as \"Amoeba dubia\") has been reported to contain more than 200 times the amount of DNA in humans. The pufferfish \"Takifugu rubripes\" genome is only about one eighth the size of the human genome, yet seems to have a comparable number of genes; approximately 90% of the \"Takifugu\" genome is noncoding DNA. Therefore, most of the difference in genome size is not due to variation in amount of coding DNA, rather, it is due to a difference in the amount of non-coding DNA.\n", "The amount of total genomic DNA varies widely between organisms, and the proportion of coding and noncoding DNA within these genomes varies greatly as well. For example, it was originally suggested that over 98% of the human genome does not encode protein sequences, including most sequences within introns and most intergenic DNA, while 20% of a typical prokaryote genome is noncoding.\n", "The genomic loci and length of certain types of small repetitive sequences are highly variable from person to person, which is the basis of DNA fingerprinting and DNA paternity testing technologies. The heterochromatic portions of the human genome, which total several hundred million base pairs, are also thought to be quite variable within the human population (they are so repetitive and so long that they cannot be accurately sequenced with current technology). These regions contain few genes, and it is unclear whether any significant phenotypic effect results from typical variation in repeats or heterochromatin.\n", "With the sequencing of the genomes of a diverse array or model organisms, it became clear that the number of genes does not correlate with the human perception of relative organism complexity – the human proteome contains some 20 000 genes, which is smaller than some species such as corn. A statistical approach to calculating the number of interactions in humans gives an estimate of around 650 000, one order of magnitude bigger than Drosophila and 3 times larger than C. Elegans. As of 2008, only about <0.3% of all estimated interactions among human proteins has been identified, although in recent years there has been exponential growth in discovery – as of 2015, over 210 000 unique human positive protein–protein interactions are currently catalogued, and bioGRID database contains almost 750 000 literature-curated PPI's for 30 model organisms, 300 000 of which are verified or predicted human physical or genetic protein–protein interactions, a 50% increase from 2013. The currently available information on the human interactome network originates from either literature-curated interactions, high-throughput experiments, or from potential interactions predicted from interactome data, whether through phylogenetic profiling (evolutionary similarity), statistical network inference, or text/literature mining methods.\n" ]

[ "Male animals are typically more elaborately ornamented than females. The classic sexual selection theory notes that because sperm are cheaper to produce than eggs, and because males generally compete more intensely for reproductive opportunities and invest less in parental care than females, males can obtain greater fitness benefits from mating multiple times. Therefore, sexual selection typically results in male-biased sex differences in secondary sexual characteristics, which are non-reproductive body parts that help distinguish between sexes in a species.\n", "The triad of traits, ancestrally would not have been adaptive for women, this is because, females were and still are less likely or less willing to engage in casual sex, because of the lack of certainty of resources to provide for her and her offspring.\n", "Bateman's principle implies that females are choosy because there is little evolutionary advantage for them to mate with multiple males. However, observation of many species, from rabbits to fruit flies, has shown that females have more offspring if they mate with a larger number of males. This seemingly contradicts Bateman's theory, specifically his conclusion that \"while males had more children the more partners they mated with, females did not.\"\n", "Some sexually selected traits help males find females faster, and these individuals are at an advantage in contrast to those males lacking these traits. Evolution has allowed traits to be selected during sexual selection. These traits provide males an advantage to find females faster in contrast to those males lacking these traits. Sexual selection allows males to receive receptivity signals from females, in the form of pheromones which are detected by the males. Mature females release a pheromone to reduce their attractiveness towards males due to the high costs of re-mating for the egg sac (infanticide mentioned above). Mature females are aggressive towards males due to infanticide caused by males, which is costly to the females. However, a high chance of multiple mates can increase the likelihood of genetic compatibility in embryo formation. It is important to note that although multiple mates can increase the likelihood of genetic compatibility, it cannot be considered a major fitness advantage. Research and experimenting has been able to show that the increased viability of embryos—due to increased genetic compatibility—did not significantly increase the number of individuals in the population over time, and therefore, did not play a significant role in the fitness of the overall population. More over, males receive 50% more success fertilizing eggs in mature females than in virgin females who may have yet have reached maturity. Since males mature on average 16 days earlier than females, they encounter immature virgin females frequently, but these females are not mature enough to allow the egg sac to develop.\n", "Another way the sexes differ is that men are much more likely to fantasize about having multiple sexual partners (i.e., having threesomes or orgies) compared to women and seek greater partner variation in their sexual fantasies. Evolutionary theory suggests that this may be due to men's capacity to produce many offspring at any one time by impregnating multiple females, and thus predicts that males will be more open to the concept of multiple partnerships in order to increase reproductive success and continue their genetic line.\n", "This phenomenon is a consequence of a female-biased operational sex ratio. This means that at any given time, there are more females than males seeking to copulate. This occurs because males lose up to 11% of their body mass during mating and once they are done mating, they need time to sequester resources that will allow them to deliver a spermatophore to the next female they mate with. On the contrary, females do not need time to prepare for their next copulation. Due to the unequal mating rates, males become valuable to females and female-to-female competition rises dramatically as a consequence.\n", "Human females, however, engage in sex throughout their ovulatory cycles, and even beyond their reproductive years. Additionally, they do not show obvious physical signals of high fertility. This has led many researchers to conclude that humans lost their estrus through evolution. It has been hypothesized that this could be due to the adaptive benefits of concealed ovulation and extended sexuality.\n" ]

[ "As opposed to the raster image formats above (where the data describes the characteristics of each individual pixel), vector image formats contain a geometric description which can be rendered smoothly at any desired display size.\n", "Vector graphics formats are complementary to raster graphics. Raster graphics is the representation of images as an array of pixels and is typically used for the representation of photographic images. Vector graphics consists in encoding information about shapes and colors that comprise the image, which can allow for more flexibility in rendering. There are instances when working with vector tools and formats is best practice, and instances when working with raster tools and formats is best practice. There are times when both formats come together. An understanding of the advantages and limitations of each technology and the relationship between them is most likely to result in efficient and effective use of tools.\n", "The number of vectors is the same as the number of pixels in the image. For the classifier uses a vector corresponding to each pixel formula_27, and the vector is generated from the pixel's neighbourhood.\n", "In computer science, a 4D vector is a 4-component vector data type. Uses include homogeneous coordinates for 3-dimensional space in computer graphics, and \"red green blue alpha\" (RGBA) values for bitmap images with a color and alpha channel (as such they are widely used in computer graphics). They may also represent quaternions (useful for rotations) although the algebra they define is different.\n", "Vector extraction, or vectorization, offer another approach. Vectorization first creates a resolution-independent vector representation of the graphic to be scaled. Then the resolution-independent version is rendered as a raster image at the desired resolution. This technique is used by Adobe Illustrator, Live Trace, and Inkscape. Scalable Vector Graphics are well suited to simple geometric images, while photographs do not fare well with vectorization due to their complexity.\n", "Many of the vectorization programs will group same-color pixels into lines, curves, or outlined shapes. If each possible color is grouped into its own object, there can be an enormous number of objects. Instead, the user is asked to select a finite number of colors (usually less than 256), the image is reduced to using that many colors (this step is color quantization), and then the vectorization is done on the reduced image. For continuous tone images such as photographs, the result of color quantization is posterization. Gradient fills will also be posterized.\n", "Vector graphics are computer graphics images that are defined in terms of 2D points, which are connected by lines and curves to form polygons and other shapes. Each of these points has a definite position on the \"x-\" and \"y-\"axis of the work plane and determines the direction of the path; further, each path may have various properties including values for stroke color, shape, curve, thickness, and fill. Vector graphics are commonly found today in the SVG, EPS, PDF or AI graphic file formats and are intrinsically different from the more common raster graphics file formats of JPEG, PNG, APNG, GIF, and MPEG4.\n" ]

[ "In a June interview with Hypebot, Wallach reported that $180 million of royalties was paid out in 2011 and 70% of Spotify's revenue consisted of royalty payments. Spotify's growth meant that the per-stream royalty rate doubled between the service's inception and mid-2012. He said that, at the time, compared to iTunes, the average listener spends $60 annually on music, whereas Spotify Premium users spend twice that amount. According to Wallach in 2012: \"The growth of the platform is proportional to the royalty pay out, and since inception, we’ve already doubled the effective per play rate.\"\n", "From 2004 through July 2006, the certification level was 100,000 downloads for Gold and 200,000 for Platinum. When the RIAA changed the certification standards to match retail distribution in August 2006, all Platinum and Multi-Platinum awards for a digital release were withdrawn. Gold certifications, however, were not, meaning a song that was downloaded over 100,000 times and certified so by the RIAA during that time frame retains its Gold status.\n", "BULLET::::- On June 10, Eminem became the first recording artist to receive two Digital Single Diamond Awards from the RIAA. They were for his singles \"Not Afraid\" and \"Love The Way You Lie\" singles, which both surpassed the 10 million threshold for a combination of sales and streams.\n", "Music recording sales certification is by Recording Industry Foundation in Taiwan (RIT, named IFPI Taiwan until November 2008). In March 2002, the certification level was changed to unit sales. Prior to that Gold was awarded when an album has shipped 100,000 and platinum 200,000 copies.\n", "On March 16, 2010, following the surge in sales, Sony Music signed a $250 million deal with the Jackson estate to extend their distribution rights to Jackson's back catalog until at least 2017; it had been due to expire in 2015. It was the most expensive music contract for a single artist in history. They also agreed to release ten albums of previously unreleased material and new collections of released work. In 2017, Sony Music Entertainment extended its deal with the estate; that July, a Los Angeles court awarded Jones $9.4 million of disputed royalty payments for \"Off the Wall\", \"Thriller\" and \"Bad\". In July 2018, Sony/ATV bought the estate's stake in EMI for $287.5 million.\n", "BULLET::::- 28 — Rihanna released her eighth studio album \"Anti\"; two days following its release the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) after receiving 1 million free downloads in 15 hours due to a deal with Samsung, becoming the fastest certified platinum album in history.\n", "A music single or album qualifies for a platinum certification if it exceeds 70,000 copies shipped to retailers and a gold certification for 35,000 copies shipped. The diamond certification was created for albums in November 2015 to mark 500,000 sales/shipments.\n" ]

[ "In the aftermath of Snowden's revelations, The Pentagon concluded that Snowden committed the biggest theft of U.S. secrets in the history of the United States. In Australia, the coalition government described the leaks as the most damaging blow dealt to Australian intelligence in history. Sir David Omand, a former director of GCHQ, described Snowden's disclosure as the \"most catastrophic loss to British intelligence ever\".\n", "Cybersecurity scholar Peter Singer divided the material disclosed by Snowden into three categories: \"smart, useful espionage against enemies of the United States; legally questionable activities that involved US citizens through backdoors and fudging of policy/law; un-strategic (stupid) actions targeting American allies that has had huge blowback on US standing and US business.\" It was postulated that these were differing ways people viewed Snowden, which could explain why he was so polarizing. Singer also spoke of a \"double legacy\" from the NSA revelations released by Snowden: \"One, it's hollowed out the American ability to operate effectively in ensuring the future of the internet itself, in the way we would hope it would be. That has huge long-term consequences. And the second is, it's been and will be a hammer-blow to American technology companies. The cloud computing industry, for example, had a recent estimate that they'll lose $36 billion worth of business because of this.\"\n", "A subject of controversy, Snowden has been variously called a hero, a whistleblower, a dissident, a patriot, and a traitor. \"Pentagon Papers\" leaker Daniel Ellsberg called Snowden's release of NSA material the most significant leak in U.S. history.\n", "Snowden said he wanted to \"embolden others to step forward\" by demonstrating that \"they can win.\" He also said that the system for reporting problems did not work. \"You have to report wrongdoing to those most responsible for it.\" He cited a lack of whistleblower protection for government contractors, the use of the 1917 Espionage Act to prosecute leakers, and his belief that had he used internal mechanisms to \"sound the alarm,\" his revelations \"would have been buried forever.\"\n", "The extent to which the media reports have responsibly informed the public is disputed. In January 2014, Obama said that \"the sensational way in which these disclosures have come out has often shed more heat than light\" and critics such as Sean Wilentz have noted that many of the Snowden documents released do not concern domestic surveillance. The US & UK Defense establishment weigh the strategic harm in the period following the disclosures more heavily than their civic public benefit. In its first assessment of these disclosures, the Pentagon concluded that Snowden committed the biggest \"theft\" of U.S. secrets in the history of the United States. Sir David Omand, a former director of GCHQ, described Snowden's disclosure as the \"most catastrophic loss to British intelligence ever\".\n", "In January 2014, Snowden said his \"breaking point\" was \"seeing the Director of National Intelligence, James Clapper, directly lie under oath to Congress.\" This referred to testimony on March 12, 2013—three months after Snowden first sought to share thousands of NSA documents with Greenwald, and nine months after the NSA says Snowden made his first illegal downloads during the summer of 2012—in which Clapper denied to the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence that the NSA wittingly collects data on millions of Americans. Snowden said, \"There's no saving an intelligence community that believes it can lie to the public and the legislators who need to be able to trust it and regulate its actions. Seeing that really meant for me there was no going back. Beyond that, it was the creeping realization that no one else was going to do this. The public had a right to know about these programs.\" In March 2014, Snowden said he had reported policy or legal issues related to spying programs to more than ten officials, but as a contractor had no legal avenue to pursue further whistleblowing.\n", "On 5 May 2015, the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet acknowledged that Snowden's leaked documents on the GCSB and NSA were authentic but accused Snowden's associates, particularly the journalist Glenn Greenwald, of \"misrepresenting, misinterpreting, and misunderstanding\" the leaked information.\n" ]

[ "With the signing of the Tripartite Pact on September 27, 1940, creating the Axis of Germany, Japan, and Italy, Decoux had new grounds for worry: the Germans could pressure the homeland to support their ally, Japan.\n", "In February 1942, Raeder presented Hitler with the \"Great Plan\", a grand strategic design for winning the war by a series of combined operations with Japan and Italy. Through essentially a rehash of the \"Mediterranean plan\" of 1940 with the main German blows to be focused against the British in the Middle East, the \"Great Plan\" of 1942 was worked out in considerably more detail, and called for a series of mutually supporting attacks between Germany in the Middle East and Japan in the Indian subcontinent that were intended to knock Britain out of the war. On the German side of things, Raeder called for Axis forces to take Malta and drive on across the North African desert to the Suez Canal. Once that had occurred, it would be possible for the German and Italian forces in the Mediterranean to link up with Japanese forces in the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea-a situation that Raeder claimed would not only cause the collapse of the British Empire, but create the preconditions for the defeat of the United States. Raeder called Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps in effect \"an organ of the \"Seekriegsleitung\"\" because it would have the function of taking Egypt. Finally for Raeder's \"Great Plan\" required the \"Kriegsmarine\" to take over the French fleet at Toulon in order to create the necessary battlefleet that would allow the German navy to be equal partner of the Japanese and the Italians. Operation Drumbeat, the \"Second Happy Time\" of the U-boats had inflicted heavy losses on shipping off the Atlantic coast of the United States in early 1942, and which had followed up by another U-boat offensive in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean starting in May 1942 and another one in Canadian waters in the summer of 1942. In May 1942, the \"Kriegsmarine\" sunk more tonnage in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean than had been done during any of the months of the \"First Happy Time\" of 1940. Between January–August 1942 the U-boats had sunk 485 ships totalling 2, 600, 000 tons in the waters from Canada to the Caribbean, inflicting what the American historian Gerhard Weinberg called \"... the most disastrous defeat ever suffered by American naval power\". In addition, April 1942 saw the introduction of \"milch cow\" submarines that served to supply other U-boats, thus extending the cruise time of boats in the New World, and which had been ordered by Raeder in 1941 to make up for the destruction of the supply ship network by the Royal Navy in the spring of 1941. Operation Drumbeat seemed to confirm Raeder's repeated statements in 1941 that the United States was a paper tiger that the \"Kriegsmarine\" could easily defeat, and as a result Raeder's prestige with Hitler in early 1942 was quite high. Because the \"Kriegsmarine\"'s operations in the New World were so successful, Hitler had some interest in Raeder's \"Great Plan\", but objections from General Franz Halder of the Army General Staff who accused Raeder of having no understanding of logistics together with the fact that the Army was fully engaged on the Eastern Front meant in the end Raeder's \"Great Plan\" was ignored.\n", "One design task was choosing the missions for the Axis campaign. It was difficult to judge at what point the war should turn in favor of the Axis. It was decided that major changes had to start early in the war. If Rommel had not gotten sick or if Montgomery had never been placed in charge of the British forces in North Africa, the second Axis campaign mission, the Battle of El Alamein, might have been a disaster for the British. The Germans might have broken through and moved on to capture several of the major oil fields in the Middle East. If they had, then Operation Barbarossa might have been successful for Germany, since in the real course of history, German forces had to stop 30 miles from Moscow because some forces had to be diverted to fight for the Caucasus oil fields.\n", "Hitler had been considering war with the Soviet Union since July 1940. However, after Germany entered the Axis Pact with Japan and Italy, in October 1940, the Soviet Union explored a possible entry into the Axis themselves. Stalin sent Molotov to Berlin to negotiate, where he negotiated with Ribbentrop and Hitler personally, who spoke at length about a division of the world after the destruction of Britain that would be like \"a gigantic world estate in bankruptcy\". After long discussions and proposals, Germany presented the Soviets with a draft written Axis pact agreement defining the world spheres of influence of the four proposed Axis powers (Japan, Germany, Soviet Union, Italy). Eleven days later, the Soviets presented a Stalin-drafted written counter-proposal where they would accept the four-power pact, but it included Soviet rights to Bulgaria and a world sphere of influence focus on the area around modern Iraq and Iran. The Soviets concurrently promised, by May 11, 1941, the delivery of 2.5 million tons of grain—1 million tons above its current obligations. They also promised full compensation for the Volksdeutsche property claims. Germany never responded to the counter-proposal. Shortly thereafter, Hitler issued a secret directive on the eventual attempts to invade the Soviet Union.\n", "During the early morning of 22 June 1941, Hitler terminated the pact by launching Operation Barbarossa, the Axis invasion of Soviet-held territories and the Soviet Union that began the war on the Eastern Front Before the invasion, Stalin thought that Germany would not attack the Soviet Union until Germany had defeated Britain. At the same time, Soviet generals warned Stalin that Germany had concentrated forces on its borders. Two highly placed Soviet spies in Germany, \"Starshina\" and \"Korsikanets\", had sent dozens of reports to Moscow containing evidence of preparation for a German attack. Further warnings came from Richard Sorge, a Soviet spy in Tokyo working undercover as a German journalist who had penetrated deep into the German Embassy in Tokyo by seducing the wife of General Eugen Ott, the German ambassador to Japan.\n", "One idea from the memo was broadly similar to Operation Mincemeat, a World War II plan to convince the Germans that the Allies would attack Greece rather than Italy in 1943, although that idea was developed by Charles Cholmondeley in October 1942. Confirmation of the success of the plan was sent to Churchill: \"Mincemeat swallowed rod, line and sinker.\"\n", "Adolf Hitler predicted this problem and on 18 December 1940 had issued Directive 21. It ordered the beginning of the preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the USSR. On the other hand the war with the British was far from concluded and the United States of America were supporting them, while showing an increasingly hostile attitude towards the Axis. A protracted war in the east could be disastrous, so a quick victory was essential. \n" ]

[ "A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an algorithm that computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a sequence, or its inverse (IDFT). Fourier analysis converts a signal from its original domain (often time or space) to a representation in the frequency domain and vice versa. The DFT is obtained by decomposing a sequence of values into components of different frequencies. This operation is useful in many fields, but computing it directly from the definition is often too slow to be practical. An FFT rapidly computes such transformations by factorizing the DFT matrix into a product of sparse (mostly zero) factors. As a result, it manages to reduce the complexity of computing the DFT from formula_1, which arises if one simply applies the definition of DFT, to formula_2, where formula_3 is the data size. The difference in speed can be enormous, especially for long data sets where \"N\" may be in the thousands or millions. In the presence of round-off error, many FFT algorithms are much more accurate than evaluating the DFT definition directly. There are many different FFT algorithms based on a wide range of published theories, from simple complex-number arithmetic to group theory and number theory.\n", "A Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is an algorithm which deals with the transformation of discrete values (in this case image pixels). When applied to a sample of finite values, a Fast Fourier Transform expresses any changes (motion) in terms of frequency components.\n", "The fast Fourier transform is an algorithm for rapidly computing the discrete Fourier transform. It is used not only for calculating the Fourier coefficients but, using the convolution theorem, also for computing the convolution of two finite sequences. They in turn are applied in digital filters and as a rapid multiplication algorithm for polynomials and large integers (Schönhage–Strassen algorithm).\n", "A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and its inverse. An FFT computes the DFT and produces exactly the same result as evaluating the DFT definition directly; the only difference is that an FFT is much faster. (In the presence of round-off error, many FFT algorithms are also much more accurate than evaluating the DFT definition directly).There are many different FFT algorithms involving a wide range of mathematics, from simple complex-number arithmetic to group theory and number theory. See more in FFT.\n", "In mathematics, in the area of harmonic analysis, the fractional Fourier transform (FRFT) is a family of linear transformations generalizing the Fourier transform. It can be thought of as the Fourier transform to the \"n\"-th power, where \"n\" need not be an integer — thus, it can transform a function to any \"intermediate\" domain between time and frequency. Its applications range from filter design and signal analysis to phase retrieval and pattern recognition.\n", "The cyclotomic fast Fourier transform is a type of fast Fourier transform algorithm over finite fields. This algorithm first decomposes a DFT into several circular convolutions, and then derives the DFT results from the circular convolution results. When applied to a DFT over formula_1, this algorithm has a very low multiplicative complexity. In practice, since there usually exist efficient algorithms for circular convolutions with specific lengths, this algorithm is very efficient.\n", "The Fourier transforms of this algorithm can be computed relatively fast using the \"fast Fourier transform (FFT)\". The split-step Fourier method can therefore be much faster than typical finite difference methods.\n" ]

[ "In contracts and other documents, the numbers written were not actual numbers of the coins, but their value in a standard system: for example, the standard often used the gold system, but the payments were done with the local silver coins. \n", "The first U.S. currency with a series year was printed on United States Notes introduced in 1869. Before that, paper currency was identified only by the act authorizing it, for example, the act of March 3rd, 1863. For these bills, the serial number uniquely identified the bill, except for some issues that exceeded one million bills. In that case, the sequence of serial numbers was restarted, and an extra overprint of 'Series 1' was added to the bill. When one million bills in 'Series 1' were printed, 'Series 2' was used, and so on. 'Series 187' is the highest series number of this sort that was used, on the United States Notes of 1863, in the $5 denomination.\n", "Dollar Bills with interesting serial numbers can also be collected. One example of this is radar or “palindrome“ notes, where the numbers in the serial number are the same if you read from left to right or right to left. Very low serial numbers, or a long block of the same or repeating digits may also be of interest to specialists. Another example is replacement notes, which have a star to the right of the serial number. The star designates that there was a printing error on one or more of the bills, and it has been replaced by one from a run specifically printed and numbered to be replacements. Star notes may have some additional value depending on their condition, their year series or if they have an unusual serial number sequence. To determine the rarity of modern star notes, production tables are maintained.\n", "Coins are minted by the Central Mint, while notes are printed by the Central Engraving and Printing Plant. Both are run by the Central Bank. The NT$ coin is rare because of its low value, while the NT$20 coin is rare because of the government's lack of willingness to promote it. As of 2010, the cost of the raw materials in a NT$ coin was more than the face value of the coin.\n", "Currency and proof issues of the 1862 dated rupee coins have a number of different obverse and reverse die varieties, which are helpful in identification of the mint. The design of the coin, however, remained largely unchanged. From 1863 till 1875, the Bombay mint introduced an unusual system of dots to date the coins. These dots occur on the reverse below the date, above the word 'ONE', or in both positions. From 1874, this practice was halted and coins began to be dated continuously. From this development, it may be inferred that by this time the 'batta' system must have all but disappeared. As with all other Victoria coinage, the title on the obverse was changed from 'Victoria Queen' to 'Victoria Empress' in 1877. Calcutta mint coins usually carry no mint mark or an incused 'C' at the bottom of the reverse. Bombay mint issues are usually marked by a raised bead below the date, or a raised/incused 'B' in the top or bottom flower, with some exceptions. Rupee coins with Victoria's bust were minted until her death in 1901.\n", "Coins may be in circulation with fiat values lower than the value of their component metals, but they are never initially issued with such value, and the shortfall only arises over time due to inflation, as market values for the metal overtake the fiat declared face value of the coin. Examples are the pre-1965 US dime, quarter, half dollar, and dollar (nominally containing slightly less than a tenth, quarter, half, and full ounce of silver, respectively), US nickel, and pre-1982 US penny. As a result of the increase in the value of copper, the United States greatly reduced the amount of copper in each penny. Since mid-1982, United States pennies are made of 97.5% zinc, with the remaining 2.5% being a coating of copper. Extreme differences between fiat values and metal values of coins cause coins to be hoarded or removed from circulation by illicit smelters in order to realise the value of their metal content. This is an example of Gresham's law. The United States Mint, in an attempt to avoid this, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of pennies and nickels. Violators can be fined up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for up to five years.\n", "Most coins presently are made of a base metal, and their value comes from their status as fiat money. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat (law), and thus is determined by the free market only in as much as national currencies are used in domestic trade and also traded internationally on foreign exchange markets. Thus, these coins are monetary tokens, just as paper currency is: they are usually not backed by metal, but rather by some form of government guarantee. Some have suggested that such coins not be considered to be \"true coins\" (see below). Thus, there is very little economic difference between notes and coins of equivalent face value.\n" ]

[ "Some studies attribute migraine headaches to overly intense light, while others linked it with certain spectral distributions. In one survey bright light was the number two trigger (affecting 47% of respondents) for causing a migraine episode. \n", "These cause permanent obstruction of aqueous outflow. In some cases, pressure may rapidly build up in the eye, causing pain and redness (symptomatic, or so-called \"acute\" angle closure). In this situation, the vision may become blurred, and halos may be seen around bright lights. Accompanying symptoms may include a headache and vomiting.\n", "Individuals experience rapid onset of pain in one eye followed by blurry vision in part or all its visual field. Flashes of light (phosphenes) may also be present. Inflammation of the optic nerve causes loss of vision most usually by the swelling and destruction of the myelin sheath covering the optic nerve.\n", "Severe or chronic photophobia, such as in migraine or seizure disorder, may result in a person not feeling well with eye ache, headache and/or neck ache. These symptoms may persist for days even after the person is no longer exposed to the offensive light source. Further, once the eyes have become sensitized to the offensive light source (which can occur even in short duration exposures), they may become even more photosensitive with extreme pain occurring upon exposure to light.\n", "It is unclear whether pain is directly associated with flash blindness. Reaction to flash blindness can be discomforting and disorienting. The retina has no pain receptors. Nonetheless, psychological pain may very well be present. It can cause amplified stress levels but usually fades.\n", "The role of migraines in Alice in Wonderland syndrome is still not understood, but both vascular and electrical theories have been suggested. For example, visual distortions may be a result of transient, localized ischaemia (an inadequate blood supply to an organ or part of the body) in areas of the visual pathway during migraine attacks. In addition, a spreading wave of depolarization of cells (particularly glial cells) in the cerebral cortex during migraine attacks can eventually activate the trigeminal nerve's regulation of the vascular system. The intense cranial pain during migraines is due to the connection of the trigeminal nerve with the thalamus and thalamic projections onto the sensory cortex. Alice in Wonderland syndrome symptoms can precede, accompany, or replace the typical migraine symptoms.\n", "Retinal migraine is a different disease than scintillating scotoma, which is a visual anomaly caused by spreading depression in the occipital cortex at the back of the brain, not in the eyes nor any component thereof. Unlike in retinal migraine, a scintillating scotoma involves repeated bouts of temporary diminished vision or blindness and affects vision from both eyes, upon which sufferers may see flashes of light, zigzagging patterns, blind spots, or shimmering spots or stars.\n" ]

[ "In their analysis of contemporary western society, \"Dialectic of Enlightenment\" (1944, revised 1947), Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer developed a wide and pessimistic concept of enlightenment. In their analysis, enlightenment had its dark side: while trying to abolish superstition and myths by 'foundationalist' philosophy, it ignored its own 'mythical' basis. Its strivings towards totality and certainty led to an increasing instrumentalization of reason. In their view, the enlightenment itself should be enlightened and not posed as a 'myth-free' view of the world. For Marxist philosophy in general, rationalization is closely associated with the concept of \"commodity fetishism\", for the reason that not only are products designed to fulfill certain tasks, but employees are hired to fulfill specific tasks as well.\n", "A Jewish Enlightenment occurred alongside the broader European one, originally appearing at the end of the eighteenth century. Known as Haskalah, it would re-emerge in the 1820s and lasted for the better part of the century. A form of \"critical rationalism\" inspired by the European Enlightenment, Haskalah focused on reform in two specific areas: stimulating an internal rebirth of culture, and better preparing and training Jews to exist in a christocentric world. It did not force its adherents to sacrifice one identity for the other, allowing them to simultaneously be Jewish and emulate their Gentile contemporaries. One of the most important effects of the Enlightenment was emancipation for Jews. Beginning in Napoleonic France after the Revolution-which was directly inspired by the Enlightenment-Jews received full rights and became equal citizens. This trend spread eastward across the continent, lasting until 1917, when Russian Jews were finally emancipated during the first Russian Revolution.\n", "BULLET::::- The Holocaust disproved the Enlightenment belief that science and technology would make people happy, because it showed that science and technology could also be used for heinous mass murder of innocents.\n", "Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno collaborated to publish \"Dialectic of Enlightenment\", which was originally published in 1944. The inspiration for this piece came from when Horkheimer and Adorno had to flee Germany, because of Hitler, and go to New York. They went to America and \"absorbed the popular culture\"; thinking that it was a form of totalitarianism. Nonetheless, Dialectic of Enlightenment's main argument was to serve as a wide-ranging critique of the \"self-destruction of enlightenment\". The work criticized popular culture as \"the product of a culture industry whose goal was to stupefy the masses with endless mass produced copies of the same thing\" (Lembert). Along with that, Horkheimer and Adorno had a few arguments; one being that these mass-produced products only appear to change over time. Horkheimer and Adorno stated that these products were so standardized in order to help consumers comprehend and appreciate the products with little attention given to them. They expressed, \"the result is a constant reproduction of the same thing\" (Adorno and Horkheimer, 1993 [1944]). However, they also explain how pseudo-individuality is encouraged among these products in order to keep the consumers coming back for more. They argue that small differences in products within the same area are acceptable.\n", "Another reason MacIntyre gives for the doomed nature of the Enlightenment is the fact that it ascribed moral agency to the individual. He claims this made morality no more than one man's opinion and, thus, philosophy became a forum of inexplicably subjective rules and principles. The failure of the Enlightenment Project, because of the abandonment of a teleological structure, is shown by the inadequacy of moral emotivism, which MacIntyre believes accurately reflects the state of modern morality.\n", "The Enlightenment had a tremendous effect on Jewish identity and on ideas about the importance and role of Jewish observance. Due to the geographical distribution and the geopolitical entities affected by the Enlightenment, this philosophical revolution essentially affected only the Ashkenazi community; however, because of the predominance of the Ashkenazi community in Israeli politics and in Jewish leadership worldwide, the effects have been significant for all Jews.\n", "A number of scholars such as Arno J. Mayer, Yehuda Bauer, Ian Kershaw and Michael Marrus have developed a synthesis of the functionalist and intentionalist schools. They have suggested the Holocaust was a result of pressures that came from both above and below and that Hitler lacked a master plan, but was the decisive force behind the Holocaust. The phrase 'cumulative radicalisation' is used in this context to sum up the way extreme rhetoric and competition among different Nazi agencies produced increasingly extreme policies, as fanatical bureaucratic underlings put into practice what they believed Hitler would have approved based on his widely disseminated speeches and propaganda. This phenomenon is referred to more generally in social psychology as groupshift.\n" ]

[ "Francisco Bethencourt is Charles Boxer professor at King's College London. Bethencourt's research centres on the history of racism, Portuguese and European expansion from the 15th to the 19th centuries, missions and religious history in the Catholic world, and identities and cultural exchange in Iberia. Bethencourt's \"Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century\" (2013) was described as the first worldwide history of racism. It was described by Ekow Eshun in \"The Independent\" as \"an unlovely history. But a necessary one\".\n", "Racism existed during the 19th century as \"scientific racism\", which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity. In 1775 Johann Blumenbach divided the world's population into five groups according to skin color (Caucasians, Mongols, etc.), positing the view that the non-Caucasians had arisen through a process of degeneration. Another early view in scientific racism was the polygenist view, which held that the different races had been separately created. Polygenist Christoph Meiners for example, split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the \"beautiful White race\" and the \"ugly Black race\". In Meiners' book, \"The Outline of History of Mankind\", he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral and animal-like.\n", "Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were \"the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples\".\n", "Scientific racism was popularized in Italy by criminologist Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso's theory of atavism compared white civilization and other races with \"primitive\" or \"savage\" societies. His theories connecting physiognomy to criminal behavior explicitly blamed higher homicide rates in southern Italy on the influence of African and Asian blood on its population. In 1871 Lombroso published \"The White Man and the Man of Color\", aimed at showing that the white man was superior in every respect to other races. Lombroso explicitly stated his belief in white supremacy: \"only we whites have achieved the most perfect symmetry in the forms of the body [...] possess a true musical art [...] have proclaimed the freedom of the slave [...] have procured the liberty of thought\". Lombroso equated the criminal tendencies of the white population to residual \"blackness\". The ideas of Lombroso about race would spread around Europe at the end of the 19th century.\n", "According to Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, European scientific racism prevalent in the 19th and 20th century can be understood as a doctrine which \"affirmed the inherited biological determinism of the moral and intellectual capacities of an individual, and the division of groups of humans into races differentiated by physical traits associated to inmutable, inherited moral and intellectual traits\" and which \"affirms the superiority of certain races over others, protected by racial purity and ruined through racial mixing\", which \"leads to the national right of superior races to impose themselves over the inferior\". According to Chillida, such an ideology had difficulties in penetrating Spain due to the concept of \"casticismo\" vert ingrained in Spanish society, whereby Spanish castes where understood, not as races, but as religious lineages, in contraposition to the \"Moor\" and the \"Jew\". In the Spanish psyche, the Christian-Jewish dichotomy remained predominant over the more modern and racialized arian-semite dichotomy, developed in northern Europe. \n", "Scientific racism began to flourish in the eighteenth century and was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin's evolutionary studies, as well as ideas taken from the writings of philosophers like Aristotle; for example, Aristotle believed in the concept of \"natural slaves\". This concept focuses on the necessity of hierarchies and how some people are bound to be on the bottom of the pyramid. Though racism has been a prominent topic in history, there is still debate over whether race actually exists, making the discussion of race a controversial topic. Even though the concept of race is still being debated, the effects of racism are apparent. Racism and other forms of prejudice can affect a person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings, and social psychologists strive to study these effects.\n", "Works such as Arthur de Gobineau's \"An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races\" (1853–1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time. Gobineau, thus, attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of biology.\n" ]

[ "3D printing for the manufacturing of artificial organs has been a major topic of study in biological engineering. As the rapid manufacturing techniques entailed by 3D printing become increasingly efficient, their applicability in artificial organ synthesis has grown more evident. Some of the primary benefits of 3D printing lie in its capability of mass-producing scaffold structures, as well as the high degree of anatomical precision in scaffold products. This allows for the creation of constructs that more effectively resemble the microstructure of a natural organ or tissue structure.Organ printing using 3D printing can be conducted using a variety of techniques, each of which confers specific advantages that can be suited to particular types of organ production. Two of the most prominent types of organ printing are drop-based bioprinting and extrusion bioprinting. Numerous other ones do exist, though are not as commonly used, or are still in development.\n", "Compared to repairing damaged bones, 3D printing technique could produce implants which meets personalized repair needs. On the other hand, 3D printing techniques produce implants with few adverse effects on patients. Host cells of varying classifications, such as lymphocytes and erythrocytes, display minimal immunological response to artificial grafts.\n", "Although prostheses in general supplement lost or damaged body parts with the integration of a mechanical artifice, bionic implants in medicine allow model organs or body parts to mimic the original function more closely. Michael Chorost wrote a memoir of his experience with cochlear implants, or bionic ear, titled \"Rebuilt: How Becoming Part Computer Made Me More Human.\" Jesse Sullivan became one of the first people to operate a fully robotic limb through a nerve-muscle graft, enabling him a complex range of motions beyond that of previous prosthetics. By 2004, a fully functioning artificial heart was developed. The continued technological development of bionic and nanotechnologies begins to raise the question of enhancement, and of the future possibilities for cyborgs which surpass the original functionality of the biological model. The ethics and desirability of \"enhancement prosthetics\" have been debated; their proponents include the transhumanist movement, with its belief that new technologies can assist the human race in developing beyond its present, normative limitations such as aging and disease, as well as other, more general incapacities, such as limitations on speed, strength, endurance, and intelligence. Opponents of the concept describe what they believe to be biases which propel the development and acceptance of such technologies; namely, a bias towards functionality and efficiency that may compel assent to a view of human people which de-emphasizes as defining characteristics actual manifestations of humanity and personhood, in favor of definition in terms of upgrades, versions, and utility.\n", "In March 2014, surgeons in Swansea used 3D printed parts to rebuild the face of a motorcyclist who had been seriously injured in a road accident. In May 2018, 3D printing has been used for the kidney transplant to save a three-year-old boy. , 3D bio-printing technology has been studied by biotechnology firms and academia for possible use in tissue engineering applications in which organs and body parts are built using inkjet printing techniques. In this process, layers of living cells are deposited onto a gel medium or sugar matrix and slowly built up to form three-dimensional structures including vascular systems. Recently, a heart-on-chip has been created which matches properties of cells.\n", "Artificial disc surgery is still relatively new (over 10 years) in the United States, but has been used in Europe for more than 15 years. In Europe, there are multiple manufacturers and designs available for both lumbar (lower back) and cervical (neck) application.\n", "Surgical uses of 3D printing-centric therapies have a history beginning in the mid-1990s with anatomical modeling for bony reconstructive surgery planning. Patient-matched implants were a natural extension of this work, leading to truly personalized implants that fit one unique individual. Virtual planning of surgery and guidance using 3D printed, personalized instruments have been applied to many areas of surgery including total joint replacement and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction with great success. One example of this is the bioresorbable trachial splint to treat newborns with tracheobronchomalacia developed at the University of Michigan. The use of additive manufacturing for serialized production of orthopedic implants (metals) is also increasing due to the ability to efficiently create porous surface structures that facilitate osseointegration. The hearing aid and dental industries are expected to be the biggest area of future development using the custom 3D printing technology.\n", "Surgical uses of 3D printing-centric therapies have a history beginning in the mid-1990s with anatomical modeling for bony reconstructive surgery planning. By practicing on a tactile model before surgery, surgeons were more prepared and patients received better care. Patient-matched implants were a natural extension of this work, leading to truly personalized implants that fit one unique individual. Virtual planning of surgery and guidance using 3D printed, personalized instruments have been applied to many areas of surgery including total joint replacement and craniomaxillofacial reconstruction with great success. Further study of the use of models for planning heart and solid organ surgery has led to increased use in these areas. Hospital-based 3D printing is now of great interest and many institutions are pursuing adding this specialty within individual radiology departments. The technology is being used to create unique, patient-matched devices for rare illnesses. One example of this is the bioresorbable trachial splint to treat newborns with tracheobronchomalacia developed at the University of Michigan. Several devices manufacturers have also begin using 3D printing for patient-matched surgical guides (polymers). The use of additive manufacturing for serialized production of orthopedic implants (metals) is also increasing due to the ability to efficiently create porous surface structures that facilitate osseointegration. Printed casts for broken bones can be custom-fitted and open, letting the wearer scratch any itches, wash and ventilate the damaged area. They can also be recycled.\n" ]

[ "In film, the filmmaker places the sound of a human voice (or voices) over images shown on the screen that may or may not be related to the words that are being spoken. Consequently, voiceovers are sometimes used to create ironic counterpoint. Also, sometimes they can be random voices not directly connected to the people seen on the screen. In works of fiction, the voiceover is often by a character reflecting on his or her past, or by a person external to the story who usually has a more complete knowledge of the events in the film than the other characters.\n", "Altman was one of the few filmmakers who \"paid full attention to the possibilities of sound\" when filming. He tried to replicate natural conversational sounds, even with large casts, by wiring hidden microphones to actors, then recording them talking over each other with multiple soundtracks. During the filming, he wore a headset to ensure that important dialogue could be heard, without emphasizing it. This produced a \"dense audio experience\" for viewers, allowing them to hear multiple scraps of dialogue, as if they were listening in on various private conversations. Altman recognized that although large casts hurt a film commercially, \"I like to see a lot of stuff going on.\"\n", "Since the microphones of the period were not very sensitive, they had to be brought as close to the performers as possible. Because of the visible shadows that the microphones would have cast under the intense lighting of the film sets they had to be hidden in many scenes behind all sorts of objects such as armchairs, bookshelves and vases. The actors had nevertheless to be constantly instructed to speak louder, which caused a number of problems in scenes in which by their nature it was necessary to speak quietly.\n", "The director chose to record the voices outside rather than in a studio: \"we went out in a forest, [..] went in an attic, [and] went in a stable. We went underground for some things. There was a great spontaneity in the recordings because of that.\" The voices were recorded before any animation was done.\n", "This set does not include any spoken dialogue. Its main purpose is to present the songs as well as the pure audio background music from the movie. The set is quite extensive because it contains many \"extended versions\" of songs and background music with which most people are familiar. All of the songs from the movie are presented on the set in their full and even some extended, vocal versions. Vocal tracks are identified (vocal) in bold type; other tracks are instrumentals.\n", "In the case of foreign dramas, movies, cartoons, news and documentaries, the localization voice-over requires more exact timing in relation to what appears on the screen. In order to perform voice-overs, the volume of the original language voice track is lowered, leaving only a faint sound remaining or, in some cases, no sound at all except for the music-and-effects tracks. Voice-over work is primarily performed for news and original foreign dramas. Auditions are held in order to determine who will take on the roles.\n", "Much of the voice recording was done with multiple actors in the recording booth at one time. This was a new method for Edwards, and he explained that he did it to \"allow for those messy, unrehearsed moments that can happen when the actors 'bump into each other' a little more.\"\n" ]

[ "There are also two pairs of mirrors in the museum, that are placed at an angle of 90 degrees in such a way that one cannot see one's own face but others can see. It was used by the Nawab to prevent predators from harming him, and was kept at a place so that the predator cannot see his face and think a mirror to be there but the Nawab could and he would be caught.\n", "BULLET::::- 6 that go along the diagonals of opposing faces of the visualized cube (these go along double sets of arm-leg pairs). These mirrors represent its reflective tetrahedral subsymmetry T, order 24 (a subordinate symmetry of any object with octahedral symmetry).\n", "The Cube was designed by Park Associati design studio in Milan, and the construction covers a space of 140 m. It has an outside balcony allowing for a 360-degree field of vision. The exterior shell is made of aluminium and has hexagonal shapes cut into the shell by laser in order to allow light into the interior. The pop-up restaurant acts as a promotional device for home appliance manufacturer Electrolux, and the restaurant is fitted out with their equipment.\n", "Some scholars believe that the design of TLV mirrors is derived from an ancient Chinese boardgame called liubo, which was played on a square board with the same markings as seen on this type of mirror.\n", "Most Maya mirrors were circular with occasional oval and square examples; they range in size from across while their thickness ranged from . It is likely that the outline of Maya mirrors was initially drawn with an instrument like a compass since many examples are almost perfectly circular. Most Maya mirrors were backed with slate and a few were backed with sandstone or ceramic, some may have been backed with shell. Most mirror backs were plain but a few bear ornately sculpted designs or hieroglyphic text. Some mirrors were framed with wood or bone, or a combination of the two, although these materials are poorly preserved in the archaeological record. Some mirrors bear traces of stucco, which was probably painted, or cinnabar, a red mineral that is often found in association with elite burials in the Maya area. A mirror with hieroglyphic text on the back was excavated from Río Azul in the far north of the Petén Basin of Guatemala. Another mirror from Petén, found at Topoxte, has a circular band of text on the back that includes the phrase \"u-nen\", meaning \"his mirror\". Mirrors with Maya glyphs on the back have been found as far away as Costa Rica, more than from the Maya heartland. Polygonal mirror pieces were glued to the backing with an unknown adhesive; on the whole, the iron ore polygons have not survived and have deteriorated to a rust-like residue coating the backing. In some cases ridged deposits of adhesive outline the shape of the vanished polygonal mosaic pieces.\n", "The Mirror Blocks, also known by the names \"Mirror Cube\" and \"Bump Cube\", is a type of twisty puzzle and shape modification of the standard 3x3x3 Rubik's Cube and was invented in 2006. The puzzle's internal mechanism is nearly identical to that of the Rubik's Cube, although it differs from normal 3x3s in that all pieces are the same color (traditionally reflective gold or silver stickers) and are identified by shape since each one is also a distinct rectangular prism.\n", "The inverted real image of an object reflected by a concave mirror can appear at the focal point in front of the mirror. In a construction with an object at the bottom of two opposing concave mirrors (parabolic reflectors) on top of each other, the top one with an opening in its center, the reflected image can appear at the opening as a very convincing 3D optical illusion.\n" ]

[ "A calendar era is the year numbering system used by a calendar. For example, the Gregorian calendar numbers its years in the Western Christian era (the Coptic Orthodox and Ethiopian Orthodox churches have their own Christian eras). The instant, date, or year from which time is marked is called the \"epoch\" of the era. There are many different calendar eras such as Saka Era.\n", "The Gregorian calendar was officially adopted in 1895, but traditional holidays and age reckoning are still based on the old calendar. Older generations still celebrate their birthdays according to the lunar calendar.\n", "An Old Calendarist is any Eastern Orthodox Christian who uses the historic Julian calendar (called the \"Old Style Calendar\", \"Church Calendar\" or \"Old Calendar\"), proposed by the Roman statesman Julius Caesar, and whose church body is not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox churches that use the New Calendar.\n", "This is the calendar for any Old Style common year starting on Monday, 25 March. The Old Style calendar ended the following March, on 24 March. Examples: Julian year 1801, 1807 or 1902 (see bottom tables).\n", "\"Old Style\" (OS) and \"New Style\" (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which calendar reference system is used for the date given. In Britain and its colonies, where the Calendar Act of 1750 altered the start of the year, and also aligned the British calendar with the Gregorian calendar, there is some confusion as to what these terms mean. They can indicate that the start of the Julian year has been adjusted to start on 1 January (NS) even though contemporary documents use a different start of year (OS); or to indicate that a date conforms to the Julian calendar (OS), formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar (NS).\n", "Since the Julian and Gregorian calendars were long used simultaneously, although in different places, calendar dates in the transition period are often ambiguous, unless it is specified which calendar was being used. In some circumstances, double dates might be used, one in each calendar. The notation \"Old Style\" (O.S.) is sometimes used to indicate a date in the Julian calendar, as opposed to \"New Style\" (N.S.), which either represents the Julian date with the start of the year as 1 January or a full mapping onto the Gregorian calendar. This notation is used to clarify dates from countries which continued to use the Julian calendar after the Gregorian reform, such as Great Britain, which did not switch to the reformed calendar until 1752, or Russia, which did not switch until 1918. This is why the Russian Revolution of 7 November 1917 N.S. is known as the October Revolution, because it began on 25 October OS.\n", "This article uses the Common Calendar System, which was established as the new Christian Calendar by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582. The Common Calendar uses the designation Common Era (CE or AD for Anno Domini) for years starting 1 January 1 CE, and Before Common Era (BCE or BC for Before Christ) for years before that date. The Common Calendar also follows the ordinal numbers rather than the cardinal numbers, so there was no \"year zero\" in this format; that is, the date 1 January 1 CE immediately followed the date 31 December 1 BCE. For the same reason, while the 2000s began on Saturday, 1 January 2000 CE, the official Third Millennium began on Monday, 1 January 2001 CE.\n" ]

[ "British Isles – A Natural History is an eight-part documentary series produced by the BBC Natural History Unit and presented by Alan Titchmarsh. Originally broadcast in the UK on BBC1 from September to November 2004, it took viewers on a journey from the formation of what is now the British Isles some 3 billion years ago to the present day, revealing how natural and human forces have shaped the landscape. Each of the 50-minute episodes was followed by a 10-minute short specific to each region of the British Isles. In 2007, the BBC made a companion series about British wildlife called \"The Nature of Britain\", also presented by Titchmarsh.\n", "The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" asserts that the first published use in English of \"British Isles\" was in 1621 (before the civil wars) by Peter Heylin (or Heylyn) in his \"Microcosmus: a little description of the great world\" (a collection of his lectures on historical geography). Writing from his English political perspective, he grouped Ireland with Great Britain and the minor islands with these three arguments:\n", "Description of the Western Isles of Scotland is the oldest known account of the Hebrides and the Islands of the Clyde, two chains of islands off the west coast of Scotland. The author was Donald Monro, a clergyman who used the title of \"Dean of the Isles\" and who lived through the Scottish Reformation. Monro wrote the original manuscript in 1549, although it was not published in any form until 1582 and was not widely available to the public in its original form until 1774. A more complete version, based on a late 17th-century manuscript written by Sir Robert Sibbald, was first published as late as 1961. Monro wrote in Scots and some of the descriptions are difficult for modern readers to render into English. Although Monro was criticised for publishing folklore and for omitting detail about the affairs of the churches in his diocese, Monro's \"Description\" is a valuable historical account and has reappeared in part or in whole in numerous publications, remaining one of the most widely quoted publications about the western islands of Scotland.\n", "Volume One covered the British Isles, with unattributed articles on \"Windsor\"; \"Eton\"; \"North Wales\"; \"Warwick and Stratford\"; \"The South Coast, from Margate to Portsmouth\"; \"The Forest Scenery of Great Britain\"; \"The Dales of Derbyshire\"; \"Edinburgh, and the South Lowlands\"; \"Ireland\"; \"Scenery of the Thames\"; \"The South Coast, from Portsmouth to the Lizard\"; \"English Abbeys and Churches\"; \"The Land's End\"; \"Old English Homes\"; \"The West Coast of Ireland\"; \"Border Castles and Counties\"; \"Cathedral Cities\"; \"The Grampians\"; \"Oxford\"; \"Scotland, from Loch Ness to Loch Eil\"; \"The West Coast of Wales\"; and \"The Lake Country\". These sections were illustrated with wood engravings of the drawings and paintings of W.H.J. Boot, C. Emery, Harry Fenn, Towneley Green, J. Harmsworth, C. Johnson, W.L. Jones, R.P. Leitch, W.W. May, J. North, T.L. Rowbotham, T.D. Scott, E. Senior, P. Skelton, C.J. Staniland, E. Wagner, and E.M. Wimperis and with a few steel engravings of the drawings and paintings of J. Chase, Harry Fenn, Birket Foster, D. McKewan, W. Leitch, J. Mogford, S. Read, P. Skelton, and E.M. Wimperis.\n", "The dictionary definition of British Isles is that it is a geographical term that refers to the whole of Ireland and Great Britain as well as the surrounding islands. It is sometimes incorrectly used as if identical to the UK; or to refer to Great Britain and the surrounding islands, excluding the island of Ireland entirely. The BBC and \"The Times\" have style guides that mandate the dictionary definition but occasional misuse can be found on their web sites.\n", "In 1989 Kearney published \"The British Isles: A History of Four Nations\", to strong reviews in the \"Times Literary Supplement\", \"History Today\", \"The Spectator\" and the \"New York Review of Books\". It was printed by the Cambridge University Press as a general reader book with plate sections in hardback and paperback, and the Canto edition of 1995, which had an extended bibliography, was reprinted twice. A second edition was published by Cambridge in 2006, which included a new chapter on the nineties and post-devolution Britain.\n", "The Eastern Isles (, \"islands of the salt water downs\") are a group of twelve small uninhabited islands within the Isles of Scilly Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, part of the Scilly Heritage Coast and a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) first designated in 1971 for its flora and fauna. They have a long period of occupation from the Bronze Age with cairns and entrance graves through to Iron Age field systems and a Roman shrine on Nornour. Before the 19th century, the islands were known by their Cornish name, which had also become the name of the largest island in the group after the submergence of the connecting lands.\n" ]

[ "Regionally, the tradition varies from not wasting food on one's plate, to only eating what one feels like and leaving the rest. However, in some regions, leaving food as an offering is common; some consider this as a method of only wishing to consume pure spirits of the food and the discarded food will represent the evil spirits of the past. Washing one's hands after the meal and drying them with a provided towel is a norm.\n", "Before eating, most dining places provide either a hot or cold towel or a plastic-wrapped wet napkin (\"o-shibori\"). This is for cleaning hands before eating (and not after). It is rude to use them to wash the face or any part of the body other than the hands, though some Japanese men use their \"o-shibori\" to wipe their faces in less formal places. Accept \"o-shibori\" with both hands when handed the towel by a server. When finished, fold or roll up the oshibori and place it on the table. It is impolite to use \"o-shibori\" towels to wipe any spills on the table.\n", "Guests are seated according to their place cards and immediately remove their napkins and place them in their laps. Another view maintains that the napkin is only removed after the host has removed his or hers. (In the same manner, the host is first to begin eating, and guests follow.) The oyster plate is placed atop the service plate. Once that is cleared, the soup plate replaces it. After the soup course is finished, both the soup plate and service plate are removed from the table, and a heated plate is put in their place. The rule is as such: a filled plate is always replaced with an empty one, and no place goes without a plate until just before the dessert course.\n", "Partakers wash their hands in preparation for eating wet fruit and vegetables, which happens in the next stage. Technically, according to Jewish law, whenever one partakes of fruit or vegetables dipped in liquid, one must wash one's hands, if the fruit or vegetable remains wet. However, this situation does not often arise at other times of the year because either one will dry fruits and vegetables before eating them, or one has already washed one's hands, because one must also wash one's hands before eating bread.\n", "It is considered gracious to take the plate, or make a small plate, even if you don't intend to eat it. In part, this tradition is related to clean-up, being a good guest by not leaving the mass of left-overs at the party-throwers house and making them alone responsible for clean up. In more recent times, this has also evolved into donating your left-overs to the homeless population, especially if you're having a get-together at a public park or similar location, as it is likely there is a homeless population living nearby as well.\n", "If food must be removed from the mouth for some reason—a pit, bone, or gristle—the rule of thumb according to Emily Post, is that it comes out the same way it went in. For example, if olives are eaten by hand, the pit may be removed by hand. If an olive in a salad is eaten with a fork, the pit should be deposited back onto the fork inside one's mouth, and then placed onto a plate. The same applies to any small bone or piece of gristle in food. A diner should never spit things into a napkin, certainly not a cloth napkin. Since the napkin is always laid in the lap and brought up only to wipe one's mouth, hidden food may be accidentally dropped into the lap or onto the host's floor. Food that is simply disliked should be swallowed.\n", "During the handling of this food, patients with NSRED distinguish themselves, as they are usually messy or harmful to themselves. Some eat their food with their bare hands while others attempt to eat it with utensils. This occasionally results in injuries to the person as well as other injuries. After completing their studies, Schenck and Mahowald said, \"Injuries resulted from the careless cutting of food or opening of cans; consumption of scalding fluids (coffee) or solids (hot oatmeal); and frenzied running into walls, kitchen counters, and furniture.\" A few of the more notable symptoms of this disorder include large amounts of weight gain over short periods of time, particularly in women; irritability during the day, due to lack of restful sleep; and vivid dreams at night. It is easily distinguished from regular sleepwalking by the typical behavioral sequence consisting of \"rapid, 'automatic' arising from bed, and immediate entry into the kitchen.\" In addition, throughout all of the studies done, doctors and psychiatrists discovered that these symptoms are invariant across weekdays, weekends, and vacations as well as the eating excursions being erratically spread throughout a sleep cycle. Most people that suffer from this disease retain no control over when they arise and consume food in their sleep. Although some have been able to restrain themselves from indulging in their unconscious appetites, some have not and must turn to alternative methods of stopping this disorder. It is important for trained physicians to recognize these symptoms in their patients as quickly as possible, so those with NSRED may be treated before they injure themselves.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- First, the HDTV-standard 1280720 (otherwise commonly described as \"720p\"), which offers an exact 16:9 aspect with square pixels; naturally, it displays standard 720p HD video material without stretching or letterboxing and 1080i/1080p with a simple 2:3 downscale. This resolution has found some use in tablets and modern, high-pixel-density mobile phones, as well as small-format \"netbook\" or \"ultralight\" laptop computers. However, its use is uncommon in larger, mainstream devices as it has insufficient vertical resolution for the proper use of modern operating systems such as Windows 7 whose UI design assumes a minimum of 768 lines. For certain uses such as word processing, it can even be considered a slight downgrade (reducing number of simultaneously visible lines of text without granting any significant benefit as even 640 pixels is sufficient horizontal resolution to legibly render a full page width, especially with the addition of subpixel anti-aliasing).\n", "720p (1280×720 px; also called HD Ready or standard HD) is a progressive HDTV signal format with 720 horizontal lines and an aspect ratio (AR) of , normally known as widescreen HDTV (1.78:1). All major HDTV broadcasting standards (such as SMPTE 292M) include a 720p format, which has a resolution of 1280×720; however, there are other formats, including HDV Playback and AVCHD for camcorders, that use 720p images with the standard HDTV resolution. The frame rate is standards-dependent, and for conventional broadcasting appears in 50 progressive frames per second in former PAL/SECAM countries (Europe, Australia, others), and 59.94 frames per second in former NTSC countries (North America, Japan, Brazil, others).\n", "Non-cinematic HDTV video recordings intended for broadcast are typically recorded either in 720p or 1080i format as determined by the broadcaster. 720p is commonly used for Internet distribution of high-definition video, because most computer monitors operate in progressive-scan mode. 720p also imposes less strenuous storage and decoding requirements compared to both 1080i and 1080p. 1080p/24, 1080i/30, 1080i/25, and 720p/30 is most often used on Blu-ray Disc.\n", "1080p (1920×1080 px; also known as Full HD or FHD and BT.709) is a set of HDTV high-definition video modes characterized by 1,920 pixels displayed across the screen horizontally and 1,080 pixels down the screen vertically; the \"p\" stands for progressive scan, \"i.e.\" non-interlaced. The term usually assumes a widescreen aspect ratio of , implying a resolution of 2.1 megapixels. It is often marketed as full HD, to contrast 1080p with 720p resolution screens.\n", "Unlike the original Vado HD, the Third Generation is only offered in a 4 gigabyte version. With this capacity, the Third Generation Vado produces one hour of 720p video at approximately 7000 kbit/s, or two hours of 720p video at approximately 4000 kbit/s.\n", "A 720p60 (720p at 59.94 Hz) video has advantage over 480i and 1080i60 (29.97/30 frame/s, 59.94/60 Hz) in that it comparably reduces the number of 3:2 artifacts introduced during transfer from 24 frame/s film. However, 576i and 1080i50 (25 frame/s, 50 Hz), which are common in Europe, generally do not suffer from pull down artifacts as film frames are simply played at 25 frames and the audio pitch corrected by 25/24. As a result, 720p60 is used for U.S. broadcasts while European HD broadcasts often use 1080i50 24* frame, with a horizontal resolution of 1920 or 1440 depending on bandwidth constraints. However, some European broadcasters do use the 720p50 format, such as German broadcasters ARD and ZDF, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) and Spanish Radio and Television Corporation (TVE HD). Arte, a dual-language French-German channel produced in collaboration by ARD, ZDF and France Télévisions, broadcasts in German at 720p50 but in French at 1080i50. The Flemish Broadcasting Company (VRT) in Belgium was using 720p50, but switched to 1080i50 a few years ago.\n", "720p is used more for Internet distribution of high-definition video, because computer monitors progressively scan; 720p video has lower storage-decoding requirements than either the 1080i or the 1080p. This is also the medium for high-definition broadcasts around the world and 1080p is used for Blu-ray movies.\n" ]

[ "Flights that have not departed their airport of origin will be delayed or cancelled. Airlines are required to manage their aircraft at all airports to minimize the impact to passengers affected by the ground stop.\n", "The airport was supposed to be demolished to make way for a housing estate, but that plan was cancelled and the airport is still used for air force flights. There had been non-fatal accidents before, involving single engine airplanes, at the surrounding roads and flyovers which are usually very busy during rush hours.\n", "The US military acknowledged the non-governmental organizations' complaints concerning flight-operations bias and promised improvement while noting that up to 17 January 600 emergency flights had landed and 50 were diverted; by the first weekend of disaster operations, diversions had been reduced to three on Saturday and two on Sunday. The airport staff was strengthened in order to support 100 landings a day, compared to the 35 a day that the airport gets during normal operation. A spokesman for the joint task force running the airport confirmed that, though more flights were requesting landing slots, none was being turned away.\n", "On November 30, 2018, the airport suffered minor damage and was temporarily closed following a magnitude 7.0 earthquake in the area. In June 2019, American Airlines switched the Boeing 737-800 on their seasonal route to Phoenix with the Airbus A321neo making them the first and only airline as of July 2019 to use the A321neo at Anchorage.\n", "Since 2003, the United States Bureau of Transportation Statistics has been keeping track of the causes of flight delays. The number of flight delays has increased as staff has been cut back as a result of the financial woes following the September 11 attacks.\n", "On Thursday 23 February 2012 the airline was forced to cancel most of its flights due to a lack of an AMO as well as fuel delivery problems. Normal operations resumed after midday on Friday 24 February 2012 but were cancelled again on Monday 27 February after further service provider disputes.\n", "The incident put an end to the route, which had been losing per flight, owing to its use of obsolete DC-10s. Biman decided to axe the route along with a number of other regional and domestic routes to curb the huge losses being incurred by the airline each month. However, in October 2007, Biman was directed by the then caretaker government to resume flights to New York. Biman was given until 25 October 2008 (extended from an earlier deadline of 23 March 2008) to resume flights to the airport by the JFK airport authority, after which it would have lost the landing slot permanently.\n" ]

[ "Metadata can be found in many types of files such as documents, spreadsheets, presentations, images, and audio files. They can include information such as details on the file authors, file creation and modification dates, location (GPS), document revision history, thumbnail images and comments.\n", "Sometimes, metadata is included in purchased media which records information such as the purchaser's name, account information, or email address. Also included may be the file's publisher, author, creation date, download date, and various notes. This information is not embedded in the played content, like a watermark, but is kept separate, but within the file or stream.\n", "The metadata is stored as a tree of single blocks in the metadata section. The entire directory structure is recorded in the metadata, so the data section purely contains data from files. The metadata describes the location of data in files with extents of blocks, which makes the metadata quite compact.\n", "Metadata may be written into a digital photo file that will identify who owns it, copyright and contact information, what brand or model of camera created the file, along with exposure information (shutter speed, f-stop, etc.) and descriptive information, such as keywords about the photo, making the file or image searchable on a computer and/or the Internet. Some metadata is created by the camera and some is input by the photographer and/or software after downloading to a computer. Most digital cameras write metadata about model number, shutter speed, etc., and some enable you to edit it; this functionality has been available on most Nikon DSLRs since the Nikon D3, on most new Canon cameras since the Canon EOS 7D, and on most Pentax DSLRs since the Pentax K-3. Metadata can be used to make organizing in post-production easier with the use of key-wording. Filters can be used to analyze a specific set of photographs and create selections on criteria like rating or capture time. On devices with geolocation capabilities like GPS (smartphones in particular), the location the photo was taken from may also be included.\n", "Since records are determined by the content of the data, metadata is required, such as what is/are the record termination character(s), and is usually stored externally to the actual data or file. The processing of JBOB data is usually more difficult and may require special knowledge by the computer program. Metadata might also be required for structured data, such as the fixed record length or the largest variable length record, but there usually exists standard utility software to read/write structured data since the format is a known structure.\n", "Metadata can be stored either \"internally\", in the same file or structure as the data (this is also called \"embedded metadata\"), or \"externally\", in a separate file or field from the described data. A data repository typically stores the metadata \"detached\" from the data, but can be designed to support embedded metadata approaches. Each option has advantages and disadvantages:\n", "Metadata, data about data, can be used to organize electronic resources, provide digital identification, and support the archiving and preservation of resources. In well-structured, machine-readable electronic records, the content can be repurposed as both data and metadata. In the context of electronic record-keeping systems, the terms \"management\" and \"metadata\" are virtually synonymous. Given proper metadata, records management functions can be automated, thereby reducing the risk of spoliation of evidence and other fraudulent manipulations of records. Moreover, such records can be used to automate the process of auditing data maintained in databases, thereby reducing the risk of single points of failure associated with the Machiavellian concept of a single source of truth.\n" ]

[ "The PlayStation 4 (or PS4) is a video game console from Sony Computer Entertainment. Billed as the successor to the PlayStation 3, the PlayStation 4 was officially announced at a press conference on February 20, 2013. The fourth home console in Sony's PlayStation series, it was launched on November 15, 2013 in North America and on November 29, 2013 in Europe, and was launched on February 22, 2014 in Japan. Moving away from the Cell architecture, the PlayStation 4 is the first in the Sony series to feature compatibility with the x86 architecture, specifically x86-64, which is a widely used platform common in many modern PCs. The idea is to make video game development easier on the next-generation console, attracting a broader range of developers large and small. These changes highlight Sony's effort to improve upon the lessons learned during the development, production and release of the PS3. Other notable hardware features of the PlayStation 4 include 8 GB of GDDR5 RAM memory and a faster Blu-ray drive.\n", "The Xbox One was released on November 22, 2013, in North America, as the successor of the Xbox 360. The Xbox One competes with Sony's PlayStation 4 and Nintendo's Wii U and Switch as part of the eighth generation of video game consoles.\n", "PlayStation 4 Pro or PS4 Pro for short (originally announced under the codename Neo) was unveiled on September 7, 2016. Its model number is CUH-7000. It is an updated version of the PlayStation 4 with improved hardware, including an upgraded GPU with 4.2 teraflops of processing power, and higher CPU clock. It is designed primarily to enable selected games to be playable at 4K resolution, and improved quality for PlayStation VR. All games are backwards and forward compatible between PS4 and PS4 Pro, but games with optimizations will have improved graphics performance on PS4 Pro. Although capable of streaming 4K video from online sources, PS4 Pro does not support Ultra HD Blu-ray. Additionally the PS4 Pro is the only PS4 model which can remote play at 1080p. The other models are limited to 720p.\n", "The Xbox One system software, sometimes called the Xbox OS, is the operating system for the eighth-generation home video game console, Xbox One. It is a Microsoft Windows-based operating system using the Hyper-V virtual machine monitor and contains separate operating systems for games and applications that can run on the console. It is located on the internal HDD for day-to-day usage, while also being duplicated on the internal NAND storage of the console for recovery purposes and factory reset functionality.\n", "The PlayStation 4 (officially abbreviated as PS4) is an eighth-generation home video game console developed by Sony Interactive Entertainment. Announced as the successor to the PlayStation 3 in February 2013, it was launched on November 15 in North America, November 29 in Europe, South America and Australia, and on February 22, 2014, in Japan. It competes with Microsoft's Xbox One and Nintendo's Wii U and Switch.\n", "The Xbox One X has been characterized as a competitor to the PlayStation 4 Pro, a hardware update of the PlayStation 4 released in late 2016 that similarly focuses on 4K gaming and improved virtual reality performance, although Phil Spencer stated that the PlayStation 4 Pro's competition is instead the Xbox One S. In October 2016 Penello stated that the performance advantage of the Xbox One X over the PS4 Pro would be \"obvious\", noting that the PS4 Pro's GPU only had 4.2 teraflops of graphical computing performance in comparison to Microsoft's stated 6 teraflops. Some journalists thought that Microsoft's messaging and positioning of Scorpio alongside the release of the Xbox One S were at odds with themselves and \"confusing\".\n", "The Xbox One console runs on an operating system that includes the Windows 10 core, although initially it included the Windows 8 core at the Xbox One's release. The Xbox One system software contains a heavily modified Hyper-V hypervisor (known as NanoVisor) as its host OS and two partitions. One of the partitions, the \"Exclusive\" partition is a custom virtual machine (VM) for games; the other partition, the \"Shared\" partition is a custom VM for running multiple apps. The Shared Partition contained the Windows 8 Core at launch until November 2015, where via a system update known as the \"New Xbox One Experience\", it was upgraded to the Windows 10 Core. With Windows 10, Universal Windows Platform apps became available on Xbox One. According to the current head of Microsoft's Gaming division, Phil Spencer, \"The importance of entertainment and games to the Windows ecosystem has become really prevalent to the company\". The program that Microsoft launched allows developers to build a single app that can run on a wide variety of devices, including personal computers and Xbox One video game consoles. According to \"Polygon\", Microsoft removed the distinction between Xbox One and Windows PC.\n" ]

[ "Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.\n", "A solar inverter or PV inverter, is a type of electrical converter which converts the variable direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network. It is a critical balance of system (BOS)–component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of ordinary AC-powered equipment. Solar power inverters have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.\n", "A solar photovoltaic power plant converts sunlight into direct current electricity using the photoelectric effect. Inverters change the direct current into alternating current for connection to the electrical grid. This type of plant does not use rotating machines for energy conversion.\n", "Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.\n", "Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power, or a combination. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect.\n", "A solar inverter, or PV inverter, or solar converter, converts the variable direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network. It is a critical BOS–component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of ordinary AC-powered equipment. Solar inverters have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.\n", "Solar panels produce direct current (DC) electricity, so solar parks need conversion equipment to convert this to alternating current (AC), which is the form transmitted by the electricity grid. This conversion is done by inverters. To maximise their efficiency, solar power plants also incorporate maximum power point trackers, either within the inverters or as separate units. These devices keep each solar array string close to its peak power point.\n" ]

[ "Fantasy football is a genre of board game or wargame which normally involves two teams of fantasy races (such as elves, dwarves or orcs) competing in an extremely violent variant of gridiron football. Often the only resemblance to gridiron football for many fantasy football games is to get the ball into an end zone or goal, but these games still fall under the fantasy football genre.\n", "There is controversy regarding whether or not daily fantasy sports constitutes as gambling. In most US states, fantasy sports (including daily fantasy sports) are considered a game of skill and therefore not considered gambling. However, some states, such as Arizona, Montana, Louisiana, Iowa and Washington, either use a more restrictive test of whether a game is one of skill or have specific laws outlawing paid fantasy sports. Despite not being considered as gambling in most states, in 2015, the NCAA banned student athletes from participating in daily fantasy sports, while the NFL limited the amount of money its players could win from daily fantasy sports.\n", "Role-playing games are substantially different from competitive games such as ball games and card games. This has led to confusion among some non-players about the nature of fantasy gaming. The game \"Dungeons & Dragons\" was a subject of controversy in the 1980s when well-publicized opponents claimed it caused negative spiritual and psychological effects. Academic research has discredited these claims. Some educators support role-playing games as a healthy way to hone reading and arithmetic skills. Though role-playing has been accepted by some, a few religious organizations continue to object.\n", "Fantasy baseball has continued to grow [based on recent studies from the Fantasy Sports Trade Association (FSTA.org)], but has been overtaken by fantasy football as the most popular form of fantasy sports. This is at least in part because some of those sports, such as football and auto racing, only participate once a week, making it easier for players to make adjustments, since they do not have to check their teams daily.\n", "Fantasy football is a fantasy sport in which competitors score points based on the performance of players in the Australian Football League. The two biggest competitions are the Herald Sun's Supercoach competition and the AFL's Dream Team competition. Both games are designed and run by Vapormedia.\n", "Fantasy football (less commonly referred to as fantasy association football worldwide but known as fantasy soccer in the United States) is a game in which participants assemble an imaginary team of real life footballers and score points based on those players' actual statistical performance or their perceived contribution on the field of play. Usually players are selected from one specific division in a particular country, although there are many variations. The original game was created in England by Bernie Donnelly on Saturday 14 August 1971 and is still going strong 45 years later. Fantasy football has evolved in recent years from a simple recreational activity into a significant business due to exposure via the internet.\n", "Most games contain two or all three of these elements. For example, American football and baseball involve both physical skill and strategy while tiddlywinks, poker, and Monopoly combine strategy and chance. Many card and board games combine all three; most trick-taking games involve mental skill, strategy, and an element of chance, as do many strategic board games such as Risk, Settlers of Catan, and Carcassonne.\n" ]

[ "A sonic black hole, sometimes called a dumb hole, is a phenomenon in which phonons (sound perturbations) are unable to escape from a fluid that is flowing more quickly than the local speed of sound. They are called sonic, or acoustic, black holes because these trapped phonons are analogous to light in astrophysical (gravitational) black holes. Physicists are interested in them because they have many properties similar to astrophysical black holes and, in particular, emit a phononic version of Hawking radiation. The border of a sonic black hole, at which the flow speed changes from being greater than the speed of sound to less than the speed of sound, is called the event horizon. At this point the frequency of phonons approaches zero.\n", "It has been hypothesized by an American physicist, Timothy Retter, that the Scharnhorst effect may be demonstrated and detected via an amplifiable acoustical phenomenon. Specifically, an analogous effect to the Scharnhorst effect may be detectable between two sonic black holes. In this region, the speed of sound may surpass the maximum speed possible given the refractive index of the fluid.\n", "This was one of only two stories between \"Frontier in Space\" and the end of the series' initial run not to have the special sounds created by Dick Mills. Due to Mills suffering a brief illness, Elizabeth Parker provided the sound effects instead.\n", "Professor Bullfinch has created a radio telescope (\"dish\") for the government which will try to determine if extraterrestrials are trying to contact Earth. When Danny sneaks into the observatory, he hears non-random sounds coming from space. He then must figure out how to translate the sounds.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Continuum\" (2015) multimedia installation, in collaboration with sculptor Rebecca Kamen, featuring \"Portal: Black Holes/White Holes\" (2015) and \"NeuroCantos\". In \"Portal\" Alexjander creates a soundscape using sonic frequencies to represent a pair of orbiting black holes, in honor of the 100th anniversary of Einstein’s discovery of general relativity In \"NeuroCantos\", Alexjander combines sounds based on neurons firing, with the words of poet Steven J. Fowler and scientist Santiago Ramón y Cajal.\n", "One of Burtt's more subtle, but highly effective sound effects is the \"audio black hole.\" In \"Attack of the Clones\", Burtt's use of the audio black hole involved the insertion of a short interval of absolute silence in the audio track, just prior to the detonation of \"seismic charges\" fired at the escaping Jedi spaceship. The effect of this second or less of silence is to accentuate the resulting explosion in the mind of the listener. Burtt recalled the source of this idea as follows: \"I think back to where that idea might have come to me...I remember in film school a talk I had with an old retired sound editor who said they used to leave a few frames of silence in the track just before a big explosion. In those days they would 'paint' out the optical sound with ink. Then I thought of the airlock entry sequence in \"\". I guess the seeds were there for me to nourish when it came to the seismic charges.\"\n", "Sonic black holes are possible because phonons in perfect fluids exhibit the same properties of motion as fields, such as gravity, in space and time. For this reason, a system in which a sonic black hole can be created is called a gravity analogue. Nearly any fluid can be used to create an acoustic event horizon, but the viscosity of most fluids creates random motion that makes features like Hawking radiation nearly impossible to detect. The complexity of such a system would make it very difficult to gain any knowledge about such features even if they could be detected. Many nearly perfect fluids have been suggested for use in creating sonic black holes, such as superfluid helium, one–dimensional degenerate Fermi gases, and Bose–Einstein condensate. Gravity analogues other than phonons in a fluid, such as slow light and a system of ions, have also been proposed for studying black hole analogues. The fact that so many systems mimic gravity is sometimes used as evidence for the theory of emergent gravity, which could help reconcile relativity and quantum mechanics.\n" ]

[ "A Class 2 laser is considered to be safe because the blink reflex (glare aversion response to bright lights) will limit the exposure to no more than 0.25 seconds. It only applies to visible-light lasers (400–700 nm). Class-2 lasers are limited to 1 mW continuous wave, or more if the emission time is less than 0.25 seconds or if the light is not spatially coherent. Intentional suppression of the blink reflex could lead to eye injury. Some laser pointers and measuring instruments are class 2.\n", "600–1000 nm lasers are most common for non-scientific applications. The maximum power of the laser is limited, or an automatic shut off system which turns the laser off at specific altitudes is used in order to make it eye safe for the people in the ground.\n", "The output of laser pointers available to the general public is limited (and varies by country) in order to prevent accidental damage to the retina of human eyes. The U.K. Health Protection Agency recommended that \"laser pointers generally available to the public should be restricted to less than 1 milliwatt as no injuries [like the one reported below to have caused retinal damage] have been reported at this power\". In the U.S., regulatory authorities allow lasers up to 5 mW.\n", "Thus, it appears that a brief 0.25-second exposure to a <5 mW laser such as found in red laser pointers does not pose a threat to eye health. On the other hand, there is a potential for injury if a person deliberately stares into a beam of a class IIIa laser for few seconds or more at close range. Even if injury occurs, most people will fully recover their vision. Further experienced discomforts than these may be psychological rather than physical. With regard to green laser pointers the safe exposure time may be less, and with even higher powered lasers instant permanent damage should be expected. These conclusions must be qualified with recent theoretical observations that certain prescription medications may interact with some wavelengths of laser light, causing increased sensitivity (phototoxicity).\n", "BULLET::::2. the laser operates at 1064 nm and has a pulse duration of 10 ns, 100 mJ/cm (or 10 J/m²). You have goggles that are specified as \"DIR 1064 LB5\". The pulse duration indicates that we should look at the \"R\" specification, with scale number \"n\"=5, which gives an upper limit of 5×10 J/m², which means that these goggles do not offer suitable protection for this particular laser.\n", "A Class 1 laser is safe under all conditions of normal use. This means the maximum permissible exposure (MPE) cannot be exceeded when viewing a laser with the naked eye or with the aid of typical magnifying optics (e.g. telescope or microscope). To verify compliance, the standard specifies the aperture and distance corresponding to the naked eye, a typical telescope viewing a collimated beam, and a typical microscope viewing a divergent beam. It is important to realize that certain lasers classified as Class 1 may still pose a hazard when viewed with a telescope or microscope of sufficiently large aperture. For example, a high-power laser with a very large collimated beam or very highly divergent beam may be classified as Class 1 if the power that passes through the apertures defined in the standard is less than the AEL for Class 1; however, an unsafe power level may be collected by a magnifying optic with larger aperture. - Class 1 laser diodes are often used in optical disc drives.\n", "BULLET::::3. the laser operates at 780 nm, is continuous wave with a power of 50 mW/cm (\"P\" = 500 W/m²). This means you need a \"D\" protection level of formula_2, which is rounded up to 2. In other words, the safety goggles should be at least \"D 780 LB2\".\n" ]

[ "Planning for the operation began in 1943. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted a substantial military deception, codenamed Operation Bodyguard, to mislead the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. The weather on D-Day was far from ideal, and the operation had to be delayed 24 hours; a further postponement would have meant a delay of at least two weeks, as the invasion planners had requirements for the phase of the moon, the tides, and the time of day that meant only a few days each month were deemed suitable. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in command of German forces and of developing fortifications along the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an Allied invasion.\n", "The Allies staged elaborate deceptions for D-Day (see Operation Fortitude), giving the impression that the landings would be at Calais. Although Hitler himself expected a Normandy invasion for a while, Rommel and most Army commanders in France believed there would be two invasions, with the main invasion coming at the Pas-de-Calais. Rommel drove defensive preparations all along the coast of Northern France, particularly concentrating fortification building in the River Somme estuary. By D-Day on 6 June 1944 nearly all the German staff officers, including Hitler's staff, believed that Pas-de-Calais was going to be the main invasion site, and continued to believe so even after the landings in Normandy had occurred.\n", "On 6 June 1944, the Allies began Operation Overlord (also known as \"D-Day\") – the long-awaited liberation of France. The deception plans, Operation Fortitude and Operation Bodyguard, had the Germans convinced that the invasion would occur in the Pas-de-Calais, while the real target was Normandy. Following two months of slow fighting in hedgerow country, Operation Cobra allowed the Americans to break out at the western end of the lodgement. Soon after, the Allies were racing across France. They encircled around 200,000 Germans in the Falaise Pocket. As had so often happened on the Eastern Front Hitler refused to allow a strategic withdrawal until it was too late. Approximately 150,000 Germans were able to escape from the Falaise pocket, but they left behind most of their irreplaceable equipment and 50,000 Germans were killed or taken prisoner.\n", "D-Day is launched on May 3 of 1944, a month earlier than in the original timeline. The Allies invade the Pas-de-Calais instead of Normandy, relying on a dis-information campaign to obtain surprise. They are able to gain a foothold and slowly push back the Nazi forces. On May 27, the Allies gain a major victory by wiping out several German divisions with massed air strikes. On June 1, the USSR rejoins the Allied side and declares war against the Axis: They launch a huge attack against Germany and advance on a broad front. The Soviets have used the intervening two years to build up their armed forces, and construct fleet of warships at Vladivostok. Meanwhile, Paul Brasch's cover is blown and he is extracted by British commandos. Adolf Hitler has a seizure and suffers permanent brain and muscle damage; with the T4 program in mind, Heinrich Himmler chooses to suffocate him. Before launching an invasion of the Japanese Home Islands, the Soviets drop an atomic bomb on Litzmannstadt (that is, Łódź, Poland).\n", "Also, as part of Operation Quicksilver, which was designed to deceive the Germans about where the invasion of France would take place, Clastres was attacked by Eighth Air Force B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber groups in early June 1944, just prior to the D-Day landings in Normandy.\n", "Before D-Day, Operation Quicksilver portrayed \"First United States Army Group\" (FUSAG), a skeleton headquarters commanded by Omar Bradley, as an army group commanded by George Patton. In Operation Fortitude South, the Germans were persuaded that FUSAG would invade France at the Pas-de-Calais. British and American troops used false signals and double agents to deceive German intelligence as to the location of the invasion. Dummy equipment played a negligible role as the Germans were unable to carry out aerial reconnaissance over England. The Germans awaited the Pas-de-Calais landing for many weeks after the real landings in Normandy, diverting several divisions from the battle for Normandy.\n", "World War II, year 1944. Nazi Germany knows the Allies will launch Operation Overlord - an all-out invasion of Nazi-occupied Europe via France. To learn the actual date of D-Day and landing sites in advance, a cordial but uneasy partnership has been created between the German army (Col. Brausch (Max von Sydow)), the Gestapo (Hoffman (Horst Buchholz)) and the S.S. (Ritter (Helmut Berger)), with Hoffman in charge. Six times so far they've failed to capture an \"Overlord\" i.e. someone who knows the information they want, and the pressure is on. Brausch tells Hoffman they have an agent working in British Intelligence, codenamed Emerald (Gus Lang (Ed Harris)), whom they then task with delivering to them an \"Overlord\". But Lang/Emerald is really a double-agent who is working for the Allies. Patrick Callaghan, who is motivated by money, is Lang's contact with Brausch. Lang passes on fake details of a D-Day rehearsal including a ship carrying Overlorders, and suggests that a German E-boat squadron (heavily armed fast attack boats) should intercept them. Because Lang has invented the information, the E-boats will miss the ship but Lang would still appear to have fulfilled his mission. However, Lang's superior, Col. Peters (Patrick Stewart), says they will send a real ship, manned by unknowing sacrifices and certainly no Overlorders. Allied military command decides to hold a real D-Day rehearsal, for Omaha Beach, which naturally would include many Overlords. Peters refuses to inform the military of his intelligence scheme, telling Lang that there's a high-level Nazi secretly working for the Allies (due to disaffection with Nazi ideology) whose identity must be protected at all costs. This means that the exercise is attacked by the German E-boats and many Overlorders are killed in action. Several soldiers are captured by the Germans, including Lt. Andy Wheeler (Eric Stoltz), a U.S. army signalman whose job means he has intimate knowledge of the D-Day landings including the date and targets.\n" ]

[ "\"The Karate Kid\" is a semi-autobiographical story based on the life of its screenwriter, Robert Mark Kamen. At age 12, after the 1964 New York World's Fair, Kaman was beaten up by a gang of bullies. He thus began to study martial arts in order to defend himself. Kamen was unhappy with his first teacher who taught martial arts as a tool for violence and revenge. So he moved on to study Okinawan Gōjū-ryū karate under a Japanese teacher who did not speak English, but was himself a student of Chōjun Miyagi.\n", "Karate spread rapidly in the West through popular culture. In 1950s popular fiction, karate was at times described to readers in near-mythical terms, and it was credible to show Western experts of unarmed combat as unaware of Eastern martial arts of this kind. By the 1970s, martial arts films had formed a mainstream genre that propelled karate and other Asian martial arts into mass popularity.\n", "Karate experienced an explosion of popularity in the 1970s and 1980s thanks to such movies as \"The Karate Kid\". Its popularity has declined since the 1990s due to competition from other martial arts like Taekwondo and MMA.\n", "With large numbers of American servicemen stationed in Japan after World War II, the adoption of techniques and the gradual transmission of entire systems of martial arts to the West started, eventually resulting in American karate and other adaptations. It was in the 1950s, however, when this exportation of systems really began to gain momentum. Large groups of U.S. military personnel were taught Korean arts (Taekwondo) during the Korean War. In the early 1970s, martial arts movies, in particular those of martial artist and actor Bruce Lee, furthered the popularity of martial arts.\n", "Karate began in Canada in the 1930s and 1940s as Japanese people immigrated to the country. Karate was practised quietly without a large amount of organization. During the Second World War, many Japanese-Canadian families were moved to the interior of British Columbia. Masaru Shintani, at the age of 13, began to study Shorin-Ryu karate in the Japanese camp under Kitigawa. In 1956 after 9 years of training with Kitigawa, Shintani travelled to Japan and met Hironori Otsuka (Wado Ryu). In 1958 Otsuka invited Shintani to join his organization Wado Kai, and in 1969 he asked Shintani to officially call his style Wado.\n", "The martial arts movies of the 1960s and 1970s served to greatly increase the popularity of martial arts around the world, and in English the word \"karate\" began to be used in a generic way to refer to all striking-based Asian martial arts. Karate schools began appearing across the world, catering to those with casual interest as well as those seeking a deeper study of the art.\n", "\"The Karate Kid\" (1984) and its sequels \"The Karate Kid, Part II\" (1986), \"The Karate Kid, Part III\" (1989) and \"The Next Karate Kid\" (1994) are films relating the fictional story of an American adolescent's introduction into karate. \"Karate Kommandos\" is an animated children's show, with Chuck Norris appearing to reveal the moral lessons contained in every episode.\n" ]

[ "Three forms (or allotropes) of oxygen are involved in the ozone-oxygen cycle: oxygen atoms (O or atomic oxygen), oxygen gas ( or diatomic oxygen), and ozone gas ( or triatomic oxygen). Ozone is formed in the stratosphere when oxygen molecules photodissociate after absorbing ultraviolet photons. This converts a single into two atomic oxygen radicals. The atomic oxygen radicals then combine with separate molecules to create two molecules. These ozone molecules absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, following which ozone splits into a molecule of and an oxygen atom. The oxygen atom then joins up with an oxygen molecule to regenerate ozone. This is a continuing process that terminates when an oxygen atom recombines with an ozone molecule to make two molecules.\n", "The rules state each oxygen is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, and that the oxygen atom in each water molecule forms two hydrogen bonds with other oxygens, so that there is precisely one hydrogen between each pair of oxygen atoms.\n", "A carbon–oxygen bond is a polar covalent bond between carbon and oxygen. Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and prefers to either share two electrons in bonding with carbon, leaving the 4 nonbonding electrons in 2 lone pairs :O: or to share two pairs of electrons to form the carbonyl functional group. =O: Simple representatives of these two bond types are the OH in alcohols such as the ethanol in beverages and fuels and the C=O in ketones (as well as many other related carbonyl compounds).\n", "Because the molecule in its ground state has a non-zero spin magnetic moment, oxygen is paramagnetic; i.e., it can be attracted to the poles of a magnet. Thus, the Lewis structure O=O with all electrons in pairs does not accurately represent the nature of the bonding in molecular oxygen. However, the alternative structure •O–O• is also inadequate, since it implies single bond character, while the experimentally determined bond length of 121 pm is much shorter than the single bond in hydrogen peroxide (HO–OH) which has a length of 147.5 pm. This indicates that triplet oxygen has a higher bond order. Molecular orbital theory must be used to correctly account for the observed paramagnetism and short bond length simultaneously. Under a molecular orbital theory framework, the oxygen-oxygen bond in triplet dioxygen is better described as one full σ bond plus two π half-bonds, each half-bond accounted for by two-center three-electron (2c-3e) bonding, to give a net bond order of two (1+2×½), while also accounting for the spin state (\"S\" = 1). In the case of triplet dioxygen, each 2c-3e bond consists of two electrons in a π bonding orbital and one electron in a π antibonding orbital to give a net bond order contribution of ½. \n", "Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that easily reduces to the more stable oxygen form with the assistance of a catalyst. Cl and Br atoms destroy ozone molecules through a variety of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an ozone molecule (), taking an oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (). The ClO can react with a second molecule of ozone, releasing the chlorine atom and yielding two molecules of oxygen. The chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:\n", "The ozone molecule is represented by two contributing structures. In reality the two terminal oxygen atoms are equivalent and the hybrid structure is drawn on the right with a charge of − on both oxygen atoms and partial double bonds with a full and dashed line and bond order .\n", "Normally, carbon is tetravalent, while oxygen is divalent, and in most oxocarbons (as in most other carbon compounds) each carbon atom may be bound to four other atoms, while oxygen may be bound to at most two. Moreover, while carbon can connect to other carbons to form arbitrarily large chains or networks, chains of three or more oxygens are rarely if ever observed. Thus the known electrically neutral oxocarbons generally consist of one or more carbon skeletons (including cyclic and aromatic structures) connected and terminated by oxide (-O-, =O) or peroxide (-O-O-) groups.\n" ]

[ "Given the planet's high mass, it is likely that 47 Ursae Majoris b is a gas giant with no solid surface. Because the planet has only been detected indirectly, properties such as its radius, composition, and temperature are unknown. Due to its mass it is likely to have a surface gravity 6–8 times that of Earth. Assuming a composition similar to that of Jupiter and an environment close to chemical equilibrium, the upper atmosphere of the planet is expected to contain water clouds, as opposed to the ammonia clouds typical of Jupiter.\n", "Second, no large-mass body such as a gas giant should be present in or relatively close to the HZ, thus disrupting the formation of Earth-size bodies. The matter in the asteroid belt, for example, appears to have been unable to accrete into a planet due to orbital resonances with Jupiter; if the giant had appeared in the region that is now between the orbits of Venus and Mars, Earth would almost certainly not have developed in its present form. However a gas giant inside the HZ might have habitable moons under the right conditions.\n", "If an eroded gas giant, the sun would have boiled the planet from a larger protoplanet, of 20 Earth masses up to half Jupiter's mass. If the latter, its current radius could be as high as 0.6 Jupiter.\n", "The planet was thought to be about 16 million years old, with a mass of 4 (± 1) (Jupiter masses), and a temperature of (± 50 K), which would make it one of the coldest and least massive directly-imaged exoplanets. Its atmosphere was shown to contain both water and methane through the use of near-infrared spectroscopy (1.4-1.6 μm). Scientists believed it was unlikely that the planet harbored life due to it being gaseous. The planet is said to have \"no liquid water, extremely powerful winds, and no surface; just below the uppermost layer of the atmosphere it rains liquid iron droplets.\"\n", "The gas giant planet \"b\" is located in the liquid water habitable zone of Mu Arae. This would prevent an Earth-like planet from forming in the habitable zone, however large moons of the gas giant could potentially support liquid water. On the other hand, it is unclear whether such massive moons could actually form around a gas giant planet, thanks to an apparent scaling law between the mass of the planet and its satellite system. In addition, measurements of the star's ultraviolet flux suggest that any potentially habitable planets or moons may not receive enough ultraviolet to trigger the formation of biomolecules. Planet \"d\" would receive a similar amount of ultraviolet to the Earth and thus lies in the ultraviolet habitable zone, however, it would be too hot for any moons to support surface liquid water.\n", "Jupiter itself, like the other gas giants, is not generally considered a good candidate for colonization. There is no accessible surface on which to land, and the light hydrogen atmosphere would not provide good buoyancy for some kind of aerial habitat as has been proposed for Venus.\n", "Prior to recent results from the \"Kepler\" space observatory, most confirmed planets were gas giants comparable in size to Jupiter or larger because they are most easily detected. However, the planets detected by \"Kepler\" are mostly between the size of Neptune and the size of Earth.\n" ]