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what are the long-term effects of using raid? | i'm talking about the one you plug into the wall. when it kills insects, it surely can't be good for my lungs and brain, or are the doses simply low enough not to be harmful? what are the long-term effects, then? | i did some research as a layman. one forum user [claims it contains](_url_1_) 300mg of transfluthrin, but i can't seem to find any sc johnson or raid site that corroborates that. transfluthrin is a pyrethroid, related to a pesticide produced by chrysanthemums called pyrethrum. the epa has [scant information on pyrethroids](_url_0_), but the consensus seems to be that low doses are mostly harmless. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/mosquitoes/pyrethroids4mosquitoes.htm",
"http://www.shanghaiexpat.com/phpbbforum/raid-plug-ins-is-it-deet-free-t112291.html"
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is it necessary to understand where we learned a harmful belief or thought or is replacing them good enough? | the generation before mine always talks about because their parents did x they learned y. | while freud was successful in bringing applied psychology into mainstream awareness and practice, equally we still have some throw-backs to his now-unsupported theories. one of those is the intense focus on childhood experience and upbringing including as you said believing that because their parents did x they learnt y. in many respects from a practical point of view knowing the exact learning history of a harmful belief is irrelevant to learning a more helpful one. i would also argue that many people's claims of where their beliefs originated has more to do with their narration of themselves rather than accurate summary about their own cognition. however a caveat - many people may find identifying a potential learning history such as 'my parents did x' may find this makes it easier to change said belief. without such a rationale people may not even identify what their beliefs are explicitly or acknowledge them as a learnt function (rather than an accurate understanding). for example patient a might believe all people are untrustworthy and abusive, thusly struggling to maintain relationships. questioning their upbringing and what their parents taught them is not typically a valid way to introduce change of this belief, but believing that comes from how they were raised may illustrate that the belief is changeable rather. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hey reddit, what are some jobs in science that will allow me to travel the world? | marine biologists and geologists often have opportunities to travel, depending on what kind of employment you can land. also, while in college you should look into studying abroad. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the proper name for a period t, when two wavelengths of different periods simultaneously intercept the x-axis after every t units of time? | suppose you are observing your car indicator beeping at a certain periodical frequency (every x seconds) and the car in front of you also has an indicator beeping (every y seconds). after every x•y seconds, the beeps appear to synchronize at least once. i tried to visualize it as wave functions, but what is the proper term for me to lookup the solution online? thanks a bunch | it's related to the "beat" period/frequency - there's a wiki article here: _url_0_ (and also something very relevant here: _url_1_ ) this happens if you have two notes that are *slightly* different in frequency. the interferences broduces a volume oscillation with a frequency equal to the difference in frequencies. you can hear this if you're trying to tune a guitar. if you're off by like 5 hz, you hear a rapid "wawawawawawawa" as the volume oscillates at 5 hz. as you bring the string in tune, the beat frequency gets slower and slower ("wawawawaw waaa waaaa waaaaaaaaaa") as the difference in frequencies goes to zero. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)",
"https://xkcd.com/165/"
] | [
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my sister took vinegar, mixed it with salt, and added a wad of thin copper wire. she removed it, and it grew crystals on it. she re-added it to the vinegar/salt solution, added a piece of steel, and it is now coated in copper. what happened, step by step, on a chemical level? | i would give you the exact details, but i actually found a nice little website that explains it all very simply. if you have further questions, i will be happy to answer; but i think the "what's going on?" section answers your question nicely. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.exploratorium.edu/science_explorer/copper_caper.html"
] | [
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|
diamagnetic interactions with fields? | what happens to a magnetic field when it reaches a diamagnetic material? if i had a magnet and pushed it towards a diamagnetic wall what do the field lines look like? would they flatten against the wall, reflect off the wall, or something different. | the diamagnetic material will have an induced field in the opposite direction of the exciting material, pushing the field lines somewhat out and away from the wall, depending on the magnetic susceptibility of the material. superconductors have a magnetic susceptibility of -1 and are perfect diamagnets, so will completely expel the field lines. for a weaker diamagnet (everything else) the field lines will still penetrate the wall but will be attenuated and 'flattened' a bit. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when two different versions of the same word come about (e.g. jail and gaol), what decides which word ultimately "wins"? | like how "jail" won this particular time | ease of use usually picks the winner, and the resulting decline in usage picks the loser. in your example, [*gaol*](_url_0_) is still used in the uk and australia, but not nearly as much as *jail*. *gaol* uses more column width (which has given *jail* the nod in australian newspapers) and it's also easily misread, usually as *goal*. if the trend continues, eventually everyone will spell it *jail*, and *gaol* will become an archaic spelling. so it is with language. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gaol"
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how big do people from "pygmy" groups get when raised with a post-scarcity diet? | it's known that human stature is a product of both genetics and diet/upbringing. there are various peoples throughout the earth who are considered to be "pygmies" where the men barely reach five feet, in africa and southeast asia. most of these people i imagine are raised with a traditional diet, and i was wondering if it's known how big they get if raised with a western diet and lifestyle, the kind that leads to second-generation immigrants in north america being a head taller than their parents. | so it's kind of outside the scope of the effect of diet on genetically small ethnic groups - e.g. "pygmies"; but the post ww ii economic changes in japan are a classic case of a people who were stereotypically small, but only due to general dietary/protein scarcity. in the japanese economic boom of the late 1950's and 1960s, protein became much more available to the population at large. this had some interesting economic effects: school classrooms and student desks were too small. the school infrastructure had been sized for the steretypical small japanese population; but with the increased availability of dietary proteins during critical childhood development years, they grew to sizes similar to people in other developed economies. i also have some friends who grew up in former communist states in eastern europe in the 50's and 60's. both of them are very small ~ 5' 1" - 5' 3". however, emigrating to the us and having children here, their children are very much taller than they are. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you teach yourself to read, without other people or pictures (or other outside sources) as guides? | i got asked this question a few days ago and got to pondering. for example, if we are given an ancient book from a language nobody can read write speak or understand on hearing it, how can that be translated into modern day readable text? if i was given a book in a language i don't understand and get no help understanding it, given unlimited time could i one day translate it into english? had this been the case translating any existing text we can now understand where it's original state was unearthed and how would we even start the process of translating it? | could you (or i) do it ? who knows. it has certainly been done. the best example that comes to my mind is linear b. the bulk of the work cracking it was done by michael ventris, a self taught linguist. but credit should also be given to michael chadwick. (and for the sake of completeness alice kober's contribution has been recently regarded as underrecognized.) _url_1_ it's a great story. i thoroughly recommend michael chadwick's book, the decipherment of linear b: _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Decipherment-Linear-B-Canto/dp/0521398304",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"
] | [
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super conductor wire + breaking thermal laws? | i was reading an article about room temperature superconducting materials, and the long term dream/goal of changing our electrical grids to superconducting material. this of course would remove all our waste energy during transfer. which got me thinking. if you had a power plant on one side of the planet, and you transferred all of its electrical energy to the other-side of the planet through a superconductor, how does that hold up with the laws of thermo-dynamics? (mostly entropy) from a just a gut instinct perspective, it seems wrong that you could transfer an 'unlimited' amount of energy from one end of the planet to the other and suffer no entropy as a result of it. if you open up the idea to a crazy thought experiment. if you were to create a network of thin superconducting material between galaxies and successfully be able to manipulate energy to mass and mass to energy at will at the ends of these networks, i don't see how we can transfer energy/mass around the galaxy at no loss? | i suspect that a room temperature superconductor (if even possible) would contain vortices (pools of non-superconducting material). it wouldn't perfectly super-conduct in all regions and there would be some heat loss, overall entropy would be created. also, most superconductors can only handle a certain amount of current and will not super-conduct past that point. there's more than just a factor of temperature when it comes to superconducting. you have critical fields, current, and pressure. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a fellow redditor claims that the pear lab confirmed the existence of psychokinesis and other paranormal phenomena. is this true? | the redditor suggests that skeptics have ignored these robust findings that clearly show paranormal phenomena to exist. i had never heard of pear until he mentioned it, and i was less than impressed with the research. am i missing something? these were the studies he provided when asked to validate his claims. [_url_0_](_url_0_) [_url_1_](_url_1_) [_url_3_](_url_3_) [_url_2_](_url_2_) | i am not an expert in this field, but i am a scientist and i read the first paper and looked over the others. here is my impression: * the first paper is written in a very unusual fashion. it may be a thesis. i would be very surprised if it has seen peer review. * the "operators" are the researchers themselves. this is not a suitable design to avoid bias and conflicts of interest. * the experiment was not systematically designed and included only a small dataset. the authors note this themselves, so it's not clear to me why they didn't do a better job. * the "anomalies" that are reported are laughably ridiculous. for example, they report that when the operators wanted the robot to spend longer on the table, the robot did indeed spend longer on the table. they report p=0.02 for this effect and consider this significant (the other papers have similarly unimpressive p-values). this is where the real problems lie. first of all, this is not a particularly low probability. if an equivalent experiment were run 50 times and the null result (no psychokinesis) were true, we would expect to see a result at least this improbable once. we have no clue how many similar experiments were run prior to this publication. with such a simple experimental set-up, it is easy to run a very large number of trials. so why are so few reported? have some previous experiments been omitted? it is not like a drug trial where the experiment can not be simply repeated as many times as you like. even for large complex experiments, there are issues surrounding publication bias (i.e., people not publishing results they don't like). here, where experimental repeats are trivial, alarm bells are very much ringing. moreover, p=0.02 would not be considered significant by any bayesian. typically p=0.05 is used as a cut-off for statistical significance, but let us not forget that that value is essentially arbitrary. it is a reasonable value for many purposes, but p < 0.05 is not the be all and end all. your choice of p-value for significance should really be determined by: (a) your goal. is it better to admit false positives or to avoid false negatives? if, for instance, you were trialling a new drug that could replace a drug that you know already works well, you don't want to risk accepting a false positive, so you should choose a more conservative p-value for significance, e.g., p = 0.01. (b) the prior probability. in other words, what is the burden of proof on the hypothesis that you are testing? if you show me that a drug known to act on sleep promoting pathways increases sleep at night with a p=0.02 chance that the result is a fluke, i'm willing to accept that it is likely correct. if you show me that people who eat a handful of jelly beans immediately gain 65 iq points relative to those who eat a handful of skittles with a p=0.02 chance that the result is a fluke, i'm very likely going to conclude that the result is a fluke and ask for a more stringent proof of the result. finally, the results here are frequently from multiple comparisons, which requires a reassessment of statistical significance. by that, i mean many different analyses were performed on the data and then the most significant ones were held up as impressive. however, every time you perform a new analysis, you are increasing the probability of finding a significant result by chance. that is not addressed by the authors. in sum, this is just really really bad science, i'm afraid. | 36 | [] | [
"http://www.icrl.org/pdf/Robot2_technical.pdf",
"http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_21_1_jahn.pdf",
"http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/",
"http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_09_2_peoch.pdf"
] | [] | [
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what are some little things that people can do everyday that could improve one's health? | stuff like, for example, take an omega-3 fish pill everyday with breakfast, or brush your teeth in the morning and at night. make a list of little things like that. also, what are some myths that are supposed to be good for you but don't really help (like, for example, antioxidants) | eat, pray, and love... no, just kidding. 1. practice good hygiene 2. monitor energy balance (calories in vs. calories out) 3. cultivate close relationships and personal interests moderate your vices, and don't get too caught up in trying to live forever; life is too short. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ant hill garnets? a simple question. | [deleted] | i'm actually finishing up a dissertation that partially feature the localities that the ant hill garnets come from. as far as i know, "ant hill garnets" only come from a few localities near the four corners in the american southwest. they are erupted in a bizarre kind of volcanic deposit known as a serpentine ultramafic microbreccia diatreme, or sum diatreme. there are a few of these sum diatremes around the four corners, and all contain various abundances of garnets. the garnets are very red because they are pyropic in composition, and sourced from the mantle between ~80 and 150 km depth. once the garnets come to the surface, the rock that contains them (a fine grained serpentine matrix) weathers rapidly. the ants remove the garnets while building colonies. the garnets can make up as much as 50% of an ant mound, which can be quite large. its possible to collect from these places in your own, but please get permission from the property holder first. the navajo nation also requires a collection permit, easy to obtain. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://rruff.info/doclib/am/vol61/AM61_762.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garnet#Garnet_group_endmember_species"
] | [
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what purpose does the actually uvula serve? | in addition to its biological functions, the uvula is also a speech organ that is involved in the articulation of some languages. more research is needed to determine definitively whether this has had an impact on the development of this organ. in japanese, the word for "japan" (日本) is pronounced \[nʲi.ho**ɴ**\], with a voiced uvular nasal occlusive in the coda position (end) of the final syllable. in arabic, the word for "story" (قصةٌ) is pronounced \[**q**isˤˈsˤɑtun\], with a voiceless uvular plosive occlusive in the onset position of the first syllable of the word. in inuktitut, the word for "because i returned" (utirama) is pronounced \[ʔuti**ɢ**ama\], with a voiced uvular plosive occlusive in the onset position of the third syllable of the word. in french, the word for "\[to\] stay" (rester) is pronounced \[**ʁ**ɛste\], with a voiced uvular fricative continuant in the onset position of the first syllable. in castilian spanish, the word for "skinny" (enjuto) is pronounced \[ẽ̞ɴˈ**χ**ut̪o̞\], with a voiceless uvular fricative continuant in the onset position of the second syllable. there are many more sounds and languages that employ these sounds than what i've listed here. in english, we only use the uvula to articulate the paralinguistic and onomatopoeic expression "glug glug glug," which is transcribed \[ʛ.ʛ.ʛ\]. edit: spacing; wording | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what sparked the very first life? | could somebody explain how life first popped up on the earth. also, please keep your religion to yourself, i want to hear scientific theories. thanks! | well, that kinda depends...what is "life"? one common theory is micelles. to put it simply, these are little oil droplets in water. take a pubble of muck, full of organic compounds. a subset of the molecules in the muck are able to form micelles. they clump together and bingo...micelles. they grow to a stable point and then stop, because there is no more micelle-making material in that puddle of muck. call that stuff molecules of class "a" one of the millions of micelles in one of the billions of little puddles scattered around the globe one forms in just the right way...maybe it traps a metal inside, maybe "a" has an ever so slightly different structure...whatever. but the result is that it is able to take another class of molecules in the much, call them "b" and turn them into a or use them in conjunction with a...whatever. but now more of those can form, and they do. there's a rainstorm, and the puddle with ab micelles merges with the puddle next to it....and the ab micelles spread. over and over and over for thousand of years and ab type micelles are everywhere....and among the billions of little pool scattered around the globe, one just so happens to form a new way to make better or more micelles. this goes on, adding more complex ways of doing things, expanding the toolkit to make more of itself until you get to a simple organism, something that can take its environment and turn it into a copy of itself. but this is conjecture...nobody knows how it happened, we can just propose possibilities as to how it could have happened. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the arc length formula an estimate of the length, or exact value? | _url_0_ | the integral is the exact value. whether you can actually compute the integral, of course, depends on the curve in question, so you might or might not be able to evaluate the integral exactly, but that's a separate issue. | 11 | [] | [
"http://img.photobucket.com/albums/v600/twistedfate320/Random%20pics/integral1dx2.jpg"
] | [
"http://img.photobucket.com/albums/v600/twistedfate320/Random%20pics/integral1dx2.jpg"
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why is the flashpoint for a biodiesel 130 deg celcius when the flashpoint of its composition is higher ? | so a major component of biodiesel is linoleic acid and oleic acid methyl ester. according to [_url_0_](_url_0_) and [_url_1_](_url_1_) under the properties section, the experimental flash point value is stated to be 200 and 230 deg. why is this the case ? | there are other compounds in the mixture with lower flash points. once they ignite, they supply enough energy to ignite the entire mixture. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.4516661.html",
"http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.4447491.html"
] | [] | [
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what are the truths about those who adhere to a dietary fast in order to give their a digestive system a rest? | it might seem that i am anthropomorphizing the digestive system of the human body, but does the digestive system even need a rest, and if given one, what are the benefits? | i once had abdominal pains and went to the hospital. they put me on an iv and stuck a naso-gastric tube into my stomach so that nothing at all would be going through my digestive tract. within a day, the pain was gone. i still remember the attending's summary for a roomful of med students: "behold the miracle of the naso-gastric tube!" a day or two later they removed the tube, the pain came back, and i had my appendix taken out, however. so your mileage may vary. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=intermittent+fasting&hl=en&btnG=Search&as_sdt=1%2C34"
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what is the exact reason to why tokamaks doesn't generate energy? | i couldn't find a clear answer online to this answer, so i figured i would post it here. what is the exact reason to why tokamaks (or any magnetically confined reactor) doesn't work? i know it takes a lot of energy to heat the plasma and to contain it, and that we can only do that for short periods of time. but what is the limiting factor? what step do we need to overcome to make fusion reactors produce energy? i'd be thankful if you included sources! | first the tokamak is actually really good confinement concept. for example in edge of tokamak the plasma temperature increases about 50 million degrees in a distance as wide as my thumb. now the truth is that fusion is a very hard problem. and as good as we are at confining plasmas, we are not yet good enough to make an economical power plant. we think we know how to build a tokamak that can produce more thermal power than we put into it, and in fact we are building a science experiment (iter) to study just that. but creating a positive net power is just one part of building an economical power plant. there are many issues that we still need to address before we can build an economical power plant. there is no single issue that has supreme importance. below i list a few broad areas that we need to address. there are multiple physics and technological issues that contribute to each area, and my list is not complete. long pulse: a power plant needs to be able to run continuously 24 hours a day 7 days week. most fusion experiments only operate for a few seconds at a time. this is actually long enough to do the science that we need to understand confinement. but we need to develop the science and technologies to extend the pulse lengths and operate steady state. disruptions: tokamak's can go unstable and suddenly lose confinement. these sudden loss of confinement events can damage the reactor. we need to develop better control of the plasma to avoid disruptions, and also develop mitigation systems to protect the reactor in the event of an disruption. materials: the inside of a burning fusion reactor is a very harsh environment. we need to develop materials that can withstand this environment for prolonged periods of time. size: right now we only know how to build a large burning fusion reactor. large reactors are expensive and costly. in order to be economically viable (and to speed up the rate research) we need to find a way to shrink the size of a burning reactor. predictability: plasma physics is a challenging field of study. there is a lot that we understand about plasma confinement, but our predictive capability isn't sufficient to convince a power company to build a billion dollar power plant. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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building an autonomous hovercraft for engineering class: what materials should we use? | from the little experience i have with building small hovercrafts, you may want to consider having the air flow out of many small holes from the bottom of the skirt, not from inside of the skirt. i recall having a small rc hovercraft when i was a kid and it used this method. basically, air was pumped into the skirt and came out directly between the skirt and the floor, opposed to how this image shows it coming out from the center: _url_0_ having several exhaust holes around the base instead of riding 'pillow' of air seemed to create more stability. i would imagine that for a larger vehicle build for transporting people the larger pillow may work better as you will likely have more lift, but with a small engine and a central exhaust, if the vehicle tips slightly (when turning or accelerating), air is going to want to escape faster from the lifted side thereby creating unforeseen movement. think of it kind of like pumping air into an upside-down bucket. the bucket will not go directly up and let an equal amount of air out from all sides; it will pop up on one side tipping sideways and probably stay that way until no more air is pumped in. what you want to achieve would the the equivalent of having a large ring buckets all connected and having air pumped in. as long as your pump is strong enough to maintain a constant pressure, an equal amount of air should flow from each, and maintain a stable lift for you. as i mentioned above, you also want to ensure that you have adequate back pressure. if your exhaust vents are too large, then adequate back pressure will be lost if one of the vents becomes slightly less restricted than the others. | 2 | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain this video of massive sheet of ice overtaking people's lawns? | there's a video going around facebook where a massive sheet of ice appears to be growing out of a lake at a very rapid pace. i found a copy on youtube here: _url_0_ can anyone explain what's happening? | it's hard to be conclusive without more information but my guess would be that a steady wind has pushed up all the ice to one side of the lake, causing it to creep up onto shore. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5L5i0SjLsY"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fqptbtwXUCs"
] | [
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imagine an android pattern-based lockscreen with a 6x6 grid, how many possible combinations/permutations are there in this scenario? | this was a random thought i had today as my pattern lockscreen is a 6x6 grid instead of the usual 3x3. due to the nature of how you could draw your patterns, my family and i, non-statistician laymen, were trying to figure this out. one answer was that the number of combinations/permutations would be less than 36! (factorial) my gut reaction would be that it exceeds 36! (factorial). any input would would be greatly appreciated. | a 6x6 grid has 36 points. * if you could touch a point twice, the number would be infinite (or if there's a cap on the length of the combination, it's 36^n ) * if you can't, the maximum is 36x35x34..., which is 36! (10^41 ) * i believe that you actually can't go from any point to any point though - going a1 to a6 automatically adds in all the ones in between, so you can really only go to a2, b1, or b2. this drastically reduces the number of possibilities, since you only have 3 (corner), 5 (edge) or 8 (middle) possibilities to move to, which becomes fewer later on. calculating how many moves that gives you is going to take a lot more time, since it probably also depends on where you start, but it's going to be a lot less than 36! edit: of course, for any string of points, you have 36 (or 32, if there's a minimum number of points needed) possible cutoff points, so take the total number of strings and multiply be 36 - it's 36!*36 | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/pIxT8IG",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_matrix",
"https://possiblywrong.wordpress.com/2012/07/28/security-of-the-android-pattern-lock/",
"http://imgur.com/BlaLaEo"
] | [
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what exactly does a scintillation counter measure? | i've done a bit of gamma ray spectroscopy, and i'm trying to interpret my results, but i don't know enough about scintillation counters. so lets say a gamma ray comes in, generates and electron-positron pair, and then undergoes a few compton scattering events. the positron annihilates with an electron. so, what gets measured by the photomultiplier? there are several different things all with different energies. there might be 3 or 4 gamma rays with different energies (traveling in different directions), a few electrons with different energies (also traveling in different directions), and maybe theres some interactions between the compton electrons and the scintillator that gives off some lower energy photons. can the detector "see" high energy gamma rays that don't undergo any scattering? can it see the compton electrons? what about gamma rays and electrons that get scattered at some large angle (say, backwards and out of the detector)? are these partially detected in some way, or are these completely invisible? at first, i thought the scintillation counter was literally counting the number of photons with particular energies, but if that were true i cannot explain my results. | when thinking about radiation detection, i like to start at the end and work backwards. at the end, you have a device that measures an electrical impulse. this impulse represents one detection event - also since you are taking an energy spectrum, the size of the impulse represents how much energy was detected. the impulse is generated by the photomultiplier tube. this takes visible photons and converts it into an electrical signal. the visible photons are generated by scintillation events. this happens when a free electron roaming around inside your scintillator falls into a lower energy state. free electrons are generated from ionization events. usually, you have one very energetic electron that comes crashing through your scintillator, ionizing hundreds or thousands of atoms along its path. these very energetic electrons were generated through interactions between your gamma rays and the atoms of the scintillator - compton scatter, photoelectric effect, and pair production. so the only thing your detector is able to see is ionization energy left behind by the gamma ray. let's say one of your gamma rays undergoes compton scattering, and subsequently escapes. your detector would see a signal equal to the energy of the compton electron, but not the gamma ray. in pair production, you often see "escape peaks." this is when one or both of the 511 kev annihilation photons escapes. you would have a full-energy peak (representing the full gamma ray energy), and two smaller peaks at 511 kev and 1022 kev behind it. so to sum it all up - take the energy of the photon entering the detector, and the energies of all photons that leave. the difference of these two values is the signal that the detector records. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can every metal exist in an amorphous state? | can every metal on the periodic tablet exist as a glass? is there a source that explains what happens to every non-crystalline metal? how does an amorphous state effect strength and electrical conductivity? | i assume that you have seen the [wiki page](_url_0_)? i don't know anything about an elemental metal being able to exist in an amorphous state, and i suspect that it would not be possible simply because self-diffusion would result in the metal relaxing into the crystalline state. you can see in the wiki page that the first amorphous metal to be discovered was actually an alloy of two elements (ausi). however, this requires cooling rate from its liquid state on the order of millions of degrees (celsius) per second in order to prevent the atoms from settling into its crystalline state. after this, there was a bunch of research into 3-element amorphous metals, which required cooling rates of hundred to thousands of degrees per second. these days, we're looking at amorphous metals that only require cooling rates of unity degrees per second, although these usually have 5 or more elements. from what i remember and understand, electrical conductivity of amorphous metals is usually lower than any metal counterpart due to the lack of a lattice structure for the electrons to flow through. additionally, amorphous metal alloys tend to be a lot stronger than their crystalline counterparts due to absence of defects that provide weak spots. however, although they are a lot tougher and can take a higher force than metals, they tend to fail under high loads similar to the brittleness of glass. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metal"
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how does an amoeba sense food in its surroundings and decide how to envelope it. | i'm curious how protozoa function like animals with such small and simple mechanisms (compared to an organism with a brain). how can a single celled organism act with what seems to be volition? i have to know this for some reason. | hi! this is done by chemotaxis usually. which is an incredibly interesting concept that many scientists are still working on just because it is so complex. chemotaxis can be used for several other things as well, such as development of organisms, etc. typically, in eukaryotes, chemotaxis begins by chemoattractants or chemorepellants binding to receptors on the surface of these cells. this usually leads to intracellular signaling pathways, oftentimes involving the notorious camp signaling. usually these receptors are polarized, meaning there are larger amounts in one portion of the cell than in other parts. it is thought that the cells "compare" the level of the chemoattractants/repellants in these areas along the cell, and it can detect where food is becoming more concentrated and in what direction. at the end of these cascades, usually the cytoskeleton is activated for chemotaxis. this can involve a few mechanisms and can get fairly complicated. lots of times, actin is polymerized and directional migration towards the food is triggered. i am simplifying this quite greatly, but check this article out: _url_0_ hope this helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/cellbio/devreotes/185.pdf"
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what caused this lake michigan phenomenon (pic included in body)? | i really didn't know what to title this question so sorry if it's a little misleading or anything. i was down at lake michigan and i noticed this extreme color difference in the water. it's a clean cut line dividing the two colors of water. (here's a picture _url_0_ .) what causes something like that and how does it stay so perfectly separated (at least on the surface)? | are you sure those are two different color waters, and it's not something underneath the water (like an algae plume, reef or shallow area)? it's a cool picture! where'd you take it, near the shore or far out to water? where was land in relation to you, any other information you have could help. let's find out together! (no, seriously, i don't have the answer, but i'm curious - the questions i've asked might help me find the answer or someone else who has more information deduce it, though.) | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/VmOLw"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/VmOLw"
] | [
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are there known benefits or drawbacks to training ambidexterity? | about a year ago, [someone asked this question](_url_0_), but i felt like the responses didn't answer it for me: are there any scientific studies demonstrating any benefits or drawbacks to ambidexterity? it's been frustrating for me to research because a normal google search either yields [this](_url_1_) poorly-cited article from scientific american or, what's just as bad, a billion sites claiming that learning ambidexterity "improves your creativity" and listing various historical figures who were ambidextrous. google scholar revealed a lot of research in the business / strategic planning fields that use the term "ambidextrous" to refer to a type of organizational competency, but not a lot by way of neuroscience. i don't believe the sa article for a minute - ambidextrous kids tend to have lower test scores on average *therefore* learning ambidexterity can make you stupid / cause a stutter or dyslexia? what? fails utterly to answer questions about the causes of "congenital" ambidexterity (incomplete lateralization? out of my depth here.) versus "acquired" ambidexterity (which i would have imagined has similar benefits to learning to play an instrument?). but has there been any actual scientific research on subject about the effects? | okay, folks, op here. after some searching, i turned up a few studies that start to get at the question i'm interested in, so i thought i'd share them here in case someone is interested. i don't have access to the majority of the articles, but the abstracts often provide a lot of information i'm looking for. [**neural correlates of performance variability during motor sequence acquisition**](_url_2_) this paper seems to be more of the "basic research" type, looking at the regions of the brain activated at various stages of motor learning for a task involving the non-dominant hand. as learning occurs, response in the precuneus decreases whereas the caudate nucleus increases. in the middle - between the initial awkward phase and the "learned" phase - there is a period of highly variable results that are associated with increased interaction between the hippocampus and fronto-parietal areas and between the striatum and frontal areas. someone is going to have to explain this one to me. [**switching handedness: fmri study of hand motor control in right-handers, left-handers and converted left-handers**](_url_0_) this study looked at differences in brain organization between left-handers, right-handers, and people who were left-handed but were forced to switch to right-handed. the long and the short of it is that brain activity associated with motor control of the dominant side in what i'll call "cis-handedness" is typically on the contralateral hemisphere (e.g., right-handers use their left-hemisphere). with the non-dominant side in cis-handed individuals, brain activity is more evenly distributed. activity in "trans-handed" individuals tends to be controlled by both hemispheres, and "shares features" of both right- and left-handers. [**dynamic gray matter changes within cortex and striatum after short motor skill training are associated with their increased functional interaction**](_url_5_) this study had people learn a task with their non-dominant hand. it showed "increase of functional coupling" between the striatum and cortex over training days. the abstract ends by stating that "current data demonstrate training-induced short gm plasticity is paralleled by their temporally dynamical process of functional interaction between the cortex and the striatum in response to a motor skill training." [**effects of combining 2 weeks of passive sensory stimulation with active hand motor training in healthy adults**]( _url_3_) i like this one. researchers used electric stimulation on the individuals' non-dominant hands. individuals showed "substantially improved motor performance of the left hand trained by 34%, but also showed a relevant transfer to the untrained right hand by 24%." [**inter-limb transfer of ballistic motor skill following non-dominant limb training in young and older adults**](_url_4_) this is probably the closest to what i was wondering. they trained right-handers in a left-handed (ballistic) motor skill. both young and old participants showed "significant performance improvements" in the trained left hand... the extent of inter-limb transfer was substantial and indistinguishable between the two age groups... both age groups exhibited bilateral increases in cortical excitability following unilateral training, indicating that unilateral training affects both the trained and untrained hemisphere." so it sounds like training with a non-dominant hand generates increased activity in both sides of the brain. [**brain activation associated with practiced left hand mirror writing**](_url_1_) after training with the non-dominant hand, researchers saw signal increases in "visual, right lateral, and medial premotor areas, and in right anterior and posterior peri-sylvian areas corresponding to language areas." they suggest that the ability to do left-handed mirror writing may actually be a latent ability. if that's the case, then training left-handed mirror writing may reduce "trans-hemispheric suppression". so those are all the articles i was able to find. i'm left with the impression that training does indeed change brain activity patterns by increasing bilaterality. i would be interested to see, longitudinally, how long such effects last if the individual doesn't keep in practice, and if there is a measurable effect on dominant hand motor control after extensive training. it sounds to me like because the non-dominant training transferred to the dominant side, you would see an improvement in motor skills overall. i found the degree of limb-transfer to be quite striking, and i would be interested if the extent of skill improvement would have been seen in the dominant hand in individuals who only trained on the dominant side. that is, is use of the non-dominant hand a way to improve acquisition of skills in the dominant side? | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/p241a/i_once_read_that_if_you_do_mundane_activities/",
"http://sams.scientificamerican.com/article/can-training-to-become-ambidextrous-improve-brain-function/"
] | [
"http://www.wyczy.ane.pl/pdf/7239.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0093934X13000266",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811911014510",
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0084402#pone-0084402-g003",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00221-013-3481-9",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811911012614",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12136064",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23903586",
"http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1519/867.long"
] | [
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how close can we get? | if we touch something, for example the screen of my phone, how close can the atoms of my finger get to the atoms of the glass? do they really 'touch', or do the electrons in the atomic shell push them apart? | you get as close as the size of an atom, roughly a tenth of a nanometer. the atoms in your finger "bump into" the atoms in the glass, to the point that the electron orbitals of the respective atoms begin to overlap. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a dimensional analysis posed by an old engineering professor of mine. | this might be simple and i may be overthinking it, but i never got the answer and it's been bothering me off-and-on over the years. here goes: when using the units of miles per gallon, we're measuring the efficiency of fuel usage. the units are basically a measure of length divided by a measure of length cubed. so, we're left with this useful thing which has the ridiculous units of inverse length squared. what is an inverse meter squared? does anyone know a way to easily conceptualize or describe whatever this thing is? | it's not a gallon of lard, or water, or air... its specifically a gallon of gasoline. a gallon of gas is more of a unit of energy, since combustion of a set amount of gas yields some fixed amount of energy. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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did ultra wide band have any real technical drawbacks? | uwb stopped getting talked about around 2002. it was the next huge thing, and then nothing. was there any real technical drawbacks that could not be quashed? or was it not used for another reason? | the big problem is that it raises the noise floor for the other radio bands that it shares. other technologies came along and made it unnecessary. up until about a decade or so ago, high frequency radio integrated circuits were made from gallium arsenide, which is expensive. as silicon technology got better (the transistors get faster, similar to moore's law), silicon radio frequency ics became more viable. they are cheaper and can integrate digital circuits on the same semiconductor die. now, rf silicon is steadily eating up the market that gaas used to have. other technologies such as orthogonal frequency division multiple access (ofdma) are able to use spectrum more efficiently. as rf silicon improves, it can work at higher frequencies. a new ism band at 60 to 65 ghz has opened up, and rf silicon ics are being used to work at that frequency. the bandwidth at this frequency is huge, and only works at shorter distances, which is the same niche that uwb was trying to fill. the result is new standards such as wirelesshd. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the na/k pump needed? neuro science | i get why the membranepontential is at -70mv. i get that we at this potential have a instream of na and a just as big outstream of k, and that this is maintained by the na/k pump. but why does these constant streams need to be upheld!? if we were to remove the na/k pump at this point, wouldn't some na move in and some k move out until we reach an ion equilibrium for the two, but at this point we will still have some membranepotential right? because the inside of the cell has alot of negative charge, thus will attract more positive ions then there are on the outside and that means we have a potential: more positive ions inside then outside. | if you remove the na/k pump you will, assuming that no other pumps exist, eventually reach a point where there is no electrochemical gradient and the net flux of both potassium and sodium ions is 0. at that point, you can no longer generate an action potential because no matter how many channels you open, there will be no net flux. for the way that the action potential works, you need these large gradients of sodium and potassium and so maintaining them is necessary. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to break stone using only the surface tension of water? | i was thinking about the mythbusters episode where they tested the myth that, if someone were falling an incredible height into water, dropping a hammer would break the surface tension and save them. well, they tried it with buster, and he was pretty much destroyed just from falling into water because the hammer didn't help. this raised a question in my mind. is it possible to break a stone (say, a cinder block or a boulder) with nothing but the surface tension of a body of water? if so, what height would it have to be dropped from to cause such an event? | the surface tension isn't what killed buster. it's the water's resistance to movement that deccelerates the object hitting the water. surface tension refers to the cohesive forces of water, and its contribution in this scenario is very low. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long does it actually take to form a 'habit'? (or, is there any truth to the '21 days to form a habit' axiom?) | neuroscientists of ask science, this question is for you. i have always heard anecdotes of how it takes somewhere between 19-28 to "form" a repetitive habit. i was just wondering if there was any scientific basis behind those sayings, or if they were complete fabrications. | habit formation for eating, drinking, and exercise behaviors [has been shown to vary greatly](_url_0_), taking anywhere from 18 to 254 days. moreover, in this study, it tended to follow an asymptotic curve, and "the median time to reach 95% of asymptote was 66 days." while this isn't neuroscience, the study nonetheless suggests that the time it takes to form a habit does not follow some axiom or absolute rule. edit: incidentally, the source of the 21 day thing is *psycho-cybernetics* by maltz (1960). | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejsp.674/abstract",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v484/n7392/images_article/484042a-f1.2.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basal_ganglia",
"http://c431376.r76.cf2.rackcdn.com/9748/fnsys-05-00066-HTML/image_m/fnsys-05-00066-g002.jpg",
"http://www.gophoto.it/view.php?i=http://c431376.r76.cf2.rackcdn.com/9748/fnsys-05-00066-HTML/image_m/fnsys-05-00066-g002.jpg#.UVJg7xnufEg",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21167212"
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what is this animal? found at rocky point | _url_0_ | it's definitely not a mudskipper. my first instinct was that it was some sort of stargazer, but i'm not really sure. would be very helpful to know what rocky point you are talking about. edit: it's also upside down in this picture. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/WkHiJ"
] | [
"http://www.mudskipper.it/SpeciesList.html"
] | [
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is my face experiencing a different rate of time compared to my feet? | just been doing some reading on gravitational time dilation and read an interesting point: "for every infinitesimal unit of spacetime, it will have it's own time due to the differences in gravity. experiments have proved this theory from lengths less than a metre". does that mean my feet are experiencing a different time to my head? | [yes, definitely!](_url_0_) (assuming you are standing on earth's surface and not laying down). but the difference is so miniscule that is has no effect on any of your biological processes and you definitely can't notice it. despite the time rate difference between your head and your feet being so small, we now have instruments that are sensitive enough to [indeed detect this difference](_url_1_). | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://sciencequestionswithchris.wordpress.com/2013/06/24/does-time-go-faster-at-the-top-of-a-building-compared-to-the-bottom/",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/329/5999/1630.full"
] | [
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should i throw a apple core when in the outdoors or just keep it and throw it to the garbage later? | so i was eating an apple at the beach the other day and it got me thinking. is it less harmful for the environment if i just throw the core or any organic waste right in the outdoors or keep it and throw to the rubbish instead, where it will be together with a ton of non organic materials that will not decompose? and what do you do? | as a back packer, i can say that you should be careful what you do with organic waste that may contain seeds. there's almost zero chance that your apple core will result in an apple tree that disrupts the ecosystem of your suburb. however, if you are in a national park or some other delicate ecosystem, just pack it out. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is all the hype for this "frankenstorm" actually merited? if so, what are the reasons that this storm is going to be so dangerous? | sandy looks like she is going to collide with a cold front as it nears the eastern seaboard. when warm wet tropical storms collide with cold fronts they are amplified. while sandy probably wont be the strongest storm to ever hit the area, it will certainly be one of the biggest and rainiest storms to hit the area in a long time. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwo-way/2012/10/26/163690889/if-sandy-becomes-frankenstorm-it-could-be-worst-in-a-century",
"http://www.wunderground.com/wundermap/?lat=31.65338&lon=-80.24414&zoom=4&type=hyb&units=english&rad=1&rad.num=6&rad.spd=25&rad.opa=70&rad.stm=0&rad.type=N0R&rad.type2=&rad.smo=1&rad.mrg=0&wxsn=0&svr=0&cams=0&sat=0&riv=0&mm=0&hur=1&hur.wr=0&hur.cod=1&hur.fx=1&hur.obs=1&hur.hd=0&hur.mdl=1&hur.opa=70&hur.img=sst&hur.opa2=90&hur.gpce=0&fire=0&tor=0&ndfd=0&pix=0&dir=0&ads=0&dd=0&tfk=0&ski=0&stormreports=0"
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|
what are we reallly seeing in this gif of a pulsar? | hello askscience, i am making a video game and am trying to visualize some galactic phenomenon and am currently looking at trying to recreate pulsars with particle effects. i found this gif and it looks to me that this is two toruses and a jet. it is hard to tell from this, and i was hoping someone might be able to help clarify what we are really seeing here. [_url_1_](_url_1_) & #x200b; here is a 3d render of what it looks like to me, but not sure if there are optical effects or i am interepreting this correctly. any help is appreciated! [_url_0_](_url_0_) | you are not too far off. the paper that i found about it shows two tori with the pulsar itself in the middle. however they are not sure if jets or torus dominates. [constraining the geometry of psr j08554644: a nearby pulsar wind nebula with double torus/jet morphology](_url_0_) | 6 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/a/4sLsHzt",
"https://media.giphy.com/media/6Iy2GdjElvPUc/giphy.gif"
] | [
"https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/2017/01/aa28998-16.pdf"
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if correct, does the 'entropic force' of gravity remove the need for gravitons, allowing us to consider guts as toes? | if correct, does the 'entropic force' of gravity remove the need for gravitons, allowing us to consider guts as toes? | when the source of a gravitational field shifts, the gravitational field around it changes and that change propagates outward as gravitational radiation. if the change in the source is quantized, then the gravitational radiation must also be quantized, and we need a quantum model of gravity to explain that. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9504004"
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do astronauts aboard the iss still have an "internal biological clock"? | after a month or so aboard the iss would astronauts still find themselves waking up on a regular schedule like they did on earth? (not because of an alarm, but naturally). or does the constant change from day to night so frequently throw off the natural sleep cycle? | this is actually an important challenge for spaceflight. all humans have an internal circadian clock with a period close to 24 hours. without any environmental time cues, [the average period of this clock is about 24.15 hours, with some small inter-individual variability (standard deviation for healthy young adults is about 0.2 hours)](_url_0_). on earth, environmental time cues reset our circadian clock to keep us entrained to the 24-hour day. the most important time cue is light. with a strong light/dark cycle, it is possible to entrain the circadian clock to periods close to (within about 1-2 hours) of the intrinsic period. in general, it does not take a lot of light to achieve this effect; [room light is about half as effective as bright sunlight for the human circadian system](_url_6_). in spaceflight, you can imagine that there might be problems entraining the circadian system, due to the lack of a natural 24-hour light/dark cycle, and the fact that the iss orbits the earth once every 90 minutes. there is the potential for some astronauts to fail to entrain, or to entrain with a very different alignment to other crew members, meaning everyone would want to sleep and work at different times. however, it is not possible for the circadian system to entrain to a 90-minute day, and there is control of indoor lighting on the iss. by keeping the indoor lighting on a 24-hour cycle, the astronauts can generally remain entrained to a 24-hour day. [sleep is not as good as it is on earth, for a multitude of reasons](_url_1_), but the internal rhythm does remain entrained to a 24-hour cycle. the timing of the internal circadian rhythm is also shifted relative to the light/dark cycle, compared to its normal alignment on earth. [this is a result of the fact that the environmental time cues being provided by the artificial light are weaker than those present on earth](_url_3_). having said that, in the recent 520-day simulation of a return trip to mars, where the participants had much more control over their own light environment, [one of the six participants was not entrained to a 24-hour day](_url_5_), instead living on an approximately 25-hour day throughout the experiment. believe it or not, this result is expected based on earlier studies from the 1960s and 1970s, where people spent months living in an underground bunker and were free to control their sleep timing and light timing. under these conditions, people also tend to live on a 25-hour day. this is **not** because humans have an intrinsic period of 25 hours (this is a common myth). rather, it is because under these free-living conditions, people generally choose to stay up late into their biological night. light exposure during the biological night causes delay of the internal circadian clock, [which results in an apparent lengthening of the circadian period, from its intrinsic value of about 24.15 hours to an extended value of about 25 hours](_url_2_). there is active research looking at how to best keep astronauts entrained to the same day length, without using too much power. there are certain wavelengths of light to which the circadian system is most sensitive. light reaches the internal circadian clock both via the regular visual system, which is maximally sensitive to green light, and via a [specialized circadian light system](_url_7_), which is maximally sensitive to blue light. for sufficiently bright light, the circadian resetting response is saturated, so the color of light is not so important. however, for dimmer indoor lighting, light in the blue/green end of the spectrum is much more effective for resetting the circadian system. [the exact choice of wavelength depends on the intensity and the duration of the light exposure](_url_4_). as an aside, most electronic screens use very blue light, which is potentially problematic for people on earth using electronic devices at night, since light at this time delays the internal circadian rhythm, setting the normal sleep-onset signal back much later into the night, meaning the circadian clock is still strongly promoting wake when people are trying to sleep. this has led to the development of programs like f.lux, which are designed to reduce blue-light exposure at this time. in summary, keeping astronauts on a 24-hour cycle can generally be achieved with indoor lighting, so long as the timing of the light is externally imposed with a 24-hour cycle. problems arise when individuals are free to choose the timing of their own light exposure. picking the right color/timing/intensity of light is also an interesting problem. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3176605/",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2869.1997.00028.x/abstract",
"http://ajpregu.physiology.org/content/270/1/R271",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/98/24/14027.short",
"http://stm.sciencemag.org/content/2/31/31ra33.short",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/110/7/2635.short",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.00695.x/full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanopsin"
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fluorine not a good leaving group ? | halogens are good leaving groups in nucleophillic acyl substitution (among other) reactions, except fluorine. it's only a moderately good leaving group (pka of about 3 in most reactions). fluorine is renowned for being extremely reactive and it is one of the most volatile elements due to its electronegativity, so why is it not so good in these reactions yet it can react with noble gases ?! | my best explanation would be based on the electronegativity of fluorine, which is the most electronegative element. in addition to that, it is also the smallest halogen. the fluorine-carbon bond will be much stronger than the chlorine-carbon or bromine-carbon bonds. in addition, chlorine and bromine are much bigger/bulkier, making them better leaving groups. their valence electrons involved in bonding are of higher energy than fluorine's, and combined with their lower electronegativitys, bromine and chlorine are not able to hold the bond as strongly as the smaller, more electronegative fluorine. i hope this helps and please correct me if i said anything that is wrong or trivial!!! | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i recognize someone in a crowd like a friend or family member. what is happening in my brain that causes me to focus on them and have them "pop" out visually from the crowd? | this came up when i was just looking on the street and somehow my peripheral vision recognized someone and my vision snapped over to him. my attention was caught. same thing with seeing a friend eat on a patio somehow i managed to pick her out of an entire crowd of people that i would have otherwise glossed over. what leads to me paying attention to these people and what creates this feeling where you see him/her pop out from the environment which would have been otherwise visual static noise? | your question contained your answer, and you didn't even know it: what you've come across is what is called by a lot of names, including *attention*, *selective attention*, *feature attention*, etc. [wikipedia has a decent article on the topic](_url_0_). the most basic idea behind attention is that there is not enough capacity for the brain to process every bit of information that hits our eyes. most of it is redundant info (the shape, size, colour, etc of the leaves on the trees), and it would be a waste of energy to devote a lot of resources to this task. the brain that we have now, the one that is limited in its capacity, is already intensely hungry for energy, so you don't want to increase this. to counteract this limitation, we have developed a number of systems that try to deal with this. they all fall under the term *attention*. the basic idea of all attention research is that it is some mechanism that allows you to boost the processing of specific sensory information. you can *shift* your attention to a specific point in your visual field, and what will happen in the brain is that the activity of that part of the cortex gets boosted, with a slight decrease for information outside of what you are attending. so, seeing someone you know in a crowd and paying attention to them, or listening to a single conversation (the [cocktail party effect](_url_1_)) in a noisy room, is you selectively engaging your attention to a specific object, and boosting it's representation in your sensory cortical areas to allow that information to break out from the noise around it. the popping out you're referring to is a very prominent feature of the [biased competition model](_url_2_) of attention. i talked above about you directing attention to a specific object or part of space. the other side of the attention coin is that some objects will grab attention irregardless of what you're doing (bottom-up effect; the alternative that i described above is a top-down effect or directed attention). for example, a loud noise, or a sudden change in contrast (aka bright light), will cause you to attend to the source of this stimulus, and you'll often swivel your head towards the source of this stimulus. you can also see this for other types of stimuli. for example, your name will often pop out and capture attention even when you're suppressing that source of information. think of the cocktail party example. you're talking to someone, let's say lisa, and ignoring all the other conversations in the room. then you hear your name in one of those conversations. you turn and say "huh?" to john. you don't know what john said because you weren't attending to that stream of info, because you were talking to lisa, but your brain had processed enough of the info to be able to pick out your name, orangek1tty, to be able to pop your attention away from what you were doing and to that other info. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-based_attention",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocktail_party_effect",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biased_Competition_Theory"
] | [
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has carl sagan made an information theory mistake here, or am i just misunderstanding something? | i just started reading the dragons of eden and i found this paragraph very strange: quote------------------------------------------ the information content of any message is usually described in units called bits, which is short for "binary digits." the simplest arithmetical scheme uses not 10 digits (as we do because of the evolutionary accident that we have ten fingers) but only two, 0 and 1. thus any sufficiently crisp question can be answered by a single binary digit--0 or 1, yes or no. if the genetic code were written in a language of two letters rather than four letters, the number of bits in a dna molecule would equal twice the number of nucleotide pairs. but since there are four different kinds of nucleotides, the number of bits of information in dna is four times the number of nucleotide pairs. thus if a single chromosome has five billion (5 x 10^9 ) nucleotides, it contains twenty billion (2 x 10^10 ) bits of information. end quote------------------------------------------ it seems to me that if the genetic code where written in a two letter alphabet instead of four, the number of bits of information associated with a dna molecule consisting n nucleotide pairs, would be n, not 2n. each letter would provide a single bit of information. since the there are actually four letters in the genetic code however, each letter represents two bits of information, and the number of bits associated with a dna molecule of n nucleotide pairs would be 2n. thus if a single chromosome has 5 billion nucleotides (i'm assuming this means nucleotide pairs; if it means actual nucleotide bases the error is even worse) the chromosome contains 10 billion bits of information not 20. am i just misreading this or do you guys agree that there is an error here? i would hate to think that such a well known book by such a famous author had such an obvious mistake in it, but that's what it looks like to me. any commentary? | i think you are right, but it is a minor error that probably got by the editors. i once read the final draft of a textbook written by a renowned expert in optics (long story) and found several errors (mostly units and arithmetic) and i knew maybe 1% of what the author had forgotten. he was grateful nonetheless. in any event, even the 10 billion bits are wrong. the base pairs are grouped into 3s so you have 64 permutations, however this is not a binary or quaternary system, there are redundant codons and start and stop (_url_0_) so there are 22 symbols of the 64 permutations. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_codon_table"
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please explain the basics of non-standard analysis to a layman? | i have a basic understanding of mathematics, is it even possible to explain the why and how of "nonstandard analysis" to someone with a basic university level understanding of mathematics? from what i can parse it seems more philosophical psuedo-science than anything else. are there any concrete examples in real life it could be boiled down to? i love mathematics, but i'll never be a mathematician. i've been reading on this for hours and haven't gotten anywhere haha. | it is a legit, if not small, field of study in math. the reason it hasn't really gained ground is because it is harder to define things and you just get a different formulation rather than gain anything new. working with limits and working with infinitesimals are equivalent, and this had been proved. but it is fun to think about, and before i start i'm just going to give the disclaimer that i have an intuitive knowledge at best of this stuff so if you know more than me and see a correction, feel free. the idea is to define around every real number a "cloud" of numbers that are infinitesimally close to it. this is a little unintuitive, since if e is a number in the "cloud" around x, then |x-e| is smaller than any real number, but bigger than zero. an interesting thing about these clouds though is that for any element of any cloud, e, there is exactly one real number x so that |x-e| is smaller than any real number. we call x the "standard part" of e, denoted st(e). we call the cloud around zero the "infinitesimally small numbers". so if e is any number so that st(e)=x, then st(e)-x is an infinitesimally small number (it is in the cloud around zero). these clouds are huge, as the cloud around a real number x has the same information as all the infinite sequences that converge to x. for each sequence that converges to x, there is a point in this cloud. each cloud has more elements in it than there are real numbers. we want this collection of numbers and their clouds to be a "field". that means we want to be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide any of these things. addition, subtraction and multiplication are easy, the interesting thing is division. division works well, until we get to the cloud around 0, the infinitesimally small numbers. recall that if x < y, then x^(-1) so we have this new field of numbers, with these clouds and these infinite numbers of which the actual real numbers are a very small collection, and we call this ^(*)r. weird things can happen here. for instance, things can be infinitely big, but finitely, or infinitesimally close. if e is an element of ^(*)r, then we say that the galaxy around e is the set of ^(*)r that are infinitesimally close or finitely close to e, and denote this gal(e) (which is a sacred notation already taken by number theorists, i may stage a coup). so gal(0) is all real numbers and all numbers infinitesimally close to them. to do calculus on this object, we won't be needing the standard formulation of a limit. we say that the limit of f(x) at x=a is l if whenever x-a is infinitesimal (x is in the cloud around a, but not equal to a), then f(x) is in the cloud around l. in other words, l is the limit if st(x)=a, and x!=a then st(f(x))=l. we can take derivatives as follows: let e be in the cloud near x, then the derivative of f at x is st((f(x+e)-f(x))/e), so it literally becomes df divided by dx, if we mean df to be the change in f by an infinitesimal element and same for dx. the main way to prove things on ^(*)r is via the so-called [transfer principle](_url_0_), this is also probably why it isn't mainstream. this is a very mathematical-logic tool rather than an analytical tool. essentially, if we can write a sentence about the real numbers that uses, at most, the symbols +,-,x,/ and any integer, then if this sentence is true for the ordinary real numbers, then it is true for ^(*)r. going the other way is much harder. the main conceptual advantage of nonstandard analysis is to be able to work with things like infinitesimals and infinity in a meaningful way. we don't have to worry as much about sequences and series, and this gives some meaning to things like divergent series and dividing infinitesimals. the disadvantage is that ^(*)r is huge and unintuitive and proving things requires a course in formal logic rather than real analysis. ---------------------------------------------- the original meaning of math is "to learn". a philomath is one who "loves to learn", which is different than "loving to know", and is actually considered a virtue. i think that this is an appropriate definition of a mathematician. math is an art of learning for learning's sake, separated from anything physical or of this universe. i'd say you fit this bill. you can learn and create math even if you don't have a doctorate. many great mathematicians were amateurs, fermat, heegner for instance. [try looking at this paper](_url_1_) if you're curious. if you run into a word or symbol you don't know, then use google. you'll enter a rabbit hole of learning which will be good even if you can't get through the paper. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_principle",
"http://www.math.uchicago.edu/~may/VIGRE/VIGRE2009/REUPapers/Davis.pdf"
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how is energy used for sudden actions stored in the human body? | i'm assuming that the energy produced through digestion is stored somewhere, which allows it to be used at a very short notice, e.g. suddenly sprinting. how is it stored, and what allows it to be ready for use so quickly when the body's power requirement is drastically increased? | what /u/jazzeater explained in his [comment](_url_2_) is correct. however, there is another mechanism that is very relevant to your question, and that is the very fast regeneration of atp through phosphocreatine. _url_1_ basically, there isn't too much atp just sitting in the muscle, ready to be used. instead there is a pool of phosphocreatine, effectively acting as a "buffer". of course this buffer has to be replenished through glycolysis and/or oxidative phosphorylation, but to bridge the immediate gap between the huge spike in atp use in the muscle and the activation of these metabolic pathways, this mechanism exists. it keeps the level of atp constant so you don't just fall over after the first step in your sprint. it also allows a level of performance for a short time that couldn't be sustained long term (but there are many reasons why muscles get tired, this is just an example). _url_0_ you see, the difference in concentration can be quite dramatical at 4-10+ times more phosphocreatine than atp. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creatine",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphocreatine",
"http://de.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1u84yn/how_is_energy_used_for_sudden_actions_stored_in/cefp6ox",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_contraction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis"
] | [
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how does tio2 remain stable after photocatalysis? | i understand that upon irradiation with uv light, tio2 produces excitons which then react with water to produce reactive oxygen species for further reaction with other species. the electron-hole pair then recombines. how does recombination occur if the exciton is used to generated reactive species? or is it truly a catalyst in that the tio2 is not oxidized at all? | you also need o2 to act as an electron acceptor, or it won't work, as you guessed. if the exciting simply recombined, you wouldn't get any catalytic activity, and the energy would turn into heat instead. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any studies that show other species to be capable of lying/dishonesty? | this was a guestion in ama with sir david attenborough: in all your time of shooting nature programs, what is the most human thing you have ever witnessed an animal do? a chimpanzee does in fact tell lies. if you can believe that. also, when some colobus monkeys find a very precious piece of food, it calls the alarm call that it would make if a snake were to arrive, and all the other monkeys run away and it gets the food. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what makes something indigestible? | why are there things our bodies can digest, and somethings that we cannot? what makes them indigestible? | that would be something our body has not evolved to digest. so fibers are not digested, they are passed through, as well as if we were to eat plastic, metal, etc. basically, anything that our stomach and intestinal fluids cannot break down. edit: also anything our gut bacteria cannot break down. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/basics/polysac.html"
] | [
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how are qualia spatially localized in consciousness? | obviously, i'm not a psychologist, neuroscientist, philosopher, or whatever you need to be to answer your many questions. but i reckon your questions are too vaguely formulated and too riddled with pseudo-scientific jargon to produce any useful answers. e.g. your title question what does it *mean*? it does not make any sense to talk about the spartial location of some subjective, conscious experience in your consciousness which itself does not have a clear definition. why are we suddently mixing multiple mathematical disciplines into this? i think you'd have more success if you try asking *one* non-technical phrased question with unambiguous meaning. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it possible to grow food in my office? | is it possible to grow anything edible in an office using ceiling lights? i don't have access to natural light of any kind. | former hydroponics tech here. the short answer is "yes, but stick to leafy greens". so, plants need light in order to produce chlorophyll. but they don't need all wavelengths of sunlight in order to do this. obviously, they don't need green, since leaves reflect green. most of these good wavelengths fall in the red range and in the blue range. there's talk of uv being beneficial for hardiness as well, but i haven't seen the research to back it up. anyway, your standard long fluorescent bulb will produce the [right kind of light](_url_0_) plants need for both leafy and flowering/fruiting growth. the problem with flowering/fruiting growth is that it's a lot more nutrient-intensive than vegetative. you'll probably need at least a 3-gallon container if you plan on growing anything bigger than cherry tomatoes. also, many plants are expecting a light/dark cycle, and may not be able to fruit properly due to not getting enough "sleep". i'd suggest starting with leafy edibles, and experiment with small fruits if your first leafy harvest goes well. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bealecorner.org/best/measure/cf-spectrum/index.html"
] | [
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are ingested things evenly distributed into the blood or do they form clouds that drift around the bloodstream? | for example if someone smoked a cigarette or ate a cheeseburger would the chemicals and food saturate the blood in a controlled rate or would the blood that happens to be "in range" become more saturated? not sure how else to explain it... | the best way to explain it is sort of....both. take the example of food. after you swallow, food is broken down in your stomach by mechanical and chemical digestion. the contractions of your stomach forces the food down towards the bottom of your stomach (the pylorus, home of the pyloric valve that separates your stomach from the first part of your small intestine, called the duodenum). around 2/3rds of the way down, the contraction wave passes the food and causes the bottom of your stomach to clamp down some. this ensures that only some of the stomach contents (the fluid containing particles small enough to fit through the now-smaller opening) make it into your small intestine in a small burst (aka, the cloud you described). once in the intestine, the food particles rapidly diffuse into the local fluid, the same way a drop of food coloring dropped into a glass of water rapidly spreads out. digestive enzymes in your intestine complete the digestion process until the food is broken down enough to be absorbed: simple monosaccharides, individual/very short chains of amino acids, and lipid-containing complexes called chylomicrons. then, the cells lining the surface of your small intestine (which also help the digestion process) absorb these simple digestion products and transport them to their next stop (usually the blood stream). i've simplified a lot, so please let me know if you want more detail, or if there's something else i've left out. edit: also, there are some places in the body that specifically accumulate certain things. your thyroid (a gland in your neck) takes up iodine and stores/uses it. your gall bladder (a little pouch-like organ that sits on/underneath your liver stores & concentrates bile acids/salts, compounds that help you digest fats. exocrine cells in your pancreas store up granules of digestive enzymes that they can dump into your intestine whenever they're needed. there's tons of examples of these. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would it be possible to communicate from inside a black hole by changing its rotation rate? | black holes are roughly spherical but rapidly rotating black holes are oblate spheroids. if you were inside a black hole and somehow could survive and change the black holes rotation rate could you then change the shape of the black holes gravity field and thus communicate by sending out signals using gravitational waves? i'm pretty sure that the answer to this is no but i don't know why other than the practical difficulties of changing the rotation rate of a black hole. | when you are on the inside, you contribute to the total mass of the black hole. you've brought whatever mass you had outside to now be part of the black hole. the same is true of angular momentum. you can add to the angular momentum in some way but once you are inside the event horizon, that angular momentum now contributes to the total angular momentum of the black hole. the [no-hair theorem](_url_0_) says that a black hole can be described with three quantities: mass m, angular momentum j, and charge q. if two black holes have the same values for all three, then you won't be able to distinguish anything different about them. this is different than for other objects in the universe. for example, if you have two planets with the same mass, they could have different density distributions within the planet. the no-hair theorem sort of says that two black holes can only be described with the same mass, and the distribution on the inside doesn't matter. the same is true for charge and angular momentum. so, once the angular momentum of the black hole is what it is, you won't be able to change it from the inside, assuming the no-hair theorem holds. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-hair_theorem"
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how is it that pet dont blow up people? | i've always assumed, from reading online etc, that when antimatter touches matter a massive explosions occurs, but i just recently learnt that positron emission tomography does this exact process and everything just gets converted to gamma rays? | the annihilation of a positron and an electron produces a tiny amount of energy, about 10^(-13) joules. by contrast, a small coin dropped from a height of about 30 cm or about a foot will have something like 10 billion times that kinetic energy when it hits the floor. the amount of energy released in each positron-electron annihilation is very, very small. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain to me the sudan, minnesota minos research project? | why do we want to measure the mass of neutrinos? | because we don't know their mass? we don't really understand neutrinos all that well right now. suppose we have neutrinos 1,2,3 and neutrino 1 is created with eliminating an electron, neutrino 2 eliminates a muon, and neutrino 3 eliminates a tau lepton. mass electron < mass muon < mass tau lepton, but we don't know that mass neutrino 1 < mass neutrino 2 < mass neutrino 3. this is called the neutrino mass hierarchy problem. we know that mass n3 > mass n1 and mass n2 > mass n1, but we don't really know the relationship between n3 and n2. (i may have the exact details wrong, so bear with me, this is *essentially* the problem at least). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[trigonometry] how does one find the point where tan theta = x? | i'm taking pre-calculus, and tho this isn't something that i need to know for the course, i do love playing around with functions and graphs to look for patterns. the tan function returns the quotient of y/x for all (x,y) co-ordinate pairs that describe a circle of unit radius—got it. in this case, the absolute value returned by the function is always larger than the absolute value of y (or equal when y = 0). i'd like to find the point where the value returned is equal to x. is this something covered in calculus, or am i missing something really obvious? | this doesn't seem like a calculus question. you can replace the x and y using the trig identity. tan(t)=sin(t)/ cos(t) so you're trying to solve tan(t)=cos(t) sin(t)/cos(t)=cos(t) sin(t)=cos(t)^2 sin(t)=1-sin(t)^2 edit: corrected this step. sin(t)^2 +sin(t)-1=0 using the quadratic formula... sin(t)=(-1 +/- sqrt(5))/2 no calculus involved so far. plug it into a calculator to get around 38.17 degrees. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_method"
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how were trig functions' values calculated before taylor/maclauren series came along? | also, how were trig functions defined before series? /r/askmath is dead, so i figured i'd ask here. | to answer the second question: trig functions are well-defined before you have a method for calculating them (in fact this is confusing for many people, since in most math curricula you can use "function" and "algorithm" interchangably until you reach trigonometry). the reason they are well-defined is that the ratio of side-lengths of a right triangle depends only on one of the non-right angles. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does electronic stability control work? | does it use electric motors to control things or is it all clever mechanical engineering? | i'm assuming you're referring to the safety feature on cars. the goal of esc is to keep the car moving in the direction the wheels are pointing. the car has an accelerometer that can detect the direction of movement, and it knows which direction the wheels are pointing. if it detects a difference in these two, a computer attempts to automatically correct it by strategically applying braking. it has the ability to individually brake each of the tires at different rates, and determines those rates mathematically. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what sort of illusion is this? | my roommates and i were goofing around today and i became completely distracted when i saw his led clock through his oscillating fan. [short video](_url_0_) could someone explain what causes this illusion? thanks! | the digits in an led-clock are [7-segment displays](_url_0_) (or ssd). to minimise the number of control lines required for multiple ssd, you can use a single controller and switch each display on in turn (only one ssd is powered at a time). consider the last three digits of the clock (21 individual leds). we can encode the decimal digits from 0-9 using 4-bits (4 control lines). this is known as binary-coded decimal or [bcd](_url_1_). we then have three additional lines that power each of the ssd. so we output the first bcd digit while powering the first ssd (the other two are switched off), then we output the second digit while powering only the second ssd, etc. this way, we can individually control the 21 separate leds using only 7 control lines (in reality we have a controller in the middle that converts our bcd into 7 output signals for the ssd). this means that only one digit is powered at any one time, but the refresh rate is set high enough so we don't notice. when you have a fan spinning in front of a multi-digit display, the blades will occasionally entirely or partly cover the currently powered digit and the clock can appear to flicker. if the fan is spinning at just the right speed to always cover the currently powered digit, it would look blank! **tl;dr edit**: to simplify the circuitry only one digit is powered at any one time. the fan will occasionally either partially or totally obscure the currently powered digit - causing the clock to appear as though it is flickering. | 5 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/_6axfw4Oiyo"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven-segment_display",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"
] | [
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] |
sex and hunter-gatherers | sorry if this seems a facetious question, but i mean it in earnest, and have wondered about it for quite some time. how/when/where do people in hunter-gatherer societies have sex? in complex society, sex is generally an extremely private affair and occurs behind closed doors, and in a physically comfortable setting (on a soft bed, generally). how does sex work for people who live communally (several families within the same large structure), or people who lack furniture such as beds? i assume sex for pleasure still occurs among hunter-gatherers, but how often do we assume it's engaged in? is it comparable to people living in complex society? | actually many 'primitive' societies are very open about sex, they have sex in large communal rooms, in their private residence with children around, etc... remember the scene in "dances with wolves" where the chief looked over at costner while cuddling with his wife? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Sex-Dawn-Prehistoric-Origins-Sexuality/dp/0061707805"
] | [
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why does membrane asymetry support the fluid mosaic model? | i understand the research done by david frye and michael edidin by mixing human cells and mice cells they were able to determine that the membranes are fluid. what i don't understand, however, is why membrane asymmetry suggests that the membranes are fluid. | because if it wasn't fluid, it would be symmetric or at least some kind of uniformly. it is fluid, so proteins embedded in the membrane are able to drift away, which makes it asymmetric. also the membrane is dynamic, means it is changing all the time, which has to be, that the cell can adapt. like receptor internalisation of activated receptors, expression of embedded proteins and so on. this makes is also asymmetric. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you see ladee pass over the moon from earth? | short answer: no ladee is a small spacecraft, it's only 2.37m high and if it were visible then so should all the other spacecraft there now as well, including the apollo descent stages, lunar rovers, debris etc. even hubble wouldn't be able to make it out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
just got back from rome; can someone explain how it literally sank so much, so fast? | seeing many ruins partially excavated around rome, i was sort of wondering about this in the back of my head. then after i went to see the [basilica of san clemente](_url_0_), i decided i must ask the collective knowledge of the internet. san clemente is a 12th century church, built on top of a 4th century church, built on top of a 1st century roman building which is itself built on 1st century ruins. my question is how could the buildings have sunk so deep in what i assume was a fairly consistently populated area over that time? | geologist here, grew up in rome. bojaoblaka is right, but not about san clemente, which it is in fact built on buried buildings, not just the flattened foundations of buildings. i had the opportunity to go to the very bottom with a vatican archaeologist, its creepy. also, st. peters has a huge excavated underground "city" beneath it, which is an awesome thing to go see, but you need to make special arrangements. san clemente is in the valley, between two of the seven hills (palatine and caelian? i think.). ruins on the hills weren't buried, everything in the valley was. simple geomorphological models show that any valley will fill up in just the same way from hillslope diffusion of surrounding topography, as long as that material isn't being transported out. a couple million italians running around (bioturbation) would increase diffusion rates. its also likely that large amounts of sediment (maybe too much to easily deal with), were deposited every so often when the tiber flooded. the imperial forum in general is a good example, the palace on the palatine hill has always been exposed which is why it looks like shit and has been stripped of marble, but the actual market place at the foot of the hill was buried, which is why all the marble is still there. that's my guess, but i am a structural geologist, not a geomorphologist. | 17 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_di_San_Clemente"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter's_Basilica#Old_St._Peter.27s",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=WqxvlLwc2v8C&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=bill+bryson+at+home+churchyards&source=bl&ots=lSPLhfLk5g&sig=VEp2-9u1wfqpE7OAvO7kAnu7WkM&hl=en&ei=EDvmTvrfLY-e-QbvhL3BBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false"
] | [
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what is the efficiency of the human body? | i've heard estimates stating 80% of our energy (calorie) input via food is lost to heat, but is that true? | well, 80% seems to be a little high to be efficient. wikipedia has an excellent article on "energy usage in the human body" found [here.](_url_0_) it doesn't describe heat loss but there is a lot of variation on the efficiency of the human metabolism which is a significant factor in energy conversion. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energy#Energy_usage_in_the_human_body"
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what's wrong with this inconsistency between the microcanonical and canonical emsembles? | this is what i understand: in the microcanonical ensemble, a system of n particles is confined to a certain volume v, adiabatically separated from the outside worldwide, meaning its energy e is fixed. a magnitude called entropy is related to the amount of configurations available to the system with the given energy. the *temperature* of the system is related to the derivative of the entropy with respect to the energy e. so, it appears that, with the exception of certain systems with linear relation between this magnitudes, there is a local biyection between them. so, how is it posible for the canonical ensemble to claim that the system is at fixed temperature t **and** that its energy fluctuates? i mean, if the energy changes, so does the derivative of s with respect to e and therefore t. is temperature defined differently for the canonical ensemble? | the thing you're calling the energy (e) of the canonical ensemble is actually the ensemble **average** internal energy. when you derive the equilibrium distribution for the canonical ensemble (boltzmann distribution), you do so using a lagrange multiplier to constrain the average internal energy to a constant value. but you're still allowing the actual energy to fluctuate around that average. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's new in fluid dynamics? | i'm an undergrad applied math major and a professor recently sent me a link the darpa's 23 mathematical challenge questions. question #4 was looking for a fluid mechanics for the 21st century. the problem description implied the limits of the classic navier stokes equations in dealing with things like foams and liquid crystals. [link to darpa questions](_url_0_) are researchers trying to develop a new unified fluids theory? does the classical study of fluids really break down theoretically, or is it just a matter of not being able to solve the equations? also a questions about the researchers themselves. i know fluids is kind of a cross disciplinary subject, but what departments are pushing this sort of research, is it mainly math, or physics, or me departments? | i work in a field called nanofluidics where we study the behaviour of fluids in regions under 100 nanometers. the whole field is only about ten to fifteen years old. this is related to microfluidics and the "lab on a chip" paradigm. before that i studied the dynamics of oscillating bubbles, which is also fluid mechanics. a lot of complex simulations go into modelling two phase systems like bubbles in water. before that i studied perfect fluid solutions to einstein's equation, which involves fluid mechanics but not so much as it involves general relativity. | 2 | [] | [
"http://compmath.wordpress.com/about/10-the-big-picture-darpas-23-challenge-questions/"
] | [] | [
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how do i get into fluid dynamics at an elementary level and work my way up? | i'm a second year applied math undergrad student and i'm planning on atmospheric science in grad school. i want to start learning fluid dynamics but the only textbooks i find seem very complicated. does anyone know any way to ease into it in terms of good textbooks they have read, videos, etc. i'm not a physics person, only math. thanks in advance | boy do i have answers for you! during my phd qualifiers i probably at least skimmed more than a dozen broad fluid mechanics books, and i think of the major ones, different ones apply better to different people. real talk: real fluid mechanics can be fucking complicated and textbooks reflect that. ask any engineering grad, and they probably have horror stories about fluids. without decent grounding in pde's, your ability to tackle fluids is *very* limited. nasty pdes [navier-stokes](_url_2_) govern the whole thing. that said, there are massive simplifications to be made that can make things easier at an intro level. you say you're not "a physics person" but a basic understanding of newtonian mechanics is an essential prerequisite. if you want to do atmospheric science in grad school, you're going to have to become a "physics person" at some point. * **some book by 3 guys at caltech that's not very popular.** for the life of me i can't remember who wrote this one and i'm googling. it's in my office but i'm not there - i'll update when i find it. it's the one that i'd recommend most for those with a bare minimum of mechanics and math knowledge. the cover is blue with gold lettering =/ * **elements of gasdynamics** liepmann and roshko. and oldy and a goodie written before calculators were commonplace. focuses on fundamental thermodynamics of fluids followed by basic 1d compressible fluid mechanics. i think the opening few chapters are the most concise on the subject. the subject of shocks and things aren't directly relevant to atmospheric flows, but the physics are. * **introduction to fluid dynamics** batchelor. written by applied mathematicians for applied mathematicians, and well regarded by applied mathematicians. i personally think it's a piece of shit. gonna need basic pdes here. opposite end of the spectrum: this is inviscid and incompressible stuff for the most part with disgustingly complex closed form solutions. wanna do hard math with a vaguely physical background but never do anything useful? start here. * **fluid mechanics** kundu & cohen. i usually recommend this as the best all-round intro to fluids. it covers all your bases. * **fluid mechanics** landau & lifshitz. this is the one physics students usually see. it's not bad, covers a lot, take a look. * **an album of fluid motion** van dyke. not a textbook, it's a cheap picture book. you need to own this. great for an intuition of how fluids behave. * [these videos compiled a couple decades ago.](_url_1_) dry sure, but there's a reason why every single person in fluids you ever talk to has seen them. * **schaum's outline of fluid mechanics.** not kidding. [it can safely replace most intro fluid course texts at a fraction of the price.](_url_0_) * frank white's books are good are lucid. also check out mit's ocw fluid mechanics stuff. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Schaums-Outline-Fluid-Mechanics-Outlines/dp/0071487816/ref=sr_1_19?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1447093061&sr=1-19&keywords=%22fluids%22",
"https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLfF--3o8i4r82vJ0kjCVYgqKgyVM5QwN0",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations"
] | [
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my friend's girlfriend is pregnant. what should i show them to convince her to quit smoking? | the title really says it all. i've tried reasoning with my friend, we'll call him phil. phil's girlfriend, we'll call her sally, is about 4 months pregnant. what website, picture, documentary, whatever, should i present to them to convince them that she needs to quit? one argument, which is absurd, that phil has raised is that he doesn't want the fetus to go through withdrawals. **edit 1**: i have already urged them to talk to their doctor. that is my go-to argument. i am really looking for exactly what i originally asked for. i appreciate the personal and ethical advice, but i asked this question in r/askscience, not r/askreddit. what scientific evidence can i use to show them the risks of smoking while pregnant? **edit 2**: thanks for the links. here's what i've found so far: * [an old (1999) article from stanford.](_url_1_) * [a video describing placental abruption.](_url_0_) | get them to see a physician for prenatal care. you likely as not aren't going to convince them by showing them some random documentary. | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WiKWk_0UbDY",
"http://med.stanford.edu/medicalreview/smrp14-16.pdf"
] | [
"http://www.google.com/search?q=smoking+while+pregnant&hl=en&safe=off&biw=1680&bih=949&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=QDRkTpqoH4fniAK8mpGoCg&sqi=2&ved=0CFEQsAQ#hl=en&safe=off&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=smoking+birth+defects&oq=smoking+birth+defects&aq=f&aqi=g1&aql=&gs_sm=e&gs_upl=19474l20499l0l21073l7l7l0l0l0l1l223l1016l0.6.1l7l0&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&fp=b4f0b564097b4a6c&biw=1680&bih=949",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_cessation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_and_pregnancy"
] | [
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discussion: minuteearth's newest youtube video on growing human organs in pigs! | hi everyone, for today's video discussion topic, we've got david from minuteearth (/u/goldenbergdavid) to help answer your questions regarding their [latest video](_url_0_) about the new technology that will let scientists grow new kidneys for patients from their own stem cells but inside of pigs. | hi - this is david goldenberg from minuteearth. we’re excited to chat with you about our new video on growing human organs in pigs. here’s another great source of info as we get into the details: an article from friday’s new york times: _url_0_. from the article: “almost no one wants a talking pig.” | 38 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yh6rTKNwBJY"
] | [
"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/26/science/chimera-stemcells-organs.html?smid=tw-share&_r=0",
"http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/07/global-livestock-counts"
] | [
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isn't this "wind lens" just a ducted fan? | here's an article: _url_0_ my understanding was that ducted fan turbines were much harder to build (the freestanding ring is hard to engineer, manufacture, and transport), so it doesn't make sense to use them. is there something else on this? i couldn't find anything other than pop media about it. | the object in question is behind the turbine. air hits the fan blade and then the object. the object is causing a low pressure area to form behind it. this is causing more air to go thru the fan. the more air is making the turbine create 2-3 times more energy. i have only seen fans where an object is surrounding the end of the blades, not behind it forcing the air away from the center. there is video in one of the links in the comments for the original reddit post that shows how it works. (if you link the original reddit thread, i will show you the link.) i think it would be much cheaper to install, build and transport the ring then to transport, install, build a new fan, turbine and base for a second wind mill. lets not forget maintenance costs, more power line and less space available for another wind mill. | 2 | [] | [
"http://goodcleantech.pcmag.com/future-tech/278671-new-wind-lens-turbine-magnifies-wind-for-increased-power-reduced-noise"
] | [] | [
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why is there no [cf6]2- but [sif6]2- ? | hi guys i know there is an explanation, which involves the d-orbitals, and i understand it, but i also heard from our docent that this explanation is not the latest one and there is one which fits quite better. the problem is i don´t understand why its not working for [cf6]2- when it is for [sif6]2-. i hope you guys have an answer for me. sorry for my bad english. :) | the 'better version' that your teacher is likely referring to is using a molecular orbital approximation. the problem with the hyprid d orbital explanation is essentially that they tend to be too large and high energy for good overlap to happen. the way the molecular orbital approximation works is that it creates theoretical 'molecular orbitals' whose shapes depend on the symmetry properties of the molecule. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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viral spread in marine environment? | how do viruses spread in marine environments? after reading about the morbillivirus causing the increase in dolphin beachings and deaths, i was wondering how a virus like this might spread in a marine environment. | understanding aquatic disease is in three steps: 1) you have to have an environment suitable for the pathogen, 2)you have to have a susceptible, compromised/stressed individual, 3) you need the right pathogen. when all three are positive, then disease is highly likely. if one is negative, then you have a very low possibility. when it comes to pathogens in general in the aquatic environment, the water itself tends to be the transmitter: that is the media/mode by which contact with may result in the transmission of pathogen to the host. like the common cold be can be transmitted through the air, many pathogens can be transmitted by water. what we worry about in the realm of viral outbreaks in oceans for stocks of fish, whale, and other resources is how that virus exactly transmits itself. you can't treat the organism without acknowledging the pathogen's mode of transmission. most of the time, we think of horizontal spreading of viruses: that is direct contact between infected individuals or the media that is occupied by a pathogen. basically: organism-to-organism whether directly (touch) or indirectly (touching the transmitting material). there can be also vertical spreading (from mother to daughter/son). many disease causing pathogens are found in the soils more so than the water column. this is because eventually diseases in the water column have to fall because they are particles and are subject to stokes' law. the only way to counteract this and remain in the water column is to be buoyant in some capacity (have a vacuole or something). or, it divides fast enough to infect carriers. carriers are disease vectors such as little fish, inverts, or other plankters that can carry the disease itself, but don't necessarily become affected by it. when an organism eats a carrier, or comes into contact with the carrier in a way that's similar to how a remora attaches to a shark, then it can be sick. finally, diseases and carriers of disease in the oceans move about with the help of vector dynamics (movements of carriers) and the currents/tides themselves (physical moving of pathogenic particles). pathogens can be killed in bad environments by chance so this is one reason why you may see local diseases. other reasons are that there are no individuals to infect so there's no chance for the disease to occur. however it can still persist there in the carriers. and further, other areas may aggravate the occurrences of viral disease so that it may be even more devastating than the source area of the disease. simply put, viral dynamics in water are not too dissimilar than viruses in air media. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v5/n10/fig_tab/nrmicro1750_F1.html"
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question about a battery. am i in any kind of danger? | the battery casing is designed to handle the swelling from regular use. if it got deformed to the point where you had to "fix" it. you should stop using this battery immediately! ... if it is still relatively new, pop to an apple store as it was clearly defective (or the charging circuit / transformer is defective). $80 to not destroy a $1000+ machine and/or your girlfriends legs sounds like good value to me. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is archimede's principle true? | i've known it since i was little, but why is it true? how did archimedes check his work? | testing it would be simple. get a bucket of water with a spout at the top. fill it until water spills out of the spout. now, get two practically identically buckets. place one under the spout. place an object in the bucket of water and let all of the displaced water pour from the spout into the catch bucket. once all of the dispaced water is caught take the object out of the water, and place it in the other identical bucket. now take the bucket of caught water and the bucket with the object in it, and place them on a balance scale. archimedes could have easily tested his idea this way to prove it was true. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does my salt say do not store in direct sunlight? | i mean like what the sun gona do to salt.... dont they harvest this sea salt in huge pools and letting it dry out in thw sun? | you made me curious, so i looked into it. it turns out that table salt often contains supplemental iodine. iodized salt helps prevent iodine deficiency, which can result in hypothyroidism. unfortunately, iodized salt has been shown to lose a considerable amount of its iodine if left exposed to sunlight.* *_url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2542096/"
] | [
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you have a cup of lemonade. drink half the cup, then fill it back up with water; repeat n times. will the cup ever be filled with just water? | epa states that tap water has no more than 500 ppm of impurities. say, for sake of conservatism, you start with not lemonade but pure, dehydrated, lemonade concentrate. so that's 1,000,000 ppm "impure". that gives us the equation: 1,000,000 * (1/2)^x = 500. solve for x and we get 11. so yes! after doing this 11 times you will be unequivocally left with just water. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would vision be like with black sclera? | the sclera and iris don't affect vision. light enters through the pupil, goes through the lens, and is projected onto the retina. all the iris does is control how dilated/contracted the pupil is. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do most people root for the underdog? | hundreds of movies and books, as well as personal observation, lead me to believe that most individuals root for the underdog when they don't have a vested interest in the outcome. why? has it been studied? if so, has there ever been a correlation between the tendency or lack thereof and normal vs. abnormal psychology? | researchers generally assert that we love to root for the underdog out of a general sense of fairness and justice for the disadvantaged, and that we perceive underdogs to be putting in more effort than the top-dogs, so we feel like they deserve to succeed. a recent study looking at who people tended to support in olympics matches and in the palestinian conflict found that people do indeed increase support for one side over the other when it is perceived as the underdog. in a follow-up looking at the associated mechanisms, they found that the underdogs were supported primarily because participants attributed increased effort to the underdogs. peer-reviewed source: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://psp.sagepub.com/content/33/12/1603.abstract"
] | [
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] |
why do we all like an underdog? | why do we like rooting for the little guy? | most of us *are* the little guy. we understand what it's like to have the deck stacked against you....some more than others. so, we can relate. and, when we see an underdog actually win, it may give us some measure of hope. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is lasik reasonably safe? | i was researching lasik for my fiancee and i notice mixed messages on the various internet sources. on one hand, doctors and manufacturers [**claim extremely high success**](_url_0_) rates, yet on the other hand i see [**warnings from the fda**](_url_1_), and a [**petition filed**](_url_3_) for the recall of lasik devices by the former fda chief of ophthalmic surgical devices - and the [**fda's interim response** (pdf)](_url_2_). what is the real scientific consensus? is the risk really negligible for properly screened lasik patients? is there an unknown long-term risk? edit: i should clarify that i am in no way requesting medical advice. i am asking the reddit science community for the scientific long term safety of the procedure on the general public. | as with most surgeries (and it is a surgery), the safety of lasik depends a lot on the patient. with modern femtosecond lasers to make the flap and wavefront-guided computer stippling lasers to shape the cornea, the lasik procedure itself is basically setting the whole thing up and pressing a button. the critical part of lasik is what happens before then: evaluating the patient. the doctor needs to determine if the patient is a good candidate. there are a lot of factors that go into this, such as corneal thickness, dry eyes, etc. so, nobody on here, even the people that know a great deal about lasik, can comment on how safe it is for you. your doctor can determine how good of a candidate you are and discuss the risks. that fda article you linked to is about misleading patients. make sure you know what you are getting into. ask about complication rates and about alternative procedures (prk is more appropriate for some people). | 8 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LASIK#LASIK_surgery_results",
"http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/SurgeryandLifeSupport/LASIK/ucm272960.htm",
"http://lasikcomplications.com/FDA_interim_response_LASIK_petition.pdf",
"http://lasikcomplications.com/LasikPetition/petition.html"
] | [
"http://www.lasikcomplications.com/vitreoretinal_damage.htm",
"http://journals.lww.com/retinajournal/Abstract/2000/04000/Rhegmatogenous_Retinal_Detachment_After.3.aspx",
"http://eyes.emedtv.com/lasik/retinal-detachment-with-lasik-eye-surgery.html"
] | [
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is there a physical model for gravitation that matches the verified predictions of gr but which operates within flat minkowski spacetime? | i've read that curved spacetime could be used to emulate any force - e.g. em force. that being the case can we go the other way and emulate gr within a purely flat spacetime? (i can see that this would rule out wormholes and other weird connective topologies, but those might not exist anyway.) if it's impossible, why is it impossible? | yes, you can formulate gr as a theory of a spin-2 field living on a minkowski background. of course, in this picture, matter no longer moves on geodesics of spacetime (since geodesics of minkowski space are just particles moving at a constant velocity) - its motion is determined by its interactions with that spin-2 field. mathematically it's equivalent, although for most practical purposes gr is by far the more convenient formulation to use. the spin-2 formulation is most convenient in the context of linearized gravity, i.e., when the metric is not far from minkowski to begin with. then the difference between the metric and minkowski space is exactly the same spin-2 field i've just described, and you treat everything linearly (that is, to first order in a taylor expansion). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_cross"
] | [
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did epicanthic folds evolve separately in different parts of the planet or were they spread from a certain focal point? | it pains me that i can't remember the source (a book tracing human migration through separate studies of nuclear and mitochondrial dna), but i do remember reading that originally all homo sapiens had epicanthic folds, and a mutation in the population that eventually migrated to western europe resulted in that group losing them. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i need to do some form of chemistry experiment/investigation with my class of 10 year olds | hi guys, i'm trying to think of some way of showing a chemical reaction involving solids, liquids and gas to my 10 year olds. they obviously know a lot about melting/freezing etc, but i want to introduce to them that using chemical reactions we can also make gas escape etc. so, i've tried doing biocarbonate of soda + vinegar in a bottle with a balloon on the top, but to be honest i cant get it to work very well, it looks a bit pathetic. mentos in diet coke is another, but again for some reason it just isn't working quite as well, and i don't wanna put a whole load of mentos/diet coke together infront of a load of kids incase it properly goes up! problem i have is that i work in a primary school, not secondary (or high) school, so i literally have a pathetic amount of resources. any ideas for a way i could show them (or they could investigate) some form of chemical reaction that shows gas maybe... escaping, or ... anything to do with gas really. google has failed me! thanks for any help | electrolysis might be a good one. you can do it with a 9v battery, a water glass, some pencil lead, and some wire. you can also use regular wood pencils, just remove the erasers & sharpen both ends (so that the graphite is exposed). you can even hand out the pencils at the end of class as a reward, "this pencil made oxygen!" hook the wire to the pencil leads & the battery. stick the other end of the pencils into the glass and wait for the oxygen & hydrogen to bubble up. if the change can be physical and not chemical, another good one is the collapsing can. get a heat source (hot plate, burner, even a candle will do), an empty soda can, some tongs and a bowl of ice water. put some water in the can (about 1cm in the bottom is perfect) and get it boiling over the heat source. now use the tongs to plunge the can into the ice water, open end down, the sudden change in pressure will cause the can to implode. this is more of a pressure change thing, but the water vapor may be playing a role here, too...give it a shot with and without the water in the soda can , see if there's a noticeable difference. as for the bubbling thing...use wine corks. get a plastic bottle that the corks fit snugly into. tear a strip of tissue paper (5-6cm long) and staple/glue it to the bottom of the cork so it hangs back like a streamer. fill the bottle ~halfway with vinegar, add the baking soda, and wedge the cork into the mouth. it should fly. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon_battery",
"http://www.alkaseltzerplus.com/asp/student_experiments_4.html",
"http://www.cchem.berkeley.edu/demolab/demo_txt/CabbIndic.htm"
] | [
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question about a chemistry experiment i concocted when i was a teen. | when i was a teenager, i did a fair number of things you were supposed to not try at home. i can't remember how i came up with this, although somehow i suspect bill nye was involved. experiment part one: create a solution of baking soda in water. drop pennies into the bottom and add flakes of aluminum foil to the top. (i also did this with copper wire and batteries, but the foil and pennies were cooler.) let it sit for a day or five. noted results: the water turned blue! neat! experiment part two: i don't know how i came up with the idea to do this, but for whatever reason i added some amount of over the counter h2o2 solution to the blue water. noted results: whoa! the blue became a deep brown (that you could still see through) and began to bubble with a sweet smelling gas. eventually, the brown returned to its blue color and you could repeat the process again. so, any chemistry folk out there able to tell me what it was i made and whether or not i gave myself cancer or superpowers? thanks. | the blue colour originally formed most likely comes from the presence of cu(ii) - copper in it's 2+ oxidation state. this will have been displaced from the coins by the aluminium. h2o2 is a pretty good oxidising agent and most likely oxidises cu(ii) to cu(iii), which in solution gives a brown colour. however, copper isn't particularly stable in a +3 oxidation state, so it naturally decomposed back to cu(ii). the counter ion was probably carbonate from the baking soda. as far as i'm aware, what you made isn't going to do you any harm, as long as you didn't drink it. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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relativity question: like pole-in-a-barn, but different | a 8 m pole which is oriented horizontally is moving at 0.9c vertically towards a hole which is 10 m in length. (let's ignore the width of both and assume the pole can fit in that dimension in the hole.) in other words, the direction of the pole's motion is normal to the length of the pole. from the perspective of the hole, the pole is 3.5 m long and can fit. from the perspective of the pole, the hole is 4.4 m long and so it can't fit. what is different now from the pole-in-a-barn paradox, however, is the issue of simultaneity. by symmetry, both ends of the pole must enter the hole simultaneously. otherwise, if one end of the pole entered before the other in some reference frame, you could just flip it around and give the same argument. explanation anyone? | the lorentz contraction only occurs parallel to the direction of motion. thus, if i understand your example correctly, the pole is 8m long and the hole is 10m long in both frames of reference, so there is no problem to resolve. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what phenomenon is causing this sound? [clip inside] | i'm not sure what you are looking for here, this is a recording of 2 solid fuel rockets, and a set of liquid rockets which all function through the rapid expansion of super heated gasses....wouldn't you expect them to make some noise? edit: bob answers your question in even more detail in the reply you referenced yourself: "the crackling noises you hear are also known as the “cavitation” or “popcorn” noises and these noises can only be heard at less than 5 miles from the launch site!" | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do examples exist in evolutionary history of "too-fit" organisms? | what i mean are animals who had some mutation that made them dominate their ecosystem beyond its capabilities and died out as a result of it. philosophically, i wonder if being "too-fit" is even a possibility. if we define fit as being successful in their environment, being too powerful would be unfit. it would be like asking if something was un-big by being too large. | i think there may be some confusion about the word "fit" and the "fitness" of an organism. first of all, fitness is used to describe an individual, not a species. specifically, fitness is a function of the ability of an organism to survive and reproduce. we often use a relative metric of fitness such that individuals with high fitness survive and reproduce better than other individuals of the same species. it doesn't make sense to ask whether "a species was too fit for it's environment to handle" because species aren't "fit" - they are either extinct or extant. despite all of this, i think the essence of your question can be addressed in two ways: first we certainly do have evidence of mutations (which occur in individuals) sweeping through populations. this answers the question of whether things that are more fit can increase in frequency and is really just another way of saying that evolution by natural selection occurs. second, we have evidence that evolution within a species does affect the demography of both that species and any species it interacts with. this answers the question of whether mutations within a species can affect its role in the ecosystem. there has been some work done by the jaenike lab at the university of rochester which shows something similar to what you're asking about. there are many species of fungus feeding *drosophila* spread across the northern us. recently, one of them has been parasitized by a nematode worm which sterilizes the individuals it infects. we don't know the changes that happened in the worm that allowed it to attack this specific fly, but it seems to be quite good at it - over the course of the last 20 years, dr. jaenike has been able to track it's spread from new york westward as it infects new fly populations (jaenike et al., 2010; cockburn et al., 2013). as the nematode sterilizes the host, many of these populations should go extinct- which may then drive the nematode to extinction as well. however, the flies have one defense - a bacteria which rescues fertility (jaenike and brekke, 2010). this bacteria was at low frequency early, but following the spread of the nematode, it too has increased in frequency. the dynamics of the fly-nematode-bacteria system have driven changes in the population sizes of the fly depending on whether one or both of the nematode and bacteria are present. however, the species of fly that can be infected by the nematode (and bacteria) is only one of a number of species that compete for mushrooms to feed on. and so we expect that the presence of the nematode/bacteria in one species will change the demography of the other species because they are competitors. to bring this back to your question, we have seen species that have the ability to ruin their environment and drive themselves to extinction, but unless there is a counter-pressure (such as the bacteria in this example) they are already extinct. it can be very difficult to say why any one species went extinct unless we've seen the extinction occur - and even then it can be hard. therefore having concrete evidence that a species ruined it's environment and drove itself to extinction is going to be quite rare - we only see the examples that haven't yet driven themselves extinct and in that case, it's not clear that they will. __________________________________________________________ jaenike, j., r. unckless, s. n. cockburn, l. m. boelio, and s. j. perlman. 2010. adaptation via symbiosis: recent spread of a *drosophila* defensive symbiont. science 329:212–215. jaenike, j., and t. d. brekke. 2010. defensive endosymbionts: a cryptic trophic level in community ecology. ecol. lett. 14:150–155. cockburn, s. n., t. s. haselkorn, p. t. hamilton, e. landzberg, j. jaenike, and s. j. perlman. 2013. dynamics of the continent-wide spread of a drosophila defensive symbiont. ecol. lett. doi: 10.1111/ele.12087. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to us internally (organs, fat, blood) when we 'suck it in' in an attempt to appear skinnier? | a related question: what happens when we "push out" as during choral singing, and is this the same as when we attempt to breathe "through the stomach" as is taught for playing wind instruments? and does either of these motions (sucking in or pushing out) change the body's physiology? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i had a physics teacher in high school who taught us... | that if you position a cannon on a plateau or even just a stand and fired it parallel to the ground the shell will land at the same instant as the cannon will land on the ground, falling off the plateau or stand from the recoil. this really seems horrible wrong and i have been pissed about it for ten years. is there any truth in this?! the land below would be perfectly flat and parallel to the plateau or stand behind and in front of the plateau or stand. no wind variable or anything like that. i gave the guy as many different scenarios as i could and every time he just kind of scoffed at me and told me the formula proves it would work. i was never a physics whiz(8% grade the first time, 75% the second time) but this seems impossible to always be true. i can see how it would be true sometimes if the weight of the shell, cannon, amount of power from the blast and height of the cannon happened to all be correct, but my experience with science is almost nothing happens every time edit: thanks for the responses, physics is (obviously) not my forte. | let me phrase it to you another way: you are standing by some train tracks. your friend is on a train going 1000 miles an hour. right as he passes you, you both drop a weight 5 feet off the floor. both weights will hit the ground at the same time. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D9wQVIEdKh8"
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biology ear-nose-throat question. | i have two, probably easy, questions. is it normal for people's noses to run after moving from cool air outside to warm air inside? why does it happen? | from npr, january 2009 "dr. lane: well, it's really a combination of two things. it's part respiratory biology and part of it is physics, or thermodynamics. one of the main functions of the nose is to warm and humidify the air that we breathe so that when it reaches your lungs, it's nice and conditioned. and in order to do this, the nose has to add some moisture to it. when it's very cold out, the air is usually dry as well, and the nose is really working overtime to add some fluid. and there are reflexes that are in place that allow the nose to increase its fluid production. and if it really makes a lot of fluid, then it starts to run out of the end of your nose. " | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i can't see this illusion, but my friend can and says it is dramatic. any ideas as to why that might be? -xpost from r/cogsci | why does this subreddit only allow text posts...anyway: this was on reddit recently. most commentators seem shocked by this dramatic illusion, but a few can't see it at all. _url_0_ i can't see a thing. i showed it to two friends on the same monitor, one could see the illusion quite well, and the other could not. apparently not everyone is susceptible to the same illusions any ideas about why this happens? also, it would help to know the name of this illusion. the cogsci post, for those interested in the comments: _url_1_ | you must be suscetible to it: it depends on saccades (tiny rapid eye movements, your eyes are never really completely still) which everyone has. can you see this one? (apparent rotating of the image): _url_0_ this one also demonstrates the same phenomenomenomenom (..nom? :) | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/k4q1y/stay_still_damn_you/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/cogsci/comments/k5ko7/i_cant_see_this_illusion_but_my_friend_can_and/"
] | [
"http://www.michaelbach.de/ot/mot_rotsnake/index.html"
] | [
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what is the purpose of a synchrotron? | i know it’s bright and emits x-rays. but what is the point of having them? | synchrotrons are just a kind of particle accelerator. they are able to accelerate beams up to relativistic speeds, which is something that smaller machines like cyclotrons can't really do. and they have an advantage over linear accelerators in that they are rings, so the beam circulates through the cavities many times, and gets a little kick each time. in a linear accelerator, the beam only passes through each accelerating element once. synchrotrons are used for high energy physics experiments, like at the lhc. they are also used for synchrotron light sources, as you mentioned. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the significance of this invention? | recently my grandfather, stuart libby died, and i am trying to learn more about what he did for a living. it seems like he was the inventor of supertan technology, when he worked for tansitor in the 1980-90s, before they got bought out by vishay. below are some links regarding some history of the capacitors. please tell me the significance of his work, i am eager to know. _url_1_ _url_0_ | one of the persistent challenges of technology is how to store energy. capacitors are an electronic component which store energy in a particular manner; by accumulating isolated electronic charge to build up an electric field. stuart libby came up with methods to manufacture and improve capacitors. in the case of the supertan technology, it looks like he figured out a way to increase the surface area of the capacitor electrodes. increasing the electrode surface area means that you can fit more charges on the electrode. more charge per electrode corresponds to a higher energy density - the capacitor stores more energy for a particular volume. forty years ago, a 1 farad capacitor would have been more expensive, and about a cubic foot.* today, through a lot of incremental discoveries and improvements, you can purchase a 1 f capacitor that's less than 0.5 cubic inches for about $2. i see that nichicon offers a 6000 f capacitor(!) but it's about 62 cubic inches, and a few hundred dollars. sorry to hear about your loss. * edited to reflect /u/tminus7700 's correction below. | 6 | [] | [
"http://patents.justia.com/inventor/stuart-e-libby",
"http://www.vishay.com/landingpage/50year/sprague.html"
] | [] | [
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can a neural network spit bars? | i was watching a video of a neural network learning to speak clearly and my first thought was "when this speaks english perfectly will it be able to rap?" since rap is heavy on the vocabulary it seems fitting to me to expand on my question, can a neural network rhyme, use word play and make references like a rap song does? | roses are red, good grass is green, [here’s how poems can be written by a creative machine](_url_0_). the answer is "kinda, yeah". neural networks are models built in an automated manner on top of a certain census. once they are built they cannot only recognise similarities (a nn trained on pictures of dogs can match pictures of dogs, very roughly speaking), but also replicate (or "mimic" as ibm puts it) it. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2017/03/road-not-taken-computer-generated-poetry/"
] | [
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explain gyroscopic procession? why 90deg? why not 45 or rpm dependent? | what the title says, but can someone explain the physics of gyroscopic procession and why it manifests at 90 degrees. why not rpm dependent (like something rotating really fast would offset at 120 degrees while a slower rotation at 20 degrees? | the direction of precession is orthogonal to the direction it is already rotating at and around the direction in which the force is trying to rotate it. this must be 90 degrees. it is an reactional force that exists because the gyroscope is pushed to rotate in a direction it is not yet rotating in. this direction must by mathematical definition be orthogonal. its like saying, when you turn your car, why is the force rotating always 90 degrees from the driving direction? because only that direction makes the car go in a circle. all the other forces would make it fly, drill into the ground, accelerate or decelerate at least partially. for as far as really explaining precession, i personally think vsauce does the best job! _url_0_ | 15 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XHGKIzCcVa0"
] | [
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how would i know if i was in a superposition of states? | lets say, purely for the sake of argument, that humans were small enough to exhibit quantum behavior. if i was, say, in a state that had a 50/50 chance of being spin-up or spin-down, would i know i was in this state, or would i just think i was in one of those two? | first of all your question is contingent on one's interpretation of quantum mechanics. some interpretations (such as unitary/everettian qm) take superposition to be a "real thing" while others (such as copenhagen) don't take it literally but more as a calculational tool. second of all, if we go ahead and assume a unitary interpretation of qm, then the answer to this question is necessarily going to be somewhat circular, because you are not asking about actual humans, but made-up humans with made-up properties, and if you are going to do that you can choose a made-up type of human with a consciousness that is aware of being in superposition, or a made-up type of human whose consciousness is unaware of being in superposition. so your question ultimately depends on the material nature of consciousness; it's not so simple as just imagining that your consciousness is itself reduced to a spin-up or spin-down state. my understanding is that most biologists think that brain states can be described classically, i.e. that quantum mechanics is not a necessary ingredient for consciousness. in that case, the answer to your question (again assuming unitary qm) is that if a human is put into superposition (for example by an experimenter measuring something to be spin-up or spin-down), then you have two separate consciousnesses or "worlds" that are unaware of each other, due to linearity of the wave function. i.e. in the schrodinger equation there is no interaction between parts of a wave function in superposition, so they cannot be aware of each other. so no, you would not be aware of being in a superposition. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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for a polyglot, does the language of thinking affect the thought process? | if i'm russian, and totally fluent in english, does anything change in the way i think if i'm thinking in english? does my obviously smaller vocabulary (in english vs russian) impact my thought process? without taking personal bias into account, which language is better to use internally and why? | there are no substantial, demonstrable effects that language has on thought. the most anyone's ever been able to show is very small millisecond-scale improvements on color discrimination tasks, and other similar things. the typical example is that russian has two words for blue (one for light blue and one for dark blue), and native russian speakers can categorize blues slightly faster than english speakers. aside from minor effects like this, no. there's no evidence that language affects the thought process. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/whorf.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_relativity"
] | [
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geologists! i request your expertise on a quartz vein in a river rock. | i found this [rock](_url_0_) in a river bed in western north carolina. i think it is a quartz vein in a schist rock. i cleaned the quartz with a bit of naval jelly which took some of the iron oxide off. i particularly like the uniform stripe of quartz through the rock. my questions are: 1) are my quartz and schist assumptions correct? 2) is this a common formation? 3) how do these metamorphic rocks break away and get into the rivers in the first place? thanks. | we'd have to get a closer picture of both the white and black to get a more definite answer. the vein could be quartz, or it could be calcium carbonate. what you can do is drop a bit of vinegar (or if you have hcl acid somewhere) and see if it fizzes. rocks like this can end up in a riverbed by a number of factors. if you have gps coordinates of the particular place it was found, we can plot it on a geologic map and see what there is upstream. that way we can give you a more definite answer. | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Vih9c.jpg"
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is there a way to get rid of tinitus? | if it isn't, is it at least possible to somehow reduce it? | as a person suffering from tinnitus: no, there is no biological way to reduce the level of tinnitus. you can however distract the brain from the tinnitus so you forget about it. although, that depends on the intensity. if you suffer from tinnitus the level of a vacuum cleaner its impossible to ignore... some people administer "counter sounds" to mask the tinnitus but that only works well for types of tinnitus in which the patient experiences a constant tone. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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pauli exclusion principle: how fast does 'this state is occupied' information travel? | assuming it travels with c, does this mean that pep can be violated for short amount of time? | as the other poster stated, it's a man-made rule to explain what we observe. but the math tells us that this information is embedded in a field. so there is no "this state is occupied" information. you just have a wave behaving as it naturally will. unfortunately, in this case, the wave is a bit too hard to think about intuitively to give a satisfying explanation as to why it won't. you merely learn to accept it as a physicist that it won't. fermions are described by what we call "spinor" fields. a spinor is vaguely described as the square root of geometry the same way the imaginary number `i` is the square root of a number. we find mathematically that spinor's don't commute with each other the way a normal number will. ie 3 x 4 = 4 x 3 but ab != ba if a & b are spinors. rather ab = - ba. a spinor-valued field fundamentally has this property. so what we find is that a normal classical field is perfectly willing to double itself (f*f = f^(2)) but a spinor field can't since a*a = -a*a and the only number that equals negative itself is 0. so we simply find that this field won't let itself double. so a quick example. an ocean wave can be simply compared to a spin-less boson's field. an ocean wave is obviously willing to cross another wave and the amplitudes of the two waves just combine. but a spinor field won't! | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could someone explain mtor signalling? | just looking for an overview of the whole thing, the most important bits, etc. an explanation specifically of the proliferation causing bit would be extra useful. | i'm familiar with it in the realm of immunology--here's a humble med student's take. mtor is a protein kinase. nutrients, mitogens, and other goodies can stimulate it, but in the presence of rapamycin it has no protein kinase activity and this is how it got its name. let's say you have a guy that had a kidney transplant and is receiving rapamycin to inhibit his immune response to the transplant. rapamycin is able to do this by inhibiting protein synthesis by preventing phosphorylation of eif4e binding protein (and eif4e which is required to initiate protein synthesis). when not phosphorylated, the binding protein binds tightly to eif4e and prevents it from participating in the formation of the translational initiation complex, thereby blocking protein synthesis. i think the most important bits are the current uses of mtor inhibitors to treat certain medical conditions, as mentioned above. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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