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 {"meta":{"things":["Composite Propane Cylinders","Salsa","Water"]},"text":["A composite propane cylinder is an alternative you'll appreciate if you've ever lugged a steel propane cylinder for your gas barbecue or if you've ever run out of gas in mid-grill because you couldn't tell how much propane was left in the tank.","Composite material is 30% lighter than steel and see-through.","Composite propane cylinders are made of transparent fiberglass encased within a plastic housing.","Propane, a liquid under pressure, expands as temperature increases.","So as a safety feature, the cylinder valve is equipped with an overfill-prevention device, a valve shut-off that kicks in when you've filled 80% of the cylinder.","This ensures ample room for the propane to expand.","Fiberglass is actual glass that's been drawn into thin fibers, then woven into fabric or, in this case, yarn.","It's the ideal material for a gas cylinder because it's strong, lightweight, rust-proof, and nonflammable.","A robot simultaneously winds 12 strands of fiberglass yarn over a steel form shaped like a half cylinder.","The winding pattern is very specific, strategically designed to make the cylinder walls as strong as possible.","While winding, the robot applies a powder binding solution.","This immobilizes the strands so that the shape won't collapse when the robot later lifts it off the form.","The winding process takes about 45 seconds and produces what's called a preform.","The robot transfers the preform over to the next machine, a molding press.","It injects liquid plastic at high pressure, impregnating the fiberglass.","Then it heats the preform for 10 minutes to cure the plastic.","What comes out of the molding press is a fully formed fiberglass half cylinder.","The top-half cylinder needs to be prepped for the valve.","First, an automated drill bores a hole.","Then workers apply caulking around a valve fitting...","Set the fitting on an assembly fixture...","Position the hole over it...","Then press the fitting into the fiberglass.","Now they mount the top- and bottom-half cylinders on opposing lathes.","A computer-guided grinding wheel with a fine diamond-grid surface trims the edge of each half cylinder to an exact specification.","Then it machines a precise 3-degree taper on each edge at opposing angles.","Next, an automated nozzle applies adhesive onto the tapered edges.","Then the lathes move toward each other, mating the halves.","The tapered edges slot together in a tight fit.","After the adhesive cures nearly two hours later, this is a solid, inseparable cylinder, which, as per the certification label, conforms to the standards required by government regulators.","Every single cylinder this factory produces undergoes safety tests.","This one, in a pressurized chamber, ensures the cylinder can hold the required amount of pressure.","This submersion test ensures the cylinder is gas-tight.","If bubbles appear in the water, it means there's a leak.","After a cylinder passes testing, workers install the valve, which is already connected to the overfill-prevention device.","The valving machine holds the cylinder steady, while it turns the valve to the precise tightness the engineering specifications require.","Now it's just a matter of snapping together the cylinder's two-part plastic housing.","The housing has handles for carrying the cylinder.","It also has a flat base to allow the cylinder to stand upright.","Composite propane cylinders come in various sizes to fuel everything from barbecues to patio heaters, even ride-on lawn mowers and factory forklifts.","Salsa is a staple of mexican and southwestern cuisine-- a spicy tomato-based condiment people typically enjoy as a topping on tacos or dip for tortilla chips.","Recipes vary, as does the kick factor-- from mild to extra-hot.","\"salsa\" is the spanish word for \"sauce\".","This american company produces nine different flavors, from regular to roasted garlic to pineapple-mango.","All flavors begin with fresh tomatoes delivered daily to the factory.","Workers inspect them carefully and remove any stems, leaves, and unripe or imperfect tomatoes.","Other workers, meanwhile, cut the stems off cilantro, a leafy herb that acts as a major flavor-enhancer.","They wash the cilantro in a tank of ice-cold water, then transfer it to another cold-water tank for a second wash, and then to another tank for a third wash, then a fourth and final wash, this one in a machine with food-safe vegetable sanitizer, containing bacteria-killing hydrogen peroxide.","Then they dry the wet cilantro in a giant salad spinner.","In another area, they prep the onions, peeling the skin and slicing off the ends.","They rinse the onions with water and the same sanitizer they used on the cilantro.","Ditto with the tomatoes.","This industrial-strength dicing machine chops up all the produce ingredients.","It has interchangeable blades to adjust for different-sized cuts.","First through the dicer--  the tomatoes.","They enter whole and exit in pieces about 4/10 of an inch big.","Next, the onions.","The dicer chops them into pieces roughly 2/10 of an inch in size.","Meanwhile, the cilantro goes into a cutter which chops it into fine pieces.","The recipe proportions are roughly 80% tomatoes, 5% onions, 2% cilantro, 5% green peppers, then additional flavor-specific ingredients, plus salt, pepper, and vinegar.","With the prep work done, it's now time to blend all the ingredients in a giant mixer.","Each batch begins with 55 gallons of tomatoes.","Next comes the cilantro.","This and all the ingredients are pre-weighed, so as to be in the correct proportion to the quantity of tomatoes.","The onions are next.","This particular batch of salsa is garlic-artichoke flavor; hence the next ingredient--  diced artichokes.","Now the combined liquid ingredients-- lemon juice, lime juice, and white vinegar...","Followed by the combined dry ingredients-- salt, pepper, dried celery, and garlic powder.","A final high-speed five-minute mix ensures everything is thoroughly blended and ready for packaging.","The finished salsa goes into vats.","From there, at packaging time, a pumping system moves it to the automated filling machine, whose nozzles squirt the required quantity of salsa into plastic containers.","The machine then seals each container with a plastic safety film and presses on a cover.","This is what the packaging process looks like in slow motion.","It actually moves at about twice this speed.","The filled containers now pass through a combination x-ray/metal detector.","On the off chance a foreign object fell into the salsa during production, the machine flags the affected container and triggers an automated arm to eject it from the production line.","This standard food-safety precaution ensures that every single container proceeding to labeling and then onto store shelves is \"a-olé\".","To pump water from the ground, the windmill reaches to the sky.","The blades catch the breeze and spin, while gears convert the spinning action into pumping action.","This technology has been around for over 2,000 years.","The first known water-pumping windmills originated in persia around 7 a.d. in 19th-century america, this was the wheel of progress-- a metal-bladed windmill that turned with greater force than traditional wooden ones, even in low wind conditions.","Its superior pumping capacity made it indispensable to pioneers settling inland, away from rivers and streams.","And today this same design continues to be a part of the rural landscape, especially when there's no electricity to run water pumps.","Production begins with a 100-ton punch press.","Once activated, it cuts triangular shapes from galvanized steel sheets, each with a slot in the center.","Each cutout will be a windmill sail.","They'll need 18 for each wind wheel.","Once stacked, they transfer the sail shapes to a rolling station.","The roller curls the steel to an exact curvature, producing a slightly bowed shape, which will efficiently capture the wind.","Next, a worker wraps a metal rib around each sail.","He taps the sides until it fits snugly to the sail.","The rib has a tab that slots into the hole in the sail's center, allowing the two parts to interlock.","Bands fit through the ribs to assemble the sails in groups of three.","Next, a worker slides a metal loop over the guide wheel and drives the ends into holes in the gearbox, using a sledgehammer.","He rivets the ends to the gearbox so that they're solidly ensconced.","Next, he inserts the wind-wheel hub and shaft into the mainframe of the gearbox.","He taps it to nudge it tightly into place.","He then grinds the brake lever to shape it to the brake mechanism on the hub.","This braking system is critical.","It will stop the wind wheel from spinning out of control in high winds.","He spins the hub and activates the brake several times to confirm that his machining is dead-on and that the brake system works perfectly.","If it doesn't, he makes adjustments.","Next, using a very toothy circular cutter, he carves grooves into steel blanks to shape the gears.","The difference is quite obvious.","He installs a set of these gears at the base of the metal loop and secures them with a metal pin.","He checks their turning radius and then mates a larger set of gears to the smaller ones, ensuring that the teeth intermesh.","This very substantial gear system will drive the guide wheel, creating the pumping action.","Two metal parts, called pitman arms, link the gears to the guide wheel.","A steel pin holds everything together.","As the gears turn, the guide wheel rolls up and down the loop to complete a pumping cycle.","Next, he screws a series of thin metal rods to the hub.","They're called wheel arms, and they hold the windmill sails.","The wheel arms fit into precut holes in the structure of the sail sections.","He secures the assembly with nuts.","Once all the sail sections have been mounted to the wheel arms, the windmill is ready for a spin.","It's a test run to confirm the wind wheel and gears function flawlessly.","It takes a crane to lift the 640-pound windmill to the top of its tower.","Once it's in position, a worker guides the gearbox onto the mast pipe.","Once it's secure, they hoist the helmet.","It's a cone-shaped metal cap that will protect the gears from the elements.","He bolts it to the top of the gearbox.","With that job done, this windmill is ready to pump.","It should last decades, providing water that is as free as the wind.","Dragsters roar out of the starting line in a cloud of smoke, and then it's a blur.","Traveling at speeds of up to 320 miles an hour, these hot rods rip through a quarter-mile racetrack in less than 4 seconds.","It's why they need parachutes to slow down and come in for a safe landing.","Blink a couple of times, and the race is over.","Packing an incredible 8,000 horsepower, a dragster is at least 50 times more powerful than a subcompact car.","With fat rear tires for traction and a tapered aerodynamic body, the dragster is engineered for one thing only-- speed.","Production begins with the heart of the vehicle-- the powerful 8-cylinder engine.","To reduce drag, the engine block is made of lightweight aluminum.","A technician carefully installs the camshaft...","And then fastens the timing cover to the front of the engine.","The timing cover prevents oil leaks.","He installs the crankshaft and hub.","And once the eight rods and pistons have been loaded and connected, he tests their movement and function.","Satisfied with their performance, he encases them in an oil pan.","With the installation of the drive gears and other components, the engine block is now complete.","They move on to the supercharger, a forceful blower that boosts engine power tremendously.","This worker seals the seams with urethane and caps the ends.","He slides strips of teflon between the rotors for extra sealing.","All this sealing will ensure that the compressed air generated is directed down through the bottom of the supercharger and into the engine.","With the supercharger now installed in its magnesium casing, he connects a cage-like starter to its drive pulley.","It's now time for a test run.","Blue streamers have been attached to the bottom of the supercharger.","Their fluttering is a visual indication of the force of the air generated.","The next employee attaches fuel pipes to the dragster's metal skeleton.","They install the engine and the high-tech clutch.","This racing clutch is equipped with five discs to transfer power from the engine directly to the wheels.","Between every run, the dragster engine will be completely rebuilt.","The rebuild should take just 22 minutes.","So the team at the factory is on the clock to prove it can be done.","The technician torques the cylinders to the engine block.","He installs the fuel-distribution system and connects the hoses to the cylinder heads.","Dragsters run on nitromethane, known as top fuel in the sport.","It delivers more power per stroke.","Still on the clock, the crew transfers the supercharger to the engine and connects it to the intake manifold.","They use super-strength kevlar strapping to restrain the supercharger in the event of an explosion.","They loop a belt over the gears that drive the supercharger.","They adjust the engine valves...","And then check to confirm the valves move freely.","They cover the valves with this titanium lid to prevent oil leaks and keep all the parts in place.","A technician connects spark plugs to the engine through slots in the cover, two per cylinder.","With each step carefully timed and executed, it has taken 22 minutes for the crew to get this dragster engine in rip-roaring shape.","In that 22-minute window, they also bolt the back wheels to the axle.","They then slide the steering wheel into place in the cockpit and give it a try to confirm that it steers the tires at the front of the dragster.","Also part of the 22-minute routine, a check of the fuel lever and the loading of the parachutes.","They'll be tested at every pit stop before repacking.","Finally, they fill up the tank with nitromethane fuel.","This high-performing fuel is both volatile and corrosive, so there's a protective cover.","This dragster is almost ready for the starting gate.","All it needs is a sponsor to pay all the bills.","One last test of the clutch, and this dragster is ready for the track.","and it's off in a cloud of tire smoke."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Aluminum Canoes","Wooden Stave Bowls","Wheelchair Accessible Vans","Marimbas"]},"text":["When world war ii ended, an american manufacturer of fighter jets needed to land new business.","The factory employed the same stretched-aluminum process used for shaping aircraft wings and came up with an aluminum canoe.","No fighting machine, the aluminum canoe is designed for a peaceful day at the lake.","Among watercraft, the aluminum canoe is the strong, silent type.","It resists breaking and cracking when it comes up against a rock or any other underwater object.","So this is one invention that is unlikely to sink into oblivion.","Aluminum itself is too soft for canoe construction.","So metals like magnesium, nickel, and silicone have been added to give it the needed strength.","Factory employees unwind the aluminum alloy onto a work table.","Using electric shears, they cut it to length.","They lift the metal sheet onto a mold of of part of the canoe hull.","They clamp the metal to a hydraulic system and activate it.","It pulls and stretches the aluminum-alloy sheet to the mold, and it conforms to its shape.","The molded sheet needs trimming, so they transfer it to a work table, and place a template over the contoured section.","They clamp it into place.","With a scribe, one of the workers etches the pattern onto the molded aluminum.","The team then transfers the aluminum sheet to a jig and cuts out the pattern following the etched outline.","They shape and cut a second part exactly like the first.","The two symmetrical halves will form the hull of the aluminum canoe.","They bake the hull halves at 390 degrees fahrenheit for eight hours.","The heat strengthens the aluminum and adds rigidity to it.","Out of the oven, a member of the team now aligns two halves.","It's a perfect match, so he now lowers a large clamp.","Once in place, he turns a crank to pull the two parts of the aluminum canoe together.","Now tightly, clamped, he welds the two parts along the bottom.","This joins them with a water-tight seam.","With hand clamps, he tacks the two rounded ends together and welds here.","He links the end welds to the one on the bottom, and the result is one continuous leak-proof weld from bow to stern.","Next, the team positions an aluminum keel along the bottom seam.","They reinforce it from the inside with the t-bar.","They drive rivets through the t-bar, hull, and keel to secure the assembly.","They install substantial aluminum guards on the bow and stern using rivets to secure them.","These guards will protect the end welds.","They brace the base of the canoe from the inside with six aluminum ribs.","Welded, riveted, and with a good support structure, this aluminum canoe has really taken shape.","They equip the rim of the canoe with aluminum gunnels, pounding them with a rubber mallet to improve the fit.","Then a worker rolls non-skid paint on the inside so it won't become slick when wet.","They bring incandescent heat lamps in, and the paint dries quickly in the warm glow.","After just 30 minutes, the paint is dry.","Then it's time to see if it will float.","They transfer the aluminum canoe to a tank of water.","They clamp a bar across the canoe to apply nearly 1,000 pounds of pressure-- more than the weight of two people.","They check for leaks, especially around the rivets.","There are none.","Crossbars and bench seating complete the fabrication.","There's one last bit of business, and that's the company insignia.","This aluminum canoe is now ready for recreation.","10 hours in the making, the fun has only just begun.","Bowls have existed for thousands of years.","Very early bowls, used to serve food or drink, have been found in china, ancient greece, and in certain north-american cultures.","Modern bowls can be made from a variety of materials, such as ceramic, plastic, metal, and wood.","Wood bowls come in many shapes and sizes.","Many different kinds of wood are used to make bowls, such as rubberwood and teak.","Acacia is also a type of wood used to make bowls.","Workers cut flat planks of acacia using a large circular saw.","The acacia was cut a few days ago in nearby plantations.","Planks are cut to thicknesses required for bowl production and pre-dried on pallets, spaced apart for better air circulation.","Using a table saw, a worker cuts the wood planks, now kiln-dried, into pieces long enough to make the bowl wall.","Another worker uses a tilted table saw to cut the wood into shapes resembling a cone.","Drying the wood eliminates water that might cause cracking later on.","A worker trims the pieces, giving them the angle they need, so the staves can be rounded later on.","Another worker smoothes the rough side of the staves with a spinning cutter.","This also helps shape the wood pieces.","Another employee lines up the staves on a table before applying glue.","She spreads a wood-binding glue onto the sides of the staves.","Once they're thoroughly covered with glue, she begins assembling the bowl by sticking the sides together.","She assembles a few pieces at a time, handing them to another worker, who arranges the bowl's shape by leaning the staves against a center piece.","They continue the process until all the staves are in place.","Then they'll squeeze the staves tightly together.","They stretch elastic bands around the outside of the eventual bowl.","The elastics, held in place by a steel ring, squeeze the staves firmly against each other.","With a hammer, she lightly taps the staves into place, making sure they are flush against each other.","She turns the bowl over to make sure none of the staves around the top rim are sticking out too far.","She then leaves the bowl to dry.","About five hours later, they remove the elastics and, again, leave the bowl to harden for a full day.","A template is attached to the eventual bowl, in order to cut a circular opening for the bottom piece.","The template serves as a guide during the cutting process.","A worker moves the bowl around, allowing the cutter to create a perfectly sized hole for the bottom section of the bowl.","It's made of the same kind of wood-- in this case, acacia.","A worker applies glue to the edges of the bottom hole...","And to the outer edge of the round piece that goes in the bottom of the bowl.","He inserts the bottom plate and uses a hammer to force it firmly into place.","After another day of hardening, a worker places the bowl in a lave.","With a variety of knives, he begins shaving off the wood.","He starts on the inside wall of the bowl.","Then he shaves the outside of the bowl, gradually giving it shape.","He then uses sandpaper to smooth the surface of the bowl.","Another worker then uses a lave to sand the surface of the bowl.","He makes the surface as fine as possible.","He must have a keen eye for detail in order to make the bowl surface perfect.","A worker sprays a foodstuff varnish onto the surface of the bowl.","Several layers are applied with drying and polishing after each one.","If required, a stain is also applied.","They place a sticker identifying the manufacturer on the bottom of the bowl.","A worker then packages the wood bowl.","With the bowl secure, the only thing tossed around will be the ingredients you put in it.","The minivan was designed with families in mind, but it also revolutionized travel for people in wheelchairs.","Retrofitted for wheelchair accessibility, the minivan offers unprecedented mobility.","No need to wait for special wheelchair transportation when there's a minivan in the driveway.","Convert a minivan and change a life.","A wheelchair-accessibility conversion offers the convenience of a ride anytime.","From the outside, the van will look no different.","But inside, the modifications will be major.","The total revamp starts with the removal of the van's middle and third-row seats.","They pull out the carpet and completely strip the vehicle from the front seats to the back.","Underneath, a technician saws off the exhaust system, and disassembles the rear suspension.","The entire undercarriage behind the engine is about to be reconfigured to make way for a new lowered floor.","The team also removes the 20-gallon fuel tank.","They'll replace it with one of the same capacity to fit the new configuration.","They cut out a large section of floor and relocate displaced wiring.","They're now ready to roll the new floor framework into position below the vehicle.","This steel structure replaces the original one and is strong enough to support the additional weight of a wheelchair.","A motorized one can weigh as much as four adults.","They slide the new steel floor into the vehicle and lower it into the framework.","The new floor is significantly lower than the one the van came with, and it increases the wheelchair passenger's headroom by about 10 to 15 inches.","After installing the new fuel tank, suspension, and exhaust systems, they return to the interior.","A technician fits and binds carpet underpadding to the van.","He installs the carpet and clamps it while the adhesive cures.","With the back of the van rebuilt and carpeted, they now ready the wheelchair ramp.","A technician applies a gritty material with an adhesive backing.","He simply presses it to the ramp and smoothes out any air bubbles.","This gritty material will provide a slip-resistant surface for the wheelchair to move across.","He attaches a handle...","And installs two cable assemblies to connect the handle to the ramp latches.","He attaches a return spring to the handle assembly.","He turns the handle and tests the latches to confirm that the mechanisms function properly.","The team then links the wheelchair ramp to the new floor with a long hinge.","They install stainless-steel trim over the hinge to protect it and also connect the counterbalance cables to the ramp.","Hidden springs at the end of the cables provide tension to significantly lighten the load for the operator.","The ramp weighs about 130 pounds, but the operator ends up lifting just 15 of that, due to the spring-loaded tension.","They reinstall the interior plastic panels and repurpose the original second-row seatbelts.","As they finish up inside, an employee puts the company name on the door of the vehicle.","The wheelchair-converted van is now ready for a test drive.","The operator unfolds the ramp.","He folds away the new seats to make way for the wheelchair.","He extends the tie-down belts and attaches them to the wheelchair.","He wheels the passenger into the van...","Locks the wheelchair breaks...","And ties the chair to the floor.","There are standard seatbelts to fasten, and then it's time to sit back and enjoy the ride.","Seated in the converted minivan, the individual can now experience the freedom of the road.","The marimba is a musical instrument similar to the xylophone, except with a wider and lower range of notes and metal resonators underneath the keys to amplify the sound.","While the xylophonist uses hard rubber mallets, the marimbist usually strikes the wooden keys with a variety of mallets covered with wound yarn.","the marimba keyboard is chromatic, meaning it includes all the semitones of a musical scale-- the equivalent of the 12 white and black keys on a piano.","Each wooden key has a resonator, an amplification tube underneath, tuned to the same note.","When the mallet strikes, the resulting vibration causes the resonator to hum that note, transforming the otherwise thin, muted sound into a louder, richer tone.","They keys are fashioned from honduran rosewood, which is hard and dense, yet elastic.","After cutting the thickness and width, they set the dial of this custom-made saw to the note they're making, which positions the wood to be cut to the correct length-- no measuring required.","Next, using a router, they round off all the edges.","When a key has sharp edges, it's more likely to chip or splinter when struck, even though marimba mallets are soft and frequently covered with wound yarn.","The next step is to drill holes at the nodes, which are specific non-vibrating points on the key.","The nodal holes are for the cord that will suspend the key over it's resonator.","Now a computer-guided milling machine sculpts a very precise arch in the underside.","This roughly tunes the key.","To fine-tune the key, they must tune the fundamental note plus the first and second overtones-- the subtler notes that sound simultaneously with it.","When the tuner strikes the key, an electronic machine reads the exact frequency of the vibrations.","He repeatedly taps, takes readings, and sands the arch...","Until the fundamental and overtones are pitch-perfect.","They seal the wood with lacquer.","This protects the key from moisture penetration, which would alter the key's tuning.","For each key, they make a resonator out of brass tubing.","The lower the note, the wider and longer the resonator.","Some are so long, they must be j-shaped or u-shaped to fit under the keyboard.","To make those curves, workers use short, angled pieces of tubing to join longer, straight pieces.","They divide the resonators in groups then bolt each onto a painted steel rail.","There are six groups of resonators on this full-range marimba.","The instrument is nearly 10 feet long.","The ends of the frame are height-adjustable.","Between the frame ends, a center pole receives the six resonator sections arranged shortest to longest.","Then, running over the resonators, wooden crossrails suspend the parts to support the keyboard.","Under the lowest and longest keys are those curved resonators, fashioned from angled, soldered pieces of tubing.","Posts mounted in the wooden crossrails support the cotton cord running through the key's nodal holes.","At the end of each resonator is a patented tuning plug.","After using a lave to shape a piece of hard plastic into a cylinder with a required diameter, they saw off a slice about the size of a hockey puck.","They then quarter the slice, running the cuts just 90% of the way through.","These slots make the plug flexible.","Next, they drill a threaded hole through the center to the same depth as the slots and wrap the edge in polyethylene gasket tape.","The tape smoothes the surface, helping the plug glide easily into the resonator.","Then they thread a wing screw into the center hole and insert the plug into the corresponding resonator.","To tune the instrument before playing, you move the plug up or down until the node is the exact same pitch as the key above.","Then you turn the screw to push the sections outward, locking the plug in position.","everything from this point on is in the marimbist's hands."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Glass Bottles","Hacksaws","Goalie Masks"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Glass bottles...","Hacksaws...","And goalie masks.","Whether they're colored or clear, glass bottles and jars are green.","No trees died to make this eco-friendly packaging.","Glass is made of natural ingredients that are abundant.","You can recycle glass endlessly, and making it uses less energy than producing metal or plastic.","The recipe for glass combines about a half a dozen natural, raw materials, but the main ones are silica sand, soda ash, and limestone.","Silica sand usually makes up about 45% of the batch.","The soda ash helps melt the silica evenly.","It comprises about 15%.","A limestone content of about 10% make the finished glass more durable.","They combine these ingredients with recycled glass called cullet.","The factory's equipment feeds precise amounts of the materials into a furnace.","Over a full day, the fiery heat-- 2,730 degrees fahrenheit-- melts everything together, producing a gooey liquid that's the consistency of honey.","The molten glass pours out of the furnace.","Sheers cut the flow at precise intervals to produce cylindrical gobs.","Each gob is the exact amount required to make one bottle or jar.","They drop to a device called the scoop.","The scoop moves them to troughs that feed them to jar-forming and bottle-forming machines.","A gob of molten glass goes into a preliminary mold.","In a matter of seconds, it comes out as what's called a parison, a miniature version of the final bottle.","Each parison then moves into a blow mold, the cavity of which is the shape of the final bottle.","The equipment blows the compressed air into the parison, stretching the glass outward toward the wall of the mold cavity.","This process creates the final bottle shape and hollows out the inside.","These are amber-colored beer bottles.","The color is produced by adding small amounts of iron, sulfur, and carbon to the glass mix.","The factory uses a similar manufacturing process to produce other types of bottles and jars.","In this run, the company is making 375-millimeter wine bottles out of clear glass.","This run is producing 375-millimeter liquor bottles, also out of clear glass.","But this mold has a special feature-- a recessed insignia on one of the walls, which produces a raised insignia on the front of the bottle.","After the bottles leave the forming machine, they travel through flames, otherwise they would cool down too quickly and crack from thermal shock.","A loader now gently pushes the bottles into what's called an annealing lyre.","The bottles cool at a controlled rate as they move through the lyre.","This releases stress from the glass gradually.","As the bottles exit the annealing lyre, a sprayer coats their exteriors with lubricant.","This enables them to move smoothly through the rest of the inspection and packaging line.","The bottles now line up in single file to head into the automatic inspection station.","As the machine spins each bottle, cameras and probes check for imperfections such as cracks or bubbles.","The inspection equipment then examines the top to check dimensions and insure the threads for the screw cap are molded correctly.","Before shipping, a worker does a final visual inspection.","The proportion of cullet and glass can be as high as 90%.","Cullet melts at a lower temperature.","So for every 10% of cullet in the mix, the factory uses up to 2 1/2% less energy to produce its glass.","Now that's an incentive to recycle.","The world of saws is made up of many marvelous tools-- big saws and jigsaws, handsaws and band saws, backsaws and hacksaws.","They all have their specific purpose.","Hacksaws are chiefly for cutting metal or other tough materials.","So what keeps hacksaws on the cutting edge?","Hacksaws come in many shapes and sizes.","Companies make hacksaw blades out of a wide range of steel alloys.","Here a thin band of steel feeds into a machine that cuts it into blanks 10 to 12 inches long and a half-inch high.","Workers load 300 blanks at a time into a jig.","They lightly hammer them to compress them into a block for easier cutting.","They then feed the block into a machine called a mill grinder.","It cuts teeth into the upper side of the blanks.","A water-based lubricant washes away the metal particles.","This hacksaw model has a 24-point blade, which means there are 24 teeth to every inch.","Workers use an ordinary paintbrush to remove any metal residue.","The quality-control department inspects each blade for flaws.","Then it's off to the next phase.","Next, a separator detaches each of the 300 blades, aligns them, then sends them through a setting machine.","The machine bends the teeth to either side at a slight angle.","This is called offsetting.","It'll enable the blade to clear away particles as it saws, preventing it from jamming.","Now it's time to harden the teeth.","The factory does this by heat-treating the metal.","A worm gear aligns the blades to enter a heating coil.","In this process, the electromagnetic heating coil heats the teeth to temperatures as high as 2,200 degrees fahrenheit depending on the type of metal.","This takes no more than two seconds.","After the blades exit the heating coil, the surrounding air cools them down over the next several hours.","This phase is called air quenching.","The blades are now ready for printing.","An offset printing press applies ink to raised lettering on a cylinder.","That cylinder transfers the ink to strips mounted on another cylinder.","These strips then print the company name, the blade length, and the number of teeth per inch on the side of the blades.","Now a machine inserts the blades in groups of five into slots called fingers.","The fingers rotate the blades and place them on a conveyor belt.","The machine raises the blades and tapes them together at one end.","This makes it easier to transport them to another part of the factory where production continues.","Next, the hacksaw's frame, the component that holds the blade.","Workers place the frame components in a jig that's positioned on a rotating carousel.","A robotic welder fuses the components.","A press punches three holes in the handle for attaching a foam or plastic grip.","Workers fit the two halves of the grip in a sonic welder that fuses them using high-frequency sound waves.","The sound waves create friction at the seam.","This generates enough heat to melt the parts together.","Now the frame is ready for the blade.","An automatic device tightens a wing nut to put tension on the blade.","A final quality-control check.","With each randomly selected blade, the testing machine cuts through a block of stainless steel.","The machine performs this test six times per blade.","Then the computer calculates the average number of strokes.","If the average falls within the norms for this particular model, the batch gets the thumbs-up.","Goalie masks are all about putting up a tough front.","It's not just their protective shell and cage.","Their wild paint jobs are designed to intimidate.","Incredibly, back in the 1960s, the first masked goalies were ridiculed by fans who viewed the masks as a sign of weakness.","It was a case of adding insult to injury.","Today these masks allow the goaltender to play it safe, so they're far less likely to be sidelined by a serious injury.","They start with a plaster mold of an average joe.","They plug the mouth hole with plasticine.","This insures that the mold won't spring any leaks while they fill it with plaster of paris.","They let it dry for half an hour.","Then they pull off the initial mold to reveal the solid impression.","They press plasticine onto strategic areas.","This mimics the foam safety guards that cushion every mask.","The final result is called a plug, and it will be used to make a two-part compression mold.","After applying a black sealer, they polish it smooth, eliminating imperfections that would be visible on the mold they're going to make from it.","Over at another station, a worker in protective garb unrolls fiberglass fabric.","He cuts and layers sheets of it, then draws patterns onto the tops one, spacing the shapes closely together to minimize waste.","The goal is to score 100 goalie masks from one roll of material.","Using a disc cutter, he slices through 25 layers of the fiberglass fabric.","Then he stacks various composite fabrics-- several of the fiberglass one and patches of kevlar-- for reinforcement.","Kevlar can absorb so much impact, it's also used to make bulletproof vests.","He places more fabric over the kevlar.","He spreads an epoxy resin onto each layer.","He drapes them over a mold that's been made from the plug and smoothes the material to eliminate air pockets as he continues to layer and glue.","He's laminating all the pieces together to form one.","He trims away the ragged edges...","And then places the inside portion of the mold into the outside one.","The wet fabric is now sandwiched between two mold pieces.","He lowers a one-ton press to compress the layers of fabric as the resins between them continue to form a bond.","He adds some clamps to keep things tight.","After 20 minutes, he pries the laminated fiberglass shell out of the mold.","This is one very tough shell.","It's the raw form of a goalie mask, but it still needs a lot of work.","So it's over to the trimming-and-grinding station.","He places a trim jig over the shell.","Using a high-speed router, he cuts an opening for the cage.","He slices off the flash with a disc grinder.","And then he sands and grinds the edges.","He drills holes to attach various fasteners.","Then he carves out larger holes for ventilation and to reduce the mask's weight.","Coming up next...","Watch as the paint pros go to work on these shells.","The makers of goalie masks have turned safety into an art form.","The goalie mask has become a canvas for some very bold designs and colors.","It's a kind of psychological tactic to intimidate the other team, and it also scores points with the fans who like the cool paint job.","They prep the mask by roughing it up with an orbital sander.","Then they pour a sealer into a container.","The technician wears a charcoal respirator because the emissions are toxic.","He adds the activator solution...","And a reactive reducer and stirs the sealer together.","Then he sprays the sealer mix onto the masks.","The finish will cure and harden as the chemicals in it generate their own heat.","Next, this system stirs up some hot hues automotive paint as the technician sprays a vivid gold base coat onto the masks.","Computer graphics created with signlab software are sent to a plotter that cuts out adhesive vinyl paint masks.","He pulls away unneeded vinyl around the stencil, a process called weeding.","Then he presses the vinyl stencils against the goalie mask and peels off the paper backing.","Applying a stencil to the crown is tricky because the surface is curved with ridges, so it doesn't lay flat.","He lifts and cuts the pattern with a utility knife and then straightens it out.","This mask is starting to look pretty impressive, but they cover the whole thing with white paint.","It's a temporary cover-up.","This process is all about layering patterns and color.","They apply more vinyl shapes.","And then, using a pressurized paint system, they spray everything bright red.","Next, an artist airbrushes some shadowing onto the now barely visible image of a leaf.","He peels away some of the paint-mask vinyl.","And it's time for a really neat effect.","He sprinkles the surface of the mask with water.","Then he mists it with paint, and the water droplets catch the paint.","He blasts it with a heat gun.","The water evaporates, but the paint dries in droplet form, giving the mask a frosty look.","He airbrushes a drop shadow around some lettering, dispensing with the usual safety gloves for this detail work.","And now all is revealed as he peels away the vinyl.","The goalie mask is showing its true colors.","But wait--  a little touch-up job is needed.","He traces the pattern onto see-through paper and then transfers it onto bristol board.","He cuts it out with a utility knife.","Then he aligns it with a shape on the mask and precisely airbrushes around it to make the smudge disappear.","With a final clear coat, this mask has visual impact.","It makes a colorful statement.","And now it's time to put all the pieces together.","She screws on the stainless-steel cage and applies a little glue to reinforce the adhesive-back foam cushioning.","She attaches the sweatband with velcro so it can be removed and washed.","And then she moves on to the back plate.","She threads the harness through the back plate to the front of the mask to attach them.","The harness is elastic, so it gives the mask some flexibility.","Now it's ready for some ice time.","And with their various custom paint jobs, these masks all say the \"puck\" stops here."]}
-{"meta":{"things":["Socket Sets","Leather Shoes","Aluminum Water Bottles","Bike Chains"]},"text":["The invention of the socket wrench in 1864 put a whole new twist on fastening things.","With the socket wrench's ratchet mechanism, the user could tighten bolts in a continuous motion without breaking to refit the wrench to the fastener.","It was a real time-saver.","Modern socket wrenches come with a range of sockets and extensions to handle the nuts and bolts of many different jobs.","They start with this coil of thick steel.","It travels through a die which straightens it to a knife that slices it into short billets.","A machine then drives a series of forming tools into the billets.","The tools force them into a socket shape and create the all-important hexagonal opening that matches the profile of the nuts and bolts.","To get rid of lingering lubricating oil, the parts go for a tumble through a spiral washer/dryer system.","A conveyor delivers them to a computerized cutting tool.","It removes sharp edges and sculpts a bevel on the socket's inner rim so it will slide onto bolts more easily.","It takes just seconds to improve this socket's profile.","Different tools then sculpt the square opening in the drive end of the socket.","That's the part that locks onto the end of the ratchet wrench.","A powerful rolling stamp now engraves the part's size and the company name onto it.","Once those details are out of the way, it's into a flaming oven to undergo a heat-treating process.","A rapid cooldown follows the heat treatment, hardening the metal.","The sockets now toss about in this rotating chamber as they're blasted with very fine steel particles.","This cleans the parts and buffs the parts, but there's much more polishing to come.","They clamp the sockets onto a rotating table.","It delivers the part to a grinding belt for a very vigorous polishing.","You can see the difference this makes in the part on the right, but these sockets need to be absolutely flawless.","So they next go into a tub of ceramic stones.","They rub mild acid onto the parts to get rid of any small blemishes that remain.","The parts then receive a thorough wash and rinse, which prepares them for chrome plating.","Now freshly chromed, the sockets look way too nice to be immersed in this brownish stuff, but it's actually a rustproofing solution to protect them from corrosion.","They lock the tub of sockets in a centrifuge machine.","It spins the parts to get rid of the excess rustproofing liquid.","And now these sockets are ready to shine on the job.","Attachable extensions improve the reach of the socket wrench.","Forming equipment swings into action, pressing steel billets into dies to mold them into the rough shape of an extension.","After a wash and dry, it's over to a lathe.","And as the extension spins, cutting tools create the squared opening that allows it to be attached to the wrench.","Cutters then go to work on the other end.","They shape it so it will fit into various sockets and shave the shank to reduce its diameter.","Next, a rolling stamp cuts a knurled texture into the socket-wrench extension, creating a much less slippery surface to hang on to.","They insert a stainless-steel spring into a hole formed at the end of the extension...","Then scoop up a steel ball so it sits in the cavity above the spring.","A machine then press-fits it to the extension.","This creates a mechanism onto which the sockets attach.","It takes about three days to complete this socket set, but it will equip you to handle jobs of many sizes and just about any tight situation.","If you're a lover of fine footwear, when it comes to dressing your feet, nothing beats leather because, unlike synthetic materials, leather lets your feet breathe.","And high-end leather shoes feature superior construction that makes them lightweight and comfortable to wear.","The vision originates with a design sketched on a flexible plastic sheet.","To help the stylist perfect the design, they put it on a rigid foot form called a last.","Exotic skins have natural variations throughout, so a specialist must hand-cut the pattern pieces to ensure the right and left shoes match well.","They use a splitting machine to shave off a layer from the underside, equalizing the thickness of all the pieces.","Then a skiving machine thins the edges so the pieces will be easier to sew together.","They punch decorative holes into certain pieces with a manual press, so it's up to the operator to make sure the distance between holes is consistent.","The top of the shoe is called the upper.","They sew together the upper pieces, then hammer the stitches to make the seam smooth and flat.","Next they glue a narrow leather strip along the border of the upper to hide the leather's unfinished edge.","This also produces a decorative trim.","Now they attach a lining made of goat leather and flax.","This style of lining fits snugly over the last, a particular type of construction that allows for a more comfortable type of insole.","They put the lining inside the upper and slip them onto the last.","Then they glue on the insole.","This type consists of a rigid section-- the black part-- and a more flexible section--  the white part.","Now they glue the lining to the upper and put the front of the shoe, called the point, into a machine that grips the edge of the leather and pulls it straight.","The next machine's mechanical fingers wrap the edge underneath and glue it, pulling evenly all around so that everything's symmetrical.","The next machine does the same thing at the back of the shoe.","They grind down the leather edge, creating a flat, even surface that's ready for the sole.","Next they heat the leather to make it malleable and hammer until the upper assumes the shape of the last inside.","The hammering also rids the leather of any wrinkles.","They coat the underside with glue and carefully position the shoe's leather sole.","The glue takes about 10 minutes to dry.","Then they run the edge of the sole through a splitting machine.","This separates a thin layer which they now sew to the upper.","Durable twine and a heavy-duty loop stitch ensure the upper and sole remain inseparable.","To hide the stitching, they glue and grind down the edge.","A thorough polishing gives the sole a slick-looking finish.","Every pair of shoes this factory produces is polished by a specialist, who creates just the right shading to bring out the leather's best features.","This is the last step of roughly 200 manual operations that go into producing just a single pair of these luxurious leather shoes.","It was swiss hikers who carried the first aluminum drink bottles in the early part of the 20th century.","Today's lightweight bottles can be reused endlessly, meaning less waste in landfills.","They can also be recycled, so making one is not a wasted effort.","Some of those first trailblazing bottles still survive today, reminding us that this kind of container is made to last.","Today's bottle starts with an aluminum puck 2 3/4 inches in diameter.","The puck travels down a chute into a punch press.","It uses 660 tons of force to stretch that little puck into a long cylinder with a bottom.","A blade chops the open end down to the correct size, and then a tool pushes it onto a conveyor that sends it down the line.","The aluminum cylinder lands on a wheel which relays it to the next station.","There, machinery moves the cylinder's open end into position for tools to squeeze it into a bottleneck.","The tools pinch the metal a total of 26 times to draw the open end down to half its original diameter.","This gentle forming process results in less stress on the metal.","The last tool presses a threaded ring into the inside of the bottle for screwing on the cap.","The process leaves the threaded neck a lot thicker than the rest of the bottle so it will hold up to heavy usage.","Now the bottles head into a wash station.","They get a really good scrubbing to remove the lubricating oil from the forming process.","They then travel through a dryer, and after a few minutes, they emerge clean and ready for the next operation.","The interior wall of the aluminum drink bottle is about to be lined with a microthin, high-tech polymer.","This revolving device picks up each bottle using suction and delivers it to an individual sprayer.","The spray nozzle coats the inside of this container with a polymer.","The liner has been specially formulated to be chemically inert, which means it won't absorb or transfer flavors.","At this point, the coating is powdery, and you could wipe it off with your finger, but that's just temporary.","As they bake it, the powder will solidify and bond completely to the inside of the bottle.","The bottles move through an oven that's heated to 356 degrees fahrenheit for 10 minutes.","The liner doesn't add much weight to the bottle.","Here they weigh one before lining and after, and the difference is just a few grams.","Now the bottles spin by a gauntlet of spray guns for an even coat of paint.","Like the inner liner, this outer veneer will need to be baked on.","When it dries, the paint takes on a glossy look.","An automated squeegee silk-screens designs onto the bottles.","A jet of air dries the ink between printings as they build up the artwork using different colors.","And now it's time to screw on the cap.","As she caps the bottle, this worker performs a final inspection of the product.","From a small aluminum puck to a handy drink bottle-- incredibly, this transformation has taken just three hours.","And in its various styles, this reusable bottle is sure to make a lasting impression.","Pedaling a bicycle causes a chain reaction that sets wheels in motion.","A bicycle chain is essentially a roller chain.","It's designed specifically to transfer pedal power to the bicycle's rear drive wheel.","With a good bicycle chain, you can go far or, at the very least, take a short spin around the hood.","The chain is the driving force in a bicycle's transmission system.","It travels over gears in a perpetual loop to keep the cyclist moving forward.","Actions like shifting gears or braking will regularly put this critical mechanism to the test.","It all starts with this punch press.","It cuts and presses steel into the shape of the chain's inner links, which looks a lot like a figure eight.","Incredibly, it generates 10,000 links per hour.","Each of these figure-eight links has been made to interconnect, and their contours allow them to travel easily across the bike's gear sprockets.","They send samples of the links to a measuring station to confirm the space between the holes is precisely 12.7 millimeters.","The tester also gauges the diameter of the holes, which must be accurate to within a fraction of a millimeter.","Then the links bake in an oven at more than 1,500 degrees fahrenheit.","The blazing heat, followed by a quick cooldown, hardens the steel.","They now shovel these inner links into a doughnut-shaped machine.","They add ceramic and silica powders...","And pour in a small amount of water.","They then screw the lid on this machine.","It shakes vigorously, causing the powders and water to form an abrasive paste that polishes the links.","They load the polished inner links into a metal basket and shut the door.","Machinery plunges the basket into a series of chemical baths to give these inner links a nickel-teflon veneer.","The nickel-teflon surface will resist corrosion, and its smooth texture will allow the chain to travel easily over gear sprockets.","The bike chain's outer links get a different kind of finish.","Unlike the inner links, they don't travel over sprockets, so a simple nickel plating will do.","They're now ready to assemble the chain one section at a time.","Tubes feed the parts one by one into this assembly machine.","Gripper arms adjust their position to assemble the links to other chain components, such as retainer rings and spacers.","The machinery presses pins into the links' holes to secure the assembly.","Then grippers move the completed section of chain down the line.","It takes a whole lot of little pieces to build one short section of bicycle chain.","The sections are linked together in one long chain, which now winds by an inspection station to be examined for flaws.","After that, the chain takes a dip in hot oil, which lubricates the links to prevent squeakiness and wear down the road.","The chain exits the lubricating station and travels by wads of absorbent material, which soaks up the excess grease.","A laser tool then signals the location where the chain is to be cut, and a blade chops it at the exact spot.","A standard bike chain is just over 56 inches in length.","It consists of 114 inner links and 114 external ones, so it's got what it takes to go the distance.","If you have any questions about the show, or if you'd like to suggest topics for future shows, drop us a line at..."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Socket Sets","Leather Shoes","Aluminum Water Bottles","Bike Chains"]},"text":["The invention of the socket wrench in 1864 put a whole new twist on fastening things.","With the socket wrench's ratchet mechanism, the user could tighten bolts in a continuous motion without breaking to refit the wrench to the fastener.","It was a real time-saver.","Modern socket wrenches come with a range of sockets and extensions to handle the nuts and bolts of many different jobs.","They start with this coil of thick steel.","It travels through a die which straightens it to a knife that slices it into short billets.","A machine then drives a series of forming tools into the billets.","The tools force them into a socket shape and create the all-important hexagonal opening that matches the profile of the nuts and bolts.","To get rid of lingering lubricating oil, the parts go for a tumble through a spiral washer/dryer system.","A conveyor delivers them to a computerized cutting tool.","It removes sharp edges and sculpts a bevel on the socket's inner rim so it will slide onto bolts more easily.","It takes just seconds to improve this socket's profile.","Different tools then sculpt the square opening in the drive end of the socket.","That's the part that locks onto the end of the ratchet wrench.","A powerful rolling stamp now engraves the part's size and the company name onto it.","Once those details are out of the way, it's into a flaming oven to undergo a heat-treating process.","A rapid cooldown follows the heat treatment, hardening the metal.","The sockets now toss about in this rotating chamber as they're blasted with very fine steel particles.","This cleans the parts and buffs the parts, but there's much more polishing to come.","They clamp the sockets onto a rotating table.","It delivers the part to a grinding belt for a very vigorous polishing.","You can see the difference this makes in the part on the right, but these sockets need to be absolutely flawless.","So they next go into a tub of ceramic stones.","They rub mild acid onto the parts to get rid of any small blemishes that remain.","The parts then receive a thorough wash and rinse, which prepares them for chrome plating.","Now freshly chromed, the sockets look way too nice to be immersed in this brownish stuff, but it's actually a rustproofing solution to protect them from corrosion.","They lock the tub of sockets in a centrifuge machine.","It spins the parts to get rid of the excess rustproofing liquid.","And now these sockets are ready to shine on the job.","Attachable extensions improve the reach of the socket wrench.","Forming equipment swings into action, pressing steel billets into dies to mold them into the rough shape of an extension.","After a wash and dry, it's over to a lathe.","And as the extension spins, cutting tools create the squared opening that allows it to be attached to the wrench.","Cutters then go to work on the other end.","They shape it so it will fit into various sockets and shave the shank to reduce its diameter.","Next, a rolling stamp cuts a knurled texture into the socket-wrench extension, creating a much less slippery surface to hang on to.","They insert a stainless-steel spring into a hole formed at the end of the extension...","Then scoop up a steel ball so it sits in the cavity above the spring.","A machine then press-fits it to the extension.","This creates a mechanism onto which the sockets attach.","It takes about three days to complete this socket set, but it will equip you to handle jobs of many sizes and just about any tight situation.","If you're a lover of fine footwear, when it comes to dressing your feet, nothing beats leather because, unlike synthetic materials, leather lets your feet breathe.","And high-end leather shoes feature superior construction that makes them lightweight and comfortable to wear.","The vision originates with a design sketched on a flexible plastic sheet.","To help the stylist perfect the design, they put it on a rigid foot form called a last.","Exotic skins have natural variations throughout, so a specialist must hand-cut the pattern pieces to ensure the right and left shoes match well.","They use a splitting machine to shave off a layer from the underside, equalizing the thickness of all the pieces.","Then a skiving machine thins the edges so the pieces will be easier to sew together.","They punch decorative holes into certain pieces with a manual press, so it's up to the operator to make sure the distance between holes is consistent.","The top of the shoe is called the upper.","They sew together the upper pieces, then hammer the stitches to make the seam smooth and flat.","Next they glue a narrow leather strip along the border of the upper to hide the leather's unfinished edge.","This also produces a decorative trim.","Now they attach a lining made of goat leather and flax.","This style of lining fits snugly over the last, a particular type of construction that allows for a more comfortable type of insole.","They put the lining inside the upper and slip them onto the last.","Then they glue on the insole.","This type consists of a rigid section-- the black part-- and a more flexible section--  the white part.","Now they glue the lining to the upper and put the front of the shoe, called the point, into a machine that grips the edge of the leather and pulls it straight.","The next machine's mechanical fingers wrap the edge underneath and glue it, pulling evenly all around so that everything's symmetrical.","The next machine does the same thing at the back of the shoe.","They grind down the leather edge, creating a flat, even surface that's ready for the sole.","Next they heat the leather to make it malleable and hammer until the upper assumes the shape of the last inside.","The hammering also rids the leather of any wrinkles.","They coat the underside with glue and carefully position the shoe's leather sole.","The glue takes about 10 minutes to dry.","Then they run the edge of the sole through a splitting machine.","This separates a thin layer which they now sew to the upper.","Durable twine and a heavy-duty loop stitch ensure the upper and sole remain inseparable.","To hide the stitching, they glue and grind down the edge.","A thorough polishing gives the sole a slick-looking finish.","Every pair of shoes this factory produces is polished by a specialist, who creates just the right shading to bring out the leather's best features.","This is the last step of roughly 200 manual operations that go into producing just a single pair of these luxurious leather shoes.","It was swiss hikers who carried the first aluminum drink bottles in the early part of the 20th century.","Today's lightweight bottles can be reused endlessly, meaning less waste in landfills.","They can also be recycled, so making one is not a wasted effort.","Some of those first trailblazing bottles still survive today, reminding us that this kind of container is made to last.","Today's bottle starts with an aluminum puck 2 3/4 inches in diameter.","The puck travels down a chute into a punch press.","It uses 660 tons of force to stretch that little puck into a long cylinder with a bottom.","A blade chops the open end down to the correct size, and then a tool pushes it onto a conveyor that sends it down the line.","The aluminum cylinder lands on a wheel which relays it to the next station.","There, machinery moves the cylinder's open end into position for tools to squeeze it into a bottleneck.","The tools pinch the metal a total of 26 times to draw the open end down to half its original diameter.","This gentle forming process results in less stress on the metal.","The last tool presses a threaded ring into the inside of the bottle for screwing on the cap.","The process leaves the threaded neck a lot thicker than the rest of the bottle so it will hold up to heavy usage.","Now the bottles head into a wash station.","They get a really good scrubbing to remove the lubricating oil from the forming process.","They then travel through a dryer, and after a few minutes, they emerge clean and ready for the next operation.","The interior wall of the aluminum drink bottle is about to be lined with a microthin, high-tech polymer.","This revolving device picks up each bottle using suction and delivers it to an individual sprayer.","The spray nozzle coats the inside of this container with a polymer.","The liner has been specially formulated to be chemically inert, which means it won't absorb or transfer flavors.","At this point, the coating is powdery, and you could wipe it off with your finger, but that's just temporary.","As they bake it, the powder will solidify and bond completely to the inside of the bottle.","The bottles move through an oven that's heated to 356 degrees fahrenheit for 10 minutes.","The liner doesn't add much weight to the bottle.","Here they weigh one before lining and after, and the difference is just a few grams.","Now the bottles spin by a gauntlet of spray guns for an even coat of paint.","Like the inner liner, this outer veneer will need to be baked on.","When it dries, the paint takes on a glossy look.","An automated squeegee silk-screens designs onto the bottles.","A jet of air dries the ink between printings as they build up the artwork using different colors.","And now it's time to screw on the cap.","As she caps the bottle, this worker performs a final inspection of the product.","From a small aluminum puck to a handy drink bottle-- incredibly, this transformation has taken just three hours.","And in its various styles, this reusable bottle is sure to make a lasting impression.","Pedaling a bicycle causes a chain reaction that sets wheels in motion.","A bicycle chain is essentially a roller chain.","It's designed specifically to transfer pedal power to the bicycle's rear drive wheel.","With a good bicycle chain, you can go far or, at the very least, take a short spin around the hood.","The chain is the driving force in a bicycle's transmission system.","It travels over gears in a perpetual loop to keep the cyclist moving forward.","Actions like shifting gears or braking will regularly put this critical mechanism to the test.","It all starts with this punch press.","It cuts and presses steel into the shape of the chain's inner links, which looks a lot like a figure eight.","Incredibly, it generates 10,000 links per hour.","Each of these figure-eight links has been made to interconnect, and their contours allow them to travel easily across the bike's gear sprockets.","They send samples of the links to a measuring station to confirm the space between the holes is precisely 12.7 millimeters.","The tester also gauges the diameter of the holes, which must be accurate to within a fraction of a millimeter.","Then the links bake in an oven at more than 1,500 degrees fahrenheit.","The blazing heat, followed by a quick cooldown, hardens the steel.","They now shovel these inner links into a doughnut-shaped machine.","They add ceramic and silica powders...","And pour in a small amount of water.","They then screw the lid on this machine.","It shakes vigorously, causing the powders and water to form an abrasive paste that polishes the links.","They load the polished inner links into a metal basket and shut the door.","Machinery plunges the basket into a series of chemical baths to give these inner links a nickel-teflon veneer.","The nickel-teflon surface will resist corrosion, and its smooth texture will allow the chain to travel easily over gear sprockets.","The bike chain's outer links get a different kind of finish.","Unlike the inner links, they don't travel over sprockets, so a simple nickel plating will do.","They're now ready to assemble the chain one section at a time.","Tubes feed the parts one by one into this assembly machine.","Gripper arms adjust their position to assemble the links to other chain components, such as retainer rings and spacers.","The machinery presses pins into the links' holes to secure the assembly.","Then grippers move the completed section of chain down the line.","It takes a whole lot of little pieces to build one short section of bicycle chain.","The sections are linked together in one long chain, which now winds by an inspection station to be examined for flaws.","After that, the chain takes a dip in hot oil, which lubricates the links to prevent squeakiness and wear down the road.","The chain exits the lubricating station and travels by wads of absorbent material, which soaks up the excess grease.","A laser tool then signals the location where the chain is to be cut, and a blade chops it at the exact spot.","A standard bike chain is just over 56 inches in length.","It consists of 114 inner links and 114 external ones, so it's got what it takes to go the distance."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Cookware","Inlaid Boxes","High"]},"text":["A quality pot and pan has the ability to heat uniformly throughout so that food cooks evenly.","Copper is by far the best heat conductor, but copper cookware is very expensive.","Aluminum conducts heat well but isn't durable.","So many cooks use stainless-steel cookware that contains aluminum.","This high-end line of stainless-steel cookware has an aluminum core running throughout.","Production begins with two stainless-steel sheets.","Using a spot welder, workers tack them together along one side.","Then they lay the connected sheets onto an assembly fixture.","A vacuum arm pulls up the top sheet, and they insert an aluminum sheet in between.","This metal sandwich goes onto a conveyor that takes it on a 10-minute ride through an oven.","The heat--  700 degrees fahrenheit-- softens the metal.","This preps them for the bonding and shaping operations to come.","From the oven, the metals enter the first mill, which uses electric current to heat and bond the three layers into one.","Now it's into a second rolling mill.","This one strengthens the bond.","That steam you see is the water-soluble lubricant evaporating against the hot metal.","Now the bonded metal travels to a second oven for reheating.","This further strengthens the bond.","From there, it's into a 110-ton press.","It forces down a die to cut out the starting shape of the piece of cookware they're making.","They clean off any debris from the metal cutting.","Even a minute shard getting under the press would damage the metal.","Now the disk goes into a 220-ton press containing a forming tool, which forms it into the shape of a 10-inch frying pan.","A sheet of paper between each shaped pan prevents scratches.","They install different forming tools on the press to produce different types of cookware, from saucepans to stockpots.","Now that they've formed the shape, they need to do some refining.","This trimming press first removes excess metal around the perimeter.","Next comes what they call edge conditioning.","The perimeter trimming left the rim rough, so now they smooth it by running it against a cutter at high speed.","The next stop is a polishing machine with an abrasive belt.","The pan's interior surface rotates at high speed against the belt.","The result is a high-gloss finish.","Now for the exterior.","The pans go onto a rotary buffer.","Each pan runs against 10 progressively finer buffing wheels.","By the end of the circuit, the stainless steel has a mirror finish.","It's time to get a handle on this cookware.","First, they use a press that's essentially an industrial-strength hole puncher.","It applies nearly 20 tons of force to perforate the metal.","Workers position rivets in the holes, then use another press to squeeze them flat.","As the rivets spread outward, they secure the handle firmly in place.","This company's top-of-the-line stainless-steel cookware contains a copper core within the aluminum core-- a structure designed specifically for induction cooking, the latest culinary technology.","A thin cut along the perimeter exposes the copper within, giving this high-end cookware a signature look.","After all, performance and style are everything in an industry where the competition's always heating up.","For centuries, people have stored their possessions in special boxes-- jewelry chests, watch cases, music boxes.","Although designed for storage, they're often as beautiful and as treasured as the goods they hold-- truly ornate, handcrafted works of art in their own right.","These wooden boxes are handcrafted and decorated with beautiful wooden inlay designs.","To build the box structure, the carpenter uses linden, a soft wood that's ideal for carving.","He begins by cutting slots in each end of the four sides.","Then he glues wooden inserts, called biscuits, into one side of each piece...","Leaving the slot on the other side empty.","Then he assembles the sides by fitting the biscuits of each side into the empty slot of the connecting piece.","After clamping everything firmly together, he checks the size by tracing a template of the final shape.","Once the glue is dry, this computer-guided machine cuts the sides to that shape.","The next step will be to veneer the sides with a decorative wood, such as olive, rosewood, redwood, or california burr walnut.","For aesthetics, workers tape four identical sheets together so that the grain of the wood appears in mirror image.","The carpenter then applies a coat of glue onto the sides of the box and presses on a piece of veneer.","They've embellished this one with some inlay work beforehand.","He presses the veneer flat to force out any trapped air.","This design calls for a black strip of bolivar wood to ornament each corner.","To make the box cover, the carpenter uses a machine called a pantograph.","He moves the head in the middle over a model of the cover.","This simultaneously moves routers on each side to shape a piece of wood to the same form.","Meanwhile, the inlayer lays a drawing of the cover's decorative design on a stack of wood boards and cuts out inlay pieces for several covers at once.","To color the edges of select pieces, the inlayer burns them in hot sand.","Some types of wood turn brown--  others, green.","After hand-cutting the design outline in a veneer sheet, the inlayer uses tweezers to position the pieces of inlay one by one.","A sheet of adhesive paper underneath holds the pieces in place for now.","Once the design is complete, the carpenter fills the crevices around the pieces with plaster tinted to blend in.","A final layer of plaster goes over the entire design to hold all the pieces in place permanently.","Once the plaster hardens, he covers the entire inlaid sheet in glue, further securing the inlaid pieces.","Now he flips it over, then peels away the adhesive paper...","And voilà.","He glues the inlaid sheet to the box cover.","Pressing it down firmly is a delicate process when the cover's curved like this one.","One wrong move, and crack.","After lacquering the edge of the cover, workers apply four coats of high-gloss varnish to protect the wood.","Finally, they screw on the box bottom, mount the cover to the box with hinges, install any other hardware, such as keyholes, and if it's a music box, install the musical movement.","Conventional gas water heaters are only about 75% thermally efficient.","But high-efficiency water heaters are up to 96% thermally efficient, meaning almost all the heat they generate gets transferred to the water.","It's the unique heat exchanger that makes these water heaters so energy-efficient.","The heat exchanger resides in the center of the unit.","It's made of steel pipe that goes through a process called mandrel bending.","Mandrel bending prevents the 12-yard-long pipe from kinking as it turns into the shape of a coil.","A welder fuses steel rods to the sides of the coil, making the flexible heat exchanger suitably ridged.","Next, a machine pumps a ceramic enamel through the pipe, from the bottom up, to ensure full coverage.","This coating protects the interior of the pipe against corrosion.","It takes about 6 minutes to fully coat the inside of the pipe and drain the remaining liquid.","It takes about 15 minutes inside a furnace for the coating to cure and become rock hard.","Now it's time to seal the heat exchanger inside an inner tank.","They first set it down on a base, then cover it with a steel enclosure.","It's this inner tank that holds the hot water.","The tank then goes into a vertical press that pushes it down onto the base.","A computerized arc-welding machine welds the tank together.","A technician then pressurizes the tank with air, and, using water, he checks for leaks until he's satisfied there are none.","He then pumps ceramic enamel into the tank, and a tumble-coating machine shakes up the corrosion-resistant enamel, fully coating the inside of the tank as well as the outside of the heat exchanger.","A technician then inserts cold-water inlet tubes into each tank.","He also inserts aluminum anode rods to help protect the inside of the unit by absorbing corrosive elements in the water before they can attack the steel tank.","After attaching all the plumber's fittings, he installs a second anode rod that gives the tanks double corrosion protection.","Now they put on what's called a rolling foam stop that helps them fit a painted jacket over the shell and maintain it in place.","Here, they attach the gas valve that is used to light the burner.","A painted cover then goes on the top of the jacket.","They connect a blower to the tank.","The blower is what expels the burner's spent gases to the outside air.","The next step is to hook up a burner to the gas valve.","This burner is what heats the air that goes through the heat exchanger, which, in turn, transfers its heat to the water.","A technician now fills the cavity between the inner shell and outer jacket with high-density expanding foam.","This foam insulation is about 2 inches thick and goes all around the circumference of the tank to prevent heat loss.","The unit then gets a cosmetic cover that conceals the blower.","Finally, a technician hooks up and tests each unit.","He follows strict quality-control standards which guarantee that the burner and all the fittings and connections are working properly.","Only then is the unit ready for shipping.","High-efficiency water heaters can deliver all the hot water you need and save you money while they're at it.","The motor scooter as we know it hit the streets just after world war ii.","Europe was rebuilding its devastated infrastructure, and the scooter offered affordable transportation at this critical time.","So in a small way, it helped put the postwar economy on the road to recovery.","Many decades after it was first introduced, the scooter is still big on the streets, and the uncertain cost of fuel is one reason why.","Production begins with a step-through chassis.","It's often built on a tubular frame.","But at this factory, they have a unique approach.","Robots join three pieces of molded steel together by executing hundreds of precision welds.","This transforms the three molded pieces into one solid chassis.","After rustproofing and priming, the chassis gets a paint job and a clear protective veneer.","They cure the finish by baking it on.","Then they polish away any imperfections.","The chassis moves down the line, where a technician installs its radiator system.","The next assembler clamps the radiator's wiring and hoses to the vehicle framework.","Some plastic edging helps define the lines of the scooter.","This model receives a 4-stroke, 150cc engine, which will make this scooter a bit more peppy than some.","It also has an automatic transmission.","Once the rear wheel has been installed, the worker hoists the engine over to the chassis.","He guides it into place just behind the passenger seat and then bolts it to the steel framework.","Next up is the steering column with the front brakes and wheel hub already attached.","The technician assembles it to a front fender...","Then inserts the steering column in its slot at the front of the scooter body.","Securing it is a delicate business.","He tightens this special tool to gently squeeze the assembly together.","This technique prevents damage to the components.","The handlebar is loosely screwed into place for now but will be properly tightened down later.","This scooter's front wheel has a 12-inch rim.","That's quite a bit bigger than those on early scooters.","The bigger wheels add stability and allow this scooter to reach a higher speed than its forerunners.","To illuminate the road ahead, this 2-wheeler will need a headlight.","It mounts onto the handlebar.","A technician then puts this scooter to the test.","She checks the headlight and all the signal lights.","She engages the motor and throttles up to check both wheels and the speed gauges.","Once it gets the okay, a worker installs the cover on the horn and then accessorizes the scooter with pieces of trim.","And now they install the scooter's saddle on a hinge over a storage compartment.","Another buff and polish makes this machine gleam.","The worker then installs pop-out footrests for the passenger.","After one last shine, it's over to the quality inspector.","That's the lady in yellow.","She scrutinizes the vehicle from all angles.","And when she gives it the green light, this scooter is ready to merge with traffic.","Life on the street can be tough, but this design has had a lot of road testing over the years, and that's what makes the motor scooter a classic."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Thinning Shears","Wagon Wheels","Toaster Pastries","Violin Bows"]},"text":["Thinning shears are scissors with at least one comb-like blade.","When the blades come together, some hair falls between the teeth of the comb, and that hair is cut while other strands are left intact.","A few quick snips, and this handy tool can do a lot for your style.","It's often necessary to go many lengths to achieve the right look.","Stylists use thinning shears to layer a cut from the inside.","This removes bulk to give hair height.","When it comes to improving your hairdo, thinning shears definitely have the teeth for the job.","They start with stainless-steel rods.","The rods ride a magnetized conveyor up to an induction heater.","It heats each rod from the ends until it becomes white-hot and soft.","The rod is now ready for forging.","A worker moves the hot rod back and forth over a die as a hammer slams into it.","This flattens and forms it into the shape of two scissor blades.","The forging leaves a lot of excess steel around the blades.","They cut away that excess.","Reheated now, a worker plunges the blades into a lead bath.","Then he dips them in oil, standing back as they flame up.","The lead bath and the quick cooldown harden the steel.","Another worker then clamps a blade into position.","A cutting wheel rolls into action and carves a comb profile into the blade.","A constant flow of water-based coolant keeps the temperature of the cutting wheel and the scissor part down, otherwise the cutting process could cause them both to overheat and compromise their strength and integrity.","This is the thinning scissor blade before cutting, and this is the blade with its new teeth.","At the next workstation, a robot transfers a blade to an automated grinding machine.","The machine grinds both the front and sides of the teeth to smooth the rough edges.","This robotic system processes up to 150 scissor blades an hour.","Next, it's into a tumbler filled with synthetic pebbles.","As the thinning blades bounce around, friction happens.","This smoothes more rough edges, especially the handles and finger rings that didn't undergo grinding at the robot station.","After about four hours, a magnetic conveyor retrieves them.","Then the midsection, where the two blades are to be joined, receives hands-on attention as a worker smoothes it using a fine abrasive sanding belt.","They move on to the straight scissor blade.","An employee hones it against a horizontal grinding wheel.","This aligns the cutting edge.","He inserts the threaded screws in holes in a straight-edged blade and in the corresponding comb-like blade.","He brings the two together and then tightens the screws to a specific torque.","Too tight or too loose, and these thinning shears won't operate smoothly.","With an emery board, he gently files the shears to get ride of lingering dust from the extensive grinding.","He now tests their function.","It isn't entirely smooth, so hammers a section of the comb blade to level it.","It now moves more freely against the straight blade.","And now the ultimate test-- he tries them out on a lock of artificial hair, and he confirms that these thinning shears are as sharp as they look.","Next, the blade comes up against a spinning leather belt.","This takes it from merely sharp to razor-sharp.","It also polishes the blade to a mirror finish.","A computerized laser burns the brand name and model information into the shears.","They screw a brass nub to the finger ring to give the pinkie finger something to rest against.","These thinning shears are now ready for shipment.","Soon, they'll be in the thick of things at the beauty salon.","Wooden wagon wheels roll through the tumbleweeds of another time.","Fixed to covered wagons, they transported settlers to the american west in the 18th and 19th centuries.","There are now cities and freeways where wagon wheels once blazed trails, but making them is not a lost art.","A thriving nostalgia industry keeps these big wooden wheels turning.","Wagon wheels are in demand for historical re-enactment events, museums, and the movies.","The wheelwright carves the hub from a chunk of strong, rot-resistant oak.","As it spins on a lathe, he cuts it to length.","He stops the lathe and marks measurements for the wagon wheel's profile, sizing it for reinforcing metal hoops.","He resumes carving, using the penciled lines as a guide.","He transforms the oak blank into a barrel-shaped design, which is traditional for wagon wheel hubs of the 1870s.","With the hub now clamped in another machine, he uses a mechanized chisel to punch out regular spoke holes known as mortises.","He angles the edge of each hole to receive the tenon end of the spoke.","He slides steel hoops onto the hub at the ends and in the center.","It's a snug fit, but it's not quite tight enough.","A hydraulic press squeezes the hoops around the hub to provide just the right tension.","The hoops will act as a constricting force to keep the wood from splitting.","From a chunk of wood into a substantial wagon wheel hub.","Now using tools called spokeshaves, the wheelwright shapes the hickory wood spokes.","He narrows the throat of the spoke to add flexibility, where it is to be inserted into the hub.","He coats the mortises of the hub with glue.","He inserts the spokes into the glued holes.","He drives them into place with a sledgehammer.","There are 12 spokes in total for this front wagon wheel.","The wheelwright then spins the wheel and eyeballs it to confirm that the spokes rotate on an even plane.","Then like sharpening a pencil, he brings the ends to a point.","This prepares them for the tenon cutter that now carves them into peg shapes for insertion into the wheel rim.","He installs the steam-bent wooden rim in two sections.","It's drilled to match up with the spokes.","At first, it's easy, but as the tension builds, it becomes tougher to insert the remaining spokes, so he stretches the rim wider with a clamp.","This gives him more room to maneuver as he fits the others into the rim half.","In the process, he creates a slight bow in the plane of the wheel.","It's a truss-like state that adds strength to the wagon wheel.","Now using an electric roller machine, he bends a strip of steel into a round wagon-wheel tire.","It takes just one pass through the rollers to achieve the desired bend.","The length will need to be precisely measured.","He measures the inner circumference with an old wheelwright tool called a traveler, to determine just how much tweaking it needs.","Then using a torch, he cuts the tire to the exact length required.","He makes the tire slightly smaller than the wheel itself because it must serve as a heavy-duty elastic band to hold the assembled wagon wheel together.","He welds it where the ends meet, and this completes the wagon-wheel tire.","He now bakes the tire briefly in an open fire.","The metal expands and at a strategic moment, they pull it out of the flames.","The tire has stretched to the point where it can be installed on the wheel, but it's not quite hot enough to cause the wooden wheel to catch fire.","They pour water onto the tire to bring it back to a cooler temperature.","As it cools, it shrinks to the wagon wheel, creating that elastic band effect.","Next, they prime and paint a matching set of wheels in the color of the client's choice.","And with those finishing touches, these wagon wheels are en route to the past.","For fans of american history, it's sure to be a sentimental journey.","For people who need to grab a quick bite for breakfast, the invention of the toaster pastry in the 1960s was the greatest thing since sliced bread.","Finally, the toaster could be used for more than toasting bread, and the toaster pastry was definitely a sweet alternative.","The toaster pastry retains its sweetness during toasting.","The syrupy filling and frosting don't melt out and into the toaster.","It's all because of the ingredients and how they come together.","At this factory, they start by making an organic pastry.","The blender operator loads dry ingredients, like rice bran, into the blender, followed by a sugar syrup and molasses.","It's the molasses that gives the pastry a brownish color.","He adds organic palm shortening and organic granulated sugar.","The flour and water are piped into the blender barrel.","Spiraling mixers blend and knead the dough to the desired consistency.","Next, it's into a hopper that feeds the dough between two rollers.","They squeeze and flatten the dough into a sheet that's about 8/10 of an inch thick.","A conveyor moves the toaster-pastry dough forward to sets of larger rollers.","They apply serious pressure to roll the dough much thinner.","Wheels at the sides fold back the dough as the width expands.","A dusting of flour to the rollers keeps things from getting too sticky.","Coming off the final rollers, the thickness of the dough has been reduced to 2/10 of a inch.","At another station, they whipped up a batch of cherry pomegranate jam.","The jam is hearty and thick, so it won't run as nozzles pump the jam onto the rolled pastry sheet.","Each toaster pastry receives three strings of jam.","This depositor system fills 10 tarts at a time.","It works out to 390 tarts a minute.","A second sheet of dough heads towards the jam-filled one.","En route, a spiked roller punches holes for venting steam during baking.","Without these holes, the pressure would build and the toaster pastries would explode.","The top sheet of pastry now merges with the bottom one.","The conveyor belts move it exactly the same speed, so the top pastry lands in perfect alignment on the jam-filled one.","A cylinder with a brass grid pattern bears down on the pastry to compress it between the jam fillings.","This forms pockets of jam.","A cylindrical blade slices the pastry into individual tarts.","A device pulls off the side trimmings.","The toaster pastries travel through a 150-foot-long convection oven heated to 300 degrees fahrenheit.","The operator keeps a close watch for leaking jam.","That would be a sign of bad seals in the pastry pockets.","He rejects any with leaks.","He also keeps an eye on the color as the pastries brown.","They shouldn't be too dark or too light.","Fresh out of the mixer, the pink frosting now flows onto a revolving belt that spreads it onto the toaster pastries at just the right thickness.","They've added a bit of starch to the icing, and it's this starch that allows the icing to harden and set so it won't melt and drip into the toaster during toasting.","They sprinkle granulated colored sugar onto the toaster pastries.","They call this topping the crunchlets.","The crunchlets add both flavor and texture to the pastry.","Once cooled, the toaster pastries transfer from one conveyor to another.","A breaker roller snaps them at the crimp line to separate them into groups of two.","The completed tarts head towards the packaging line.","An operator does a visual inspection as they pass by.","Mechanical arms push the tarts into aluminum wrapping.","Hot rollers seal and cut the wrap at the ends.","This wrapping preserves the tarts for eight months, no preservatives needed.","Suctioning arms grab and open cartons to accept the foil-wrapped toaster pastries.","It takes about an hour to manufacture a box of toaster pastries, and now it's time for a toast.","The type of bow used today for instruments in the violin family originated in france in the 1800s.","The master bow makers of the day used pernambuco, a wood being imported from brazil to make textile dye.","They considered this wood ideal due to its strength, durability, and beauty.","Today, just like hundreds of years ago, quality bows are made of pernambuco wood from brazil and horse hair.","To make the wooden part, called the stick, the bow maker lays a template onto a .","4 to .","5-inch-thick block of pernambuco and marks where he'll make his cuts.","He follows his markings with a band saw, cutting out the stick's basic shape.","Then he planes the stick, thinning it out, tapering it to narrow toward the front, and angling the corners to make the square contour octagonal.","Next, he repeatedly heats the stick with a gas flame to soften it and gently bends it against his knee.","Then, afterward, against a wooden form to give the stick a very precise curve.","This is referred to as the camber of the bow.","Next, using a handsaw and template, he cuts out a piece of pernambuco for the bow's front tip, called the head.","He refines the shape, first with a rasp, then with a file, then with sandpaper.","Then he glues on a bone plate to protect the head from damage.","He wraps string tightly around it to apply continual pressure while the glue sets overnight.","The next day, he files down the sides to make the plate flush with the wood.","Using a traditional drill, he bores a hole about 4/10 of an inch deep into the head and chisels the hole into a trapezoid shape.","This forms the hair block into which he'll later insert the hair.","Next, he measures and marks a block of ebony wood to begin making the bow's frog, the piece at the bottom by which the musician holds the bow and adjusts the tension of the hair.","He shapes the block using first a saw, then a chisel, and rasps, files, and sands all the surfaces smooth.","The frog has a space on top called the mortis, into which he'll later insert the hair.","The bow maker glues a decorative mother-of-pearl accent onto the side, then cuts two small plugs out of maple wood.","These will anchor the hair at each end of the bow.","He inserts one into the frog's mortis...","And the other into the hair block in the head.","A bow this size requires a tenth of an ounce of hair.","That's approximately 180 horse hairs.","The bow maker bonds them at one end with some melted rosin, a sticky plant resin, then inserts this end into the frog and anchors it with a plug.","Then he bends the hairs and slides on a nickel-silver ring called a ferrule to hold them together.","More expensive bows often have a gold ferrule.","To mount the frog, he inserts a long metal screw with an adjuster head into a hole drilled into the back of the bow.","The screw operates an eyelet connected to the frog.","Now he combs the hair straight.","The individual hairs must be parallel to each other for the bow to perform properly.","He ties the loose ends together with thread and bonds them with rosin.","Then he inserts the sealed end into the tip and anchors it with that second plug.","Back to the frog now, he moves the ferrule out of position, seals the mortis with a mother-of-pearl slide, then puts the ferrule back.","He wraps the parts of the stick the musician holds in silver or gold wire and leather to protect the wood from wear and brands the maker's name.","Turning the adjuster at the back moves the frog forward and backward to alter the tension of the hair.","The violinist tightens the hair before playing and loosens it when putting the instrument away."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Architectural Moldings","Pulleys","Industrial Rubber Hose","Sheet Vinyl Flooring"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Decorative moldings.","Commercial pulleys.","Industrial rubber hose.","And sheet vinyl flooring.","When you consider the high cost of renovations, architectural moldings are an easy way to get a lot of decorative bang for your buck.","By adding a crown molding along the ceiling, baseboard molding, casings, and maybe even a chair-rail molding, you can take a room from drab to dazzling without breaking the bank.","Decorative moldings can be made of solid wood, medium-density fiberboard, or finger-jointed pine.","These planks of eastern white pine are on their way to becoming finger-jointed molding.","They've just come out of the kiln.","A hygrometer measures the humidity in each plank to ensure the wood is dry enough to cut cleanly.","A worker directs a laser to read the dimensions of each and every plank.","The laser transmits that information to a computer, which guides a plane further up the line to shave the plank to the required width and square it.","This process transforms the plank into a block.","The blocks now enter a high-tech piece of equipment that identifies defects.","As each block enters the machine, a scanner records all its features.","It sends that information to a computer which calculates a cutting plan.","Guided by the computer, a saw chops out any knots or poor-quality wood.","The machine's kickers, as they're called, boot the cutoffs from the conveyer.","The blocks continue on, running against razor-sharp rotating heads that carve finger joints on the ends.","The next station coats the joints with industrial-strength carpenter's glue.","The conveyer picks up speed now and butts the blocks together with high pressure.","The joints lock in a tight fit.","When the glue dries, the joints strengthen even more.","The jointed blocks are connected in a continuous unit.","A saw now cuts it into standard molding lengths.","These lengths are known as finger-jointed blanks because they haven't been shaped.","A saw now cuts the blanks lengthwise to the thickness of the specific molding they're producing.","The final step is to profile the blanks.","A machine called a molder uses rotating steel knives to carve the wood to the required shape.","There's a different knife for each style of molding.","The molder transforms the blanks to moldings at a rate of 100 feet per minute.","Moldings made of finger-jointed pine or medium-density fiberboard are the least expensive on the market, but you can't stain them like moldings made of solid wood.","They have to be painted.","A pulley is a wheel with a grooved or barreled rim in which you can run a rope or belt.","It's a simple device used to lift a load that's hard to access or too heavy to move by hand.","Pulleys and multiple-pulley systems are vital components of many types of machines.","These pulleys are designed for use in small- to large-scale electric motors-- for example, fan belts in the air-circulation systems of office buildings, factories, and mines.","The factory makes its pulleys from a 50/50 mix of scrap iron and steel.","The furnace heats the metal to 2,500 degrees fahrenheit, slightly above the metal's melting point.","Workers adjust the chemical composition by adding carbon and silicon.","The right recipe is essential for producing quality metal.","In the furnace, the metal's impurities, called slag, rise to the surface.","Workers use giant paddles to skim it off.","Once the lab analyzes and approves the sample, they transfer the molten metal by ladle to a 30-ton holding furnace.","This furnace maintains the metal at a constant 2,500 degrees fahrenheit, the required temperature for a proper casting.","You can't pour metal this hot into a metal mold.","The mold would just melt.","So instead, the factory uses damp sand.","Sand withstands intense heat by absorbing it.","The machine forms the molds much the way you'd use a pail to form a sand castle.","It first constructs the bottom half of the mold.","This filter will screen out any slag particles the molten metal may still contain.","And these cores create empty spaces within a part.","Now the machine forms the top half of the mold.","They slip a weighted metal jacket around the finished sand mold.","This keeps it from collapsing under the weight of the metal.","Workers fill the molds right to the top.","It takes from 30 to 45 minutes for the molten metal to solidify.","They remove the weighted metal jacket...","Then dump the mold into what's call the shakeout.","The vibration breaks the sand mold apart, releasing the metal pulleys.","While the pulleys go off to be cleaned, the sand is recycled into new molds.","The pulleys are in rough form.","They still have to be machined to specifications.","A robot places each one under a computerized camera.","A visual-recognition program guides the robot to position the pulley properly into various automated-tooling machines.","This first machine makes the pulley's grooves.","The next machine will drill holes in the hub for installing the screws.","At the end of the machining process, a gauging system takes precise measurements and guides the equipment to correct any errors.","This is a two-part pulley, known as a variable pulley, because it can run a belt at variable speeds.","This tooling machine performs several operations on the male component.","It machines the face and outside diameter on one side, then flips the pulley over to make the bore and threads on the other side.","The last operation drills holes for two screws that will affix the pulley to the shaft of the electric motor.","A touch of lubricant, and the next machine assembles the male and female parts.","After setting the proper speed, the user locks the parts in position with a screw.","Many industries use rubber hose in their day-to-day operations.","They use it to remove water, clear out waste, or supply certain machines with air, water, or raw materials.","For instance, food producers might feed ingredients through a rubber hose into a mixer.","This company makes low-pressure and medium-pressure rubber hoses.","The intended use is what determines the rubber composition.","Function also determines the color, because industrial hoses are often color-coded.","The rubber arrives at the factory from the supplier in rough strips.","The first step is to run it through a mill.","The rollers heat the rubber, softening and smoothing it to an even texture.","The next machine cuts the rubber in strips to the precise width and thickness required for the size of hose they're going to construct.","Workers lubricate a steel mandrel that's the exact size of the hose's bore.","As the mandrel spins, they wrap a rubber strip around it, measuring and layering to build the necessary thickness.","Next, they add one or more reinforcement layers.","This strip is made of a high-strength synthetic fabric that's been coated in rubber.","It's designed to withstand the pressure to which the hose will be subjected.","The last layer of rubber forms the hose's outside covering.","After verifying the final diameter is correct, they wrap the entire hose construction tightly in wet nylon tape.","The tape will later shrink and compress all the materials together.","This factory also makes hoses with a built-in attachment on the end.","They position it on the mandrel, then glue the first layer of rubber to it.","This bond is reinforced with special textile strips and tightly wound, high-strength, carbon-steel wire.","They continue the wire more loosely down the body of the hose at a specific angle designed to withstand vacuum pressure.","Then they wrap the hose in a soft, stretchy rubber strip that fills the gaps between the wires.","Next comes a layer of high-strength, rubber-coated fabric, then, finally, the exterior covering-- light blue rubber for this model.","Again, the hose is pressure-wrapped with wet nylon tape.","Then, to make the hose more flexible, they create corrugations by wrapping it tightly in rope.","What's under the rope compacts, creating a dip.","They add another layer of nylon tape to hold the rope in place.","When construction is finished, the hoses, on their respective mandrels, go into an autoclave, a cylindrical chamber into which they feed hot steam at high pressure.","This vulcanization process, as it's called, triggers a chemical reaction that cures the rubber, making it elastic.","Once the hoses come out and cool, workers remove the tape.","The layers are solidly compressed.","They wash the nylon tape, then rewind and reuse it.","Now workers begin the process of removing the hose from the mandrel.","They tie one end with the rope to create pressure, then gently pump water between the mandrel and rubber.","The lubricant they applied earlier has prevented the rubber from sticking to the steel, so the hose separates easily.","They simply slide it off the mandrel.","Workers will now trim the ends, cut the hose to the length the customer ordered, then coil and package the hose.","This factory makes a wide range of industrial rubber hose in different diameters, different bore sizes, and varying degrees of flexibility.","Some hoses have specialty features, such as heat-resistant fabrics incorporated right into the rubber layers.","In 1860, an englishman invented linoleum, a revolutionary floor covering made of linseed oil, pigments, pine rosin, and pine flower.","A century later in the 1960s, vinyl flooring was introduced and eventually rendered linoleum flooring obsolete.","Vinyl flooring owes its existence to a german chemist who, in 1872, invented polyvinyl chloride, or pvc.","Pvc was considered a thoroughly useless substance until the 1920s, when an american researcher tried to make it useful by turning it into an adhesive.","He didn't succeed, but, in the process, he accidently discovered that heating pvc in a solvent transformed it into a flexible plastic, what we know today as vinyl.","Sheet-vinyl flooring comes in a wide range of designs, some of which simulate ceramic tiles or hardwood flooring.","As we see here under a microscope, vinyl flooring is comprised of three components-- a felt-paper backing on the bottom, a layer of vinyl foam in the middle, on which they print the design, and a protective layer of transparent vinyl on top.","To create texture, the factory applies an inhibitor to prevent the foam from expanding in select areas.","To make that vinyl foam, they first mix the powdered ingredients-- polyvinyl chloride resins, or pvc, white pigment, and calcium carbonate, which acts as a filler, but also helps color the mixture white.","In a separate mixer, the liquid ingredients-- plasticizer to make the vinyl flexible, fungicide to prevent mold growth, u.v. stabilizers to prevent fading, and a blowing agent, which they later activate to inflate the foam.","They combine the liquid and powders and mix for another 15 minutes.","After filtering the mixture to remove any lumps or paper-bag fragments, the liquid foam goes to the production line.","There, a large coater applies an even layer to a continuous sheet of felt-paper backing.","The coated backing then passes through an oven for about 15 seconds.","The heat--  430 degrees fahrenheit-- solidifies the liquid foam, fusing the pvc to the backing.","At this point, it's critical not to activate the blowing agent.","The floor's design will be printed directly on this foam surface.","A graphic designer creates the artwork by computer.","Then a colorist experiments with dozens of color combinations before deciding on which ones to use.","The computer breaks down the final design by color in order to produce an engraved plate for each one.","They test out the design on a piece of foam, printing one color after another until the design is complete.","On the production line, printing works the same way.","But because it's a continuous process, they use rotating cylinders rather than engraved plates.","The flooring just rolls right through them, receiving up to six ink colors one at a time.","A drier dries the ink in between applications.","Now it's time to apply the floor's top layer.","This coat of vinyl is known as the wear layer because it will be subjected to the wear and tear of walking.","The wear layer protects the design printed on the vinyl foam underneath.","Made of pvc resins and plasticizer, it goes on white but turns transparent when fused in the oven at 430 degrees fahrenheit.","At the same time, the heat of the oven activates the blowing agent in the vinyl foam underneath, expanding it.","To create a texture, they use a process called chemical embossing, in which select ink colors contain a chemical inhibitor to suppress foam expansion.","Wherever they print those colors, the foam remains flat.","These height variations create relief and simulate grout lines in imitation-tile designs.","To give the surface a sharper, more natural look, the flooring proceeds to a second process called mechanical embossing, in which an engraved roller imprints its pattern onto the surface.","The gloss level of the flooring varies with the chemical composition of the wear layer.","Workers inspect the finished flooring as it rolls off the production line.","It's 12 feet wide, wide enough for seamless installation in most rooms.","The packaging is entirely automated.","This equipment winds 100 feet of sheet-vinyl flooring per roll."]}
@@ -54,9 +54,9 @@
 {"meta":{"things":["CO2 Cartridges","Pretzels","Scissor Lifts","Skating Rinks"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Co2 cartridges...","Pretzels...","Scissor lifts...","And skating rinks.","Sports like paintball are a pressure release in more ways than one.","Paintball guns contain pressurized co2 cartridges, and when the gas is released, the force propels the ammunition towards its target.","The cartridges are used also for things like inflating bike tires and life preservers, as they target new uses for these pressure-filled devices.","A co2 cartridge packs a lot of punch into a little package.","This one can propel dozens of shots.","To make one, they unroll some steel and straighten it out.","Then, a punch press descends with 110 tons of force, cutting the steel into disks.","Simultaneously, a machine moves up from below to shape the disks into cups.","The cups move down a vibrating lane.","They're delivered to a series of cylindrical punches, each one with a smaller diameter than the last.","Each successive punch lengthens and narrows the cups as nozzles flush them with lubricant.","The process is called redrawing, and at the end of it, the cups look more like test tubes.","In just a few minutes, that piece of steel has undergone several transformations.","To continue shaping the tubes, they heat the ends by dropping them through an induction coil.","Intense magnetic fields excite the molecules in the metal, causing it to heat up sharply.","This machine is called a necker.","As it revolves, it delivers the tubes to a series of dies that pinch their ends.","With each pinch, the ends get progressively smaller.","This creates necks in the tubes.","As the diameter of the neck narrows, the tube takes the shape of a bottle.","Now each cartridge goes on a lathe.","A cutting tool plunge-cuts the neck to shorten it.","Then it carves out a lip, the same kind of lip that's on any beverage bottle.","The cartridges now head through a washing station, where soap and water get rid of the oily lubricant.","A trip under some gas burners dries them off, and they head to the filling station.","Here there's a tankful of carbon dioxide.","The filling head pumps liquid co2 into the cartridges and then caps them.","Inside these cartridges, the gaseous form of co2 is under great pressure.","Releasing even just a little through a gun will be enough to propel things like bbs, pellets, and paintballs.","They do spot checks to make sure the cartridges are tightly sealed.","Now it's on to the next station, where they'll be made to look shiny and new.","The cartridges are inside this revolving drum, which delivers an electrical charge, attracting zinc from the tank to plate the cartridges.","The smooth zinc plating doesn't just look good.","It's a better surface to print information on.","At this rotary silk-screening station, the brand name and cautionary information are printed onto the sides of the cartridges.","A quick bake under an ultraviolet light cures the ink.","And the co2 cartridges are now ready to demonstrate the power of compression.","How and when the first pretzel came to be depends on whom you ask.","One story tells of a monk baking rewards for children who were pious.","Today's bakeries still fold the dough to resemble arms crossed in prayer, but they do it much faster, granting tasty wishes to a lot more snackers.","Although hard pretzels are more common, this company makes the more traditional soft-baked ones.","To make enough dough for 4,870 pretzels, a workers first blends shortening, sugar, and salt in a huge mixer.","The machine automatically adds yeast...","Corn syrup...","1,630 gallons of cold water..","And 760 pounds of flour.","The cold water helps make the dough elastic so workers can shape it before it hardens.","A worker then opens the mixer and slows the blades to help the dough fall out.","He splits the batch on a table, then creates chunks that go into a tank called a hopper.","It feeds an auger that challenges the dough chunks through little guillotines.","The blades chop the chunks into 2 1/2 ounce balls to make small pretzels or 5 ounce balls for large pretzels.","Two conveyer belts squeeze them into 15 1/2 inch long segments called noodles.","Another machine now grabs the ends of each noodle and twists the ends over each other to create the pretzel's three signature holes.","To keep this knot from unraveling, the plate then gently flips the pretzel dough onto another plate below.","That plate carefully flips the doughy creations onto a 118-foot long conveyer belt.","The raw pretzels now travel on the conveyer for 14 minutes, the time it takes for the dough to rise.","Next, they move through showers of liquid sodium hydroxide, heated to 180 degrees fahrenheit.","That seals in the moisture so the pretzel will be chewy when you eat it.","They go into an oven that's about the length of a city bus.","As they enter, flames sear and harden the outside.","This prevents the bottoms from sticking to the mesh conveyer belt during baking.","After about 3 1/2 minutes at 560 degrees fahrenheit, the pretzels are piping hot and golden brown.","They drop onto a long conveyer, where they gradually cool on their way to the next step--  a trip through a freezer that's longer than seven olympic-size swimming pools.","After 30 minutes at minus-28 degrees celsius, the pretzels are rock solid and ready for packaging, but first, a camera scans them so that a computer can track each pretzel and guide a robotic arm to pick it up.","This arm is one of five operating at separate points on the line.","The robots process one pretzel per second and clean up after each other until the belt is picked clean.","The pretzels then fall through a sliding gate, landing on a conveyer that whisks them off to the next step.","There, a machine drops a packet of coarse salt into each bin of six pretzels.","A mechanical arm nudges the pretzels over to make room for it.","The salt packet lets you season your pretzel the traditional way before warming it up at home.","The machine blows open plastic bags with compressed air.","Mechanical arms push the pretzels and salt packet inside.","A robot arm then places each bag into a cardboard box.","The printing on this package displays the company logo, the nutritional content, the production date, and the heating instructions.","So, next time you're looking for a salty snack, don't tie yourself up in knots.","Just have a pretzel instead.","A scissor lift is a mobile work platform that rises.","The elevating mechanism consists of arms that connect in the middle like scissors, hence the name.","Scissor lifts are common sight on construction sites, in big warehouses, and at buildings where workers need a safe way to reach heights to carry out repairs or maintenance.","The number of arms in the scissor mechanism varies according to the height of each particular model.","The factory constructs the scissor arms from steel tubes.","The first step is to cut them to the right length for the model in production.","A worker uses an air gun to blow off tiny shards of metal the cutting leaves behind.","The arms go into a press that punches a hole for a hollow steel cylinder called a boss.","The boss is the housing for a pin that will connect one arm to the other, yet still allow them to pivot like a pair of scissors.","Workers now use a magnetic crane to move the arm to the welding area.","They insert the boss into the hole, then tack it in place.","This piece will go on the end of each scissor arm, but first, they weld on another boss.","Now fully assembled, this piece is called the male scissor end.","They tack it to one end of the scissor arm and tack a female scissor end to the arm's other end.","Robots now weld the two endpieces simultaneously, then the boss in the middle.","Now workers stack the scissor arms, putting a pin in each middle boss.","They also install the hydraulic lift cylinder that will raise and lower the scissor stack.","This manifold activates the lift cylinder by increasing and decreasing hydraulic pressure.","Workers fasten the connected scissor ends to each other by driving a pin through the boss.","They secure it with a locking mechanism called a cotter pin.","Meanwhile, other workers assemble the base of the scissor lift.","At this stage, it's upside down.","At the rear, workers bolt in a hydraulic wheel motor.","Hydraulic pressure turns the motor, enabling the operator to move the scissor lift forward or backward.","They slide a wheel onto the hub and bolt it securely.","This is the wheel hub onto which the front wheel bolts.","It attaches with a pin locked by a cotter pin.","They install the hydraulic steering cylinder.","This steel tie rod links the front wheels to each other so that they turn together.","Now workers hook up the hydraulic hoses.","They pump a bit of grease in to lubricate the cylinder.","Next, they assemble and install the hydraulic tray.","It contains the electrical panel that controls all machine functions, as well as the hydraulic tank and pump.","The pump forces hydraulic fluid to the wheel motor, steering cylinder, and lift cylinder.","The hydraulic tray swings closed under the base for protection.","On the other side, they install the battery tray.","It houses the four six-volt batteries that power the scissor lift, along with the battery charger.","The scissor stack, meanwhile, is in the paint booth getting a coat of primer, then a coat of urethane paint.","This finish prevents the steel from rusting.","After curing the paint in an oven, they install the scissor stack onto the base.","Now they connect the two hoses that run between the lift cylinder and the hydraulic pump.","Through one hose, fluid goes to the cylinder to raise the scissor.","Through the other, fluid withdraws to lower the scissor.","They run cables from the electrical panel up through the scissor stack.","After installing a platform made of painted steel, they connect the cables to a control box on the platform rail.","These controls enable a worker to operate the scissor lift from the platform.","After a test drive, it's time to apply the decals, up to 75 of them depending on the model.","Some are decorative, but most specify safety information, such as the scissor lift's load capacity.","For the nhl, a regulation skating rink is 200 feet long by 85 feet wide.","The rink is basic construction, but making the ice is an art.","You have to get the thickness just right.","If the ice is too thick, it will tax the refrigeration system and soften on top, but if the ice is too thin, skate blades will cut right through it.","The rink floor is a concrete slab.","Covering it with ice begins in the arena's refrigeration room.","There, a powerful compressor pumps refrigeration fluid, usually methanol or saline, through pipes running underneath the rink's floor.","The concrete chills to between minus-15.8 and 18 degrees fahrenheit, the temperature range required for water to freeze on concrete.","This company made its own ice-making machine by retrofitting an ice resurfacer.","Its onboard water tank feeds 20 sprayers that mist a 13-foot span.","The water freezes within seconds.","To make a quality ice surface, you have to build up the ice in layers, each about .","07 inch thick.","Driving in the standard outside-inside oval pattern, each layer takes just eight minutes.","With two layers down, they paint the ice white.","You'd think it would be simpler to just paint directly on the concrete, but the paint would chip off when they remove the ice at the end of the season.","They would have to scrape and clean the slab before repainting it--  a messy, expensive job.","So, instead, the ice maker mixes water and powdered paint in the onboard tank and sprays three layers onto the ice.","This paint doesn't dry.","Just like the water the machine sprayed before, it freezes into white ice.","This metal dioxide-based paint is specially formulated for skating rinks, designed to cling to a base coat of ice.","And unlike concrete paint, it's nontoxic and biodegradable, so that at the end of the season, the arena can melt the ice and let the water drain without contaminating the environment.","Now a crew comes in to paint the hockey markings.","Workers lay down string to mark the borders of the red line, the blue lines, and the goal lines.","They elevate intersecting lines so that the paintbrush can pass.","To paint the face-off circles, workers use an anchor, cable, and what's called a paint stick.","It takes just 20 minutes or so to paint them.","The paint is in a portable tank.","It flows down the paint-stick tube to a rectangular pad on the end.","Now the goal crease at each net.","First, they trace a template, then fill in with a shade of blue you see in swimming pools.","They use the same technique to paint the eight red face-off spots.","Back to the blue line.","First, they spray water to freeze the strings in place.","Then, using a brush on the same type of paint stick they use for the circles, they fill in the foot-wide space between the strings.","Now for the home team's logo at center ice.","After dabbing a mop in blue chalk, they run it over a computer-generated paper stencil of the logo.","This transfers the design outline to the ice.","They spray water on the chalk lines to freeze them in place, then paint the logo.","Finally, with a garden hose, they spray water over all the markings to seal the paint.","Then they slowly flood the ice with the larger hose for about a day and a half.","This adds the final 1.1 inches of ice.","The now-skateable ice surface is about 1.6 inches thick, containing over 13,000 gallons of water, about 300 bathtubs full."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Carbon Fibre","Antique Frame Restoration","Railcar Movers","Hood Ornaments"]},"text":["Carbon fiber is an engineer's dream-- lightweight yet incredibly strong.","It's a string with thousands of parallel filaments.","Multiple strings can be twisted into yarns, woven into fabrics, or molded with resin to produce materials called carbon-fiber composites.","Carbon fiber is five times stronger than steel yet less than half the weight.","To make it, they take a plastic fiber composed of thousands of filaments far thinner than human hair.","They then chemically alter it to form a perfect chain of carbon atoms for the final product.","This mammoth machine lines up dozens of those fibers which then travel through an oxidation oven for a couple of minutes.","The oven temperature, about 480 degrees fahrenheit, prompts the fibers to pick up oxygen molecules from the air.","This rearranges the fibers' atomic structure, rendering them resistant to high heat.","As the fibers oxidize, they change color to eventually turn black.","They're now primed for the next process, carbonization.","Furnaces heat the fibers in an oxygen-free gas mixture.","This expels the non-carbon atoms and transforms the remaining carbon atoms into tightly bonded crystals running parallel to the length of the fiber.","This gives the fiber its strength.","The exiting fibers travel through a bath of electrically charged water that etches the fibers' surface so they'll better absorb resin.","The next station applies a light preliminary coat of resin.","This will strengthen the fibers' chemical bond to the molding resin.","A spooling machine winds each fiber, now referred to as a carbon-fiber tow, onto a bobbin which buyers either weave into a carbon-fiber fabric or mix with resin to mold a product.","Another form of carbon fiber is prepreg-- sheets of resin-impregnated carbon fiber ready for molding.","It's like ready-to-bake cake mix.","The resin is a formula of epoxy and various powdered hardeners and accelerators.","Workers pour the resin into a filming machine which spreads it in a thin, wet layer onto paper.","The paper is pre-treated with a release agent to prevent the final product from sticking, like spraying a baking pan with non-stick coating.","Another machine, meanwhile, groups 200 to 300 carbon-fiber tows into a giant band of fibers called a web.","The width and thickness of the web determines the width and thickness of the prepreg sheet.","Workers mount two rolls of resin-coated paper onto the resin-impregnation machine.","A heating element warms up the web as it enters to facilitate resin absorption.","Then the heated carbon-fiber web is sandwiched between two sheets of resin-coated paper.","High-pressure heated rollers thin out the resin so it penetrates the millions of carbon-fiber filaments.","Cooling plates then turn the liquid resin to gel so that the next station can remove the paper, which pulls off easily thanks to the release agent.","The next station covers the top of the prepreg sheet with polyester film.","This prevents the prepreg sheet from sticking to itself at the end of the line when it's wound into a roll like a fruit roll-up.","In the factory's lab, technicians run quality control tests on prepreg samples.","First they weigh the sample.","Then they wash off the resin with chemicals and weigh the sample again.","This verifies whether the ratio of carbon fiber to resin is correct.","The lab also analyzes samples of composite-- carbon-fiber reinforced resin-- in this tensile strength test.","The computer measures how much strain the sample withstands before breaking.","Such testing ensures the carbon fiber delivers optimum strength, durability, and heat resistance, whether it's used to make an auto part, a wind-turbine blade, or a golf club.","Antique gilded frames have spent many years protecting paintings and enhancing them.","But over time, grime can obscure the gold-leaf shine and the frame can suffer damage and deterioration.","But these frames are highly collectible, and restoring them preserves their value.","With elaborate cast ornamentation and gold-leaf work, this 19th-century gilded frame is itself a work of art.","But it's in need of renewal.","Restoration work done many years ago has cracked, and gold leaf is deteriorating elsewhere on the frame.","The technician carefully pries the cracked acorn casting loose and removes it from the frame.","He'll make a new one from scratch.","It will need to completely fill the empty space and look exactly like the others on the frame.","He starts by making a mold with dental impression rubber.","He kneads the two putty-like components together to activate the ingredients.","When the color's uniform and there are no streaks, the rubber is ready for molding.","He must act quickly because in just three minutes the rubber will cure.","He presses it around the acorn ornament on the frame to capture the detail.","He now has a mold he can use to cast a new ornament for the frame.","He'll use this wood epoxy for that.","Like the dental impression rubber, it must be mixed thoroughly to activate it.","He presses the epoxy into the contours of the mold, pushing it from one end to the other.","This will prevent air from becoming trapped in the casting and compromising its integrity.","After a 10-minute cure, the epoxy casting is ready, and he extracts it from the mold.","He examines the detail and confirms that it is an exact reproduction.","Then, using a scoop chisel, he sculpts the edges and the inside of the casting to shape it to the picture frame.","In this comparison shot, the shaped part is the one on the left.","He places the cast epoxy ornament on the frame and nails it down.","The epoxy is still soft enough that he can drive the nail into it without breaking it.","He fills the gap between the casting and the frame with more epoxy, providing a seamless transition from new to old.","After the epoxy solidifies, he brushes something called bole onto it.","Bole is a mix of clay and rabbit-skin glue.","It provides a surface that the gold can adhere to, and the rabbit-skin glue will give it flex as the wood expands and contracts.","He then transfers the 23-karat gold leaf to the casting.","Before he lays each piece of gold leaf, he wets the surface of the ornament with a gilder's liqueur-- a mix of water, alcohol, and rabbit-skin glue.","This causes the gold leaf to conform to the contours of the ornament and adhere.","After the golf leaf sets for an hour or two, he burnishes it to a very high shine using a tool made from agate, a very hard, semiprecious stone.","Hundreds of years ago, craftsman used dogs' teeth for this job.","He rubs the shiny, new gold surface with very fine-grade steel wool.","This removes some of the gold to simulate natural wear so that it matches the patina of the rest of the frame.","And what a transformation this plain epoxy casting has undergone.","Newly gilded, and it looks like it's always been part of the antique frame.","Other sections of the frame require regilding.","He rubs alcohol onto those areas to get rid of atmospheric residue that would prevent the adhesion of the new gold.","And after applying gilder's liqueur, he lays sheets of the new gold leaf over the old, working with a steady rhythm to give the area complete coverage.","He's aiming for more of a matte finish on this section, so he doesn't polish it.","He brushes a protective coat of shellac onto it.","He's used a combination of old materials and new to restore this antique gilt frame, and it's picture-perfect.","Pushing and pulling railcars at the train yard is the job of a large motorized vehicle appropriately called a railcar mover.","It switches the cars from one track to another, shuttles them in and out of the cargo loading area, and positions them in line behind the locomotive.","A railcar mover has to drive both on and off the train track, so it has two types of wheels-- four steel rail wheels for guiding it on the track and four wheels with rubber tires for driving on the ground.","When building a railcar mover, they start with the frame.","A computer-guided plasma cutter cuts out all the frame parts from a 4-inch-thick steel plate.","Once all the frame parts are ready, workers begin welding them together.","They position the deck plate, the mover's floor, upside down and weld on the frame rails.","These will hold the axles for the rubber wheels.","Then, to those frame rails, they weld the rail arm mounts.","These will hold the rail arms which hold the rail wheels.","After welding several additional components to the frame, workers bolt the axles for the rubber wheels to the frame rails...","Then the rail arms to the rail mounts.","Now the frame goes to the paint shop for a coat of primer followed by a coat of automotive paint.","Workers also roll on a textured floor coating to create a non-slip surface for the driver to safely walk to and from the cab.","When the paint dries, the frame returns to the assembly line where workers begin mounting the 4.5-foot-wide rail wheels onto the rail arms.","After mounting each wheel on the spindle, they install a bearing, then a large nut.","They must tighten the nut to the correct torque yet not over-tighten it, or the wheel won't turn freely.","Once they've got just the correct torque, they secure the nut with a retaining lock nut.","They finish off this installation with the rail-wheel equivalent of a hubcap.","This steel cover holds in the grease that lubricates the wheel and bearing while keeping out dust and dirt.","Next they mount the four rubber wheels, securing each one with a dozen bolts.","These steel wheels with rubber tires are about 6 1/2 feet in diameter.","Workers mount several other components, including a pair of air tanks with gauges for the railcar's pneumatic brake system.","These are the brakes the driver uses when the mover is coupled to railcars.","When it's not, the mover has its own separate hydraulic brake system, the components of which workers also install at this stage.","They attach a hydraulic cylinder to the steer axle.","This controls the steering of the rubber wheels when the mover is off the train track.","The rail wheels, of course, don't require any steering, as they simply follow the track.","Now workers install the 300-horsepower diesel engine.","It's already bolted to the transmission.","Then they hook up the electrical wiring, which connects the engine and transmission to the computer controlling them.","They lower the hood over the engine and transmission.","The hood has three components already installed-- the engine air intake, air cleaner, and muffler.","Finally, they install the cab.","It has a steering wheel for driving off-rail and a control console that rotates 180 degrees to let the driver operate at whichever side of the cab provides the best view of all the railcars the mover is pulling or pushing.","The finished railcar mover doesn't leave the factory before a burn-in period in the test pit.","The test is so intense, the rubber tires have to be cooled with water.","Pulling as many as 40 railcars at a time is no job for a lightweight.","That's why a railcar mover weighs in at up to 45 tons.","At first, hood ornaments were used to beautify external temperature gauges and radiator caps.","They then evolved into signature pieces that embodied the car brand.","And when the radiator caps were moved under the hood, the ornaments stayed on top.","A hood ornament is a little piece of automotive art.","Popular mainly on luxury cars now, these ornaments symbolize the spirit of the car and can make quite a statement on the street.","Each ornament starts with an aluminum mold that consists of many parts in order to achieve a complex shape.","An injector pumps specially formulated wax into the mold cavity.","The wax solidifies quickly.","The operator dismantles the mold and removes the cast wax model.","The detail is impressive.","He examines it for flaws.","He cools the model in water until the wax firms.","This wax model will be used to make a mold to cast the metal ornament using a technique that dates back thousands of years.","He attaches numerous cast models to a wax riser by melting the wax a little so they adhere.","The next worker then dips the models and riser into specially formulated ceramic slurry.","He makes sure that the liquid covers every detail.","Still wet, the models then go into the rain sander, so named because it actually rains grit.","The grit sticks to the models for a stucco effect.","He repeats the ceramic dip and grit process three times to build up substantial shells around the wax models.","These shells will serve as molds to cast the hood ornament.","In this case, the casting material is steel.","They melt rejected hood ornaments with steel chunks to transform them into a white-hot liquid.","The ceramic models have by now been cured and the wax melted out.","Workers ladle the molten steel into the riser feeder cup.","The steel flows into all of the ceramic molds.","They top it off with a manganese mixture that catches fire and keeps the steel hot and liquid a little longer, ensuring that it feeds into all of the molds.","The steel cools for several hours and solidifies.","An employee then breaks open the network of molds to reveal the cast hood ornaments.","He inserts a pneumatic hammer into the feeder cup, and it shakes off most of the remaining ceramic shards.","This machine blasts off the rest using very fine stainless-steel particles.","They're ready to cut the cast ornaments free from the main base.","With the riser on its side, the worker slices off one hood ornament at a time using an aluminum-oxide cutting wheel.","At this angle, he can't make a clean cut.","He leaves a fairly thick chunk on the base.","He grinds off that chunk using an abrasive belt.","The base of the hood ornament is now smooth and level.","Next he refines the shape of the hood ornament.","He grinds away excess material to improve the profile of the piece and generally clean it up.","This process also adds shine to the stainless steel.","To give the hood ornaments a real polish, they plunge them into a sulfuric-acid solution.","The solution eats away impurities to expose the nickel.","A worker buffs each hood ornament against a cloth wheel until it gleams.","He examines his work under a magnifying glass.","Defects won't be tolerated, and even at this stage, the statuette could be rejected and melted into a new one.","It passes inspection.","Made of steel, silver, or gold, a hood ornament on a luxury car is a great way to say you've arrived."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Plastic Bags","Solar Panels","Plastic Gasoline Containers","Hockey Sticks"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made\"...","Plastic bags--  it's trash and carry.","Solar panels--  reflecting on energy efficiency.","Plastic gas containers--  fuel to go.","And hockey sticks-- mind if we take a shot at this one?","You can use them for groceries, for shopping, for taking out the trash.","Chances are there's a growing pile of them somewhere in your kitchen.","With so many everyday uses, it's easy to see how people can get \"carried away\" with plastic bags.","The plastic bags we use every day are made from granules of linear polyethylene resin that will be melted.","They combine the linear polyethylene with another low-density one in this mixer.","The granules are perfectly blended into a homogenous material.","Granules melt in the extruder, which heats them to a temperature varying between 356 and 465 degrees.","This produces a film of polyethylene in the form of a tube.","It is several hundred feet long, has a minimum thickness of .","0002 of an inch and a circumference of 20 inches.","The plastic tube gradually cools down.","Rollers then flatten out the plastic tube.","The polyethylene film is now easy to work.","And now they cut the tube on two sides to obtain different rolls.","This knife then cuts the film to the required width.","The excess strip is salvaged in this tube.","Several hundred of feet of film are produced and rolled up.","This particular roll contains the required quantity of film.","When the roll is full, the film is cut.","This roll moves forward and can be transported to another department.","An empty roll begins to fill up automatically.","A full roll weighs 348 pounds and can produce 35,000 bags.","The next step--  printing on the bags.","This alcohol-based ink circulates continuously to retain its viscosity.","Impressions are made by inking rollers.","Here another color is being applied on the bags.","Once printing is over, the plastic film is rolled up again.","The roll is now full, and the cutting of bags can get started.","This machine makes 150 bags per minute.","A sealer bonds the edges of the bag together with heat.","The wheel picks up the bag and puts them on 2 spindles that can hold 250 each.","Here, they're making bags with a hermetic zipper.","The zipper is made from a plastic pad which inserts into a slot.","The zipper is made in advance and is unrolled progressively.","The zipper strip is cut and heat-bonded to the bag at 356 degrees.","And here's the zippered bag, all finished.","In this other department of the plant, they make plastic bags with handles.","Printed bags circulate on these rollers.","The machine that welds the sides gives the bags the desired shape.","Then another machine, with a punch, cuts the handle holes.","Bags are heat-sealed and cut at 302 degrees.","Here, they fabricate another product-- packaging bags.","One end of the bag is heat-sealed.","This machine makes holes that let air out of the bag when it is being filled, to allow them to be generously filled with items.","At this stage, a stamper cuts the handle holes.","Bags are cut to the required size, automatically sealing the other side of it.","This plant makes eight types of bags, for an overall total of over one million a day.","Not so long ago, solar energy was a concept that seemed to be torn from the pages of a science-fiction novel.","But the time has come for this non-polluting energy source to step into the limelight--  or should we say the sunlight?","The future of solar panels is bright.","The sun is able to produce electricity.","Panels covered with photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity.","This blue plate is a module made of crystalline silicon.","The grooves are the conductors, and the silicon crystals glisten at its surface.","To make a solar panel, several modules have to be connected together.","Then they apply a soldering flux on each module.","The soldering wire is heated with an iron.","The modules are placed on a special support.","Once the soldering is done, the modules are cleaned by ultrasound, in water, at 140 degrees.","When dried, the perfectly clean modules are ready to be assembled.","Now they can proceed with soldering the modules by groups.","First, a flux is applied which improves the quality of the soldering.","With great dexterity, they assemble four groups composed of nine modules each.","In this way, 36 modules are soldered and connected in series.","Modules are assembled end to end.","They have to be handled with great care.","Using a voltmeter, the voltage of each module is verified.","At this stage, it's easy to remake a solder connection if there's a problem.","If the voltage is adequate, they use suction grips to make handling of the nine rows of modules easier and to keep them clean.","The modules are placed into position.","Then this metallic strip is inserted.","It is a conductor that will link the four groups of nine modules.","Solder connections are made to link the modules to the metallic strip.","Then they put on this transparent sheet of layered glass.","It serves as a rigid transparent form which will support the modules.","The superposing of parts forms a laminate, that increases the rigidity and solidity of the panel.","Finally, a sealing film is applied to protect the module.","To laminate and stiffen the solar panel, it's placed in a heated oven from which air has been vacuumed out.","The panel will cook at 176 degrees for 15 minutes.","The oven hermetically reseals to proceed with the vacuuming out of air.","And here's the finished panel.","All the components are bonded together.","They now proceed with a test.","The panel is placed in a solar simulator.","Negative and positive contacts of the solar panel are connected to a voltmeter.","The panel is inserted into the simulator, and a powerful lamp will illuminate it.","The voltmeter is read to make sure that panels supply the electric current required.","Here now is the assembly of another kind of solar panel called the amorphous silicon type.","Its components were made in europe and asia.","These are the positive and negative connecting wires of the solar panel.","The panel is placed into a plastic frame and glued in place.","Then the frame is screwed tight so that it won't move.","The solar panel, made up of crystalline silicon modules, is put onto an a.b.s. plastic frame.","It is now finished.","Fabricating this panel will have required about one hour of work.","Six of them are made here every day.","Your needle's dipping past empty, but you're gambling you'll have enough gas in the tank to make it just a little further.","Well, when you're on that long walk to the nearest gas station, you'll be glad someone had the bright idea of manufacturing these handy plastic gas containers.","Plastic gas containers are made from these granules composed of a concentrated colorant and a u.v.-resistant additive.","They're mixed with white granules, which is the primary material, called high-density polyethylene, and recycled plastic, which has been ground up on a granulator.","It's all dumped into this milling machine.","These granules are all mixed together and melted.","The melted plastic will be blown in and will take shape within this mold, made of very high-quality dense aluminum, called aviation type.","Blow-molding continues and produces a soft plastic tube.","This is cut and placed in the mold.","Then this nozzle pumps the plastic into the mold shell.","The container is unmolded and moves along on a conveyor.","There's another way to mold plastic-- by rotation.","This previously colored powder has a 35 mesh size, which is just a little larger than flour.","Low-density linear polyethylene is poured into the bottom of the mold.","The mold has a cover that will be closed, then placed on a steel support.","This support is articulated by an arm on two rotation axes simultaneously.","This action allows the plastic powder to distribute itself thoroughly throughout the mold.","The mold is placed in an oven which generates a temperature of 590 degrees.","About 15 minutes is needed for the polyethylene powder to melt and another 15 minutes to allow the piece to adequately cool before unmolding it.","The mold cover is lifted off, and the plastic piece is unmolded.","Gloves must be worn, since the piece and the mold are still very hot.","Here they fabricate a mechanism cover for a stationary bicycle.","It's held in place by a cutting pattern, and openings are cut with a pneumatic tool.","Holes are made with a drill.","The casing is now completed.","Now we get back to the previous blow-molding process.","This type of molding produces residues that have to be eliminated.","These surplus pieces are cut with this small saw.","The now-hardened scraps are sent to the granulator to be reduced into granules, which will be newly added into the mixer to make other plastic containers.","This small pneumatic drill pierces the container's vent hole.","The container circulates from one step to another on the conveyor.","The next steps will be accomplished by robotic arms.","And then the final elements are attached, such as the pouring spout.","Then a sealing stopper, equipped with a rubber washer, prevents leaks.","And finally, the cap of the neck is automatically screwed into place.","Depending on the thickness of the mold, the blowing procedure allows the production of between 30 and 120 containers an hour.","The rotation process takes between 45 and 60 minutes to make a unit.","Finished containers are now ready for packing and delivery.","Few things are as elegant as curved, polished wood...","Especially at 100 miles an hour and driving a slap shot right past the goalie.","A lot of engineering goes into packing that punch.","Call it the science behind \"he shoots, he scores\".","The irish, some 1,200 years ago, were playing hurling, a form of hockey on grass with simple goal zones.","In the 17th century, american indians used curved sticks in a game they called \"battagaway\".","The sport we play today was developed by british soldiers in 1855 in ontario, canada, as a pastime during long northern winters.","Making a hockey stick requires the assembly of several pieces of wood and fiberglass.","These sticks are all replicas of those of great hockey professionals.","The shaft is made of a piece of poplar onto which they glue two thin strips of birch.","This is placed on a circular conveyor equipped with a press that holds the pieces together while the glue dries.","Then this multibladed saw cuts the wood into three identical stick-shaft pieces.","The shafts are moved to a precision sander.","The shaft has to be reinforced with fiberglass.","With a roller, they apply a coat of epoxy resin, a kind of glue, onto which they place carbon-reinforced fiberglass.","The resin has to dry and harden.","The stick shaft is placed in an individual mold and cooked in this press, heated to 176 degrees for 12 minutes.","The shaft then goes to a milling machine equipped with diamond-headed knives that round the edges.","A finish is applied to the shaft for a second sanding, which brings out the grain of the wood.","Now they glue small blocks to the end of the shaft in order to attach the blade.","Urethane glue is used.","It resists water and humidity and is specially made for hockey sticks.","This glue dries in 15 minutes at 100 degrees.","This slitter cuts the shaft and wood blocks in order to slide in the blade.","This machine inserts the glue and the blade into the stick shaft.","The stick is placed on a conveyor leading it to the next step and giving the glue a chance to dry well.","Then both sides of the blade are sanded to thin them.","The sticks are replicas of those used by hockey professionals.","This computer-controlled digital lathe cuts the blade.","Data on all the cuts are in the computer's memory.","The blade now has to be curved.","It's steamed for a minute, allowing humidity to penetrate the wood and make it flexible.","Then the blade is placed in this curved mold, where it is heated for 50 seconds at 131 degrees.","The blade is then worked by hand.","The new blade is compared with the pattern of a hockey player's stick to obtain precisely the same curvature.","This is why the company keeps 6,000 blades on hand.","Now the blade is sanded down to the desired thickness.","The blade must also be reinforced.","Fiberglass cloth is soaked with epoxy resin.","Then they place the cloth on the blade and leave a good margin around it.","They get rid of air bubbles, then put it into an oven to dry at 90 degrees over 24 hours.","The surplus fiberglass hardens and is cut with a band saw.","This step requires quite a degree of manual dexterity.","Finishing is done with this circular sander.","Finally, the blade is dipped into this epoxy resin to give it a nice luster.","All that remains is to paint the stick.","Here, the company logos are applied via silk-screening.","Besides the 6,000 personal models of professional hockey players, this company produces 65 other models of hockey sticks.","Each week, they make about 40,000 sticks, for an annual total of 1,600,000."]}
-{"meta":{"things":["Boomerangs","Barbeques","Pinball Machines","Strobe Lights"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" boomerangs...","Barbecues...","Pinball machines...","And strobe lights.","Boomerang is a throwback to primitive times.","Back then, people threw sticks to hunt and that's likely how they discovered that certain bent sticks would circle back.","Boomerangs have come a long way since then and are now finely crafted works of art.","Boomerangs come in many shapes, but fundamentally, they are all single-wing aircraft.","Construction begins with a solid piece of wood.","This tree's growth rings have been highlighted to demonstrate how compressed the outer rings become.","Because the wood from this section is denser than the inner rings, it's easier to work with.","A woodworker takes 16 strips of that dense wood and places them in a steam box for 20 minutes.","The steam makes the strips much more flexible.","In fact, they're so elastic, they can be bent by hand.","Watch how he arcs all 16 layers at once with little effort.","The basic form of a boomerang has taken shape.","To improve the contour, the strips into a boomerang-shaped mold.","They'll stay in this mold for a day or two, long enough to dry and harden into the bent form.","Now it's time to laminate the wood.","Glue is spread onto each bent strip.","Then the strips are clamped together again back into the mold.","This time, the mold has been coated with wax to prevent the glue from sticking to it.","The strips are left to set overnight.","The next day, the laminated piece of wood is removed.","It's solid but far too chunky to take flight.","A woodworker slices it into pieces 8 to 12 millimeters thick.","One piece of laminated wood yields about six thinner pieces, each of which will become a boomerang in its own right.","But it needs more form, and those rough edges have to go.","So a more refined design is traced onto the wood and cut out.","But there's an easier way to make a boomerang-- with sturdy aircraft plywood.","With plywood, there's no need to laminate and then physically bend the wood.","A woodworker simply cuts out the pattern...","Then sculpts the tops of the wings with a drum sander.","He's made the tops of the wings curve upwards but in opposite directions.","It's this contouring that will make the boomerang fly in a circle.","On some models, embedded lead weights are added for improved balance.","That laminated boomerang gets the same contouring but files are used instead of a drum sander.","Laminated wood responds better to this technique, but it's much more labor intensive and requires specialized skill.","One mistake in the shape and size and the boomerang's aerodynamics will be thrown off kilter.","But our woodworker has the job down to a fine art.","To fine-tune the boomerang, he first softens it over a steaming kettle while twisting the wings into an upward flip.","This blower dries the wood to ensure it stays flipped.","Then the woodworker sets it on a flat surface to check the curve.","A sealant is sprayed onto the boomerang, and finally, it gets several coats of lacquer for a high-gloss finish.","And now these boomerangs are ready to fly.","Up next, it's time to get grilling.","The barbecue's origins are clouded in a bit of a smoky haze, but it's believed that native caribbeans were the first to cook this way.","Of course, back then, they didn't have charcoal grills.","They roasted meat over a smoky pit.","Today, people still love a good cookout, but now we have better equipment.","Basic charcoal grills begin with big steel disks.","Rollers coat each one with soapy lubricant.","Then they're fed into a press that shapes each one into a big bowl.","Molding steel can be tricky.","If it's not lubricated enough, it could tear instead of bend, so workers need to make sure each disk gets a generous application of the soapy solution before it goes into the press.","This is a back view of the press.","With each powerful thrust, the ram delivers 500 tons of pressure.","A similar type of press makes the barbecues' lids.","An operator inspects each part for splits and cracks.","Then it's over to a press that trims the rim.","The scrap is tossed into a bin for recycling.","Next, the barbecue bowl spins around while an automated roller flanges the rim.","After that, holes are punched into the bowl for ventilation.","Now it's time to bring in the welding guns.","The guns fuse metal couplings to the bowls to serve as attachments for the barbecue's legs.","Here handles are lowed into an assembly machine.","Below, a turntable swings the barbecue bowls into position, then the handles are welded to each side.","At another station, the barbecue lids get a handle of their own.","No chef can check the progress of a burger without this essential part.","This one will allow the chef to lower the lid, to control the cooking temperature, and then lift it again when it's time to flip the burgers.","The barbecue parts now travel on an overhead rail to the wash station.","They're hosed down with soapy water, then rinsed clean.","Once they're dry, it's off to the finishing department.","Here the parts are dusted with a glass powder.","Then it's into a red-hot furnace set to 1,500 degrees.","The furnace bakes the glass dust into an enamel finish that protects the barbecue from rust and stains so they'll last for years.","Next, they go under intense lights that expose any defects in what should be a mirror-like finish.","An inspector examines each part inside and out.","A punch machine now makes dampers from aluminum.","It simultaneously cuts the shapes and embosses the company's logo onto them.","This handy attachment enables the chef to control the flow of air to the grill.","Nylon grips go onto the handle.","And the damper is installed over the lid's ventilation holes.","It's up to the consumer to complete the final assembly, and in just a few minutes, the burgers could be grilling.","Coming up, a high wire at a pinball factory.","Before video games, the pinball machine reigned supreme.","You pull a plunger to get the ball rolling, and as your flippers send the silver sphere flying, the machine comes to life with flashing lights and clanging bells.","No wonder it's not yet game over for pinball.","The game of pinball is unprogrammed and unpredictable.","It all starts with reams of wiring for the game's electronic system.","There's almost half a mile of wiring in one machine alone.","The color-coded wire is wound around pins and attached to connectors on the circuit board.","Technicians follow a detailed set of instructions, and an engineering diagram keeps things from getting in a tangle.","Once the wires are all laid out, they're removed in loosely tied bunches and dipped into a hot metal soup to solder them together.","But not all wires are soldered.","Some get attachments called lugs.","These connectors are crimped onto the ends of the wires with a hydraulic machine.","Eventually, the lugs will be used to connect wires to attachments on the play field.","But first, the cable is hooked up to a testing board where technicians check every circuit.","Meanwhile, the play field is placed on a bed of nails and foam strips.","As the nail bed rises and presses against the header, the nails prick the back of the play board, but the foam strips stop them from going all the way through.","These nail holes will serve as markers for installing pinball targets and tactical features on the play field.","Technicians drill a few holes, then cover the play field with a metal template and drill some more.","These holes will be used to mount the pinball gadgetry onto the play field.","Next, anchors are hammered into place.","They'll secure the metal railings that keep the silver balls from rolling off the play field.","A lamppost is fitted into place...","Followed by some plastic bumpers and 115 flashing lights.","Now it's time to permanently attach all that wiring.","Some are soldered directly onto the board.","Others are attached to switches.","A speaker is bolted into the cabinet for some major sound effects.","Then it's time for that essential tool-- the spring-powered plunger.","Workers attach a toy villain...","And add a ramp in the shape of a sword, along with a few other characters.","Finally, it's time for the inaugural run.","The pinball is rolled into every target and mechanism to test the game's electronic switches.","There can be 70 switches in a game.","As technicians press all the buttons, a computerized system diagnoses any malfunctions.","They rigorously test all of the game's features.","If everything works, the play field is inserted into its console.","A shatterproof window slides into place to protect the play field from overenthusiastic gamers.","A metal bar locks the window into place.","Finally, the header is attached, and this pinball machine is wired and ready for action.","Coming up, little lights with lots of flash.","Strobe lights often conjure up images of '70s discos.","But you'll also find strobe lamps-- the proper term, by the way-- on aircraft wings, in police lights, and on towers and tall buildings to warn low-flying aircraft.","Strobe lights even play a role in photography and on factory production lines.","A strobe lamp emits repeated flashes of high-intensity light.","At this factory, production begins with glass blowers.","Using a ribbon burner, they heat glass tubes to almost 3,000 degrees.","This softens the glass for bending.","But if it's too soft, the tubes will collapse, so the glassworkers blow air into it through a rubber hose to build counterpressure.","The size and shape of the glass tubes varies by model, but its job is always the same-- to house a strobe lamp's essential components-- electrodes, lead wires, and xenon gas.","The electrodes conduct the current, which charges the gas with electricity, making it illuminate.","This factory makes several strobe-lamp models, some in large quantities for the mass market, others in small quantities, custom-designed for specific clients.","With mass-produced models, automated machines take over after the glassblowing.","Custom orders are handmade from start to finish.","Workers even make the electrodes manually.","They weigh a precise amount of metal powder and pour it into the cavity of a press similar to what pharmaceutical factories use to make pills.","This powder is a blend of several different materials, but the company won't divulge the ingredients.","The press applies 4 tons of pressure, compressing the powder into a pellet.","The factory inspects every pellet to ensure it meets quality standards.","The pellets then undergo a hardening process called centering.","They bake for nine minutes in a hydrogen-fueled oven.","Hydrogen is one of the hottest types of fuel, and the 3,000-degree heat fuses the powder particles into a solid mass that won't crumble apart.","Next, workers weld a lead wire to each electrode.","Then they insert two electrodes, one for the positive current, one for the negative, into each glass tube.","Then they melt the end of the tube closed.","Then they attach a wire called a trigger lead.","It prompts a transformer to send a high-voltage electric pulse to the electrodes, illuminating the gas.","This automated machine assembles the factory's mass-produced models.","Before starting it up, workers load the components-- a pair of electrodes followed by a glass tube on top.","Now the machine takes over.","It vacuums out the air in the tube, injects xenon gas, melts the tube closed, then cuts off the excess glass.","The tube's interior must be completely free of contaminants for the gas to illuminate.","So, just before the vacuum fill-and-seal operation, a hot coil encircles each tube to burn away any impurities.","On custom-made models, all of these steps are done manually.","With the strobe lamp complete, it's installation time.","This model is for the warning lights you see on tow trucks and road-construction vehicles.","It goes into a glass reflector lined with metallic film.","A transformer regulates the voltage.","Its three wires connect to the positive, negative, and trigger leads protruding from the lamp.","A glass lens covers seals and protects the lamp within the reflector, and then this product is good to go.","Strobe lamps are also used in stroboscopes-- industrial devices that help factories perform quality-control inspections on high-speed production lines.","Calibrate the light pulses to the right interval and they appear to stop the action so that cameras or workers can examine the goods.","It's the size, shape, and configuration of a strobe lamp's components, along with voltage and other electrical specs, that determines how long, how often, and how quickly the light flashes.","If you have comments about this show, or if you would like to suggest topics for future shows, drop us a line at..."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Boomerangs","Barbeques","Pinball Machines","Strobe Lights"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" boomerangs...","Barbecues...","Pinball machines...","And strobe lights.","Boomerang is a throwback to primitive times.","Back then, people threw sticks to hunt and that's likely how they discovered that certain bent sticks would circle back.","Boomerangs have come a long way since then and are now finely crafted works of art.","Boomerangs come in many shapes, but fundamentally, they are all single-wing aircraft.","Construction begins with a solid piece of wood.","This tree's growth rings have been highlighted to demonstrate how compressed the outer rings become.","Because the wood from this section is denser than the inner rings, it's easier to work with.","A woodworker takes 16 strips of that dense wood and places them in a steam box for 20 minutes.","The steam makes the strips much more flexible.","In fact, they're so elastic, they can be bent by hand.","Watch how he arcs all 16 layers at once with little effort.","The basic form of a boomerang has taken shape.","To improve the contour, the strips into a boomerang-shaped mold.","They'll stay in this mold for a day or two, long enough to dry and harden into the bent form.","Now it's time to laminate the wood.","Glue is spread onto each bent strip.","Then the strips are clamped together again back into the mold.","This time, the mold has been coated with wax to prevent the glue from sticking to it.","The strips are left to set overnight.","The next day, the laminated piece of wood is removed.","It's solid but far too chunky to take flight.","A woodworker slices it into pieces 8 to 12 millimeters thick.","One piece of laminated wood yields about six thinner pieces, each of which will become a boomerang in its own right.","But it needs more form, and those rough edges have to go.","So a more refined design is traced onto the wood and cut out.","But there's an easier way to make a boomerang-- with sturdy aircraft plywood.","With plywood, there's no need to laminate and then physically bend the wood.","A woodworker simply cuts out the pattern...","Then sculpts the tops of the wings with a drum sander.","He's made the tops of the wings curve upwards but in opposite directions.","It's this contouring that will make the boomerang fly in a circle.","On some models, embedded lead weights are added for improved balance.","That laminated boomerang gets the same contouring but files are used instead of a drum sander.","Laminated wood responds better to this technique, but it's much more labor intensive and requires specialized skill.","One mistake in the shape and size and the boomerang's aerodynamics will be thrown off kilter.","But our woodworker has the job down to a fine art.","To fine-tune the boomerang, he first softens it over a steaming kettle while twisting the wings into an upward flip.","This blower dries the wood to ensure it stays flipped.","Then the woodworker sets it on a flat surface to check the curve.","A sealant is sprayed onto the boomerang, and finally, it gets several coats of lacquer for a high-gloss finish.","And now these boomerangs are ready to fly.","Up next, it's time to get grilling.","The barbecue's origins are clouded in a bit of a smoky haze, but it's believed that native caribbeans were the first to cook this way.","Of course, back then, they didn't have charcoal grills.","They roasted meat over a smoky pit.","Today, people still love a good cookout, but now we have better equipment.","Basic charcoal grills begin with big steel disks.","Rollers coat each one with soapy lubricant.","Then they're fed into a press that shapes each one into a big bowl.","Molding steel can be tricky.","If it's not lubricated enough, it could tear instead of bend, so workers need to make sure each disk gets a generous application of the soapy solution before it goes into the press.","This is a back view of the press.","With each powerful thrust, the ram delivers 500 tons of pressure.","A similar type of press makes the barbecues' lids.","An operator inspects each part for splits and cracks.","Then it's over to a press that trims the rim.","The scrap is tossed into a bin for recycling.","Next, the barbecue bowl spins around while an automated roller flanges the rim.","After that, holes are punched into the bowl for ventilation.","Now it's time to bring in the welding guns.","The guns fuse metal couplings to the bowls to serve as attachments for the barbecue's legs.","Here handles are lowed into an assembly machine.","Below, a turntable swings the barbecue bowls into position, then the handles are welded to each side.","At another station, the barbecue lids get a handle of their own.","No chef can check the progress of a burger without this essential part.","This one will allow the chef to lower the lid, to control the cooking temperature, and then lift it again when it's time to flip the burgers.","The barbecue parts now travel on an overhead rail to the wash station.","They're hosed down with soapy water, then rinsed clean.","Once they're dry, it's off to the finishing department.","Here the parts are dusted with a glass powder.","Then it's into a red-hot furnace set to 1,500 degrees.","The furnace bakes the glass dust into an enamel finish that protects the barbecue from rust and stains so they'll last for years.","Next, they go under intense lights that expose any defects in what should be a mirror-like finish.","An inspector examines each part inside and out.","A punch machine now makes dampers from aluminum.","It simultaneously cuts the shapes and embosses the company's logo onto them.","This handy attachment enables the chef to control the flow of air to the grill.","Nylon grips go onto the handle.","And the damper is installed over the lid's ventilation holes.","It's up to the consumer to complete the final assembly, and in just a few minutes, the burgers could be grilling.","Coming up, a high wire at a pinball factory.","Before video games, the pinball machine reigned supreme.","You pull a plunger to get the ball rolling, and as your flippers send the silver sphere flying, the machine comes to life with flashing lights and clanging bells.","No wonder it's not yet game over for pinball.","The game of pinball is unprogrammed and unpredictable.","It all starts with reams of wiring for the game's electronic system.","There's almost half a mile of wiring in one machine alone.","The color-coded wire is wound around pins and attached to connectors on the circuit board.","Technicians follow a detailed set of instructions, and an engineering diagram keeps things from getting in a tangle.","Once the wires are all laid out, they're removed in loosely tied bunches and dipped into a hot metal soup to solder them together.","But not all wires are soldered.","Some get attachments called lugs.","These connectors are crimped onto the ends of the wires with a hydraulic machine.","Eventually, the lugs will be used to connect wires to attachments on the play field.","But first, the cable is hooked up to a testing board where technicians check every circuit.","Meanwhile, the play field is placed on a bed of nails and foam strips.","As the nail bed rises and presses against the header, the nails prick the back of the play board, but the foam strips stop them from going all the way through.","These nail holes will serve as markers for installing pinball targets and tactical features on the play field.","Technicians drill a few holes, then cover the play field with a metal template and drill some more.","These holes will be used to mount the pinball gadgetry onto the play field.","Next, anchors are hammered into place.","They'll secure the metal railings that keep the silver balls from rolling off the play field.","A lamppost is fitted into place...","Followed by some plastic bumpers and 115 flashing lights.","Now it's time to permanently attach all that wiring.","Some are soldered directly onto the board.","Others are attached to switches.","A speaker is bolted into the cabinet for some major sound effects.","Then it's time for that essential tool-- the spring-powered plunger.","Workers attach a toy villain...","And add a ramp in the shape of a sword, along with a few other characters.","Finally, it's time for the inaugural run.","The pinball is rolled into every target and mechanism to test the game's electronic switches.","There can be 70 switches in a game.","As technicians press all the buttons, a computerized system diagnoses any malfunctions.","They rigorously test all of the game's features.","If everything works, the play field is inserted into its console.","A shatterproof window slides into place to protect the play field from overenthusiastic gamers.","A metal bar locks the window into place.","Finally, the header is attached, and this pinball machine is wired and ready for action.","Coming up, little lights with lots of flash.","Strobe lights often conjure up images of '70s discos.","But you'll also find strobe lamps-- the proper term, by the way-- on aircraft wings, in police lights, and on towers and tall buildings to warn low-flying aircraft.","Strobe lights even play a role in photography and on factory production lines.","A strobe lamp emits repeated flashes of high-intensity light.","At this factory, production begins with glass blowers.","Using a ribbon burner, they heat glass tubes to almost 3,000 degrees.","This softens the glass for bending.","But if it's too soft, the tubes will collapse, so the glassworkers blow air into it through a rubber hose to build counterpressure.","The size and shape of the glass tubes varies by model, but its job is always the same-- to house a strobe lamp's essential components-- electrodes, lead wires, and xenon gas.","The electrodes conduct the current, which charges the gas with electricity, making it illuminate.","This factory makes several strobe-lamp models, some in large quantities for the mass market, others in small quantities, custom-designed for specific clients.","With mass-produced models, automated machines take over after the glassblowing.","Custom orders are handmade from start to finish.","Workers even make the electrodes manually.","They weigh a precise amount of metal powder and pour it into the cavity of a press similar to what pharmaceutical factories use to make pills.","This powder is a blend of several different materials, but the company won't divulge the ingredients.","The press applies 4 tons of pressure, compressing the powder into a pellet.","The factory inspects every pellet to ensure it meets quality standards.","The pellets then undergo a hardening process called centering.","They bake for nine minutes in a hydrogen-fueled oven.","Hydrogen is one of the hottest types of fuel, and the 3,000-degree heat fuses the powder particles into a solid mass that won't crumble apart.","Next, workers weld a lead wire to each electrode.","Then they insert two electrodes, one for the positive current, one for the negative, into each glass tube.","Then they melt the end of the tube closed.","Then they attach a wire called a trigger lead.","It prompts a transformer to send a high-voltage electric pulse to the electrodes, illuminating the gas.","This automated machine assembles the factory's mass-produced models.","Before starting it up, workers load the components-- a pair of electrodes followed by a glass tube on top.","Now the machine takes over.","It vacuums out the air in the tube, injects xenon gas, melts the tube closed, then cuts off the excess glass.","The tube's interior must be completely free of contaminants for the gas to illuminate.","So, just before the vacuum fill-and-seal operation, a hot coil encircles each tube to burn away any impurities.","On custom-made models, all of these steps are done manually.","With the strobe lamp complete, it's installation time.","This model is for the warning lights you see on tow trucks and road-construction vehicles.","It goes into a glass reflector lined with metallic film.","A transformer regulates the voltage.","Its three wires connect to the positive, negative, and trigger leads protruding from the lamp.","A glass lens covers seals and protects the lamp within the reflector, and then this product is good to go.","Strobe lamps are also used in stroboscopes-- industrial devices that help factories perform quality-control inspections on high-speed production lines.","Calibrate the light pulses to the right interval and they appear to stop the action so that cameras or workers can examine the goods.","It's the size, shape, and configuration of a strobe lamp's components, along with voltage and other electrical specs, that determines how long, how often, and how quickly the light flashes."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Paving Asphalt","Marshmallow Cookies","Loudspeakers","Electronic Door Locks"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Paving asphalt...","Marshmallow cookies...","Loudspeakers...","And electronic door locks.","Asphalt is a black, liquid substance that's a by-product of processing crude petroleum.","Asphalt is a key component of waterproofing and insulation materials and roofing shingles.","But its best-known use is for paving roads.","Asphalt cement is a by-product of crude oil-- the key ingredient they mix with crushed rocks and other minerals to make paving asphalt.","So, production begins at the paving plant's quarry, where some 50 feet below ground, workers driving heavy machinery collect boulders of granite that have been blasted off the rock walls.","Trucks transport the rocks to the paving plant, which is right on the quarry site.","They dump their cargo into the primary crusher-- a machine whose steel jaws crush these big rocks into pieces smaller than 8 inches.","It takes mammoth force to crush solid rock.","The fly wheels that amplify the motor's energy weigh more than 6 tons.","The primary crusher empties onto a mobile conveyor belt, which transports the crushed rocks to an outdoor storage area.","When it's time to make the asphalt, the rocks travel, via conveyer belt, from the storage area to a screening building to be classified by size.","There, the rocks tumble downward over a series of inclined screens whose largest holes are 4 inches wide.","What's too large to drop through goes to a secondary crusher, that reduces the rocks to 4 inches or smaller, then sends them to a third, or tertiary, crusher that further reduces them to 1 inch or smaller.","What's small enough to pass through the screens bypasses the secondary crusher and goes directly to the tertiary crusher.","After this last crushing stage, the largest stones are 1 inch in size.","Everything smaller than 1/4 inch goes in one pile-- that includes stone dust created by the crushing process.","Stones that are 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch go into another pile...","Stones 1/4 to 1/2 inch into another.","Trucks transfer material from each pile to separate compartments called feed bins.","Exactly what goes into the paving asphalt depends on what's being paved.","But, generally, these are the four ingredients...","Sand...","Stone dust...","1/4- to 1/2-inch stone...","And 1/2 to 3/4 of an inch stone.","The ingredient proportions vary according to what the paving asphalt will be used for.","Stones, along with sand and stone dust as fillers, usually make up about 95% of the mix.","The remainder, added later, will be liquid asphalt cement.","Each bin releases a specific amount of material onto a conveyor belt running under it.","The belts lead to a main collecting belt that dumps the ingredients, combined, onto yet another belt that leads to a drier.","The drying process, which takes about a minute, removes all traces of humidity.","This will enable the materials to bond better with the asphalt cement.","Screening equipment then reseparates the dried ingredients, making it possible to precisely weigh out the required amount of each one.","Everything then goes into a mixer.","As this demonstration shows, the mixer blends everything thoroughly.","Then it's time to pump in hot asphalt cement.","Oil refineries make asphalt cement from what's left over after they've processed crude oil.","The paving mix contains about 5% asphalt cement.","This is what happens inside the mixer.","The hot asphalt cement binds the ingredients in about 30 seconds.","The result is ready-to-lay paving asphalt.","The mixer empties directly into trucks destined for the paving site.","There, a paving machine will spread the hot asphalt on the road bed.","Then a compactor roller will pack it down.","The asphalt cools and hardens in about one hour, depending on the weather.","The next time you bite into a marshmallow cookie, you can thank the ancient egyptians.","They invented marshmallow candy by thickening honey with sap from the root of the marshmallow plant-- a herb that grows in salt marshes and along large bodies of water.","Modern marshmallow contains gelatin instead of sap from the mallow root.","The snap test-- to make sure the coating is hard and thick enough.","Then, the taste test.","If you've got a sweet tooth, doing quality control in the marshmallow cookie factory is your dream job.","To make a batch of dough for the cookie base, they mix wheat flour, salt, baking soda and powder, cornstarch, whey powder, and potassium sorbate.","Then they add several liquid ingredients.","This one causes a chemical reaction, making the biscuit lighter.","This cream-colored liquid is vegetable oil shortening.","This transparent liquid is glucose fructose, a sweetener.","The ingredient proportions are also a company secret.","From the mixer, the dough goes into a machine called the chipper.","It shreds the big blob into pieces about the size of the cap on a highlighter pen.","This makes the dough more manageable for the next machine, called a rotary mold.","Inside that machine, a large roller flattens the dough pieces, forming them into a dense sheet about 1/2 inch thick.","It then presses the sheet against another roller whose surface is a cookie mold.","The factory uses the rotary mold machine for many different types of cookies.","It simply installs the appropriate roller for the cookie in production.","For marshmallow cookie bases, the mold cavities are round.","The bases exit the rotary mold and make their way onto a moving baking sheet.","That transports them to an oven.","The baking time and temperature are, once again, top secret.","The baked cookie bases exit the oven and move onto a conveyer belt that transports them to a cooling area.","Once they cool to room temperature, the bases go into a machine called the base feeder.","It lines them up like marching soldiers to receive their marshmallow filling and chocolate coating.","The process does require military precision.","Factory technicians have to adjust this machine daily to ensure accuracy to 1/32 of an inch.","A portion of filling has to land perfectly centered on each base, finishing off in a curled peak, this brand's trademark.","The company won't divulge how much marshmallow filling goes into each cookie, nor will it reveal its marshmallow recipe.","But marshmallow is usually made from either corn syrup or sugar and gelatin.","And now for the final layer-- the chocolate coating.","Not only are the marshmallow and base covered in hot, melted chocolate, the base floats in it, which coats the underside, as well.","Built-in air jets blow off the excess.","The chocolate hardens inside a cooling tunnel.","How long that takes in the tunnel temperature are-- you guessed it-- classified information.","As the cookies exit the cooling tunnel, a quality-control worker does spot-checks to ensure the coating is thorough, hard enough, and thick enough.","On the packaging line, the cookies go into plastic trays.","To keep up to speed, the workers have to grab four cookies in each hand without breaking the coating.","The trays pass through a machine that wraps them in plastic film.","This keeps the cookies fresh and also prevents them from falling out of the tray.","Meanwhile, another machine assembles the boxes-- first folding and gluing one end shut.","Once workers load the trays, the machine glues the open end closed, as well.","Then with the go-ahead from quality control, the box's next stop is the cookie aisle of your local supermarket.","Loudspeakers take an electrical signal and turn it into sound.","The key to it all is a magnetic wire voice coil and a permanent magnet that attract and repel each other.","As the coil moves back and forth, it rapidly vibrates a flexible cone.","This vibrates the air in front of the speaker, creating sound waves.","Loudspeakers contain at least two magnet-and-cone assemblies known as drivers.","They're typically housed in a box called a speaker enclosure.","To build the internal magnetic structure, the factory begins by cutting two plates of iron, each about 1/2 inch thick.","They go one at a time onto a lathe.","First, the machining tool smoothes and evens out the surfaces, getting rid of the marks the saw made.","Then it cuts out a small hole in the center of one plate and a larger hole in the center of the other.","Next, they cut a smaller and thicker round piece of iron called the core.","A reamer bores a large hole through it.","They apply superhigh-strength epoxy glue to the core and to the back plate-- the plate with the smaller hole.","They glue and screw the pieces together because the bond has to be strong enough to withstand intense magnetic pull.","They glue a foam filter in the hole to ensure the vibrating cone doesn't draw in dust and cause internal damage.","Now they spread the glue on the narrow end of what's called the metal basket, a die-cast aluminum frame that will hold the magnetic structure and cone.","They screw the front plate, the plate with the bigger hole, onto the glued surface.","Then they glue the underside of the front plate and one side of a ferrite, a ceramic ring made from the iron powder.","After adhering the ferrite to the front plate, they apply glue to the other side of the ferrite, then flip the basket over to attach the back plate.","The core fits through the large hole in the front plate.","They insert shims to center it while the glue dries.","After screwing terminals to the basket, they put the entire structure they've just assembled into a magnetizing machine with 600 volts of direct current.","The machine creates positive and negative poles, transforming the magnetic structure into a permanent magnet, meaning it has a constant magnetic field around it.","Now they wind the voice coil-- the electronic magnet that will interact with the permanent magnet.","An electromagnet is an object that generates a magnetic field only when there's a current running through it.","They wind enamel-insulated copper wire, gluing it to a rigid plastic sheet.","The positive pole of this voice coil will be attracted to the negative pole of the permanent magnet.","The negative poles will repel each other.","The key is that the voice coil's poles are constantly reversing position because the electrical current running to the speaker is an alternating current, meaning it switches between a positive and negative charge several times per second.","This makes the magnets attract and repel each other continuously, causing the voice coil to move back and forth rapidly.","This vibrates the cone, which creates sound waves.","After slipping the voice coil between the front plate and the core, they glue on the bottom suspension-- flexible fabric rings that move with the voice coil and prevent it from rubbing on the magnetic structure.","Next, they glue the cone.","It's usually made of cardboard, plastic, or metal.","Then solder the electrical connections.","The current coming from the amplifier travels by wire to the two terminals.","The terminal wires connect to the voice coil wires.","After making sure the cone moves freely without rubbing, they glue on a rigid cardboard cap to keep out dust.","The last step is to take the speaker for an audio test drive.","They connect it to a machine that transmits different frequencies.","They make sure the movement of the voice coil and cone isn't obstructed in any way.","Then a computer device analyzes the sound wave the driver sends out.","Two-way speaker systems have two drivers in each enclosure-- a woofer and tweeter.","A woofer has a large cone that vibrates more slowly for low frequencies.","A tweeter has a small cone that vibrates quickly for high frequencies.","Three-way systems have a third driver with a medium-sized cone for the midranges.","At most hotels, room keys are a thing of the past.","You're more likely these days to be given a key card.","When you arrive at the door to your room, you swipe or insert it to unlock the handle and get in.","Because the room number doesn't appear on the card, this system is far more secure than door locks with a keyhole.","The metal case that houses the door lock's mechanical and electronic components is called the housing.","To make it, they begin by melting zinc ingots.","To melt zinc, you have to heat it to about 734 degrees fahrenheit.","Die-cast machinery then injects the molten zinc into molds.","Between injections, sprayers coat the empty mold cavities with a release agent, the industrial equivalent of greasing a baking pan.","A built-in cooling system hardens the metal.","Then a trimming die cuts off excess zinc around each piece and in the openings.","Meanwhile, the electronic circuit board, the brain of the lock, takes shape.","They call this the \"pick and place\" machine.","It picks up the 60-odd electronic components and places them in the right position on each board.","This computer-guided machine installs 15,000 components per hour.","Next, the boards undergo what's called wave soldering.","A mix of molten lead and tin surges up from underneath, fusing components in place and creating electrical bonds.","Then, both sides of each circuit board get a coat of silicon-based sealant.","This protects the components against the elements.","Back to the housings now.","Workers lubricate them with grease and apply what's called a sleeve bearing-- a nylon bearing that enables the handle to turn smoothly.","Next comes the drive tube onto which the lever will be assembled on the other side.","There are several clutch components that link the lever to the latch.","Swipe the right card, and they permit the latch to retract.","After applying more lubricant, they install an override that enables the hotel to open the door with a key, if, for some reason, the electronics malfunction.","They install the circuit board and connect it to the various parts it controls, such as the clutch motor, which they install next.","Now they close up the completed housing with the steel back plate.","This protects the components inside from rusting.","The last step is to insert a battery pack.","It holds three standard double-a batteries.","The factory tests the lock using a test key card because the lock isn't yet programmed to work with a specific card.","That's done after installation.","Elsewhere in the factory, they assemble the mortise-- the part of the lock that goes inside the door.","When you lock up, the mortise's bolt comes out of the door's edge and fits into the hole of a receiving piece, called a strike plate, in the door frame.","They close up the mortise with the back plate.","This demonstration shows how they install the mortise in the door.","Once it's in, they screw a decorative plate on top.","This is what the finished electronic door looks like.","Key cards have instructions on one side, a magnetic data stripe on the other.","They use a generic card to test every lock that comes off the production line.","In the quality-control lab, they subject every new design to several rigorous tests.","They open and close 1 million times.","They subject the lever, latch, and lock to repeated impacts.","They also test lock function in extreme temperatures.","These electronic door locks come in several metal finishes plated over the zinc and even in a painted finish that simulates wood."]}
-{"meta":{"things":["Pressure Cookers","Mechanical Singing Birds","Oceanographic Buoys","Tank Trailers"]},"text":["When the pressure is on, the juices start flowing for quick results.","The pressure cooker traps steam inside to raise the cooking temperature and produce a meal in minutes.","The technology has been around for centuries but was only adapted for household use in the 1930s, when the concept really picked up steam.","Modern pressure cookers have new lid-locking technology and safety features, keeping it on the front burner in the kitchen-gadget department.","A pressure cooker starts with a stainless-steel disk.","A dip of some lubricant will aid the forming process, as equipment pushes the disk over a pot-shaped die.","That flat disk is now a nicely rounded pot.","Next, this punch cutter moves in to make notches in the pot's rim.","These notches will interlock with the pressure-cooker lid, allowing it to hold up tight against steam pressure.","Next, they submerge aluminum disks in a liquid mix of aluminum and silicon to give them an even coating.","While the disk is still damp, they arrange it on the bottom of the pot, then set a stainless-steel disk on top of it.","A turntable delivers the pot to an element that's heated to more than 1,100 degrees fahrenheit.","This intense heat activates the aluminum and silicon solution to fuse the disk to the bottom of the pot.","Then it's into a cooling tank, where the pots float towards the next station.","There, two blades shave away the ragged edges of the fused layers on the bottom of the pot.","It creates a cosmetic beveled effect.","That layer of aluminum sandwiched between the steel will improve the pot's heat conductivity.","And now it's time for some grit and polish.","In this special chamber, sanding and buffing tools add luster to the pots.","The pressure-cooker pot then takes a trip through a washing station to clean off the sanding residue.","And now it's ready for the crowning touch-- the lid.","It takes six pressing operations to shape it completely.","The holes at the center are for the pressure cooker's two safety valves.","To install the main valve, they align a retaining ring with the lid's larger hole, then pop the spring valve into that hole.","An automated device underneath tightly screws it into place.","The backup valve goes in the smaller hole.","These two valves are crucial.","They'll release excess steam to avert an explosion.","A rubber ring creates an airtight seal with the pot.","They test the valves and check the sealing ring, along with the lid's closing mechanism.","This plastic cooking guide encircles the main safety valve, but doesn't impede its function.","They weld several bolts into the pot on either side.","They leave a bit of space between the bolt heads and the pot.","This allows them to install the brackets for the handles.","They torque the bolts to tightly secure the bracketed handles.","After all, a pressure cooker is one thing you don't want to lose your grip on.","And now this pressure cooker is in the home stretch.","There's one last test, which they perform on randomly selected pots.","They pump the pot full of air to simulate the effect of steam and confirm that this pot can handle the pressure.","Pressure cookers with double walls are another innovation.","They'll keep that stew warm longer to ease the pressure on the chef.","Mechanical singing birdsfirst appeared in 1780, adorning snuffboxes.","The swiss-made novelty soon became the rage among classy europeans.","A few decades later, a french watchmaker perfected the sound mechanism, making the birdsong virtually indiscernible from the real thing.","switzerland is home to the last remaining company making these singing automatons.","The workshop crafts large ones that go in birdcages and small ones that pop out of boxes and clock cases.","the first step is to adjust the bird's two spring-loaded steel rods.","One pivots the bird's head and the other its beak and tail.","Then it's time to dress the bird's body.","It's illegal to harvest real bird feathers, so the artist uses real antique feathers in a couple of key spots and realistic-looking synthetic feathers everywhere else.","To craft the tail, she glues feathers onto stiff paper, then folds it over and adheres it to the bird.","Then she adds more feathers, meticulously creating colorful layers.","The plumage alone takes about four hours' work.","No two birds are alike.","Each is a unique piece of art.","In the technical department, they screw the windup key to the mechanical movement that animates the birds.","The movement is made up of 250 brass and steel components assembled manually.","They connect leather bellows.","The movement pumps the bellows, which sends air through a tiny whistle, producing the birdsong.","Now for the birdie.","This one's the small pop-up kind that goes in a box or clock case.","They screw him to a lever in the movement, then, using a brass template, position him correctly.","This rack gear moves the bird from side to side while he's up and singing.","This pin attaches that gear to the movement.","This lever pops the bird out of his nest, moves the rack gear, and pumps the bellows.","A push button on the movement triggers the lever, setting all this in motion.","now they install the movement into its decorative box.","Birdcage models require an identical but larger movement.","The base of the cage sits on top of it.","The rods that manipulate the birds connect to the movement through tubes in brass perches.","workers construct the top of the cage over a curved form.","First, they slide on two brass rings and position a brass disk at the top.","Then, they feed thick brass wire through holes in the rings.","They lock each wire onto the disk temporarily, then, with a bit of acid to help the process, solder the wires to the disk permanently.","After making sure everything's well-positioned, they solder the wires to the rings, as well.","Once the structure is soldered, the cage can safely come off the form.","Decorative brass rings cover the structural ones.","They, too, have to be soldered in place.","This requires a light brush of acid...","Lead pellets...","And a torch to melt the lead, binding the outer and inner rings.","Every mechanical singing bird this company produces is a work of artistic and technical craftsmanship that delivers a performance on command.","oceanographic buoys enable scientists to study the sea, help meteorologists predict weather, and rescue teams better to find a search area.","The top part of the buoy houses instrumentation that tracks temperature, surface currents, and other conditions.","Its antenna transmits the data via satellite to a base station.","This model has a ball-shaped surface float with a tether cable connecting a long fabric tube called a drogue.","The drogue detects water movements several yards below the surface.","The component that connects the surface float to the cable is called the stress relief.","The factory makes this part in a mold, casting 10 at a time.","Workers inject liquid urethane into the mold cavities.","It's the same material from which in-line skate wheels are made.","After three hours, they extract the castings, which then cure for a full week.","The surface float contains a barometer sensor that collects air-pressure data, as well as a temperature sensor and a locating system.","A 13.5-volt battery pack powers all these instruments.","Workers build it by arranging 36 standard d-cell batteries.","Using nickel strips, they make pairs, linking the negative end to a positive end.","Then, they spot-weld the strips, creating circuit pathways along which electricity will flow.","Next, they immobilize the batteries by filling the spaces between them with hot glue.","Then, they weld the final connections and solder on the leads that will connect the battery pack to the instrumentation.","Now they apply special insulating paper to prevent the battery pack from shorting, should it come into contact with a metal object.","A wide band of electrical tape safely seals this 13-pound battery pack.","The nylon/polypropylene drogue is too lightweight to hang vertically in the water, so it needs something to weigh it down.","That something is a heavy, plastic hoop.","They make the hoop by blowing sand into a plastic garden hose.","The sand makes it heavy.","After capping the hose, they insert it in a pocket at the bottom of the drogue.","So now the drogue, all 26 feet of it, will dangle straight down into the water.","Now for that stress relief they molded earlier on.","It attaches underneath the bottom half of the surface float.","Inside the bottom half, they install the battery pack...","Then a control board...","A transmitter...","And an antenna.","The surface float is made of a.b.s. plastic, the top surface coated for u.v. protection, because it will be exposed to direct sunlight.","They attach one end of the tether cable to the stress relief and the other end to the drogue.","They reinforce the connection with epoxy.","This type of buoy is designed to monitor only the top yard of water, so it doesn't have a long vertical drogue like the other one.","What it doeshave is a parachute, because it's designed to be dropped by aircraft in a search-and-rescue operation, to mark the location of an incident.","As the demonstration shows, the buoy opens on impact.","All the components are spring-loaded-- floats made of foam, drogues around the central cylinder housing the instrumentation, and on top an antenna.","The buoy packaging is water-soluble and biodegradable, so, over time, it simply disintegrates.","No need to retrieve them.","Stainless-steel tank trailers carry all kinds of products, from milk, sugar, and animal feed to fertilizer, shampoo, or even wine.","Some tank trailers only haul chemicals like methanol.","Made of stainless steel inside and out, they keep all the products they're transporting contaminant-free.","Stainless-steel tank trailers carry as much as 12,000 gallons of product.","They start with a laser cutting machine which cuts pieces like this manhole opening from the stainless-steel sheet used to make the tank.","The laser that cuts the steel is as precise as the pen you use to sign your name.","Next, they make the larger pieces of the tank by putting two sheets of stainless steel into a machine called a plasma seam welder.","Using stainless-steel wire as a filler metal, the computer-controlled machine welds the two sheets of steel together.","A worker then uses a belt sander that rides on a track to smooth out the weld evenly and in a straight line.","The sheet then goes through a rolling machine that shapes it into a cylinder.","It takes two to four cylinders to make a tank, depending on the size.","Meanwhile, a ring-rolling machine makes what's called channel rings that will strengthen the cylinders and help them keep their round shape.","The rings are also made of corrosion-resistant stainless steel.","Some tanks need up to 12 of these reinforcement rings.","A worker then welds the channel rings onto the tank, stopping periodically to inspect the weld.","Next, they weld tank heads to the cylinder.","Welding parts on the outside of the tank causes heat discoloration to the steel on the inside.","That's why a worker then polishes the stainless steel, giving the full interior of the tank a noticeably clean and bright finish.","Then, they attach polyurethane spacer bands to the tank.","These create the sections they need to mount fiberglass insulation around the tank, which keeps the product either warm or cold.","Workers then install thin sections of stainless steel around the tank to protect the insulation.","This steel is shiny for cosmetic reasons only.","They hold the sections in place temporarily using leather belts.","They secure this entire outer wrapper so it fits properly.","Then, they weld each section of steel to the frame of the tank.","Next, they prepare the outer wrapper heads using what's called a lock-seam flanger.","That makes a lip in the edge of the heads.","They attach the front and rear heads to the outer wrapper by fitting the lip into the outer wrapper's grooved edge and crimping them together using a hammer.","Next, they install the aluminum fenders over the rear tires.","After that, they attach a stainless-steel tube ladder that gives access to the manhole at the top of the tank, where they load the product.","They put the mudguards on next, followed by the reflective conspicuity tape that goes on both sides of the tank and on the two rear bumpers.","They install the stoplights and taillights into a light box at the rear of the trailer.","After that, they install the turn indicators on the sides of the trailer and test them to ensure they function properly.","Finally, they check all the connections used to operate the tank trailer, so when it leaves the plant, it works perfectly and the customer can transport their product safely.","If you have any questions about the show, or if you'd like to suggest topics for future shows, drop us a line at..."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pressure Cookers","Mechanical Singing Birds","Oceanographic Buoys","Tank Trailers"]},"text":["When the pressure is on, the juices start flowing for quick results.","The pressure cooker traps steam inside to raise the cooking temperature and produce a meal in minutes.","The technology has been around for centuries but was only adapted for household use in the 1930s, when the concept really picked up steam.","Modern pressure cookers have new lid-locking technology and safety features, keeping it on the front burner in the kitchen-gadget department.","A pressure cooker starts with a stainless-steel disk.","A dip of some lubricant will aid the forming process, as equipment pushes the disk over a pot-shaped die.","That flat disk is now a nicely rounded pot.","Next, this punch cutter moves in to make notches in the pot's rim.","These notches will interlock with the pressure-cooker lid, allowing it to hold up tight against steam pressure.","Next, they submerge aluminum disks in a liquid mix of aluminum and silicon to give them an even coating.","While the disk is still damp, they arrange it on the bottom of the pot, then set a stainless-steel disk on top of it.","A turntable delivers the pot to an element that's heated to more than 1,100 degrees fahrenheit.","This intense heat activates the aluminum and silicon solution to fuse the disk to the bottom of the pot.","Then it's into a cooling tank, where the pots float towards the next station.","There, two blades shave away the ragged edges of the fused layers on the bottom of the pot.","It creates a cosmetic beveled effect.","That layer of aluminum sandwiched between the steel will improve the pot's heat conductivity.","And now it's time for some grit and polish.","In this special chamber, sanding and buffing tools add luster to the pots.","The pressure-cooker pot then takes a trip through a washing station to clean off the sanding residue.","And now it's ready for the crowning touch-- the lid.","It takes six pressing operations to shape it completely.","The holes at the center are for the pressure cooker's two safety valves.","To install the main valve, they align a retaining ring with the lid's larger hole, then pop the spring valve into that hole.","An automated device underneath tightly screws it into place.","The backup valve goes in the smaller hole.","These two valves are crucial.","They'll release excess steam to avert an explosion.","A rubber ring creates an airtight seal with the pot.","They test the valves and check the sealing ring, along with the lid's closing mechanism.","This plastic cooking guide encircles the main safety valve, but doesn't impede its function.","They weld several bolts into the pot on either side.","They leave a bit of space between the bolt heads and the pot.","This allows them to install the brackets for the handles.","They torque the bolts to tightly secure the bracketed handles.","After all, a pressure cooker is one thing you don't want to lose your grip on.","And now this pressure cooker is in the home stretch.","There's one last test, which they perform on randomly selected pots.","They pump the pot full of air to simulate the effect of steam and confirm that this pot can handle the pressure.","Pressure cookers with double walls are another innovation.","They'll keep that stew warm longer to ease the pressure on the chef.","Mechanical singing birdsfirst appeared in 1780, adorning snuffboxes.","The swiss-made novelty soon became the rage among classy europeans.","A few decades later, a french watchmaker perfected the sound mechanism, making the birdsong virtually indiscernible from the real thing.","switzerland is home to the last remaining company making these singing automatons.","The workshop crafts large ones that go in birdcages and small ones that pop out of boxes and clock cases.","the first step is to adjust the bird's two spring-loaded steel rods.","One pivots the bird's head and the other its beak and tail.","Then it's time to dress the bird's body.","It's illegal to harvest real bird feathers, so the artist uses real antique feathers in a couple of key spots and realistic-looking synthetic feathers everywhere else.","To craft the tail, she glues feathers onto stiff paper, then folds it over and adheres it to the bird.","Then she adds more feathers, meticulously creating colorful layers.","The plumage alone takes about four hours' work.","No two birds are alike.","Each is a unique piece of art.","In the technical department, they screw the windup key to the mechanical movement that animates the birds.","The movement is made up of 250 brass and steel components assembled manually.","They connect leather bellows.","The movement pumps the bellows, which sends air through a tiny whistle, producing the birdsong.","Now for the birdie.","This one's the small pop-up kind that goes in a box or clock case.","They screw him to a lever in the movement, then, using a brass template, position him correctly.","This rack gear moves the bird from side to side while he's up and singing.","This pin attaches that gear to the movement.","This lever pops the bird out of his nest, moves the rack gear, and pumps the bellows.","A push button on the movement triggers the lever, setting all this in motion.","now they install the movement into its decorative box.","Birdcage models require an identical but larger movement.","The base of the cage sits on top of it.","The rods that manipulate the birds connect to the movement through tubes in brass perches.","workers construct the top of the cage over a curved form.","First, they slide on two brass rings and position a brass disk at the top.","Then, they feed thick brass wire through holes in the rings.","They lock each wire onto the disk temporarily, then, with a bit of acid to help the process, solder the wires to the disk permanently.","After making sure everything's well-positioned, they solder the wires to the rings, as well.","Once the structure is soldered, the cage can safely come off the form.","Decorative brass rings cover the structural ones.","They, too, have to be soldered in place.","This requires a light brush of acid...","Lead pellets...","And a torch to melt the lead, binding the outer and inner rings.","Every mechanical singing bird this company produces is a work of artistic and technical craftsmanship that delivers a performance on command.","oceanographic buoys enable scientists to study the sea, help meteorologists predict weather, and rescue teams better to find a search area.","The top part of the buoy houses instrumentation that tracks temperature, surface currents, and other conditions.","Its antenna transmits the data via satellite to a base station.","This model has a ball-shaped surface float with a tether cable connecting a long fabric tube called a drogue.","The drogue detects water movements several yards below the surface.","The component that connects the surface float to the cable is called the stress relief.","The factory makes this part in a mold, casting 10 at a time.","Workers inject liquid urethane into the mold cavities.","It's the same material from which in-line skate wheels are made.","After three hours, they extract the castings, which then cure for a full week.","The surface float contains a barometer sensor that collects air-pressure data, as well as a temperature sensor and a locating system.","A 13.5-volt battery pack powers all these instruments.","Workers build it by arranging 36 standard d-cell batteries.","Using nickel strips, they make pairs, linking the negative end to a positive end.","Then, they spot-weld the strips, creating circuit pathways along which electricity will flow.","Next, they immobilize the batteries by filling the spaces between them with hot glue.","Then, they weld the final connections and solder on the leads that will connect the battery pack to the instrumentation.","Now they apply special insulating paper to prevent the battery pack from shorting, should it come into contact with a metal object.","A wide band of electrical tape safely seals this 13-pound battery pack.","The nylon/polypropylene drogue is too lightweight to hang vertically in the water, so it needs something to weigh it down.","That something is a heavy, plastic hoop.","They make the hoop by blowing sand into a plastic garden hose.","The sand makes it heavy.","After capping the hose, they insert it in a pocket at the bottom of the drogue.","So now the drogue, all 26 feet of it, will dangle straight down into the water.","Now for that stress relief they molded earlier on.","It attaches underneath the bottom half of the surface float.","Inside the bottom half, they install the battery pack...","Then a control board...","A transmitter...","And an antenna.","The surface float is made of a.b.s. plastic, the top surface coated for u.v. protection, because it will be exposed to direct sunlight.","They attach one end of the tether cable to the stress relief and the other end to the drogue.","They reinforce the connection with epoxy.","This type of buoy is designed to monitor only the top yard of water, so it doesn't have a long vertical drogue like the other one.","What it doeshave is a parachute, because it's designed to be dropped by aircraft in a search-and-rescue operation, to mark the location of an incident.","As the demonstration shows, the buoy opens on impact.","All the components are spring-loaded-- floats made of foam, drogues around the central cylinder housing the instrumentation, and on top an antenna.","The buoy packaging is water-soluble and biodegradable, so, over time, it simply disintegrates.","No need to retrieve them.","Stainless-steel tank trailers carry all kinds of products, from milk, sugar, and animal feed to fertilizer, shampoo, or even wine.","Some tank trailers only haul chemicals like methanol.","Made of stainless steel inside and out, they keep all the products they're transporting contaminant-free.","Stainless-steel tank trailers carry as much as 12,000 gallons of product.","They start with a laser cutting machine which cuts pieces like this manhole opening from the stainless-steel sheet used to make the tank.","The laser that cuts the steel is as precise as the pen you use to sign your name.","Next, they make the larger pieces of the tank by putting two sheets of stainless steel into a machine called a plasma seam welder.","Using stainless-steel wire as a filler metal, the computer-controlled machine welds the two sheets of steel together.","A worker then uses a belt sander that rides on a track to smooth out the weld evenly and in a straight line.","The sheet then goes through a rolling machine that shapes it into a cylinder.","It takes two to four cylinders to make a tank, depending on the size.","Meanwhile, a ring-rolling machine makes what's called channel rings that will strengthen the cylinders and help them keep their round shape.","The rings are also made of corrosion-resistant stainless steel.","Some tanks need up to 12 of these reinforcement rings.","A worker then welds the channel rings onto the tank, stopping periodically to inspect the weld.","Next, they weld tank heads to the cylinder.","Welding parts on the outside of the tank causes heat discoloration to the steel on the inside.","That's why a worker then polishes the stainless steel, giving the full interior of the tank a noticeably clean and bright finish.","Then, they attach polyurethane spacer bands to the tank.","These create the sections they need to mount fiberglass insulation around the tank, which keeps the product either warm or cold.","Workers then install thin sections of stainless steel around the tank to protect the insulation.","This steel is shiny for cosmetic reasons only.","They hold the sections in place temporarily using leather belts.","They secure this entire outer wrapper so it fits properly.","Then, they weld each section of steel to the frame of the tank.","Next, they prepare the outer wrapper heads using what's called a lock-seam flanger.","That makes a lip in the edge of the heads.","They attach the front and rear heads to the outer wrapper by fitting the lip into the outer wrapper's grooved edge and crimping them together using a hammer.","Next, they install the aluminum fenders over the rear tires.","After that, they attach a stainless-steel tube ladder that gives access to the manhole at the top of the tank, where they load the product.","They put the mudguards on next, followed by the reflective conspicuity tape that goes on both sides of the tank and on the two rear bumpers.","They install the stoplights and taillights into a light box at the rear of the trailer.","After that, they install the turn indicators on the sides of the trailer and test them to ensure they function properly.","Finally, they check all the connections used to operate the tank trailer, so when it leaves the plant, it works perfectly and the customer can transport their product safely."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["All"]},"text":["For this invention, the path to success has been bumpy and rocky, and that's the whole idea.","The all-terrain vehicle was developed for off-road driving back in the 1970s.","The first machines were three-wheelers, and then the safer four-wheelers came along, improving on a concept that was truly trailblazing.","If you're looking for adventure, an all-terrain vehicle will get you out of a rut.","All that bouncing around won't hurt a bit because the independent rear suspension takes some of the shock out of that bumpy ride.","To make an all-terrain vehicle, they clamp pieces of the steel framework to a worktable.","The table flips and lands in a precise position for welding robots to go to work.","These computerized robots do all the big welds.","Humans take over for the more intricate work.","Once the vehicle mainframe is complete, they hang it on an overhead rail, which takes it through a painting station.","When the paint is dry, they lock it onto rails that will move it down the assembly line.","They tie the radiator to it with hose.","It will be attached more securely later.","The steering axle for the front wheels goes in next.","At the next station, they bolt the steel handlebars to the front of the vehicle.","They hoist a 300cc engine into the chassis.","It's suitable for beginners or smaller riders.","They fit the carburetor into the engine manifold.","Moving down the line, they install the suspension system for the front wheels and run the brake lines to the brake disks.","They brace the suspension with a steel bracket.","The extra support will come in handy when this atv is on rough terrain.","They push the outer exhaust pipe onto one that extends from the engine and hook them together with springs.","They then slide the front and rear clutches onto grooved shafts and connect them with a rubber belt to transmit power from the engine to the transmission.","The radiator has been permanently mounted to the chassis, and they bolt the coolant tank to the framework above it.","The 4 1/2-gallon fuel tank goes between the handlebars and seat.","They insert the air-filter box in an opening behind the tank.","This much bigger lid goes on the storage box in the front.","And after a little trademark artwork, they push the instrumentation panel into place between the handlebars.","Footwells made of rigid plastic flank each side of the atv.","At the next station, they mount the front grille and headlights.","They screw a rack onto the back.","It can be used to tie down anything from camping gear to game.","Workers then press a comfy vinyl seat onto the center of the vehicle, snapping it into place.","Now this all-terrain vehicle is ready for its wheels.","The back ones are larger to provide that cushioning effect over the bumps, while the smaller wheels in the front provide traction and maneuverability.","They apply reflector decals to the sides and back, so the atv can be seen more easily when daylight dims.","The tank has been fueled, and this atv is ready to take a ride on the drum tester.","The operator parks the wheels on a set of drums.","He activates the computer, and those drums are ready to roll.","The gate closes, and the atv rides on the spinning drums, reaching high speeds without actually moving.","It's the perfect opportunity to test the gears, brakes, and exhaust system.","The operator then gives the brakes a workout because good brakes are critical in backwoods conditions.","And it passes.","From the three-wheel machine of the '70s to the flashy four-wheeler of today, the atv continues to be popular off the beaten track.","Thousands of years ago, scandinavians strapped wooden planks on their feet to glide across snow.","Those first skis enabled them to hunt and trap in the winter.","Essentially, they skied to live.","Today, however, some of us live to ski, and cutting-edge equipment is part of the appeal.","In the past century, downhill skis have become shorter and curvier for peak performance.","They start with a squared-off ash log.","A band saw slices it into several planks.","Ash is supple, but strong, which makes it the ideal wood for the core of a ski.","A second blade thins each plank at the end and widens it where the skier's foot sits.","Sanding establishes subtle angles on the edges.","Then the planks move along to a machine that cuts teeth into them.","A ridged applicator applies epoxy glue to the toothy ends of two boards.","Machinery presses them together for a tight fit.","As the glue dries, it creates a permanent bond.","The two planks are now one ski core.","It still needs some fine-tuning, so a robot positions it on a conveyor, which takes it under a sanding belt.","It smooths the interlocked section and grinds deep cuts into the core.","This defines the parabolic shape that helps skiers carve through powder in short, clean turns.","They silk-screen graphic artwork and logos onto plastic.","It's a bit of corporate p.r., but the flashy designs can also inspire the skier.","An operator then brushes a release agent into a mold, as she prepares to build and shape several skis at a time.","A little vacuuming gets rid of any dust that would sully the work.","Then she tucks pieces of graphite-fortified polyethylene into the mold.","It will form the base of the skis.","She places rubber on the ends to minimize vibrations while skiing.","Next come layers of special fiberglass that run the length of each ski.","This material is both flexible and durable.","It's been formulated specifically for skis.","The weave varies from layer to layer, depending on the type of ski.","Strips of rubber reinforce the back ends, followed by pieces of heavy-duty polyurethane.","The assembler places the curved wooden cores on top of the synthetic layers.","She installs melamine to build up the ski's sidewalls.","This improves gripping in hard snow.","To provide a firm base for bindings, she covers the narrow waist of the ski with more fiberglass, followed by an aluminum plate to hold the binding screws in the ski.","More layers of fiberglass follow, imbued with epoxy glue, which is about to be activated.","Once the colorful top sheet is secured, they close the mold.","Inside, the temperature reaches 212 degrees fahrenheit.","This causes the glue impregnated in the fiberglass to liquefy, while the mold squeezes the layers into the shape of the ski.","When the glue hardens, the many layers become one solid ski.","It's a fusion of synthetic, wood, and metal.","But it's still a bit rough around the edges, so this robot smooths the tip and tail of the ski against a sanding belt.","The ski then travels over several grinding wheels.","This cleans it up and creates angles for precision carving on the slopes.","Then, like a powerful fist, this machine tests its flexibility and strength.","Finally, a worker screws a rail system to the waist of the ski to make it easier for the ski shop to install bindings.","Then it's all downhill from here, which, of course, is the whole idea.","A laser cutter is a high-tech machine that factories use to cut parts out of metal.","The traditional way to cut metal is with a stamping press, a slower process that requires a separate tool for each type of cut.","A laser cutter's computer-guided beam can precision-cut virtually any shape.","A laser cutter is made up of a laser resonator, which produces the beam, and a mechanical system that moves the laser over the metal in a computer-controlled pattern.","To build the laser resonator, they mill two blocks of aluminum.","Each will hold a mirror on opposite ends of the resonator.","They will reflect light back and forth inside the chamber to form the laser beam.","All the parts go into a cleaning solution because any contaminants would shorten the laser's life.","Assembly takes place in a clean room.","After mounting the aluminum blocks onto separate aluminum tubes, they slide one tube inside the other.","This forms the resonator's main structure.","They install an electrical connector on one of the blocks.","Then they mount a mirror onto each aluminum block.","A generator pumps electrical energy into a pressurized mixture of gasses, producing particles of light called photons.","The mirrors at both ends of the resonator direct the photons back and forth, creating the laser beam.","They now fill the resonator with that pressurized gas.","It's a mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and helium.","For the laser beam to cut well, it has to be the right shape, but the beam is invisible.","So, to see its shape, they have to shoot it into a plastic cube and observe the formation it makes.","They gradually fine-tune the beam's shape by adjusting the mirrors on the resonator.","They keep at it until the laser cuts a cone formation in the plastic.","On top of the tubes, they install a square housing containing a series of mirrors, which further refine the beam.","Meanwhile, a robotic welder fuses sheets of steel to construct the laser resonator's housing.","On the main machine, these large suction cups move the sheet of metal to the cutting area.","The sheet remains stationary, while a motion unit moves the laser beam over it.","A rack-and-pinion system propels the motion unit.","The system's racks must be perfectly aligned for the machine to cut accurately, so a technician uses precision measuring equipment to check the racks, then various tools to make adjustments.","Once that's done, they set up the guide rails on which the motion unit rides, then mount the motion unit onto them.","They bolt the motion unit to the front of the machine and the housing that contains the laser resonator to the back of the machine.","The resonator creates the laser beam.","Mirrors deliver it to the motion unit's cutting head.","Lenses inside the head focus the beam on the metal that's underneath.","They run a series of tests to ensure the machine cuts with ultimate precision.","It all boils down to whether the motion unit moves accurately, which means the drive-system racks must be perfectly aligned.","After testing, they enclose the cutting head with a safety cover made of sheet metal and plexiglas.","The cutting head's copper-tipped nozzle emits the laser beam, while a curtain of brass pins confines that beam to a restricted area.","The motion unit moves in three axes, enabling the laser beam to cut different thicknesses in two dimensions.","A stamping machine leaves rough edges that workers must grind smooth afterward, but a laser cutter leaves a smooth edge that needs no further work.","This saves on time and labor cost, making this technology a cut above.","It was michelangelo who once said, \"every block of stone has a statue inside it, and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it\".","Centuries later, sculptors still chisel by those words, using techniques similar to those used by the brilliant michelangelo so many years ago.","A lifelike image emerges from stone, and that well-chiseled look is the result of a lot of planning and posing.","The artist first molds the subject in clay, which allows him to capture his impressions quickly.","His clay model is the sculpture equivalent of a painter's sketch.","Clay also allows him to make changes that would be impossible once carved in stone.","When the prototype is complete, the artist is ready to choose a stone.","The search leads to this quarry in the hills of northern italy, where they've been extracting white carrara marble for centuries.","A long saw on a track makes a horizontal incision in the bottom of the rock face.","Once this undercut is complete, the operation moves to the top of the stone.","A machine pulls a loop of diamond cable down through the rock to cut the back of the slab.","A constant spray of water cools the cable and flushes the cut.","When the two cuts intersect, this marble slab is ready to be extracted.","Equipment gently tips it onto a soft pile of dirt intact.","The supervisor gives the slab a production number and draws lines to indicate how it should be cut to prepare it for sculpting.","Once cut down to size, it's into the studio, where it's positioned beside a plaster version of a clay model.","With calipers, an artisan measures the proportions of the plaster cast and transfers them to the marble slab.","His pencil marks define the main mass and outer limits of the form that's to be sculpted.","This artist chips away big chunks of the stone to give the rough size and shape of the plaster model.","The penciled measurements ensure that he doesn't chip away too much and destroy the slab.","Once the general shape has been achieved, it's time for the detail work.","The sculptor measures the plaster prototype with a tool called a pointing machine.","He transfers the measurements to the marble sculpture, ensuring that all the details will be to the correct scale.","Of course, pointing tools can only show the artist whereto carve-- there's no substitute for skill.","With a pneumatic chisel, the artist shapes the foot of the figure.","Next, the artist switches to a series of rasps and files, so he can shape the smaller details and eliminate any chisel marks.","The fingers require a gentle approach.","They're delicate and could be broken easily.","It takes about four months for a sculpture to go from the rough form to the finished.","And now for the final touches-- he rubs oxalic acid into the marble.","This seals it and protects it from stains, but also gives the sculpture a polished look.","The result is a translucent effect that gives the sculpture visual depth.","Like ghosts in the attic, there's an incredible array of plaster casts on this studio's upper floor.","Many of them are replicas of famous classical works.","They're all on standby to serve as prototypes for sculptural reproductions.","And once these images are carved in stone, they should live on forever."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Bowling Balls","Barber Poles","Felt","Radar Guns"]},"text":["The bowling bowl has undergone a lot of changes over several centuries to become such a striking success.","From a crude stone to carved wood to rubber to molded polyester, it's been reinvented numerous times.","But the latest version has turned out to be a real winner.","Technological advances have reshaped the bowling ball at its very core.","No longer round, the nucleus is asymmetrical, which causes the ball to curve towards the pins as it rolls down the lane.","They make the cores from polyester resin, blending in minerals like barites, silica powder, and limestone.","The result looks like chocolate milk, or make that hot chocolate, because a catalyst triggers a chemical reaction that heats it up.","As they pipe it into the molds, it quickly starts to cure and solidify.","In just two minutes, it's ready to extract.","This core is oblong--  flat on one side with a knob.","There are different versions of this core design, each one carefully calculated to manipulate the bowling ball's performance at a specific skill level.","They now drill toward the center of the core to make a pinhole.","This allows the core to be suspended in just the right position in a second mold.","This asymmetrical core is about to be encased in a more uniform sphere.","They tamp the core into the bottom part of the mold and then lock down the top half.","After all, they don't want any leaks as they pump it full of plastic.","It's a liquid-polymer blend.","A special chemical in it causes the mix to solidify slowly.","It can take days for it to harden around the core, depending on the formulation and type of bowling ball being made.","When they knock it out of the mold, all is revealed.","That asymmetrical core is now sealed in a very symmetrical polymer shell.","Next, it's into a third mold.","This one will seal the bowling ball in an outer skin called the veneer.","This veneer has been scientifically formulated to enhance the ball's traction as it hooks towards the bowling pins.","It's made of colorant, plasticizer, a chemical called i.s.o., and urethane.","Blending these ingredients produces high-performance polyurethane.","As the mix flows into the molds, a chemical reaction causes it to heat up and solidify in just seconds.","Then it's into an oven to boost the chemical reaction.","Next, a spinning grinder shaves off the bump, which was formed by overflow at the mold's intake tube.","The removal of this bump rounds off the shape of the bowling ball.","With its three layers, this bowling ball looks a bit like a big bonbon when it's sliced in two.","And while it may look sweet, it needs a bit more work before it's ready to take on the competition.","A lift system delivers the bowling ball to a sanding operation, which roughs up the surface.","The coarseness of the sanding varies, depending on the performance goals of the particular ball.","This machine heat-stamps trademark information onto the ball.","They do one last sanding, as a constant flow of water removes the powdery residue.","The more polished the surface, the less pronounced the ball's hooking action will be.","Even this last sanding is geared to a certain performance standard.","Once they buff the surface, all that's left is to custom-drill the finger holes.","With this bowling ball in hand, success should be within striking distance.","Barber poles go back to a time when barbers also performed surgery, tooth extractions, and bloodletting.","Some believe that the idea for the red and white strips came about because of bloody and clean bandages that twisted together in the wind as the customer held onto a pole during a procedure.","Over time, barber poles have come to lose their gruesome connotation but not their place as an historic symbol.","There's only one company left in north america that makes them.","They begin by rolling a printed liner onto a wooden mandrel.","The mandrel they use depends on the size of the pole they're making.","Using a knife, they score the liner at both ends.","The liner is made of paper and vinyl treated with u.v. protection to prevent it from fading.","Scoring the liner helps guide the worker as he trims the familiar red-white-and-blue material to the required length.","Next, he rivets the company logo to a support frame.","Then with bolts, he attaches a top and bottom support casting.","The frame and castings are made of aluminum, so they're virtually rustproof, which is a big plus since barber poles have to weather the elements.","After ensuring the assembly is level, they install the glass cylinder, which can be made out of extruded or handblown glass.","After a final tightening, they double-check that everything fits snugly.","Next, they add water to a special caulking powder and mix it to a smooth consistency.","The caulking must be just the right thickness to properly fill the cavity between the aluminum casting and the glass cylinder.","Five minutes later when the caulking is dry, they carefully trim off the excess on both ends of the cylinder, leaving behind a smooth, watertight seal that helps secure the glass cylinder in place.","Cleaning the glass by hand is just another example of all the artisanal handiwork that goes into making these time-honored barber poles.","Next, they mount the assembly on a hook and paint the caulking with a colored sealer that matches the casting and makes the caulking waterproof.","After that, a worker puts in a motor mechanism.","The motor will rotate the printed liner inside the glass cylinder.","Once the motor is hooked up, he takes an inner cylinder, which has the printed liner mounted on it, and installs it on top of the mechanism that makes it rotate.","He then installs a two-socket light fixture with a bulb that illuminates the liner.","To keep the printed liner straight as it turns, he then attaches what's called a top-cylinder bushing.","All that's left to complete the pole is to attach a rustproof aluminum cover and the second light bulb that lights up the white glass globe.","Finally, he hooks up the pole to electricity and makes sure the motor, both lights, and the inner liner are working properly, creating the illusion of movement.","Modern barber poles come in various sizes and styles, with or without illuminating globes, but they always keep their link to the past.","When production hits a snarl at the felt factory, things are going well.","That's because felt is made by entangling fibers into a matted material.","Felt has actually been around for thousands of years and may be the first fabric ever produced.","These days, mechanization puts a new twist on felt.","Boot liners are an example of the way felt layers our lives.","They begin with bales of polyester fibers.","Sometimes they add wool or synthetic fiber.","This machine is about to sink its teeth into those fibers.","It's a rotating bed with hundreds of fierce-looking spikes protruding from it.","An operator loads the bales of fibers onto a feeder conveyor.","It shuffles the clumps toward that spiked conveyor, which snags the fibers and takes them up to another spiked rotating belt.","But this one moves in a different direction to grab and pull the short, springy fibers apart.","The process fluffs and blends the fibers, transforming the dense clumps into something that's the consistency of cotton wool.","Now that the fibers have been loosened up, it will be easier to extract any metal bits that may have contaminated the bales early on.","A magnet pulls out these contaminants, which would otherwise cause damage to equipment down the line.","With the metal bits removed, the fibers move into another machine.","This one has a series of pinned rollers that are close enough to almost touch.","They rotate in different directions to align the fibers.","This creates a uniform web of fluff.","Then it's over to the cross lapper-- a system of conveyors that move back and forth to neatly fold it up.","They then travel between rollers, which squeeze several layers down to a thickness of a little more than a centimeter.","10,000 long needles repeatedly stab the compressed web to entangle the fibers.","Each needle is equipped with nine barbs to snare the polyester fibers.","This process is how they become enmeshed.","It transforms the compacted fluff into felt.","Rollers pull the matted material out of the machine...","As they wind it onto a big roll.","You can see that the fibers are now a solid mass.","Next, they layer two piles of felt onto a metalized nylon film.","This shiny film will reflect the outside cold, and the three layers combined will provide extra thermal protection that will even insulate against arctic temperatures if need be.","More long needles punch into the three layers and entangle the fibers to create one sheet of material.","It's a form of laminating without glue.","The needles leave little holes in the reflective film that improve the breathability of the fabric.","Next, a worker uses a 25-ton press to punch boot-liner patterns out of the felt.","The press bears down on dyes that cut out various-sized insoles and boot-liner sidepieces.","This felt is now ready to add a little warmth to someone's life.","All they have to do is sew the parts together.","The seamstress stitches the two sidepieces, using an industrial machine with needles that easily penetrate the thick, stiff felt.","The top of the boot liner is finished.","But without its sole, it's incomplete.","They sew the felt sole onto it with a neat loop stitch-- the only stitch that would hold this configuration together.","From a pile of synthetic fibers to a rigid liner that's ready to protect you against the elements, it's been quite a journey, and it's far from over, as felt continues to keep its foothold in the world of layers and liners.","If you see one of these, it's likely connected to the long arm of the law.","Police have been using radar guns to nab speeders ever since the 1950s.","They bounce radar off your vehicle and analyze the returning signal to get a reading, and that's when sirens wail and the officer says, \"do you know how fast you were going\"?","If you're a speeder, the police have probably got your number, thanks to the radar gun.","When operated properly, radar guns boast an accuracy rate of plus or minus half a mile per hour.","But of course, you can always try arguing with the officer.","Making a radar gun starts with cable wire-- lots of it.","Rollers straighten it, then automated blades cut it to length and strip the plastic casing at both ends.","With the wires now exposed, they're ready for the metal contacts that will allow wiring interconnections.","A technician places the exposed wire in the contact, and a machine crimps them together.","They then assemble wires in various harnesses.","These connect to a power cable and communications port.","The technician inserts wires into a plastic connector to allow them to easily hook into a circuit board later.","This little gadget is a microwave transmitter and receiver.","It sends radio-frequency energy to moving vehicles and then receives it when it bounces back.","The red wires being soldered to its post will deliver power to it.","The white ones will return the radar signals.","This special plastic lens will focus the radar beam.","She attaches the transmitter-receiver unit to the funnel-shaped antenna at the back of the lens.","Next, she solders wires to a circuit board.","Some will carry power to it.","Others will deliver the returning radar signals for analysis.","This second smaller circuit board will process power from the police vehicle to operate the radar gun.","And an insulated metal plate shields the unit from interference from things like the police radio.","The technician secures it with cable ties, and this radar module is now complete.","She moves on to the display and control panel and snaps the keypad onto a little circuit board just below a light-diffusing display window.","She inserts the control-panel hardware into a plastic faceplate and secures it with screws.","As another safeguard against electrical interference, this plastic faceplate has been infused with metal.","He wires the control panel to the power board to run a test.","He checks all the digits and icons to confirm they display correctly.","This machine presses melted plastic into the shape of casing for the radar gun.","A static discharger worn on the wrist dissipates any static electricity from the technician's body.","This prevents damage to sensitive electrical components, so it's worn throughout the assembly process.","She links the two computer boards, ensuring a good connection, because one will power the other.","Then she installs the radar gun in the molded casing.","She plugs the display assembly into connectors on one of the computer boards.","Then she slides it into grooves in the casing.","Now she hooks up this radar gun to a power source for a trial run.","She taps the lens with a tuning fork.","The gun responds to it as it would to a moving vehicle.","If it functions properly, she installs the trigger switch.","She closes the radar gun, securing the two-part casing with screws.","A serial number and other identifying information goes on the side.","In a final test, she connects the radar gun to a computer and aims the lens into a chamber.","The chamber sends signals to simulate the effect of a moving vehicle, and the computer analyzes the gun's performance.","You only have to look at a 35-year-old radar gun to see that this technology has come a long way.","So it's ready if you try to pull a fast one."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Brushes and Push Brooms","Blackboards","Smoked Salmon","Zippers"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Brushes and push brooms...","Blackboards...","Smoked salmon...","And zippers.","Nothing scrubs or sweeps quite like a good, sturdy brush.","Cleaning brushes in north america date back to about the 1830s.","Their bristles were usually made of wire twisted into wood.","Today we have many different bristle materials, both natural and synthetic.","The first factory manufactures the brush block-- the hardwood base that holds the bristles.","It's usually made of maple, but sometimes oak or beech.","After cutting the planks to the required width, they use a special wax crayon to mark lines on both sides of any cracks or knots in the wood.","A laser then reads the marks, guiding a saw to cut out the faults.","At the same time, the saw chops the planks into block-size lengths.","The next step is called \"molding\".","A series of saws trims the blocks to the required thickness.","Now they contour the pieces, using a machine appropriately called a shaper.","The machine revolves, running the block's outside edge against a cutting head.","This profiles half the block.","Workers then turn it around and line it up for a second pass to profile the other half.","There's a different shaper machine for each model.","This type is known as a dauber-- a brush for waxing shoes.","For the cuts to be accurate and smooth, it's essential that the machine's cutting heads remain sharp despite repeated use.","That's why they're made of carbide, a material stronger than steel.","Workers run certain models against an extra cutting head to carve a groove in the block's edges.","The groove gives your hand a better grip on the brush.","These 2 1/2x24\" blocks will become push brooms-- those wide, rectangular brooms janitors use to sweep floors.","The blocks go to an automated machine that drills a hole through the middle and carves two grooves in the underside.","These are for the steel adapter that will hold the broom's wooden handle.","Rounded push brooms sweep more easily in corners.","To produce those, workers take the rectangular push broom blocks and round the corners against a cutting head.","At another factory, the blocks go onto a machine that pierces holes for the bristles, using a computer-guided drill.","This particular model of push broom needs 240 holes.","It takes barely a minute to drill them all.","Next, the blocks go to the bristle-installation machine.","Bristles can be made of horsehair, vinyl, plants or tree leaves, or synthetics such as polypropylene.","The bristle-installation machine is fully automated, as we see here in slow motion.","It takes about 40 strands at a time, folds them in half, then inserts and staples them into a hole.","Here's what that bristling action looks like at actual speed.","The machine fills four holes per second.","The factory uses this same process regardless of the style of brush block or type of bristle.","Computer software guides the machinery to follow the correct pattern, making possible a sweeping array of brushes and brooms.","Chalk one up for the blackboard.","This trusted teaching tool goes back centuries, yet still remains the focal point of the classroom.","Today's blackboard-- or chalkboard, as it's also called-- hasn't changed that much in appearance, but the materials used to make it have changed.","Our lesson begins at the blackboard factory, with thin sheets of galvanized steel.","These will eventually form the front and back surfaces of the blackboard.","They arrive at the factory already precut to standard sizes-- 6, 8, 10, or 12 feet.","First stop is a machine that blasts the sheets with acid.","This removes any dirt that would prevent paint from adhering to the surface.","As the sheets exit the cleaner, powerful fans dry them off.","The paint is a type of acrylic enamel designed especially for blackboards.","The factory adds a powdered mineral formulation to make it dry to a rougher texture.","This helps chalk adhere better.","Traditional slate blackboards were naturally black.","Today's steel-surface boards come in several colors.","The most popular, though, are black and green.","Some companies use colored porcelain instead of paint.","Here, spray guns apply three coats of paint, one after another, with no drying time in between.","For the paint to harden properly, it has to be heat-set, so the sheets go into an oven at 420 degrees fahrenheit for 10 minutes.","A strong fan cools them off as they exit the oven.","Next, a worker sprays contact cement on the backs of two painted sheets.","One sheet will form the front of the board, the other, the back.","Sandwiched in between will be what's known as the blackboard's core.","It can be made of materials such as particleboard or, as we see here, 1/2-inch-thick fiberboard.","Workers feed the three assembled layers through a high-pressure roller.","It forces out any trapped air and bonds the layers tightly.","They make the blackboard's frame out of one long strip of aluminum molding.","It has a stainproof satin finish.","They make a series of 45-degree-angle cuts.","This enables them to bend the strip around the board's perimeter, creating neat corner seams.","Workers file down and polish any sharp edges left by the cutting.","After verifying that it's perfectly square, they fasten the frame, using either rivets or screws, depending on the model.","Then, they attach an aluminum rail along the bottom to hold the chalk and erasers.","This model happens to be a reversible mobile blackboard-- the type typically rolled into conference rooms.","It has a few extra components--  a pivot mechanism, enabling the board to be flipped to the other side...","And a latch system for tilting the board to different angles.","The blackboard stand is made of painted steel tubing.","It rolls on rubber- and chrome-plated steel castors.","The factory takes samples from the production line and subjects them to rigorous quality-control testing.","These tests ensure that the painted surface is glare-free and can withstand everything from chemical solvents and extreme humidity to heavy impact and hard scratches.","The company has even designed this special machine to conduct a killer durability test.","It applies 100,000 chalk and brush strokes, using the typical amount of pressure a person would use.","For the production batch to make it to market, surface wear on the sample has to amount to less than 1/100 of a millimeter.","And that's not all.","The paint finish must still be matte.","A writing test has to produce chalk lines that are clear and dark enough, and the writing has to erase cleanly and easily.","For thousands of years, smoked fish was a survival food.","People would cure their catches by salting them and hanging them to dry or by smoking them over an open fire.","This enabled people in cold climates to stockpile nutrient-rich fish for those long winter months.","Today we smoke fish primarily to enhance its flavor.","This is wild sockeye salmon that was gutted and frozen on board the fishing trawler to preserve maximum freshness.","The smokehouse defrosts the fish for over 15 hours in running water that's just 2 degrees above freezing.","This slow, cold water thaw helps prevent bacteria from forming.","Next step, filleting.","First, they slice off what's known as the collar-- the fish version of a neck.","Then, they cut each fish in half lengthwise, separating two fillets from what's called the control bone-- the fish equivalent of a spinal column.","The tail is attached to it.","They feed the control bones into a machine that strips off any remaining scraps of flesh.","The machine grinds these bits into minced salmon, which is used to make salmon pie.","They trim the fillets using a razor-sharp knife, slicing off the fins, any excess fat, and any control-bone fragments left behind.","After this, the fish will be ready for curing-- a preservation process that also enhances taste.","Workers coat the fillets in a mixture of salt and 26 spices, then let them sit for roughly an hour and a half.","This short cure time will limit the salmon's salt content to less than 1%.","To stop the curing process, they rinse off the coating with cold water, then glaze the fillets with maple syrup to neutralize any remaining salt residue.","Some companies use a less costly mix of boiled water and brown sugar.","The fillets go into a huge smoke oven.","Workers load its combustion chamber with sawdust-- maple-tree sawdust for the first 8 hours of smoking, cherry-tree sawdust for the next 8 hours, and apple-tree sawdust for the last 8 hours.","This particular sequence is a major factor in flavoring the fish.","They douse the fire with water to generate smoke.","This process is called \"cold smoking,\" because the oven temperature is 50 degrees fahrenheit-- significantly lower than the industry norm of 77 degrees.","Smoking at this lower temperature takes at least 24 hours--  3 times longer than the norm-- but the company says it produces a moister product.","When the fillets come out of the smoke oven, they're thoroughly cooked but still have the consistency of raw fish.","Workers remove the fin bones--  40 fin bones per fillet-- located between the head and fin.","The fillets then go through a skinning machine, which neatly slices off the skin without removing any flesh.","Then, it's into a freezer at 27 degrees fahrenheit.","This firms up the fillets, making them easier to slice.","The manual slicing machines cut them into pieces about 1/10 of an inch thick.","Workers weigh out the amount they're packaging-- in this case, 2 1/2 ounces.","They place each portion on a tray made of aluminum-coated cardboard.","Aluminum blocks the fat from seeping through.","To kill off any remaining bacterial, they vacuum-pack the wrappers, then deep-freeze them for about an hour at negative-31 degrees fahrenheit.","They store and ship at a milder zero degrees-- the temperature of your home freezer-- where this preservative-free smoked salmon stays fresh for a full year.","Zippers can be found on clothing, on bags, even on footwear.","The zipper started out as a closure mechanism for boots and tobacco pouches.","The fashion industry didn't put them on clothing until the 1930s-- some 80 years after the invention of this fabulous fastener.","An american, elias howe, was the first to patent a zipperlike clothing fastener in 1851, but he never ended up marketing it.","It wasn't until 1893 that another american, whitcomb judson, designed a similar device, called a clasp locker.","He eventually hired a canadian engineer, gideon sundback, to simplify the original complex design, which had never really taken off.","In 1917, judson and sundback patented the modern zipper.","Zipper teeth are made of metal, plastic, or nylon.","The fabric part of the zipper is called the tape.","It's usually polyester, but sometimes cotton or fireproof fabric.","To make metal zippers, the factory feeds a long, continuous roll of tape into what's called the teeth machine, along with a long roll of metal ribbon known as \"flat wire\".","As we see here in slow motion, the machine cuts off a tiny piece of flat wire, forces it through a die that forms into a tooth shape, then clamps it onto the edge of one side of the tape.","The machine does all this at a rate of 45 teeth per second.","These zipper teeth are aluminum.","Sturdier zippers are made of stronger metals like brass and nickel.","Depending on the model, teeth can range in width from about 1/10 of an inch to 4/10 of an inch.","The wider the teeth, the thicker they have to be.","Workers now feed two tapes with metal teeth into what's called the joining machine.","The teeth interlock, meshing the two halves of what's now a continuous zipper.","From there, it's into a cleaning machine, which washes the zipper, removing any shards of metal left behind by the tooth-cutting process.","After drying the zipper, the machine applies a coat of hot wax.","This lubricates the teeth so the slider will glide over them smoothly.","Next stop is the gapping machine.","It removes a 2-inch-long section of teeth at regular intervals.","They'll later cut the tape at these gaps, dividing the continuous zipper into several shorter zippers.","There are two main types of zippers.","Closed-end zippers are the kind whose two halves don't separate at the bottom when opened-- purse zippers, for example.","These need a part called a bottom stop-- a thick piece of flat wire positioned at the base of the zipper.","When you unzip, it stops the slider and prevents the two halves from separating.","Open-end zippers are the kind whose two halves doseparate at the bottom when opened-- jacket zippers, for instance.","At the bottom of these zippers, a machine applies a clear reinforcement strip.","This stiffens the tape so that the next machine can apply the pin and box.","The pin is that vertical piece of metal on one half of the zipper that you have to align in the box on the other half before you can pull the slider to zip up.","The next machine installs the slider.","Watch in slow motion as it opens each gap and hooks a slider onto the track of teeth.","The next machine inserts what's called the top stop-- a thick piece of flat wire that stops the slider at the top of the track when you zip up all the way.","The machine then slices the tape at each gap, separating the finished zippers.","Plastic zippers are made quite differently than metal ones.","The tape is the same, but the teeth are made from plastic pellets.","A machine melts them, then injects the liquid plastic into a mold that's the shape of a strip of zipper teeth.","The mold cools almost instantly, hardening the plastic.","The machine then stamps the teeth onto the tape, automatically gapping the desired zipper length at the same time.","The excess plastic in the middle is remelted.","There's no joining machine to mesh the two halves of plastic zippers.","Workers do this manually so that they can inspect the plastic teeth to make sure they're well formed.","Then, automated machines install the remaining components."]}
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@
 {"meta":{"things":["Photographs","Fur Tanning","Welding Electrodes","Electric Violins"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Photographs...","Fur tanning...","Welding electrodes...","And electric violins.","In the 1830s, the first photographers used light-sensitive chemicals to capture images on paper.","Today, machines do much the same but with amazing speed, accuracy, and versatility.","It's a tried and true method many people still prefer to make their memories into pictures.","The photo lab receives envelopes containing rolls of film for developing.","Processing will turn each exposure into a negative image and then a positive.","That positive is what we know as a photograph.","A scanner takes a digital photo of the order detail specified on the packages.","It tracks things such as print size and finish and the number of copies you ordered.","A conveyer then sorts the envelopes into bins, grouping them with similar orders.","Next, a machine extracts the film rolls from the metal capsules in total darkness.","Exposing the film to light would ruin the photos.","The envelopes go into bundles so they can later be re-matched with the right pictures and negatives.","Here's what the machine looks like inside.","A blade cuts open the metal capsule, and another slices off the leader.","The machine unravels and lines up as many as 60 films end-to-end.","The films are just over three feet long.","A sticker joins the ends and identifies each film with a bar code.","The machine measures the assembled strip, then winds it onto a reel inside a metal box.","Another machine unwinds the reel and runs it under a nondamaging infrared light so that a technician can check for tears.","Just one tiny tear could jam the machine and ruin all the photos.","If the tech does find a tear, he repairs it by hand.","He puts his arms in the machine's little dark room so as not to expose the film to regular light.","First, he applies tape to reattach the area.","Blades then cut the tape evenly on both sides.","The worker is able to see what he's doing on a tv monitor hooked up to an infrared camera inside.","Developing the exposures requires four chemical baths still in the dark.","In the first, sulfates make the image appear as a negative.","The second includes acetic acid to halt the effect of the sulfates.","The last two baths preserve the image and rinse away chemical traces.","To print the pictures, workers load the negatives into yet another machine.","This one contains light-sensitive paper.","All it takes is a flash to transfer the image.","But that light is powerful, almost as bright as the sun.","A sensor instantly adjusts the intensity to correct any improper exposure by the photographer.","To develop the prints, the paper goes through four chemical baths similar to those used for the negatives.","One bath reveals the image, another stops that process, and two more preserve the image and rinse off the chemicals.","What's different this time is that the paper then heads into an oven to dry for two minutes at 160 degrees fahrenheit.","Now a technician marks the pictures that are too bright, too dim, or out of focus, and then removes them for redevelopment.","Next, a machine unwinds the strip, scans the bar codes, and cuts out the pictures that belong together.","It also cuts the negatives into numbered strips of four.","A worker now slips the proper photos and negatives into an envelope.","The computer shows her what to include, and a machine provides the original package the film came in.","When you get your photos, you can check them against your original order.","That way, you can ensure that everything's picture-perfect.","Fur has been in style since prehistoric times.","Talk about a fashion original.","In those early days, fur garments were pretty basic.","Their main purpose was to keep people warm, a primary need.","These days, fur is often a fashion choice, but it still provides old-fashioned warmth.","At the tanning plant, a worker sorts through raw beaver pelts purchased at auction.","He inspects the quality of the hair, then determines the type of garment they're suitable for.","He hammers a lot number into the underside of the pelt.","It perforates the skin.","This technique is used so that the number stays on the pelt during processing.","Using a pneumatic punch, he cuts out the ear cartilage.","It's a crucial step.","They need to get rid of the cartilage early on so the pelts can go through certain machines during tanning.","The pelts are a bit dried out because of preservation techniques used before they were delivered to the tanning plant.","To rehydrate them, they put them through various chemical washes.","The final bath contains tanning chemicals.","They convert the underside of the animal skins to leather.","The supple leather texture will allow the pelts to eventually be shaped into garments.","Between each wash, the furs go into a ringer.","It spins out the excess liquid.","All that moisture has caused the pelt to thicken, so they thin it down with a spinning blade called a flesher's knife.","You need to be an expert to wield this tool.","One false move, and you'll cut into the follicles and lose fur.","Next, a worker shovels sawdust into a big drum.","He gathers up the pelts and places them in the drum along with the sawdust and adds a mineral solution.","The drum turns, tossing it all for about half an hour.","This cleans and conditions the leather side of the pelts.","The furs emerge still damp, so they hang them over wooden dowels leather side up.","The rest of the sawdust will fall away in subsequent operations.","Now a worker scrapes off the pelt's long hair to expose the downy undercoat.","This undercoat has a more desirable look and texture.","He rubs a generous amount of oil into the leather of the pelt to lubricate it.","Then he tosses the pelts into a kicker box, so named for the automated kickers.","The kicking action causes the oils to penetrate the skin.","Next, a spinning metal wheel tugs at the pelt to stretch it.","A worker cuts away the edges...","And it's into the hot-press.","This irons and adds luster to the fur.","After a quick brush, the pelts get one more press.","Then a shearing machine cuts the hairs to an even length.","Finally, they bundle up the pelts for a trip to the garment factory, where they'll be great design material.","More than a century ago, welders first fused two metal surfaces by melting a metal stick over them using an electric current.","That stick is now called a welding electrode.","It's the simplest and most popular way to weld.","Farmers and mechanics often use this tool to repair heavy machinery.","This company's electrodes are coated with powdered metals and minerals.","During welding, the metals melt, and the minerals protect the area from oxygen, which would weaken the bond.","The electrode transmits an electric current that heats and melts both the electrode and the metal surfaces, welding them together.","Thin metal wire forms the electrode's core.","The kind of wire depends on what the electrode is designed to weld.","But most often, the core's made of carbon or stainless steel.","A machine simultaneously spins and bends it, evenly reshaping the wire until it's completely straight.","Four metal rollers then push and guide the wire into a guillotine.","The blade chops the wire into segments that will become the electrode cores.","These segments range from 10 to 17 1/2 inches long.","The factory puts a variety of metals and minerals in the coating.","The metals are often nickel, manganese...","And iron.","The minerals-- alumina, magnesia, and limestone.","They also add a colorant to differentiate the models.","Workers mix the ingredients with a bit of glue until they turn to the consistency of wet sand.","A worker then packs the mix into a machine that forms it into slugs with a hole down the middle.","He adds a plastic cap.","Then a metal cover slides on, and the machine takes over.","It takes only a minute for the machine's piston to compress the powder into a solid.","Now to put the powder coating on the core wires.","A worker loads four slugs into an extrusion press.","It will apply 120 tons of pressure on the slugs to shoot the powder through nozzles that will coat the wires as they pass through the slug's hole.","To load the wires into the press, they first stack them in this feeder.","The opening at the bottom is adjustable for different diameters because core wires range from spaghetti-thin to pencil-thick.","These rollers pass them through the press one at a time.","Four wheels then pull the wires from the feeder into the extrusion press for coating at a rate of up to 1,000 electrodes a minute.","When the coated electrodes emerge, they hit a metal wheel that positions them on a conveyer.","A sander removes up to 2 1/2 inches of coating from the bottom where you grip the electrode, and it bevels the tip so it conducts electricity even better.","A worker now checks for uneven coating and to see if the wire's well centered.","The coating dries at room temperature for up to 72 hours.","To cure the coating, workers put the electrodes in an oven heated to 905 degrees fahrenheit for up to 5 hours.","Once they've cooled, the electrodes head into a printing press.","An ink wheel first prints the model and type of current that's required.","Another ink wheel then applies a color to the gripping end.","It's another way to differentiate the model in case the lettering on the side rubs off in storage.","From there, it's off to packaging.","An optical scanner counts the electrodes.","Then a stacking machine separates them into 7.7- to 11-pound bundles.","Finally, a worker inserts them into cardboard canisters.","He adds a piece of cardboard to compress them tightly for the trip.","A sticker marks the contents, and tape keeps the package tightly sealed.","The invention of the electric violin was all about turning up the volume.","It was back in the big-band era, and the sound of the traditional violin was overpowered by the horns and drums.","Amplifying the violin changed everything.","Suddenly, the violin wasn't just a background sound.","It was part of the show.","The wired violin comes in different shapes because it doesn't rely on the body to resonate sound.","This craftsman builds his electric violins one piece at a time, starting with the neck.","He traces the shape onto a piece of maple.","Then, he outlines the top plate.","He uses walnut for the lower bout, or bottom part, as well as for the backbone of the violin.","Next, he cuts out the shapes using a band saw.","His goal here is to be very precise because the closer he gets to the outline, the less sanding he'll have to do later.","The dimensions for the top and neck are exactly the same as a traditional violin, so there won't be any difference in the reference points the violinist relies on.","The lower bout is very stylized...","And the head is more streamlined than a traditional violin.","There's no decorative scroll.","Next, he chisels out a cavity in the head of the violin to create the pegbox.","He carves parallel grooves onto the back to give it a snazzy look.","Using a rasp, he shaves the wood to the correct thickness.","He drills holes for the tuning pegs into the side of the pegbox, one for each of the four strings.","He files down the grooves on the back a little more.","Then he scrapes the rest of the neck to give it a final finish.","Using a reamer, he tapers the peg holes.","The ebony pegs have matching tapers, so they fit snugly into the holes.","He checks to make sure everything measures up.","Now he brushes wood glue onto the next section and presses the ebony fingerboard onto it.","He wraps them with surgical tubing to hold them together while the glue dries.","He drills two assembly holes in the top piece and makes corresponding holes in the other parts.","He smoothes the edges of the backbone with an oscillating sander.","Then, using a high-speed router, he bevels the lower bout piece to give it a clean edge.","He rubs teal-colored stain into the wood because loud colors seem appropriate for these high-volume instruments.","A crystal has been glued into the violin's wooden bridge to generate electricity from the string's vibrations and create sound.","He pulls the wire from the bridge through the backbone...","And then mounts the bout to the backbone.","He bolts an ebony chin rest on top.","Next, he attaches the neck to the rest of the assembly.","He loops on the ebony tailpiece.","He pulls a string from the tailpiece to a peg.","The act of tightening the first string raises the bridge, which will be held in place only by tension.","Now it's time to hook up the violin to the amplifier and let the music tell the rest of the story."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Electric Stand"]},"text":["In the 21st century, there's more than one way to chase down a perpetrator.","The electric stand-up vehicle goes where traditional police and security cars can't-- sidewalks, parks, shopping malls, even airports.","The officer stands for better visibility.","For a suspect, there may be nowhere to run.","This electric three-wheeler is the latest thing on the police beat.","Not only can it travel in areas that are inaccessible to cars, but its environmental footprint is lighter than a regular police cruiser.","It's energy efficient and it generates no local pollutants.","Production starts with the vehicle's frame.","An employee assembles the tube steel parts and welds them together.","The next worker attaches the vehicle's control-board panel to the welded frame.","He inserts the steering shaft into the column and slides a plastic collar onto the bottom of the shaft.","He secures the collar with screws and tightens the adjustment mechanism.","He installs the second collar on the upper part of the steering shaft.","The two collars will stabilize the shaft to keep the front wheel of the vehicle straight.","He plugs the electric motor cable into the control panel.","Next, another member of the team sprays a uniform layer of a gel coat onto a two-part mold of the vehicle chassis.","The gel will act as a release agent for the finished chassis.","They make the chassis from fiberglass.","He sprays it evenly into the crevices of the molds.","He presses out air bubbles using a rubber roller.","The fiberglass dries and solidifies, taking the shape of the mold.","The surface is smooth, but there are some ragged bits around the edges.","Those are sanded.","He cuts out a slot in the upper part of the chassis for a police warning light.","Finally, the chassis gets a coat of automotive-grade white paint.","He paints the wheel wells black, and with that, the outer chassis is complete.","There's an interior panel and it's made of fiberglass, too.","A member of the team mounts it to the inside of the steel-frame assembly.","He then secures the outer panel to the vehicle frame.","This electric three-wheel vehicle is ready for the rear-wheel hubs and brake rotors.","He clamps brake calipers to the rotors.","The wheels are next.","The rear ones are motorcycle wheels.","For the front, they use a golf-cart wheel.","He equips the wheel with a pulley system to transfer energy from the motor.","He installs the 1-horsepower motor and attaches the pulley to it.","The motor is the size of a lunch bucket, but can pull up to 450 pounds and reach 20 miles per hour.","He hooks up the front wheel to testing equipment and powers up.","It evaluates the motor speed and noise.","It also detects any undue strain or wheel wobbling.","Satisfied with the front-wheel assembly, he installs it on the vehicle.","He wires, and then attaches the throttle and brake control to the handlebar.","They carpet the floor with non-slip rubberized foam and then slide the two rechargeable batteries into their respective compartments.","The charge time is three to four hours.","Next, this grab handle gives the driver something extra to hang on to.","They equip the vehicle with warning lights and a high-beam headlight.","This electric patrol vehicle has been six hours in the making, and it's now ready for a spin.","Nowadays, you don't have to wait for your favorite fruit to be in season.","You can buy it year-round in the freezer section of your local supermarket.","Frozen fruit is useful to have on hand for baking, for making fruit salads or smoothies, to use as a topping, or to eat as a healthy snack.","Timing is everything.","For example, strawberries, when sold fresh, are picked well before they're ripe so they won't spoil before reaching store shelves as much as a week later.","But if the berries are for the freezer section, they're harvested when fully ripe.","That state of perfection will be frozen in time within 36 hours.","Farm workers pick the berries by hand and trim them right in the field with one swipe over a sharp stainless-steel blade.","Within 90 minutes of harvesting, the strawberries are on their way by refrigerated truck to the nearby processing plant for cleaning, sorting, and quick freezing.","First stop on the processing line, a bath in fresh water to remove field dirt.","This wheel gently submerges every last strawberry.","Then, a shower of clean rinse water.","Followed by a spray rinse with highly-chlorinated water to sanitize the berries.","Next, eagle-eyed workers pick out and discard any bruised or under-ripe berries.","The rest receive a final rinse en route to the freezing tunnel.","Temperature--  -34 degrees fahrenheit.","The cooling coils contain liquid ammonia-- a refrigerant commonly used for industrial-scale freezing.","Inside the tunnel, where the frigid air circulates at high speed, the berries freeze in about 20 minutes.","Upon exiting, they ride through a sorting machine.","The smaller berries drop through narrower gaps between the rollers near the top, the medium-size ones through wider gaps partway down, while the larger ones continue to the bottom.","These peaches, also handpicked when ripe, go through the same cleaning process as the strawberries.","First a bath, then a shower.","Then a sanitizing rinse with chlorinated water.","After workers pick out leaves, twigs, and any less-than-perfect fruit, a sorting machine sorts the peaches by size-- small, medium, and large-- sending each size to a separate conveyor belt.","Each belt leads to a different line of stainless-steel pitting machines, adjusted for the size of the incoming fruit.","First, the machine places the peaches stem-down.","Next, a knife cuts the peach in half along its natural line.","Then mechanical jaws grab the stone inside and dislodge it by twisting the two halves of the peach in opposite directions.","Each machine can pit 90 peaches per minute, so the only way to see that action is in slow motion.","All the peach halves and stones coming out of the pitters tumble onto a vibrating conveyor.","The stones fall through the holes while the peaches, larger than the holes, continue on.","A conveyor flips them cut-side up so that workers can inspect and remove any stone fragments.","The next conveyor gradually lines them up in single file to enter the slicing machines.","The slicer blades cut each half into four to six pieces, depending on what format the customer ordered.","Then the slices go into the freezing tunnel.","Peach slices take slightly longer than strawberries to freeze--  about 25 minutes.","To prevent the frozen fruit from defrosting, the air temperature in the packaging area is a frigid 39 degrees fahrenheit.","An automated scales weighs out the per-package quantity, then drops the berries into a retail bag.","The machine then heat seals the bag and deposits it on the final conveyor, which goes to the pre-shipping freezer.","Only 15 minutes have passed since the fruit was frozen, and just 24 hours since it was field picked.","Liquid refreshment can leave its mark on the table.","Coasters come between the glass and that.","But two centuries ago, coasters were mainly placed on the rim of the glass to keep out flies.","Made of felt, they unfortunately spread germs, so the cardboard coaster was invented to improve hygiene on the pub scene.","Beverage coasters protect the table and are also a marketing tool.","Raise the glass, and you'll see advertising catchphrases and promotional graphics.","In fact, some bar hoppers consider coasters pub art and accumulate vast collections.","Production at this facility in germany starts with spruce wood.","In this case, it's from the black forest nearby.","They spray the wood with water to moisten the bark.","Then it's into a tumbler that tosses the wood logs.","As they knock against each other, the bark peels off.","The de-barked wood exits onto a conveyor with slots to correctly orient it for entry into a massive grinder.","Inside, chains press the wood logs against the grinding stone, shredding them into chips.","Water flows over the grinding stone to cool it and carry away the chips, which are then mixed into a mash that has a porridge-like consistency.","It's pure wood pulp.","They now add leftover product from previous beer-coaster production to the pulp.","This will be used to make the middle layer of the beer coasters.","Finally, they mix residual paper from the manufacturer of magazines and envelopes with water.","This creates a lighter-colored pulp.","It will be used for the printable surfaces of the beer coaster.","They spray the pulp onto a mesh that drains water from it.","The fibrous wood core goes between the layers of the lighter pulp.","Spigots apply a mix of wheat starch and water that acts as a glue between the layers.","Off the mesh conveyors now, the pulp board travels between cylinders that squeeze out the moisture.","More heated cylinders dry it.","Knives now cut the board into large rectangles sized for the coaster-printing and cutting machinery.","This specialty cardboard is known as wood-pulp board.","It's lightweight yet highly absorbent.","Next it's over to the printing department to put the beer-coaster artwork on the wood-pulp board.","They use offset printing-- a process that involves more revolving cylinders.","Color cylinders pick up ink and transfer it to the printing cylinders.","From there, the image goes to a rubber-wrapped cylinder that then prints it onto the sheets.","A print specialist scrutinizes the print job close up with a magnifying glass.","He checks the color and clarity of the images and confirms that they're correctly positioned on the sheet.","The borders of the images must line up with the grid of blades on the die-cutting machinery.","If the alignment is even slightly off, every coaster on the sheet would be ruined as the die cutter punches out the coasters, dozens of them in one swoop.","The coasters end up over little chutes, and pushers give them a nudge.","They fall down the chutes and land neatly on a pallet below.","The coasters stack up, and when there are 100 or so in each pile, they're ready for packaging.","Machinery shrink wraps the stacks, and they're ready for the thirsty masses.","This factory can produce and package 10 million offset-printed beer coasters every day, so there should be no shortage at cocktail hour.","They also print coasters using a centuries-old technology known as letterpress.","Blank coasters drop down into the machine.","A rolling wheel presses each coaster against an ink plate.","It's a system that both prints the image and embosses it on the cardboard.","It's a difference you can both see and feel.","Letterpress production is lower volume than offset, generating 100,000 coasters per day.","For coasters, the design possibilities are endless.","Just raise a glass and enjoy.","A door handle is a decorative detail that delivers tremendous bang for the buck.","It's quite inexpensive, yet through its design, material, and finish, contributes immensely to defining the style of a space, from traditional to ultra modern.","These hand-forged iron handles open the door to a rustic english country decor.","While the handle itself is iron, the backplate behind it is steel.","A computer-guided water machine cuts the backplate out of a 3-millimeter-thick steel sheet.","The machine slices through the steel not with a blade or saw, but with a concentrated high-pressure jet of water.","The water contains a tiny amount of a super-fine abrasive and cuts through the steel with 2,000 times the pressure of a car tire.","The jet cuts the contour of the backplate, then holes for the key, the mechanism, and the screws, which affix the plate to the door.","Next, with a beveling machine, they cut a neat angle on all four sides of the backplate.","This smooths the sharp edges and gives the backplate a finished look.","Meanwhile, on a computer-guided lave, a knife progressively shapes a round steel bar into the main component of the door-handle mechanism-- the inner barrel.","The next tool bores a hole in it to receive the spindle-- a bolt that runs through the door, connecting the handles on either side.","To make the handle, a blacksmith heats up an iron bar in the 1,600-degree heat of a forge and hammers it to a tapered point.","Then he repeatedly reheats and works the iron, hammering it some more and bending it against a steel forming jig.","With each bend, the handle comes closer to the final shape.","Once the blacksmith has completed his work and the iron handle has cooled, they drill a hole to receive the mechanism.","Then with another tool, they angle the edges of the hole.","This increases the surface area to which they now weld the mechanism's inner barrel.","The larger the welded area, the stronger the weld.","The welder places both components in a positioning jig to get the proper alignment, then welds them together.","He removes the assembly from the jig, flips it, and welds from the other side.","They grind the weld lines flat, rendering them unnoticeable.","If the handle is supposed to have a hammered finish, this is when they create that texture with, you guessed it, a hammer.","Now they heat the handle assembly and the steel backplate in the forge, then dip them in a vat of beeswax.","This protects against rust when used indoors.","With the main components now ready, final assembly can begin, starting with the mechanism.","They slip a nylon washer, then a steel spring over the inner barrel.","Next, they grease the outer barrel made of forged iron and place it over the inner barrel.","The washer in between the barrels eliminates friction when they move against each other.","This prevents the barrel from wearing out and squeaking.","They install a tab washer made of nickel-plated steel.","This tab restricts the barrel's rotation so that it doesn't simply spin around and around.","This high-strength steel locking clip holds the inner and outer barrels and that important tab washer in place.","Now that the handle and mechanism are complete, all that remains is to align backplate to handle and secure it in position with screws.","Each retail package contains two handles and two backplates-- one for each side of the door.","Also in the box, the steel spindle that goes through the door, connecting the barrels so that the handles turn in unison to retract the latch and open the door.","While their mechanics are hidden from view, these hand-forged handles are certainly a sight to be seen."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Cars","Grocery Carts","Rapid Tooling and Prototyping","Collectible Coins"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Cars...","Grocery carts...","Rapid tooling and prototyping...","And collectible coins.","The automotive industry has seen a lot of changes in recent years.","More and more robots are replacing workers on the assembly line, and it isn't just cars and trucks coming off the line anymore.","Today's hot wheels are sport-utility vehicles and vans.","In the plant's body shop, they begin by putting together the front structure of the van.","It's made up of the radiator support, two side rails, and clips on the front of those side rails for the bumper structure.","Then they put this front structure onto the automated production line.","Meanwhile, robots weld what's known as the ladder assembly.","It's the backbone that supports the floor and sides of the van.","It contains, among other things, the pockets that will hold the seats.","Now the robots take the front-end structure and the ladder assembly and weld them together.","Elsewhere, robots work on the body panel for the passenger side of the van.","The entire panel is made of one piece of galvanized steel.","The robots weld reinforcements onto the panel so they can later attach interior finishing and other components.","A transfer device swoops down and transfers the panel to the next station.","The driver's side body panel, coming off another welding line, is headed there, too.","At the next station, robots have already installed an underbody with a floor panel on top of the ladder-assembly unit we saw earlier.","Now the robots weld the body side panels to the underbody.","They also weld inner wheel wells to the body's side panels.","Then they weld on a roof.","The van then rolls into the area of the body shop called closures.","That's where they install the lift gate, the hood, and the doors.","An inspector checks the gaps around the hood, looks for dents and dings in the body, and makes sure the doors are flush with the side panels.","He marks any areas that need repair or adjustments with removable ink.","The engines arrive at the plant already assembled.","Workers just have to install and adjust a few components.","Meanwhile, the van is off at the paint shop, followed by the trim shop for glass, handles, and interior components.","In the chassis department, the engine, transmission, rear suspension, and brake assembly are installed from underneath.","This part of the assembly line has two tiers.","The van goes on top, the components on the bottom.","The machines that install the components have long pins that fit into holes in the van's underbody.","This positions the components with precision.","Workers hook up the gas tank manually.","The seats arrive ready-made from a nearby factory.","They simply clamp into place in the seat pockets that were welded onto the ladder assembly earlier.","An automated machine attaches the tire to the wheel rim.","Then it inflates and balances the tire.","Workers mount the tires, starting the nuts by hand, then tightening them with tools.","Now the van comes off the carrier and goes full weight on its wheels for the first time.","Workers start up the ignition and run the van through a series of tests.","It's taken the plant about 24 hours to produce this vehicle, which will soon be on its way to a car dealership.","Geomatics is a high-tech science whose objective is to gather geographic information, then study and use it.","The tools of geomatics range from cartography to remote sensing to satellite imaging.","We wouldn't be able to study the environment or monitor and develop our natural resources without geomatic data.","An oklahoma grocer invented the first shopping cart back in 1937.","He noticed his customers stopped shopping once their hand baskets became too heavy to carry.","His basket on wheels became a rollaway success.","This factory makes about 50 different models of shopping carts.","They're built with heavy-duty steel and carbon wire.","A single cart is made up of more than 150 wire pieces of various lengths and diameters.","Automated machines bend the wires to form the carts' numerous components.","To make the cart's basket, a worker uses a guide called a jig loader to line up the wires in a mesh formation.","Then a machine automatically spot-welds them together.","The next machine applies 20 tons of pressure to bend the wires into a basket shape.","A robot welds the sides of the basket.","A worker then trims off the excess wire.","An automated machine bends a piece of wire to form the handle of the shopping cart.","They make the frame for the base of the cart, called the chassis, out of one thick tube that's 13 feet long.","A robot welds the chassis using wire melted by an electrical current.","This creates a very strong joint.","A die machine punches out casters that'll hold the wheels.","They're made of thick steel for extra strength and durability.","They spot-weld the casters to the chassis.","They clean the cart's metal components in a bath of soap and acid.","They electroplate the metal with nickel, then with chrome as a finishing coat.","It's finally time for the cart to take shape.","They rivet the wheels to the chassis...","Then install the bottom rack.","The basket comes next.","They print the warnings on the plastic panel for the collapsible baby seat.","Then the seat goes on along with the plastic corner bumpers.","They print the store's name on the handle inserts.","The handle goes on last.","After some final adjustments and a quality control check, the newly minted shopping cart is ready to roll.","Every machine, from your vacuum cleaner to your car, is made up of a series of parts.","Those parts are designed by specialized companies.","They first build a prototype, then make the molds or tools needed to manufacture the parts.","They design the part in 3-d on a computer.","The computer then guides the machines that construct the prototype.","One method divides the 3-d drawing into cross-sectional layers just a few thousandths of an inch thick.","It feeds this information to a laser that's directed at a tray filled with a light-sensitive liquid resin.","The laser's light hardens the resin in the shape of the part layer by layer, eventually constructing the prototype.","They rotate the prototype under ultraviolet light for a few hours to cure the resin.","Then they polish or paint the prototype according to the requirements of the design.","Another prototyping method works much the same way but uses a fine, powdered plastic instead of resin.","The computer guides the laser to melt the powder in the shape of the part, again layer by layer.","They extract the hardened prototype from the unmelted powder.","A third method of prototyping doesn't use a laser at all.","The computer simply guides machinery to carve the prototype out of a hard material such as a wood composite.","Once a prototype is ready, they use it to construct a model of the part out of a very durable resin.","They'll use that model to make a mold, then they'll use that mold to cast the part out of metal.","The resin model dries at room temperature in 24 hours.","Its surface must be smooth or else the mold will have defects.","They attach channels that will guide the molten metal into the mold.","Next, they fill the model with a mix of sand and a binding agent.","They smooth out the surface, then number it for tracking purposes.","The sand mix takes about 15 minutes to harden into a mold.","Now they can finally cast the part.","They carefully pour in the molten medal, in this case, magnesium, heat it to about 1,300-degrees fahrenheit.","They block the hole with sand to prevent the metal from reacting to the air.","The metal takes about 10 to 20 minutes to harden, depending on the size of the mold.","They crack the mold open on a vibrating conveyer.","They use a plaster mold to cast parts that require a better surface finish.","Workers position a box around the prototype to contain the plaster.","The mold goes into an oven at about 570-degrees fahrenheit.","It takes 48 to 72 hours to cure, but it's not ready for casting just yet.","Workers first have to pierce some holes in it to let all the air escape or the metal won't flow into all the crevices.","And they have to put in filters to keep out impurities.","They strap the two halves of the plaster mold together, securing them with metal screws.","Workers carefully pour in molten magnesium, using a special gas to prevent the metal from catching fire.","Again, they seal the opening with sand.","It takes the metal anywhere from 20 minutes to an hour to cool.","Then they break open the plaster to remove the metal part.","They cut off the channels through which they poured in the metal and polish the part using grinders and sanders.","Then they paint it using special spray paint that adheres to magnesium.","The part is finally finished.","It takes several weeks to prototype and tool metal machine parts.","When you think about it, even the machine that make these parts are made of parts that were created with this method.","The first people to make coins were the lydians in asia minor in 640 b.c. about 40 years later, the concept spread to ancient greece, where coins often featured an owl-- the symbol of the goddess athena.","Around 500 b.c., the chinese invented coins made of cheap metals like copper, instead of gold and silver.","Today's currency coins are still made of copper, nickel, and other inexpensive materials.","The mint manufactures collector coins using sterling silver as well as sterling scraps left over from making other coins.","The silver goes into a casting furnace at 2,100 degrees fahrenheit.","The melted silver is cast into a continuous bar about 1 1/2 inches high by 5 inches wide.","A machine cuts the continuous bar into individual bars about 30 inches long.","Each bar goes into what's called the roughing mill.","The mill's two rollers squash the bar flat, using up to 9 tons of force.","It takes up to a dozen passes to flatten the bar into a strip just half an inch thick.","A machine called the finishing mill thins the strip out even more to what will be the final thickness of the coin, anywhere from 3/100ths of an inch to 2/10ths of an inch, depending on the denomination.","Next, the blanking machine stamps out blank coins.","The silver that's left over, called sisel, goes back into the casting furnace, where it's melted down into fresh bars of silver.","The next stop for the blanks is the rimming machine, whose spinning wheel presses a raised edge, or rim, on each one.","The blanks then go into a tub filled with water, cleaning solutions, and steel beads.","The beads act as an abrasive agent, smoothing and polishing the blanks.","After a 20-minute cycle, they empty the tub's contents into a sifter to separate the blanks from the beads.","Workers then towel dry the blanks by hand.","This ensures there will be no water stains on the coins.","Throughout the coin-making process, as the silver is worked, it becomes brittle-- so brittle that it could easily break when struck.","That's why at several stages the metal goes through an oven called an annealing furnace.","The coin design comprises artwork or a photograph or a combination of both.","This coin will feature a photograph of queen elizabeth provided by buckingham palace.","The artist uses a computer program to design a collage of various elements.","Once mint officials approve the final design, the process of engraving can begin.","They take a plaster disk that's 10 1/2 inches in diameter.","The computer guides the engraving machine to turn the one-dimensional computer design into a three-dimensional version in rough detail.","This creates a plaster model of the design in the negative.","They now use this negative to cast a plaster positive.","An artist then enhances the detail by hand.","Once that's done, they cast a negative plaster mold.","From that, they then cast a positive mold, this time in rubber.","From the rubber, they cast a negative mold out of hard, black epoxy.","They mount the epoxy model on a machine called a pantograph, which is essentially a reducing machine.","It traces the model and cuts a version 1 1/2 times smaller in brass.","This reduction process takes 36 hours.","Then an engraver takes the brass model and fine-tunes the design under a microscope.","At this stage, the engraver also adds the lettering, noting the year, the denomination, and the country of issue.","Then comes another 36-hour reduction process.","They reduce this brass model to 1 1/2 half times its size to create what's called a matrix-- a negative model made of high-grade steel that's the final size of the coin.","Then they strike the matrix onto a block of steel which creates a positive called a punch.","Then they strike the punch onto another steel block to create a negative called a die.","The coins are made one at a time in the coin press.","There are two dies per coin, one for each side, positioned above and below the blank.","They strike simultaneously, not once but twice, to create a high-quality impression.","In contrast, circulation coins are struck just once on high-speed machines that make several hundred coins per minute."]}
-{"meta":{"things":["Bicycle Helmets","Aluminum","Car Brakes","Lithium Batteries"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Bicycle helmets-- letting safety go to your head...","Aluminum-- probably the most versatile metal around...","Car brakes--  we bring you breaking news about how they're manufactured...","And lithium batteries-- you'll get a charge out of this one.","If you're serious about bike-riding, you should also be serious about safety, and it all starts with your head.","Today's bike helmets meet all the required safety standards and come in a wide range of colors and styles, which means you can protect your head and look great doing it.","A bicycle helmet is constructed of an exterior shell and an interior one of polystyrene foam designed to absorb shocks.","Some designs for bicycle helmets are drawn by hand and with computer-aided graphics.","The design has to take into account that it is not on a flat surface, but on a rounded one.","This creates optical deformities that have to be corrected.","Fabrication begins with the exterior shell.","This polymer sheet is heated in a heat former at a temperature of 65 degrees centigrade.","The mold lifts the sheet and suctions it to fill all the cavities of the mold.","This operation lasts about one minute and produces four shells.","Then, when cooled down and hardened, the four shells are cut by hand.","Ventilation openings are cut with a heated wire apparatus.","These openings have been preformed during molding of the shell.","The heated wire easily and neatly cuts the polymer.","Next up, trimming the helmet to eliminate excess polymer.","The circumference is manually cut using a router.","The edges are then sanded to even them.","It is also possible to cut the circumference of the shell with a heated wire.","This operation takes more time, but is more precise because of the resulting cleaner cut.","Now they're going to fabricate the foam interior that will be placed inside the shell.","It's made of polystyrene beads that will expand and bond together.","This expander increases the volume of the granules that fall into it.","Steam and an agitator let the polystyrene beads expand uniformly.","The granules are now ready.","The contents of this bin will be able to produce about 20 foam pieces, which will take shape on these molds.","The press closes up for the six minutes that it takes to mold four foam pieces.","The particles fuse with steam before being cooled with water.","The foam is removed from the mold.","Forms are produced for different helmets.","Fusing of the particles has welded the granules to one another.","Depending on the helmet model, openings have to be made with this heat iron to allow for installation of an air-vent accessory.","All that remains is to make the adjustment pads, cut with this press-powered stamper.","The adjustment pads are held in with velcro to allow easy adjustment of the helmet.","This allows the cyclist to change the foam pads for greater comfort.","Inserting the straps calls for good manual dexterity and takes only a minute.","The shell and the polystyrene foam liner have to be joined.","They're adjusted one inside the other, then solidly secured with adhesive tape.","The helmet is now completed.","And now it's ready for packaging.","The safety helmets have to be certified, guaranteeing their safety, and conformity tests are done.","At least one helmet in 500 will undergo this destructive test.","Here, it drops vertically onto a piece of steel.","This facility can produce up to 4,000 helmets daily in hundreds of models and over 500 variations.","Take a look around, and you'll find this wonder metal everywhere, in everything from screen doors to jet planes.","Aluminum has so many applications because it's light and strong, and it's corrosion- and crack-resistant.","Producing aluminum is costly, but it saves money over time.","Aluminum--  so widely used today, and the world's most abundant metallic element, does not occur in a natural state.","The most available source of aluminum is actually bauxite.","Bauxite is mainly mined in tropical countries.","The aluminum atom in bauxite is bonded to oxygen molecules.","These bonds have to be broken by electrolysis to produce pure aluminum.","Bauxite is carried by rail to the plant, where it will be crushed.","Then, through a chemical transformation called the bayer process, alumina is extracted.","This is then roasted in calciners to eliminate all moisture.","This is the reduction facility.","This plant has 432 pots through which a powerful electric current will be passed to produce electrolysis.","An overhead crane dumps alumina into the pots.","Then the electric current from the anode passes through the alumina that we see here at the bottom of the pot.","Via the process of alumina reduction at 1,742 degrees, the anodes lose volume and will have to be replaced.","It's a continuous operation.","Each anode has a life-span of about 20 days.","Spent anodes are recovered from the pot with this overhead crane and carried off to be recycled.","They clean the aluminum rods, which will then be reused.","Here we see the crust formed atop the anode.","When the anodes are replaced, the accumulated impurities have to be recovered from the top of the pots.","This is accomplished with these pincers.","Then a new anode is inserted into the alumina, and electrolysis continues.","The electric current breaks the molecular bonds.","The heavier aluminum collects at the bottom of the pot, while the oxygen bound to fluorine is released as a gas, which is drawn off and treated.","The liquefied aluminum remains at the bottom of the pot.","It has to be recovered in this huge crucible with a tube.","The tube is dipped into the bottom of the pot, and a vacuum system draws the molten aluminum from the crucible.","The aluminum is recovered in a short time.","Air is vacuumed from the crucible by a flexible pipe held by an operator.","The tube is finally withdrawn, and the overhead crane dumps another quantity of alumina into the pot.","Thus, the aluminum-fabrication process continues uninterrupted.","The crucibles filled with molten aluminum are transported to the casting house.","Their contents are poured into holding furnaces, that have a capacity of 60 tons.","In these very hot furnaces, the molten aluminum is stored to await casting.","Finally, casting begins.","The aluminum can be semicontinuously vertically cast, producing ingots, sheets, or billets, or it can be directly cast into semifinished products.","The cooling of aluminum pieces is accelerated by water sprays.","The large, rectangular ingots, which can weigh up to 25 tons, will head for hot-rolling, and eventually will be fabricated into products like aluminum foil.","From four to five tons of bauxite have produced two tons of alumina, which in turn produces one ton of aluminum.","This particular plant produces 200,000 tons of aluminum annually.","Some other facilities can turn out as much as 400,000 tons.","If you've ever had to stop suddenly while driving at high speed, you know that once you hit the brakes, they can easily lock up, making you skid.","But with the sophisticated computer technology behind today's antilock brakes, skidding is becoming a thing of the past.","Brakes are absolutely essential equipment for every vehicle to slow down and stop.","And brakes have remained practically unchanged for the past 40 years.","Conventional disk brakes have pads that press against the brake disk attached to the wheel.","These pads grip the disk on only 15 to 30 degrees of its circumference.","This develops high heat, wheel skidding, and results in premature wear.","The new floating disk brakes have two pads of friction material on 360 degrees of the disk.","When the brake is applied, hydraulic pressure activates the diaphragm, which applies pressure on the inboard pad, which is then pressed against the disk.","In this animation, the diaphragm movement is exaggerated.","However simple, the design of this brake calls for some complex development steps.","It all starts on the monitor screen with computer-aided design.","This powerful software creates objects in three dimensions, which can be virtually manipulated.","They then proceed to digital analysis.","Here, digital models are submitted to repeated braking to verify that the parts conform to design objectives.","The software verifies changes in heat, the effects of vibration, and resistance to breakage.","The right choice of materials is critical.","The electrical components also have to be created.","Here, we see the delicate construction of tiny sensors, that measure the force exerted by the braking system.","The sensor is the main component of the intelligent a.b.s. braking system, which functions more efficiently than traditional antiskid systems and reduces braking distance.","Next, it's the fabrication stage of prototype parts, which will be tested.","The machining of these parts must take into account the requirements of mass production.","This high-precision, robotized machining is done by computer-controlled digital machines.","A liquid sprinkled on the machine part cools it during the process.","The finished parts are precisely measured, then fitted and assembled to form the total braking system, which will be first tested in the laboratory.","Brakes in full contact have a friction surface six times superior to traditional brakes.","The use of aluminum and composite materials allow for a weight savings of 5.5 pounds per wheel.","This affects roadholding and reduces fuel consumption by .","05 gallons per 100 miles.","They proceed to power and endurance tests on this dynamometer, in which a brake and wheel assembly act against a large rotating drum.","These lab tests are critical, since they can detect any defect in a braking system before it's installed on an actual vehicle.","In order to evaluate the power and endurance of the brakes in full application under extreme conditions, they were installed on this porsche 911 turbo entered in the motorola cup.","They proved completely satisfactory, and the porsche went on to record many wins.","Once all validation tests are done, we move on to the next step.","Brakes are installed on a production-model vehicle.","With data systems, engineers can observe the performance of brakes under all conditions thousands of times a second.","Finally, engineers proceed with actual braking trials with test vehicles.","All that remains is to produce brakes on a large scale to supply auto manufacturers' production lines.","And that's the story of brakes, from original idea to final product.","There's nothing like the sound of a car engine starting, especially when it's 15 below on a winter morning.","Today's automotive batteries are smaller, more powerful, and more efficient, even at extreme temperatures.","It's all thanks to the power of lithium-ion-cell technology.","While dissecting a frog in 1786, the italian researcher galvani noted that when his scalpel touched a leg muscle, it contracted from an electric current produced.","Later, volta believed the current was produced by the metal instruments, the animal being only a conductor.","To prove it, he stacked disks of zinc and copper connected by conductors and fabric impregnated with an acid solution.","And so, in 1800, the electric battery was born.","Batteries power all kinds of electric motors.","A new lithium-metal-polymer battery pack such as this one could soon power an electric automobile, as well as a hybrid vehicle.","This battery will be made up of four components.","It all starts with this lithium ingot, which weighs about 11 pounds.","It's transformed into a thin sheet by this extrusion press that applies 440 tons of pressure.","The press creates a sheet that's only about 1/100 of an inch thick.","The whole extrusion sequence is closely computer-controlled.","Extrusion is now completed.","The metallic lithium sheet is the required 1/100 inch in thickness, or 1/4 of a millimeter.","The sheet has to be further thinned.","Placed on a roller, it is carried to the laminator.","At room temperature, it's thinned once again.","In just 20 minutes, the 11-pound ingot will have been transformed into a thin sheet .","01 inches wide and some 655 feet in length.","This laminator completes the thinning of the sheet.","The resulting 1 1/4 mile-long sheet will allow for the fabrication of 210 battery units.","Lithium is a soft, sticky metal.","For this reason, a polypropylene film has to be fixed onto the lithium sheet.","Without this protection, the sheet would adhere to itself and become unusable.","The sheet will be used to make individual battery cells.","Then these cells will be assembled, in series and in parallel, and inserted into modules of different shapes.","To make an individual battery cell, the sheet has to be rolled up.","This automated spooling machine winds up the lithium film in 26 revolutions.","The wound-up sheet is put into a vacuum oven, where the various layers adhere firmly to one another.","This step lasts for about 90 minutes at 176 degrees.","Here, a test is made.","Using a voltmeter, the battery is checked to see that it produces the required 3.56 volts.","Any problem can be detected here and corrected.","A final quality check is made with this caliper.","It precisely measures the thickness of the battery cell.","The battery cells are then stored.","Metallic plates are placed between them for the entire storage period.","One more step remains, and that's the metallizing of the contacts.","The battery cells are sent off to a fabrication facility in this container.","The container is robotically handled.","First, it's put into a protective tank.","Then the metallizing of the contacts is done by spraying on molten metal.","This takes just a few seconds, since the metal cools very quickly.","The battery is now finished.","It comprises four elements-- lithium, which acts as the anode, a metallic oxide cathode, a dry solid polymer electrolyte, and a metallic current collector.","All that remains to be done is the assembling of the individual battery cells into a module.","It begins with the placing of individual cells onto one another and isolating them with foam so that they do not touch each other.","These red sheets are actually heating elements, since the lithium-metal-polymer cells function at temperatures of between 104 and 176 degrees.","Here, we see these modules of a battery pack for a hybrid vehicle, an automobile that works with a gasoline-powered motor and an electric motor.","This prototype battery was created for a totally electric vehicle.","It surpasses heavy traditional lead-acid batteries that can't develop the same amount of electrical energy and have much shorter life-spans.","If you have any comments, about the show, or if you'd like to suggest topics for future shows, drop us a line at..."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Bicycle Helmets","Aluminum","Car Brakes","Lithium Batteries"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Bicycle helmets-- letting safety go to your head...","Aluminum-- probably the most versatile metal around...","Car brakes--  we bring you breaking news about how they're manufactured...","And lithium batteries-- you'll get a charge out of this one.","If you're serious about bike-riding, you should also be serious about safety, and it all starts with your head.","Today's bike helmets meet all the required safety standards and come in a wide range of colors and styles, which means you can protect your head and look great doing it.","A bicycle helmet is constructed of an exterior shell and an interior one of polystyrene foam designed to absorb shocks.","Some designs for bicycle helmets are drawn by hand and with computer-aided graphics.","The design has to take into account that it is not on a flat surface, but on a rounded one.","This creates optical deformities that have to be corrected.","Fabrication begins with the exterior shell.","This polymer sheet is heated in a heat former at a temperature of 65 degrees centigrade.","The mold lifts the sheet and suctions it to fill all the cavities of the mold.","This operation lasts about one minute and produces four shells.","Then, when cooled down and hardened, the four shells are cut by hand.","Ventilation openings are cut with a heated wire apparatus.","These openings have been preformed during molding of the shell.","The heated wire easily and neatly cuts the polymer.","Next up, trimming the helmet to eliminate excess polymer.","The circumference is manually cut using a router.","The edges are then sanded to even them.","It is also possible to cut the circumference of the shell with a heated wire.","This operation takes more time, but is more precise because of the resulting cleaner cut.","Now they're going to fabricate the foam interior that will be placed inside the shell.","It's made of polystyrene beads that will expand and bond together.","This expander increases the volume of the granules that fall into it.","Steam and an agitator let the polystyrene beads expand uniformly.","The granules are now ready.","The contents of this bin will be able to produce about 20 foam pieces, which will take shape on these molds.","The press closes up for the six minutes that it takes to mold four foam pieces.","The particles fuse with steam before being cooled with water.","The foam is removed from the mold.","Forms are produced for different helmets.","Fusing of the particles has welded the granules to one another.","Depending on the helmet model, openings have to be made with this heat iron to allow for installation of an air-vent accessory.","All that remains is to make the adjustment pads, cut with this press-powered stamper.","The adjustment pads are held in with velcro to allow easy adjustment of the helmet.","This allows the cyclist to change the foam pads for greater comfort.","Inserting the straps calls for good manual dexterity and takes only a minute.","The shell and the polystyrene foam liner have to be joined.","They're adjusted one inside the other, then solidly secured with adhesive tape.","The helmet is now completed.","And now it's ready for packaging.","The safety helmets have to be certified, guaranteeing their safety, and conformity tests are done.","At least one helmet in 500 will undergo this destructive test.","Here, it drops vertically onto a piece of steel.","This facility can produce up to 4,000 helmets daily in hundreds of models and over 500 variations.","Take a look around, and you'll find this wonder metal everywhere, in everything from screen doors to jet planes.","Aluminum has so many applications because it's light and strong, and it's corrosion- and crack-resistant.","Producing aluminum is costly, but it saves money over time.","Aluminum--  so widely used today, and the world's most abundant metallic element, does not occur in a natural state.","The most available source of aluminum is actually bauxite.","Bauxite is mainly mined in tropical countries.","The aluminum atom in bauxite is bonded to oxygen molecules.","These bonds have to be broken by electrolysis to produce pure aluminum.","Bauxite is carried by rail to the plant, where it will be crushed.","Then, through a chemical transformation called the bayer process, alumina is extracted.","This is then roasted in calciners to eliminate all moisture.","This is the reduction facility.","This plant has 432 pots through which a powerful electric current will be passed to produce electrolysis.","An overhead crane dumps alumina into the pots.","Then the electric current from the anode passes through the alumina that we see here at the bottom of the pot.","Via the process of alumina reduction at 1,742 degrees, the anodes lose volume and will have to be replaced.","It's a continuous operation.","Each anode has a life-span of about 20 days.","Spent anodes are recovered from the pot with this overhead crane and carried off to be recycled.","They clean the aluminum rods, which will then be reused.","Here we see the crust formed atop the anode.","When the anodes are replaced, the accumulated impurities have to be recovered from the top of the pots.","This is accomplished with these pincers.","Then a new anode is inserted into the alumina, and electrolysis continues.","The electric current breaks the molecular bonds.","The heavier aluminum collects at the bottom of the pot, while the oxygen bound to fluorine is released as a gas, which is drawn off and treated.","The liquefied aluminum remains at the bottom of the pot.","It has to be recovered in this huge crucible with a tube.","The tube is dipped into the bottom of the pot, and a vacuum system draws the molten aluminum from the crucible.","The aluminum is recovered in a short time.","Air is vacuumed from the crucible by a flexible pipe held by an operator.","The tube is finally withdrawn, and the overhead crane dumps another quantity of alumina into the pot.","Thus, the aluminum-fabrication process continues uninterrupted.","The crucibles filled with molten aluminum are transported to the casting house.","Their contents are poured into holding furnaces, that have a capacity of 60 tons.","In these very hot furnaces, the molten aluminum is stored to await casting.","Finally, casting begins.","The aluminum can be semicontinuously vertically cast, producing ingots, sheets, or billets, or it can be directly cast into semifinished products.","The cooling of aluminum pieces is accelerated by water sprays.","The large, rectangular ingots, which can weigh up to 25 tons, will head for hot-rolling, and eventually will be fabricated into products like aluminum foil.","From four to five tons of bauxite have produced two tons of alumina, which in turn produces one ton of aluminum.","This particular plant produces 200,000 tons of aluminum annually.","Some other facilities can turn out as much as 400,000 tons.","If you've ever had to stop suddenly while driving at high speed, you know that once you hit the brakes, they can easily lock up, making you skid.","But with the sophisticated computer technology behind today's antilock brakes, skidding is becoming a thing of the past.","Brakes are absolutely essential equipment for every vehicle to slow down and stop.","And brakes have remained practically unchanged for the past 40 years.","Conventional disk brakes have pads that press against the brake disk attached to the wheel.","These pads grip the disk on only 15 to 30 degrees of its circumference.","This develops high heat, wheel skidding, and results in premature wear.","The new floating disk brakes have two pads of friction material on 360 degrees of the disk.","When the brake is applied, hydraulic pressure activates the diaphragm, which applies pressure on the inboard pad, which is then pressed against the disk.","In this animation, the diaphragm movement is exaggerated.","However simple, the design of this brake calls for some complex development steps.","It all starts on the monitor screen with computer-aided design.","This powerful software creates objects in three dimensions, which can be virtually manipulated.","They then proceed to digital analysis.","Here, digital models are submitted to repeated braking to verify that the parts conform to design objectives.","The software verifies changes in heat, the effects of vibration, and resistance to breakage.","The right choice of materials is critical.","The electrical components also have to be created.","Here, we see the delicate construction of tiny sensors, that measure the force exerted by the braking system.","The sensor is the main component of the intelligent a.b.s. braking system, which functions more efficiently than traditional antiskid systems and reduces braking distance.","Next, it's the fabrication stage of prototype parts, which will be tested.","The machining of these parts must take into account the requirements of mass production.","This high-precision, robotized machining is done by computer-controlled digital machines.","A liquid sprinkled on the machine part cools it during the process.","The finished parts are precisely measured, then fitted and assembled to form the total braking system, which will be first tested in the laboratory.","Brakes in full contact have a friction surface six times superior to traditional brakes.","The use of aluminum and composite materials allow for a weight savings of 5.5 pounds per wheel.","This affects roadholding and reduces fuel consumption by .","05 gallons per 100 miles.","They proceed to power and endurance tests on this dynamometer, in which a brake and wheel assembly act against a large rotating drum.","These lab tests are critical, since they can detect any defect in a braking system before it's installed on an actual vehicle.","In order to evaluate the power and endurance of the brakes in full application under extreme conditions, they were installed on this porsche 911 turbo entered in the motorola cup.","They proved completely satisfactory, and the porsche went on to record many wins.","Once all validation tests are done, we move on to the next step.","Brakes are installed on a production-model vehicle.","With data systems, engineers can observe the performance of brakes under all conditions thousands of times a second.","Finally, engineers proceed with actual braking trials with test vehicles.","All that remains is to produce brakes on a large scale to supply auto manufacturers' production lines.","And that's the story of brakes, from original idea to final product.","There's nothing like the sound of a car engine starting, especially when it's 15 below on a winter morning.","Today's automotive batteries are smaller, more powerful, and more efficient, even at extreme temperatures.","It's all thanks to the power of lithium-ion-cell technology.","While dissecting a frog in 1786, the italian researcher galvani noted that when his scalpel touched a leg muscle, it contracted from an electric current produced.","Later, volta believed the current was produced by the metal instruments, the animal being only a conductor.","To prove it, he stacked disks of zinc and copper connected by conductors and fabric impregnated with an acid solution.","And so, in 1800, the electric battery was born.","Batteries power all kinds of electric motors.","A new lithium-metal-polymer battery pack such as this one could soon power an electric automobile, as well as a hybrid vehicle.","This battery will be made up of four components.","It all starts with this lithium ingot, which weighs about 11 pounds.","It's transformed into a thin sheet by this extrusion press that applies 440 tons of pressure.","The press creates a sheet that's only about 1/100 of an inch thick.","The whole extrusion sequence is closely computer-controlled.","Extrusion is now completed.","The metallic lithium sheet is the required 1/100 inch in thickness, or 1/4 of a millimeter.","The sheet has to be further thinned.","Placed on a roller, it is carried to the laminator.","At room temperature, it's thinned once again.","In just 20 minutes, the 11-pound ingot will have been transformed into a thin sheet .","01 inches wide and some 655 feet in length.","This laminator completes the thinning of the sheet.","The resulting 1 1/4 mile-long sheet will allow for the fabrication of 210 battery units.","Lithium is a soft, sticky metal.","For this reason, a polypropylene film has to be fixed onto the lithium sheet.","Without this protection, the sheet would adhere to itself and become unusable.","The sheet will be used to make individual battery cells.","Then these cells will be assembled, in series and in parallel, and inserted into modules of different shapes.","To make an individual battery cell, the sheet has to be rolled up.","This automated spooling machine winds up the lithium film in 26 revolutions.","The wound-up sheet is put into a vacuum oven, where the various layers adhere firmly to one another.","This step lasts for about 90 minutes at 176 degrees.","Here, a test is made.","Using a voltmeter, the battery is checked to see that it produces the required 3.56 volts.","Any problem can be detected here and corrected.","A final quality check is made with this caliper.","It precisely measures the thickness of the battery cell.","The battery cells are then stored.","Metallic plates are placed between them for the entire storage period.","One more step remains, and that's the metallizing of the contacts.","The battery cells are sent off to a fabrication facility in this container.","The container is robotically handled.","First, it's put into a protective tank.","Then the metallizing of the contacts is done by spraying on molten metal.","This takes just a few seconds, since the metal cools very quickly.","The battery is now finished.","It comprises four elements-- lithium, which acts as the anode, a metallic oxide cathode, a dry solid polymer electrolyte, and a metallic current collector.","All that remains to be done is the assembling of the individual battery cells into a module.","It begins with the placing of individual cells onto one another and isolating them with foam so that they do not touch each other.","These red sheets are actually heating elements, since the lithium-metal-polymer cells function at temperatures of between 104 and 176 degrees.","Here, we see these modules of a battery pack for a hybrid vehicle, an automobile that works with a gasoline-powered motor and an electric motor.","This prototype battery was created for a totally electric vehicle.","It surpasses heavy traditional lead-acid batteries that can't develop the same amount of electrical energy and have much shorter life-spans."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Rawhide Lampshades","Chocolate Chip Cookies","MRI Scanners"]},"text":["You doesn't need to have antlers over the fireplace to bring a touch of wildlife to your decor.","A more subtle approach can be a lamp with a shade made of rawhide.","Rawhide is untanned animal skin.","The hide typically comes from livestock, so you get the decorative \"bang\" without firing a shot.","You typically see rawhide lampshades in rustic settings, but they've also been known to add an eclectic twist to a modern decor.","This company has been using the same techniques to hand-craft rawhide lampshades since 1929.","The first step is to construct the shade's frame out of 3-millimeter-thick steel wire.","They begin by cutting the various lengths of wire to make the component's first shade of a particular size.","Every frame has one top ring, one bottom ring, and several vertical ribs connecting the two.","After clamping the wires alongside a measuring gauge, they position the blade where required and cut.","They curve the pieces for the rings with crank-operated rollers, which apply pressure to bend the wire.","It takes a few passes to work the steel wire into a full circle.","Then they spot-weld the ends together to complete each ring.","They cool the hot weld in cold water.","Now it's time to assemble the frame.","They use a jig to correctly position all the parts.","This one is for a slanted shade with an 18-inch bottom diameter.","After laying in the bottom ring, they position one rib at a time and spot-weld it to the ring.","They assemble the spider-- the inner structure of the top ring.","They take a brass washer with four holes in it and insert a steel wire arm into each one.","A single strike of a 1-ton press locks each arm in the washer.","They spot-weld the spider to the top ring...","Then the ring to each rib of the frame.","The frame is now fully constructed and ready to be coated with baked-on paint.","This not only makes the frame more attractive, it prevents the steel from rusting as it comes in contact with the wet rawhide.","The freshly-washed sheepskin is the highest grade of hide available, so the color is an even butterscotch-- rarely any color variations or spots.","They center the frame upside-down on the skin, then work their way around, folding the skin upward and over, clamping it in place with clothespins.","Then, they flip the shade right side up and slit the skin at the top with a razor blade to release some tension.","Now they sew the skin to the top and bottom of the frame with rawhide lace.","However, this rawhide is cow skin.","Once the sewing is complete, they cut off the excess skin.","The rawhide is still quite wet, so they dry the lampshade in a heated closet for about five hours.","When it comes out, they bathe the rawhide in a moisturizing agent then a finishing solution, the specifics of which are a closely-guarded company secret.","These treatments bring out the butterscotch color and seal the hide to prevent it from drying out and cracking.","The lampshade then goes back into the heated closet for 24 hours.","Lampshades are often hands-painted before this, in which case the finishing solution seals the oil paint as well as the hide.","Each design is original and signed by the artist-- a unique work of art designed to light up a room.","Legend has it that chocolate-chip cookies were invented in 1930 by an american innkeeper who ran out of baker's chocolate.","She improved by breaking a semi-sweet chocolate bar into small pieces.","Instead of melting, the chocolate merely softened, dotting the cookie with chocolate chips.","They look homemade, and they taste homemade, but this home is a factory.","Each ingredient goes into an industrial-size mixer, starting with white sugar.","Then brown sugar.","Then butter.","The mixer thoroughly blends these first ingredients until the butter becomes soft and creamy and the sugars are evenly dispersed.","Then it's time for the headliner-- chocolate chips.","They're semi-sweet, which is a mixture of bitter and sweet chocolate.","Next, flour, followed by baking soda to make the dough rise and salt to add flavor.","The final ingredients are whole eggs, beaten, combined with vanilla, made from beans harvested in madagascar, africa.","Mixing resume until everything's well-blended, which usually takes about five minutes.","The company closely guards recipe specifics, but if you're curious, you could probably figure them out by multiplying the ingredients of a home recipe to the yield of a production batch.","Workers transfer the cookie dough to a machine called the former.","It pushes the dough through round dies, producing row upon row of round pieces weighing 1.4 ounces each, one of several sizes the factory produces.","The factory then flash-freezes the dough rounds for sale to food-service customers such as restaurants and hotels, which bake the cookies in their own kitchens.","The freeze tunnel uses liquid nitrogen to create the frigid temperature.","The passing dough rounds solidify in approximately five minutes.","Exiting the freeze tunnel, the dough rounds pass under a metal detector to ensure they don't contain any metal particles.","This safety measure is standard practice in the food industry.","The packaging system is entirely automated.","The first station erects the box.","The second station lines it with plastic.","A conveyer belt, meanwhile, feeds the frozen, unbaked cookies onto automated scales.","Once a scale hits the per-box weight, feeding pauses.","The bottom swings open, and the cookies drop into the box awaiting directly underneath.","The next stations seal and label the boxes, which workers then load onto pallets.","The pallets go into a storage freezer, where they stay until it's time to ship them out, by freezer truck, to the customer.","This company also sells gift tins of cookies online and by catalog.","For that market, they bake the cookies in-house.","Workers lay out the dough rounds 2 inches apart on trays lined with parchment paper.","This prevents sticking, making it easy to remove the baked cookies without breaking them.","The dough rounds are nearly 1½ inches wide by 1 inch high.","As they bake, they flatten out and double in diameter.","The trays remain in the oven for seven minutes at 300 degrees fahrenheit.","A turntable inside rotates them so that the cookies bake evenly throughout the tray.","A few cookies per batch go to the quality control tester, who, unfortunately, doesn't get to conduct the assessment by eating the samples.","Rather, the tester measures the diameter and height to ensure consistency in size and chip content.","In the online and catalogue order assembly area, workers line the bottom part of the gift tin with a decorative cellophane bag.","Then, they carefully layer the correct number of fresh cookies inside in a staggered configuration.","This not only creates a nice presentation, it also prevents damage in transit.","They close the bag with a gold twist tie to seal in the freshness...","Close up the tin, then pack it for shipping.","This is how to give a gift of homemade chocolate chip cookies without ever setting foot in the kitchen.","The mri scanner was invented in 1977, and it has revolutionized medical diagnostics.","Short for magnetic resonance imaging, an mri offers an inside look at the human body without surgery or x-rays.","When investigation health problems, it's a great way to get the picture.","Using magnetic fields and radio-wave pulses, an mri can look right through you to determine what's going on under the skin.","The magnet is incredibly powerful.","It's up to 30,000 times stronger than the earth's magnetic field.","To make an mri scanner, they weld aluminum casing around the magnet, creating a tunnel in the center for the patient.","The seams must be extremely tight because the tube will also contain the super-cold liquid helium which will make the magnet so incredibly powerful.","Once the welds are complete, they cap the magnet and transfer it to a test chamber.","They pump helium gas into the tube and activate a vacuum system that sucks out the air in the chamber.","A sensor confirms there are no leaks and the welds are tight.","They now construct a second aluminum tube around the magnet.","This will act as an insulating shield.","They wrap and aluminized mylar blanket tightly around the magnet.","Aluminized mylar was first developed as an insulating material for space suits.","In this case, it will be used to deflect heat to keep the magnet cold.","They now insert the magnet into a steel shell.","This is know as the vacuum vessel.","The air will be pulled from the space between it and the magnet, creating a vacuum which will serve as another insulator.","They mask the mri tunnel with plastic and spray paint the exterior white.","The paint will protect the steel from rust.","Next, they install a refrigeration unit knows as the cold head.","The cold head will maintain the helium around the mri's primary magnet at the incredibly chilly temperature of -452 degrees fahrenheit.","This will keep the helium in a liquid state.","Without the cold head, significant amounts would vaporize and be lost.","They now pump the liquid helium into the magnet.","It's one of the coldest things on the planet, and the fill nozzles turn frosty.","Exposed to this extreme cold, the magnet loses all electrical resistance and becomes a super conductor, generating intense magnetic fields.","With the mri magnet complete, they move on to the gradient coil, which will control the orientation of the image with electrical pulses.","It starts with a fiberglass epoxy tube cut to the correct length.","A worker carves grooves in the tube and fills those grooves with epoxy.","He then winds copper wire into the epoxy-filled grooves, and it adheres, forming the gradient coil.","The team slathers epoxy onto the entire tube.","The epoxy seals the wire, preventing vibrations of the coil when it's in operation.","They layer etched copper plates onto the epoxy, and they adhere.","They wrap the coil tightly with teflon cloth.","A worker pours epoxy resin onto the fabric.","He then winds tubing around the gradient coil, which adheres to the epoxy-coated cloth.","These are cooling lines.","They'll disperse heat generated by the gradient coil.","Another worker now preps the next fiberglass tube.","This one is for the mri's radio-frequency coil.","There's much more to come before this mri scanner is ready to provide an inside look at the human body, so stay tuned.","An mri scanner produces detailed images of bones, organs, and other structures inside the human body.","It does this by generating a strong magnetic field that causes the body's hydrogen atoms to align and send a signal.","The result is a picture that could lead to a diagnosis.","Work on the mri's radio-frequency coil is under way.","A technician attaches plastic risers and pads to the fiberglass core.","The risers and pads will hold the circuitry parts at a uniform level.","She applies adhesive-backed strips of copper from one band of risers to the other.","These copper strips are the antenna.","They'll send and receive signals from the body and relay them to a computer to produce the mri image.","She presses the copper with round-tipped tool for better adhesion to the core.","She then dabs epoxy glue into the riser compartments.","She inserts capacitors into the glue-filled compartments.","These little capacitors will store energy and change the frequency of the coil to match the magnets.","The technician solders the ends of the capacitors to the copper antenna as she builds the circuitry.","She transfers numerous high-voltage inductor boards to the pads and screws them in place.","Next up are cable-splitter units.","Another technician installs one near an inductor board.","She routes some of the cables from the splitter to the several of the inductors.","And she solders the cables to the inductors.","She places a plastic cable track on the side of the radio-frequency coil and snakes the main power cable through it.","She solders the cable to the antenna.","The technician stiffens the copper antenna with composite boards to dampen vibrations when the mri is in operation.","She applies epoxy around all the cables.","The epoxy secures the cables to keep them from moving around and making noise.","The mri's radio-frequency coil is complete and ready to be put to the test.","The next worker caps the ends with metal domes and bolts them tightly together.","She pumps highly pressurized air into the capped radio-frequency coil.","She spray soapy water over the exterior of the coil and looks for air bubbles.","Bubbles in the soapy residue would indicate a leak, which would disrupt airflow in the mri.","With the radio-frequency coil leak-free, they now slide it into the gradient coil, which has gained an outer fiberglass shell since we last saw it.","The worker connects exterior tubing to the network of cooling lines inside the gradient coil.","With those connections made, they're ready to assemble the coils to the magnet.","The worker slides the assembly off the cart and into the mri magnet.","He installs a bracket that centers the coils, maintaining a small gap between them and the magnet.","He equips the mri with microphones and speakers, to communicate with the patient.","There's also a signaling system here for the patient to activate in the event of an emergency.","Now for the ultimate test.","They energize the magnet and send standard test objects into the mri.","They scan the objects and confirm the picture is clear.","They add a metal and plastic outer casing.","This mri scanner is now ready to focus on diagnosis.","The next picture it takes could be a life saver."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Windshields","English Saddles","Butter","Post Clocks"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Fiberglass insulation...","Wooden ducks...","Gumball machines...","And exhaust systems.","It's pink and fluffy, and it keeps us warm.","Fiberglass insulation is a great way to prevent heat loss from our buildings.","It has a woolly texture, but it is, as the name suggests, made of very fine threads of glass.","That's why it's sometimes referred to as glass wool.","Fiberglass insulation will reduce energy consumption, but it also reduces waste because it's made from at least 35% recycled glass.","The recipe also includes what's called the batch-- a lot of sand and smaller portions of soda ash, limestone, and other minerals.","The glass, called cullet, used to be bottles and windows.","This will be its second recycling.","The cullet and batch ingredients spill onto a conveyer-belt system, which transports it all to an electric furnace.","The conveyer moves back and forth to evenly distribute the cullet and batch ingredients.","They seep down and melt into a previous mix, which is now a pool of glass at the bottom of the furnace.","The glass liquid now flows out of the furnace and into sloped channels.","Inside these channels, the temperature is kept red-hot by natural-gas burners.","This keeps the glass mix in a liquid form, as it oozes out of the holes in the bottoms of the channels.","The melted glass falls about 3 feet into a spinning bowl.","It's called a fiberizer.","The spinning action flings the glass through thousands of holes in the bowl, creating thousands of feathery glass fibers.","Gas and compressed air pull the fibers, stretching them thinner.","The process is a lot like making cotton candy, and the spun glass even has a similar texture.","But the fibers will soon become even more like cotton candy.","Nozzles spray them with a polymer glue tinted pink.","The now-pink and sticky fibers drop into a hole in the ground and amass.","Then a conveyer belt takes the mounds of sticky glass to an oven.","Steel plates compress the pack as it enters the oven that's heated to 500 degrees fahrenheit.","Hot air blows through it, setting the glue.","As the pack exits the oven, circular saws cut through it, making 15- to 24-inch-wide strips that are called lanes.","The lanes pass by a series of poles that push them apart.","Next, an ink jet brands each lane with a number that conveys the \"r\" value.","\"r\" stands for \"resistance to heat flow\".","It's a measure of how well the insulation will stop heat from going through the roof and your energy bill along with it.","A chopper with big steel teeth now cuts the lanes, making chunks that could easily be installed in an attic or wall.","After chopping, the conveyer belt accelerates, transporting the fiberglass batts to the next station.","A few at a time, the batts plunge down a chute, to a mechanical arm which slides the batts into a compression chamber.","There, a hydraulic ram squishes the batts down, reducing their bulk 5 to 10 times.","This compaction will make them easier to transport.","Now another ram comes from the side and pushes the stack of compressed batts forward into a spout.","The spout is a hollow batt-shaped frame.","A worker pulls a plastic bag over it.","Then the ram pushes the fiberglass-insulation batt into the plastic bag, and the process begins again.","A conveyer belt transports the batt-filled bags to a machine that heat-seals them.","Then they're sent off to be installed.","For centuries, hunters have used wooden ducks to lure live ones to within shooting range.","Stringing together decoys and floating them in the water, hunters trick the birds down from the sky with duck calls.","Nowadays, hunters generally prefer cheaper, plastic decoys.","Wooden ducks are mostly decorative items for the home.","This company's flock includes males, females, and androgynous models like this one.","This more elaborate male is inspired by another aquatic bird, the loon.","To make them, these craftsmen use eastern white pine because it's easy to carve and has a nice grain.","First, a machine shapes a 2-inch-thick slab.","They cut the slab lengthwise.","They'll use four to six of these smaller pieces to make most of the duck's body.","The birds range in size from baby ducks just 4 inches long to geese at more than 19 inches long.","A craftsman now applies a generous amount of carpenter's glue to one side of the wood.","Using a lot ensures a strong bond and prevents splitting later on.","The pieces then go into what's called a wood clamp.","He tightens a vice, squeezing them together.","It takes about two hours for the pieces to bond properly.","Then he'll shave away the excess glue and even up the surfaces.","Once that's done, they run the block over what's called a joiner.","A roller with 3 blades shaves about 3/4 of an inch from what will become the top and bottom of the duck.","Each model has three wooden patterns for the top, the bottom, and the profile.","Here, a worker traces the outline of the bird's profile in pencil on the wood.","Since this is a small model, he'll make two birds with one block.","Using a band saw, he trims along the trace line.","This company recycles the cutoffs into fireplace kindling and shavings for farm stables.","Next, he uses another pattern to create the top of the bird.","These patterns provide only the general shape of a particular model.","The craftsman will later carve the details using smaller electric tools and by hand.","Now he sands the wood with a pneumatic drum sander-- a tube of pressurized air with sandpaper stretched over it.","He uses higher pressure for sharper curves, lower pressure for softer edges.","To sculpt the bird's plumage, the craftsman uses this band sander whose rounded edge presses sandpaper into the wood.","Here, he makes three long grooves-- one on top, and one on each side of the duck.","The head's made from a different piece of wood than the body.","Here, he sands down the piece to smooth out the curves.","Using various shaping tools and the band sander, he sculpts the bird's head and bill area, then the underside and rear end of this waddling duck.","He also carves depressions for eye sockets to come later.","Here, he puts glue on the neck to attach it to the rest of the body.","Using a nail gun, he reinforces the area with two nails on each side.","To hide the nails and smooth out the neck, the craftsman uses wood putty.","Once it dries, he'll sand it smooth.","Next, he tints the duck bill using an orange wood stain...","Then a forest-green stain to tint the head and neck areas.","Males have colorful feathers to better attract mates.","Females have more neutral colors to blend into their surroundings and protect their ducklings.","The craftsman covers the duck's lower body with a clear wood stain.","This way, the natural grain of the wood shows through.","The front gets a clear but darker stain to mark the chest.","And darker stain also highlights the plumage in the long grooves.","Then, some green accents for the feathers on the sides in the back.","Next, two coats of white paint to mark the duck's collar.","Then he glues plastic eyes in the eye sockets.","The irises are black, brown, or red, depending on the model.","He then sprays on a protective, water-based varnish, and elevates the duck on nails so that the underside will dry along with the rest.","Finally, the craftsman rubs the entire carving in wood wax.","This makes the varnish appear uneven in places, giving the duck a worn, antique finish, like he's been around the pond a few times.","The prices of wooden ducks vary according to size and detail.","$500 will buy you this magnificent canada goose with wings stretched and ready for a graceful landing.","For a century, there have been machines to give us gumballs.","Vending machines that dispensed gumballs were introduced in 1907 on a new york city subway platform.","Today's machines are more modern versions of the originals, but they still perform, basically, the same function.","The gumball machine is all about instant gratification.","Insert a coin, turn a handle, and out comes the merchandise.","To make a gumball machine, a designer first sketches out the exact proportions.","Then, a worker ladles molten zinc into a holding furnace, where a steel plunger pushes the metal through a die that forms a gumball machine base.","A mechanical claw removes the newly shaped base from the die and places it on a conveyor belt to cool.","A similar die shapes the coin mechanism handle and drive gears.","A worker places a braided hose with a natural-gas flame under a mold that will shape the gumball-dispensing chute.","He pours piping-hot liquid aluminum into the mold.","The flame below warms the mold enough to prevent condensation, which would ruin the shape.","But the mold is still cooler than the aluminum, and that allows it to solidify into a chute shape in seconds.","Now, using a punch press, a worker trims the waste away from the lid for the gumball machine.","They also trim the front plate of the coin mechanism, using a similar press.","A computerized cutter mills out a hole in the top of the globe that will hold the gumballs.","The globe is made of shatterproof plastic.","At another station, they press the base of the gumball machine against a cloth-covered buffing wheel to give it a shine.","A worker now assembles the coin mechanism, layering the front plate, the coin carrier, the back plate, and ending with a cam, the part that ensures the coin mechanism moves clockwise.","She screws it tightly together, then inserts the handle on the front plate.","The handle will turn the coins that pay for the gumballs.","She places a little spacer and drive gear on the handle stem that protrudes through the back of the assembly and then screws the drive gear onto the handle stem.","Now it's time to put the money up front.","They insert a coin in the slot and turn the handle to make sure the system works.","People in many countries like gumballs, and so these coin mechanisms can be made to accept currencies from around the world.","They can also be used in other types of vending machines.","Now they spray powder paint onto the lids, giving them a coating that's almost 1/16 of an inch thick.","They bake the paint onto the lids at 400 degrees fahrenheit for 25 minutes.","Now it's time to put all the pieces together.","They place the dispensing wheels in hoppers, then cover them with a part that stops free gumballs from spilling out.","The next part is the adaptor ring, and the plastic globes fit on top of them.","They place aluminum rings on top of the globes.","Then they slide two side rods through the top rings, down into the bottom of the globes.","They screw them down very tightly, and then they set the assembly aside.","Now they place plastic bodies on bases and install the chute doors on the front.","They place the chute covers in the plastic body...","And mount the coin mechanism just above the chute.","Next, they slide the globe assemblies over center rods and onto the plastic foundations.","They put a lid on every globe...","And then lock them on.","And now we're at the vending part of the story.","Gumball, anyone?","The job it does is exhausting.","The exhaust system on your vehicle gets rid of harmful gases that could damage the engine.","It also cleans up the gases a bit before venting them into the air.","A properly functioning exhaust system does another big job-- muffling the airborne noise of the engine.","It's a system of metal tubes and plates we only seem to notice when it breaks down.","And when it does, everyone can hear it.","To make an exhaust system, a mechanical puller draws a stainless-steel strip up into a punch press, shuffling it back and forth to allow for a precise cut with little waste.","The press brings 60 tons of force to bear as it pushes the steel into a die.","It punches out a baffle shape with holes in it, which will form the skeleton for the muffler box.","The finished baffles fall onto a conveyor and go into a storage cage.","Now a long steel tube tumbles to automated blades which score the tube crosswise to prevent denting and then cut it to produce smaller tubes that go inside a muffler.","A circular saw descends on another tube to make a tail pipe.","Its length depends on the type of muffler being made.","A louver machine spins and punctures one of the inside tubes.","The holes will regulate airflow in the muffler.","A cnc bending machine grips and bends a pipe in several spots.","This is how they make inlet, intermediate, and outlet tubes.","These tubes run the length of the exhaust system.","Then they place a tube in a circular hydraulic vice, which pinches the end down to a prescribed diameter to allow for further assembly.","A worker now places two baffles in a jig.","He fits the tubes through the holes in the baffles so that the tubes connect the baffles.","Three mandrels slide into the tubes.","The mandrels expand, locking the tubes to the baffles.","Then they contract and slide out.","Now the baffles and tubes are one piece.","Next, a robotic arm picks up metal sheets, which will become the outer skin of the muffler box.","It pushes them under an oval mold.","Another arm with numerous rollers on it moves up and wraps the steel around the oval form.","Then a metal block moves over the ends, double-folding them.","This locks them together, and it completes the assembly of the muffler's outside skin.","Magnets pick up the new skin, and, sliding on rails, they relay it to a mechanical claw which, in turn, feeds it to a flanger.","The flanger bends the edges, creating a lip on either end of the muffler skin.","A carousel turns, and a mechanical claw transfers the newly flanged muffler skin to the stuffing position.","Hydraulic pushers press the pre-assembled baffles and tubes inside the skin.","After the muffler is stuffed, the robotic claw transfers it to a conveyor belt.","Next, a worker presses each end of the muffler against a set of steel expansion fingers.","The fingers move forward into holes in the muffler.","They expand and lock the baffles and tubes inside to form one solid, internal unit.","Grippers place the muffler on a spinning machine that will fasten the caps on.","Rollers press against the flared edges of the revolving muffler, tightly locking the end cap to the rest of the body.","Here, you see the rolling in slow motion.","It takes only a few revolutions to do the job.","Then the roller backs away, and a mechanical arm grabs the muffler and transfers it to a conveyor belt.","Now these mufflers are ready to help keep the traffic noise at a minimum."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Wood Toys","Retro Toasters","Laboratory Furnaces","Aerogel"]},"text":["a rubber tree's life-span for natural rubber production is limited to about 25 years.","But making toys out of their wood gives unproductive trees a second life.","This idea comes from southeastern asia, home to most of the rubber and latex production worldwide.","This company, based in thailand, manufactures toys such as this series of animal-shaped racers made of locally farmed rubberwood.","They buy old trees that have exceeded their productive life.","A worker feeds lumber through a wood-rounding machine.","The machine drives the log through a mill and turns it into a rod.","The worker places the rod on a tray alongside other pieces ready for cutting.","A cutting machine automatically matches the length of the rods while a round saw cuts out blanks, which accumulate in a crate.","A router removes the sharp edges on the blanks.","Stacked in a feeder tube, the blanks drop down one by one on the router table.","An automated feeding mechanism pushes each blank against the router head.","The router blade bites into the blank and trims off the edge, leaving the pieces ready for sanding.","At another station, a lathe turns spherical shapes out of the wood.","Several blades move in sequence to form the piece.","When a new length of wood comes through, the front blade moves in.","Once it backs away, another set of blades shapes the piece laterally before a cutter blade separates it from the rod.","A worker now pours a nontoxic, water-based paint over the sanded blanks.","He transfers the batch into a tumbling machine.","The tumbling process will even out the color and drain the extra paint to accelerate drying.","The worker closes and secures the lid of the tumbler before he starts the machine.","The facility can simultaneously process 40 batches of painted parts in 30 minutes.","The painted parts now go to a pad printer.","An automated arm feeds the parts to the printer, which stamps each piece with a nontoxic paint.","A worker uses a table saw to groove another set of painted parts.","The custom-made jig ensures that the cut is straight and even and that the blade makes only a narrow and shallow groove in the wood.","The worker places the grooved part on a jig and bores a hole into the piece with a drill.","The machined piece goes to another pad printer.","The pad picks up paint from a tray and transfers it to the wood.","This process, called tampography, allows the printer to reproduce a design on an irregular surface, such as this wood piece.","The printed parts dry at room temperature.","As a last pad printer paints two dots on the wood, the face of the animal racer slowly takes shape.","This red-colored powder is processed rubberwood sawdust entirely recycled from the machining operations.","A worker fills molds with the reprocessed sawdust and prepares them for casting.","The machine compresses the sawdust in a die and turns it into a solid and compact material called planwood.","A worker starts assembling the planwood pieces to form the body of the racers.","She applies a thin coat of nontoxic, formaldehyde-free glue and presses two corresponding planwood pieces together.","She removes the excess glue with her finger before she hammers a dowel into the assembled planwood body.","To finish the head of the racer, she inserts a felt piece into the groove machined on top and presses the head into the racer's body using a pneumatic press.","The worker then drives the axles through holes in the planwood assembly.","She takes painted and pad-printed wheels and applies a drop of fast-hardening glue inside each wheel hub.","She then hammers the wheels into the axles and takes the assembled toy to a customized machine designed to press the wheels firmly into the axles.","This finished chicken racer is one of a wide variety of rubberwood toys manufactured with environment-friendly processes and materials.","Whether your preferred shade is light, medium, or dark, owning a reliable electric toaster that evenly heats and browns both sides of your bread just the way you like it is one of life's small pleasures.","And if that toaster adds some style to your kitchen, all the better.","Making retro-style toasters is this british company's bread and butter.","While some of its models are new designs in a vintage style, this one is authentically retro, in continuous production since the 1960s.","The manufacturing equipment, however, is modern.","A computer-guided laser cutter cuts out many components from sheet steel coated with zinc for corrosion resistance.","They stamp the company logo and then use the same press to begin forming a rectangular box.","They bend three sides on this press...","Then bend the fourth on a machine called a box folder.","They rivet the body closed, then spray on a thick layer of paint powder known as powder coat.","Then, they run the body through a tunnel oven for 10 minutes to bake the finish.","The computer-guided laser cutter also cuts out several toaster tops from a sheet of stainless steel.","This model is a four-slice toaster, so the machine cuts four slots per top.","To make the manual bread ejector that pops up the hot toast, they weld steel strips to a round steel bar.","Moving the toaster's ejector knob lifts this bar, raising the top of the toast out of the slot.","They bend the strips, creating a cradle to stabilize the bread so that it doesn't wobble and get caught while moving up and down within the slot.","This machine makes the toaster's guard wires out of copper-coated steel.","The guard wires are barriers that prevent the bread from touching the toaster's heating elements.","The machine first welds cut horizontal wires to four continuous vertical ones.","Then, a blade chops the vertical wires every 12 inches, producing two side-by-side guard wires.","Workers cut them apart on a guillotine, then, with a hand press, fold over the top of each one.","This prevents the bread from catching on the top of the guard wires.","Now they take the toasting compartment and insert the eight guard wires, one for each side of the four bread slots.","Then, they install the bread ejector.","Next, the heating elements.","Being a high-end toaster, the elements are sheets of pure mica, a mineral that's heat-resistant up to 1,800 degrees fahrenheit.","They connect them with electrically conductive copper links.","They mount the switch that selects the number of bread slices to toast.","Then, they install a red neon light that illuminates when you start the toaster and turns off when the toast time has elapsed.","The timer switch has a bell that sounds when the toast time is up, at which point the switch cuts the current to the elements.","They attach the dials for the slice selector and timer switches and connect their wires to the main power cord.","Then, they place the toaster compartment into the body and screw on the toaster's stainless steel top, the protective film now removed.","They flip the toaster upside down and wire up the elements.","They install the ejector knob, positioning its spring against the bread ejector.","When the bell rings, indicating your toast is ready, you move the knob to raise and retrieve your slices.","A technician tests the toaster thoroughly, ensuring that all of the elements heat to the correct temperature, that only the selected slots heat up, that the timer is accurate, and that the bell rings when the selected time elapses.","they install the removable crumb tray, then close up the bottom of the toaster with a ventilated base plate.","Nylon feet elevate the toaster for ventilation and to prevent the screws attaching the base from scratching your kitchen counter.","The style may be retro, but this 1960s-design toaster was ahead of its time with its energy-saving slice-selector feature that stops the toaster's empty slots from heating up unnecessarily.","Laboratory furnaces are small but powerful appliances.","They can reach temperatures of 3,000 degrees fahrenheit or more.","These incredible furnaces are often used to test the quality of things like fuel oil, greases, coal, and to confirm the strength of structural materials.","Exposed to the red-hot intensity of a laboratory furnace, this piece of steel should endure and even be strengthened by the exposure.","It's the ultimate test of the steel's integrity.","Making a laboratory furnace starts with this laser cutter.","It carves out steel panels for the lower cabinet.","A press brake folds the panels with precision to make three-sided pieces of cabinetry.","A worker stacks them up.","The next worker applies a powder coat to the metal parts using a compressed-air sprayer.","When baked on, the powder forms a tough thermoplastic skin.","At the next station, a worker tucks the end of an iron alloy wire into a lathe.","As the lathe spins, it winds the wire around a mandrel, producing a tight coil.","This coiled wire will serve as one of the furnace's two heating elements.","After stretching the coil to widen the gaps and bending it to create parallel rows, the technician attaches electrical clips.","He flips a switch.","And electricity surges through the coil.","This relieves stresses in the metal caused by the winding and bending.","He now inserts two coils into the ridges of the mold.","He transfers it to a vat filled with a ceramic fiber mixture.","A powerful vacuum pump pulls the mixture into the mold, filling all the crevices.","The vacuum then draws out the moisture.","The coils are now embedded in a ceramic cake.","This cake bakes in an oven overnight and solidifies, encasing and insulating the heating coils.","A worker cuts the solid ceramic-fiber block in two, creating two separate heating modules.","He trims them so they fit neatly in the furnace chamber.","A computerized router cuts out other insulation pieces to fit the rest of the furnace chamber.","This ceramic brick is a threshold insulator.","This piece is a surround for the furnace door.","A team now puts all the ceramic fiber pieces together in a metal framework.","The heating element blocks form the sides of the furnace chamber.","They thread the wires from the coils through the back panel.","They insert the side and back panels in the framework.","They assemble the other ceramic fiber parts to form an insulated chamber.","They screw the framework tight, and this nestles the ceramic-fiber walls more closely together.","They tuck the threshold insulator into place, completing the laboratory furnace's heated chamber.","A technician now places the furnace's electric heating control panel in the lower cabinet.","He fastens it to the metal cabinet with screws.","He wires the temperature-control board to a touch screen and connects the power supply for the touch screen.","He installs a stainless steel shelf on top, towards the front.","He screws the front panel that houses the touch screen to the cabinet.","He adds the top panel that the furnace chamber will sit on.","He assembles the metal surround for the furnace chamber to the control cabinet, then slides the furnace chamber into place.","Moving to the open back, he wires the heating elements for power and inserts a temperature sensor into a hole in the center of the chamber.","He assembles a connector block, which will relay the sensor signal to the controller.","He encloses the back with another metal panel.","The next technician hinges the door to the metal surround.","The door is a metal structure that's filled with many layers of ceramic-fiber insulation.","He lowers and raises the door to confirm that it operates smoothly.","This metal cover is the finishing touch.","He snaps it onto the door and secures it with screws.","The laboratory furnace's thick, insulated chamber is ready to contain the extreme heat and maintain it.","And these torrid conditions are ideal for quality-control testing.","Aerogels are the lightest solid materials on earth.","They have nanosized pores that make it difficult for cold or hot air to penetrate.","Used to insulate the electronics of the mars rovers and to capture comet dust, aerogels are among the most fascinating materials.","Aerogels in shaped forms look almost like holograms.","Yet they feel like hard foam.","It's why they are often called frozen smoke or solid smoke.","Making them starts with four ingredients-- a chemical called tmos, methanol, concentrated ammonia, and water.","The technician adds measured amounts of tmos and methanol to a beaker that has a magnetic stir bead at the bottom.","He transfers the beaker to a device that generates a rotating magnetic field.","This causes the bead in the bottle to evenly mix the ingredients.","He pours the mixture into a larger beaker and adds specific amounts of water, additional methanol, and ammonia hydroxide.","As the ingredients are blended, a chemical reaction occurs.","The tmos and water react to form silica.","The chemical reaction will also cause the mixture to become a gel.","But before that happens, he quickly prepares the molds.","He pours pure methanol over a plastic grid and arranges rectangular molds over the grid.","He injects precise amounts of the silica gel mix into the molds and leaves them to gel.","During this process, the methanol under the grid evaporates, preventing excessive drying of the gels.","The mixture coagulates in just minutes, but it takes about a day for the gels to fully strengthen.","He then soaks the silica gels in methanol baths repeatedly over a period of several days.","The methanol seeps in the gel's pores to flush out impurities.","The gel pores are so minuscule they can't be seen with the naked eye.","The technician decants the used methanol into a container.","He'll send it to a recycler to remove impurities, and this will allow it to be used again in the aerogel production process.","After several days of soaking in methanol, the silica gels are purified.","They're ready for a process known as supercritical drying.","It's a process that will convert these silica gels into aerogels.","A technician places the gels in a pressure vessel.","He locks the heavy steel lid with 12 large bolts and nuts so it will hold tight against a pressure that's 100 times greater than that of the normal atmosphere.","He connects the hose that delivers liquid and carbon dioxide to the vessel.","The liquid carbon dioxide replaces the methanol in the gel's pores.","They then heat and pressurize the gels until the carbon dioxide in them becomes supercritical.","It's semiliquid, semigas.","The supercritical carbon dioxide diffuses out without collapsing the gels' solid skeletons.","This transforms the silica gels into transparent solids that are mostly air.","To demonstrate the insulating properties of the nanosized pores, they aim a blowtorch under an aerogel with a peanut butter cup on the top.","It doesn't melt.","A technician then places the aerogel on a scale to confirm its incredible low density.","This aerogel weighs less than a nickel.","Next, using a scoopula, which is a tool with a v-shaped dent, she breaks an aerogel into little pieces.","She inserts the bits into a glass tube with a bulb at the base.","She transfers the tube to a machine that measures how much nitrogen gas the aerogel bits take up at different pressures to determine the size of the pores and the surface area.","Aerogels can have other magical properties.","To demonstrate, she rubs specially treated aerogel particles on her hands.","She then plunges her hands into water.","The aerogel particles act like waterproof gloves and repel the water.","This water resistance makes aerogels useful for a variety of applications.","They can be added to paint or other things to make them waterproof and add insulating properties.","Scientists continue to explore the potential of aerogels.","A gossamer synthetic material that weighs almost nothing, there's a lot more to them than it may seem."]}
@@ -218,3 +218,199 @@
 {"meta":{"things":["Ultra"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made\"...","Thinner than a human hair, ultrathin glass flexes like plastic.","It can also have greater electrical sensitivity, making it useful for things like fingerprint scanning on smartphones.","Manufacturers have only just begun to explore the potential of this new class of glass.","When it comes to sheer flexibility, thin is in.","Ultrathin glass bends like a sheet of paper and a chemical process ensures that it's extremely robust.","To make ultrathin glass, manufacturers use standard materials, such as lime, sand, soda, and potash.","They store the ingredients in separate silos, until it's time for production.","Then, inside the factory, a long cable delivers electricity to power a weigh cart.","As the dry ingredients flow out of the silos and down chutes, the cart moves forward to collect them.","It weighs the ingredients until it has the correct amounts for the glass recipe and then closes the lid automatically.","A worker measures the secondary, smaller, ingredients manually and adds them to the batch.","These ingredients enhance qualities like optical clarity or electrical sensitivity.","The cart transfers the batch to a mixer.","As it blends everything together, they add bits of broken, or waste, glass to it for recycling purposes.","Once it's been thoroughly mixed, a lift raises a funnel-shaped container up to the base of the mixer and the mixer releases the batch into it.","A worker hauls the batch-laden funnel tank to the next station.","There, a crane takes over and lowers the tank onto a feeder system just above a gas-and-electric furnace.","A trapdoor opens at the funnel's base and the mixture flows into the feeder mechanism.","It's a kind of shovel that slowly pushes the mixture into the furnace, which has been fired to a blazing 2,732° fahrenheit.","The shovel continuously adds more ingredients to keep production flowing.","Glass production runs 24/7.","The melting glass reaches the consistency of honey.","The molten glass flows out through a narrow slit and this slit establishes the ultrathin dimensions of the glass.","Cooling the glass slowly relieves internal stresses as the glass solidifies.","Ultrathin glass can be just 25 microns thick.","That's finer than a hair.","And it's this thinness that makes it so flexible.","The glass bends to loop down and up across rollers as it journeys forward in a continuous, nearly 2-foot-wide sheet and, unlike ordinary glass, it doesn't crack.","It then travels past tiny cameras and laser sensors that look for defects, like bubbles.","A computer maps any flaws, so they can be avoided when the glass is cut into smaller pieces.","A revolving spool rolls up the glass, along with a plastic liner, which keeps the glass layers from sticking to one another.","Once 546 yards of thin glass has been wound onto the spool, an automated system cuts the glass and slides the spool partway off the core and onto a rack.","The operator gives it a push to complete the transfer and then rolls the rack to the next station.","A lab technician slices off a fragment of the glass and inserts it in a micrometer.","It gauges the thickness of the specimen and confirms that it's superthin.","Another lab worker places a bigger segment of the glass under a cutter.","He aligns it correctly and then activates the cutter.","It scribes the glass, so it can be broken on this line, creating small screens for smartphones and smartwatches.","A lab technician examines the glass for scratches under a bright light and confirms that it's undamaged.","With that out of the way, it's time to have a little fun with a strip of this ultrathin glass.","A worker bends it into a circle and ties it.","It's hard to believe this is glass.","Later, a chemical treatment will further strengthen the ultrathin glass, so that the chance of cracks or breaks will be very thin.","When wooden shipping pallets break and need repair, or outlive their usefulness, they can be taken apart by pallet-dismantling machines, which saw through the nails to separate the wood blocks and planks.","Salvageable pieces become new pallets, while broken pieces go into a wood chipper.","With its powerful band saw, this pallet-dismantling machine slices through the nails that fasten the pallet's wood blocks to its transversal planks.","The machine's shell, the equivalent of the body panels on a car, is made of steel sheets.","A computer-guided laser cutter cuts them to the required shape.","Then, workers bend the ends on a brake press to make edges with perfectly formed corners.","Once shaped, the shell parts go to a paint shop.","Workers build the structure of the machine out of heavy-duty steel tubes.","After sawing them to the length required, they smooth the rough-cut edge with a hand-grinder.","Workers mark where they have to make openings for various parts and drill the holes.","They weld the tubes together to assemble the structure.","They clean the surface with acid to remove traces of lubricant.","Then, they spray paint the structure.","The workers assemble the mechanical parts to the structure.","They bolt on a plate to support the machine's electric engine.","Then, on each side, they install a wheel.","Next, workers install the motor reducer.","To that, they bolt the machine's 2,800-rpm engine.","The motor reducer decreases the speed of the engine to the sawing speed required to dismantle the pallet.","Just above the tires on both sides, they bolt a blade guide to the structure.","They install the front of the machine's shell and lower the machine's heavy, steel worktable.","Now, the band-saw blade, which has a safety cover over its sharp teeth until the machine is operational.","On each side of the worktable, workers align the blade with a tire and insert it between the wheels of the blade guide.","The blade is steel, with carbide tips for added strength and resistance to wear.","They turn this bolt to adjust the tension.","They enclose the tire and blade guides in the side sections of the machine's shell.","Then, workers install two pneumatic cylinders for raising and lowering a safety cage that goes over the worktable to protect the machine operator.","Next, another pneumatic cylinder, this one, at the rear for the machine's guide arm.","The guide arm, installed next, helps move the pallet around while the machine's band-saw blade cuts it apart.","They install the safety cage over the worktable, then hook up the cables that feed compressed air to the pneumatic cylinders.","They install another safety cage over the back of the machine, then, a pressure regulator for pneumatic cylinders.","They mount the machine's control panel on the shell.","It's wired to the engine and pneumatic system, as well as a set of foot pedals that moves the table up and down and another pedal that moves the guide arm.","The operator places the pallet on the worktable and lowers the safety cage.","With the foot pedal, he moves the arm to the right to angle the pallet against the blade.","This lets it slice through multiple nails holding the wood planks and blocks together.","Often frosted and adorned with sprinkles, a cupcake is a sugary indulgence that you don't have to share.","We don't really know who invented them, but cupcakes have been around for a century or more, much to the satisfaction of those who want a little cake all to themselves.","These minicupcakes are the sweetest little things and there's plenty for everyone because they're mass-produced in a factory.","The dairy and nut-free recipe starts with canola oil.","A worker pours a measured amount into a huger mixer bowl.","A blend of baking power, sea salt, and other microingredients is next.","He then adds a big bag of sugar.","They'll be making 15,000 minicupcakes in this batch.","Pastry flour flows into the mixer from a silo nearby.","He adds cocoa, for chocolate flavoring, then, activates the mixer, to blend it all together.","Next are the eggs.","They'll act as a binding agent for the chocolate batter and will have a leavening effect during baking.","A quick mix folds the eggs into the chocolatey blend.","A pump now transfers the batter to the next station.","The bakery's temperature is critical during pumping.","Too warm, and the mixture will be too thin to pump.","Too cool, and it will be too thick.","The pump delivers the batter to a hopper.","Down the line a bit, a conveyor moves baking trays forward.","A machine uses suctioning devices to pick up paper liners, flip them right-side-up, and insert them in the baking trays.","Valves open and dispense the batter in the hopper into the cupcake liners in the pans.","The system controls the flow of batter, so it only fills the liners one-third of the way.","This leaves room for the cake to rise during baking.","The pans move through different levels, with a range of temperature zones over a period of 25 minutes, finally emerging from the other side.","During baking, the cupcakes have risen above the liners.","They now head into a cooling chamber.","They stay in here for 20 minutes, while fans blow air onto them to cool them down.","The cooling firms up the cakes.","A robot plunges pinlike tentacles into the cupcakes to lift them out of the pans with the paper liners attached.","It transfers them to the packaging conveyor line.","Workers pack them in clamshell plastic containers, a dozen to each one.","They leave the containers open because they still need to decorate these cupcakes.","Ahead, fluffy chocolate icing flows out of a hopper into applicators.","They deposit the icing in a swirl onto the cupcakes, adding nearly an inch of height and a lot more sweetness.","Down the line, workers load sugary sprinkles into another hopper.","A feeder dispenses a few more of the sprinkles onto each of the frosted cupcakes.","The containers then ride by a rail that folds the lids over.","A pusher device presses down on the lids to close them tightly.","The containers of minicupcakes then meet up with a roller that applies the adhesive-backed labeling.","Before the cupcakes can leave the factory, a technician tests a sample from the production line.","He crumbles some of the cake into pods and places them in a machine.","The machine probes the water content at a microscopic level to determine if the cupcake is moist enough.","Another test evaluates the cupcake's texture.","When the samples pass this technological scrutiny, the cupcakes are ready for human taste buds.","As a component of mechanical equipment, seamless tube is stronger, and therefore more resistant to pressure and tension, than tube with a welded seam.","That's because seamless tube is manufactured from a solid bar of stainless steel, rather than from a strip of stainless that's rolled and welded into a tube.","Seamless stainless-steel tube is used when reliability is critical; for example, in aerospace engines, nuclear equipment, and medical devices.","The manufacturer purchases stainless-steel tubes in a range of lengths, diameters, and thicknesses.","Workers select the right starting size for the specific tube the customer has ordered.","They check the length with a measuring tape, then use a large micrometer to measure the outside diameter.","They switch to a smaller micrometer to measure the wall thickness.","Then, they weigh the tubes.","If the raw material meets all the specs, production can begin.","They insert one end of each tube into this rotary swager.","It shapes the end to a point, to enable it to fit through a die with a smaller diameter.","Workers spread lubricant into a steel bar, insert it into the other end of the tube, then insert the pointed end through a draw die.","This carriage then grabs the protruding point and draws the full length of the tube through the die and over the steel bar.","The die reduces the tube to a smaller outside diameter, while the bar sets the desired inside diameter.","The tube walls thin out and the tube elongates in the process.","The next machine's two rollers apply pressure to the outside of the tube as it passes.","This expands the tube slightly, creating a slight gap between the tube walls and the bar inside.","This enables the next machine to extract the bar.","Finally, workers saw the point off the tube.","They place several tubes at a time in a degreasing unit, which uses a cleaning solution to remove all traces of lubricant the tubes picked up during the draw process.","Workers then transfer the tubes to drying tanks, positioning them at a slight downward angle.","As air blows through the tubes for about a half hour, all of the cleaning solution either drains or evaporates.","To further clean the inside of the tubes, workers insert a felt wad into each one, then squirt in some cleaning solvent.","They shoot in compressed air to force the wad down the tube.","As the wad travels the length of the tube, it wipes the inside wall with the cleaning solvent.","Next, workers strap the tubes to a belt that takes them on a 30-minute trip through a furnace.","The temperature inside is more than 1,800° fahrenheit.","This intense heat softens the steel, which had hardened as a result of having been pulled through the draw die earlier.","This process is called annealing and it slightly warps the tubes, so, next, they pass through a straightening machine.","Then, the entire cycle repeats, until it's reduced to precisely the diameter and wall thickness the customer ordered.","The finished tube can be up to 40 times its original starting length.","To ensure the structural integrity of each tube, workers run an electrical current around the circumference.","A break in the current indicates a defect, which workers then cut out with a saw before cutting the tube into the specific lengths the customer ordered.","The saw cuts leave burns, rough edges, so workers insert the cut ends in a deburring machine which grinds the edges smooth.","The last step is to submerge the tubes in an acid solution, to remove any iron particles picked up from the processing.","This prevents the tubes from rusting.","In addition to inspecting every tube that leaves the factory, quality-control testing of random samples ensures the product meets all technical specifications."]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Baseball Gloves","Medical Electrodes","Stetson Hats"]},"text":["A baseball glove is an extraordinary thing.","Each and every one starts out brand spanking new and ends up fitting its owner like a second skin.","Before long, the player and his glove are inseparable.","The glove helps him live his dreams and fills his imagination with lifelong memories.","Baseball gloves have evolved from hard, leather mitts to the sophisticated design players depend on today.","It all starts with a hydraulic press that punches out the felt padding that will cushion the fingers and thumb.","The holes will be used to lace the glove.","Another press cuts out the palm section of the glove from a side of leather.","The palm section also has lacing holes cut into it.","The hydraulic press then cuts out the web, or pocket, of the glove, preparing it for lacing, as well.","Meanwhile, a machine heat embosses the palm section with the company logo.","Embossing also helps identify different leathers and glove styles.","Another worker hand-weaves the front and back pieces of the pocket.","This special basket-weave web gives the glove additional flexibility and control.","Pockets first appeared in gloves in the 1930s.","She stitches the pocket together.","Then, she applies glue to secure the tail ends, closes the flap, and stitches the web shut.","Another worker then sews the palm lining and the finger lining together.","By stitching the palm and finger linings together, she completes the interior piece of the glove that touches a player's hand.","She then sews the felt finger pads to the lining.","These pads give the glove extra comfort and control.","To build the outer shell of the glove, she sews welting leather between the fingers.","This makes the seam stronger.","Then, she sews the fingers and the palm piece together to complete the back part of the outer shell.","Some leather softener helps prevent tearing as she stitches the back and the front parts of the outer shell together.","She also uses welting leather to add strength and rigidity to the outer shell.","A worker mounts the finished outer shell on to a finger form, heated to about 248 degrees fahrenheit.","It takes heat and leather softener to allow the worker to manipulate the shell without damaging the leather.","The worker then transfers the softened outer shell on to a stationary turning stick in order to turn the outer shell inside out.","He works the outer shell one finger at a time so he doesn't spoil the leather or the stitching.","He makes sure all is perfect.","Another worker slips the interior lining on to a mounting support, then covers the lining with the outer shell.","He works the leather to make sure the lining and the shell fit together properly.","Then he applies a special paste that makes the palm more flexible.","He inserts a felt pad into the thumb...","Then another cushioning pad into the pinky finger, using a metal rod to fully insert both pads.","He then starts lacing the glove with a long strip of leather.","Lacing the glove is a labor-intensive skill that can take up to an hour.","No machine can do this.","He makes sure the lacing gets the right tension and the attractive side of the leather faces upwards.","Using special knots and loops, he laces the entire glove by hand.","A worker inserts wooden dowels and mounts the glove on more hot fingers to open up the fingers and thumb.","This helps the player's hand fit into the glove more easily.","Now this truly looks and fits like a glove.","Today's baseball gloves come in all different colors and styles.","They are so finely hand-crafted, they could be called works of art.","Medical electrodes can help your doctor find out what's going on with your health in a heartbeat.","These little sensors detect electrical currents in the heart, brain, and other parts of the body, and they're wired to monitoring equipment that records it.","They're inexpensive, disposable, and essential to healthcare.","When the nurse says this won't hurt a bit, you can trust her, if the test she's about to give you involves medical electrodes.","These electrodes stick to the skin and probe beneath the surface without actually piercing it.","They send information to monitoring equipment so specialists can assess it.","These electrodes start with a roll of foam.","The foam is coated with medical-grade adhesive and has a paper backing to keep the layers from sticking together.","Machinery pulls the foam over a punch cutter which make small holes in it.","But first, razors slit the paper, and equipment pulls it away from the thumb to expose the adhesive.","The process leaves strips of paper along the edge.","The thumb moves forward, sticky side up, as plastic elements and metal snaps cascade into a feeder system.","They're cueing up to be installed in the holes punched in the foam earlier.","Vacuum heads picked up the elements and insert them into those holes.","The elements are coated with silver chloride, which makes them electrically conductive so they'll help pick up electrical activity in the body.","Next, pneumatic equipment press-fits the metal snaps onto the elements.","These snaps are also electrically conductive.","Down the line, a blade slices through gel that's sandwiched between two thin plastic liners.","Machinery pulls those liners away from the gel.","This gel is water-based and contains salt, which will seep into the skin to help establish electrical contact.","Another blade cuts the gel into small rectangles, and they land on a thicker plastic liner.","The gel liner and foam with its elements and snaps come together, and the gels land directly on the elements.","Rollers press everything together in a tight sandwich.","Equipment pushes that sandwich forward into a cutting station.","That's protective padding you see around the cutters.","It protects the blades from the adhesive on the foam as they punch out electrode shapes.","Blades now lightly perforate the plastic liner around the electrodes, while below, equipment pulls away the scrap.","The perforations will allow the electrodes to be torn into individual units later, and it also makes it easier to fold up for packaging.","Remember that paper left along the edge of the foam early on?","It serves as pull tabs on some of the electrodes.","The tab makes it easier to apply the electrode to the patient and then remove it.","They package the electrodes in a special material made of plastic, aluminum, and paper.","Hot metal plates melt and seal the material to form an airtight pouch.","Finally, a long blade cuts the pouches into individual units.","It has taken less than a minute to make this package of medical electrodes.","They'll use many of them in just one test.","With the gel side of the electrode pressed against the skin, they wire it to the monitoring equipment.","And within minutes, these electrodes can signal problems, and that could save a life.","After the test, the electrodes will be discarded-- disposable and yet indispensable in the world of medicine.","The cowboy hat was made popular in 1865 by the stetson hat company and its founder, john b. stetson.","Part of its attractiveness in the american old west was the wide brim that protected the cowboy from the elements, a high crown that kept a pocket of warm air on his head, and the ability to carry water if he needed to.","All models of stetson hats are made from blends of pretreated fur, including beaver, rabbit, and wild hare.","First, a worker gathers the mixture of different fur and deposits it into a picker machine that begins blending the fur together.","The picker roller, which dates from the 1890s, sends the fur into a mixer.","Inside the mixer, compressed air blows the fur around.","This settles and removes any dust and dirt that may be trapped in the fur.","After about an hour, the blended fur settles into a collection box.","A worker puts it through a rotating loader machine that sends the fur into a multichambered blower.","A look inside the blower reveals a series of picker rollers.","These rollers, along with blowing air, allow the lighter fur to flow through the chambers while the heavier hair and the impurities fall to the bottom.","At the back of the blower, the worker gathers and weighs the amount of fur needed to make just one hat.","That amount varies depending on the size and style.","The proper amount of fur then moves by conveyor belt into a forming machine.","Here, a vacuum sucks the fur onto a cone form.","The fur builds up like a fragile blanket of dust that must be held down by wet cotton mesh.","For extra protection, a worker wraps burlap onto the cone and puts a metal cover over it.","He weighs it down and gives the fur cone a good soaking in a vat of hot, soapy water to make the fur fibers curl up and lock together.","Shortly after, the worker peels the newly formed felted fur blanket off the cone.","At this stage, the interlocked fur fibers are still very fragile, so a worker protects the cones from damage by wrapping them in cloth.","Then, she puts them through a hardening process which consists of a series of massaging rollers and hot-water baths.","The rollers in the hot-water baths increasingly shrink and tighten the fur fibers together.","The final and most aggressive massage makes the fibers felt together even tighter, and the cone is now strong enough to manipulate by hand.","But the cones must be even stronger than this, so she puts them through a final hardening stage that shrinks and tightens the fur fibers to the maximum.","At last, the fragile cone that came out of the forming machine becomes the desired hat size.","Tearing the felt by hand is now impossible.","After the cones are dyed, they're placed on a crown machine.","Here he works the top of the cone and makes the felt more flexible.","Another machine softens the brim.","Together, the machines form the cone into more of a hat shape.","After soaking the cone again, a worker puts it on a wet blocker machine.","Its brass fingers secure and stretch out the felt while it forces a crown shape into the hat body.","Then he puts the hat body into a hat sucker or vacuum that sucks out most of the water.","He then sets the hat bodies aside to dry for 24 hours.","Up next, we'll see how these hat bodies are transformed into classic stetson hats.","Making a stetson hat takes almost as much work now as it did since the early 1900s.","Every hat made is still handled from start to finish by hand.","Even some of the machines used are the same as in the past.","The stetson hat is an icon of the american cowboy lifestyle.","A worker steams a hat body to make it supple.","He puts it into a blocker machine with brass fingers that secure it in place.","He steams it again, then inserts a wooden block and presses it into the crown.","This gives the hat a specific head size.","He puts another hat into the blocker, this time making another hat size.","This is called blocking a hat.","Blocking transforms the brim diameter and the crown from an almost shapeless cut of felt into a more solid body and precise hat size.","A worker puts the blocked hat on a brim stiffener which applies shellack.","This shellack gives the brim extra firmness, making it easier to shape and style.","He completes the brim-stiffening operation and readies the correct number of hats to fill an order.","A worker hangs up the hats for a natural air dry.","Two days later, a worker inserts blocks into the hat, which are color-coded for size.","The blocks fit the hat on a pouncing machine that gently spins and sands the felt.","This unsanded felt gets buffed until the hat ends up with the smoothest finish possible.","Then a worker puts the hat onto a hydraulic crown press.","Inside it, he places a piece of ink transfer paper and a heated aluminum mold.","He lowers the press and applies the exact amount of pressure needed to mold a specific shape into the crown.","On this particular hat, the press imprints the logo inside.","Now the crown has a distinct shape.","A worker then puts the hat on a brim cutter and holds it down flat with a cutting guide.","She cuts the brim to the required dimension and removes the excess felt and the guide.","A worker then puts the hat into a brim flanger-- an aluminum mold that heats and shapes the brim.","He then puts the hat onto an identical wooden shape and covers it to keep its form while cooling.","Once cooled, this hat will keep its symmetrical curves that will make it so distinctively western.","A worker then marks the center of the hat.","She lines up a leather sweatband with the chalk mark and sews it in along the bottom edge of the crown.","She then folds the sweat band in and makes sure the hat is perfect.","She ties the classic ribbon band into a knot and secures it around the outside of the hat.","She trims the ribbon to the appropriate size, which completes the work on the exterior of the hat.","Then another worker puts it into a holder and peels up the sweatband.","She places a lining inside the hat, applying drops of glue all the way around to keep it in place.","She then puts the hat inside a box for shipping anywhere in the world.","Authentic stetson hats.","Looking good, partner!"]}
 {"meta":{"things":["Toothpicks","Acrylic Bathtubs","Helicopters","Beer"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Toothpicks...","Acrylic bathtubs...","Helicopters...","And beer.","Some people use them to hold hors d'oeuvres together.","Kids make scale models of famous buildings and bridges out of them.","And some people actually use them for their primary purpose-- to remove food caught between their teeth.","What are we talking about?","Why, the humble toothpick, of course.","Logs-- lots of birch logs are delivered to this factory.","They're the raw material from which toothpicks will be made.","The heavy logs are lifted by grippers and placed into a debarker.","Bark isn't part of the toothpick-fabrication process and is recovered by this machine.","But the bark isn't thrown away.","It's sold to a neighboring factory where it will be used as fuel.","The debarker works in two steps.","With two passes, it produces a log roll that's perfectly cylindrical and easier to mill.","This log is being transported to the next processing stage.","This unraveling machine unravels the log as if it were a roll of paper, cutting it with 12 fine blades each .","04 of an inch thick and 2 1/2 inches wide.","These same blades will be used later to cut toothpicks.","Then these 12 blades, positioned side by side on the unraveling machine, will form rolls of strips called \"billets\".","These tiny cutters are used to trim the ends of the toothpicks.","Knives placed here and there on the machine thin the ends of the toothpicks.","The roller rolls up the cut strips, forming a billet.","Completed strips, or billets, are taken out manually.","Each billet weighs 4 pounds.","The billets are carried to the puncher, the flat-toothpick puncher cuts the billet strips into small, equal-sized pieces.","The cut pieces come out at this end of the machine.","The punch works very rapidly.","Knives come down 2,000 times per minute to cut a total of 8,000 toothpicks in just 60 seconds.","Cut toothpicks fall into this chute, then into a container.","At this stage, they're soft.","They have to be hardened in a dryer for four hours at 250 degrees fahrenheit.","Then the toothpicks are transferred to the polisher.","Talcum powder and friction help make the toothpicks perfectly smooth.","This operation takes four hours.","Toothpicks exit the polisher and pass through this sifter, which filters out broken ones.","Those in good condition continue on to an air-blower system.","Damaged ones are rejected.","Perfect toothpicks are placed onto two conveyers by an air-blowing system.","Drums at the end of the conveyors assure quantity distribution, then they're carried to the automatic packagers.","This machine counts the toothpicks.","Boxes are made up, ready for filling.","The number of toothpicks included in each box matters.","The packager is calibrated to place 650 toothpicks in each container, and it produces about 1,150 boxes an hour.","It handles 747,500 toothpicks an hour.","Some toothpicks are individually wrapped for distribution to restaurants and airlines.","This machine wraps 1,200 toothpicks per minute.","It automatically wraps, glues, and cuts the paper.","This facility can manufacture more than 20 million toothpicks every day.","And it all started from several birch logs.","Bathing daily is a relatively new phenomenon, historically speaking.","People used to take baths only when necessary.","Today whiling away the afternoon in the tub is more than a way to wash our bodies.","With bubbles and bath oils, it can be an experience in luxury.","Modern bathtubs look nothing like tubs of the middle ages or those wooden tubs we see in western films.","To achieve supreme comfort, the designer explores new shapes via computer and design software, tools which make for a speedy review of various shapes.","Then a model is produced.","This one, produced on a 1/6 scale, is made of cardboard.","But other models can be made of clay, polystyrene, or by stereolithography.","Manufacturing begins with an acrylic sheet.","It is heated to about 390 degrees fahrenheit with ceramic elements.","The sheet becomes soft and malleable.","So that it takes the form of the mold, thousands of tiny holes in the shell suction the sheet by vacuum.","The mold must cool before it can be opened.","Powerful ventilators blow air directly onto the mold, lowering the temperature to 170 degrees in 4 to 6 minutes.","The ventilators are then withdrawn.","Then the shell is easily removed from the mold.","It weighs a mere 35 pounds.","To make a tub in another shape, they change the mold.","They put in another acrylic sheet.","The sheet is heated on the ceramic and fiberglass mold, the little holes vacuum out air, and the job is done.","The molded acrylic sheet is not sturdy enough to be filled with water, so it must be reinforced with fiberglass.","This is the fiberglass.","Mixed with resin, it is blown onto the mold by a robotic unit.","Stored in reservoirs, the resin is carried to the robot by pumps.","Here it produces a chemical reaction between the fiberglass and the resin, which produces a reinforced shell.","Laminating is one of the most important steps.","With brush and roller, they eliminate all air bubbles that could weaken the tub.","This makes the fiberglass resin adhere perfectly to the acrylic shell.","The process takes 75 minutes.","The shell is then transported to the milling department.","The shell is dry and hard.","They can extract it manually, but here they use digitally controlled machines.","The operation begins with the trimming of the edges of the bathtub.","During this process, the robot will pierce openings for the drains, the whirlpool jets, and the air jets for the overflow and for ambient light.","The bathtub, almost completed, is now sent to another workshop.","They can now install the pump, the piping, and the blower.","These last operations are done manually.","The pump is installed for the whirlpool system, as well as the pvc pipes, whose joints have been hermetically sealed to prevent any leaks.","Finally, to make sure that everything is functioning well, each bathtub undergoes a water test.","The tub is finally ready.","After 13 steps and anywhere from three to five hours of work, depending on the type of tub.","It almost invites you to climb in.","In the world of aeronautics, the helicopter is the ideal go-anywhere machine.","Unlike airplanes, choppers can move in almost any direction and take off and land straight up and down.","Now that we've \"coptered\" your attention, let's see what goes into building these whirlybirds.","Man has always wanted to fly.","And the versatility of the helicopter has allowed him to reach unexpected heights.","Plans for a helicopter are created with catia 3-d design-assisting computer software.","It takes 700 hours of work between the drawing stage and the assembly of the pattern.","The helicopter is made of carbon fiber, a composite material lighter and stronger than steel, protected by two layers of green plastic.","The fiber is cut with a blade controlled by ultrasound.","They lay on several thicknesses of fiber to make the rear fuselage.","The green light of a laser helps position the parts.","Then with a heat gun, they apply a beehive web which increases the solidity of the structure.","But the carbon fiber is still soft.","To harden, it must be baked under pressure for 10 hours in this autoclave oven at 350 degrees fahrenheit.","The pieces exit the oven and head for machining.","The door of the motor housing is kept in a cutting jig and is shaped with a manual shaper.","Before installing the parts, they strike the carbon fiber with a resonance hammer to detect any faults.","The electrical harness is mounted on a pattern before being installed in the aircraft.","This particular helicopter has 2,570 yards of wiring, but others can have almost 6 miles.","The wiring will be connected to the flight-instruments panel, the brain of the helicopter.","This aircraft has 9,964 rivets fastened with a gun and a ram.","They also apply a sealant to prevent corrosion-creating humidity.","They now assemble the helicopter's rear fuselage.","Piece by piece, the aircraft takes shape.","They will install mechanical components later.","The motor arrives.","This one weighs 260 pounds and has to be carefully handled.","Among the other parts to be installed is the circular plate on which the blades will be attached.","Safety is primary.","The screw-nut holes are perforated, allowing for the insertion of the brake cable.","This tightly braided metal wire prevents the nut from loosening, due to strong vibrations.","Now they bolt on the four blades, which makes the helicopter fly.","Weighing 90 pounds each, they're made of composite materials and an aluminum alloy.","They're attached to the main rotor.","The dashboard is installed in the cockpit, and all the wires are hooked up.","Contact is established, and all is functioning properly.","The last step-- finishing the interior of the craft.","They install seats, safety belts, the consoles, bulkheads, windows and doors, as well as the trimmings.","The helicopter is almost completed, but it still has to be painted.","When done, the helicopter is towed outside the assembly hangar.","Flight tests are performed to make sure that mechanical and electrical components are functioning properly.","It requires an average of 110 days to assemble the more than 3,000 parts of a helicopter like this one, and they turn out almost 185 units each year.","These 3-ton engines are capable of reaching speeds of 140 knots and flying at a maximum altitude of 20,000 feet.","Beer has been around for as long as civilization itself.","Historical records show that ancient peoples made beer with barley, hops, water, and yeast.","We still use the same ingredients, but as you'll see, today's production technology is far more complex.","Beer has been drunk since 4,000 b.c. in mesopotamia.","The sikaru made it as a sacred beverage from grains but without hops.","The gauls and the celts drank a beverage made with barley, wheat, and rye.","During the crusades, europeans discovered spices and flavored the beverage with cinnamon and laurel.","In the 15th century, nordic peoples used hops as a spice, giving rise to the beer we know today.","Beer is a fermented beverage made with cereals and water.","The company has its own water-filtration plant.","It will be refiltered before being used to eliminate chlorine.","This materials tanks can hold 21,000 gallons of water.","Between 11 and 16 tons of malt and another grain are added.","They use dark malt, which has been heat-treated to a high temperature.","The mixture will spend two hours here.","An agitator prevents malt husks from settling to the bottom of the tank.","Turbulence from the pumps during the transfer causes the formation of this protein foam.","The wort is in the process of being extracted and will be boiled.","About five hours have passed since the brewing process began.","Here they draw off a sample.","They will make other control tests at various stages of brewing.","This is the draff, a solid residue extracted from the wort.","It will be used as cattle feed.","Here is a close-up view of the draff.","Then the liquid is filtered.","Here's the filtration tank where the wort is separated from the malt husks.","A sample is withdrawn from the wort heater to verify the density of sugars and the quality of the wort.","Now another ingredient--  the hops-- is added into the wort heater.","The hops impart the bitterness and aroma particular to beer.","The hops looks like this.","They can now start the brewing.","In the control room, an operator handles the data-control system of the brewing process.","They add in the yeast, which starts off the fermentation.","This process lasts between 7 and 10 days.","This foam indicates that fermentation has begun, and sugars will now transform into alcohol.","Each fermentation tank is computer-controlled to maintain a specific temperature.","During fermentation, chemical reactions create the scum that we see.","Now aged for three weeks, the beer is almost finished.","We see here the bottling tanks.","The beer has to be filtered once more.","Exiting these filters, the wort is clarified, then rid of the components responsible for the cloudiness of the beer.","Here's the beer filtered a second time...","And finally finished, as a clear product.","Used bottles are now washed.","After their wash cycle, the bottles have become sterilized.","Empty bottles arrive on this plate, ready to be filled.","About 1,000 bottles a minute are filled while on the move.","Then they pass to the capper before being sent to the pasteurizer.","Only two steps remain.","Labels are glued onto the bottles, then they're sent by conveyor to be put in cases.","Made from water and cereal grains, the beer is now ready to be consumed and enjoyed."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Nail Nippers","Jade Putters","Ice Cider","Water Skis"]},"text":["And water skis.","Whether it's a hangnail that needs fixing or it's simply time for a trim, a nail nipper is a good thing to have at your fingertips.","A nipper is a precision tool, one that offers a bit more control than lever-style clippers.","The result is usually a more manicured look.","Heavy duty and made of stainless steel, the nipper nail cutter looks as if it belongs in a tool chest and it actually works like cutter pliers.","Squeezing the handles brings the curved blades at the end together for a well-rounded trim job.","The handles offer a bit moore maneuverability than the lever mechanism on a standard nail clipper.","Production begins with these forged-steel blanks.","They'll make two pairs of nail nippers from each one.","They load the blanks onto a carriage that transports them into a furnace.","Subjected to intense heat, the steel blanks become white-hot and malleable in minutes.","The foundry worker transfers a blank to a die.","He moves it across the die and flips it over as a hammer slams it into the shape of two nail-nipper shanks, each with a cutting head.","It takes several strikes to create the right impression on both sides of the blank.","The process transforms the narrow blank into a wider piece with two nail-nipper formations.","This is the blank before forging and now.","Once the two shanks have been separated and trimmed, a drill cuts a hole under the blade end.","This is the area where the nipper shanks are to be joined.","A milling tool shaves down the area for a neat and level joint.","This is the nail-nipper shank before the joint work and after.","They transfer the nipper shanks to a finishing machine.","They bounce around in a stream of abrasive ceramic pebbles for a few hours.","This rubs off the rough bits.","A magnetized conveyor pulls out the steel shanks, leaving the ceramics behind and carries the shanks forward.","An employee sands the entire surface of each shank until it looks completely smooth.","He brushes oil onto a shank joint to prevent rust and abrasion.","It's time to rivet the two nail-nipper shanks together.","The rivets funnel into tooling above and below the nail-nipper shanks.","The machinery drives the rivets into the holes in the shanks.","Once joined, they cannot be pulled apart without completely destroying the nail nippers.","At this point, the rivets protrude slightly and could snag on clothing or other things.","An employee sands each rivet until it's on the same plane as the rest of the nipper joint.","The vigorous sanding makes the rivet seem to almost disappear.","He polishes the inside of the nipper blades to completely smooth the surfaces.","An even surface can be more thoroughly cleaned and disinfected between manicures.","The blades are still blunt at this point.","The next member of the team files them on an angle to give them a cutting edge.","Filing too little could hamper the clearance between the blades.","Filing too much would ruin the nippers entirely.","He tests them on paper.","If the cutting edge slips, the blades may need more work.","If they slice right through, they're just right.","Next, he clamps the nail nippers onto a circular bench.","It revolves to meet up with a laser that etches the company logo and other information onto the shanks.","After that, they drill holes and attach a spring to make the nippers easier to open and close.","For the professional who will be opening and closing these nail nippers a few hundred times a day, this is a nifty feature.","They manufacture these nail nippers in batches of 300 or 400 over a period of about two weeks, so they're should always be plenty on hand.","This putter is made of jade, a precious stone traditionally used in jewelry and sculpture.","Long coveted for its beauty, jade is in demand on the putting green.","As tough as steel with a feel that's distinctly different, a putter made of jade is definitely up to par.","The jade putter is among a number of new clubs on the green...","Along with crystal quartz and fossilized vegetation, known as petrified wood.","To make a jade putter, they head for the hills-- specifically, a nephrite jade outcrop in wyoming.","Here, the putter maker finds a 20-foot wide vein of nephrite.","This stone has taken 2½ billion years to form and develop a very hard and fibrous crystalline structure.","The carver selects slabs that are thick enough to shape into four or five putter heads.","This one has weathered to a rusty color, but it should clean up nicely.","The color of wyoming jade ranges from white to green to black.","He strikes the slab with a sledgehammer a few times to break it down to a more manageable size.","He slices through one of the cut pieces with a rock saw while flushing it with coolant to save the diamond blade.","He makes 9 or 10 cuts to rough out the triangular mallet shape of the putter head.","He slices off the ends to complete the basic shape.","Next, he anchors the jade in a wooden jig and cuts on an angle to profile the sides of the putter head.","He slices off a back section to give the putter clearance from the ground when swung.","This putter has really taken shape.","He removes material from the corners to center the mass behind the golf ball for more striking energy.","He sands the edges to round and soften them.","He's careful not to remove too much in one place because that would affect the symmetry.","He then polishes the entire piece of jade against diamond-abrasive belts.","It's an intensive process that takes about two hours.","He aims a drill and cores into the putter head on a 20° angle to make a hole for inserting the putter shaft.","A perpetual flow of water keeps the diamond core bit cool and also flushes out the little bits of filings.","He gently taps the drilled core to jar it so it falls out of the putter head.","A laser emblazons the product name onto the jade, swiftly etching it into the surface.","The putters can be customized with a customer's name and logo.","He swabs gold-colored paint into the laser etching to make the letters really stand out.","The swabbing leaves a lot of residual paint around the letters, so he rubs it off.","He sprays the putter with a wax-based gloss to seal the stone.","He then buffs it against a felt belt to give the jade a satiny sheen.","He mixes epoxy ingredients to attach the shaft to the jade putter's head.","He deposits epoxy in the hole in the shaft.","He inserts the steel shaft into the 20°-angle hole.","The angle of the hole positions the putter shaft to match the golfer's upright stance.","Once the pistol-style grip has been slipped on, he applies a metallic-look decal just below it.","The decal displays company contact information in the event of a problem that doesn't have to do with the golfer's technique.","After cleaning and inspection, this jade putter is ready for action.","Putters carved from jade and other materials are crafty editions to the golf-club arsenal and could lead to some artful moves on the green.","Ice cider is an alcoholic drink made from fermented, frozen apples or apple juice.","It's also known as apple ice wine and is produced the same way as ice wine but with apples instead of grapes.","It's typically served with food such as foie gras, cheese, fruit, and dark chocolate.","There's a world of difference between ice cider and regular cider.","Regular cider is made from fresh apples, whereas ice cider is made from frozen apples or frozen apple juice.","And while cider can be a non-alcoholic beverage, ice cider is always alcoholic.","There are two methods to making ice cider.","One is to leave the apples on the tree to freeze over the winter, then pick them and press them.","The other method, which we're about to see, is to harvest the apples in the fall when they're ripe, press them, then freeze the juice.","The apples are always handpicked at perfect maturity and always right off the tree.","An ice-cider producer never uses fallen apples because they often get damaged when they hit the ground and then pick up bacteria from lying there.","This producer uses different varieties of apples to make several types of ice cider.","The one we're about to see is made from empire, spartan, cortland, mcintosh, and golden russet.","Straight from the orchard, the apples go onto a conveyor belt which feeds them into a multistage press.","The first part of the press crushes the apples into what's known as pumice.","A screw conveyor moves the pumice onto a mesh conveyor belt that transports it through five stainless-steel rollers.","Each roller applies 275 pounds of pressure, progressively extracting the apple juice.","The juice drains down through the mesh conveyor belt to a vat below.","From the vat, the juice is pumped into a large container made of food-safe plastic.","The container holds 264 gallons.","However, they leave 13 to 26 gallons of air space to leave room for expansion when the juice freezes.","At the end of december, they haul the containers outdoors.","The juice stays outside from 40 to 50 days, during which time the water in it freezes, leaving unfrozen, concentrated juice at the bottom of the container.","Workers measure the sugar content daily, and once it reaches a certain level, they pump the juice indoors into temperature-controlled, stainless-steel tanks.","Then they add yeast to kick-start fermentation-- the conversion of those natural sugars to alcohol.","Every day, they measure the sugar level to monitor the fermentation process.","When they hit their target, which typically takes between 40 and 50 days, the juice has transformed into ice cider with an alcohol content of 10.5% to 11%.","Ice cider is bottled just like wine.","The corking machine automatically pops in a cork as soon as its sensor detects the presence of a bottle.","The next machine slips a plastic seal over the mouth of the bottle, then heats the plastic to shrink the seal tightly around the cork.","Finally, an automated labeling machine simultaneously applies self-sticking labels to the front and back.","It isn't only the apple variety that determines the flavor.","It's also the production method.","The process we've just seen, called cryoconcentration, produces ice cider with a strong, fruity flavor.","The other method, called cryoextraction-- letting apples freeze on the tree, then pressing them-- produces ice cider which tastes like baked apples.","Water skiing was invented in 1922 by an american teenager named ralph samuelson.","With his brother pulling him by motorboat, he experimented first with skis made of barrel staves, then with snow skis, then with skis he had made out of pine boards 94\" long.","This type of water skiing is known as slalom, winding through a course on a single water ski, one foot behind the other, in boots mounted to the ski.","The core of these top-of-the-line competition slalom skis is high-density pvc foam-- exceptionally strong, yet lightweight.","A computer-guided machine cuts the ski shape, then pockets to receive various components.","Workers flip the core upside down, and the machine shapes the bottom.","Workers then turn the core right-side up again and fill the pockets with glue.","They insert an alignment tab in the tail pocket to help correctly position the core in the mold.","They install fiberglassed, reinforced nylon blocks in the others.","These will anchor threaded inserts for mounting the boots and the ski's fin.","Now they begin building up the water ski with multiple layers of carbon fiber, an ultra-strong fabric.","They apply the first layer to the bottom, wrapping it around to the top.","This will prevent the ski from twisting.","After stapling down the carbon fiber and trimming off the excess, they saturate it with resin and apply carbon fiber to the top of the ski.","Depending on the model and its performance specifications, they wrap the core in up to seven layers of resin-saturated carbon fiber, controlling the flex in select areas along the way with additional patches.","Then they top the ski with a layer of woven, synthetic fabric to prime the surface for the decorative graphics.","On the bottom of the ski, they apply a sheet of super-lightweight polymer.","It creates a white background to highlight the printed polyester sheet of decorative graphics.","They coat it with a special resin that cures into a hard, hydrodynamic surface that increase the ski's speed.","The graphic design that decorates the top of the ski is printed on nylon.","They mount it to the top part of a ski-shaped mold, then lay the wrapped core into the bottom part.","A heated press closes the mold, compressing the contents under high pressure for nine minutes.","This bonds the layers, forms contours in the ski, and adheres the graphics.","The pressure squeezes out excess resin along the perimeter so once they remove the ski from the mold, they cut off the excess with a band saw.","Then with a custom-made router bit, they precision-trim to exact specifications.","Next, a three-phase filing of the ski's edge-- first with a large file, then a small file, then with either a razor blade or medium-grit sandpaper.","Then with the help of a template, they drill 18 holes into those fiberglass-reinforced nylon blocks in the core.","They screw a threaded insert into each hole, and it locks into the block.","There are more inserts that are actually required for mounting the fin and attaching the ski boots.","This gives the skier different positioning options.","Now the last edge-sanding with fine-grit paper.","After wiping down the entire ski with an alcohol-based cleaner, they install the final and most important component-- the fin.","It's made of aluminum that's chemically treated to be corrosion-resistant and ultra-durable.","The fin's position critically affects the ski's traction and stability, so they use a micrometer to measure to the millimeter, securing the fin precisely where the design engineer specified in the performance-maximization sweet spot.","Nonetheless, competitive water-skiers typically readjust the fin to their own preferences in hopes of leaving competitors in their wake."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Motorcycle Engines","Glass Enamel Sculptures","Hand"]},"text":["The v-twin motorcycle engine actually dates back more than a century.","Talk about staying power.","Central to the design are two cylinders that form a \"v\" around the crankshaft.","This configuration is more compact than a straight-line engine, and its appeal is timeless.","With its throttle cranked, the v-twin can take you on an exciting ride and leave sedans in its dust.","To make one, a robot loads a cylinder into a machine equipped with cutting tools.","The tools mill the cylinder's metal slats to highlight them.","The slats are called cooling fins.","They allow the engine's heat to dissipate.","This cutting tool bores into the center of the cylinder, carving it to precise dimensions to allow engine components a perfect fit.","Next, an operator assembles the crankshaft.","He aligns connecting rods and slides them over bearings.","He then assembles the rods and bearings to the crankshaft.","A machine press-fits everything together.","Next, a lift scoops up the crankshaft assembly and transfers it to the lower half of the crankcase.","At the next station, an automated dispenser precisely applies sealant to the inner edge of the crankcase.","They then arrange the upper half of the crankcase on the lower assembly and bolt the two together.","It's now time to link the crankcase and shaft assembly to the transmission.","This chrome-plated cover is the finishing touch.","Next, they fit the camshaft into the crankcase.","Its job is to maintain valve timing.","They position the pistons on the connecting rods now installed in the crankcase.","Remember those highlighted cylinders made earlier?","Workers now slide them over the pistons.","These are the cylinder-head castings.","Technicians paint them and then machine them to fit on the cylinders.","A robot bolts them together with just the right amount of torque.","The operator then installs tubing that will house pushrods.","He snaps them into the cylinder heads.","Then he clips on metal covers to secure them.","He now inserts the pushrods in the tubing.","Up next is the electronic fuel-injection system, which controls the flow of fuel to the engine.","They install it between the two cylinders.","A special bracket holds the injection system in place.","He bolts the rocker boxes to the cylinder heads, then tops off the assembly with more gleaming chrome covers.","The operator now screws the oil filter onto the engine case and secures it with a special wrench.","This is the electrical charging system.","It goes on the crankshaft.","Now it's time to pump oil into this v-twin engine and put it through its paces.","Computerized testing equipment moves in and mates to the engine.","The engine rotates, and they shift the transmission through all the gears.","This allows the testing equipment to analyze every aspect of its performance.","Next, they insert spark plugs into the cylinder heads.","And these 1584cc motorcycle engines are now revved and ready for their wheels.","Enameling is the process of fusing colored glass to metal with intense heat.","This decorative art developed more than 3,000 years ago.","The earliest enameled objects archeologists have found are pieces of jewelry made in ancient greece.","Today, artisans most often produce glass enamel on copper.","Artisans handcraft these magnificent sculptures by fusing vibrant colors of finely ground glass to solid copper.","First, the artist draws the design, then chooses the glass colors from a palette of hundreds of shades.","She takes one element at a time and makes multiple copies of it on a sheet of paper.","She has a lab produce a film negative, which she lays in an exposure machine.","On top, she lays a silk screen coated with a light-sensitive chemical.","Then it exposes them to halogen light for 90 seconds.","The film negative works like a stencil.","Its dark parts block the light from hitting the screen while its clear parts allow light through.","Where light penetrates, the light-sensitive chemical reacts and hardens.","The unhardened chemical rinses away, leaving just the image behind.","In the next department, they lay the screen in a silk-screen printer, apply chemical-resistant ink, then load a sheet of solid copper about half a millimeter thick.","The machine automatically prints the images onto the copper.","They cure the ink in an oven for 20 minutes, then repeat the entire exposure process for the back side of the sheet.","Next, they feed the sheet into a two-step milling machine.","It applies chemicals that eat away any copper that isn't coated with the chemical-resistant ink.","This cuts out the shapes.","Then it strips off the ink, which, by this point, has served its purpose.","Now they have a blank shape, but it's completely flat.","To give it dimension, they stamp it with a forming dye.","Now the enameling process can finally begin.","For each color grouping of the design, there's an aluminum stencil.","They lay down the first one and sprinkle glass powder in the first base-coat color, which looks white now, but comes out clear.","Then a second stencil for the second base-coat color-- white.","The shape then goes into a kiln for about a minute to liquefy the glass powder and fuse it to the copper.","Once the base coat cools, they create the detail work with additional stencils and colors.","This is where the true artistry comes in.","Each shake of powdered glass is like a painter's brushstroke.","Too much, and the color will come out too dark.","Too little, and it'll come out too light.","It takes an experienced enameler to get it just right.","They craft dimension by blending colors and by combining different types of glass in the design-- some transparent, some opaque, some opalescent.","After every few powder applications, they return the piece to the kiln, where the intense heat--  1,600 degrees fahrenheit-- liquefies and fuses the glass to the copper.","Slowly but surely, they turn what was a blank copper shape into a vibrant work of art.","Meanwhile, an artistic welder skillfully creates the sculpture's metal framework-- in this case, branches on which copper-enamel birds will perch.","He's using steel, but frameworks can also be made of copper, bronze, or brass.","Besides birds, this sculpture features copper-enameled leaves and flowers.","Their stems are bronze because bronze fuses easily to steel.","With the framework and background elements in place, it's just a matter of attaching the main design elements.","Some industrial-strength hot glue does the trick.","A modern twist on an ancient craft, these glass-enamel sculptures make a glistening impression.","Today, most commercially made paper is made from wood pulp treated with chemicals and mechanically processed.","Making paper by hand is a craft that involves techniques and materials that go back over 2,000 years in china.","These techniques have evolved over time, but the main ingredient remains the same-- imagination.","Handmade paper is a distinctive choice for a variety of uses, from fine stationery to limited-edition prints.","Natural fibers, like linen or these cotton remnants, are the raw materials for handmade paper.","Workers place the cotton rag and put it on a conveyer, which leads into a machine that chops it up into small pieces.","It collects in a bin, ready for the next step, called beating the rag.","Workers pour out the chopped-up rag into a tub called a hollander that is filling with water.","This machine beats the material into a pulp.","Its only moving part-- a large roll weighing several tons, equipped with metal blades.","Workers fill the hollander with up to 800 pounds of rag.","Once all the rag is in, the giant roll descends to begin the beating.","Water pours down to soak the fabric, as workers push it toward the roll.","They sometimes take paper from previous batches, known as broke, and add it to the mix.","They may also add a little dye to adjust the color, depending on the desired effect.","After eight hours of beating, workers feel the pulp's consistency.","They will then take samples from this batch to make sure it doesn't contain any unbeaten rag or knots.","Next, they add colorful scraps of paper to the pulp to create a decorative pattern.","To make a sheet of paper, the vat man plunges a wooden mold into the pulp.","As he lifts out the mold, he shakes it to even out the pulp.","Water pours out, leaving only fibers caught on the mold's surface.","He removes the mold's frame, known as the deckle, and lowers the corner of the mold to drain away more water.","He places the mold facedown on a wet felt, then carefully lifts it away.","A sheet of paper now lies on the felt, which he then covers with another wet felt.","When pulp pours through the mold's metal screen, it traps the fiber and lets the water through.","The vat man plunges the mold once again into the pulp and couches another sheet of this distinctive paper.","At this point, the paper is 99% water.","Workers bring a stack over to a hydraulic press to draw the water from the paper and link the fibers together.","They press the papers with care so they don't burst right out of the felts.","They brush any leftover pulp from the felts, leaving them clean and ready for the next batch of sheets.","Now workers can handle the paper without it falling apart.","They take the sheets from the felts and hang them to dry on plastic tubes.","Once dry, they collect the sheets according to type and stack them for a final finishing press before they go on for shipment to customers around the world.","The mold's frame leaves a feathery edge-- a distinctive feature of handmade paper.","These papers are available in more than 30 colors in various finishes, from smooth to rugged.","There's a paper for every project, whether it's etching...","Watercolor...","Drawing...","Or even folding.","Pole-vaulting began as a mode of transportation, not a sport.","In europe, men would use poles to propel themselves across bridgeless canals.","In the late 1800s, pole-vaulting caught on as a college sport.","The athletes used bamboo poles to vault themselves over a horizontal bar.","Today's poles are incredibly lightweight, yet strong enough to absorb the vaulter's energy, then throw it back to propel him over the bar.","Some poles are made of carbon fiber, others out of thismaterial--  resin-impregnated fiberglass.","The first step is to spread out the material and cut out the pole pattern.","Meanwhile, a slitter machine cuts the same material into strips of a specific width.","Then it winds each strip into its own roll.","This spiral-wrap machine automatically unravels the strip and wraps it around a hollow steel tube called a mandrel.","This first layer of fiberglass gives the pole its flexibility.","They wrap a second layer in the opposite direction, employing a crisscross pattern to increase durability.","The second layer fortifies the pole's circumference.","For the next layers, they remove the mandrel and lay it on the table.","Now it's time for those fiberglass patterns they cut earlier.","They heat the edge of the first one with an iron, melting the resin in the fiberglass until it's tacky.","They stick this edge to the mandrel, then slide the other end between heated rollers.","The rollers wrap the rest of the material around the mandrel, the heat activating the resin in the process.","The same procedure, now with the second pattern.","This piece is critical, because the way it's cut controls the way the pole bends.","The mandrel and its multilayer fiberglass coat now go into an oven.","The heat, generated by steam, starts at 175 degrees fahrenheit.","This liquefies the resin so that it re-saturates the fiberglass.","Then the temperature gradually rises to nearly 300 degrees, solidifying the resin again, curing it.","This entire process takes about 45 minutes from start to finish.","And when it finishes, a pole extractor slides the mandrel out of what's now a fiberglass pole.","The pole moves onto a flex machine.","In part, this is a stress test.","If there's any type of defect, the pole will crack or break.","But the flexor also permanently puts a specific degree of curve in the pole, which helps the athlete vault higher.","Now they make what's called the soft-side mark.","This helps the pole vaulter locate the bend, in order to know where to grip the pole.","Next, they apply a maximum-weight label, indicating how heavy the vaulter can be.","To finish the surface now, they mount the pole on a spindle, then run a polishing pad over it.","Then, using a solvent, they clean off the debris.","Now that the surface is pristine, they wrap it in thin, lightweight tape.","Different-colored tapes designate different pole styles.","They cap the top of the pole with plastic, then, at the bottom, mallet on a molded tip made of hard rubber.","The finishing touch is the manufacturer's decal.","Vaulting poles come in various lengths, between 10 and 16 feet.","A pole designed for a heavier vaulter has to be stiffer than one designed for a lighter vaulter because the pole has to propel more weight with the same degree of bending."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Gummies","Aluminum Cans","Fish Farming","Bronze Sculptures"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" gummies, aluminum cans, fish farming, and bronze sculptures.","There's nothing kids love more than candies they can pull and stretch, which probably explains why gummy candies and licorice have always been stick-to-your-teeth favorites, except with parents who don't have a family dental plan.","Everyone calls this red licorice, but there's actually no licorice root in it.","The ingredients are wheat, sugar, and corn syrup, with red food dye and both artificial and natural strawberry flavoring.","They cook the mixture for 2 hours at 216 degrees.","This slowly forms a thick paste.","They cool it down, then put it through extruders.","The extruders work like icing nozzles, shaping the paste into a design such as the twirls we see here.","A water-lubricated knife slices the continuous strips into 7- and 8-inch lengths.","The water also rinses off any licorice buildup on the blade.","The cut licorice goes on aluminum trays.","The stacks of trays then go into an oven to dry for 8 hours at 140 degrees.","As the excess moisture evaporates, the licorice shrivels.","Workers weigh the correct amount of licorice for each package.","To make gummy candies, they use what are called printing boards-- large sheets with raised shapes.","To make gummy worms, for example, they mount the gummy-worm board on a stamping machine.","The machine then stamps the worm shapes onto trays of cornstarch.","This creates a series of cornstarch molds for the gummy worms.","While that's going on, another machine mixes gelatin, sugar, corn syrup, color, and flavoring and cooks the mixture at 240 degrees.","A machine called the depositor pours the mixture into the cornstarch worm molds.","The molds then go into a refrigerated room.","In 12 to 15 hours, the candies cool and solidify.","A machine then flips the candies out of the trays.","The cornstarch molds disintegrate.","As they fall downward, the machine sifts out the lumps, then recycles the used cornstarch into new cornstarch trays for the next batch.","The candies go through a cleaner.","As they spin, air nozzles blast off the cornstarch.","The next drum coats the candies with mineral oil to make them shiny.","Children love gummy worms because they're gooey and slippery and wiggly, but it's not just kids who are hooked on them.","Many fishermen actually use them for bait.","Before packaging the candies, the workers weed out any that are stretched out or stuck together.","Wonder if they get to eat the rejects?","A prion is what causes killer neurological diseases such as mad cow in animals and creutzfeldt-jakob in humans.","It's a protein normally found in the membranes of cells.","Scientists are trying to determine what changes that protein to an abnormal form to cause these fatal brain diseases.","The next time you buy a canned soft drink, consider this-- that aluminum can will always be recyclable.","Unlike plastic, aluminum never deteriorates, no matter how often it's melted down and used again.","Aluminum cans are so lightweight that it's hard to believe they're made from a huge roll of aluminum sheeting that weighs almost 10 tons.","The sheet is about 5 feet wide and as thin as construction paper.","A roll like this is long enough to make three-quarters of a million drink cans.","The sheet feeds into a press that punches out round pieces that will be formed into cans.","The punch press actually performs two operations.","It punches out a disc 5 1/2 inches in diameter, then bends it into a cup.","What's left of the sheet gets compacted and sent back to the aluminum factory, where it's recycled into new rolls.","The cup goes into a machine called the draw-and-iron body maker.","A tool draws out the aluminum, forming the body of the can.","The tool is lubricated so it won't tear the aluminum while stretching it.","The lubricant also acts as a coolant because the aluminum heats up as it's being worked.","Once the body is formed, a trimmer cleans and straightens the edge.","Now the cans move along upside down on the conveyer belt over to the washer.","The washer performs a 6-stage cleaning.","The first two washes are in hydrofluoric acid at 140 degrees.","The last four washes are in deionized water, neutral water with no ph, also at 140 degrees.","The cans come out of the washer and go under a hot-air dryer.","They're now shiny because the hydrofluoric-acid wash removed a thin surface layer of aluminum.","Next, a roller passes over the cans, coating the bottom rims with varnish.","This varnish coating allows the cans to slide easily on the conveyer belts and into vending machines.","It shows up as a blue ring under an ultraviolet light.","The cans are now ready to be printed.","This rotation printing system can apply up to five colors, one at a time.","The machine then applies a layer of varnish to protect the ink.","This is what the print and varnish process looks like in slow motion, and here's the actual speed--  1,800 cans per minute.","Next, the cans fly through an oven that instantly hardens the ink and dries the protective varnish.","The next machine sprays a water-based varnish on the inside of the cans.","This creates a barrier between the drink and the aluminum, so the drink won't end up tasting like metal.","It also prevents the aluminum from being eaten away from the inside by the acid in carbonated drinks.","Next, the cans go through a machine called the necker which forms a 2-inch neck on the can.","This is done gradually in 11 steps, so as not to puncture the paper-thin aluminum.","The next machine, called the flanger, forms a curved-over edge at the top of the can, which will later attach to the pull-tab cover.","The cans pass through a sophisticated vision system that photographs the inside of each can.","Any can that doesn't meet standards, that has a bump or ink inside, for example, is automatically removed from the production line.","They strap the finished cans onto a pallet.","From here, they're shipped to the drink company, which fills them and then attaches the pull-tab cover.","Fish farming generates about 20% of the world's fish production.","Some fish farms are very high tech, while others use more traditional methods.","Fish farming began in 2000 b.c. if these rainbow trout are going to have the energy to make baby trout, they'll have to be well fed.","On today's menu-- brown shrimp.","The fish farmer gives the mating process a hand.","He takes the female fish and presses on her belly to squeeze out her eggs.","A 1-pound fish has about 1,000 eggs.","It takes about a minute to get them out.","Next, he takes the male fish and squeezes out his sperm.","This also takes about a minute.","The fertilization process is pretty low tech-- no microscopes, no test tubes.","The farmer mixes the eggs and sperm by hand.","He then rinses the eggs with clean water.","He repeats this step seven or eight times until the water runs clear.","The eggs that stay at the surface are duds, so they're discarded.","The farmer transfers the good eggs to bottles, then fills the bottles to the top with water.","The eggs incubate for about a month.","By the 25-day mark, if an egg is alive, two little black dots appear--  fish eyes.","After the incubation period, the farmer empties the bottles and spreads the eggs on a surface with slats.","The eggs lie here underwater...","Until they hatch 10 to 15 days later.","The newly hatched trout swim down through the slats into the basin below.","The baby trout feed off their placenta for the first 18 days.","After that, they eat special trout food made of fish meal.","The trout grow to about 8 inches long by the age of 8 months.","At that point, the smaller trout swimming around them start looking pretty appetizing.","So the farmer has to classify the fish by size and move them into separate basins.","Trout reach adulthood at the age of a year and a half.","Now the farmer transfers them into his man-made lake.","From here, the fish will go to market.","But before they leave, the farmer mates them, starting the cycle all over again.","Bronze is the oldest metal alloy known to man.","It is ideal for casting works of art because, when molten, it flows into even the tiniest crevices of a mold.","This allows sculptors to achieve incredible detail in their work.","Man first discovered how to cast metal around 3500 b.c., during the period known as the bronze age.","Many civilizations honored their royalty and gods with bronze statues.","When it comes to art, the late 19th-century french sculptor auguste rodin was the master.","They say his bronzes were more lifelike than the subjects themselves.","Bronze is also a popular medium for modern art.","Sculptors first carve a replica of their sculpture from wood or shape it out of a plaster or clay.","They coat it with a lubricant...","Then with silicone rubber.","When the rubber hardens about six hours later, the lubricated replica slips out easily, leaving a detailed rubber mold.","Next, they pour hot wax into the mold.","The wax cools in about 15 minutes, leaving an exact wax replica of the sculpture.","Next, they attach what's called a sprew-- a wax channel that will funnel the molten bronze into the mold.","They dip the wax replica into a ceramic material.","Then coat it with powdered silicone, a common mineral, to strengthen the ceramic.","Next stop-- an autoclave.","In about 10 minutes, under the machine's hot steam pressure, the wax inside the ceramic shell melts away, leaving a hardened and hollow ceramic mold.","That mold goes into a kiln at 1,560 degrees.","After two hours, it's fired.","This is the finished mold into which the bronze will be cast.","At the foundry, they heat the bronze to 2,084 degrees...","Then carefully pour it into the mold.","The molten metal takes just a few minutes to solidify.","Then they chisel off the ceramic casing to reveal the bronze statue inside.","They sandblast the statue to remove the ceramic residue.","Then, they saw off the sprew.","They weld shut any holes or other imperfections...","Then polish the statue using various abrasive heads.","They heat the statue, then spray on an acid coating.","This coating, called patina, gives the bronze its shimmer and richness of color.","Finally, a coat of wax makes the statue shine."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Dragster Tires","Icing","Floating Docks","Spiral Pipes"]},"text":["A dragster's tires take quite a beating during the brief, but fast run down the racetrack.","The tires have to face full-on acceleration right out of the starting gate, then heavy-duty braking after the finish line, with the car deploying a rear parachute and slowing to an eventual stop.","A drag race is the ultimate automotive sprint, with rapid acceleration to speeds topping 310 miles per hour.","Optimal tire traction can give a car the winning edge.","Dragster tires, like most tires, are made from rubber, which hasn't been cured to a firm and permanent state.","For most parts of the tire, they reinforce the rubber with nylon fabric.","The machine heats and kneads rubber slabs until they melt, then coats both sides of the material with a molten rubber.","When the fabric-reinforced sheet of rubber cools, the machine slices it into pieces of a specific length, making the cuts at a diagonal, called a bias angle.","A skilled tire builder then joins the edges of the piece to form a band, sticks it to an identical band made of an opposite bias piece-- layering increases strength-- then stretches this two-ply band over a tire-building machine.","Next, he applies the belts, two opposing bias pieces of fabric-reinforced rubber, which he lays diagonally onto the tread area of the tire.","A laser guide marks the edges so that he can match the belts to each other.","These belts help give the tire stiffness, strength, and stability.","He uses a roller to press out any trapped air between the plies and belts.","This helps ensure a thorough bond.","After a stitcher wheel folds down the plies, he folds the ends of the material into the machine.","Then, he applies a contact cement-type material to enhance the natural adhesion of uncured rubber.","Meanwhile, an automated machine makes the tires' beads, the rigid hoops around both sides of the opening, which holds the tire firmly to the wheel.","Each bead is made from a thick, steel wire.","The machine first encapsulates it in rubber.","Then, it winds the bead around a mandrill up to 50 times, forming a hoop.","The machine forms four beads at a time.","The next machine wraps the hoop in a piece of fabric-reinforced rubber.","This additional layer will stiffen the sidewall, the non-treaded area of the tire.","The builder uses a tool called a bead server to mount the finished bead.","While the tire is spinning, he applies the contact cement-type material to help the rubber-to-rubber adhesion when he wraps the plies around the bead to secure it further.","The stitcher wheel smoothes the plies flat and pushes out trapped air.","Then, the tire builder applies a strip of fabric-reinforced rubber on top and rolls it flat.","This strip will make the bead area more durable when the tire is mounted on a wheel.","He applies a layer of non-reinforced rubber on the sidewall.","This covers the edges of the plies and will help the tire retain air once it's inflated.","This machine makes the tread by extruding molten rubber through a dye into a continuous strip, then applying it onto the spinning tire.","The fully constructed tire now goes into a press to cure.","Inside, a hot mold closes around the perimeter, while a bag inflates in the middle, pushing the tire outward against the walls of the mold.","When the tire comes out, about half an hour later, the rubber is no longer soft and pliable, and its chemical structure is stabilized, locking in the final dimensions.","Workers seal the wheel opening and inflate the tire to hold the shape until the rubber cools.","Once the rubber has cooled to room temperature, which takes about an hour, the tire undergoes a series of quality-control checks.","Here, a worker performs a visual inspection while trimming off excess rubber from the bead area.","Before the decals go on, they also x-ray the tire, looking for any internal flaws.","Life in the fast lane, while exciting, is short.","Dragster tires need to be replaced every four to six trips down the drag strip.","Icing dates back to 17th-century england.","Early versions were poured directly onto cake.","The cake was then put back in the oven until the topping cooked into an icelike glaze, hence the term icing.","Hundreds of years later, success never tasted sweeter.","Today, icing comes ready-made in cans and tubes.","No need to make a sticky mess in the kitchen.","Just press the nozzle to transform a plain cupcake into an elaborate dessert.","It takes a dozen different ingredients to make icing, beginning with vegetable-oil shortening.","They encapsulate food coloring in the block of shortening.","This keeps the food coloring from becoming airborne, as a mixture creams the shortening with sugar, which they pipe directly into the mixer basin.","Sugar is the main ingredient in icing.","Corn syrup is the next ingredient.","It adds more sweetness and liquidity to the mix.","The mixer arm spirals around the basin for a few minutes to blend everything.","Then, they add cornstarch, which will act as a thickening agent.","They pour warm water into the mixture and beat until smooth.","If the icing consistency is too thin, they thicken it with more sugar.","This 1,000-pound batch of icing is done, and there's enough to fill 2,000 aluminum cans.","A conveyor delivers the cans to fillers that inject half a pound of icing into each can.","The system fills 3,600 cans an hour, and no one has to get their fingers sticky.","Plastic nozzles now funnel toward the containers, and with perfect timing, a press seals one to each of the icing-filled cans.","At the same time, a pump shoots air into a small hole in the bottom of the can.","This pressurizes the icing so it can be pumped out when needed.","The burst of air carries a tiny, rubber cap with it, and it plugs the hole to maintain the pressure.","The cans move forward and meet up with the applicator tips.","There are four tips per can, held together by little, plastic connectors.","The four applicator clusters fall out of the feeder and land on the can nozzles.","Clear caps then fall into place on the cans.","A blade cuts a labeled plastic sleeve to the correct length.","The sleeve drops onto the cans, draping them loosely for the moment.","They ride by a spinning plastic disk that tucks the sleeves all the way down.","Then, it's into a drier, where the heat shrinks the wrap to the cans, sealing the icing.","It's a perfect fit.","Next, they make icing for packaging in squeeze tubes.","They blend together the same ingredients, but in different amounts and in a different order.","This achieves a thicker consistency.","Thicker icing can be more easily squeezed out of tubes.","For ready-made icing, it really is all in the packaging.","A mechanized arm picks up the squeeze tube and delivers it to the filling machine.","A vacuum pump sucks out air and any contaminants.","Another mechanism orients the tube for filling.","Nozzles now inject thick, yellow icing into the tubes, but stop short at a complete fill-up, leaving space for the open ends to be closed and sealed by hot jaws.","Once closed, the machine ejects the tubes.","Each one contains four ounces of icing.","It's about half as much as the can.","To decorate with icing from a tube, the consumer squeezes it out of the bottom tip.","To apply icing from a can, you pump it out of the top.","No matter how you ice it, the result will be sweet.","The egyptians built the earliest known docks on the shores of the red sea around 2500 bc.","More than 4,000 years later, our lakes and rivers are dotted with floating structures where boaters can dock their crafts, go for a dip, or just lounge in the sun.","Floating docks can be much more than just walkways where you tie up your boat.","They can be waterborne buildings with slips, jet-ski ports, and even a rooftop deck.","This facility has created its own computer-aided design software.","With it, they can quickly design each component of a dock in 3-d.","The program will even calculate how many floats are needed and where they should be placed to keep the dock level in the water.","Thanks to its lightweight, rustproof strength, aluminum is the ideal material for building docks.","All the aluminum here has been extruded in unique shapes according to the design requirements.","The plans are printed, and workers consult them closely as they cut and form the material.","The blades they use are specially designed for cutting aluminum.","They use a variety of methods to form the shapes, including drill presses equipped with components called hole saws.","Workers lay the material out on the factory floor in preparation for assembling the structure.","The final assembly of the floating docks will happen on the water at the site.","They tack-weld the parts to each other, then make sure everything is perfectly square before doing the final weld.","Unlike steel, aluminum loses strength when it's welded.","For this reason, the designers of these docks have created special aluminum sleeves for every major joint.","That means there's extra metal supporting the weld and strengthening the structure.","To make sure everything fits properly, the workers join the sections to each other with stainless-steel bolts and lock nuts.","There is minimal reaction between the different metals, because there is so little stainless steel relative to the quantity of aluminum being used.","Once the bottom section of the dock is assembled, workers build up from there.","For this test phase, they use shortened, temporary roof poles to make the process easier.","The blue material on the poles is polyethylene bushing, which prevents creaking when the dock is stressed in turbulent water.","Because aluminum is so lightweight, there's no need for cranes in an aluminum dock facility.","Manpower is enough.","Workers attach a series of narrow, aluminum tubes, called purlins, to the roof and deck.","Workers install the roofing by screwing it into the purlins.","In most cases, the roof won't be installed until the dock is assembled on-site.","Satisfied that everything assembles correctly, the workers take it all apart.","They flip the lower sections over and attach the floats.","These floats consist of roto-molded polyethylene shells.","Styrofoam has been expanded in place to fit inside the shell perfectly.","Even if the outer shell breaks, the dock will still float.","This facility offers a range of decking options from aluminum to concrete to plastic composite to specialty woods like this one, which is called ipe.","Like teak, ipe is incredibly durable and extremely stable.","In other words, it won't rot, swell, or contract, despite extended exposure to a high-humidity environment.","If the dock has an upper deck, it needs a railing.","It's important to have something to lean against when you're sipping cocktails and watching the sunset after a long boat ride.","Of course, it's also a crucial safety feature.","There are 12 different components to assemble for just this one section, and there might be as many as 15 different sections of varying lengths for an entire dock.","Customers can choose to add a range of accessories to floating docks made at this facility.","To make things like safety railings and ladders, workers use a hydraulic bending machine to shape aluminum tubing to the required contours.","All the aluminum these manufacturers use in their floating docks is a marine-grade alloy especially resistant to degradation when exposed to water.","Finally, it's time to build the docks in place.","Thanks to careful planning on the part of the manufacturers, assembly is a breeze.","The crew doesn't need much more than a ratchet set to pull it all together.","It's smooth sailing from here on out.","In the modern world, steel pipes form an underground network to deliver necessities like drinking water or fuel.","These pipes are often spirally welded and can be made in any size.","In fact, longer pipe means fewer joints and less work to install them underground.","Spirally welded pipes can be short, or they can go on and on.","The potential length is limitless, because, unlike other kinds of pipes, spiral pipes don't have to conform to the size of a forming roll or the dimensions of a steel plate.","They can spiral-weld these coils of steel sheets endlessly.","But first they have to take the kink out of the coiled steel.","A machine unwinds it and pushes it between rollers to completely flatten it.","A fixed arm then presses the steel against rollers to round it to a precise diameter, and an automated system welds the formed pipe from the inside.","A barely visible mantel of powdered flux protects the welding process.","Copper-coated steel wire acts as both an electrode for the welding process and as filler material.","With the inside weld complete, a second welder device works on the outside of the pipe to give it a double-welded seam.","A plasma torch cuts the pipe to length cleanly by melting it.","In this case, they're making a water pipe that's 6 feet in diameter and 50 feet in length.","The pipe then rolls over to the next station.","Here, a worker grinds both ends of the pipe to improve the profile.","Then it's over to a die.","It stretches one end of the pipe to create a slight flare, or bell.","This will allow it to be connected to the narrower end of another pipe, forming what's known as a lap joint.","Next, they cap the ends of the pipe and pump in water to a highly pressurized state.","They look for leaks in the weld and confirm that it's watertight.","Another worker installs rubber dams at both ends of the pipe.","A cement fixture then flows into a long applicator with a nozzle.","The nozzle applies the cement to the pipe's inner wall as the pipe spins and generates a centrifugal effect that's 70 times the force of gravity.","This causes the cement to be distributed uniformly.","The rubber dams contain the cement during this process.","The spinning displaces water in the cement, and a blower forces that water out of the pipe.","Next, a worker drapes plastic onto both ends of the pipe.","He tacks it with magnets and then secures it tightly with an elastic cord.","He pumps hot steam into the pipe.","Over a period of 18 hours, the steam cures the cement.","It's a slow cure for better structural integrity.","For our camera, they open one end of the pipe for an inside look at the steaming action.","18 hours later, they remove the rubber dams.","The spiral-welded pipe now has a tough, protective inner liner.","Next, the pipe moves into a blast chamber, where fine, steel shot bombards the outside of the pipe to clean it thoroughly.","This prepares it for the next step.","A sprayer applies a liquid adhesive.","Over the adhesive, they wrap a polyethylene-backed tape.","They apply a total of three layers of tape.","The first one provides corrosion protection to the spirally welded steel.","The other two layers protect the first.","They give the spirally welded pipe a tough outer skin.","The three tapes are color-coded.","This will allow the depth of any damage to be quickly assessed on-site.","They produce approximately 15 spirally welded water pipes per eight-hour shift at this factory.","They should last for a century underground."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Spiral Stairs","Pita Bread","Exhaust Headers","Molded Limestone Artwork"]},"text":["spiral stairs were part of a strategy to defend the towers of medieval castles.","Attackers had to climb single-file and couldn't storm the castle all at once.","And at the top of the stairs, the guardsmen could more easily maneuver their swords, giving them the upper hand.","Spiral stairs take people to the next level without taking up a lot of space.","They're compact, and with their corkscrew curvature, they can also be architectural features.","Production starts with the steel hubs cut to the desired riser height.","A worker files the sharp edges smooth and drills a threaded hole which will be used to fasten the treads in place.","A computer-driven plasma system cuts through a sheet of steel to produce the pie-shaped stair treads.","A worker nestles a tread to the hub and clamps them in a weld fixture.","He also clamps structural supports to the base of the tread.","With everything in the right configuration, he welds the supports to the tread and the hub.","He'll make 12 of these hub and tread assemblies.","He chips off the weld slag for cleaner seams.","A team slides the hub and tread assemblies on to the center pole and rotates them to the correct position.","The design geometry dictates the rotation.","Once rotated correctly, the workers fasten the hubs to the pole and add a platform for the top step.","A baluster spins in a lathe, as tools cut it to length and round the end to the correct diameter.","The operator measures the diameter.","He inserts the rounded end in a dye that carves the thread into it.","A worker welds a steel cup just above the threaded part of the baluster.","This cup will support the baluster once it's been installed on the thread.","He grinds the weld scale from the cup.","He inserts the baluster through holes in a metal spacer in the tread.","He screws a nut on to the end to secure it.","Using rollers now, another worker twists long strips of metal into spiraling hand rails that match the rise of the stairs.","He fits the rail to the top balusters and clamps it in place.","He then welds the balusters to the rail.","He adds more railing until it spirals all the way down to the first step.","The team secures it to the platform.","The spiral staircase's metal structure is now complete.","It's ready for the wooden accents.","A worker applies glue to pieces of red oak.","He'll use two of them to make one stair tread.","He clamps two tread sets in a fixture while the glue sets.","He inserts a shim and tightens the clamp to apply downward pressure.","Once the glue has cured, a planer shaves the tread perfectly flat and to the desired thickness.","After refining the profile, a worker rounds the edge of the stair tread using a router.","After gluing strips of wood together to create a curved railing, he sands the excess adhesive, and with a file, removes more of the glue.","He turns the railing over and carves a groove in the wood.","This will enable the railing to be installed over the metal rail support.","He adds some detailing along the edge.","A team then fits the wooden railing to the metal support structure.","All of the rail sections fit together perfectly.","After the pre-fit, they remove the railing and sculpt the edges to be rounder.","The rounded edges complement the overall spiral design.","A worker pre-fits the wooden treads to the metal structure and then disassembles the entire spiral staircase for painting and staining.","The spiral stairs are then ready for reassembly in the building they were designed for.","They'll definitely add a certain twist to the interior design.","Originating in the middle east, pita bread has been around for thousands of years.","Today, its popularity continues to grow around the globe.","Part of its appeal is its versatility.","People can stuff their pita's pockets, use it as a sandwich wrap, or slice it for dipping.","Pita bread may be flat, but that doesn't mean it's boring.","Anyone can use pita to make any number of interesting lunchtime combinations.","Making pita bread starts with silos full of flour.","A blower system delivers the flour to an automated sifter.","The sifter shakes the flour through three levels of mesh to filter out impurities.","Magnets extract any metal contaminants.","Workers prepare a pre-mix of sugar, salt, yeast, and preservatives.","They combine these ingredients with the sifted flour in a big mixer and add water.","The mixer is equipped with numerous bars that rotate horizontally to blend the ingredients.","The operator opens the mixer and spins it one more time to eject the dough into a bin.","He rolls the bin to the next station.","Here the pita dough goes into a hopper.","And from there, it drops into a machine called a dough divider.","This machine turns big chunks of dough into many small blobs.","To do this, it forces the dough through a round hole, and a guillotine blade chops it to the correct thickness.","The dough blobs ride a conveyor and pass under a roller that flattens them.","Flour from an overhead sifter dusts the dough blobs to keep them from sticking to the machinery.","Each one of these flattened dough blobs will eventually become a pita.","The round pieces of dough now ride a conveyor up to a warm zone.","Over a period of 15 minutes, the yeast ferments, causing the dough to rise.","Out of the fermentation station, a roller flattens the pita dough segments again.","They're now ready to be rolled very thin in a process known as sheeting.","The next roller presses the pita dough much thinner.","Rolling it in one direction makes the dough segments oval-shaped.","The oval pitas ride by a pusher that now shoves them towards the final roller.","It rolls the dough in the other direction to round out the shape and make it even thinner.","Perfectly round and thin, the pitas now travel up to another fermentation operation.","Inside, the temperature is toasty.","It's warm enough to reawaken the yeast and cause the dough to rise again.","Conveyors move in criss-cross directions to take the pitas back and forth.","This zig-zagging journey lasts about 15 minutes.","When the pitas emerge from the chamber, they have thickened up substantially.","They head into an oven where the magic happens.","The oven's temperature is between 750 and 930 degrees fahrenheit.","They spend just 15 seconds in it.","This flash-baking causes the water in the dough to turn to steam.","The steam puffs the pitas, creating pockets inside.","The pitas then travel on conveyors for a 20 minute cool down.","As they cool, they deflate.","The process has created pockets in the pitas.","Once sliced open, the pockets can be stuffed to create sandwiches.","Workers stack the pitas six high for packaging.","The next conveyor delivers the stacks into the clutch of an automated arm.","Just ahead, a burst of air opens a bag and the arm inserts the pitas into it.","At the same time, it pushes the bag on to the next conveyor.","Moving forward, another device automatically twists the open end of the bag.","The device applies a plastic lock tab to the twisted end of the bag, sealing the pita breads inside.","The bags pass by a metal detector, and then they're on their way to the supermarket.","This pita bread has taken 45 minutes to make and package, but it should enable lunch to come together very quickly.","Installing exhaust headers will add extra power from a car's engine.","They bolt on to the engine, giving each cylinder its own exhaust pipe leading to the collector, which connects to the car's main exhaust pipe.","That's more efficient than having all the cylinders exhaust into a common manifold.","A header draws out significantly more spent exhaust gasses after combustion, leaving room for a greater amount of new gas and fresh air to enter the cylinder for the next combustion cycle.","Headers are made of steel or stainless steel.","A worker uses a roll cutter to slice tubes into nearly 6-inch-long pieces for the header's collector.","A forming tool on a press stretches one side of the collector outward.","Then the worker places the same side on an end-forming machine, which shapes it like a four-leaf clover.","He slips a flange over the unshaped side and widens that side to create the ball portion of the gasketless ball and socket connection to the car's main exhaust pipe.","Meanwhile, another worker roll cuts narrower tubes into 32-inch-long pieces to make the header's primary tubes, the ones that attach at the top to engine's cylinders.","A worker slides a tube on to a mandrel, then the computer-guided mandrel bender bends the tube in four places.","The mandrel fills the inside of the tube just up to the bend point, preventing the tube from compressing or collapsing under pressure.","The header they're making here is for a four-cylinder engine, so it has four primary tubes.","An eight-cylinder engine requires a pair of headers, whereas a six-cylinder engine requires a pair of three-tube headers.","A worker trims the bent primary tubes to the required length with a bandsaw.","The sawed edges of the tube are ragged, so the next step is to grind them smooth.","After grinding, the edge no longer looks like this.","Workers heat the top end of the tube with a torch to soften the steel.","They place the end into an end-forming machine.","The machine shapes the end to match the top profile of the cylinder, to which the tube will be mounted.","Cylinder profiles vary from engine to engine, so workers simply change the forming tool on the machine.","A worker clamps the header flange with its four exhaust ports on to an assembly jig and positions the top end of a primary tube in each port.","He inserts the bottom ends into the four-leaf-clover-shaped collector.","He then welds the top end of each tube to its exhaust port on the header flange.","Then he welds a tag with the company name on to one of the tubes.","Finally, he welds the bottom end of the tubes to the collector.","The header's three sections--  flange, tubes, and collector-- are now fused.","The worker grinds down the weld around the ports until it's nearly flush.","The remaining bit of weld material encircling the port will act as a seal to prevent leakage.","During the welding, some welding material drips into the header flange's openings, so a worker reams the bolt holes with a drill and grinds the edges of each port.","He mounts the header on the corresponding engine's cylinder head to make sure bolt holes are sufficiently cleared.","Then he runs a torch over all the joints to check the welds.","The flame would shoot through any hole in a weld, alerting them to repair it.","This factory applies one of two finishes on its exhaust headers.","The basic one is a coat of black water-based paint sprayed on and air-dried.","It prevents surface rust from forming while the part is warehoused.","The higher-end finish is an aerospace-grade ceramic coating, available in black or silver.","This baked-on finish protects the headers from rust for many years of high-performance driving.","This may look like ivory, but it's actually limestone.","It looks as though it's a sculpted work of art, but it's actually molded.","How does one mold limestone?","200 years ago, some people in france figured out how, and their descendents are still molding limestone artwork today.","This unique art form exists because, two centuries ago, a family in france discovered springs amid volcanic rock, springs with water so rich in calcium carbonate that it petrified into stone.","That is limestone.","The family carved out caves, then invented a way to capture the calcium carbonate and mold sculptures with it.","The descendents of the family continue that tradition today.","The springwater contains two grams of calcium carbonate per liter and a lot of iron oxide, which makes the water orange.","The original troughs direct the water on to a bed of wood shavings.","The shavings trap the iron oxide, and the calcium carbonate floats to the surface.","In the workshop, the owner of the company-- the seventh generation of the founding family-- makes the mold.","He heats something called gutta-percha in a pot of water to soften it up.","Gutta-percha is a natural latex made from the sap of the gutta tree.","Once it's soft, he weighs out the required amount using the workshop's original scale.","Then he kneads it to force out trapped air and make it more malleable.","After forming it into a ball, he places it in an old press made my his great-grandfather.","The press shapes the gutta-percha into a rectangle measuring 7-by-10 inches.","After cooling in the press for 30 minutes, the gutta-percha has hardened just enough to maintain the rectangular shape.","He removes it from the press and places a silicone-designed template on top.","He cuts the gutta-percha to the shape of the template.","He places the gutta-percha on top of a pattern created by an artist.","He places the template on the gutta-percha, then a plank of wood on top of that.","He puts the entire assembly under an old screw press.","An hour later, he removes the assembly from the press and gently separates the layers.","The artwork design is now transferred from the pattern to the gutta-percha.","He sets it aside to cool to a hard state.","When the work of art is either too wide or high to fit into the traditional screw press, the artisan then sculpts the pattern out of clay.","Once the clay hardens, he coats it in silicone to make the mold.","This modern mold-making technique is a bit trickier because silicone can't be reheated and reworked like gutta-percha.","The silicone takes about 24 hours to harden into a flexible mold.","A silicone mold can be used only once.","And because it's so flexible, it has to sit on a support tray so that it doesn't buckle when filled or moved.","Now it's time to mold the limestone.","A craftsman positions the molds under these liquid limestone waterfalls.","The carbonic gas in the liquid gradually evaporates, leaving accumulating deposits of calcium carbonate in the molds.","An artisan moves every mold to a new position daily so that the dripping water hits all parts of it.","Artwork just one 1/5 of an inch thick requires six months under the fountain.","Artwork 4/5 of an inch thick requires two years.","To extract the limestone artwork from a traditional mold, the artisan immerses it in hot water to soften the gutta-percha so that he can gently peel it off.","Every intricate detail of the design in the gutta-percha is now replicated in limestone.","This molded rock is as strong and hard as marble.","To extra the artwork from a silicone mold, an artisan removes the support tray and lifts off the silicone.","The company has more than 500 artwork patterns in stock dating back to 1821.","Not all the molded limestone looks the same.","The artisans can tailor the shade from white to ivory by controlling how much iron oxide they remove from the water."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wheel Loaders","Vegetable Oil","Hand Tools","Cotton Swabs"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made\"...","Wheel loaders...","Vegetable oil...","Hand tools...","And cotton swabs.","They're big, they're bulky, and boy, can they move stuff.","Wheel loaders are drivable heavy machines.","You see them on construction sites moving dirt, at landfill sites moving garbage, and in the winter, you see them all over, clearing large quantities of snow.","They start by assembling the 100-odd steel components that make up the front frame.","These parts are so heavy that workers have to use industrial-strength magnets to move them.","Take note of those pieces with the holes in them.","We'll come back to them later.","Workers measure and mark exactly where they'll weld the front frame parts together.","You might not think precision is all that important when it comes to building a 20-ton hunk of machinery, but it is.","Being just a few hundredths of an inch off can cause major problems.","The preliminary welding is done by hand.","Workers tack the parts together.","They do the same with the 100-plus steel parts that make up the loader's three other sections-- the rear frame, the driver's cab, and the moving arm at the front called the boom arm.","Once the manual welding is completed, robots take over to do the major welding.","They weld about 90% of the wheel loader.","Now that the front frame is solidly fused, it undergoes a final machining.","Remember those parts with the holes in them?","They're what enable the boom arm to move.","A computerized sensor now measures those holes and calculates how to cut them to the exact specifications of the engineering design.","The computer then guides the machining tool to tailor the holes to spec.","First, a preliminary cut.","Then, after some oil lubrication, the final cut.","When this operation's complete, the front frame will join the other sections at the paint shop.","After painting, workers begin the final assembly.","They position an axle under the front frame and another under the rear.","Then, they affix the frames to the axles with heavy-duty bolts.","They mount the diesel engine and transmission in the rear frame.","After assembling the cab, they install it onto the rear frame...","Then connect the wiring for the controls.","Now comes the boom arm.","Remember those front frame parts with the holes?","Workers line them up with the holes on the boom arm, then insert giant steel pins.","This creates a pivot mechanism, enabling the arm to move up and down.","The moving parts must fit together snugly, but not so tightly as to restrict movement, which explains why welding and machining precision was so crucial.","Once they've tested the boom arm's hydraulic lift system...","Workers install the tires, which are almost 6 1/2 feet tall.","Using a specially calibrated torque gun, they bolt the tires to the rim...","32 bolts in all.","The wheel loader is fully assembled.","Now the boom arm can be equipped with a forklift, a broom, or a big shovel called a bucket.","Vegetable oil is a fat extracted from the fruit or seeds of certain plants, such as corn, canola, cottonseed, safflower, sunflower, or soybean.","There are various ways to extract the oil.","The method we're about to see is called cold pressing.","It all starts with seeds-- in this case, a dark variety of sunflower seeds.","Cold pressing yields less oil than other methods, so it's usually just smaller specialty companies that use the process.","The big vegetable-oil makers tend to use solvents and high-pressure, high-speed presses.","That is much more productive.","But it also generates heat, which darkens the oil and diminishes its flavor and nutritional value.","These seeds, shells and all, will go through this low-pressure press.","The temperature inside is kept below 104 degrees fahrenheit-- hence the term \"cold pressed\".","The press operator has to carefully monitor and adjust the speed, pressure, and temperature...","Because keeping a press cool is no easy task, given the heat that mashing seeds naturally generates.","The pressing mechanism, the screw press, is made up of several sections.","They can shorten or lengthen it according to the type of seeds they're pressing to allow for more or less room for the seeds within the chamber.","220 pounds of seeds go through the press every hour, producing about 10 gallons of oil...","Low volume, but high quality.","The seed residue, called seed cakes, is later sold for animal feed.","Now, though, they're the key to monitoring temperature.","If the seed cakes are too warm, that means heat is building up and they have to open the exit wider to reduce the inside pressure and bring the temperature down.","Once the oil is extracted, they pump it through a filtration system.","These cloth filters allow the oil to pass through, but any remaining seed residue gets caught in the fibers.","The oil runs through the filters repeatedly until it becomes clear.","Mastering the art of cold pressing takes a lot of know-how and experience, but it results in oil that's healthier and tastier.","Cold-pressed oils made from other seeds pose different production challenges.","Flaxseed and hempseed are extremely sensitive to heat, so workers have to cool the press during the process to offset the heat that pressing generates.","Canola, on the other hand, isn't particularly sensitive to heat, nor is sesame.","All-natural, no-preservative vegetable oils like these have to be babied because exposure to air makes them prematurely spoil.","Plastic isn't airtight, so they bottle these oils in glass-- dark glass to block the oil's other enemy, light.","They seal the bottles with a flow-control cap.","Without preservatives, sunflower, canola, and sesame oils have an 18-month shelf life.","Flaxseed and hempseed oils have to be refrigerated.","Even then, they go bad after just a few months.","You don't have to be a do-it-yourselfer to own a few basic hand tools.","Even the renovationally challenged are likely to posses a hammer, a screwdriver, maybe even a pair of pliers-- if not in a toolbox, then at least crammed into a messy drawer somewhere.","Here's a look at how some hand tools are made.","Every screwdriver and chisel has to have a handle.","This factory makes handles from acetate, a synthetic resin.","These acetate bars are 6 feet long and come in many colors and contours.","They arrive here ready-made.","Workers load the bars onto a machine that feeds them into a lathe.","As the lathe spins, an automated knife cuts one handle after another, rounding off what will be the top of the handle.","Then, it sculpts the other end.","Then, a drill makes the hole into which they'll later insert the blade.","All this takes just a few seconds.","Now the handles travel to their next stop, the dipping machine.","Acetate becomes dull and opaque when it's cut, so the machine dips them in acetone, a chemical solvent.","This brings back their translucence and shine.","It also removes any acetate shavings stuck to the ends.","Here's what the handles look like before the acetone bath.","And here's what they look like after.","The handles air-dry on their way to the next stop on the production line-- printing.","The hot-stamp printer works in conjunction with an ink ribbon.","It applies about 55 pounds of pressure, engraving the product code and brand name, while the heat, about 160 degrees fahrenheit, transfers the ink from the ribbon into the engraved lettering.","The handles are finished, and it's finally time to insert the blades-- in this case, phillips head screwdriver blades.","Blades are made of carbon steel, an automated machine forces them into the handle with about 80 pounds of pressure.","Workers insert chisel blades manually in order to protect their sharp edge.","At the same time, they top the handle with a steel cap to give the chisel extra striking power.","Another common hand tool is the drywall square, also known as a t-square.","They cut two strips of aluminum, the first 4 1/2 feet long, the second 22 inches long.","Then, they apply the markings by silk-screen printing.","Next, they use a bending machine to hold over the top edge of the piece that will form the horizontal part of the \"t\".","This will allow the tool to hook onto the edge of a drywall panel.","Finally, they rivet the two pieces together.","The drywall square is finished.","Factories can alter the size of the tools they produce to meet their clients' specifications.","Standard screwdrivers have handles measuring 3 1/2 to just over 4 inches long with blades that are 1 1/2 to almost 8 inches in length.","Some screwdrivers, on the other hand, have extra-long blades, while stubby screwdrivers have short handles for getting into tight places.","Then, there are those skinny pocket screwdrivers and precision screwdrivers for jewelers and electronic technicians...","All of which proves there's a tool that's the right size for every job.","We use them to apply and blend our makeup, we use them in a pinch to pry dirt out of tight crevices, and of course, we use them to clean our ears, though doctors say never to insert them into the ear canal.","Cotton swabs are just one of those little things that are really handy to have around the house.","Cotton swabs were invented in 1926 by leo gerstenzang, a polish-born american.","He got the idea from watching his wife clean out their baby's ears using a flimsy toothpick stuck into a piece of cotton.","Leo set out to design a safer device.","He took a thicker wooden stick and wrapped the ends with cotton in such a way that it wouldn't come off and get stuck in the ear.","The leo gerstenzang infant novelty company marketed this invention under the trade name baby gays.","Many cotton-swab makers also produce cosmetic pads.","Both start with bleached cotton.","It arrives at the factory compressed in large bales.","The cotton first goes into a machine called the feeder...","From there, into a machine called the opener, which shreds the bales, pulling the cotton fibers apart.","Next stop, the carding machine.","Its large rollers comb the cotton fibers out.","Then, guided by weight-detecting sensors, it produces a uniformly thick ribbon of cotton called a web.","This web is now ready to be processed into either cotton swabs or cosmetic pads.","To make pads, they layer several webs-- just how many, though, is a closely guarded company secret.","And so is how much pressure they apply to those layers to compress them.","This secret recipe of layers and pressure is what ultimately determines the weight of the pad.","The heavier it is, the higher the quality because it's thicker.","The now-compressed layers of web go through a machine called the slitter.","It cuts the wide roll into several narrower rolls called header rolls.","Each header roll then goes through a machine that stamps on a quilt-like pattern, purely for aesthetics.","Finally, using a punching die, they cut the pads.","On this production run, each pad weighs about 2/100 of an ounce, but the factory can produce whatever weight the client requests.","The cosmetic pads are ready to be packaged.","This client wants them in bags of 100.","The blue light shows the workers the 100-pad cutoff point.","To make cotton swabs, the initial web is divided into four narrower webs, each weighing about 5/100 of an ounce per yard.","Each narrow web travels through a funnel, which transforms its shape from flat to round.","Then, it coils into a barrel.","The swab-making machine then takes cotton strands from two barrels at a time, feeding a line of cotton to each end of the stick.","Like the cosmetic pads, the amount of cotton per stick varies according to the client's specifications.","The stick feeder prepares the sticks.","Then, as we see here in slow motion, the machine cuts the cotton strand and rolls a piece onto both ends of the stick simultaneously.","Just prior, a heating device melted the tips of the plastic sticks so the cotton would adhere.","With wood or cardboard sticks, they glue the cotton on.","The finished swabs are sprayed with an antibacterial solution.","Here's that action in slow motion.","Now in real time-- 2,000 swabs per minute.","Sensors detect any defective swabs and automatically toss them off the production line.","If you look closely, every so often, you'll see one missing.","Finally, a robotic arm grabs the exact number of swabs per box, again determined by the customer's specs, and packages them.","The company's lab does spot checks on its swabs to ensure that the antibacterial solution is working...","And that the products are germfree."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Solid State Drives","Eye Shadow","Limousines","Dead Blow Hammers"]},"text":["The drive in your computer saves and stores your data-- everything from documents to photos to software programs.","The newer generation drives are solid state drives.","They're gradually replacing traditional hard disk drives because they're compact, more durable, and process information much faster.","Just like portable usb drives and camera memory cards, solid state drives store information on several memory chips installed on a circuit board.","Each chip contains highly complex circuitry comprised of electrical pathways 2,000 times narrower than a human hair.","To make those memory chips, they begin with a disk-shaped silicon wafer.","Silicon is a non-metallic natural element that conducts electricity.","It's highly susceptible to contamination, so the production area is virtually sterile to the point of being 1,000 times cleaner than the air in a hospital operating room.","An automated robotic system moves the wafers through more than 800 operations, which take more than a month to complete.","Each wafer receives layer after layer of materials-- some conductive, such as copper, some nonconductive, such as silicon dioxide.","After applying each layer, the machine coats the wafer with a light-sensitive fluid then flashes u.v. light onto it through a glass stencil of the electrical circuitry pattern.","In the areas where the fluid is exposed to the light, the chemicals break down and dissolve.","Where the fluid was shielded from light by the stencil, the materials remain intact, effectively printing the circuitry pattern on the wafer.","Chemical baths then wash away the exposed fluid and material.","Each foot-wide wafer yields hundreds of microchips, which now have to be sliced apart.","The robotic cutting machine covers the wafer with an adhesive film to hold the chips in place while they're being cut loose from each other.","The next machine inserts each clip in a protective plastic housing.","Meanwhile, six circuit boards at a time enter a machine which applies a thin layer of tin alloy solder paste onto the areas where the memory chips and other components will go.","As the boards exit the machine, a robotic arm picks off the components required for each drive from feeder spools and deposits them at their respective locations on the circuit board.","This particular model has 8 microchips, each able to store 64 gigabytes of data, giving the drive a capacity of 5,012 gigs.","The circuit boards now enter a tunnel-shaped oven which melts the solder paste, fusing the components to the board.","The brain of the solid state drive is now complete and ready for the first phase of quality-control testing.","This machine performs an optical scan to verify that every component on the board is set in the right place.","The next machine x-rays the board to verify that each component is securely soldered in the correct location.","A later phase of quality-control testing will verify the drive's performance.","Until now, six circuit boards have been attached to each other.","An automated router now cuts them apart, and workers insert each board into a protective plastic housing.","A slot on the outside of this housing reveals the board's connector by which the drive links to the computer.","Solid state drives come in different sizes.","This particular model is large enough to replace a traditional hard disk drive.","However, many models are smaller, designed to fit where disk drives can't-- for example, in ultra-slim laptops.","Every drive is labeled with its technical specs, model, and serial numbers and so on, along with a barcode for production tracking.","Then they plug the drive's connector into a tester, which, after verifying that everything functions electronically, installs the drive's operating system.","The drive moves to the next station, where it undergoes up to 60 hours of extensive performance testing to ensure that it stores and retrieves data correctly and at target speed.","Packaging is twofold.","First, a foil shield to prevent static electricity from damaging the drive, then a carton, and finally into a shipping box headed for a destination somewhere around the world.","In ancient egypt, both men and women painted their eyes.","It was thought that eye makeup made one less vulnerable to the evil eye, a gaze or stare meant to cause harm.","Today, mostly women wear it.","And of course, repelling evil is no longer a reason to wear eye shadow.","With a palette of eye shadow, a woman can work a certain kind of magic.","Skillful shading can add depth and drama to the eyes.","This makeup can also create the illusion that the eyes are much larger than they really are.","To make eye shadow, they follow specific recipes.","A technician weighs the ingredients, beginning with mica, a mineral that acts as filler.","The next ingredient is zinc stearate.","It's a binder.","A combination of pigments provides the desired color.","These particular pigments are different shades of the mineral iron oxide.","He transfers the measured ingredients to a big blender jar.","As he pours the ingredients, they dust up, and a gas mask keeps him from breathing in the particles.","He places the jar on the blender base, covers the top, and activates the blades.","The blender mixes and grinds the powdered ingredients to a very fine state.","Then it's into a very large mixer.","He adds coconut oil-- just enough for the powdered ingredients to eventually coagulate into a cake form.","More mica is next-- a lot more.","Eye shadow is 80% mica.","This mica is darker to add intensity to the color.","It also has a bit of shimmer.","He latches the lid to contain the ingredients and powers up this high-speed mixer.","Inside, the mixing paddles swivel around for about 15 minutes to thoroughly mix the ingredients.","The eye shadow mixture flows into a plastic bag.","A technician examines it to confirm that the color has been evenly dispersed and that the powder is sufficiently moist.","Another worker now pieces four eye shadow tins in pods on a metal platter.","The platter rotates to deliver the tins to a mixing dispenser that's been filled with the eye shadow ingredients.","The mixer pushes precise amounts through holes in the bottom and into the tins.","A scraper levels off the tops.","The next stop is a press with four circular heads.","A ribbon of fabric keeps things hygienic as the press compresses the moist eye shadow powder and turns it into a cake-like form.","Moving forward, the pods eject the tins, and an automated device pulls them off the machine.","What a difference the compression has made.","No longer a loose powder, the eye shadow ingredients have caked up nicely.","The tins now move into a lane and come up against an abrasive belt that cleans the loose powder from the sides.","A blast of air also gets rid of some of the residual powder.","For one out of every 100 eye shadows produced, a technician does a drop test from a height of 18 inches.","He checks for chipping or damage.","And if he finds any, he'll add power to the press.","For a color test, he brushes some eye shadow onto his arm, beginning with a laboratory standard.","He then applies newly manufactured eye shadow to his arm and compares the two.","It's a match.","And with his approval, the batch is almost ready for retail.","Another worker inserts the tins into more substantial plastic containers with magnets on the bottom to secure them.","She screws the clear caps onto the jars, and the eye shadow is on its way to the cosmetic counter.","They also manufacture entire palettes of eye shadow for a rainbow of choices.","It takes about a day to manufacture eye shadow.","And the result is truly a thing of beauty.","The first stretch limousines, built around 1928, usually transported big bands and their musical equipment.","Luxury sedans with an extended chassis are typically associated with special occasions such as weddings, proms, or a night on the town.","It takes about 475 hours of work and painstaking detail to transform a luxury sedan into a stretch limo.","Workers cut an ordinary-size car in half using cutting wheels.","Before cutting begins, the inside of the car is stripped away, along with other components such as the gas tank and drive shaft.","Workers cut away the inner support structure and cut across the floor of the car with a reciprocating saw.","The car is now completely cut in half.","Workers wheel the back half of the car away from the front half.","They place the back half on the exact spot where the limousine will gradually be assembled.","The construction department employees insert steel frame rails into the front half of the car.","They insert the rails on both sides of the front half before inserting the rails into the back half of the car.","They measure the length of the frame rails to make sure that the frame is square and that the two halves are the correct distance apart to build the limousine.","A worker welds the rails to the frames of the front and back halves of the original car.","They position the drive shaft tunnel, which houses the steel drive shaft and exhaust pipes, and weld it to the original vehicle tunnel.","They position the floor, which is made of galvanized steel, and weld it to the frame rails and tunnel.","They weld the steel roof rails into place.","They connect the new rails to the roof rails in the original vehicle.","A worked welds a vertical side post into place.","With a level, he checks that the post of hardened steel is perfectly vertical before welding the base of the post to the floor frame.","A roof panel made of galvanized steel is put in place.","Workers install the limousine's bar.","They've already installed the steel seat frames.","Next, they install an outer body panel complete with a hardened steel crash bar.","They screw the panel into place.","The screws will be removed once the panel has bonded solidly to the limousine frame.","A worker sprays on three coats of paint, then applies two coats of protective clear coating.","Once the painting process is complete, workers install the laminated safety side glass.","Another worker sprays contact cement on the roof of the limousine in preparation for the vinyl top.","He stretches the vinyl across the roof and with his hand presses the fabric down into the crevices.","Then he carefully trims off the excess.","He presses a strip of chrome molding into place on the top of the vinyl.","Workers in the interior department install the back of a leather seat...","And the leather bench seat.","After reupholstering the original rear seat to match, they return it to its original spot in the back of the limousine.","A systems installer connects the electrical systems for the control center, located behind the driver's seat.","A panel lists relays and fuses.","The original center console is then reinstalled.","A worker installs a video monitor in the limousine.","Next, he rolls out the floor mats.","The acrylic disco bar lighting system is tested.","In just 21 days, the original car is transformed into a luxurious limousine.","With test drives and quality-control checks complete, enjoy a ride in the lap of luxury.","A hammer is one of the most useful tools out there.","The only problem is you have to control the rebound.","That is, unless you have a dead blow hammer.","These tools are accurate and easy to use because this particular type absorbs the bounce.","This facility makes a variety of dead blow hammers.","Some are soft-faced and some are ball-peens, which are used by machinists.","All in all, they come in handy everywhere from nascar racetracks to operating rooms.","To first create the internal structure of the hammer, they drill through a short length of welded steel tubing with a drill press.","The worker drills straight through the tube, creating a hole on both sides.","This tube will become the internal head of the hammer.","The head needs a handle.","A worker places the tube on a jig and then positions a rod on the hole.","A press forces the rod through the tube.","At the next station, a worker places the internal hammer assemblage behind a pane of tinted glass to protect her eyes as she welds the head and handle together.","She only welds the top of the tube so as not to alter the metal.","A machine drills a set of small conical indents in the handle.","Fitting a set of pins inside the mold, these indents will be crucial to the process.","Because the internal handle is round, the urethane exterior could twist on it when the hammer is being used.","To prevent this, a worker welds on a flat tab.","The urethane will lock in place around the tab.","Next, a worker crimps a metal cap on one end of the tube.","This creates an open canister, which the worker partially fills with a crucial ingredient-- hardened steel shot.","He then crimps a cap on the open end, sealing in the shot.","With the head canister done, the core of the dead blow hammer is now complete.","While the basic components are simple, workers must assemble every element with precision.","The mold has a set of pins inside it.","A worker aligns the indents on the metal handle with these pins.","The pins ensure that the internal hammer hangs in a perfectly centered position inside the mold.","Workers secure the mold in a support frame before placing it on a conveyor that will take it through a preheating oven.","Ball-peen hammers are assembled differently.","Instead of crimping a cap on, they screw the face of the hammer onto a threaded tube.","The metal core of the ball-peen is placed in a mold that leaves the metal face and ball exposed.","After the molds go through the preheater, they arrive at the filling station.","A high-speed mix head blends urethane with hardeners and catalysts and pumps the mix through a flexible hose.","A worker uses the hose to fill the molds to the brim with the orange fluid.","She then sends them into the oven, where they'll spend 30 minutes curing at about 300 degrees fahrenheit.","On the other side of the oven, a worker removes the molds from their frames and then releases the newly formed hammers.","Thanks to a special release agent that was sprayed inside the mold, the hammers come out easily.","At the finishing station, workers use a high-speed circular brush to remove the excess material, or flash, produced by the molding process.","This is the most difficult operation in the making of dead blow hammers, and these workers are highly skilled.","When molding ball-peen hammers, the front and back of the head are left exposed.","For performance reasons, this steel is not stainless.","Workers dip the exposed steel in hot wax.","The wax coating will protect the hammer from rust until it's taken off the store shelf and put to use.","Soft-faced ball-peens and sledges are among the 20 models of dead blow hammers manufactured here.","A worker attaches a label which includes all the relevant information and warnings.","The labeled hammers then go in a box ready for shipping.","Dead blow hammers have many applications, from food processing plants to woodworking shops to the oil industry.","Some surgeons even use them to drive artificial hips into place."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Engine Blocks","Jawbreakers","Drum Shells","Drums"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Engine blocks...","Jawbreakers...","Drum shells...","And drums.","The engine block is the largest single piece of metal in a car and also one of the most intricate.","It houses and links all the engine components, such as the cylinders and pistons, and it contains passages for circulating coolant.","The engine block is where combustion converts into mechanical energy that drives the transmission, propelling the car.","Engine blocks used to be made of iron.","Today, most are made of lightweight aluminum alloy for fuel efficiency.","An engine block is a one-piece component cast from a sand mold.","To make the mold, the factory mixes glue...","And a hardener...","With zircon sand.","This combination of materials can withstand the intense heat of molten metal, but only for one casting.","Each mold is made up of sections called cores that fit together.","To make each core, a machine blows the sand-and-glue mixture into a master mold made of iron.","It injects a gas that activates the hardener, which solidifies the mixture.","This is the base core to which other cores will attach.","The base core travels down an assembly line to receive the other cores.","The next core molds the engine-block cylinder bores, which will house the motor's pistons.","A robot inserts iron liners into six holes in the core.","They prevent the aluminum walls of the bores from wearing out from abrasion.","The base core receives 17 other cores.","The ones for engine-block areas through which oil will flow are coated with talcum powder.","This keeps sand particles from sticking to the aluminum and getting into the oil.","The machines glue certain cores so they'll stay intact when the robots flip them upside down and attach them to the rest.","These are the last two cores.","The mold is now fully assembled and ready for casting.","Workers load aluminum ingots into a device called an elevator bucket.","It positions them above the jet melter-- a gas-fired furnace.","The bucket drops the ingots into the fire that's 1,500 degrees fahrenheit, liquefying the aluminum.","Just before casting, they heat the cylinder-bore liners using high-frequency electric current.","Aluminum will bond better to hot metal.","They fill the molds from the bottom to avoid contaminating the metal with aluminum oxide.","Oxide forms when molten aluminum comes into contact with the air.","Pouring into the top of the mold would expose the metal to oxygen, and the pouring action itself would mix in the oxide.","After the casting, the mold spends six hours in what's called a thermal sand reclaim oven.","That breaks down the glue so the sand falls away.","The heat also strengthens the metal.","The cast aluminum engine blocks emerge, needing just some minor finishing.","Robots turn them upside down to spill out loose sand.","Machines saw off the risers-- extra metal that fed the mold cavity to compensate for the 7% shrinkage that occurs when liquid aluminum solidifies.","Finally, computer-guided tooling equipment performs a rough machining of the metal.","This brings the engine blocks to a near-finished state.","The engine plant that buys them does the final machining before installing the engine parts.","Every engine block this factory produces passes through an automated vision system that inspects the engine block to ensure they have no defects whatsoever.","Jawbreakers, also known as gobstoppers, have preoccupied candy lovers for decades.","You pop one in and slowly suck or chew through up to 10 layers of colors and flavors.","Sometimes there's bubble gum in the middle for an even longer-lasting finish.","The larger ones are just for show.","Most jawbreakers are about the size of a golf ball.","To make their bubble gum centers, a worker blends synthetic rubber with powdered resin, which will dissolve the rubber.","He adds a thickener, a preservative, and an oil called soya palm stearin so the candy won't stick to your teeth.","After mixing and steaming at 300 degrees fahrenheit for four hours, the batter pours into trays to cool.","Sugar, coloring, and flavoring would deteriorate in the heat, so workers add those later.","There's enough of this base to make gum centers for 450,000 small jawbreakers.","After 24 hours, the batter is hard.","Workers chop it up and blend it with corn syrup to make it softer and sweeter.","They add just under 100 pounds of finished gum that didn't make it into jawbreakers before because it wasn't the right shape.","Now they add natural and artificial flavors, which can include lemon, orange, strawberry, grape, even tutti-frutti.","Then they add icing sugar.","It makes the gum smoother to chew than regular sugar would.","Workers dump the batch into an extruder that shapes two continuous streams of batter, called rope.","Another extruder divides each rope into six hollow tubes.","The cavity inside will become pockets of air inside the gum centers.","The next machine slices the tubes into segments that are three feet, three inches long.","A mechanical arm pushes the segments into the channel of a forming machine.","Steel rolls then slice through the tubes and shape them into balls.","The balls range in diameter, depending on the size of the jawbreakers being produced.","Air blows through perforations in a cooling tunnel to cool and firm the centers.","Then they fall into another forming machine, which restores their round shape.","Other jawbreakers have hard candy in the center.","The machine that makes them works like the presses drug companies use to make pills.","It feeds candy powder into dies, then applies up to five tons of force to compress the powder into a solid candy.","Now for the rest of the jawbreaker.","First, they dump the candy centers into what's called a coating pan.","They add a hot mixture of water, corn syrup, and food coloring...","Then dextrose, a type of powdered sugar.","The pan rotates for 20 minutes as warm air dries the ingredients over the centers.","The factory repeats this step 10 times for each layer.","Talk about a sweet ordeal-- making a jawbreaker takes four days.","Workers give this batch special treatment.","They speckle these jawbreakers with different colors, giving them what this company calls the psychedelic look.","After letting the candies dry for 24 hours, a worker adds pinches of powdered carnauba wax.","This gives the jawbreakers a shiny finish.","Sliced open, you can see these jawbreakers have 10 layers of flavors and sugar surrounding either hard candy or bubble gum cores.","They measure 2 1/4 inches in diameter-- as big as a billiard ball.","And if you're counting calories, forget it.","A jawbreaker is 90% sugar.","Almost every culture has used drums in some way.","Drums have been a part of different civilizations for thousands of years.","The earliest drum shells were hollowed-out logs or gourds.","Different sizes created different sounds.","Today, drum shells are more sophisticated and consistent.","To make drum shells, they slice an enormous rock maple log into several boards.","Maple is ideal for making drum shells because its hardness allows sound to resonate fully.","Each of these maple boards will be transformed into one drum shell.","Workers feed the boards to a ripsaw, which cuts them to the correct width.","This varies depending on the size of the drum being made.","Then each board goes into a planer, which shaves it thinner.","A worker aligns the board with markings on a saw table.","This positions the board to be cut to the correct length.","A radial arm saw does the job neatly.","Now he sizes up each board in preparation for tapering.","He places a board on an angle in a jig and then moves the end against a router cutter to taper it.","It takes a few passes to get it just right.","The taper needs to be about six inches long.","He thins the other end of the board to the same dimension.","These tapered ends will make it easier to bend the wood into a drum shape later.","They'll also act as scarf joints which will fasten the ends of the board together when it's bent round.","But first this board needs some softening up.","An hour in the steam box does the trick.","It's pliable enough to wind around a hot cylindrical form.","Steel banding secures the board to the bending form, where it will spend 10 to 15 minutes.","A worker pries apart the ends...","And applies a generous amount of glue between the tapered tips.","Then he removes the shim that was holding the ends apart, so that they stick together.","He places a wooden guard over the glued joint.","This nylon mesh band is a clamp.","He wraps it around the drum shell and turns a screw to pull the band tightly around the wood until it reaches 14 inches in diameter.","Then he fastens over a dozen steel clamps onto the joint.","All these clamps will prevent any gaps from occurring in the joint as the glue sets overnight.","With the joint sealed, the drum shell now spins while a cutter shaves down the edges to make it a true round shell.","Then they bring in another cutter.","It bores into the shell, making a smooth edge and rounding the inside.","He turns the drum shell around to cut it from another angle.","As the shell spins, a high-speed cutter shaves the outside from top to bottom.","This makes the surface very smooth.","It takes about a week to make a drum shell from solid wood, and it will be able to stand up to some loud playing.","There's more than one way to beat a drum, and there's more than one way to make one.","Earlier, we showed you how they create a drum shell from a maple plank.","But a newer technique involves layering multiple plies of wood.","This process is called laminating, and you can hear the difference.","The laminated drum is an instrument of change.","Its sound is crisper than a drum crafted from a single piece of wood.","To make one, they layer 11 sheets of maple.","Here, a worker glues on the final ply using a special adhesive.","This outer layer is a luxurious bird's-eye maple.","Rollers press all the layers together to ensure they stick without any gaps.","Then they cut through the overlap to create a perfect seam.","A robotic drill now takes over.","It drills holes of various diameters.","The small ones will hold hardware.","This larger one is an air vent.","A computerized router then cuts the bearing edges to a 45-degree angle, and a worker sands it smooth.","He uses a level surface to ensure that all the edges are perfect.","If they're not, the drumheads won't fit properly.","He applies an adhesive to the air hole and inserts a plastic vent.","Next, he inserts brackets, called lugs, into the other holes and screws them in.","There are 10 lugs, spaced 36 degrees apart.","They'll hold the rods that will attach the heads to the drum shell and also enable the drummer to adjust the tension on the heads.","Here he attaches a lever to control wires, called snares, that are to be strung across the bottom head.","It's called a snare strainer.","Then he fits a plastic drumhead over the bottom of the shell.","The counter hoop goes on next.","It has little tabs which he aligns with each lug.","He slides tension rods into the holes in the tabs.","Using a drum key, he tightens the head to an even tension across the shell.","Now he blasts it with a heat gun to shrink the plastic and remove any wrinkles.","Now he places another plastic head on the top bearing edge.","Since this head is the one that gets played, it's twice as thick as the bottom one.","He places the chrome rim on it and tightens the tension rods.","These brass brackets will hold the snare wires.","He slides them under the snares that are stretched tightly across a jig, putting one at each end.","He measures the length, then solders the snare wires to the brackets.","He snips the wires on both ends...","And unlocks each wire from the holding device.","When he removes the snares, they're held together by the brackets.","He slides a nylon strap into one of the brackets, then attaches the strap to a fixture just above the bottom head.","The other end of the snare is attached to the strainer-- the lever that will apply tension and release it, controlling its distinctive buzz.","For a bigger sound, there's the bass drum.","It's made with wooden hoops.","They attach the hoops to the drum shell with steel claws.","As they screw the claws to the hoop, the drumhead is pulled just tightly enough to produce that low-pitched bass drum sound.","Now it's off to be played."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Firefighter Helmets","Nautical Compasses","Packaging Tubes","Hand Saws"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Firefighter helmets.","Nautical compasses.","Packaging tubes.","And handsaws.","In the early 1800s, luggage maker henry gratacap created one of the first firefighter hats.","The leather helmet had a long rear brim and curved sides as a shield against falling debris and water running down the neck.","Except for a few high-tech additions, this basic design is still used today.","Leather is surprisingly flame-resistant.","When reinforced, it also becomes a remarkable hard hat, protecting from heat, liquids, and sudden impact.","On this newer model, the accessories shield the eyes and ears, too.","A helmet starts with four die-cut leather sections.","They sew them together to make what's called the skull of the helmet.","This piece will become the brim of the helmet.","To give the skull structure, a worker folds and sews each section, then flattens the crease with a special hammer.","He uses a template to score a sewing line in the leather.","Then he uses a powerful sewing machine to join the sections together.","He now joins the two halves together, reinforcing them with double stitching.","The resulting eight ridges give the skull stiffness and strength.","He stretches the leather over a plastic mold and trims excess leather from the ridges.","Then he clamps four vise grips to the rim.","These attach to a hydraulic jack that stretches the skull overnight.","After applying glue to the ridges, he runs them through compression rollers for a tight bond.","They wet the brim piece several times to make it more pliable.","Then they stamp it with the design used by this company since 1846.","But first, a worker inserts a wire that will give the brim some structural support, then a temporary plastic cover and a lid to ensure an even spread of pressure across the brim.","She stuffs the edges of the leather inside before the press applies 10 tons of force to imprint the design.","Next, a worker sews the skull to the brim.","He removes the excess leather at the base of the skull...","And cuts out the center of the brim.","Then he removes the plastic mold.","To seal the leather, they dip the hats in a vat of hot rosin, a type of tree sap.","After 55 minutes, they remove them and let them dry at room temperature for eight weeks.","This slow-drying process makes the leather about as hard as wood.","Drying it mechanically would make it brittle.","Now for the inside.","They insert a plastic cap to reinforce the structure.","The fit is intentionally tight, so they use a mallet to tap it into place.","Inside that they add another plastic cap with nylon straps to resist the impact of falling objects.","Here a worker uses an acetylene torch to burn off any loose threads and soften the leather in order to bend the brim and straighten the ridges later on.","Turning up the sides is basically for aesthetics, but the longer edge in the back is to direct water away from the neck.","After adding a synthetic, fire-retardant liner, he sands the outer surface to prep it for painting.","First, a fire-retardant chemical primer.","Then they use a semigloss latex paint in firefighter's black or white for the chief...","Or, if you prefer, a clear varnish to show off the natural leather.","Add a front piece with the firefighters' signature brass eagle on top and some fluorescent stickers for extra visibility, and you've got the right headgear for a hero's job.","For more than 1,700 years, the compass has been helping people find their way.","It was first developed in china, but when the far east met the far west, european sailors adopted the technology, using it to chart their own courses.","To make a nautical compass, they use this device to magnetize a special metal alloy.","A technician slips a retainer ring onto a jig and positions the magnet on top of it.","She places an aluminum skirt over the magnet.","This will support the compass dial, which goes on next.","She inserts a pivot needle in the center, which will allow the dial to rotate.","Then she press-fits all the pieces together.","She carefully inspects the fit, and it looks solid.","She sprays a chemical cleaner into the pivot cavity.","It has to be spotless because any dirt would impede its function.","She also cleans a little jewel post that contains a tiny sapphire.","Then she fixes the jewel post in the dial.","The jewel post will support the dial while allowing the pivot needle to move easily as it's pulled by magnetic forces.","She places the dial on a machine that mimics the earth's pull.","It's a crucial step because magnetic force varies depending on where you are in the world.","She brushes a weighted paint onto the back of the dial to counteract the pull.","This balances the compass dial, preventing false readings due to differences in the planet's magnetic force.","These are lubber lines--  little direction markers.","She inserts them into holes in a jig.","Then she lines them up with holes in an aluminum gimbal pan and press-fits the lubber lines to the pan.","Now she inserts two pins into the gimbal ring that allow the ring to flip around the gimbal pan.","Then she attaches the compass dial to the gimbal assembly.","The technician spray-paints the metal compass bowl black and pops a rubber diaphragm into it.","A bronze ring will hold it in place.","This flexible rubber liner will contain the compass fluid and allow it to expand and contract.","She snaps the dial and gimbal setup to the bowl.","She just has to bend a little tab to level it out.","She positions an acrylic dome on top.","Using another jig, she puts a rubber o-ring over the dome to seal it, followed by a metal collar.","With a power screwdriver, she anchors these pieces to the rest of the compass.","Then she pumps fluid into the bowl, filling it right up to the dome.","The fluid makes the numbers on the dial look bigger.","Next, they magnetically charge two metal rods and install them in a compass base.","They'll compensate for magnetic fields on the boat.","She mounts a big metal housing unit on the base.","Then she attaches shock absorbers to cushion the compass against engine vibrations.","She installs the compass in the housing and taps the dome to test the shocks.","A decorative aluminum cover fits around the dome.","Then she installs a light to allow the navigator to see at night.","She attaches iron spheres, another tactic to counter magnetic interference.","Our journey through the plan is now over, and the compass is ready to be used.","Artists first used flexible metal containers for their paints back in 1841.","Nowadays, we use them for a range of things, like toothpaste, glue, and skin cream.","The tube's design lets us squeeze out most of the product and yet still read that important fine print on the twisted package.","These packaging tubes are made of aluminum because it's affordable, lightweight, and malleable.","This company makes each tube from an aluminum slug about the size of a coin.","A worker dumps a batch of slugs in a container, then adds a lubricating powder called zinc stearate.","The container spins, causing the powder to coat the slugs evenly and prep the metal for stretching later on.","The slugs then spin around in another container, which orients them horizontally so they'll fit through a channel at the bottom.","The channel feeds the slugs into a forming press.","In a process called impact extrusion, each slug moves onto a die, which gives it the exterior shape of a tube, including the neck.","At the same time, a mandrel forms the interior.","This process hardens the metal, something they'll correct later on by heating it.","The machine applies 200 tons of pressure to as many as 150 slugs per minute.","They can be as narrow as a half-inch and as long as 8 1/2 inches.","This machine uses compressed air to align the tubes for the next step.","A trimming machine cuts threads into the necks by passing each one between two synchronized rollers.","Stationary blades trim the top of the neck, making the surface smooth and safe to handle.","The neck on most models remains sealed until the consumer pierces it.","Another company eventually seals the tube by rolling up the other end after they've inserted their product.","After heating them to soften the metal, the tubes move through another machine.","Here nozzles spray the inside with two coats of epoxy lacquer.","This creates a protective barrier between the aluminum and the eventual contents.","Rollers apply a coat of polyester enamel paint, which is flexible when dry and resistant to most solvents and sun damage.","Grippers place the tubes on long pins, which move them through an oven for seven minutes so the paint can dry.","From there, it's off to the printing machine.","Each tube makes one complete rotation against a printing plate.","The plate applies a colored image and information that describes the tube's contents.","Then they go back in the oven to dry the ink.","The printing's legible even when twisted because the polyester ink remains flexible.","Another machine applies 2.2 pounds of torque to screw on the plastic caps.","Most of the caps have pointy tops, used to pierce the sealed neck of the tube.","They use flat caps to close off tubes with open necks.","On the next machine, nozzles spray on a strip of latex sealant inside the open end of the tube.","The latex is like a gasket.","After the product is inserted, it seals the tube when they fold the end over.","After a machine packs boxes with an average of 300 tubes each, a worker inspects the inside of every tube.","A bright spotlight reveals any chip in the paint that makes the packaging deficient.","About one in every 500 tubes is flawed.","A sheet of sticky paper over the open ends of the tubes keeps them from twisting during shipping, and a label on the box provides tracking information and a way to show if someone has tampered with it en route.","Empty, each tube sells for about 12 cents each, a great bargain for such a useful item.","Even though it was invented thousands of years ago, the handsaw is still used today.","You'll find it at every building site, always at the ready.","Power tools are higher-tech, but the handsaw has a basic appeal.","It doesn't need an extension cord and almost never breaks down.","It's a time-tested building tool.","Handsaws come in many sizes.","To make them, a machine uncoils steel and draws it into a mechanized punch.","The punch works at a blurring speed to cut teeth in the steel--  140 notches per minute.","Here it is in slow motion.","It makes two cuts for each sawtooth.","A reel takes up the newly serrated steel and then will feed it back to cut teeth on the other side.","Next, a fingerlike device unrolls the steel and pushes it to automated jaws.","The jaws bend the teeth, alternating the direction of each one.","Here's a slow-motion look.","This is called setting the teeth, and it will allow the handsaw to operate smoothly.","Now a die punch cuts the steel coil into pieces called double blanks-- double because two saw blades will be made from them.","The die also makes holes in one end of the double blank for attaching handles.","They feed the double blanks to a sheer machine.","A long blade descends and cuts it in half on the diagonal, making two saw blades.","Finally, they press the saw blades up against a sand belt to smooth out the edges.","This is called deburring.","Here they're making a higher-end saw blade.","They flush a piece of steel with coolant as a machine plunge-grinds it to make teeth.","This method is more time-consuming but results in a superior tool.","Again, they set the teeth, but this time, mechanical jaws do the job a blade at a time, rather than working on one long coil of steel.","The sawteeth will need to be strengthened in order to perform, so rollers move the blades to an electrical coil.","Within milliseconds, the temperature of the blade shoots up to 1,600 degrees fahrenheit.","This tempers the steel.","The blades drop off the conveyer into a bin.","Here's a look at a blade before heat-treating.","And this is after.","The black burn line is a sign this saw can take the pressure.","A conveyer wheel dunks them in a pool of clear protectant.","This will keep them looking shiny.","When they're dry, the blades undergo a trademark technique.","They place one on a table.","It rises and a squeegee silk-screens the company name onto it.","At this point, the ink is still wet.","They spend 30 seconds in an infrared oven-- enough time to bake on the brand name.","They slide cardboard sleeves over the blades, and now it's time to attach the handle.","A worker fits two plastic parts together and places them on a carousel.","An ultrasonic sealer moves in.","It emits a high-frequency sound, and the vibrations melt the two plastic pieces together, forming a handle.","A worker fits the handle onto a blade, and a machine rivets it in place.","Some saws have wooden handles.","Because riveting could split the wood, they bolt it on with screws and rivnuts.","And now you have the finished product."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Aluminum Screw Caps","Chocolate","Pills","Pasta"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Aluminum screw caps-- we'll pop the top off this manufacturing secret.","Chocolate-- there's nothing like the taste of sweet success.","Pills-- watch as directed.","And pasta-- we'll visit a factory that churns out oodles of noodles.","Twisting off an aluminum screw cap may lack the style and sophistication of uncorking a fine bottle of wine.","But as devices go, these caps are one of the easiest ways to put an airtight seal on a bottle or jar, and the added bonus is that they're entirely recyclable.","There are hundreds of everyday objects that are capped.","This plant makes 250 million metal screw caps yearly in 12 different sizes.","The caps are made from these 11-square-foot sheets of aluminum weighing one pound.","Some 3,500 thin aluminum sheets pass through this feeder.","They begin by coloring the aluminum sheet with a colored varnish--  a lacquer and an ink.","Then 12 minutes of drying is needed.","The colored sheets set off on a conveyor for drying.","Then designs are produced.","The coloring is applied by this varnisher.","The aluminum sheets pass through the varnisher one at a time.","Here we see the sheet printed.","Above are the colors used.","They are highly colored inks that adhere well to metal.","Suction cups grab the sheets and send them toward the transport system of the punch press.","This press will give the caps the required shape.","But the caps have to be machined in successive steps by molds, such as this one.","The punches first cut the caps.","Over 500 caps a minute can be produced.","The blades of the punches are made of carbide, a very hard metal that can cut tens of millions of caps.","At the exit point of the punch press, the caps are formed, but don't yet have the right dimension.","This stretching press performs the last two cold-forming steps so that the tube will have the required length.","Now for the second stretching.","This achieves the desired diameter.","When the cap exits the press, it will finally have the desired dimensions.","At this point, the cap now has the required shape.","The caps now have to be decorated to the client's requirements.","The lateral imprint is made with this silk-screen-type decorator which colors some 100 caps in 60 seconds.","The decorator uses an ink specially formulated to adhere to metal.","The caps will then dry in a warm-air oven.","The dried caps are ejected and fall into a container.","This other flexographic type of decorator prints 155 caps a minute.","We can clearly see the ink roller, which imprints the side of the caps as they rotate against it in a steady stream.","All that's required now is to form the cap and make the cut.","The profiling and jointing machine makes the cuts and reliefs on 200 caps per minute.","Machining the cap takes but a fraction of a second.","They sometimes have to assure the watertightness of a container such as a wine bottle.","For this, a polypropylene liner is inserted, which hermetically seals the container.","A check is carried out under a light to verify whether the cut has been properly made and the ridges well-formed.","At last, the final steps-- this screw-tightening machine hermetically seals the caps onto the bottles.","The 250 million screw caps made here each year call for the machining of 1,000 tons of aluminum.","Working in a chocolate factory-- talk about a childhood fantasy.","Well, \"how it's made\" is about to take a bite out of one of the all-time great dream jobs.","Just beware of the occupational hazards-- stomachache, weight gain, and cavities.","These delicious chocolate confections are made from melted chocolate flowing into molds.","The master molds are first made of wood or plaster of paris.","They are then reproduced as copies in an epoxy material.","To allow them to become flexible and give them the desired shape, the sheets of epoxy are first heated to 350 degrees.","The epoxy sheet is then placed onto the original molds.","The sheet is heated, then lifted off.","Suction from a vacuum system makes it adhere perfectly to the shapes of the molds.","Here we see the epoxy adhering to the master molds.","Still hot and malleable, the plastic has to be cooled.","A jet of compressed air effectively lowers its temperature.","The mold undergoes a visual inspection to make certain of its quality.","And now we move on to the chocolate.","This melting unit, whose shell is fed by boiling water, is like a double boiler and melts 1 1/2 tons of chocolate in 12 hours at about 100 degrees.","The ready-to-be-filled plastic molds are placed onto a conveyor.","Filling is done automatically.","Liquid chocolate runs directly into the molds.","This particular machine produces 400 hearts a minute.","The hearts are filled with a concoction of chocolate, cream, and coffee that has been brewed for several minutes.","It takes 20 minutes for the chocolate to set as the molds move along on this 9-level conveyor.","Well-hardened, the hearts arrive at the unmolding point.","The molds are turned over, and a rod lightly taps them on the bottom to allow the chocolates to fall out without being broken.","The chocolates fall out onto a sheet.","As soon as they've been emptied, the molds return to the starting point on the line to be newly filled.","During their transport on the line, the chocolates complete their cooling and hardening.","Now they're going to be prepared for packaging.","Packaging depends on customers' preferences.","The chocolates can be sold in bulk or placed in boxes.","Here, 185 hearts are put into each box.","Like the pure chocolate, white chocolate comes in as slabs before melting.","Milk chocolate is often delivered in the form of one-inch pastilles.","Some chocolates are hollow.","They have to be molded in two halves.","These chocolate bears need special decorations applied by hand before the pouring of liquid chocolate.","This decoration is made of white chocolate with an added colorant.","In just one hour, they will make 1,200 bears.","They're made by joining two hollow chocolate halves.","The assembly is done using a refrigerated rotating machine.","This machine turns the molds a full 360 degrees on two axes and vibrates the chocolates to prevent the formation of air bubbles.","The chocolates rotate for five minutes before being sent to the cooling conveyor, where they will remain for another 20-minute period.","And now they're ready.","At this point, the bears are unmolded, and they head off for packaging.","Each year, this company processes 550 tons of pure chocolate.","Many thousands of products are made here using 400 different molds in a variety of sizes.","Now, here's a topic that's easy to swallow-- how drug companies make the pills we take.","It's a carefully-monitored process in which quality control is paramount.","So stand by-- we're going to give you a taste of your own medicine, or at least what goes into making it.","Medications are essential in the treatment of illnesses.","It begins by a grinding process where the active ingredient in a tablet or pill is ground and mixed with a binding agent.","The quantity of the ingredient needed to be ground is transported to the dryer in this container.","Like all the other equipment, this container is made of stainless steel so as not to contaminate the product.","The temperature of the dryer and the airflow are programmed with this interface.","The granulation has to be dried at around 100 or 120 degrees before being shaped into the desired tablet form.","Molding of the pills is done by this press, which crushes the powder.","The press exerts a pressure varying between two and five tons.","Here's how the molding is done-- the press magazine distributes the powder in molds made of steel disks.","Two stampers, one above and the other below, crush the powder and form the pill.","Here the press operates at full capacity.","It can produce 5,000 pills per minute.","Quality testing is carried out on 5 pills every 15 minutes.","Their hardness is verified with this apparatus in which jaws crush it with a force varying between .","3 and 3 psi, or pounds per square inch.","The pills must now be coated so that they won't crumble.","A coating solution made of water and coloring pigments is used.","This is the coating unit.","It can hold 350 pounds of pills.","Three plastic tubes, strategically positioned, will spray the solution onto the pills in motion.","The quantity of dry pills to be coated is put into the unit.","Then the door of the coating unit is carefully closed.","A drum turns inside the unit, tumbling the pills.","Then nozzles spray the solution in the form of a mist that quickly dries, preventing the pills from sticking to one another.","This spraying operation lasts 40 minutes.","Here we can compare pills.","On the left are those made only of powder, while on the right are the spray-coated ones.","The finished pills move down a chute to enter a counter prior to filling bottles.","They are lined up in grooves to make filling easier.","The quantity of pills to be placed into bottles is controlled by this automated unit connected to the counter.","In this instance, 500 pills are poured into each bottle.","This plant also makes capsules where the ingredient is not crushed, but encapsulated in a gelatin casing.","The distributor places the two halves of the capsules in the proper position for filling, with the wider half situated above.","The top and the bottom portions of the capsule are separated.","The lower half is then filled with powder.","When well-filled, the two halves of the capsule are joined together.","The completed capsules are then ejected from the filling unit.","Then, via centrifugal force, they are positioned for the packaging process.","The weight of each capsule is verified by this counter.","Each capsule must have the precise weight.","The final step is packaging.","A sheet of transparent pvc is heat-embossed, forming an impression to receive capsules.","Then a preglued aluminum foil sheet is adhered to the back side, sealing everything in.","This plant turns out millions of pills and capsules every year.","Ever since marco polo brought the noodle back from china some 700 years ago, pasta has earned its place on tables around the world.","Pasta comes in an array of shapes and sizes, like the diehard pasta lovers who just can't seem to get enough.","Pasta is actually chinese in origin.","When marco polo returned to venice in 1295 after spending 24 years in the far east, he brought back with him chinese pasta noodles.","Pasta became popular so quickly that by the 15th century, it occupied a prime position in italian cooking.","In this same era, commercial production began in naples.","Italians today favor macaronis and raviolis with garlic and cheese.","Pastas are generally made from semolina and water.","These silos contain more than 33 tons of semolina, derived from durum wheat.","The semolina heads toward the high-speed premixer, where it will be vigorously mixed with water for 5 to 10 seconds.","This machine can treat between one and two tons of semolina per hour.","The dough is extracted from the premixer and falls into a first-blade mixer open to the air.","Then the dough goes into this vacuum-blade mixer.","The mix is now ready to go through the brass molds.","Here's a spaghetti mold and a mold for mafalda-- very narrow lasagna.","Here are molds used to make lined shells...","And stars for soups...","As well as cresto di gallo.","The dough is injected into the mold under pressure.","This rotating blade machine cuts some 12,000 rotinis per minute.","That's 720,000 per hour.","With the dough being still quite fresh, the rotinis are soft.","They will dry somewhat on this plate.","Now we move to the lasagnas.","The dough goes through this brass mold, and the strips of fresh dough, 42 inches long, are placed on these sticks to dry at 150 degrees.","They dry vertically so as to retain their nice, flat shape.","After drying for 15 hours, the strips are then cut in four-- thus making four strips measuring about 10 inches each.","To minimize losses and make cutting the dry lasagna easier, scissors trim the dough pieces into equal lengths on the sticks.","The long lasagna-drying process begins.","Once dry, the lengths of lasagnas are finally cut.","They're now ready for packaging.","To make some of the other pastas, the mix has to be worked a bit more in order for it to have the required shape.","The dough goes through this roller, which gives it the desired thickness.","And now butterflies are formed.","This mold cuts 7,500 of them a minute for a total of 450,000 an hour.","The sheet of dough is two feet wide.","It is produced in a steady stream and goes right to the cutting mold.","The butterflies fall onto this conveyor to dry somewhat.","Then they head toward the next production step.","Certain short pastas, such as these butterflies and fusillis, have to be dried, so they're then put into this full dryer.","Coming out of the dryer, the pastas are hard and ready for packaging.","Here we see the ever-popular spaghettis being made.","As with lasagnas, spaghettis are also dried vertically.","Now this automated machine places the spaghettis onto a cutting table and breaks them to the proper length.","The spaghettis are now ready for packaging.","Exact quantities to be bagged are determined by computer.","Then the spaghettis go gently down the chute.","The amount of spaghetti going into each bag is transported and emptied out by this moving container.","To make filling easier, the spaghettis are properly positioned by this chute.","In just one minute, this machine can package 10 8.8-pound bags.","Whenever needed, it can handle up to 60 bags a minute.","Pastas are a favorite meal the world over.","This plant makes over 100 different products and every day uses between 60 and 360 tons, or between 2 and 12 truckloads of semolina made from hard wheat."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Old West Holsters","Underwater Video Housings","Soy Beverages","Pet Nail Trimmers"]},"text":["In the days of the american wild west, you didn't leave home without a gun.","Both the sheriffs and outlaws carried guns and ammunition.","It was important to have your gun easily accessible.","Wearing a holster around the waist putts a gun in the perfect position for a quick draw.","These handcrafted leather belts and holsters are modeled after those made in the late 1800s.","They're made for movies, cowboy shooting competitions, and historical reenactments.","A craftsman starts by using a press and a series of dies to cut out out the holster and belt components.","This is vegetable-tanned leather, the only type of leather that's flexible enough to carve or stamp.","He lays a paper template over one end of the holster piece and marks tiny dots with an awl.","He connects the dots with a straight line using a small knife.","He punches a hole at each dot.","The lines and holes form two wide loops.","Next, he carves a groove for stitches along what will be the main seam of the holster body.","He sprays water onto the leather to soften it.","He makes decorative lines with a compass.","Then, he imprints a design into the leather by striking a stamp with a mallet.","Because the leather is moist, it compresses easily, assuming the shape of the stamp.","These stamps are modern-day copies of the ones used in the late 19th century.","A rosette is a common motif of that era.","He uses one tool for the outline, one for the petals, and another for the center of the flower.","Then, he adds details with a small chisel-edged knife and stamps on his maker's mark.","He shaves any sharp corners and smoothly finishes the edge.","The holster piece is now cut, embellished, and finished.","The next step is to sew it.","He marks the stitch holes across the bottom where he will later sew the toe plug.","Then, he pierces the holes with an awl.","He soaks some sheep's wool in neatsfoot oil and rubs it in.","This nourishes and conditions the leather, preserving the impressions and enhancing the color.","Once the oil is soaked in, he applies a smoothing solution onto the edges and rubs them with a piece of canvas.","Now the sewing can begin.","He folds one end of the holster piece to form a pouch.","Then, he sews inside the groove he cut for the main seam.","Stitches sunken in a groove are far stronger than surface stitches.","When he completes the seam, he burns the end of the polyester thread with a lighter.","Then, he sews on the toe plug and inserts the pouch into the double loops at the other end of the piece.","Next, he works on the belt.","After piercing stitch holes in the main belt strip, he sews on a thinner, flexible strip, bending it into loops to hold ammo.","He glues on a leather lining to make the belt more durable.","Then, he sews on the billets.","They're the pieces that go on each end of the main belt strip.","One billet has the buckle, and the other has the adjustment holes.","After applying some decorative nickle studs known as spots, he threads the belt through the holster...","And inserts the ammo.","This double-loop holster is a copy of an 1880s holster designed to hold a single-action army pistol.","The craftsman can make several different authentic styles from this era, customizing the holster to carry a weapon of any size or shape.","From ocean wildlife to shipwrecks, the undersea world is breathtaking.","Many recreational scuba divers want to capture what they see on video.","They can do this with an ordinary video camera, encased in a specially designed watertight housing unit.","This underwater housing has remote camera controls and a built-in monitor that shows you what the video camera sees.","At the factory, a computer-guided mill uses a variety of bits to shape a tube of extruded aluminum.","The machine prepares the ends to receive front and back pieces.","It forms a groove for a rubber o-ring to keep water out and makes attachment points on each side of the housing for handles.","Then, the mill cuts the front and back pieces out of two blocks of aluminum.","The machining process leaves tool marks, so they polish the housing parts by putting them in a tumbler full of ceramic stones.","After about an hour of rubbing against the stones, the aluminum is smooth and ready to be anodized.","This process etches, dyes, and seals the metal surface, protecting it from the corrosive effects of salt water.","Next, a computer-guided laser etches in the manufacturer's logo.","Laser etching is far more durable than printing because it bleaches the black anodized surface white so the lettering can't rub off over time.","Several parts of the housing are made of plastic.","Workers pour plastic pellets into an injection-molding machine.","The machine melts the pellets, then shoots the liquefied plastic into a mold.","After about 15 seconds, the machine opens the mold and ejects a newly formed part.","This part is a latch that allows you to open the housing to insert a video camera.","The handles are made of rubber-covered aluminum.","Each of its camera-control buttons has an o-ring around it to keep out water.","The controls are powered by two lithium batteries that sit inside a separate sealed compartment.","When you press a control button, the post underneath it makes contact with electronics inside.","This produces an infrared signal that communicates with the camera through tiny glass windows.","The back of the housing has a built-in lcd monitor, which displays what the camera sees.","Both the monitor and camera plug into the same circuit board.","The handles fasten to the housing with a threaded ring.","There are also holes on top of the housing for attaching a carrying handle.","Before attaching the front and back of the housing, they apply rubber o-rings to keep water out.","Then, they install the flip filter.","It attaches magnetically to a pivot on the inside of the housing and is operated by an arm on the outside.","This filter is essential because water absorbs certain light wave lengths, eliminating the appearance of red, orange, yellow, and green, depending on how deep you go.","To restore these colors in the video, the diver flips the filter over the camera lens.","The factory tests every housing to make sure it's completely watertight.","The tester inserts a video camera and submerges the housing in a water-filled tank.","He pressurizes the tank to simulate the underwater pressure the housing will experience at a depth of about 300 feet.","The housing passes the test only if all the seals hold up and no water leaks inside, ruining the camera.","In addition to a flip filter, divers sometimes use lights to counter the muting effect that underwater depth has on colors.","The housing has attachment points on the handles for mounting lights, enabling the video camera to capture the true vivid colors of the undersea world.","Soy beverages originated in china centuries ago, long before lactose intolerance and dairy allergies.","Recently, this dairy-free drink has become a popular alternative to milk, allowing people to order a latte, but hold the lactose.","It's not milk, but it's a good substitute.","A soy beverage is made from liquefied soy beans.","It has the look and consistency of animal milk, but is an entirely different product.","It starts with a specific kind of soybean, one that has just the right amount of protein and carbohydrates.","They harvest these soybeans when the plants are dry.","Less moisture means the beans will be less prone to spoiling.","They dehull the soybeans and crack them into small bits.","A lift carries the heavy bag of bean bits to a scale to weigh them for processing.","The operator cuts open the bottom of the bag, releasing the cracked soybeans into a hopper.","Here, augers move the cracked beans up to two large grinders.","The system pipes in hot water, and the grinders whip the beans and water into a creamy soy-beverage concentrate.","The beverage travels through steam-heated pipes.","This kills off any bacteria that may have come from the field.","Then, it's into a vacuum chamber for a cooldown.","Most of the manufacturing equipment is sealed from the air to prevent contamination.","The soy-beverage concentrate leaves the vacuum chamber and enters a centrifuge.","It spins out much of the chunky insoluble fiber, leaving smoother, thinner liquid.","The soybean fiber won't be wasted.","It will be used in food products and animal feed.","The soy liquid flows into a big blender.","They pipe in filtered water, add refined sugar, vanilla extract, as well as various vitamins and minerals.","He closes the lid while the blender mixes the ingredients into a frothy soy beverage.","The soy beverage exits the blender and flows into a huge storage tank, where an agitator keeps the various ingredients well-mixed.","The tank is refrigerated to preserve the beverage while it's held for testing.","The operator takes a sample to test the consistency and nutritional value of the beverage.","With his approval, the beverage is released from the tanks.","It flows through pipes injected with very hot steam.","This kills off any microorganisms that may remain.","After a quick cooling, the soy beverage goes into a homogenizer.","It pushes the beverage through small holes to break down the fat, reducing the size of the particles.","The soy beverage accumulates in a sterile tank until it's ready to be packaged.","The soy beverages are packaged without any exposure to contaminants in the environment.","The packaging material is made of a polyethylene laminate.","Machinery takes the laminate up to a steel ring that forms it into a tubular shape.","Hot jaws seal the sides and bottom, then inject the soy beverage and seal the top.","The cartons land on the conveyor on their side.","They're liquid-tight so nothing spills.","Then, a conveyor transfers them to a revolving wheel that turns them right-side-up.","Now that they are oriented correctly, they ride a windy conveyor to a capping station.","Plastic caps land on spouts that have been molded to the packages.","A system of rubber belts screw the caps onto the spouts.","This packaging can preserve a soy beverage for up to a year.","It probably won't be on the shelf for that long because someone is always looking for a dietary alternative.","Dogs and cats have round nails, while humans have flat ones.","Special trimming tools have been developed to give them the perfect pedicure.","Guillotine-style clippers have a hole for the pet's nail and a sliding blade that cuts it so the pet will be back on its feet in no time.","Long nails can damage a dog's foot pads, so they must be trimmed from time to time.","Pets usually don't like having their nails done, but a guillotine-style trimmer can make the experience less of an ordeal.","Its sliding blade trims their nails quickly so it's over before they know it.","Production of guillotine-style pet-nail trimmers starts with a feeder system.","The feeder system uncoils a strip of steel into a punch press.","The press cuts out two handle blanks at once.","It also makes holes for screws and rivets, as well as a hook for a spring.","A second press rounds the handle to make it easier to grip.","Here is a large handle before and after the shaping.","The handle now goes into a third press.","This one folds the tabs down to create a pocket for the blades.","Here is a handle before and after this forming.","Next, a narrow strip of steel unwinds into a press.","The press cuts and shapes it into the main sliding blade.","The half-moon-shaped end will be the cutting edge.","A worker slides the blades onto a rack with the half-moon edge facing downward.","This makes it easier to load the blades into a grinding fixture.","She places two in each slot with the half-moon facing up.","A carriage moves the fixture back and forth under a grinding stone.","It grinds the entire row of blades at once.","This improves the strength and sharpness of the cutting edge.","She inspects every blade to confirm that each one has been ground to the correct profile.","On the left is a blade before grinding and on the right is one after.","She dips the blades in a cleaning solution and rinses them.","This cleaning removes lubricating-oil residue and metal filings.","She transfers the blades to a perforated tray.","She spreads them evenly, switches on an overhead fan, and leaves them to dry for several minutes.","Heat treatment hardens the blades, and polishing finishes them.","Next up is the retainer blade.","It's the one with the hole for the nail.","She arranges the circular blades on a magnetized tray.","The blades cling to the tray as a carriage moves them back and forth under a grinder.","The grinding sharpens the front of the blades and removes scale left by a heat treatment.","This is the retainer blade before and after grinding.","The pet-nail-trimmer parts are ready for assembly.","The employee rivets a metal link for the sliding blade to the smaller handle.","Once the parts have been chrome-plated, another worker hinges the large handle to the smaller one.","He hooks one end of a spring to the metal link.","He inserts the sliding blade into the track in the large handle, lifting the link to hook it into the blade.","He adds the circular retainer blade.","He places a metal plate over the track and screws it in place.","This secures the top blade, while allowing the link to move the sliding blade.","He hooks the other end of the spring to the larger handle and bends the circular blade slightly to give it the correct profile.","Now a worker tests the trimmer on dried buffalo hide.","Dried buffalo hide is tougher than pet nails.","With his okay, this cutting tool is ready for the paws and claws for our furry friends.","The main blade can be replaced if it becomes dull, which means this pet-nail trimmer can be used for many years to come."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Matches","Carousel Horses","Fine Porcelain","Automobile Fuel Tanks"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"-- matches.","Carousel horses.","Fine porcelain.","And automobile fuel tanks.","Lighting a controlled fire was not always easy.","Only 200 years ago, you'd rub a rock on steel to create sparks.","Then a stunning discovery-- that combining certain chemicals can ignite fire.","It wasn't long before matches were invented, putting these chemicals on handy little sticks.","Well, nothing quite matches that.","The first matches left behind a nauseating odor.","But today, they're safer, and the smell dissipates in seconds.","To make matchsticks, this company starts with recycled paperboard, which is inexpensive and thick enough to support the weight of chemicals on one end.","A stamping press partially cuts the paper, creating stems.","As we see in this view from inside the machine, a die first cuts the stems.","And then a blade slices through the sheet widthwise, making strips of 120 stems each.","At actual speed, it's all just a blur, as the press makes nearly 500 strips per minute.","Next, the strips move through a bath of hot wax.","It soaks into the stems about 1/3 of the way up.","Then they dry in an oven for 15 seconds.","When you light a match, the wax slows down the burn speed of the chemicals, sustaining the flame for four or five seconds.","Those chemicals are gelatin and silicone-- to bind the chemicals to the stick...","Potassium chlorate-- an animal protein glue for oxidation...","Sulfur to fuel the flame, and two fillers.","They mix 700 pounds of the chemicals in a large vat with hot water.","This is enough to make the chemical batter for 25 million match heads.","A conveyor runs the matchsticks through the batter to coat their tips.","Three rollers in the tank raise the surface of the batter.","The first two ensure the front and back of the heads get covered.","The third rotates faster to remove excess batter as the heads leave the tank.","From there, the matchsticks travel about a quarter mile while fans air-dry them.","The factory temperature is a comfortable 72 degrees fahrenheit, just what's required for the chemicals to dry and harden.","These minerals are silica and red phosphorus.","Add a little glue, and you've got what's called friction-- the material in the strip you rub the match against to make the head ignite.","To make these striker strips, as they're called, a steel wheel rolls friction onto paper that's moving through a cutting press.","This isn't the same paper from which they make the matchsticks.","It's a higher-quality non-recycled paper, suitable for color graphics, because many clients order custom-printed matchbook covers.","Another press with rotary blades slices through the paper, creating segments that are 4.2 inches long.","That's the length of an unfolded matchbook.","Now back to the matchsticks.","A worker arranges the strips into layers of two.","The conveyor then feeds them into a machine that will attach them to the matchbook covers.","The machine performs several tasks.","It cuts the matchstick strips into rows of 10 matches each.","And it cuts the matchbook covers to their final width of 1.5 inches.","The machine folds the matchbook covers over two rows, or 20 matches, then inserts one strong staple through all four layers.","Next, a conveyor moves the assembled matchbooks to another machine that counts them and creates two side-by-side rows of 25 ready for boxing.","This company also makes its boxes out of recycled paperboard.","Each one holds 50 matchbooks and sells for about a buck.","That's a dollar for 1,000 matches, or just a penny for 10 matches.","Centuries ago, soldiers tested their cavalry skills astride the rim of a large horizontal wheel.","Eventually, europe's wealthy elite saw this as entertainment and turned the practice into a fabulous pageant.","Nowadays, you can ride a whole menagerie of animals.","But the star of the carousel is still the horse.","Their life revolves around a fairground, but they're born here on paper.","A craftsman draws a pattern of the horse's silhouette, then fills it in with the saddle, straps, and a harness.","Some models may include a shield, a coat of arms, or even flowers.","Another craftsman then glues together blocks of linden-- wood that's lightweight and easy to carve.","He stacks four of them to create what's called an end block.","It'll form part of the horse's body, what's known as the core.","He clamps the blocks together to compress them and lets the glue set for 45 minutes.","The finished core includes two end blocks sandwiched by top, bottom, and side panels, plus one wooden piece they'll carve into a saddle.","The middle of the core is hollow.","On a carousel with 50 horses, this trims the overall weight by up to three tons.","After covering the core with carbon paper, the craftsman lays the pattern on top.","He traces the pattern with a leadless pencil called a stylus.","The carbon paper underneath transfers the drawing onto the wood.","He'll follow these lines to cut out the basic shape of the horse.","Later, they'll carve most of the finer details by hand.","Using a band saw, he slices the core carefully along the lines.","Next, he drills a hole for the pole that attaches the horse to the carousel.","Here, a craftsman uses what's called a carving duplicator to create the head.","Following a template, the machine sculpts a block of wood into the horse's head, a painstaking process that takes 90 minutes.","The duplicator can carve up to four heads at once.","It also adjusts to carve some finer details into the larger pieces, such as the core.","They use something called a parting tool to shape the decorative tassels on the bridle.","This one has a fanciful design, what an arabian horse would typically wear.","The craftsman has a huge arsenal of tools at his disposal to create all kinds of special features, such as a flowing, windblown mane.","The tools are sharp, and they're precise enough to sculpt even tiny, intricate parts such as eye sockets, nostrils, and teeth.","After applying polyester adhesive putty in the eye sockets, he adds two glass eyes.","Unlike real horses' pupils, which are oval in shape, these have round pupils for a friendlier look.","A carousel horse is roughly half the height of a real horse, but the size of its feet is true to life, so workers nail on authentic iron horseshoes.","These prevent the wood from chipping under the feet of riders who get rowdy in the saddle.","Wooden pegs temporarily connect the head and tail to the body.","Once workers verify the alignment, they'll glue the sections together.","After sanding down the entire surface, the paint job begins.","First, three coats of white primer.","This highlights any imperfections the sanding missed.","Once that's done, the artwork begins.","This horse will wear a bright, multicolored harness.","Its coat will be in different shades of the same color for a realistic look.","It takes up to five coats of paint to get it just right.","Up to seven coats of varnish will keep the horse looking beautiful for decades.","After a lengthy production process that takes about two months, these striking creatures are ready for the fairground.","Porcelain is often called china after the country that invented it more than 1,200 years ago.","It looks delicate but is actually the hardest type of ceramic material.","It's even used in electrical insulators because it withstands very high heat.","But most people think of porcelain as decorative.","This company makes 40 different porcelain items.","It all starts with a sketch of the piece-- in this case, a teapot.","After that, a master mold of the piece-- a negative made of plaster.","Craftsmen use it to make a production mold.","Porcelain begins as powder, a blend of three minerals-- quartz, kaolin, and feldspar.","The workshop mixes this powder with water to make a wet paste called slip.","A craftswoman fills the mold with slip.","Within 10 minutes or so, the porous plaster absorbs the water, leaving a crust of hardened slip.","After pouring the rest out, she waits another 30 minutes for the crust to continue hardening.","Then she peels away the mold and gets a first look at her teapot.","Here, she removes excess crust from a different mold for the spout.","She waits about 10 minutes, until the spout is hard enough to handle but still soft enough to sculpt.","With a utility knife, she carves open the end of the spout.","With a little water and a sponge, she smoothes out the edges and curves the rim.","Next, she extracts the handle from a third mold.","Then she pierces 12 holes in the spout side of the teapot to filter out the tea leaves when you pour.","She brushes on some slip to attach the spout and the handle.","This model has a wedge along the collar to help align the handle correctly.","Other designs have small notches instead.","She brushes on more slip to ensure the parts will bond, then sponges the surrounding surface to smooth out the drips.","After the piece dries for two more days, she carves away the lines along the handle and under the spout and sands down the rim.","They make some pieces using a pressure-casting system-- the mold's made of resin and tiny polyester beads that create pores, which absorb the water in the slip.","After a hydraulic press closes the mold, the machine injects slip into the cavity.","12 minutes later, a craftsman uses a suction plate to remove what will become a serving platter.","He places the piece on a plaster block.","The porous plaster lets the underside dry without leaving marks.","They fire the items in a giant kiln.","The kiln heats up gradually, taking eight hours to reach a searing 1,800 degrees fahrenheit, then 12 more hours to cool down.","Firing hardens the porcelain and enables it to better absorb a coat of enamel.","After brushing off any dust, the craftsman dunks each piece in enamel-- a protective coating.","The porcelain absorbs it right away, and this glaze turns into a shiny skin once the pieces are fired again.","She handles each piece in a particular way to avoid leaving drip marks.","In the second firing, they make the porcelain pure white by carefully controlling the air in the kiln.","Reducing the oxygen level removes any undesirable colors.","This time, the temperature is higher-- 2,500 degrees fahrenheit.","It shrinks the pieces by about 15%.","After a quality check, a craftsman applies the company logo with a transfer decal.","The logo melts in when the plate goes back in the kiln for another 12 hours at 1,500 degrees fahrenheit.","In the end, the porcelain is translucent enough for light to shine right through.","Other pieces offer more illustrated displays for an elegant dining experience.","Considering how much it costs to fill them, it's no wonder today's gas tanks are made to be tough.","Factories design a gas tank to safely fit a wide range of vehicles.","Worldwide, the industry makes 60 million tanks a year for new cars and trucks and millions more to replace old or damaged tanks in existing cars.","Making a gas tank begins with a simple sheet of steel.","It's nickel-plated to make the tank rust-resistant.","A worker places the steel in a hydraulic press that applies 800 tons of pressure.","This compresses the sheet between two dies that shape the bottom half of the tank.","The press forces the male die up against the sheet and into the cavity of the female die.","To make the top half of the tank or different-size tanks, they simply change dies.","On the tank's top section, a stamping press imprints information such as the product and lot numbers, and the manufacturer's name.","A hydraulic punch then pierces two holes-- one for a tube to fill the tank and another to vent it.","This machine makes an opening for a component called the fuel-delivery module, or fdm.","It will send fuel to the motor.","A conveyor moves as many as 180 top sections per hour to the next production phase.","There, a worker uses a steel and nylon jig to install a steel ring that will position the fdm.","He spot-welds the ring in six spots, fusing it to the top section.","Two notches on the ring will align the fdm properly.","Workers tack the top and bottom sections together, aligning them properly for comprehensive welding that follows.","Two metal wheels compress the sections together, and water cools the area as a machine called a seam-welder fuses the upper and lower halves of the tank.","Using a gas torch, a worker fuses steel tube to the tank with lead solder.","This is the filler tube into which you insert the gas nozzle when you fill up at the pump.","Fuel flows in and air vents out through the tube simultaneously.","A sensor automatically shuts off the gas pump when the air pressure inside the tube reaches a certain point.","Most tanks fill only to about 80% capacity to leave room for vapors caused by hot weather.","Robots weld the tanks destined for brand-new vehicles, because the work has to be precise and consistent in order to aid the assembly-line robots at the auto plant.","The human-welded models are sold to auto-repair shops as replacements for damaged tanks.","They don't require the same precision because a mechanic does a custom installation.","When the robots finish welding the tanks, they transfer them to a conveyor belt that moves them to the next production phase.","There, a worker attaches a tin-plated venting tube.","Tin makes it rust-resistant.","He adds a steel component called a baffle to the bottom section of the tank.","This reduces the sloshing of fuel inside the tank.","The result-- less noise for the driver and less metal fatigue for the tank.","They're usually just for tanks found in larger vehicles, like suvs and small trucks.","A worker now places the top section onto the bottom section, pulling the hose through the opening in the top.","This hose will connect to the fdm.","After a welding machine fuses both halves together, another machine bends the sides downward.","This gives designers extra space to work with.","They test every tank for leaks by dunking it underwater.","After blocking all the holes in the tank, they pump a little extra air inside it.","They shine bright spotlights and look for bubbles in the water.","If air can escape, so can gasoline.","No bubbles, and the gas tank passes inspection.","Only then is it ready for shipping and a starring role in your car."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Cast Iron Stoves","Ultralight Aircraft","Snow Groomers","Rubber Bands"]},"text":["Cast-iron stoves have been adding warmth to people's lives for more than three centuries.","Today there are new reasons to cozy up to this invention.","It's had a major update.","Modern stoves burn wood more cleanly and efficiently, providing heat without the dirty fallout from the chimney.","Modern cast-iron stoves hardly resemble their smoke-belching, soot-spewing predecessors.","The design creates a hotter fire, so it requires less fuel and releases little smoke.","It all starts with a pile of iron scrap, things like old stoves, sinks, brake drums, and rotors.","A magnetized crane transfers the scrap to a propane-fired preheater.","12 minutes spent in the preheater removes moisture from the iron scrap.","The scrap iron spills into a hopper that funnels it into an electric furnace.","The temperature in the furnace is a blistering 2,700 degrees fahrenheit, and the iron melts into a fiery liquid.","The furnace tilts to pour the molten iron into a ladle for transfer.","Next, they make the molds of the stove parts, using a mix of sand, clay, water, and coal.","They blow the ingredients between the aluminum patterns.","A hydraulic system squeezes the patterns together.","The sand mix compacts and takes the shape of the patterns.","They now have sand molds.","The molten iron arrives and flows into a channel leading to the molds.","As the liquid metal cools, it solidifies into the shape of the mold.","A vibrating conveyor shakes and breaks the sand molds to reveal the cast-iron stove parts.","A worker knocks off unwanted bits, and then it's into a blast cleaner.","Inside the blast cleaner, steel grit bombards the stove parts to remove remnants of the sand molds and expose the metal.","Essentially it blasts the dirt off, and they come out clean.","An employee grinds the edges of the metal stove parts.","He blends in the line created where the two parts of the mold came together during casting.","It takes 40 parts to make one woodburning stove, and each one is cast in a sand mold made from a pattern.","Next, a worker drills threads for the bolts that will hold all the parts of the stove together.","Once the surface of the parts has been prepped, they spray an enamel coating onto them and bake it on.","A laser then cuts out a steel heat shield for the back of the wood stove.","The intricate cuts are computer driven.","An employee bends the heat shield to fit the stove.","Next, a worker packs a kind of mortar into a silicone mold of the firebox.","The table its on vibrates to settle the material and eliminate air pockets so the firebox will be able to withstand high temperatures.","The shape of the firebox is crucial to the stove's energy efficiency, and so are the holes that have been molded into it.","These strategically located holes will introduce fresh air to burn gases that would otherwise go up in smoke, preventing energy loss and pollution at the same time.","The parts have all been fabricated, and they're ready to put the pieces together.","They assemble the stove from the bottom up.","They bolt the parts and seal the joints to make them airtight.","The assembly takes about an hour.","This cast-iron stove is now ready to keep these fires burning for many years to come.","An ultralight aircraft is a lightweight, motorized flying machine that looks like a hang glider.","Hang gliding inspired the invention of ultralights back in the late 1970s.","The idea was to create a slow but affordable method of motorized flight subject to minimal aerospace regulations.","They're called ultralights or microlights.","This made-in-france 2-seater model weighs about 485 pounds.","To be classified as an ultralight by the international air sports federation, takeoff weight can't exceed 990 pounds and minimum speed can't surpass 40 miles per hour.","The wing surface, called the sail, is made of a sturdy polyester-based material treated with a special coating that protects it from the sun's ultraviolet rays.","They unroll different colors of this fabric onto a cutting table marked with patterns for the four separate sail sections.","They staple the fabrics to the table to hold them steady while tracing the patterns.","Once they finish tracing, they cut out the pieces, then connect them with double-sided adhesive tape to position them correctly for sewing.","They reinforce select areas with adhesive-backed polyester mesh fabric.","Then a sewer stitches the pieces together with high-strength, u.v.-resistant thread.","In this first stage of the sewing process, they stitch together 1/4 of the sail at a time.","In the second stage of sewing, they sew together the top and undersurfaces of each side.","Then, in the final stage, they stitch the right and left together.","In another part of the factory, the body of the aircraft begins taking shape.","It's called the trike because it sits on three wheels, like a tricycle.","They build it in sections, welding together several stainless-steel tubes.","After the sections receive a baked-on coat of paint, workers assemble them to each other around the fuel tank.","The 17-gallon tank is made of lightweight polypropylene, a type of plastic that's u.v. resistant and impact resistant.","Once the trike is fully assembled, they mount the three small wheels, similar to those on motorized scooters.","Next, they bolt a 100-horsepower gasoline engine, similar to a full-sized motorcycle engine, to the back of the trike.","On the front of the trike, they install pedals for propelling the craft on the ground...","And a motorcycle-style plastic console with windshield.","The console houses the instrumentation panel.","They mount the radiator in the center of the trike, cover it with foam and fabric, then install a pair of upholstered seats for pilot and passenger.","Then they protect the engine with a plastic housing.","They mount an aluminum- and-carbon-fiber propeller on the shaft of the gearbox connected to the engine.","Now for the wing.","Its main structure is made up of hinged aluminum tubes which fold for transport.","Aluminum is lightweight and rustproof, which is essential for flight.","They slip the sail over the tubing, then unfold the wing.","Thin aluminum tubes provide crosswise structural support.","A system of cables keeps the wing in the open position.","Another system of cables, called the corset, manipulates the billowing of the sail.","This enables the pilot to alter the aerodynamics to increase or reduce speed.","Under the wing, they install the a-frame, the ultralight's steering mechanism.","The pilot manipulates the a-frame with a horizontal bar, changing the trike's body position under the wing.","The last step is to bolt the front of the trike to the wing and hook up the safety backup cables.","The pilot steers the ultralight by weight-shifting with the a-frame bar, tilting the trike toward the front to descend, to the right to veer right, and so on.","Typical cruising speed is around 75 miles per hour.","With an open cockpit, air temperature and oxygen levels limit how high an ultralight aircraft can fly.","Maximum altitude is about 3,300 feet, high enough for a thrill ride yet still low enough for a spectacular view.","After a busy day of skiing and snowboarding, ski slopes get worn down and develop ruts, bumps, ice, and bare spots.","Ski resorts typically refresh the slopes overnight by grooming the snow with specialized track machines.","By morning, the runs are as good as new.","A snow groomer is like a bulldozer on tracks, except instead of pushing dirt, it pushes snow.","It uses grooming implements mounted to the front and back.","To build a snow groomer, workers begin by aligning front and rear frames with the vehicle's main frame with the help of positioning jigs.","Then a welder gets to work.","First, he tacks everything together.","Then, with a mechanical lift, he raises and tilts the tacked frame to gain access from various angles.","After welding on additional parts, including 10 axles, they prime and paint the frame.","Then a mechanic installs a heavy-duty suspension system designed to automatically adapt to the type and shape of terrain, maximizing traction.","Next, he greases the 10 axles and installs a wheel hub and bearings on each one.","He then mounts the wheel, tightening the bolts to a specified torque to ensure optimal performance and durability.","Meanwhile, another mechanic installs the hydraulic hoses.","These control the grooming implements and the sprocket on which each track turns.","Then he connects the hoses to the main hydraulic valve.","At another workstation, a mechanic assembles the diesel engine, the transmission, and four hydraulic pumps.","Two of these pumps drive oil to the hydraulic motors, which propel the vehicle forward and backward.","The two others pump hydraulic fluid to operate the implements and the cooling system.","They lower this assembled unit into the frame and make the required electrical and hydraulic connections.","Meanwhile, another team prepares the next unit, starting with the cooling system, two powerful fans which cool the engine and hydraulic fluid.","Next, they install the exhaust system and two batteries to power the engine.","They mount this assembled unit above the transmission and make all the necessary connections.","They lower the cab onto the frame, connect more electrical and hydraulic lines, and fill all systems with their respective fluids.","The vehicle now undergoes extensive testing in a dynamometer, which operates the engine and hydraulic components at maximum capacity.","If all systems perform according to engineering specifications, the vehicle gets the go-ahead to receive the snow-grooming implements.","The rear implement is a tiller, which breaks up the snow into small particles and shapes narrowly spaced parallel lines on the trail surface.","A powerful, built-in hydraulic motor spins the steel-toothed rotors at speeds of up to 1,350 revolutions per minute.","This ensures even grooming throughout.","The groomer's tracks are made of ultra-durable steel.","A mechanic guides the edge of each track onto a high-strength urethane sprocket bolted to the rear of the frame while another mechanic slowly drives the vehicle forward to pull the track over the wheels.","Then they clamp the two ends together and join them with giant hinges, closing the loop.","It's time to mount the snow-grooming implements.","They attach the tiller to the rear mechanism, which carries the hydraulic connections for the implement's onboard motor.","They attach a blade to the identical front mechanism.","The blade plows snow and sculpts features such as half-pipes, those giant, u-shaped bowls of snow in which freestyle skiers and daredevil snowboarders ride.","For safety, the cabin has a steel skeleton with roll-over protection features.","A specially designed joystick gives the driver precision control over the blade and tiller.","The state-of-the-art electronics include three computers, which enable the driver to select and adjust different functions and modes, all of it displaying on a color monitor.","The vehicle never sinks into the snow because its weight is optimally balanced on the tracks.","This 22,000-pound snow groomer actually exerts less pressure on the snow than a single person does on foot.","The rubber band was invented in england in the middle of the 19th century.","The key to its success, of course, is flexibility.","A rubber band can be stretched around items of various shapes and sizes to hold them together, so in the rubber-band industry, the possibilities for expansion are numerous.","Rubber bands come in handy for a whole bunch of things.","If you have a bunch of anything, a rubber band can keep it together.","Production of rubber bands starts with natural rubber.","These spongy slabs have been made from the sap of rubber trees.","Natural rubber has greater elasticity than the synthetic kind, making it a better choice for rubber bands.","A worker measures and pours rubber processing oil into a kneader machine.","He adds powdered pigment--  in this case, yellow and white for a pale yellow shade.","He feeds several rubber slabs to the kneader's spiral-shaped jaws.","The spiraling blades intersect to break up the rubber and blend in the other ingredients.","The kneading process generates heat which softens the rubber, making it easier to form into dough.","The kneader spits out rubber-dough chunks.","Next, a giant rolling pin transforms the dough into wide, thin pieces.","He slices the strips and bundles them.","In this form, it will be easier to control the weight of the rubber in relation to chemicals that are added next.","They roll the rubber with a precise amount of sulfur and other chemicals that strengthen the rubber and make it more elastic.","They then roll the rubber very thin.","A worker twists and cuts it into small bundles that fit into the opening of an extruding machine.","It forces the still-warm and malleable rubber through dies to shape it into long, hollow tubes.","The extruder injects air and talcum powder into the tubes to keep the walls from collapsing and sticking together while warm.","The tubes cool down in a trough of water, and they deflate as the injected air dissipates.","Next, these aluminum poles will serve as molds for the tubes during curing, giving them the correct shape and diameter.","The worker slides the tubes onto the molds.","The talcum powder injected into the tubes during their extrusion will also act as a release agent, keeping them from sticking to the molds during curing.","They load the tubes into a steam oven, and the intense heat vulcanizes the rubber to boost its tensile strength and elasticity.","Out of the oven, workers inject air between the tubes and the molds, making it easier to peel the now-vulcanized tubes off.","They rinse the rubber tubes to remove talcum-powder residue.","There's so much that the water turns milky white.","They hang the rubber tubes to drain away some of the water.","By the time they're ready to cut, they're a bit too dry, so a worker splashes water onto them.","With the tubes moistened, the next operation will run more smoothly.","He feeds several tubes at once to a rotating blade which carves them.","This creates elastic bands that are exactly the same width.","In this case, that's 1.5 millimeters, an average thickness for a rubber band.","With this system, they can cut 1/2 a million rubber bands in an hour.","It doesn't take long for the inventory to pile up.","There are millions of rubber bands here.","A worker scoops them up and examines each one for defects.","Once approved, all that's left is the packaging.","The rubber bands ride a conveyor that releases them in increments into plastic bags.","It has taken about three hours to produce this bag of rubber bands.","On a normal day, this factory generates 40 million elastics.","That's a lot by any stretch of the imagination."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pneumatic Impact Wrenches","Cultured Marble Sinks","Plantain Chips","NASCAR Stock Cars"]},"text":["A pneumatic impact wrench is a power tool that tightens and untightens nuts, bolts, and other fasteners.","You hook it up to the air hose coming off a compressor.","The anvil at the tip turns at high speed to tighten until snug, then switches to a hammering action, called impacting, to tighten even more.","You've probably seen a pneumatic impact wrench in action at your local garage.","It's standard equipment for removing and installing wheels.","Air pressure runs through the tool's motor, spinning a rotor within.","That rotates the tool's anvil, which turns the wheel nut.","At the manufacturing plant, they machine the rotor from a bar of steel mounted on a lathe.","It takes about a minute and a half for the computer-guided precision tools to carve out the basic shape.","The next machine carves teeth on one end of the rotor, creating what's called a hobbed edge.","Now a computer-guided mill cuts eight slots.","This shaping of the steel generates a lot of heat, so coolant flows throughout all these machining phases to prevent the equipment from overheating.","Next, they temper the rotors for 10 hours in a 1,700-degree-fahrenheit furnace.","This hardens and strengthens the steel, but to fortify it further, they pump in carbon from a propane burner.","The carbon impregnates each rotor to a depth of .","7 millimeters.","Once the rotor cools, a computer-controlled grinder shapes it to the final specifications.","Then a machine with nylon bristles smoothes the surface.","This completes the transformation from steel bar to rotor.","Meanwhile, the tool's magnesium housing has been getting a bright coat of paint.","The housing has two parts-- the main section and a back cap.","Both go into an oven where the paint bakes for a half-hour at almost 400 degrees fahrenheit.","Now assembly begins with the trigger and the stem of the main section and then, with this tool, what's called the tipper valve.","When you push the trigger, it tips, letting in air.","This spring keeps the tipper valve closed when you're not pushing the trigger.","And this bushing is where you attach the air hose coming from the compressor.","Next, they install the reversing valve.","It slots into the housing just above the trigger.","When you press the trigger, the anvil rotates clockwise to tighten the fastener, but when you activate the reversing valve, it sends the air into different chambers, turning the tool counter-clockwise to remove the fastener.","They glue a rubber pad to the top of the housing to cushion your grip on the tool.","A laser engraves manufacturing information on the back cap.","To assemble the motor, they start with a back cap and press in a bearing on which the rotor will spin.","Next, a plate to enclose one end of the rotor and an alignment pin to position the plate for enclosing the other end.","And finally, the rotor itself.","Into each of the rotors' slots goes a vein made of resin-imbued fabric.","These veins work like the blades on a windmill.","The air entering the tool turns them, which spins the rotor.","After slipping a steel cylinder over the rotor, they enclose it with a second plate, then a larger plate with a ball bearing.","Now some oil to lubricate what they call the impact mechanism.","This component contains the tool's anvil, as well as the parts that produce the hammering action.","Finally, a press seals the main section of the housing to the back cap.","Every pneumatic impact wrench this factory produces goes through extensive testing in both free speed-- that's when the tool spins like an ordinary drill-- and in impact mode.","So, if you've got a nut or other fastener to drive, take one of these babies for a spin.","Natural marble has a modern alternative-- a composite material known as cultured marble.","It consists of ground marble or limestone mixed with liquid plastic.","Less expensive than natural marble and easier to work with than stone, cultured marble is often used to create unique bathroom and kitchen fixtures.","This vanity top and pedestal sink are both made of cultured marble, cast in fiberglass molds.","To make a vanity top, a worker centers a sink-bowl mold on a counter mold...","Then places a drainpipe attachment over the sink mold's exit drain.","He marks with a grease pencil where the faucet openings will be.","Then, he masks off areas to protect and places a bees'-wax seal all along the bowl's edge where it meets the counter.","He sprays the molds with protective gel that will give the vanity top a shiny protective finish.","Finally, he places cardboard tubes over the faucet-hole marks.","The molds are now ready for casting.","A machine equipped with a mixing pot automatically measures out the resin workers pour into these molds.","Raw pigments like sterling silver, sandbar, wild rose, white titanium, and fawn beige gives the resin its color.","A worker sifts them in measured amounts into the resin as it's mixing.","Next, he adds a catalyst to the resin...","Then some granulated limestone to thicken it.","The catalyst sets off the chemical reaction that causes the resin mix, known as matrix, to harden.","From this moment on, he needs to be swift.","He has only 15 minutes to mix, color, and pour this batch of matrix into the molds before it hardens.","He adds more white pigment to the base color, using a paddle to mix it along the surface.","Then he takes the wild rose pigment, mixes in some resin, and again works it into the surface to streak it with color, an effect known as veining, that mimics the look of marble.","He scoops out some of the surface mix and pours it onto the mold.","As the matrix pulls, the rose-colored veining in the surface mix is visible.","Now he pours out the rest of the matrix.","He casts the sink and counter in a single piece so there won't be any grout lines around the bowl.","A pneumatic tool vibrates the molds, bringing tiny air bubbles to the surface-- the vanity's underside.","Air trapped in the matrix can cause it to break or mar the finish.","A worker lays down a temporary plastic hat over the bowl.","He weighs it down to hold it in place as he pours matrix inside the hat to cast a bowl that's as thick as the base-- about .","8 inches.","He lets the matrix set for 30 minutes, then removes the hat from the bowl.","Next, he drops down the mold's backsplash and puts a hole in the drain.","He shoots in bursts of compressed air while a co-worker carefully wedges under the backsplash to part the mold, revealing the vanity's marbled surface.","To make sure the vanity lies level on its cabinet, a worker grinds down the underside, then the drain area.","Next, he sands down the backsplash and the sides, working at an angle with a hand sander to dull any sharp edges.","He removes the drain mold and buffs the surface to a mirror finish.","Finally, he knocks out the faucet holes.","Here's a finished vanity with a variety of integrated sink bowls on display.","Cultured marble truly is a versatile material that offers endless possibilities.","Many of us take time out to enjoy a tasty snack like plantain chips, but we know we should put limits when treating ourselves to a good thing.","The trick is to learn as much as we can about the snacks we're eating so we can choose a treat that's right for us.","Seeing how plantain chips are made can help us make an informed choice.","This looks like a banana, but it's actually a plantain-- a staple food in many parts of the world.","In tropical countries like costa rica, it's made into a popular snack called plantain chips.","The cycle from fruit to snack begins here.","A worker cleans off the root of an offspring from a mature plantain tree.","He prepares the root for planting as if it were a seed.","In time, this seed will grow into a mature plantain tree.","After about nine months, the plantain is ready to harvest.","When a worker picks the fruit, they wrap it in plastic to protect it against insects and disease.","Each mature tree yields only one bushel of fruit its entire life.","Once he harvests the mature tree, it's the tree's offspring that yield more fruit and continue the life cycle.","The worker then rinses the plantain in treated water that helps wash off sap and kill any possible fungus.","Local workers then load the cases of plantains onto their boat for a full day's trip to the processing plant.","Their hard work is valued by the company which is proud to support the local economy.","At the plant, a worker puts the plantain into boiling water for about a minute.","Boiling the fruit changes its color, but more importantly, it greatly reduces the amount of sap the fruit releases, which makes handling and peeling the otherwise sticky skin possible.","The various lengths and widths of plantain prohibit peeling it by machine.","Workers at this costa rican plant cut more than 50,000 pounds of plantain every day, all by hand.","Each one is then cut into slices of a specific thickness for chips.","To do this, workers push the fruit one at a time into a cutting machine.","The slices of plantain fall through the machine into a deep-fry oven below.","A rotating grill and conveyor system helps ensure uniform cooking of the slices in natural palm oil as they travel on an uninterrupted 30-foot journey.","After cooling, the worker removes any under- or overcooked chips.","The chips then travel into a tumbler that adds salt or other seasonings or flavors, depending on the product.","The chips then exit the tumbler and are ready for packaging.","The packaging machine gently funnels the chips into separate chutes as it calculates the exact amount it needs to fill each bag.","Once filled, the packaging machine then cuts and seals the individual bags, then sends them for distribution across the world.","Plantain chips also come in strips.","They're trans-fat free and come in a variety of formats that make a handy treat.","Nascar is one of the most popular spectator sports in north america.","The national association for stock car auto racing holds a series of 36 races a year, mostly at oval or d-shaped tracks on which the cars make only left turns.","They're built from scratch following nascar's strict technical rules.","Nascar's stock cars are based on certain american-made road cars.","The frame is made out of steel tubing.","The hood, roof, and deck lid-- that's like the regular car's trunk cover-- are made out of sheet steel.","The workers who assemble the body are called body hangers.","They position all the parts according to a nascar-authorized template.","Here they clamp the body panels together.","Then, with an aluminum bracket, to the template for shaping.","To make the wheel openings on the front fender, they use shrinking jaws, a tool that curves metal by squeezing it.","Then they switch to a tool called an english wheel.","It rolls the curved metal into a particular shape.","The car's front suspension is essentially the same as that of a regular car, except for the angle of the tires, which they manipulate by putting shims on this upper control arm.","The right front tire tilts inward and the left front tire tilts outward.","That's because these cars race on an oval track in one direction only, so they're making only left turns.","Next, they install a brake rotor.","Then, a steel spacing plate between the rotor and the wheel.","This sets up the specific distance from wheel to wheel that nascar rules require.","They load a pair of brake pads into a brake caliper and slide the caliper onto the rotor.","The caliper contains different-sized pistons so that it applies the brake pads to the rotor evenly.","Now they move onto the car's inner workings.","They mount the transmission to an aluminum housing that covers the flywheel, clutch, and other components.","Then they install the motor.","It's an eight-cylinder, 750-plus horsepower engine.","They attach the car's plastic windshield with bolted clips.","If air gets into the car, these strong clips will keep the windshield from blowing out.","The car's seat core is made of aluminum, padded for comfort.","Every nascar driver has his car seat custom-built to his body shape.","After bolting in the seat, they install the steering wheel.","It has a safety release that lets the driver remove the wheel with a single pull.","This enables him to get in and out of the car easily and to remove the wheel quickly if he's injured in a crash.","Now, for the finishing touches.","First, a large decal of the car's number centered on each door.","Every nascar racecar is also plastered with decals advertising its driver's sponsors.","Nascar's stock cars have a few key safety features.","Fenders allow side-to-side contact between cars without their wheels hooking together.","Roof flaps direct air downward, keeping the cars close to the ground.","This stops a spinning car from flipping over.","A nascar stock car weighs in at more than 3,300 pounds.","It travels to the track in the top deck of a trailer.","This keeps the bottom level clear as a work space for the driver's mechanical crew."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Paper Umbrellas","Coal","Aircraft Seats","Cremation Urns"]},"text":["Paper umbrellas originated in china and eventually spread throughout asia.","Initially, their purpose was solely practical-- to protect against rain and to provide shade from the scorching sun.","But before long, they took on symbolic significance and were incorporated into many ceremonies and rituals.","They're called oil paper umbrellas because the paper is coated with oil or, like these, with oil paint, making the umbrella waterproof.","At this workshop in northern thailand, they cut a bamboo log to the length of the umbrella's radius, then shave off the bark.","They split the log into strips of equal thickness, then group these ribs, as they're called, into bundles of 28.","Each bundle will become the frame of one umbrella.","Next, they thin out the bottom half of each rib and cut a slit in the top half.","Then, using a traditional drill, they bore tiny holes at specific points.","Taking one bundle at a time, they string the ribs together through the uppermost hole and insert them into slots of a hand-carved wooden hub.","Then they tighten and tie off the string to retain the ribs in position and provide a pivot on which the ribs can move up and down.","Next, they attach the scaffold, a smaller hub with shorter ribs strung on it.","They insert a scaffold rib into the slit of each frame rib, then attach them by threading a string through the aligned holes.","The result?","Raising and lowering the scaffold moves its ribs along the slit-- pushing the frame ribs up to open the umbrella, or pulling them down to close it.","With the umbrella open now, they thread more string through holes in the frame ribs and loop it into a spider-web-type pattern.","This produces a sturdy base to support the umbrella's paper skin.","After mounting the frame on a wood and bamboo umbrella handle, they wrap two lines of string along the frame perimeter.","This will support the paper skin at the edge of the umbrella.","They make the paper from the bark of the native saa tree.","The first step is to soften the bark by soaking it in water for about 12 hours, then boiling it for another three or four.","Next, they mash it with wooden mallets for about an hour, turning it into pulp.","They bleach the pulp and wash it again to remove the bleach.","Only then is the pulp ready to become paper.","They dump the pulp in a large basin of water and stir so that it floats in suspension while they move a plastic screen through the water, catching enough floating pulp to coat the screen in a thin layer.","They lay the screen out in the sun for three to four hours until the layer of pulp dries into a thin, fragile sheet of paper.","They cut the sheets to the shapes required, then saturate each piece with glue made from cassava, a tropical root vegetable.","After applying a circular piece around the hub, they glue pie-shaped pieces onto the rest of the frame.","Once they cover the entire frame, they repeat the process to add a second layer.","They fold all the pie-shaped pieces over the end to thicken and, thereby, reinforce the edge of the umbrella.","After about four hours out in the sun, the glue dries, bonding the now stiff and strengthened paper securely to the frame.","They apply three coats of oil paint, allowing four hours of drying time between coats.","This is a key step because aside from providing the background color, the oil paint waterproofs the paper.","Next, they varnish the handle to make it moisture-resistant.","And now for the grand finale-- an artist paints a design in vibrant waterproof oils.","The themes are traditional-- flowers, animals, landscapes, people.","No stencils to trace or patterns to follow-- the artist works entirely freehand, the result being that no two umbrellas are ever exactly alike.","Each oil paper umbrella is a portable work of art.","Pretty yet practical, rain or shine.","The most-used fuel for producing electricity in the world today is coal.","Power plants burn it in their furnaces to heat water into steam that spins giant turbines which generate electricity.","At least 40% of the world's electricity is produced by coal-fired power plants.","Coal developed from prehistoric vegetation that wound up buried underground due to geological changes.","Over millions of years, these decayed plants transformed into combustible rock.","This is why we refer to coal as a fossil fuel.","Coal runs in seams through other rock layers.","Miners drill holes through the seam at several locations, then mix together ammonium nitrate and diesel and pour a precise quantity of this liquid explosive into each bored hole.","The plug the holes with dirt to contain the upcoming explosion.","This directs the force of the blast sideways so that it'll fracture rock as much horizontally as vertically.","They place a blasting cap in each plugged hole, then connect all the blasting cap wires to detonation lines through which they'll send an electrical charge to ignite the explosives.","They install detonation delays to time the blast one after another because successive explosions have greater impact than simultaneous ones.","The blast dislodge and break up the layers of rock between the surface and the coal seam deep below.","Workers clear away the rocks and dirt with a mammoth machine called a dragline.","Removing the blasted rock and dirt exposes the coal, which is still a solid, hard seam.","The side of the mine pit shows how much rock is on top of this particular coal seam.","Once miners blast and clear away that rock, they drill and load the holes to set off more explosives to fracture the coal seam itself.","Then front-end loaders load the coal into specialized trucks called coal haulers.","In one trip, a coal hauler can transport about 220 tons of coal out of the pit to the coal stockpile.","From there, railcars transport the coal to the nearby power plant.","When this company prepares to mine an area, it removes the topsoil on which vegetation grows.","As part of a land reclamation program, the company stockpiles the topsoil until it finishes mining out the coal.","Then it refills the pit with rock and dirt it blasted away, returns the topsoil, and plants native vegetation.","The power plant is situated by a man-made lake, the water source for the steam with which it generates electricity.","When the coal arrives, crushers grind it up into baseball-sized pieces.","After a strategic blending of different grades of coal, to optimize heat output, the coal travels by a conveyor belt to indoor silos.","Each silo feeds crushers, which pulverize the coal into powder.","Now the coal is ready to fuel the furnace.","Meanwhile, huge intake pumps draw lake water.","The furnace heats the water to 1,000° fahrenheit, well beyond the boiling point, transforming it into high-pressure steam.","The steam then enters and rotates turbines, generating electricity.","By the time the steam exits the turbines, it's thermally depleted down to just 120° fahrenheit and depressurized to a vacuum state.","It then passes through a condenser containing cold lake water.","The water absorbs the remaining heat, converting the steam back to water, which is then recycled into new steam.","The combustion process itself creates sulfur dioxide.","The plant runs this gas waste through vessels containing a lime solution to neutralize the sulfur.","This chemical reaction creates water vapor, which exits the plant's stack.","Wires coming off the turbine generators carry the electricity to outdoor transformers.","The outdoor transformers convert it to higher voltage in order to have less energy loss, as the power from coal travels through transmission lines to some 350,000 households.","When you're traveling by air, you want to be sitting in a comfortable seat.","Private aircraft take comfort to a level far above that of commercial airlines with seats that are as cozy and luxurious as fine furniture.","They must also be lightweight and fire-resistant.","On private and corporate aircraft, it's all about luxury seating.","Armchairs often swivel and, at the push of a button, recline with an extending footrest.","The cushions are constructed from layers of fireproof foam containing carbon fiber for optimum support and durability.","Workers cut the cushion pieces using a band saw with a round blade that slices through foam without tearing or shredding it.","They spray adjoining surfaces with water-based contact cement and assemble them.","The assembly combines different thicknesses and three different densities to make the cushion soft in certain areas and rigid in others.","The densities are color-coded.","After letting the glue dry for 12 hours, workers begin the final shaping.","This is the seat-cushion assembly.","They first saw through it laterally to make the right thickness.","Then they temporarily adhere a plastic template of the final cushion shape, trace it, then saw along the trace line.","Next, using the technical drawing as a guide, they mark, then grind the cushion's rounded profile.","Holding the next layer of foam over the edge, they verify the shape with another template.","Then with yet another template, they mark lines for the cushion's creases and, with a foam saw, cut them two inches deep, just enough to insert velcro strips, the backsides of which they glue to the foam with water-based contact cement.","Workers construct the backrest cushion just like the seat cushion-- assembling foam pieces of different thicknesses and densities, shaping the perimeter, grinding the edge profile, cutting and velcroing creases.","Then they apply a final layer of soft foam, 1/2 inch thick, folding the edges onto the velcro inside the creases.","They do the same with the seat cushion, armrests, and footrest.","All the foam cushions are now ready to be covered in genuine leather.","In accordance with safety regulations, the supplier rendered the leather fireproof by treating it with a calcium-based solution.","Seamstresses trace patterns for the cover pieces, then cut them out.","They line the perimeter of each piece with double-faced tape...","Fold over the edges to create a neat hem...","And trim the corners flat.","Then they sew on velcro strips where required.","Finally, they assemble the pieces into covers, sewing an identification label on each one.","They hammer every seam flat to prevent bulges.","Then they sew what's called a french stitch, a line of straight stitches on either side of each seam.","Meanwhile, workers glue fireproof polyester batting to the foam.","This layer between foam and leather will even out the surface.","They tear the perimeter of the batting to thin it out.","Finally, it's time to dress the cushions in their covers.","Workers use a metal rod to help push the leather deep into the creases without bunching up.","Velcro strips on the cover adhere to the velcro strips inside the creases.","The covers also have velcro closures, and certain cushions have velcro strips on the bottom which attach to the seat structure.","Once all the covers are on, workers can complete the seat assembly.","They attach the armrest to the structure with screws, then install the footrest, which attaches with velcro.","It contains a cavity for storing the life vest.","The seat cushion also attaches with velcro.","The passenger seats and pilot seat are constructed the same way, except for the pilot seat often has a sheepskin insert on the sitting surface to absorb sweat and keep the pilot cool and comfortable.","It was the ancient romans who first began using cremation urns.","Today the custom continues.","The remains are stored in urns permanently or sometimes temporarily before burial.","And with cremation, one's final resting place doesn't have to be six feet under.","The cremation urn has an important place in some households.","It's a constant reminder of the dearly departed, helping to keep the memories alive.","The urn starts with a concept.","The potter draws a large-scale design, which he'll use as a reference as he shapes a prototype urn from clay.","He slaps a lump of clay onto the potter's wheel.","The wheel spins, and the potter begins to transform the shapeless lump into the desired form.","The process is called throwing, a potter's term for shaping.","He leaves the bottom open so the walls can be more easily formed into the desired shape.","He'll add a base to the urn later.","As he pulls up the clay to produce the walls, he works it to a uniformed thickness.","He gathers top to narrow the opening, a technique known as collaring.","Then with the potter's wheel at a stop, he takes the shape from round to rectangular and tapers it at the neck.","Then it's into a casting box, which exposes only half of the urn prototype.","He brushes a release agent onto that half.","Using a mixer, he whips up a mix of plaster and water.","He blends it until it thickens to the consistency of pancake batter.","The liquefied plaster will harden in minutes, so he quickly pours it into the box with the urn prototype and fills it right to the top.","As the plaster hardens, the exposed urn prototype makes an impression of half the urn.","He'll make another one exactly like it for the other half of the urn.","He'll attach them with a key system.","For this, he drills notches in one mold half.","The notches match up with raised areas on the other mold half to align them.","He ties the molds together with suspender-like straps, cinching them tightly together.","He adds a base to the urn and straps it to the other two pieces.","He sets the assembled mold upright, exposing the opening of the urn.","He's now ready to make a copy of the original urn.","In fact, he'll make 20 at once using 20 identical plaster molds.","He pumps liquid clay into each one, filling it to the brim.","Over three to four hours, the plaster absorbs water in the clay it comes into contact with, causing it to solidify.","The clay in the center remains liquid.","He pours that into a barrel to be strained and reused.","And now the big reveal-- he opens the mold and removes the urn.","It's exactly like the prototype sculpted by the potter.","He lifts a lid from another plaster mold and checks the fit to the urn.","After drying and an initial firing to harden the clay, a worker coats the urn and lid with a glaze, working from the inside out.","The glaze is a mixture of finely milled minerals and water.","It adds color and a glass-like nonporous surface when fired a second time.","Cremation urns come in a range of styles and colors.","Customers often make a selection that reflects the taste of the deceased.","Another worker now brushes a mixture of wax and alumina onto the neck of the urn and lid.","This will keep them from fusing together during the final firing.","They fire the cremation urns at a very intense 2,200° fahrenheit for about 15 hours.","This transforms the clay into a durable ceramic.","They cool the urns slowly for 13 hours to prevent cracking.","Four days in the making, these urns are now ready to contain a loved one's remains and, in so doing, honor a life."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Leather Sculptures","Travel Hot Plates","Ochre","Hurdy"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","The use of leather as an artist medium dates back to the middle ages, when it was crafted into fierce animal shapes that were then affixed to battle helmets.","Fast-forward several centuries, and some artists are rediscovering leather as a sculpting material and redefining the art of sculpture.","This is leather reimagined.","In this studio, cowhides become art instead of a sofa or a pair of shoes.","It's artistry over utility.","The artist starts by developing a pattern.","He draws imagery within a paper fish shape.","It represents the life cycle of a rainbow trout.","He places the pattern on a cowhide, and using a scriber, he lightly etches the fish shape into the leather.","Using a razor blade, he follows the etched lines to cut out the fish shape.","He dampens the entire piece with a wet cloth.","This softens the leather to prepare it for the drawings on the pattern, which will be transferred to it.","He places the pattern on the dampened leather double.","Using a round-tip tool, he traces the drawings.","The tool makes light impressions on the supple leather.","Following those lines with a swivel knife, he carves the imagery into the leather.","When the leather starts to dry, he redampens it.","Then, with a wedge tool and mallet, he depresses the leather around the main artwork.","This raises the images above the background.","He hammers a disc-tip tool into the leather to make a fish-eye indentation.","Then, using an actual stone, he lightly pounds the rocks in the image.","This transfers the stone's texture to the leather.","He also uses the rock to create shading on the trout and the foliage.","For the fish-scale detail, he pounds a tool with a crescent-shaped tip into the leather.","He works in a linear fashion, row on row, to punch tight scales across much of the art.","This creates a textural symmetry throughout the piece.","Turning to a second matching fish shape, he shaves leather from the back of the fins to give them a lighter, more realistic look.","He applies glue to the edges.","This plain fish shape will serve as the back of the sculpture.","He applies more fins to the glued areas in the underbelly of the fish art.","He then brings the two sides of the fish together and glues them, leaving the bottom fins and the mouth open.","Using an industrial sewing machine for leather, he stitches the fish together with heavy nylon thread.","This fish art is now ready to go from flat to 3d.","He stuffs polyester fill into it.","The leather has been moistened again so that, when it dries, it will shrink tight to the filling.","As he stuffs the leather, he uses a wooden rod to distribute the filling.","He then glues a carved leather fish mask onto the face.","This adds drama to the piece.","He trims the mask.","Then he applies a rainbow of color to the trout, beginning with a silvery shade of white.","He paints an olive-green shade on the top of the fish sculpture and a pinkish-red hue in the middle.","This reflects the colors of the rainbow trout.","He dabs black paint on the fish sculpture to replicate the spots normally found on trout.","He then marks the fish sculpture extensively with silvery white speckles.","He defines some of the etched lines with the same paint to make the imagery bolder.","The artist signs the leather fish.","Making the entire leather sculpture takes over a month.","Now it's ready for public viewing.","With a travel hot plate, who needs room service?","Just unpack this single-burner appliance and plug it into an electrical outlet in the hotel room.","It can be used to warm up soup, fry eggs or make espresso.","It's economical and convenient, no tips necessary.","A travel hot plate offers another way to eat on the road.","Travelers can whip up something to eat pretty much anywhere there is an electrical outlet.","Production starts with steel wire for the heating element.","The wire unwinds and travels over rollers.","The rollers keep the wire at an even tension as machinery pulls it forward.","The machinery winds the wire around a mandrel to produce a tight coil.","A blade then chops the coil to the correct length.","Each coil will serve as a heating element.","A worker slides the coils' ends onto hooks attached to a fixture.","The fixture revolves and meets up with an automated welder, which fuses the hook to the heating coil.","It welds one hook to each end of the coil.","To demonstrate the coil's heating capacity, a technician connects it to an electrical source, and it very quickly becomes so hot it glows.","A worker is now ready to install the coil in the cast-iron burner.","Robots pick up the burners using magnetic power and transfer them to a conveyor system.","The conveyor pushes the burners forward.","In the meantime, a worker threads the coil between posts in an applicator head.","This puts the coil in the correct configuration.","An automated system then moves the applicator head forward on the production line.","A vibrating device applies 16 1/2 tons of pressure to pack an insulating compound into the cast-iron burners.","This compound is made of talcum, magnesite, water, and other ingredients.","The applicator head embeds the heating coil within the insulation, allowing the hooks to protrude.","This isolates the coil from the cast-iron burner to prevent short circuits.","A worker coats each burner with a rustproofing varnish.","The burners bake at a temperature of 212 degrees fahrenheit for 12 hours.","This dries the varnish and hardens the insulation in the burners.","Out of the oven, a worker welds wires to the protruding hooks, which will connect to a thermostat later.","She attaches ceramic sleeves to the wires for electrical insulation.","She then spot-welds metal connectors to the ends of the wires.","She installs an intermediate backplate through which the insulated connectors protrude, and screws the backplate in place.","Another worker installs the cover plate with numerous holes to vent heat from the burner.","She screws a threaded bolt into the hot plate and attaches a ground wire to the center screw.","She slides the thermostat onto the threaded bolt and secures the ground wire.","She adjusts the position of the thermostat and connects the wires.","She now attaches a plastic base and screws a temperature knob into it.","She joins the wires to a power cord and stabilizes the connection with a plastic clamp and cover.","She installs a metal plate over the exposed wires to encase them within the base structure.","She slides rubber feet onto the nubs in the plastic base and applies a label with all the technical details.","Using a probe, she confirms that the hot plate is functional, that there is no current leakage and the wiring is properly isolated from the cast-iron burner.","A technician brings water to a boil on a randomly selected hot plate and measures the temperature to confirm it heats water consistently.","He also aims an infrared camera at the hot burner.","The image proves that heat is evenly disseminated across the surface.","Once it passes all these tests, this travel hot plate is ready to hit the road.","It should provide the means to cook food wherever in the world it happens to land.","Ocher is the original earth tone because it's actually colored earth, yellow, orange, red or brown, depending on its specific mineral composition.","Humans have used ocher as a pigment since prehistoric times and still use it today to tint paint, plaster, and other materials.","From prehistoric cave paintings to renaissance frescoes, the natural hues of ocher endure to this day.","The natural color of ocher depends on the amount and type of iron oxide it contains.","Yellow ocher can also be baked to a shade of red.","There was a time when men mined ocher ore underground with picks and shovels.","Today the old mines are a tourist attraction in roussillon and gargas in the provence region of france, home of the world's largest ocher deposits and where the industrial process for making ocher pigment was invented in the late 1700s.","Today at the last active mine in gargas, france, workers quarry-mine ocher using heavy machinery rather than manual tools.","The ocher ore contains about 10% pure ocher.","The rest is stones and sand, which is why the ore requires processing.","The first step is to wash it.","This turns it into liquid unrefined ocher.","Next the liquid flows through sieves.","Then the liquid ocher flows into troughs leading to a collection basin.","Pumps transfer the liquid ocher at high pressure to the separator, which spins it at high speed.","The centrifugal force separates the sand.","The pure liquid ocher is pumped to drying tanks.","Over several months, the ocher gradually settles to the bottom.","Workers drain the water, then collect the coarse ocher powder that remains.","Traditional processing machinery is on display at the old ocher factory in roussillon, france.","The crusher would reduce blocks of ore into fist-sized pieces for the mill to grind.","The ground ore would then drop through three consecutive sieves, which allowed only fine ocher powder to pass through, and collect in a barrel below.","At this modern factory, this mill grinds the coarse ocher powder until the particles are no more than 30 microns in size, the consistency of flour.","To make red ocher, workers put yellow ocher in a gas-fired oven and bake it for 15 minutes at 1,380 degrees fahrenheit.","The heat dehydrates the iron oxides, which turns the color to red.","When an order comes into the factory, a worker releases the required amount of ocher from the storage silos to the packaging machine.","This factory has packaging machines for several retail sizes.","Ocher isn't merely a red or a yellow pigment.","One can produce a wide range of colors by playing with the percentages of those two base colors as well as by adding other types of natural pigments.","For centuries, artists have mixed ocher into oil and other media to make paint.","This artist is making what's known as tempera.","She cracks an egg, separates the white and sets aside the yolk to use.","She drops a few spoonfuls of ocher on her palette.","Then adds some stirred egg yolk to bind it.","She mixes the ingredients thoroughly with her palette knife and crushes lumps with a mortar until the tempera is just the right smooth consistency to begin applying to her canvas.","Another medium one can pigment with ocher is cheese.","This is known as casein painting, casein being the milk protein that's a major component of cheese.","It must be fresh fat-free white cheese.","And an artist mixes it with lime to make it water-soluble.","Casein paint resembles oil paint once dry.","However, it's inflexible and too brittle to use on canvas, so it's suitable only for rigid surfaces such as artist board, furniture, woodwork, and walls.","Ocher can also pigment plaster, concrete, ceramic, and other construction materials for an authentic earth-tone palette that only nature can create.","A hurdy-gurdy is a stringed musical instrument with a unique sound.","To play it, musicians do two thubgs simultaneously-- turn a crank and play a keyboard.","The crank turns a wheel that rubs against the strings like a violin bow.","The keys press on the strings, changing their pitch.","This french hurdy-gurdy maker specializes in restoring antiques like this instrument crafted in 1918 and this very damaged gem from 1882.","The artisan carves new support struts using the original ones as templates.","The struts are curved outward, making the soundboard convex.","He uses spruce because it's a lightweight wood which vibrates well to conduct sound.","Constructing a different instrument now, he runs a strip of maple through a sander to reduce the thickness to less than a tenth of an inch.","This will become the two ribs which form the sides of this instrument.","He cuts the strip in half and marks the direction of the wood grain, so he can butt the ribs in mirror image.","He dampens each rib with water and runs it against a hot iron.","This steams a curve into the wood.","He repeats this process again and again until the curve fits a wooden form that's the exact shape of the instrument.","He clamps both ribs to the form and lets them set for a full week.","French hurdy-gurdies are traditionally guitar-shaped or lute-shaped.","To construct a new lute-shaped body, the artisan removes the ribs from the antique instrument he's restoring, traces each one onto a strip of maple, then cuts out the shape with a band saw.","He constructs a lute-shaped wooden form, then uses the hot iron to curve the new ribs to the shape of the form.","This instrument has nine ribs.","He alternates between maple and pearwood.","He tapes the ribs together and lets them set for a week.","This hurdy-gurdy was made in 1741.","The original crank-driven wheel rubbed against the strings to produce sound like a violin bow.","The wheel is all warped now, so he crafts a new one, on a lathe, out of pearwood.","The keyboard's black keys are made of ebony wood.","He cuts the basic shape with a small circular saw.","Then he refines the dimensions with a small router.","These new keys are part of the restoration of this 1893 instrument.","He lightly files the original key-box slots so that the new keys will insert smoothly.","The bottom row has 13 black keys, the top row, 10 black keys with white tops made of bone.","Just below the key box, the top third of the wheel sticks out through a slot in the soundboard.","And just below that is this component, the main bridge.","The artisan traces a template on a block of maple, drills an access hole for his fine marquetry saw, then cuts it out.","The main bridge props up the instrument's two main melody strings.","He checks the height and shaves off excess wood with a small plane.","He'll stain the bridge to match the rest of the instrument and glue it onto the soundboard.","This hurdy-gurdy has new keys and a new wheel-and-crank mechanism.","He installs new strings, starting with the two melody strings.","Attached to a tailpiece at the bottom, they pass over the bridge, the wheel and through the key box, wrapping around new steel tuning pegs at the top.","This restoration also requires new tangents, two wedges of maple set into each key.","Playing a key presses the tangents against the strings.","The artisan installs four more strings which hit the sides of the wheel, pass over smaller bridges and attach to the bottom of the instrument.","They make a buzzing background sound, so they're called drone strings."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Lighters","Fossils","Hockey Pucks","High"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Lighters...","Fossils...","Hockey pucks...","And high-pressure cylinders.","It's a case for combustion.","Spin the wheel, and you have an instant flame.","Flip the lid, and the flame is extinguished.","A version of the lighter first appeared in the 19th century.","At the time, it was more of a conversation piece than anything, a curiosity that received plenty of interest.","Lighters aren't a novelty anymore, but they're still used every day.","To make lighter cases, a machine uncoils brass from a spool, pulling it to a press.","The press stamps the brass repeatedly to shape both the top and bottom parts of the case.","A worker collects them and places them on a revolving table.","Another worker slides on a hinge to link the top and bottom pieces.","An electrode welds the hinge to the case.","Then a mechanical arm knocks them down a chute to a worker who inspects the welding job.","As the cases move on a conveyor system, they get a quick buff to prepare them for plating.","The lighter cases are now plunged into a series of washing solutions and rinses, followed by a nickel solution...","Then a chrome one.","It's the finishing touch for the lighter cases.","It's time to move on to the inner workings.","A die shapes a piece of steel to make the inside cases.","Mechanized arms then place a tube and plate in the case.","The tube will hold the flint stone, and the plate will form the top of the inner case.","Epoxy seals them in place, and the cases move through a curing oven to harden the epoxy.","A worker arranges a pile of flint wheels so that the teeth are in the proper direction.","Grippers load the flint wheels into an assembly jig.","These cams will eventually act as a catch for the lighter lid.","A gripper places the cam in the jig beside the flint wheel.","The assembly jig now receives little brass eyelets between the flint wheel and the cam.","The machine slides the inner case over the flint wheel, cam, and eyelet.","And an automated device rivets it all together.","A machine lowers a wick to the eyelet and threads it through.","Blades move in from the side and snip the wick.","This machine stuffs pieces of cotton into the inner case.","The cotton will soak up and retain fuel when the consumer adds it later.","Steel plungers tamp down the wick and cotton.","Here a die punch cuts a piece of felt to size.","Automated arms pick up the felt and shove it into the top of the inner case.","Here grippers place a flint spring in the case just over the flint stone.","Pneumatic screwdrivers drive the screw home.","A rubber wheel spins the flint, and sparks fly as a light sensor checks their intensity.","After the flint check, technicians install the inner unit in the case.","They check the fit.","They test the function.","And they're off to be shipped.","It takes many hours of work to make a fossil replica.","Real dinosaur bones, millions of years old, are used to make life-size renditions.","You'll find these fossil facsimiles on display in museums.","They're very exact, almost indistinguishable from the real thing.","The dinosaur looms large once again, brought back to life thanks to an evolution in casting techniques.","Building these replicas is a job that can involve both high-tech know-how and hands-on skill.","They start with the real thing, an ancient fossil.","This is a dinosaur's upper jawbone.","They laser-scan it, producing a three-dimensional image.","The scanner feeds the image to a computer.","Then it's time to go to print.","But this isn't an ink-and-paper job.","This tray is filled with plaster powder.","The printer outlines the jawbone shape with a liquid hardener.","The result is this plaster cast of the jawbone.","There is a more traditional way to make a fossil replica.","They arrange plywood around a fossil of this dinosaur foot.","Then they lay sheets of clay on the wood and press it to the dinosaur bone.","With a clay pick, they make a 90-degree angle at the bone to give it a clean line.","Using more clay, they build a spout and a riser at one end of the bone.","They etch an i.d. number into the clay.","Then they paint liquid rubber onto the fossil and the abutting clay.","They place fiber-glass sheets on the rubber, wetting it down with a polyester mix first.","They work the fiber glass into the shape of the fossil, then paint a red gel coat onto it.","It's a color code to identify the species-- a duckbilled dinosaur called a lambeosaurus.","Now they have one side of a mold.","When both sides of the mold are fabricated, they pair them up, and this fossil mold is complete.","The rubber layer inside picks up the fossil's detail, while the outer fiber-glass one will hold the rubber rigid as they pour a polyester- and-water mix into the spout.","It takes 45 minutes to harden.","And now it's time for the big reveal.","It's an exact replica.","Next they form part of the skull.","They make this part with hollow fiber glass instead of solid polyester.","This will ease the load on the steel framework later.","All the larger bones are cast with hollow fiber glass because of weight issues.","This is a mastodon head.","They mold up to 300 pieces to produce these skeletal replicas.","On one side of the skeleton, they literally flesh out some details.","They sculpt scales onto a clay-like fill to demonstrate how a dinosaur would look with some skin.","The other side remains bare bones to give the viewer an inside look.","A little glue completes the spine work.","Then they mount the skull.","When the front leg goes on, this 2-sided fossil is ready to go.","It's a real museum piece.","Early hockey pucks were made of wood.","But for informal games, even objects like stones would suffice.","Eventually rubber became the puck material of choice.","The modern puck is three inches wide by one inch thick.","Pucks are usually frozen before games to reduce their bounce on the ice.","11 different ingredients go into making these rubber hockey pucks.","The recipe begins with natural rubber.","Two types of oil make the rubber durable.","Certain minerals act as curing agents and antiaging agents.","And a form of coal dust, called carbon black, serves as a filler.","Workers feed the ingredients into a preliminary mixer-- first the slabs of natural rubber, then antioxidants to lengthen the rubber's life-span, then one type of oil to help blend in the dry chemicals, then another type to refine the rubber's rigidity level, then additives such as calcium carbonate and sulfur to help cure the rubber during the molding process, and finally, the carbon black filler.","After 10 to 15 minutes of this preliminary blending, the mixture goes down a chute and onto a conveyor belt, which transports it to a machine called the mill mixer.","It will perform the final mix.","At this point, workers add more natural rubber.","Then they add another, harder rubber that will make the hockey pucks more resilient.","The recipe is formulated to produce a very hard rubber, one that can stand up to the rigors of repeated blows from a hockey stick.","It's critical that the ingredients blend evenly.","That's why workers continually cut the rubber while it's mixing.","In the company lab, technicians evaluate a sample from each batch.","This device is called a rheometer.","It analyzes what's called the curing curve-- how the rubber hardens and to what degree.","A computer compares the curing curve to the quality model.","If they match, the batch gets the go-ahead.","The rubber hasn't yet gone through the curing process, so it's still malleable.","An extrusion machine squeezes it through a round die.","This produces logs about 40 inches long and 3 inches wide-- the exact diameter of the hockey puck.","The next machine slices each log like a loaf of bread into 39 pieces.","Each piece is 1.1 inches thick.","These pieces are called preforms because at this stage they're not quite fully formed pucks.","Workers put them into compression molds that look like giant muffin pans.","Each mold cavity is the exact size of the finished hockey puck.","A cover goes on.","Then the molds go into a curing press, which compresses the preforms and heats them to 300 degrees fahrenheit.","It takes 18 minutes for the rubber to cure.","The preforms come out as hockey pucks-- rock-hard and 1/8 of an inch thinner than before.","They cool for 24 hours.","During the compression phase, excess rubber oozed out and stuck to the pucks, so workers run each and every puck manually through a trimming machine.","There is excess rubber stuck to the molds, as well.","The factory scrapes it off, grinds it up, and uses it as filler in subsequent batches.","The mold embedded a dimple pattern on the puck's edge.","This texture creates friction between the puck and hockey stick.","The more friction, the better stickhandling and the greater control the players have.","High-pressure cylinders are metal containers designed for storing gases and for dispensing them at high pressure.","Think fire extinguishers and oxygen tanks.","The contents are often flammable, so the challenge is how to make these often lifesaving cylinders safe yet still easy enough to use.","These cylinders are made out of chromoly, a steel alloy containing chromium and molybdenum.","They start with disks that have already been heat-treated at 1,300 degrees fahrenheit for 36 hours.","Now they go into the first of five hot chemical baths that will help the metal flex.","After a quick drying period, each disk moves over a die.","This process is known as deep drawing because a series of machines will gradually draw out the disk to the shape of a cylinder.","A mandrel press begins stretching the metal, applying up to 800 tons of force-- the weight of two fully loaded jumbo jets.","Shaping the cylinder from just one piece of metal means it will be seamless, and that's a key safety feature.","After the disk comes through, steel jaws clamp down on the mandrel, and the cylinder slips off.","Now another press stretches it even more.","This machine applies 250 tons of force to continue forming the walls of the cylinder.","That liquid is a coolant to prevent overheating.","The cylinder goes through as many as three presses, each one stretching it another 60%.","This press forms the closed bottom end into a concave shape.","That reinforces the base, helping the cylinder withstand up to a thousand times more pressure than a can of cooking spray.","A band saw now slices up to 4 inches off the other end, which will become the top of the cylinder.","Next, a torch heats that end to 1,800 degrees fahrenheit for 90 seconds.","In a process called hot spinning, a worker then places the cylinder in a device that spins it at 1,000 rpm.","As a torch maintains the temperature, the machine shapes the edge of the searing-hot metal into a curve.","In this way, the machine gradually closes off the top end and shapes two rounded areas called the shoulder and neck.","Making these areas curved is the best way to contain pressurized gases.","Curves spread out the stress on the metal.","A sharp corner would focus the stress in one spot.","The only exit for gases will be through a valve at the top.","Workers then place 18 cylinders in a furnace heated to more than 1,600 degrees fahrenheit.","After 90 minutes, a machine then dunks them in a chemical bath to cool for six minutes.","The cylinders are then reheated to 1,200 degrees fahrenheit for 90 minutes, then left to cool for two hours.","These transitions between hot and cold-- a process called tempering-- strengthen the metal and make it somewhat flexible.","A cutting tool carves open the neck and cuts threads inside it.","This provides the best seal when the valve screws into the neck.","Workers clean the cylinder's surface using a process called shotblasting.","A machine shoots these tiny steel pellets at the cylinders at very high speed.","They test the cylinder by filling it with water.","Then they seal it off and immerse it in water.","The machine then adds more water to the cylinder and gauges how well it withstands the extra pressure.","They rinse the inside with hot water, then dry and clean it by blowing in some purified air.","Next, a hydraulic press indents the shoulder of the cylinder with legally required markings, such as the manufacturing date and the serial number.","A machine then stretches a steel collar over the neck.","Another device, called a valver, tightly screws on the valve, creating a leakproof seal.","After a trip to the paint shop, these high-pressure cylinders are ready to be filled and keep it all under control."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Cotton","Rodeo Roping Chutes","Asian Noodles","Rotary Engines"]},"text":["The exact origins of the cotton plant are unknown, although archeologists have unearthed pieces of cotton cloth over 7,000 years old.","Through the centuries, cotton fiber was traditionally processed by hand until the first 18th century, when the first automated processing machine was invented.","Before cotton arrives at the textile mill to be spun into thread and woven into fabric, it makes the journey from field to bale.","Cotton takes about five months to grow from a planted seed to a ripe plant.","This harvesting machine, called a cotton picker, plucks fluffy seed cotton out of the plant's bowl, leaving a trail of burrs and sticks behind.","The machine empties the plucked cotton into a tractor-drawn buggy.","This machine builds the seed cotton into a humongous rectangular block called a module.","A truck transports the module to the processing plant, known as a cotton gin.","Once the cotton arrives to the processing plant, sticks and burrs are removed, as well as any lingering debris and seeds.","A truck dumps the module into a feeder, which moves the packed seed cotton into a dispenser.","The ground seed cotton falls onto a conveyor belt, which leads to the hot box.","The hot box mixes the seed cotton with hot air, which allows the moisture to evaporate, making the seed cotton easier to clean.","A machine called the wad buster breaks up the clumps of seed cotton by tossing it against a screen.","Loose debris falls through the screen openings, down a narrow shoot.","Then the seed cotton moves through a machine called the steady flow, which divides it equally between two processing lines.","On each line, the seed cotton enters a burr machine, which grabs the seed cotton with a circular saw and swings it against metal bars.","The centrifugal force shakes off the heavier debris.","The seed cotton exits the machine through one pipe, and the debris through another.","A large auger transfers the debris to a waste chute and out of the plant.","The seed cotton is ready for the final stage of processing.","A network of pipes feeds a row of machines called gin stands.","The gin stand separates the seed from the fluffy stuff, called the lint.","Inside each stand are 116 circular saws, which are arranged horizontally, each separated by a steel rib.","The saw teeth grab the seed cotton and pull the lint through the narrow gap between saw and rib.","The seed is too large to pass through, so it spins in front of the rib, then drops into a conveyor.","The lint goes into a flue which leads to the packing area.","Cotton seed is sold as livestock feed, particularly for dairy cows.","It contains 23% protein, 20% fat, and 25% fiber.","Cotton seed is also milled into cotton seed oil, a cooking oil that's a common ingredient in salad dressings and mayonnaise.","The cotton lint is now ready to be formed into bales.","Pipes feed the loose lint to the press area.","When it arrives, a pusher moves the lint into a machine called the tramper, which shoves it down into a bale-shaped box.","Once the box reaches 500 pounds of cotton lint, a press compacts the lint...","And tie-wraps the bale.","Next, a conveyor moves the bale to a bagging machine and past grippers, which pull a sample from each side.","While the bale slides into a protective plastic bag, the grippers deposit the sample into a bin.","Technicians label the bale with an i.d. number, then open the bin to retrieve the corresponding sample.","Then the sample is bagged and labeled with the bale i.d. number.","The factory submits the sample to the united states department of agriculture, where it's analyzed for fiber length, cleanliness, color, and other criteria.","Once the analysis is complete, the bale is given a grade and processed accordingly.","A roping chute is a temporary stall with a spring-loaded gate.","During roping competitions, livestock are placed in this holding device until the gate opens, releasing the steer.","The steer is given a head start while a professional rider follows on horseback while another steer enters the chute, ready for the next chase.","In a roping competition at the rodeo, the chute is the starting point and holding gate for the steer.","An operator opens the gate to release the animal into the arena, signaling the games to begin.","To make a roping chute, technicians start with a coil of steel.","The coil unwinds, moving between rollers.","The rollers form the coil into tubing that will be used for the chute's framework.","A constant flow of coolant prevents overheating and flushes away dirt and contaminants.","Next, the tubing travels through a welding operation.","Rollers close the gap, and a welder fuses the seam.","Then the tubing travels through a channel with flowing coolant.","Once out of the channel, a blade cuts it to size.","An operator loads the tubing into a rotary bending machine.","He activates the machine, which rotates to form rounded corners.","The operator makes two bends in the tubing, which creates the frame for a gate.","He will need to make two of these to complete the gate.","An automated shear cuts steel sheets, creating panels for the walls.","At the next station, a computerized laser cuts out parts on another steel sheet to make a control box.","The laser cuts holes for components and perforates the steel.","The perforations map out the locations for folds and make it easier to fold the steel.","Next, a technician works on parts called linkages, welding rivets to each end.","These linkages will connect the tailgate to the frame, allowing the gate to slide open.","The technician locks the tailgate frame in a fixture.","The fixture holds the frame steady as he welds one end of the linkages.","The other end is riveted.","The rivet has a head to allow a pivoting action as the gate slides open.","He welds steel panels to the tailgate.","They'll serve as shields, keeping the animal's legs protected from becoming trapped in the chute.","He also welds a shield to the threshold.","At the next station, another technician begins construction on the head gate.","He welds steel pipes to the upper part to create grating for ventilation.","He creates steel panel enclosures instead of more open grating to protect the animal's legs.","On the top of the two doors, he welds more paneling, which will keep the animal's head inside the gate when it's closed.","The roping chute's head gate is now complete.","It operates like a saloon door, swinging open to release the animal into the arena.","Next, the parts are placed in a welding jig.","One of the welders installs a release mechanism for the head gate while the other welds the tailgate to the sidebars.","At the front, the assembler adds a braking device that will keep the gate open when needed.","They align side panels to the frame...","And open the gates to gain access to the chute as they weld the panels to the frame.","This completes the structural components of the rodeo roping chute.","Springs are installed to support the opening and closing of the head gate.","The tension is adjusted accordingly.","Then the roping chute is immersed in vat of blue paint.","A crane lifts the chute out of the vat, and it's set aside to dry.","The operating levers are painted separately.","Once try, operators bold them to the release mechanism and brakes.","During a roping competition, the operator will turn the head gate levers to release the animal at specifically timed intervals.","Then, it's up to competing professionals to grab the bull by the horns as fast as they can.","The word noodle is derived from the german word nudel, but the food itself was invented in china as early as 4,000 years ago.","Even though cooking with noodles originated in china, cultures from around the globe have used noodles in an array of unique and tasty dishes.","Noodles seem simple.","They're just unleavened dough formed into different shapes and sizes and then cooked, but manufacturing them isn't as simple as you'd think.","Noodle recipes always start with flour.","At this facility, a food-processing technician pours wheat flour and water into a large mixer.","The technician makes sure the ratio equals 80.4% flour to 17% water.","The remaining 2.6% is salt.","The dough is flattened and rolled in a molding machine.","Once the molding machine has finished flattening and winding the dough into big rolls, they're set aside to mature.","Then each roll goes through this machine, called a calendar mill.","A calendar mill is a series of pressure rollers designed to reduce a material to a uniform thickness.","The dough is flattened and rolled six more times in the molding machine until it reaches its desired thickness.","The calendar mill quickly and accurately slices the dough into slender noodles before cutting them to 47 inches.","It's important for dough to mature.","This helps give it strength and elasticity.","The noodles fold over hangers and head to the next station.","A food-processing technician transfers seven hangers of noodles to one hanger, which is the appropriate density needed for the final maturation phase of noodle production.","The technician wheels the hangers into a device called a steam boiler.","The noodles will spend 3 1/2 hours steaming at temperatures up to 212 degree fahrenheit.","Once thoroughly steamed, the noodles are moved to a station to cool and dry for 24 hours before they're ready for packaging.","The workers who package these noodles are specially trained using a scale, which helps them determine how many noodles should be bundled together.","Once their training is complete, the technician can bundle the right quantity of noodles by eye.","This facility relies on a traditional, manual process to manufacture their noodle.","According to the facility, this allows workers an opportunity to closely inspect the quality of the noodles.","This facility also manufactures a dry noodle.","The process is nearly the same, except that rather than go through a maturation phase in a steam oven, these noodles dry, step by step, in a thermostatic room.","The production line manufactures the noodles at 45 inches before transferring them to small bins where large, stainless steel blades chop them down to 7 inches.","For these noodles, the manufacturers have added turmeric, a spice which provides both color and flavor and is also believed to have health benefits.","While this facility packages certain noodle varieties by hand, it also has a fully automated packaging line for other types of noodles.","Manufacturers produce different varieties of noodles based on customer demands.","They sell them packaged and in bundles.","This line is packaging them in 3-ounce bundles.","After thousands of years, people all over the world still can't get enough of eating a variety of dishes made up of noodles.","Throughout the 20th century, multiple versions of the rotary engine were manufactured.","Even though they were small, light, and fast, those produced had high fuel consumption and released large amounts of emissions.","Today, the rotary engine has been redesigned, revving up for a comeback.","The rotary engine that powers this go-kart is one-fifth the size and weight of the piston engine it has replaced.","With less to weigh it down in the engine department, this go-kart can gain some major speed.","This rotary engine aims to boost fuel efficiency and cut emissions.","Produced on a limited scale, this prototype is small enough to fit in a backpack.","The housing is made from a solid block of aluminum.","Computer models are used to generate the machining instructions.","Traditional rotary engines have an oblong shaped housing and a triangular rotor that spins within the interior.","This new design performs differently.","Computerized tools profile the triangular housing, creating combustion chambers on the inside and cooling fins on the outside.","They transform a solid hardened steel cylinder into a hollow crank shaft.","The cylinder turns in a lathe as a series of cutters sculpt it together, creating a hollow crankshaft that will funnel air and fuel into the engine.","Computerized tools mill a piece of steel to a precise geometry.","This peanut-shaped rotor is the heart of the rotary engine.","The rotor is immersed in de-ionized water as an electrified brass wire generates a spark that cuts into the steel.","This step forms a ridged hole in the center that will connect to a gear.","A technician inserts the pinion gear in a vessel which will engage with the ridged profile in the center of the rotor.","Then the technician fills the vessel with liquid nitrogen, which freezes to negative 374 degrees fahrenheit.","The liquid nitrogen causes the gear to shrink.","He transfers the frozen pinion gear to the rotor.","Using a press, he drives the pinion gear into the rotor to a specific depth.","As the pinion gear thaws to room temperature, it expands to its original size, allowing it to fit snugly in the rotor gear.","Another computerized machine carves into a piece of cast iron steel, held in the fixture by bolts.","This piece will be the seal for the engine.","The seal is sliver thin and tightly engineered.","It's a critical part that will keep the rotary engine's working chambers air-tight.","The seals will slide between the rotor and one of the engine's chrome-plated side plates.","An automated grinding wheel gives the side plate a level and mirrored finish.","Heating the side plate causes the center board to temporarily widen.","A technician inserts a bearing into the bore and, as it cools, it shrinks to the bearing.","The assembler inserts the crank shaft in the side cover.","He turns the assembly over and slides a ring gear into the cover.","He sets the fixture in an upright position and turns the crankshaft to confirm that it revolves smoothly.","He slides the rotor, equipped with one of the seals, onto the crankshaft.","Next, the technician assembles the housing to the motor...","And tests the rotation of the rotor.","As the rotor turns, it forms chambers where the combustion cycle will take place.","He slips a bearing and a counterweight onto the shaft, followed by a bell mouth.","The exhaust cover has three ports to release gasses.","The port in the center is the opening for the bell mouth.","The technician attaches an engine intake adaptor to the bell mouth.","After the components have been secured with bolts, a dynamometer machine runs the engine and measures its performance.","Capable of running on a variety of fuels, this new rotary engine is ready to start powering things."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Skateboard Wheels","Baklava & Galactoboureko","CO2 Scrubbers","Honeycomb Candles"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","The invention of polyurethane skateboard wheels in the early 1970s suddenly made jumps and tight cornering possible because these wheels had a better grip on riding surfaces than the old metal or ceramic wheels.","They were more durable, and the shock absorption was greatly improved.","Skateboard wheels come in different sizes, hardness, colors and graphic designs.","For the rider, there are may practical and aesthetic considerations.","Making skateboard wheels starts with a computer design.","A designer uses the software to guide cutting tools.","The tools carve into a solid aluminum puck and transform it into one half of a wheel mold.","Next, the other half of the mold takes shape as the computerized tooling sculpts another puck to a profile that fits to the first one perfectly.","Not all of the skateboard wheel molds are two-part versions.","Others are one-piece structures, each with a pin in the center to form a bearing cavity.","A nozzle dispenses freshly mixed polyurethane liquid into the wheel molds.","The liquid starts to solidify immediately.","To complete the process, a worker loads the polyurethane-filled molds into an oven and bakes them at almost 240 degrees fahrenheit for 40 minutes.","During baking, any bubbles in the polyurethane rise to the top and are diffused, leaving solid forms with no weak spots.","Workers remove the pins from the molds.","Then it's on to the next station.","Here, a worker blasts compressed air between the wheels and the molds to pry the wheels free and pop them out.","Another worker probes the wheel using a durometer gauge to ensure the urethane has cured to the right degree of hardness.","If the sample wheel is sufficiently hard, the batch is ready for the next step.","The worker clamps the skateboard wheel in a lathe.","The lathe spins the wheel while an automatic cutter contours the edges to a softer, more rounded profile.","To give the skateboard wheels some visual impact, an artists selects and arranges graphic designs on a computer.","He prints a film negative of the images he's chosen.","A worker will use this negative to produce a printing plate from a piece of metal that's been coated with a light-sensitive substance known as emulsion.","He places the film negative on the plate inside a uv light chamber.","He closes the lid and activates the uv light.","This triggers a photochemical reaction that transfers the image from the negative to the plate.","The worker then applies a solution that removes unexposed emulsion and, in the process, etches the image into the printing plate.","He rinses off the chemicals.","Next, he dries the plate to reveal the etched artwork.","Another worker positions a magnetized ink cup overview the image and installs it in a pad printing machine.","An operator loads skateboard wheels onto posts that index them forward for printing.","The ink cup deposits ink on the printing plate.","A silicone pad picks up the inked image and stamps it onto the skateboard wheel.","The operator removes the printed wheel and sets it on a tray.","A technician now clamps one of the wheels in a testing device, which will gauge the rebound.","He drops a metal ball onto the wheel and measures how high it bounces or rebounds.","A high rebound is desirable.","These skateboard wheels are now cleared for shipping.","A worker wraps the wheels in plastic and heat shrinks it.","It takes about 3 days to make these skateboard wheels.","But how long they'll last depends a lot on the rider and how he or she rolls.","Galaktoboureko and baklava are traditional greek desserts.","Although several european and middle eastern countries have versions of baklava, most consist of filo pastry filled with nuts drenched in honey or syrup.","Galaktoboureko is filo filled with custard and coated with sweet syrup.","This variety of baklava called burma is made not with filo dough, like classic baklava, but with kataifi, shredded wheat dough.","Burma, like classic filo baklava, contains whole pistachios, never pistachio powder.","This burma chef pours granulated sugar over the pistachio kernels.","Next, he sprinkles rose water, although this ingredient is optional, then syrup made with sugar, water, cinnamon and nutmeg as well as lemon to prevent the sugar from later crystallizing.","He mixes by hand to thoroughly coat the kernels.","The kataifi is made of all-purpose flour, milk and water.","The chef lays out a section of dough, then takes a handful of pistachio filling and places it on the dough, forming a line running down the middle.","For a burma loaf this size, the filling is about an inch wide and high.","He folds the end closed and rolls the dough at an angle down the length of the burma, tightly encasing the filling as he goes.","At the end, he folds the opposite end closed.","It takes a burma chef months to perfect this technique.","He places it on a tray to air-dry for 24 hours to ensure the dough maintains its rolled shape.","Unlike classic baklava, which is baked, burma is fried.","And the risk of burning the pistachios makes this the most technically challenging type of baklava to make.","The chef fries the loaves for 3 minutes in oil heated to around 350 degrees fahrenheit, turning them once per minute.","He lets the oil drain off for half an hour.","Then, he pours warm caramelized sugar over the loaves and lets them soak for 20 minutes.","The sugar-to-water ratio and the boiling time of the caramelized sugar have to be just right.","Otherwise, it will become either too hard or to gooey when it cools.","After letting the excess drain off, the loaves rest for about 3 hours.","Then the chef rolls the loaf to flatten out the bumps and slices it into equal pieces.","But if there's a protracted battle waging between your sweet tooth and your willpower, you've got plenty of time to work your way through a box of burma because it stays fresh for 2 weeks.","To make galaktoboureko, the chef begins with two ingredients, milk and semolina.","After bringing the milk to a boil, he gradually adds the semolina while whisking and lowering the temperature.","Once the mix thickens, he sets it aside to cool.","In a separate bowl, the chef whisks eggs, adds vanilla, then lemon or orange rind.","Other options are orange blossom or rose water extract.","He transfers the ingredients to an electric mixer, adds butter and sugar.","Then he adds the semolina and milk mixture.","This mixture must be cool so that the eggs don't cook.","Once everything is thoroughly blended, the galaktoboureko custard is ready.","The chef now turns his attention to the filo dough.","He stacks 24 parchment-thin sheets of filo and slices them into squares.","He places one scoopful of custard in the center of each square.","The traditional greek way is to roll the squares or bake a large galaktoboureko in a pan and then cut it into squares.","However, this chef folds over each square to make lebanese-style triangles.","He douses the top with clarified butter, butter that's been boiled to separate out the solids and leave just the oil.","Then he bakes the pastries for 45 minutes at 325 degrees fahrenheit.","The golden-baked top shines thanks to the clarified butter.","The chef cooks the same syrup he made for the baklava, sugar, water, cinnamon, nutmeg and lemon and generously drizzles the mixture all over the galaktobourekos.","He sprinkles on cinnamon for traditional flavor and some crushed pistachios for decoration.","The annual apple harvest is just 2 months long.","To keep apples fresh in storage for several months, growers lower the storeroom oxygen level to put the apples into hibernation.","Then they use machines called co2 scrubbers to absorb and remove the carbon dioxide gas the apples give off.","This co2 scrubber pulls air from the airtight apple storage room through carbon pellets, which absorb the co2 gas molecules.","The machine then blows the co2-free air back into the room.","Workers build the machine's frame out of tubular steel.","The frame supports all the components, including two sealed vessels filled with carbon pellets.","The first vessel starts absorbing co2, a process called scrubbing, until its pellets are saturated.","Then the second vessel takes over the scrubbing.","The first vessel automatically kicks into a regeneration cycle, which blows fresh air through the pellets to remove the co2 molecules and exhaust them out the building.","When the second vessel's pellets max out, vessel one resumes scrubbing while vessel two regenerates.","To construct each vessel, workers weld a steel sheet into a circular shape, then weld on a base and a top ring.","The ring has holes along its perimeter for bolting on a lid.","They use a ring template to make corresponding holes in the lid, making the exact center of each hole with a punch tool.","Then a worker mounts the lid on a fixture and following those marks, uses an automated steel punch to perforate the steel.","The vessels go to the paint booth for a coat of powder paint, then into an oven to bake the paint.","When they come out, the vessels are ready to be filled with carbon pellets and sealed.","Once filled to the top, workers lay in a steel baffle.","Its holes evenly distribute air passing through the vessel.","A worker then places a foam rubber gasket around the perimeter and bolts on the lid tightly.","This seals the vessel and prevents the air being blown through it from leaking out.","The sealed lid also prevents oxygen from getting into the machine and from there into the apple storage room.","Next, workers install the pvc piping that feeds air through the vessels along with two blowers.","One blower pulls air from the apple storage room into the machine for scrubbing.","The other sends it back to the room after scrubbing.","The air flow through the pipes is controlled by valves, which are wired to the machine's electrical panel.","That electrical panel, consisting of relays, pumps, gas analyzers and a touch screen, is built in-house in accordance with the required electrical standards of the customer's country.","The panel is wired to a computer which controls the entire operation.","Then a worker installs an electrical box into the machine's frame.","And he installs the electrical panel inside the box.","Next, the worker connects the wires to the valves, installs the touch screen and hooks it up to the computer.","The touch screen lets the machine's operator program oxygen and co2 target levels specific to the type of apple stored in the room.","This is critical, as different varieties of apples give off more co2 than others.","How does it all work?","The grower stacks bins of apples in an airtight storeroom.","A nitrogen generator feeds in nitrogen to reduce the room's oxygen level to 1.8%.","When that happens, the nitrogen feed automatically stops, and the continuous co2 scrubbing automatically begins.","Many growers have in-house labs which conduct quality control tests on samples taken from each lot of scrubbed apples coming out of storage.","No apples would pass these tests after the 2-month harvest season if not for the co2 scrubbers.","Co2 scrubbers lengthen an apple's freshness by about 8 months, making it possible to bite into crispy apples year-round.","Honeycomb candles are glowing reminders of the cleverness of the honeybee.","These candles are embossed with a hexagonal pattern that mimics the cell structures bees build to store their honey.","And interestingly, these candles are actually made from the wax foundation sheets used for beekeepers' hive frames.","Honeycomb candles create a certain ambiance.","They shine brightly.","And the hexagonal pattern that's borrowed from the bees adds visual interest.","The candle makers start with beeswax that has had the impurities filtered out and has been bleached.","A worker first pours the beeswax into a big gas-heated kettle until it melts.","It only takes around 1/10 of an ounce of powdered dye to tint the big vat of wax.","He measures the amount carefully.","The worker adds the dye and, as it dissolves in the liquid beeswax, he stirs it to distribute it evenly.","He then opens a valve, and the wax flows into a trough beneath a large drum.","This drum is cooled by a system of chillers.","As it rotates, it picks up the wax.","And the wax solidifies on contact with the drum's cool surface.","The system then pulls the wax sheets through a narrow aperture to squeeze it thinner.","At this point, the consistency of the wax is similar to that of taffy.","But unlike taffy, it's not very sticky, so the layers don't adhere when rolled onto a shaft.","The next member of the team now prepares a bath of warm water and soap.","He then loosens up the coil of beeswax by hand.","The roll slackens.","The wax layers separate, leaving spaces between them.","He immerses the wax in warm water.","And it flows between the layers.","The warm water softens the edges as a thinning machine reduces the thickness of the wax by half.","Using blocks of ice, the operator then cools the softened wax to firm it up again.","He constantly adds liquid soap for lubrication.","This keeps the beeswax moving through the thinning machine and prevents snags.","Using a measuring instrument called a caliper, he gauges the thickness of the wax to confirm that it's 0.16 of a centimeter.","Next, the operator removes the roll of beeswax from the thinning machine spindle and transfers it to the spindle for the next machine.","This machine pulls the wax through a bath of icy water to firm it up even more.","This will top the wax from sticking to embossing rollers that now impress the hexagonal pattern onto it.","Each of the embossing rollers is studded with 3,500 hexagonal-shaped rivets.","They stamp the pattern onto both sides of the wax.","A blade slices the embossed beeswax into sheets that are 16 inches in length.","The sheets pass under another roller.","And this one propels them off the track.","The sheets are briefly airborne and then, they land in a neat stack.","To make them into candles, another member of the team cuts the sheets to the desired length and width.","The dimensions will vary depending on the size of the candles to be made.","Leftover remnants will be melted down to make new candles.","These beeswax sheets are now ready to be rolled by hand.","The candle maker places a cotton wick on one edge of the sheet.","She then wraps the wax around the wick, applying gentle pressure as she works.","She presses the layers firmly together because the tighter the roll, the longer the candle will burn.","At room temperature, the wax is warm, so the layers of the candle adhere.","Finally, she packages them in plastic cellophane and applies all the necessary labels.","These honeycomb beeswax candles are now ready to light up a space and help set the mood.","They should burn for 8 or 9 hours or until it's time to call it a night."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Stainless Steel","Football Helmets","Resin Figurines","Laboratory Glassware"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" stainless steel...","Football helmets...","Resin figurines...","And laboratory glassware.","Stainless steel was invented in the early part of the 20th century.","The key ingredient is chrome, which forms a protective oxide film on the surface.","Originally called nonrusting steel, it amazed consumers because it didn't need to be polished and today, the concept hasn't lost its luster.","Stainless steel is made to look shiny and new even though it starts from scrap.","Old stainless steel is recycled to make new, giving trashed sinks, pots, and other refuse a new lease on life.","Tons of scrap steel are fed into a roaring furnace along with chrome and nickel alloys for added strength and rust-proofing.","Enormous electrodes heat the mix to the melting point, creating a dramatic fireworks display in the process.","After several hours, the molten mix goes into a refining furnace.","Pipes blast in argon gas and oxygen, converting some impurities to gas and causing others to float to the surface for easy removal.","A technician regularly checks the temperature and takes samples to make sure the chemistry is right.","A bit more scrap is added to bulk up the mixture as it melts.","The scrap also causes a chemical reaction that helps to fuel the refiner.","The bubbling steel soup now flows out of the refining furnace.","Rollers guide it as it's cast into a long mold.","The result is a 75-yard-long ribbon of steel.","Torches cut it into shorter chunks called slabs.","A worker writes identification information on each one using chalk designed for hot surfaces.","Then, the slabs are hoisted over to another station to await further processing.","After this break in production, the slabs are reheated to soften them up for more processing.","By now, a rusty scale has accumulated on the steel surface.","Workers pressure wash it away without cooling the hot metal.","The slab shoots back and forth through a machine with rollers.","A constant spray cools the rollers as they stretch the steel longer and thinner.","It's now over 650 yards long, the length of a couple of city blocks.","A spray of water cools the stretched steel a little, but not too much because it needs to be soft and flexible enough for coiling.","This spool coils the strip tightly like a roll of toilet paper.","Then, the roll is transferred to another station.","Here, the steel goes into a hot acid wash that removes the scale that's built up since the last cleaning.","Burners in this machine also heat the steel, then slowly cool it.","This relieves stress in the metal, softening it for further processing.","The steel is now unwound into a machine that rolls it to the customer's specified thickness.","Rolling the metal when it's cold also hardens it and closes its surface pores, making it shine.","After one last cleaning, the stainless steel strips are gleaming and the chrome in the steel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form that rust-preventing oxide film.","Finally, rotating knives trim the edges and slit the steel to various widths, again, to meet customer's specifications.","This job is now done, and it's a brilliant finish indeed.","Up next, meet the starting lineup at a football helmet factory.","Football helmets cushion the cranium, helping players score touchdowns without sustaining head injuries.","Helmets have been part of the sport for over a century.","First made of leather, then padded plastic, they keep the end zone from becoming a danger zone.","In a game of tackles and tumbles, a helmet is essential equipment.","To make one, plastic pellets are suctioned into a machine that melts and molds them into a dome shape.","This fist-like device shapes the inside of the shell, which hardens in just a matter of seconds.","A robot then collects it and transfers it to a conveyor.","It's quite a lineup.","The shells move into position for a trimming, and the extra plastic from the molding is clipped off.","Next, a robot drills up to nine holes in the shell.","The holes will be used to attach a liner, face guard, and various pieces of hardware.","This robot works far more quickly than a human can, performing all the drilling in just 30 seconds.","This is the ultimate in computerized precision.","A worker collects the drilled shell and moves a new one into position for the robot.","The outside of the helmet shell is roughed up with an orbital sander.","This preps it for priming and painting.","This factory uses a high-grade brand of automotive paint, and it takes three coats to make sure this paint job is rugged enough to survive a go on the gridiron.","The helmets cure in the open air for up to 18 hours.","During this time, a chemical reaction hardens the paint to a glossy finish.","Not every helmet is painted.","Some teams prefer tinted plastic.","It all depends on the look the team is going for.","Labels are attached, including safety information, trademark logos and the date of production.","This padding is made of vinyl and foam.","Workers snap it in place in the crown of the helmet.","The padding for the side and back is made of the same material.","The back is reinforced with a plastic bumper.","A helmet from each production run undergoes an impact test.","It's fitted on a head-shaped form equipped with sensors which are carefully calibrated.","The technician presses a button and the helmeted head falls.","This mimics the effect of a player's head hitting the ground during a tackle.","The computer then measures the force of the impact on the head.","Once the production run gets the okay, the face guard is attached.","It's made of plastic-coated steel and has been custom produced at a different factory.","There are dozens of face guard styles for the player to choose from.","This helmet is now looking pretty fierce.","But it's not ready for action yet.","It needs a chin strap and cup.","This machine uses heat to transfer a foil logo onto the polyester chin straps.","It also cuts them to the correct length.","Once a chin cup has been sewn to the strap, the assembly is loosely fastened to the helmet.","Later, it will be precisely fitted to the player's head.","This helmet is now almost ready for kickoff.","There's a final inspection and then they wrap it up, complete with the manual and fitting instructions.","It's taken less than a day to manufacture a football helmet that can withstand thousands of blows.","Because in the game of football, protection against head injury is a victory in itself.","When we return, bringing resin figurines to life.","Figurines are made of many materials, from porcelain to plaster to resin-- not the kind that comes from trees, but a synthetic resin, a kind of plastic.","It's affordable, lightweight, and easy to use, making it the material of choice for many artists and craftsmen.","Each figurine in this collection is cast from a mold of the original sculpture, then hand painted.","This character is a 19th-century federal marshal.","Working from period photographs of her subject, the artist makes a sketch she'll use as a model.","She needs plastic-based clay so it's easier to sculpt.","She works on the facial features, constantly referring to the photographs.","She usually starts with the figure's head and then adds it to the body.","She works from more photographs to create his rifle.","It's a delicate piece, so she sculpts it separately before setting it onto the figure.","Bearing the artist's signature, it's now ready for casting.","First, the sculpture bakes for 30 minutes at 275 degrees to harden.","Then, workers cover it with a thin layer of releasing agent so it won't stick to the production mold they're about to make.","They place a wall around the piece, tightly seal the base to prevent leaks, then pour in the silicone rubber mix.","In two days, the rubber hardens enough to hold the shape of the sculpture, but is still flexible enough that workers can remove the original artwork without damage.","After removing the retaining wall, suction is used to gently pull the piece from the mold which retains the sculpture's shape down to every last detail.","Now, figurine production can begin.","Workers fill the mold with a mixture of resin and flour made from ground pecan shells.","This colors the resin and makes it stronger.","The mixture sets in less than an hour and out comes the first of many figurines, an exact replica of the original artwork.","The base is sanded to level it.","Then, it's stamped with the figurine's name, i.d. number, and copyright information.","Resin is an ideal material for casting because it captures all the details of the original artwork.","It creates lightweight, durable reproductions that can be finished in a variety of ways.","Here the first artist coats the figurine's broad areas with acrylic paint.","Working color by color, she uses various brushes depending on the area she's painting.","She finishes up with the smaller details.","Then, she passes the figurine on to the next artist.","This second artist fills in the facial features and other fine details.","She starts with the whites of the eyes, then views the figurines from all angles to make sure she hasn't overlooked any tiny details.","Her fine brushwork on the facial features is what truly bring this figurine to life.","Bass reeves, u.s. marshal, is just one figurine in this series that proudly honors the contribution of african-americans in shaping the history of the united states.","Once marshal reeves passes inspection, workers wrap him up in protective bubble plastic.","Each piece in the series comes with a certificate of authenticity bearing the artist's signature as well as the name and life story of the person the figurine portrays.","Collecting this set of resin figurines isn't just for the knickknack lover.","This is indeed affordable art for the history buff, small-scale figures that pay a large-scale tribute to african-americans pioneers.","Coming up, behind the scenes of a real test-tube birth.","Their size, shape and function run the gamut, ranging from beakers and test tubes to petri dishes and vials.","Mixing, measuring, storing, or sampling is all in a day's work for a piece of laboratory glassware, built to withstand even the most potent of chemical concoctions.","Many scientific breakthroughs are born inside laboratory glassware, the containers scientists use to hold samples for chemical experiments.","The glassware starts off as thin glass tubing stacked by size, weight, length, and diameter.","Workers select the correct size for the culture tubes they're about to make and place them in a magazine.","As it spins, it drops a tube into each slot on a cutting bed.","Then comes the flame.","When the heated tubing contacts the wet steel blade, the thermal shock results in a clean separation of the glass.","The tubes get a second thermal shock treatment which cuts them to length.","Then it's on to the glazing bed.","A glazing burner shoots out 1,200-degree flames.","The heat melts each tube at one end, forming a lip called the glass bead.","Just two seconds of heat splits the tubes in half and forces the glass bottom of each tube to close in on itself.","The finishing fire smooths out the closure.","Then, a small amount of air is shot into the open end of the tube to form its round bottom.","Now, the tubes head into an annealing oven side by side.","They bake for about 15 minutes at 1,200 degrees.","This strengthens the glass so it will better resist cracking.","The heat also sterilizes the tubes.","Once the tubes cool, workers collect and pack them.","Here they're making pipettes, long tubes that labs use to transfer fluids.","A flame heats the glass to form an indentation which determines the flow rate through the pipette.","A wider flame then heats the glass, making it soft and malleable.","Large rollers tug at the sides, drawing the soft glass to form the pipette's tip.","Now, for the other end of the pipette.","Thermal shock is used to cut it to length and again, a glazing burner forms a glass bead along the rim.","A cutting wheel slices through the tip end, creating two tubes of identical length.","This production line makes vials.","These gizmos, called top turrets, feed large glass tubes into a machine.","First, a punch-out burner heats the end of the tube to create an opening.","Then, a steel pin widens the hole on the upper part of the vial.","A forming dye squeezes the heated glass to sculpt the shoulder while a steel plug rises from the bottom to open the vial even wider.","Then, a second forming dye shapes the neck.","Next, a parting burner splits the vial into two.","A bottom turret plucks the newly created half and draws out the soft glass to lengthen it.","Fingers inside the turret prevent the glass from breaking.","All that's left now is shaping the bottom of the vial.","A burner forms a concave base in less than a second.","The vials now slide down to what's called an after-former machine.","Here, suction cups lift and place each vial into metal grooves on a printer bed.","It's a basic silk-screening process with a squeegee pushing paint through the screen's holes onto the vial.","Grippers place the vials on a rack headed for the oven where they'll bake for about 20 minutes.","Finally, a robotic arm whisks the finished vials to packaging.","From there, it's off to a blood bank, a hospital, or chemistry class."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Handcrafted Skis","Septic Tanks","Hydroformed Chassis Parts","Aquarium Windows"]},"text":["You can buy mass-produced skis from a large company, or you could choose to purchase a handcrafted set from a small independent.","It's a matter of preference-- much like drinking beer produced by a major brewery versus a microbrewery.","In fact, many ski-buying guides call small, independent brands microbrews.","Handmade skis typically feature exclusive designs with high-end craftsmanship.","They're produced in limited quantities by small, independent companies.","This maker builds the core of the ski from two types of wood-- colorado aspen and colorado pine.","They're harvested from trees killed by pine beetles.","Workers glue together 8 to 10 pieces, depending on the width of the ski.","The pieces form a laminated block that's structurally stronger than a solid piece of wood.","They clamp the block in a press for two hours while the glue dries.","After they remove the block from the press, they use a band saw to cut off strips.","Each strip will be the core of a ski.","One block typically makes six ski cores.","Next, they shape the ski cores with a router, using a template underneath the ski contour.","They apply a blowtorch to strips of ultra-high molecular-weight plastic to make it bondable.","Then they coat the plastic with epoxy and adhere a strip of it to each side of the ski core.","This forms a sturdy sidewall to protect the core from side impact.","After the epoxy sets, they saw 6 inches off the front and back of the ski.","With a hand planer, they taper the thickness of the ends.","Then they heat the sidewalls again to prep them for bonding.","But first, workers glue a plastic core called a tipspacer to the front of the wood core.","This holds the parts together during construction.","Then they use a hand-crank die machine to die-cut the brand name and logo into a strip of ultra-high molecular-weight plastic.","They die-cut the same letters in white, then place them in the black cutout strip.","This is the ski's base.","Now they can begin constructing the skis.","They take a left and right base and spread epoxy over the entire surface.","They lay down a layer of epoxy-saturated fiberglass and position the ski core on top.","Then they spread epoxy on the core and tipspacers, as well as lay extra fiberglass where the bindings will be installed.","They position steel plates for mounting the bindings, then cover the entire ski with another layer of fiberglass.","Finally, they add a nylon top sheet printed with a graphic design.","They cover the assembly with a series of metal sheets and silicone heating blankets, then place everything in a custom-design ski press.","When workers activate the press, rubber air bladders inflate, pressing the wood into a ski shape.","35 minutes later, the skis come out of the press.","A worker separates them with a band saw.","Using a jigsaw, they trim the tip and tail.","The saw leaves a rough edge, so workers sand the entire perimeter.","Then they taper and bevel the sidewall.","This gives the skis a better edge grip on snow.","The final step is to peel off the film that has been protecting the nylon top throughout construction.","These handmade skis come in several different styles, shapes, and sizes.","All they need now are bindings.","Then it's all downhill from here.","Septic tanks are the perfect sewage-treatment solution for houses that aren't connected to a sewage network.","The tank collects and treats domestic wastewater using a bacterial process to decompose waste.","It filters the dirty water before recycling it back into the ground.","Septic tanks are usually made of concrete and have access covers on top.","The waste-treatment process takes place in separate chambers inside the tank.","Steel bars called rebars reinforce the concrete structure of the tank.","A welder assembles the rods to form a cage.","Then he spot-welds the rebar with a mig welding torch.","The welded cage will maintain the structural integrity of the concrete septic tank.","The welder measures the cage's diagonals to make sure it's straight.","Next, the worker places rebar spacers to keep the cage centered in the mold and leveled on the floor.","A crane lowers the cage into a custom formwork made of high-strength steel plates.","Workers close the walls around the form and secure them in place with heavy-duty locks.","The crane lowers machined steel cores to form the interior walls of the tank chambers.","A rigid plastic tube is inserted inside a rubber sleeve to create a flow hole between chambers.","Using an acetylene torch, a worker cuts holes in the rebar for access openings.","The mold allows concrete to flow over the rebar and embed the access-opening covers in the septic-tank lid.","Workers pour over 1,300 gallons of wet concrete into the mold.","They use a stick vibrator to eliminate air pockets and level the walls with a putty knife.","Next, they mix more concrete and pour it over the top-slab rebar.","Concrete blocks are used to keep the plastic covers from floating in the wet concrete.","While one worker pours the concrete in the mold, the other consolidates the mixture with a vibrating stick.","Then a worker levels the top of the slab with a trowel.","Once the concrete tank is cured, workers strip the forms.","They remove the concrete tank using an overhead crane and a compressed-air system, which forces the mold away from the concrete tank.","The crane takes the stripped core away for cleanup.","A worker brushes the top of the walls and sweeps the floor inside the tank.","Then he applies a butyl-rubber tape around the top of the exterior wall.","This forms a watertight seal between the tank and the lid.","An overhead crane lifts the lid out of the formwork and brings it to the tank mold.","The crane slowly lowers the lid onto the tank.","Workers keep it aligned to make sure it seals properly.","Then they label the tank to indicate its capacity.","Next, the mold is opened, revealing a finished septic tank.","The rubber sleeve molded into the wall ensures a watertight connection between the pipe carrying waste from the home and the tank.","This tank is now ready for delivery.","They set the tank in the ground at the client's home using a radio-remote-controlled knuckle-boom crane.","A septic tank like this will provide a three-bedroom house with a fully independent sewage system.","Building a vehicle begins with the chassis.","Chassis used to be made out of welded-steel parts that were very heavy and lowered fuel efficiency.","But thanks to a manufacturing process called hydroforming, steel chassis parts are now much lighter and stronger.","Years ago, this suspension-system component would have been made by stamping a number of parts out of heavy steel, then welding them together.","But today, the same component is made out of a single steel tube at a hydroforming plant.","A solid tube is stronger than welded parts, allowing the component to be made out of lighter steel.","The first step is to insert the steel tube in a computer-guided machine called a rotary draw bender.","The machine inserts a mandrel to prevent the tube walls from collapsing.","Then it bends the tube into a starting shape for the part.","This operation may look effortless, but the machine's hydraulics must generate nearly 9 tons of pressure to bend the steel.","After several bends, the part has its starting shape.","The hydroforming process begins when a robot places the tube in a press for preliminary shaping.","This is called preforming.","The press forces the tube against a die to prepare it for the hydroforming mold.","Here's the tube before preforming...","And after.","Next, a robot places the steel tube in a part mold that's already mounted on the hydroforming press.","The machine fills the tube with water and seals the ends to trap the liquid inside.","Then the machine closes the mold and raises the water pressure to 20,000 p.s.i.-- more than 600 times the air pressure in a car tire.","The high pressure softens the steel tube, allowing it to conform to the shape of the mold cavity.","When the press opens, a robot removes the now-fully-formed part from the mold.","The hydroforming press even punched holes in it for screws and bolts.","Next, a robot transfers the part to a circular saw, which cuts the component in half.","This creates mirror-image right and left suspension parts.","The saw left sharp edges on the ends of the part, so a worker smoothes them out with a handheld grinder.","Then they inspect the parts by putting them in a specially designed dimension-verification fixture.","They use tools called precise-diameter spheres to make sure the clearances between each part meet specifications.","If the parts pass inspection, they're shipped to the assembly plant.","There, workers position these parts and adjacent suspension parts in an assembly jig.","An automated machine welds them together.","Then a worker positions the next part and welds it to the rear-suspension unit.","He repeats this process until the entire assembly is complete.","To make the suspension unit corrosion-resistant, they apply a chemical coating which is bonded to the steel with an electrical charge.","Once the coating dries, automated machines insert bushings for parts that will be installed on the suspension later.","Bushings are rubber or polyurethane pieces that go in between two metal components to absorb shock and reduce noise.","Workers put the finished rear suspension into a shipping cradle for delivery to the auto plant.","At the plant, assembly-line workers install springs and shock absorbers.","They also mount struts, wheels, and brakes.","Then they install the entire unit on the vehicle.","Hydroforming allows auto manufacturers the ability to produce chassis parts in shapes impossible to achieve by the older method of stamping steel and reduces the weight of the car.","Acrylic aquarium windows are designed to be transparent.","But they also need to be virtually indestructible and able to hold back several hundred gallons of water.","Some of the largest ones are built to withstand repeated hits from sharks or other big fish that are swimming around inside the tank.","Acrylic aquarium windows can be molded into different shapes and sizes.","They can also be made to various thicknesses.","Round, flat, or just slightly curved, these windows are worth looking into, because they offer close-up views of aquatic ecosystems.","Each acrylic window starts with an engineer's design.","He takes into account the anticipated water volume and the type of marine life to be housed in the tank.","Next, a technician measures specific amounts of chemicals to be added to the acrylic.","Two are strengthening agents and another is a u.v.-light stabilizer to counteract the damaging effects of the sun's rays.","After the chemicals have been mixed with the binding agent, they add them to a small amount of acrylic.","This premix will be added to a much larger amount of acrylic later.","They blend in some dye to offset the yellowish tone that's common in acrylic.","The result is a homogenous mixture with a syrupy consistency.","Using a crane, they bring two halves of a steel mold together and place them on supports.","Once the walls of the mold are in place, they lock them together with bolts.","The final acrylic mixture is ready.","It now flows into the mold cavity.","A thermostat for heat coils located in the walls is activated.","They roll the mold into an autoclave.","The acrylic slowly bakes under pressure to ensure a consistent cure.","It takes five days for the acrylic to turn into a solid slab.","An employee monitors the temperature readings daily.","Once the acrylic cures, they slice a piece off and bend it with a hydraulic tool until it breaks.","If the piece can withstand 14,000 pounds per square inch without breaking, it passes the test.","At another station, they test the elasticity of the acrylic.","They do a few more compression tests to prove that the acrylic holds strong under heavy pressure.","After testing, they're ready to cut the acrylic slab.","Acrylic shrinks unevenly during the curing process, so they need to cut it to the desired size and shape afterwards.","As you can see, aquarium windows are a lot thicker than normal windows.","To make a contoured aquarium window, they lower a flat acrylic slab onto a curved molding bed.","Then they heat it in an oven for up to a month.","This causes the acrylic to soften and conform to the rounded shape of the molding bed.","Once again, they've made the slab oversized to account for the distortion and shrinkage that can occur during the curing process.","A worker cuts the curved slab to the engineer's specifications.","He cuts off big chunks.","They're so heavy that it takes three people to carry them away.","They test the optical clarity of each window.","To do this, a worker on one side of the window moves a grid pattern around while a worker on the other side scrutinizes the grid lines for distortion.","Satisfied that the aquarium window offers a clear view, they clean and polish it thoroughly.","They'll do a final clean after the window is installed on-site.","The time it takes to manufacture an aquarium window depends on the complexity of its design and the window's thickness.","Some can be produced in as little as four weeks.","No matter how long it takes, there's no doubt that the views will be well worth the wait."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Replica Foods","Traffic Cone Dispensers","Rocking Horses","London Taxis"]},"text":["This meal may look delicious, but it actually tastes like plastic.","This is fake food.","It's not for tasting--  it's for tempting.","Restaurants and food stores use these imitations to entice customers.","Fake food is also used as props in movies and tv because the camera loves it.","This fake food will keep that fresh-cooked look forever.","That means there will be no waste from the restaurant display case.","These authentic-looking fakes start out with the real thing.","In this case, it's a sea bass.","The worker blots up excess oil from the skin.","He then uses an adhesive to glue the fish to the base of a wooden box.","Next, he immerses the fish in liquid silicone.","24 hours later, after the silicone is set, he breaks open the box and removes the fish.","This detailed silicone negative can now be used to mold exact replicas of the original fish.","They preheat the mold until it's warm to the touch.","This kick-starts the curing of this liquid plastic, which they pour into the mold.","Once the mold is filled, they zap it in a microwave oven for 45 seconds.","It solidifies the plastic significantly, but it still needs a bit more curing, so the worker transfers it to a conveyor.","It carries the mold under a lamp, whose intense energy completes the curing of the plastic.","The worker now extracts the mold and plastic replica.","Spillover from the molding has created a few ragged edges, so he trims them with a pair of scissors...","Then grinds the edges to smooth away the rest.","He also uses the grinder to do some contouring.","Now for the real artistry.","The worker sprays silvery paint onto the plastic bass.","It gives the fish scales a lifelike, luminous texture.","A bit of dark-gray paint brings out the silvery undercoat.","Brown paint on the tail and fins make them look more realistic.","Using an artist's brush, he paints the eyes.","He brushes on fine lines that look like natural creases and adds some other typical sea-bass markings.","A coat of lacquer keeps the paint from chipping and makes the sea bass look moist.","Now the sea bass will always look like the catch of the day.","And unlike a real fish, it won't start to decompose.","At this faux-food factory, there are 3,500 molds.","Each one can be used hundreds of times and will produce an exact copy of the original every time.","For things like meat and potatoes, they add color to the liquid plastic before they do the molding.","This reduces the amount of painting they'll need to do later.","It takes some trial and error to get the pigments just right, but when they do, this fake meal looks good enough to eat.","They drizzle the beef and side dishes with gravy-colored glue that makes the fake food adhere to the plate.","Now that they've pulled this meal together, it should never come apart.","It takes a couple of days to produce all these dishes, but it should be worth it because, compared to real food, it will last forever.","Traffic cones create a necessary diversion.","They keep drivers away from dangerous situations.","But sending workers out onto the highway to set up those cones can be a perilous job.","Now there's an automated machine that both dispenses and collects cones to keep everyone out of harm's way.","The automated traffic cone dispenser goes where some might fear to tread-- the middle of the highway.","Its robotic arm swings back and forth for a speedy deployment of traffic cones.","To make one, workers slide three big metal disks onto a shaft and space them evenly apart.","They pull a string from disk to disk to confirm all three are aligned.","Once they're in place, a worker welds the disks to the shaft.","They reinforce this installation job with several braces, welding five to each disk at the point where it meets the shaft.","They spin the shaft and inspect the work.","Next, they install the tracks that will shuttle the traffic cones to the robotic arm.","They weld 13 of them to the disks.","The framework for the automatic traffic cone dispenser is now complete, so it's over to the paint booth.","They prime and paint it bright yellow, so it will be clearly visible on the highway.","Here, a technician then assembles the main control panel.","It's the brains behind the cone-dispensing robot.","The technician connects cables that deliver power to the motors.","He installs a series of switches and relays that will activate the motors that rotate the drum, swing the robotic arm, and deliver the traffic cones.","Finally, he tests the circuit breakers to confirm that all systems are go.","Down the production line, this worker attaches the gripper to the arm.","A pivot bolt allows the gripper to open and close, and this chain will keep it pointed downward, so it's always in position to deploy a traffic cone.","He tightens the turnbuckles and then checks the chain's tension.","He swings the arm to confirm that it and the gripper move freely.","Now he installs the transmission for the motor that will move this robotic arm.","Finally, he snaps a retainer ring onto the transmission shaft.","Two workers then carry a heavy extender mechanism over to the gripper arm and bolt the mechanism to it.","This extender will both support the arm and allow it to move easily from one side of the dispenser to the other.","A sensor device, called an encoder, will keep track of the gripper arm's position when it's moving.","The technician then installs the motor that will power the gripper arm to oscillate and deploy the traffic cones.","Once the gripper arm has been attached to the cone dispenser, they mount the whole unit on a trailer, with the main control box on the front.","They adjust the settings for traffic-cone deployment and put the machine through all its paces.","This test run ensures that all the parts are functioning properly.","A technician tweaks the machine's computer program to fine-tune the drop-off coordinates.","After all, releasing the cones too soon could cause them to topple.","Every automatic cone dispenser undergoes a road test on the open highway to confirm that it will perform in real conditions.","The driver activates it from the safety of the truck cab, while the robotic system is at center line, doing all the lifting and taking all the risks.","If they find a problem now, they'll send it back to the factory for modifications, but this machine handles the drop-offs and pickups with precision, and that means it's ready for traffic duty.","The ancestors of toy rocking horses may be the wooden horses on wheels of the middle ages, on which knights would practice their jousting skills.","Child-sized wooden horses on bow-shaped rockers emerged in england and germany in the 1700s, when queen victoria famously had dapple-gray rocking horses made for her children.","This rocking-horse company in the u.k. handcrafts antique reproductions and originals.","Some have traditional bow rockers, but most glide back and forth on a safety stand.","The horses are made of durable hardwoods, such as oak, maple, and tulipwood.","After cutting off knots and other defects, workers run each piece through a ripsaw, slicing off the rough and discolored wood directly under the bar.","Then they cut the pieces into 12-inch-wide blocks, and with a planer, slice off a thin layer of wood.","This makes the surfaces nice and smooth.","These are the blocks with which they'll construct the horse's main body.","To make the legs, an artisan lays a template on an as-yet-unplaned piece of wood and traces it.","Then he cuts along the trace line with a band saw and runs the leg through the planer.","Each leg has a protruding piece on top called a tenon that fits into a slot called a mortise beneath the main body.","To build the body, they roll glue onto the body blocks and assemble one to the other, building a large rectangular box with a hole at the center.","This hole reduces the horse's weight and relieves structural stress.","In some models, the hole also serves as a secret locking compartment.","After clamping the assembly and letting it set for 24 hours, they coat each leg tenon with glue and insert it into a mortise.","After rough-carving the body, a highly skilled craftsman outlines the head features in pencil-- cheekbones, nostrils, eyes, teeth.","Then he begins the meticulous task of carving the horse to completion, hitting a mallet against a u-shaped gouge.","This painstaking carving process takes 2 to 3 days.","Now, after inserting a glass eye, he rough-files the whole horse using a rasp to remove all the gouge marks.","This takes another few hours.","Then he smoothes the entire surface with an electric sander four times over, using progressively finer sandpapers.","He does the final sanding touch-ups by hand.","The wood is now ready to be either stained or painted to the customer's specifications.","If it's the latter, the artist first applies a coat of water-based primer, then, for this client's custom order, a coat of light-blue paint that turns gray when varnished.","Once the background color dries, he hand-stipples a pattern.","After the surface is varnished and waxed, he dresses the horse in a suede saddle blanket.","He uses brass tacks to affix it along the leather trim.","Next, he nails the leather saddle in place.","He squeezes globs of glue into a slot running down the horse's neck and inserts the mane, a weft of genuine horsehair.","Then he nails it in place.","Now he applies glue to the tail hole and fits a tail, also made of real horsehair.","Now they begin constructing the safety stand, on which the rocking horse will glide.","To make the posts, they turn cylindrical blocks of wood on a lathe.","Then they assemble the posts to the other parts of the stand and stain the wood.","They apply two coats of varnish and let the stand dry overnight.","They install the stand's stained and varnished gliders and mount the horse.","They drill a hole through each hoof and glider, then join them with a nut and bolt.","The gliders connect to the front and back of the frame with plated steel swing irons.","The angle at which the irons are set ensures a continuous smooth glide.","So even though these rocking horses are built to withstand the weight of two adults, riding them is child's play.","With curved lines and classic styling, the black cabs of london are internationally recognized as british icons.","Many say the london taxi system is the best in the world, and for many london visitors, a taxi ride is more than just transportation-- it's a tourist attraction unto itself.","The modern black cab was born in 1948.","Today, there are about 20,000 black cabs on the streets of london.","Because the taxi can easily be driven 30,000 miles each year, the cars need to be robust.","To start, operators position steel panels into a press that uses hydraulics and air pressure to fold them.","The press can apply up to 800 tons of force to fold and form each chassis component.","Once they get their 3-dimensional shape, the supple panels become stiff side rails.","Welders then assemble two side rail with a cruciform to create the chassis assembly.","They clamp the side rails firmly in place before welding them.","The taxi uses a 4-cylinder, direct-injection, turbodiesel engine that is hoisted in with the gearbox.","Then they connect the radiator hoses and pipes to the engine.","The axles, wheels, suspension, and exhaust system are now in place.","To build the components of the taxi's body, welders assemble sheet metal using a spot welder.","The device has two copper electrodes that clamp the sheets together and concentrate electric current into a small spot.","Forcing a large current through the spot melts the metal and forms the weld.","Now it's time to assemble the taxi's sides and floor.","Since the floor is completely flat and the roof is high, passengers with reduced mobility can easily enter and exit the taxi.","The body has been covered with an anticorrosion coat and a gray primer.","Before the car gets its final color, a worker inspects it for any surface damage.","Infrared lamps warm the body shell to 122 degrees fahrenheit to make paint application easier.","Not all london taxis are black.","They spray this one with yellow paint.","Later, they apply a shiny clear coat.","Each painted car moves to the polishing room.","The bright lights allow the technicians to check for any dirt, runs, dry spray, or other paint defects as they carefully polish the car.","A worker bolts the hire sign to the roof.","A rubber seal prevents water leaks.","They carry the front windshield with rubber suction pads and carefully put it in place.","They seal the rubber sides to ensure they are watertight.","The body is covered with plastic casing to protect it from damage as it's hoisted down onto the chassis.","Although these taxis are large and roomy, their mandatory 28-foot curb-to-curb turning circle allows them to easily perform u-turns.","A driver tests the car at different speeds, changing gears, and testing the a.b.s. brakes.","Each taxi also undergoes a water test.","They check for leaks through the glass and around the doors.","With an access ramp and fold-down seats, it's easy for wheelchairs to board the taxi.","The taxi offers enough space for five seated passengers.","It takes about two weeks to build a taxi.","Then it's off to navigate the streets of london."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Champagne","ATMs","Marine Turbochargers"]},"text":["The word champagne is often used to describe sparkling white wines.","But true champagne can only come from the champagne region of france.","It must meet a long list of special requirements before receiving the coveted label.","The champagne industry is heavily regulated.","The grapes must be locally grown in the champagne region of france.","They can only use three types of grapes, black pinot noir, pinot meunier, or white chardonnay, to produce champagne.","Additional rules regulate how the grapes can be pruned, picked, pressed, fermented and aged.","Workers harvest the grapes in mid-september.","They use aerated crates to transfer the crops to a grape press.","They crush the grapes and immediately filter the juice.","The grape skins and pulp can alter the juice's flavor, so they have to be removed quickly.","Vintage champagne is fermented in old oak barrels.","They use a sulfur disk to disinfect the barrels between uses.","First, a worker lights the disk and inserts it through a hole on the side.","The flame goes out once it's sealed inside the barrel.","The sulfur smoke fills the barrel and kills off any bacteria.","Non-vintage champagnes are produced in these stainless steel tanks.","They start the fermentation process by adding yeast to the grape juice.","In about 10 days, the yeast turns the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas.","The alcohol level of the wine is now about 10 1/2 percent.","There are no bubbles yet because the co2 escaped through the top of the tank.","Each fermentation barrel and tank is labeled based on where the juice inside originated.","The grape juices from each village have distinctive tastes, caused by differences in soil composition and sun exposure.","Blending begins after the first fermentation.","The winery's experts experiment with different combinations until they find the taste and aroma they're looking for.","They bottle the mixture with yeast and sugar, and place it in a cold, damp cellar for 5 weeks.","This second fermentation raises the alcohol content to 12 1/2 percent.","After fermentation, they lie the bottles down horizontally and let the champagne age for up to 10 years.","After the aging, the bottles go into a machine that freezes the neck.","The yeast residue freezes in a small ice cube under the cork.","The carbon dioxide is invented during the second fermentation.","When workers open each bottle, the gas pressure ejects the ice cube.","This procedure is called disgorging.","A worker turns the bottle to minimize the amount of champagne that escapes.","Then he smells it to make sure the champagne hasn't spoiled.","The winery makes a special liqueur out of wine and cane sugar, which they add to the champagne.","The amount of liqueur added brings the champagne to one of three sweetness levels, known as brut, sec, or demi-sec.","The filling machine secures the new cork with a wire cap.","The next machine rotate the bottles to mix in the liqueur.","Then the bottles go into the cellar for at least 3 months.","After they come out of the cellar, the bottles go through an automated washing machine.","A worker inspects every bottle for floating cork particles or flaws in the glass.","The labeling machine's first station places gold foil over the neck.","The foil label bears the winery's name.","The second station fires a shot of compressed air to mold the foil to the shape of the cork.","The third station glues on the neck label.","It's made of varnished paper.","Then, the last station applies an adhesive label to the front of the bottle.","A scanner makes sure the foil and labels are in the correct place.","This bottle of champagne is finally ready to drink.","When you pop the cork, the gas trapped inside gently escapes.","Shaking the bottle just before opening will cause an even more dramatic champagne explosion.","Either way, it's the perfect drink to celebrate any occasion.","Cheers.","Before the automated teller machine, withdrawals and deposits were made in person.","Then, in the 1960s, simple cash machines started to appear all over europe.","Later, more sophisticated versions were developed.","Today's atms make it easy and convenient to bank outside of normal business hours.","Atms are made of two sections.","The bottom is a steel safe that houses the cash dispenser.","The head module contains all the user features on top.","Most of the atm's non-electronic parts are cut from steel sheets.","Workers load the steel sheets into a computer-guided laser cutting machine.","The laser uses focused light to generate intense heat.","The heat melts the steel to make the cuts.","The simpler parts are stamped with a die and a press.","Next, a robot loads the piece into a fully-automated computer-guided bending press.","The press bends the part into the required shape.","A computer guided spot welder fuses the simple parts together at set intervals.","For more complex parts, a computer guided 3-d laser welds the entire joint.","An automated transport system dips the steel parts in a metal primer to prevent corrosion.","After dipping, they dry the parts in an oven.","The housing parts are sprayed with liquid or powder paint.","Then they go into an oven to bake on the color.","This is the internal structure for the atm's head module.","Workers assemble all the module's internal components, including the power unit and the atm's computer.","Then, they lower the head module onto the atm's steel safe.","The safe's walls can be up to 2 inches thick.","There's a separate assembly line for the operation panel.","This panel goes on the front of the head module.","It contains everything used in an atm transaction, from the card reader, to the key pad, and even the speaker system.","The key pad encrypts the user's personal identification number inside the atm.","The machine has up to three security cameras.","They record the key pad, the cash tray and the atm user.","Workers connect the monitor to the internal computer.","They also install the card reader and the receipt slot.","At the bank's request, they can install a separate module for deposits.","However, this atm uses the cash out slot to accept deposits.","Workers also install the shutter, a computer-controlled flap on the cash out slot.","It opens when the machine accepts a deposit or dispenses money.","Next, workers mount the operation panel to the head module.","On a separate assembly line, they prepare the electronic mechanical unit.","It dispenses the money and accepts cash and checks for deposits.","Workers load cassettes into the unit for each cash denomination.","The bank will separate and stock the cash for their atm.","Before they install the unit in the atm, they hook it up to a test computer.","They test a few different transactions with fake bills to make sure it dispenses the correct amount.","If the unit passes testing, workers install it in the atm safe.","They run a couple of the finished machines through several quality control tests.","First, a shake test ensures the atm can withstand a bumpy ride during transport.","Next, they conduct a shower test to ensure that rain won't damage an outdoor atm.","There's also a climate test.","They place the atm in a chamber that simulates temperature ranging from negative 40 degrees to over 120 degrees fahrenheit.","Atms designed for extreme temperatures usually have built-in heating or cooling systems.","Every atm comes with basic operating software installed.","The banks then install their custom software or have the manufacturer do it for them.","It takes a powerful engine to move a cruise liner or a cargo vessel.","Turbochargers help make it possible.","They double the diesel engine's output to 100,000 horsepower or more.","Turbochargers also use exhaust gases to run the compressor.","In a ship's engine, the turbocharger is a welcome breath of fresh air.","It's capable of significantly boosting the engine's performance.","It does this by compressing almost 200 feet of air per second, then thrusting that air into the engine's combustion chamber.","First, they make the turbine wheel.","It's used to extract the exhaust gases.","A long cutting tool known as a broach carves a tree-shaped pattern around the edge of a steel disk.","The pine tree shapes are designed to interlock with the matching blades.","Next, a computer-guided saw slices a brass alloy cylinder into small bearings.","These bearings will support the turbine shaft.","They make several bearings in a range of sizes and materials for different turbochargers.","Computerized tools mill the surface of the axial bearing.","They also drill holes to connect the turbine rotor and the casing.","This is the completed bearing.","A worker inserts one of the turbochargers nickel alloy blades in a mold.","He leaves the foot of the blade sticking out.","He slides the mold directly under a spout, which dispenses a hot liquefied tin alloy.","He fills the mold to the top.","The tin alloy solidifies, encasing the blade just below the foot.","This structure will fit into a clamping device in the grinding operation.","An employee inserts the tin-encased blades into tensioning devices in the grinding machine.","Inside the tensioning device, a clamping mechanism grips the blades.","As coolant flows, a computerized grinder carves grooves in the feet.","They're specially designed to engage with the tree pattern on the turbine disk.","They pull the tin alloy blocks out of the machine.","They break the tin alloy, and remove the blade inside.","Now, it's ready to be connected to the turbine wheel.","A worker slides the blade foot into place on the turbine disk.","Then he bends a clip back halfway, with pliers.","He tightens the alignment with a clamp.","He hammers the clamp down further, until it lays flat against the blade foot and turbine wheel.","This secures the blade to the wheel.","He continues until the blades are in place.","It takes 41 blades to complete the job.","Next, computerized tools mill the aluminum compressor wheel and prepare it for cutting.","The tools carve blades and grooves in the compressor.","The design makes the compressor more aerodynamic.","An aerodynamic compressor is important because it allows more air to reach the ship's engine.","Here's the compressor wheel before and after the milling operation.","Next, they run through compressor through a safety test.","They lower it into a chamber and spin it a lot faster than it would normally operate.","They confirm that the compressor can withstand a speed of 27,000 revolutions per minute without breaking.","Next, the compressor wheel receives an ultrasonic cleaning.","High frequency sound waves ripple through the water to scrub off any grease and contaminants.","A worker uses a blower to start drying the compressor wheel.","Then, he lowers it into a dryer to get rid of any residual moisture.","When we return, this marine turbocharger will become seaworthy.","Stay tuned.","Turbochargers deliver fresh air to big ship engines.","This enhances their combustion and adds to their mechanical might.","Turbochargers help make these diesel engines among the most powerful in the world, allowing them to move gigantic vessels swiftly through the water.","A technician shines an ultraviolet light onto the surface of the compressor wheel.","This illuminates any fine cracks that could compromise its quality.","If no cracks are found, they start assembling the rotor.","The employee slides bearings onto the main shaft and turbine.","He uses a crane to align the center hole of the compressor wheel with the shaft.","He guides it into place and fits it to the bearing.","Then he screws a cone-shaped cap onto the end.","The turbine wheel is connected to one end of the shaft, and the compressor is connected to the other.","The core parts of this turbocharger are now assembled.","A technician locks the rotor in a balancing machine.","When he activates the machine, the rotor starts spinning.","Sensors detect the speed and the angular position of the rotor.","They also check for any possible imbalances.","The team uses this information to shave down the rotor and bring it into balance.","Then, the final assembly of the turbocharger begins.","The team screws the iron casing to the gas outlet.","They attach three bearings to it.","This insert is called the labyrinth cover.","It will act as a seal for the turbine disk and shaft.","The long bolts fit into holes in the bearing casing.","He moves to the other side, and secures the protruding bolts and nuts.","He removes the compressor wheel temporarily to slide the shaft through the center bearing.","The turbine wheel fits perfectly over the labyrinth cover.","On the other side, he bolts the labyrinth disk to the casing.","The labyrinth disk protects against hot turbine exhaust gas and prevents oil leakage.","Then, he re-installs the compressor wheel.","Meanwhile, an employee wraps rock wool insulation around the gas inlet casing.","It's made of cast iron and built to withstand gases as hot as 900 degrees fahrenheit.","They cover the part with a heat-resistant fabric jacket.","Then it's ready to be mounted to the gas outlet casing.","Workers use a crane to move it into position.","They align the holes in the part with the threads in the casing.","Then they bolt it into place.","They install a cast iron casing around the compressor wheel and secure it with numerous nuts and bolts.","They hoist an insert part into place between the compressor wheel and the casing.","Air will flow between the insert and the compressor before traveling to the engine for combustion.","The turbocharger is now ready to be installed in a ship engine.","This is done in the factory's assembly hall.","Once in place, they fire up the engine and test its performance.","They evaluate how much power the turbocharger adds to the engine.","They also assess the turbocharger's impact on fuel efficiency.","This turbocharger meets expectations.","Some cars and trucks use small turbochargers in their engines, but these behemoths should deliver twice the air pressure of those models, so the ship's captain will have all the power he needs to navigate the high seas."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Swiss Army Knives","Player Piano Rolls","Oil Tankers","Racing Wheels"]},"text":["The swiss army knife is an entire tool kit in a pocket-sized package.","This little multitool actually dates back to 1891 with the original swiss soldier's knife.","It wasn't long before it morphed into other versions for sale to the general public, and a century later, it continues to come in handy.","Lost in the wilderness, or are you a serious multitasker?","Either way, a swiss army knife has tools to help you cope.","Production starts with this big coil of stainless steel.","Equipment pulls the steel between a press and a die.","The press forces the steel against the die to punch out blade shapes.","It also forms the finger groove for pulling the blade out of the handle.","They mass-produce parts like can openers and pliers using the same technique.","They load the blades into a vibrating mix of ceramic stones and water.","The friction polishes the steel.","A little powder keeps the parts from sticking together.","After several hours, they activate a powerful magnet to extract the parts from the vibrating mass.","The process has smoothed the blades significantly.","But the metal is weak and dull.","So a worker arranges the blades on a mesh conveyor which goes into an oven that exposes them to intense heat.","A quick cooldown follows, which toughens the steel considerably.","The hardened blades now ride a carousel into a grinding station, which slims and trims them.","That green liquid keeps them cool during this process.","Afterwards, a computerized tool measures the blades.","If the dimensions are even slightly off, they won't fit into the knife handle.","A quick stamp gives the part its trademark name.","To build the swiss army knife, they slide everything onto brass rivets, beginning with an aluminum spacer.","A flat metal spring goes on next, followed by a can opener, a screwdriver, and an awl, a punch to make holes in leather.","They stack another spacer and spring on top.","They tamp it down and then slide a multipurpose hook and a pair of scissors onto the rivets.","Another divider, another spring.","And then they add a wood saw to this multitool sandwich, because you never know when you might need one.","They press-fit the main blade, a corkscrew, and a smaller blade onto the assembly.","One final spacer, and then they secure the rivets with attachments called bushings.","Incredibly, they've packed nine tools into a bundle that's just under an inch thick.","They chop off the tops of the rivets to make them flush with the bushings, and then this spinning tool flattens them.","The result is a multipronged tool that's virtually impossible to pull apart.","The blade on the swiss army knife is thin compared to other pocket knives to allow it to fit into the casing.","They grind the cutting edge to angle it at just under 15 degrees.","This makes it razor-sharp, ensuring there won't be many dull moments in this blade's lifetime.","They measure the angled edge with a laser to verify that it's on the mark.","And now it's time for the handle.","It comes in two parts.","They sandwich the tool bundle between them and press everything together.","This embeds the bushings in the handle's holes for a tight installation.","Amazingly, there's still space in this swiss army knife for a set of tweezers and a toothpick.","Finally, they inspect every tool to confirm that it's in perfect condition and that it springs out of the handle as it's designed to.","Making a swiss army knife is a job performed with almost military precision.","There's no room for error when it comes to packing all these tools into a pocket-sized unit.","And once they do, this multitool is ready to spring into action.","The first self-playing piano system was invented around 1895.","It sat in front of a regular piano, and the machine's wooden fingers would play the keys.","Guiding those fingers was a roll of perforated paper.","By the early 20th century, piano companies incorporated the roll mechanism right into the piano itself.","The player-piano rage petered out around 1930, but there are still plenty of old player pianos around, so there remains a market for the music rolls they play.","The original roll-making method used a recording piano.","as the musician played, each key would trigger a pneumatic valve which pressed the corresponding rod against piano roll paper over carbon paper.","Then they just perforate the carbon marks.","The modern method uses an electronic keyboard and a computer.","As the musician plays, the computer converts the notes to data.","The musician edits the data, then loads it into a computer that's hooked up to the roll perforator, a machine that produces 18 rolls simultaneously.","Like the old recording machine, the roll perforator has a pneumatic valve for each note of the piano keyboard.","As the computer activates each note, the corresponding valve triggers a steel punch to descend and pierce a hole in the passing paper.","The longer the hole, the longer the note.","Most music consists of multi-note chords, so the machine vibrates like crazy, punching many notes simultaneously.","When the machine finishes perforating, the operator cuts off the paper and sticks on a temporary label bearing the song title.","The paper then moves on to another area, where they permanently stamp on the title and other information.","Here, they slice the front end of the paper into a point.","Meanwhile, this machine rivets brass eyelets onto an adhesive-backed polyethylene strip.","Then around each eyelet, a die stamps out a tab.","They stick one eyelet tab to the pointed tip of each roll.","This tab end, as it's called, hooks into the mechanism of the player piano.","A touch of cornstarch over any exposed adhesive prevents the papers from sticking to one another.","When the music has lyrics, they print the words right on the rolls so you can sing along as the piano plays.","The first step is to make a lyric stencil, which requires cranking out each word, letter by letter.","The placement of words on the stencil is tricky because they have to synchronize with the notes.","The stencil goes into a printer which applies the lyrics with an ink roller.","The last step is to roll up the rolls.","They wind each one around a cardboard spool that has a plastic flange on each end.","When you load a roll into the piano, you mount its flanges on holders, then hook the tab end to a spool that pulls the roll through the player mechanism.","A rubber band to keep the roll from unraveling-- then it's into a custom box.","A machine shapes and hot-glues sheets of ornately printed cardboard into the box tops.","The finishing touch is a sticker with the title of the music.","When a roll moves through a player piano, air flows through the perforations, triggering the corresponding pneumatic valves.","Each valve pushes down the corresponding note.","This factory produces more than 4,500 different song titles on player-piano rolls, from classic favorites to top-10 hits.","The first oil tanker was launched by the british in the latter part of the 19th century, and it fueled a revolution in transportation.","These enormous ships now dominate the world's oceans.","They move millions of tons of oil daily.","And without them, most of the world's economies would be powerless.","The life-size version of this tanker ship will be bigger than two football fields.","It's so big that they build it in sections called grand blocks, which they assemble by crane in a dry dock.","The process takes plenty of planning and engineering.","They map out the job on a computer and assign a number to each of the 110,000 parts.","In a big job like this, computer-coordinated labeling is the only way to go.","They weld steel sheets to build the ship's hull.","Sand, placed on the seam, melts during the welding to shield the seam from any contaminants in the air.","Workers ready the structural steel beams.","A robot places them at just the right spot on the welded section of the hull.","Then an operator verifies that the placement is correct.","More robots weld the beams to the hull section.","Next, they submerge a steel plate in water.","The water suppresses the noise and smoke from a plasma cutter as it carves holes in the steel.","This steel plate will be part of the ballast tank.","Some of the holes will allow water to flow through while others lighten up the steel structure.","The superheated plasma also cuts slits to interlock with the structural beams on the hull part.","They then weld the assembly and install a top plate for a double-layered hull.","Double hulls provide extra protection against oil spillage.","After a paint job, powerful machinery transfers the double-hull grand block to its final position on the side of the tanker.","When fully assembled, the hull will have 12 cargo tanks with a total capacity of 14 million gallons.","The engine section is situated at the stern of the tanker.","It will take three diesel generators to power the ship's lighting, ventilation, and computer systems.","They carefully lower each one onto the deck of the ship.","A 10,000-horsepower diesel engine will be the tanker's driving force.","Installing it is a very precise business.","It has to be in just the right position to turn the massive propeller.","Four months later, the hull is complete and the massive propeller is in position.","It's all hands on deck to build the deckhouse, where a crew will live for months at a time.","There will be an incredible 10 miles of piping on this ship.","Here, workers weld and bolt them to the deck grand blocks.","It's an elaborate maze with an impressive master plan.","They connect these pipes to the series of tanks in the hull so they can be used to load and unload cargo.","Meanwhile, inside the hull, those cargo tanks are coming together.","On the very bottom, the crew builds a network of heating coils.","They'll be used to heat crude oil to a more fluid form so it can be pumped out of the tanks.","Other workers grind welded seams on the ship's outer skin.","This evens the surface for painting.","The paint is an epoxy blend that resists corrosion in salt water.","They apply it in three or four layers and measure its thickness with a special ultrasonic gauge.","In total, they spray more than 38,000 gallons of paint on this tanker.","In this time-lapse video, our tanker comes together like toy building blocks in a matter of seconds.","But as you've just learned, this is a complex job.","It actually takes 16 months.","A couple more months of testing, and this tanker should be good for the long haul.","At first glance, a racing wheel doesn't look much different than a standard wheel.","But look a little closer.","There are subtle differences in the angles and contours that set it apart.","They give it the strength to handle the extreme forces of racing and to corner well at high speed, which should have them cheering in the stands.","The driver will get the trophy and the credit, but a good set of wheels is behind every win.","They start with high-strength, low-alloy steel, which is a very stable material.","The first of a series of die presses gives the center disc a concave profile and forms lug holes.","The next press punches a hole for the hub and others called windows.","Windows help cool the brakes while maintaining strength where needed.","They stamp rings around the windows.","This is called coining.","The rings give the windows a nicer look, and the action compresses the steel to further strengthen the part.","The next press is critical.","It forces the disc into a bowl shape and gives it precise dimensions to accommodate brakes.","The specific angles also reinforce the part.","It has taken a lot of punching and pressing, but the center disc of this racing wheel has really taken shape.","A smaller press now punches out the lug holes that were outlined earlier.","These holes will allow the wheel to be mounted to a vehicle.","Then the center disc goes for a spin as a series of tools trim it.","The part is now complete.","To make the rim, a machine unwinds coiled steel, and rollers iron out the curl.","A mechanical arm maintains slack as the flattened steel goes under the knife.","The blade, called a shearer, cuts the steel to length and stamps product information onto it in one swoop.","An operator now winds the steel between three rollers to twist it into a band.","He then places the band into the jaws of a welder, which fuses the two ends together.","He then slides the band into a machine that scrapes off excess material from the well.","It's still warm, so it can be easily removed.","Now the band comes under some serious pressure as a machine forces it around dies at both ends to create flares.","This rack transfers the rim to a series of rollers which shape its inner ledge.","This part of the rim is called the bead seed, and it will be attached to the bead wall of the tire.","They trim the rim to make the edges neater.","This finishes off the part.","They nestled the center disc loosely in the rim.","As the rim spins, they heat the outside with a torch.","This causes the steel to expand, and the center disc drops further into the rim.","As the rim cools, it contracts, shrinking to the center part.","The two parts are now interconnected, and a welding job makes the bond permanent.","A worker drills threaded holes onto the wheel to attach valve stems.","As it exits, the drill turns in reverse so it doesn't wreck the threads.","After a fresh coat of paint, they apply a thread-locking adhesive to the valve stems and screw them into the holes.","The valves will be used to add air to the tires.","The wheel rotates as a small roller paints a stripe onto the rim for accent.","Then a press stamps a number onto it to identify this wheel in the event of a problem.","And now this wheel is on a fast track to the finish line."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wax Figures","Awnings","Sandwich Crackers","Pewter Tankards"]},"text":["We can't all rub shoulders with political greats and movie stars.","But for the price of admission to a wax attraction, anyone can mingle with their wax replicas.","These look-alikes aren't much for conversation, but the likeness can be startling, thanks to a process honed over centuries.","Famous faces come to life in beeswax, so it's almost like seeing them in the flesh.","But how do they do it?","It often starts with a face-to-face meeting with the subject, during which they take more than 200 measurements of the face alone and still more of the body.","Drawing on those measurements and using photos and additional research, an artist sculpts a clay body onto a metal skeleton.","This clay sculpture will be used to make a mold.","The head, of course, receives special attention.","They sculpt it in stages, and this takes about six weeks.","To check the symmetry of the sculptured face, the artist stretches a wire from the temple to the chin.","She measures it from all angles and compares the numbers to measurements of the actual subject.","Every single aspect of the clay face must mirror that of the subject's precisely so if it's even slightly off, she makes adjustments.","Here, she redefines the teeth a bit more.","And then she tweaks the hairline.","They're now ready for the next step-- the making of the head mold.","The worker paints plaster onto the sculpture in 14 different sections.","This multi-part mold can be easily removed from the clay head once the plaster dries.","After the clay head has been discarded, they give the reassembled mold a quick rinse.","The wax artist turns the plaster head mold upside down and slots it into the wax bench, so named because it secures the mold during the wax casting.","They melt blocks of japanese beeswax and funnel the liquid wax into the neck of the plaster cast.","They let it set for an hour, just long enough for the wax to solidify and form a thick crust around the inside of the cast.","The artist removes crust at the neck and pours out the rest of the wax, leaving a hollow wax face inside.","They set it aside for another hour to further solidify.","The wax artist removes the plaster mold and comes face to face with the wax creation.","She examines it thoroughly, confirming that the detail from the mold has been effectively transferred to the wax and that the wax face is a dead ringer for the human subject.","The team then casts the wax figure's hands, and an artist matches the subject's skin tone against a chart.","She mixes paint and dabs the brush in it.","She then strikes her brush with another one so the paint splatters across the hand.","She blots up the paint to blend it in.","This technique gives the wax a speckled look that mimics human pores.","She paints on knuckles, veins, and distinctive markings to mimic those on the subject's hands.","She gives the nails a manicure to make the hands look identical to the subject's.","In the hands of a skilled artist, these wax hands have come to life.","As a medical glass eye spins, the artist blots on a very wide pupil first and then paints the periphery to mimic the person's iris.","Iris color and pattern are unique to the individual, and the artist replicates those qualities as closely as possible.","She glues red silk threads onto the whites of the eyes to simulate broken blood vessels.","It's another touch of realism.","They slot the eyes into sockets in the wax head.","Then the wax figure is ready for its hair-- actual human hair matched to the subject's.","They pierce the wax with a hot needle to insert each hair individually.","The wax melts and closes around the hair.","This process can take four weeks.","They also plug in brows and lashes and then brush on paint like makeup.","With his face on, the wax figure now looks true to life.","Once completed, wax figures get movie-star treatment.","Their hair is washed and styled regularly, and their clothing is routinely dry-cleaned.","After all, even wax versions of famous people have to keep up appearances.","The unfurling of awnings usually marks the roll-out of patio season.","It's a long tradition, one that actually dates back centuries.","Early romans were among the first to seek refuge from the hot sun under fabric awnings.","And today, design innovations mean there's always something new under the sun.","With modern mechanisms, unfolding an awning has never been easier.","This manual crank system is designed for a smooth roll-out.","And for extra convenience, there are motorized awnings operated by remote control.","Production begins with the fabric, which comes in a range of weather-resistant synthetics.","The seamstress cuts out patterns from thick acrylic material and sews the pieces together.","Here she works on the awning's front valance.","A roller keeps the fabric correctly aligned and stops it from bunching up as she sews.","She stitches a long pocket along the border.","A plastic rod will later be channeled through it to connect the valance to the awning framework.","She traces a scalloped edge onto the bottom of the valance and then carefully cuts along the penciled line.","With a steady hand, she follows the outline precisely to give the valance those distinctive curves and notches.","Workers then position the awning panel in front of an aluminum tube.","They thread the pocketed end of the awning into a channel in the tube and then slide a plastic rod into the pocket.","This secures the end of the fabric to the tube.","It takes two people to avoid any buckling of the fabric.","They insert a plastic cap into one end of the tube but leave the other end open for the installation of the motor.","They now wind the awning panel around the tube, synchronizing their efforts so the tension in the roll is equal at both ends.","Next, rollers carry a squared aluminum tube to a circular saw.","Once in position, arms descend to steady the tube, and the saw slices it to the correct length.","The cut tube will be the carrier bar, an important part of the awning framework.","A worker now builds that framework, starting with the carrier bar.","He slides a bracket partway down the tube and uses it to attach the retractable arms, securing the assembly with a heavy-duty steel pin.","Two workers slide connector pieces into the grooves in the drop bar for the valance.","Then they raise the bar and attach the retractable arms.","They install a side bearing in the end of the connector bar.","It's one of two that will support the awning's main tube.","Next up is that fabric-wrapped tube.","They attach it to the framework and tuck the other end of the awning fabric into a round slot in the drop bar.","They slide another long plastic rod through a pocket in the fabric to secure it.","They're now ready for the motor.","It's a tubular model.","He attaches a metal bracket for assembling the motor to the main framework.","He then equips the tubular motor with two plastic rings, one at each end.","Powered by the motor, these rings will revolve to open and close the awning.","A test confirms that it's fully operational.","He slides the tubular motor into the open end of the awning tube.","He attaches the second side bearing to the metal bracket...","And caps the open end of the drop bar.","A few taps with a hammer drives it down the shaft.","He now tests the awning to confirm that everything unfolds as it should.","He tightens some screws.","And when it's perfectly operational, he'll install the valance.","It takes about an hour to manufacture a motorized awning, and it should supply about a decade of shade.","Sandwich crackers are one of life's little conveniences-- crispy wafers with peanut butter or cheese spread between them, all wrapped up in a neat package.","In north america, factories have been mass-producing these snacks since the early part of the 20th century to satisfy the need to nibble.","Sandwich crackers come in handy for a quick refuel.","Just unwrap and snack while continuing on your routine.","They start with the smaller ingredients for the dough, which include baking soda, a powdered cheese additive, and a kind of phosphate, which, like the baking soda, is a leavening agent.","Next are enzyme tablets and the yeast, two ingredients that will later cause the dough to ferment to give the crackers textural strength.","They add water and thicken the liquefied blend with a little flour.","This makes it easier to pump into the next mixer.","This one is a big trough full of flour.","They add ice to chill it and then pipe in the small-ingredient blend.","Cooling the mix with ice preserves the yeast and enzymes to hold off on fermentation.","If fermentation happens too soon, the dough could turn to mush.","They lower a lid equipped with three spiraling blades and set the blades in motion, pumping in more water to augment the moisture from the melting ice and small-ingredient blend.","It's now ready for fermentation, so it's into a warm room to activate the yeast and the enzymes.","The dough swells, and a worker breaks the crust to release gas.","An automated system tips the trough of dough into a chute that takes it one floor down to the rolling station.","The chemical changes caused by fermentation have made this dough less sticky, so it can now be rolled into sheets without adhering to the equipment.","The dough now travels between rollers that flatten it and squeeze it to a specific thickness.","The sheets of dough exit and accumulate.","When several layers have piled up, the dough is on the move again.","Several layers at a time now, it moves between a series of rollers, which compress the dough to its final thickness.","A quick dust with flour, and the dough now goes under a rolling cutter that scores it to cracker-size proportions.","The cutter is also spiked with pins that puncture the dough.","The holes give the crackers a dimpled look, and they have a practical purpose, allowing steam to escape during cooking for a crispier snack.","A sprinkle of salt, and the cracker dough now heads into the oven.","This oven is more than 65 yards long, with several heating zones.","The hottest is around 700 degrees fahrenheit.","A roller breaks them cleanly along the score lines.","A quick spray with vegetable oil adds flavor.","The crackers then transfer from one conveyer to another and land in neat stacks.","They head into an inspection station, where workers pick out any damaged crackers and adjust the alignment of the shingled rows so it's a smooth transition as the crackers move into lanes.","Down the line, workers pull off samples to weigh them.","Then equipment flips the crackers upright, positioning them to enter the filling line.","The peanut-butter filling is ready and kept warm so it's smooth and creamy enough to pump.","The top crackers now head downward in a precise configuration, while below, the bottom crackers whiz by the peanut-butter depositor.","It pumps a dollop of peanut butter onto each bottom cracker.","The peanut-butter-covered bottom crackers now move forward to meet up with the top crackers.","And again, with perfect timing, the top crackers land on the bottom ones in exact alignment.","Equipment separates them into sets of three as they head into packaging.","Plastic wrap envelops them, and a heat sealer cuts and closes the packets.","Suctioning arms collect the packets and transfer them to cardboard boxes.","From mixing to packaging, it has taken about 24 hours to produce a packet of sandwich crackers.","Once it reaches a hungry snacker, it will be gone in no time at all.","A traditional drinking vessel typically used for beer, a tankard often has a hinged lid you raise and lower with a thumb lever.","Dating back to 15th-century england, they were initially made of wood, then silver or pewter.","The tradition of hand-crafting pewter tankards continues today.","This manufacturer makes pewter tankards in many styles, one of which has the legend of the king's shilling engraved on it and a reproduction of a shilling coin from 1816 encased in the glass bottom.","Every step is done by hand, beginning with a sheet of pewter that's just 1/14 of an inch thick.","Using a punch press, they cut it into the shape required to form the tankard's body.","Next, they place the pewter on a copper plate that has on it, in raised lettering, the story of the king's shilling.","They feed this in between two rollers that press the lettering into the pewter.","A soft metal, pewter is composed mostly of tin, along with smaller quantities of two other metals-- antimony and copper.","Next, a metalsmith takes over.","He manually bends the pewter into the cylindrical shape of the tankard's body.","He brushes on flux, a chemical which helps molten metal flow more easily.","Then, with a soldering tool, he fuses the edges of the body with pure tin solder.","Traditionally, both the pewter and solder contained lead, but today, both are lead-free.","Next, the metalsmith slides the cylinder onto a steel form and hammers the solder seam flat, rendering it virtually invisible.","Now a specialized tradesman known as a pewter spinner slips the body onto a lathe.","As the lathe rotates, he uses a series of tools to smooth the surface, trim excess off the top and bottom, and turn the top edge over to form a lip.","Next, a buffer uses pumice and a cloth buffing wheel to remove imperfections and make the surface silky-smooth.","Meanwhile, in the casting department, they heat solid pewter to 465 degrees fahrenheit then carefully pour the now molten metal into a rubber mold.","Inside are several cavities for shillings and large rings.","After about 30 seconds, the pewter solidifies, and the parts can come out.","To make the tankard's handle, the casters pour molten pewter into a steel mold, then tilt the mold in all directions to spread the rapidly setting metal all along the wall of the cavity.","This makes the handle hollow and therefore lightweight.","They grind the ends on an abrasive belt so the handle will fit flush against the tankard body.","Another worker, meanwhile, assembles the tankard's glass base.","A glass disk, a shilling, a ring, then a second glass disk.","The ring acts as a spacer, creating enough of a gap between the glass disks to allow the coin to slide around.","He applies waterproof glue around the perimeter to adhere everything together.","Next, he places this shilling sandwich in a pewter base and adheres a second ring to hide the glue.","Back to the metalsmith now.","He dabs the tankard's body onto a pad impregnated with flux.","He then solders together the body and base.","Once the parts are attached, a final buffing with a soft felt wheel.","Next, the metalsmith dips the handle ends in flux and solders them to the body.","To avoid scorching the tankard's surface, this time he uses a bismuth-and-tin solder, which requires a lower temperature to melt.","The tankard is now fully constructed.","They clean it in a dishwasher, then shine it up.","First, the polisher does the inside, using a rough-grid abrasive compound, producing a matte finish.","Then he polishes the outside, using a finer-grid compound.","This produces a contrasting mirror finish.","In 18th- and 19th-century england, a volunteer for army or naval service accepted a shilling as a bonus upon signing up.","However, volunteers were in short supply, so recruiters are said to have visited pubs and slipped shillings into the pewter tankards of inebriated men, who, upon their last sip, discovered they'd been duped into serving.","It may well be a myth, but it still makes a darn good story to share over a pint."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Hammers","Swiss Cheese","Roller Skates","Coloured Pencils"]},"text":["The need to hammer things goes back to prehistoric times when early man used stones as tools.","The modern hammer evolved from those first crude implements.","But with its forged-steel design and user-friendly handle, the hammer of today is strikingly different.","No one-hit wonder, the modern hammer is made to endure.","It maintains its structural integrity despite repeated pounding and pulling.","It starts with a thick steel bar.","An automated system loads it into an induction furnace set at more than 1,800 degrees fahrenheit.","The fierce heat makes the steel malleable.","This forge-hammer pounds the hot steel into a series of hammer-shaped compressions.","Then it's into a punch cutter which trims the ragged edges of the forged steel.","The cutoffs go into a bin for recycling.","A worker sandwiches the newly trimmed shape in a press that fine-tunes the shape.","The hammer is cooled down on this revolving rack.","Then they load the hammers into a tumbler, along with tiny bits of steel-- so tiny, they're hard to see.","But their impact will be very noticeable.","As they toss about, the bits rub off scale and debris on the hammers, for an impressive cleanup.","They then clamp the hammer in a device that spins it against abrasive belts to contour the striking head.","These belts also bevel the hammer's head.","It's a safety feature.","The sloped edge is less likely to chip nails on impact.","Now this jagged cutting wheel carves ridges into the hammer's head.","The device repositions the hammer so the wheel can cut it in a different direction to create a grid.","This surface is less likely to slip off nails on impact.","Next comes the tempering process.","The hammers plunge into a very hot bath.","Then they dip them in quenching oil, which cools the metal so quickly, it hardens.","Now it's time for another polish.","This one makes the steal gleam.","It's the finishing touch.","Next, they assemble leather rings in a tray-- 25 to each one.","They place plastic rings at each end to break up the look and buttress it with a pronged metal disk.","They slide the tray into a compartment and insert the end of the hammer in the rings.","A hydraulic tool rams it through them, encasing the handle in a neat wrap that's comfortable to grasp.","They secure the end of the hammer in a clamp, and then a spinning tool flattens the prongs that protrude from the metal plate, riveting it to the leather wrap.","Then, using a series of sanding belts, they smooth the rough leather for a seamless finish.","This is a tank of heavy lacquer in which they immerse the hammers repeatedly.","When it dries, the lacquer will give the leather wrap a tough, sleek finish, and the leather will look like one textured piece instead of many.","For a different kind of handle, they pour liquid vinyl on the hammer shaft that's encased in a mold.","The vinyl adheres to the hammer as it hardens.","The mold leaves a dimpling impression that will make the hammer easier to grip.","They grind off the hardened vinyl spillover and contour the handle.","These handles are preferred by some tradesmen because the vinyl is an antishock material.","They stamp the model number onto it.","Paint guns mist the steel with lacquer for a little rustproofing.","The hammers then travel through an oven, which cures the lacquer.","After they stamp the company logo onto the vinyl, each hammer is visually inspected.","Only then does it get a seal of approval.","It takes about a day to make a hammer, and with the different handle wraps and sizes, they've really nailed it.","The swiss call this cheese \"fromage d'alpage,\" which means \"cheese from the high-mountain pastures\".","Master cheesemakers retreat to their chalets high in the swiss alps to make this special cheese.","These individuals follow a tradition of cheesemaking that goes back to the middle ages.","Fromage d'alpage is produced by cheesemakers who bring their cows high into the alps for five months-- to this region of gstaad, switzerland.","In the morning, they milk their cows for about seven minutes using an automatic milking machine.","Each cow produces around 2 1/2 gallons of milk, which contains water, protein, and fat.","12 hours later, he removes the fat, which rises to the surface.","He adds a starter culture, which helps preserve the milk.","A wood fire then heats the milk for 20 minutes at a constant 86 degrees fahrenheit.","He then adds an enzyme called rennet and more starter culture to the milk.","After about 40 minutes, these active ingredients coagulate the milk into cheese curd.","He cuts the solidifying curd into smaller pieces.","To maintain an even heat, he keeps blending the curd and the liquid together.","He continues mixing and cutting the curd until the active ingredients separate the curd from the liquid, called whey.","To make cheese, he will use only the grains of curd.","An electric mixer then completes the separation.","He washes his arms and hands thoroughly, because any impurities in the cheese would ruin it.","After heating the mixture for 20 minutes again, the curd is now the perfect texture for making cheese.","Using cheesecloth, they remove the grains of curd.","What started out as 80 gallons of milk will end up producing only 66 pounds of cheese.","The cheesemaker stuffs the sack of curd into a mold and works out some of the whey.","He then puts three molds filled with curd into a wooden press.","And using a wooden block that distributes the pressure evenly, he squeezes out more of the whey.","To get all the excess liquid out of the curd, he turns each 22-pound piece of cheese over so he can press it again.","Too much liquid in the cheese would affect its shape and quality, so he does this a few times, then leaves them in the press overnight.","The next morning, he trims off the excess cheese created around the edge by the pressing mold.","Like every step in this cheesemaking process, this work is also done by hand.","He soaks the cheese in salt water for 24 hours to conserve, harden, and intensify its taste.","The cheese then goes through a salting and maturing process that lasts six months.","During this time, they flip each piece of cheese often so it ages evenly.","After a final surface cleaning, they put the 22-pound pieces on their sides to air-dry.","They'll remain edible for at least 10 years.","But, of course, you don't have to live in the alps to enjoy the taste of swiss cheese.","When roller skates were invented by the dutch in the 18th century, they put a whole new spin on skating.","Before that, people could only skate on iced surfaces, so the sport had definite seasonal limitations.","The wheels of those first roller skates were wooden spools.","But today's manufacturers have come up with some better tricks to make them.","Roller skates have improved by leaps and bounds.","The wheels are made of strong, lightweight polyurethane, so there's nothing to hold you back.","They start with the shoes.","A die press punches out leather patterns, called quarters-- four per shoe.","They place one quarter under a foil strip, and a hot die stamps it with the manufacturer's trademark.","Then, using a template, they mark the locations where components are to be sewn...","Such as these racing stripes.","They stitch them onto the leather quarters in two rows.","The four leather quarters have been partially pieced together.","Here, the operator finishes the job, sewing the shoe's outer layer to the liner.","She then stitches the rest of the liner to the shoe, while a little blade on the machine trims the excess leather.","Now the roller-skate shoe really takes shape, as she folds the leather in two and sews the toe.","This machine punches holes and inserts eyelets for the shoelaces.","This machine, called a laster, glues the shoe to an insole.","They insert a shoe and insole together into the laster.","Its nozzles coat the toe of the insole with cement while pinchers pull the leather around it.","Then automated arms press the leather onto the insole, bonding them together.","Another machine then nails the rest of the shoe around the insole, and a worker pounds them in further.","A final laster folds the edge of the shoe around the heel and then drives nails into it.","The hot lights of this machine activate cement that's been applied to an outsole and the shoe body.","This allows the two to adhere.","As the cement dries, this hydraulic machine presses the outsole to the shoe to aid the adhesion.","They stitch the outsole to the shoe for reinforcement.","After all, roller-skate shoes have to hold up to the rigors of the sport.","They insert nails into holes of this heel-attaching machine...","Then position a fiberboard and leather heel on it, followed by the roller-skate shoe.","Mechanical drivers thrust the nails up into the shoe, firmly attaching the heel.","An operator then forces the rubber sole against a circular cutter to remove the excess material.","Next, they screw a polyurethane toe stop into a skate frame.","They drill through holes in the frame to make corresponding holes in the shoe.","They push bolts into the holes.","Then, using a pneumatic socket wrench, they bolt the skate frame to the shoe.","The bolts are too long, so they cut them down to size with a special breakoff tool.","They slide polyurethane cushions onto kingpins, then install bearings in the hub of each wheel.","A carousel conveyor delivers the wheel and bearings to a tool that presses them together.","With the wheels now linked by axles, these skates are almost ready to roll.","They mount each wheel assembly on a kingpin, then install a second cushion ring.","These cushions can be adjusted by the skater to change the feel of the skate.","A tweak to the axle confirms the wheels spin freely.","It takes about four days for the experts to make a pair of roller skates.","That's somewhat less time than it takes for the average person to master using them.","Colored pencils come in basic color packages for schoolchildren, upgraded sets for architects and other professionals, and elaborate collections of shades for the serious artist.","It isn't so much the color variety that determines the quality, but the pigment concentration in the lead.","The core of a colored pencil doesn't actually contain any lead.","It's composed of pigments, minerals, and binding agents.","This company invented a unique type of colored pencil.","The lead composition is such that it allows you to brush on a bit of water after you draw to create the effect of watercolor paints.","Colored pencils start with a combination of pigments.","Every shade has a specific pigment recipe.","They produce a large quantity of one shade at a time.","Following that color's recipe, they meticulously weigh the different portions of ingredients.","Then they boil a specific quantity of water and additives and add binding agents-- a secret blend of gums, resins, or waxes.","The ingredients expand in hot water, forming a paste.","Workers then mix the pigments into this paste.","The next machine processes the paste into fine chunks, intensifying the color.","The chunks move by conveyor belt with a cylinder that compresses them, then feeds them into an extrusion machine.","The extruder squeezes the paste in a continuous stream that's the diameter of the pencil lead.","In a top-secret process, the next machine chops this long lead into pencil-length leads.","But the leads can't write just yet.","They're bathed in a vat filled with a mixture of chemical waxes.","These waxes coat and impregnate the leads-- in this case, red ones.","Wax is a color-delivery vehicle.","As you write, it rubs off and adheres to the paper, taking pigment with it.","With the leads now finished, the factory subjects random samples to quality control testing, including a break test and a durability test in which each lead must yield 100 yards of writing.","This company makes its pencil bodies from cedar wood.","This machine carves grooves for the leads, then coats the surface with a thin layer of glue.","The planks pass under a wheel that places the leads...","Then through another machine that slips a second grooved plank on top.","The next machine carves the hexagonal shape, then slices the pencils apart.","One at a time, the pencils shoot through a vat of colored varnish.","Their exterior is now the same color as the lead inside.","Once the varnish dries, a heat stamp burns the company name and color number into the wood, filling the lettering with colored film.","Then the pencils roll across an abrasive wheel, sharpening as they go.","The unsharpened end gets a cap of varnish, either in white or the same shade as the pencil lead.","The factory's equipment feeds the appropriate colors to the packaging area.","As the pencils slide into their grooved tray, workers visually inspect each and every one.","From pigments and planks to an artistic medium, the story behind the making of colored pencils is hardly black and white."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Robotic Arms","Tattoos","Sanitary Napkins","Concrete Pipes"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" robotic arms...","Tattoos...","Sanitary napkins...","And concrete pipes.","The term \"robot\" comes from the czech word \"robota,\" which means \"forced labor\".","Most robots are designed for repetitive work that's difficult, dangerous, or would just bore human beings to death.","Robotic arms have varying degrees of freedom, meaning they can pivot in different ways.","A robotic arm resembles a human arm.","It has a shoulder, an elbow, a wrist, and a hand.","The shoulder is actually a stationary base to which the rest is attached.","An engineer first designs all the parts on a computer.","Then those plans go into action.","To form the base's outer casing, they bend steel sheeting into shape using a computer-guided press.","Next they paint the casing in powder paint, using an electrostatic process that guarantees a thorough, even coat.","They run a negative electrical charge to the casing and a positive charge to the paint particles.","This makes the casing draw the paint to it like a magnet.","Once the paint on the base casing dries, they use silk-screen printing to apply what's called the \"user diagram\".","It illustrates which parts move where and how.","Now they build the robotic arm's hand, called the end effector.","Robots can be outfitted with all sorts of end effectors.","Here they're making a gripper, whose two claws come together to grasp and carry objects.","To make each claw, an automated metal drill cuts a groove lengthwise and widthwise in a piece of aluminum.","They assemble the electrical circuit board that will later go inside the base.","The robotic arm's six separate motors will plug into it.","Next they assemble the mechanical parts of the base.","First the motor that makes the arm rotate, then the gear that goes on the vertical shaft holding the robotic arm upright.","When the motor makes the gear and the shaft turn, the robotic arm turns with it.","At the arm's shoulder level, they install a system of four pulleys.","Each consists of two plastic wheels on a separate axle with a rubber belt running between them like a clothesline.","The belt has little teeth that grip grooves on the wheels.","It rotates the wheels, making the robotic arm move.","Each joint in the robotic arm is capable of and programmed for a specific range of movement.","Like the human arm, the combination of these movements manipulates the end effector.","They plug an electrical wire that links the gripper to the shoulder into a circuit board located in the shoulder.","Then they screw the entire arm to the base.","They link up the wires from the circuit board in the base to the motors in the shoulder.","To do this, they have to bunch the wires, 48 of them in total, and thread them through the shaft that attaches the base to the arm.","Once everything's connected, they fine-tune and test the gear and pulley systems to see if they run smoothly.","Now they can install the gripper and the shaft and gear system that operates it.","Turning the gear one way opens the grip.","Turning it the other way closes it.","Now they mount the assembled gripper to the forearm, plugging its motor into a circuit board that they've already installed there.","They plug the wires from all six motors into the main circuit board which they then install at the back of the base.","The robot controller--  the brain that runs the arm-- is a separate unit.","It controls everything connected to the circuit.","To move the robot, the computer inside the controller switches on all the necessary motors.","It can control eight motors-- six in the robot and two optional accessories.","You can program it to perform a variety of tasks.","From start to finish, it's taken just under 30 hours to assemble this robotic arm.","It can lift up to 10 pounds-- about the weight of a full-grown cat-- and it can move at a speed of a little over one mile per hour.","Most robots are reprogrammable-- meaning that to change their behavior, you simply write a new program.","From an employer's perspective, robots may be the ideal workers.","Granted, they have no ideas of their own, but their productivity is constant, they never call in sick, and they never take lunch or coffee breaks.","Tattooing dates at least as far back as the bronze age.","A 5,000-year-old body found in a european glacier had several tattoos on his skin.","Archaeologists have even uncovered what they believe are stone age tattooing instruments-- sharp bone needles and clay disks containing mineral pigments.","Walk into a tattoo parlor and the vast selection of elaborate designs will astound you.","Once you make your choice, the tattoo artist traces the image.","Next, he places the traced image on carbon paper and re-traces the lines.","This creates a carbon outline of the tattoo on the reverse side.","The artist will use his blueprint, as it's called, as his guide.","He cleans the customer's skin, then firmly presses on the blueprint.","The carbon image transfers easily because the skin is damp.","Now it's time to construct the needles.","Most tattoos require two needles-- one to make the outline of the image, the other to shade and color it in.","Each needle is made up of as many as 20 smaller needles.","The artist aligns these small needles in a jig, then solders them together onto one end of a steel rod.","There's an eye on the other end.","The number of small needles in a needle depends on the tattoo design-- how thick the lines are, how big its colored areas are.","The finished needles go into an autoclave to be sterilized.","That takes 20 minutes at precisely 338 degrees fahrenheit.","The tattoo artist uses that time to assemble the tattoo gun.","After cleaning the frame with rubbing alcohol, he installs the motor, called the coil.","When an electric current runs through the coil, it oscillates the needle at up to 50 times per second.","Once the two needles are sterilized, he takes the one for outlining, called the liner, and slides it into the tattoo gun.","He hooks the eye on the other end onto the spring.","As the spring moves back and forth, it moves the needle up and down.","The tattoo artist stops and starts it with a foot pedal, like a sewing machine.","Time to tattoo.","He turns on the power supply to 10 volts and dabs the needle in the ink cap.","The gun sucks up the ink.","Some petroleum jelly on the skin helps the needle glide more easily.","He begins by tracing the lines of the blueprint.","The needle punctures the skin at a rate of up to 3,000 times per minute, injecting micro-particles of ink, which intermingle with the cells of the dermis, the skin's second layer.","The artist continually wipes away the excess ink to keep his work area clean.","After finishing the outline, he reapplies petroleum jelly.","This seals the pores of the skin and prevents bleeding.","Then he changes to the other needle and begins shading and coloring the image with a back-and-forth movement.","He applies one color at a time, overlapping them to ensure thorough and even coverage.","The needle can penetrate from .","04 to .","15 of an inch, and a good tattoo artist knows just how deep to go to create the different parts of the image.","For example, he has to inject the outline the deepest, but going too deep can tear the skin and cause excessive pain and bleeding.","But not going deep enough misses the dermis and leaves marks after healing.","The cells of the dermis are remarkably stable, so tattoos last a lifetime.","This tattoo has taken approximately 45 minutes to do from start to finish.","The area will dry and scab over.","Then the scab will fall off, and this body art will be ready for exhibition.","Believe it or not, world war i led to the invention of disposable sanitary napkins.","American nurses serving in france discovered that the bandages they used for the troops could double as very absorbent menstrual pads.","This led the bandage company to introduce disposable sanitary napkins in 1921.","Today's disposable sanitary pads are made of layers of cellulose, combined with super-absorbent polymer powder.","Polymer is a fluid-absorbing chemical derived from either petroleum or wheat.","Cellulose is the fiber that makes up the cell wall of trees and plants.","It also retains fluid.","Pulp and paper companies grind and moisten it to form a product called pulp.","Producing sanitary napkins begins with 20-inch-wide rolls of cellulose pulp.","The rolls feed one long machine that does everything.","First, knives spinning at 3,000 thousand rpm shred the pulp into a fine fluff.","Then the machine sprinkles that fluff with polymer powder.","The polymered fluff then travels through what's called the doser, a device that measures out the required amount of fluff per pad layer.","The machine then suctions each dose into a closed chamber where an air current blows it into a pad-shaped mold.","Then another air current blows it out of the mold onto a wheel that transfers it to a conveyer belt.","The machine simultaneously makes a second pad layer.","This one is smaller, rectangular, and at least double the density of the first layer, meaning it has more cellulose compressed into a smaller size.","The compression roller also embosses a pattern that will disperse the menstrual flow, helping absorption.","This demonstration shows the critical absorption role the polymer powder plays.","It can retain up to 40 times its volume.","As the polymer soaks up the liquid, it transforms from powder to gel.","Different types of polymers have different reaction speeds.","This type absorbs at average speed.","This will be a two-layer pad.","The number of layers and their weight depends on the degree of menstrual flow a pad is designed to absorb.","Now the machine's conveyor belts merge, bringing the two layers together.","Now the machine sandwiches the layers between plastic sheets.","The top one is perforated to allow fluid to pass to the absorbent layers underneath.","The bottom one acts as a leak-proof barrier.","A roller stamps the contour of the pad, sealing the absorbent layers inside.","Now the machine applies glue to a paper strip and to a pair of small paper rectangles.","It slaps the strip on the back of the pad and the rectangles on the side flaps, called the wings.","To secure the pad to underwear, you remove the paper to expose the adhesive.","The pads are still connected to each other.","A cutting die excises each one.","Abrasive foam on either side of the die grips then pulls away the material surrounding the pads.","A vacuum then sucks this excess away.","Now the pads move onto the packaging line.","The equipment first folds over the adhesive wings, then folds each pad in three.","The folded pads now go into plastic wrap.","A hot, iron-like device, called an embossing press, seals the plastic around each pad.","Then a knife cuts in between the pads, separating them into individual pouches.","Next, two belts sandwich the pouches and carry them down to the stacker, where an automated counter lines them up for packaging.","As a vacuum opens the bag, a mechanical arm inserts the pads.","The equipment then seals the bag shut.","Everything you've seen happens at an impressive pace.","From start to finish, it takes just 40 seconds to make and package a sanitary napkin.","Most underground sewer and drainage pipes are made of reinforced dry-mix concrete.","\"reinforced\" refers to the fact the concrete has steel bars inside it for added structural strength.","\"dry-mix\" refers to the type of concrete.","You can mold it then immediately extract it, and it holds its shape.","Concrete pipes can be as small as 10 inches or as large as 11 1/2 feet.","It has a hundred-year life span.","Dry-mix concrete is made of stone, coarse sand, portland cement-- which is a finely-ground blend of clay and limestone-- water, and a chemical that acts as a water reducer.","Trucks unload the sand and stone into outdoor storage bins.","The materials automatically drop onto a conveyor belt which transports them to storage silos above the factory floor.","The cement arrives by cement tanker, which blows it into a silo.","All the silos feed the mixer.","As the ingredients blend, the cement and water combine to form a paste that coats the sand and stone.","The water reducer enables them to use minimal water.","The less water, the stronger and more durable the concrete.","Meanwhile, workers use a special machine to build what's called the cage-- a circular steel frame that will form the pipe's internal structure, its backbone.","They insert 8-foot-long steel rods in a circular configuration, pushing each rod partway through the machine to the other side.","There, an automated spot-welder fuses a steel cable to one rod.","Then the machine begins turning, winding the cable tightly around the rods.","Here a worker is turning the machine manually just to show us the process in slow-motion.","This is what it looks like at the normal automated speed.","As the rods pass through the machine, the welder fuses the cable to them in one continuous spiral.","As the spiraled cable reaches the end of the rods, the machine's claws spread outward, forming a wider section on the end.","This is called the bell section.","Workers position it on a base ring designed to hold the cage in place.","Then they close a hinged steel mold over it.","Now they're ready to pour the concrete.","A forklift transports the mold to a machine called the packer head.","They position the mold directly under it.","A long, drill-like screw descends into the mold.","As concrete pours in, the screw turns at high speed, moving up and down.","Its blades propel the concrete outward against the mold walls, forming the pipe.","This process is called centrifugal projection forming.","The process for making large-diameter pipes is slightly different.","A welder fuses spacers to the cage, both inside and out.","These will center the cage inside the mold.","Workers position the cage onto a base ring, then lower the outer part of the mold-- called the outside form--  over it.","After securing it to the ring, they lower the unit over the smaller, inner part of mold, called the inside form.","An overhead funnel pours concrete into the cavity between the two mold forms.","Powerful electrical vibrators shake the mold.","This forces the thick concrete downward, filling the cavity.","This process is called vibration forming.","With either pipe-forming technique, the molded concrete is quite fragile, so the molds go off to the curing warehouse to harden.","There, workers remove them, leaving the pipes standing upright.","Steam hoses transform the curing warehouse into a sauna.","The temperature rises to 140 degrees fahrenheit, the relative humidity 100%.","The concrete hardens in about 12 hours.","Concrete pipes buried underground have to be able to withstand the weight of the earth above them, so the company subjects sample pipes to extreme pressure to test their maximum resistance.","Concrete pipes join together with watertight rubber gaskets."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Horseshoes","Dishwashers","Graphite Fly Rods","Pizza"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Horseshoes...","Dishwashers...","Graphite fly rods...","And frozen pizzas.","Horses first wore leather and metal shoes around 500 a.d. to protect their hooves from wear and tear.","Today, depending on the animal's vocation, horseshoes are usually made of steel, aluminum, or plastic.","A farrier is someone who makes the horseshoes and carefully applies them.","A horse's hoof has a hard outer wall like a fingernail, only much thicker.","The farrier attaches the horseshoe to this wall with heat and lead nails.","The horse feels no pain because the nails don't reach the sensitive tissues inside.","Horses get new shoes about every five weeks.","After removing the old ones, the farrier uses a file to trim the wall's growth since the last change--  about 1/3 of an inch.","He measures the hoof's contour, marks the measurement on a steel bar, and cuts it to size with a rotary saw.","Steel is the material of choice because it's affordable and durable.","Next, he heats the bar until the middle's white-hot.","He brushes off any dirt, then dips the bar in water to cool it.","Then he hammers the ends to redistribute the metal toward the middle.","This widens and thickens the part of the horseshoe that gets the most wear, since the front of the hoof hits the ground first and hardest.","After reheating the bar, he hammers it again, this time with no cooldown.","For larger shoes, two farriers take turns hammering so that it goes faster, and they can shape the steel while it's still hot and pliable.","Using a drafting compass, the farrier gauges where two grooves for nails will go.","He reheats the bar, then holds a sharp-ended tool against it, while another farrier drives it in with a hammer.","The nails won't protrude when they're embedded in the grooves.","These areas will also fill with dirt to give the horse traction.","The farriers round the sharp edges of the horseshoe so the animal won't cut itself when it's lying down.","They make the nail holes by first driving this tool into the grooves.","Then they use another tool to perforate the steel, hammering it into the shoe over an opening in the anvil that lets the tool pierce through.","The farrier then repeats these steps on the other side.","It takes 2 farriers about 15 minutes to make a pair of horseshoes.","The first farrier heats one shoe, while the second hammers the other.","Like the hooves, the front and back shoes are differently shaped.","The front pair are rounder, the back ones, more oval, because the horse's hind hooves have evolved to dig into the ground for traction.","The farriers also hammer part of both curves, flattening the edges into raised sides called clips.","These help the shoe fit onto the hoof.","For larger workhorses like clydesdales, the farriers bend the ends downward to give the feet more traction.","It's not uncommon for a 2,000-pound horse to have to pull twice its weight.","Now time for the fitting.","After heating the shoe, but not as much this time, the farrier uses it to melt the outer part of the wall.","This makes an imprint on the horseshoe that later helps him place it properly on the hoof.","Horses first wear shoes at about 3 years old, the age when they start working or competing.","The farrier fine-tunes the fitting with a metal filing tool, curving the edges further to make them even safer for the horse.","Next, he shines the steel with a metal brush.","The shine will quickly fade once the horse takes its first steps.","Depending on the foot size, the finished shoe can measure anywhere from 2.5 to 9 inches across.","Now, to attach the shoe, the farrier first files the hoof to remove any dust or sharp edges.","He slips on the shoe, then gently hammers as many as three nails into each side.","The nails are about 2 inches long.","They're made of lead--  a metal that's easy to bend-- and that's he'll do after hammering them through the wall.","He clips off the ends and bends the rest in towards the wall.","Then he uses other tools to gouge small crevices in which to bury the ends.","This makes it easy to straighten out the nails and yank off the shoe when it's time.","He also hammers the hoof against a template to stabilize the shoe.","Next, he files the hoof so that it meets the angle of the shoe.","And, finally, the horse is ready to stroll.","So whether you've got a pony or a stallion, make sure the shoe fits.","When it comes to horse footwear, function, not fashion, dictates.","In 1886, an american woman invented the automatic dishwasher.","Josephine cochran built a motorized wheel with wire compartments for dishes, turning inside a copper tank filled with soapy boiling water.","It was a hit with restaurants and hotels, but it wasn't until the 1950s that affordable dishwashers for home kitchens came on the market.","Building a dishwasher starts with a watertight container called the tub.","Some high-end models have stainless-steel tubs.","The rest have tubs made of molded plastic, usually polypropylene.","Workers screw two pairs of plastic wheels to each side of the tub.","They'll support the sliders on which the upper dish rack moves.","The lower dish rack rolls along the bottom of the tub.","This steel frame helps solidify the tub.","They affix a steel plate at the bottom to shield the plastic from heat of the motor.","Then they attach steel legs to the frame.","Here, they install a rubber reservoir called the sump.","It collects the water that flows to the bottom of the tub.","They screw in a two-part ring to hold the sump in place.","The heating element is a ceramic-insulated iron cable.","This filter traps food particles washing off the dishes.","After fitting an o-ring seal to make the sump leakproof, they secure the heating element by screwing ceramic insulators to the protruding connectors.","Now for the polypropylene wash arms.","This model has one at the bottom, with a tower that juts out for a larger spray span, and a second wash arm at the top.","The motor pumps clean water directly to the bottom wash arm and, through this flexible hose, to the top wash arm.","Once they connect the hose, they spin the wash arm to make sure there's no obstruction.","Meanwhile, workers connect key components to the dishwasher's circuit board.","This metal box is the timer.","It controls the wash and dry cycles.","For example, it activates this green cam lever to trigger the white lever to open the detergent dispenser at the right moment in the wash cycle.","The detergent dispenser is located on a plastic panel that will line the dishwasher's door.","They call this panel the inner door.","This seal will prevent water from leaking out and also provide some soundproofing.","A press runs over the inner door, driving in the seal evenly all around.","Now they screw the inner door to the outer door.","The assembled door hooks onto hinges at the base of the tub.","This machine presses the hook and hinge together so that the door doesn't come unhinged.","The dishwasher's motor is relatively quiet because it uses an inherently low-noise induction drive design.","The white machine attached to the motor is a food disposer.","It grinds up food particles so that they don't clog the drain.","The last technical step is to connect the various wires.","Before applying the finishing touches, workers conduct a seal test.","They flush each tub with water to check for leaks.","In this portable dishwasher, workers install cement blocks as a counterweight so that the washer won't tip forward when you open the door.","And because a portable usually sits in full view, it also needs sides and a top.","The top is decorative laminate on medium-density fiberboard.","They screw it to what's called the wrapper, a three-sided panel made of painted steel that covers the sides and back-- a clean look to go with your clean dishes.","Fishing may not be rocket science, but the graphite fly rod certainly is.","Graphite is a space-age material-- lightweight, flexible, and strong.","The very qualities that make it useful in space also come in handy at the river or lake.","It explains why graphite fly rods are now popular in the fishing world.","To make one, they start with a sheet of graphite.","They cut out shapes, following precise measurements.","One mistake here, and the performance of the rod will be compromised.","This will be a three-piece rod, with a butt piece, midsection, and tip.","They place a shape on a tapered steel mandrel...","And peel away the paper backing.","This machine rolls the graphite shape around the mandrel.","They make all three sections of the fishing rod the same way.","A graphite strip at the end reinforces it all.","The graphite remains on the mandrel for the next step.","They wind polypropylene tape around the graphite to squeeze out any air pockets between the layers.","Then it's into the oven to cook at 257 degrees fahrenheit for an hour and a half.","The tape won't melt, but resins in the graphite will, baking the rolled layers together.","Afterwards, they remove the shrink tape and pull the graphite blank off the steel mandrel.","Then the rod blanks go for a dip in a special finish, which turns it a deep blue.","They bake on the finish for a half-hour at 257 degrees fahrenheit.","Afterwards, they measure the rod sections and cut them to size so they all fit together.","Bending without snapping is the graphite rod's strong point.","They hot-glue the stainless-steel tip to the end.","Then they piece together the retainer for the fishing reel.","This locknut will allow the reel to be tightened.","The plug will keep everything from sliding off.","They glue cork rings together to make a handle.","Then they shape it with a chisel and sandpaper.","The line guides go on next.","They keep things from getting into a tangle.","They wind thread around it to secure it to the rod, one foot at a time.","A final step ensures the handiwork doesn't unravel.","They place the rod in a rotating jig and brush three coats of glossy epoxy onto the thread wrap.","This not only protects it but gives it a nice finish.","Now they slide a metal foot into a groove on the reel retainer, and it's ready for the reel to be attached.","But before you can cast your line, there is some information that needs to go on the rod, like the brand name and serial number.","A final inspection, and it's almost time to test the waters.","The reel snaps into place, and it's easily adjusted with the locknut.","The rest is a matter of luck and the right bait.","Millions of pizzas travel daily from the frozen-food section of the supermarket to the family dinner table.","Thick or thin crust, meat or vegetarian, their convenience makes them a staple in the freezer.","But how do they end up tasting so fresh when they start out so frozen?","Making frozen pizzas requires a maze of machines.","To make the dough for the crust, they combine flour, salt, sugar, water, yeast, and oil in a large mixer...","And they throw in a bit of cornmeal for flavor.","The mixer turns the ingredients for about four minutes.","This is one powerful machine.","A truck transmission drives the steel bars that knead the dough.","The dough rises for about half an hour.","Then they feed it into a chunking machine, which divides the big blob into smaller pieces.","The chunks travel to a sheeting machine that rolls them into a flat sheet one-inch thick.","A light dusting of flour keeps the dough from sticking to the machinery.","A series of rollers called quick reducers gives the dough an even consistency.","A flour brush massages the dough, ensuring a smooth surface.","Next, stainless-steel spikes pierce the dough with holes about a quarter-inch deep.","These holes will stop air pockets from forming in the dough.","A large plastic roller with several round forms cuts the circular shape of the pizza crust.","The machine automatically separates the leftover dough.","The factory remixes it with fresh dough for the next batch.","A conveyor takes the dough circles to their next destination--  the oven.","They bake for two minutes between 390 and 600 degrees fahrenheit.","Six chambers inside the oven automatically control the temperature pattern to ensure that each one bakes evenly.","Next stop-- the tomato sauce.","A tank pumps a steady supply of sauce into a reservoir, drenching a roller turning inside.","A plastic board then scrapes the sauce onto the crusts passing below.","The excess sauce drips down, replenishing the reservoir.","Mounds of preshedded mozzarella are ready to be added.","A cheese-applicator machine controls the output so that the mozzarella forms an even layer.","Large hoppers load heaps of pepperoni, sausage, and other meat toppings into a meat applicator.","As with the tomato sauce and cheese, the meat toppings cascade down on the pizza crusts.","The pizza is now ready for inspection.","Workers take samples off the line and weigh the crust, sauce, cheese, and meat to ensure the equipment dispensed the right amount of each.","Next, the pizzas enter a spiral freezer called a blast cell, where they spend about 20 minutes at minus-25 degrees fahrenheit.","An overwrapping machine applies a clear layer of plastic around each pizza, automatically cutting the wrap to fit.","A vision-control system takes a picture of every pizza, verifying the size, diameter, and checking for any imperfections.","The machine automatically rejects any less-than-perfect pizzas by air-blasting them into a separate tub.","Finally, an arm pushes each pizza into a waiting box.","All that's left now is to heat it up and dig in."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Cheese Graters","Hot Sauce","Silver Jewellery","Traditional Mexican Chairs"]},"text":["Many recipes call for shredded ingredients, which is why a cheese grater is an indispensable kitchen tool.","Depending on which type of blade or blades a grater has, you can coarsely shred to finely grate not just cheese but also potatoes and vegetables.","Graters come in different sizes, shapes, and configurations, from flat models with one blade to box graters with a different blade on each side.","The blades are made from a stainless-steel sheet that's just 1/50 of an inch thick.","The sheet enters a shearing machine, where a die descends and cuts the blade shape, holes and all.","The machine's dies are interchangeable, so when it's time to produce a different model, workers simply remove this die and install another one.","Stainless steel is the ideal blade material because it's food-safe, durable, and rust-proof.","For this model, the next step is to curve the blade.","They insert it into a press that bends it with a rounded die.","The press also turns over the edges along three sides, forming a channel for a handle.","The handle is made of stainless-steel wire.","A bending machine wraps it around a grater-shaped form...","Then cuts the end free, releasing what is now a finished handle.","Now for this model's final assembly.","Workers slide a handle into the blade's channels.","Next they put the blade in a press, which forces the channels closed, encasing the wire.","With the handle and blade now locked together, the grater is finished.","Another model has a built-in tray to collect the grated food.","This machine forms the pivoting handle which enables the blade to stand upright in the tray.","First the machine cuts a strip of stainless steel to the required length.","It makes holes for a rivet on each side.","Then it bends the piece to a \"u\" shape.","Meanwhile, a forming press shapes the tray out of a stainless-steel sheet.","The tray moves to the next press, which slices off the excess from the perimeter.","The tray is now completely formed.","All that's left to do is punch a hole on each side for the rivets that attach the handle that props up the blade.","They take the handle and rivet it to one end of the blade.","Next, they rivet the tray to the other end of the blade, and the grater is fully assembled.","This company packaged certain models in blister packs.","Workers put the grater in a clear plastic cover, then position a printed cardboard backing over it.","The backing is coated with transparent, heat-activated glue.","A few seconds under a hot press, and the plastic cover adheres to the backing, encapsulating the grater.","From a basic version on up, a grater is an essential kitchen tool most cooks can't do without.","When it comes to cuisine, some like it hot.","A quick way to satisfy a picante-loving palate is with a splash or two of hot sauce, typically served with mexican food such as nachos, tacos, and burritos.","It can also spice up everyday fare such as eggs, potatoes, and sandwiches.","This american company has been producing hot sauce, also called a pepper sauce, since 1868.","Its signature version is made from tabasco peppers, a type of chile pepper.","The brand also comes in additional varieties, using habanero, chipotle, and green jalapeño peppers.","The company has pepper fields at its home base in louisiana, as well as in central and in south america, using seeds harvested from the louisiana crop.","The company president uses his experienced eye to select the best plants for seed extraction-- those with even and early-ripening, juicy peppers, well-formed, layered branches, and healthy, damage-free leaves.","He marks his selection with a string.","Then pickers harvest those peppers and send them to the seed extractor.","The peppers are hand-picked for sauce production, as well.","To determine which ones are ripe enough, the pickers use what cajuns call a petite baton rouge, french for \"little red stick\".","If a pepper matches the color of the stick, they harvest it.","If not, it stays on the plant.","It's labor-intensive but ensures only the perfect peppers go into the sauce.","Within hours of harvesting, the factory grinds the peppers and mixes them with salt.","This creates a mash which then goes into oak whiskey barrels to ferment and age.","Wooden barrels breathe, letting in just enough air to spur natural yeast growth-- the key to fermentation--  but not too much air, which would discolor the mash and produce a metallic flavor.","After laying paper on top of the mash to prevent surface discoloration, workers seal the barrels.","Then they spread a layer of salt over the top.","The barrels now go to the warehouse, where the mash ferments and ages for three years.","Fermentation releases carbon-dioxide gas, which forces liquid out through a vent hole in the top of the barrel.","The salt absorbs the liquid and hardens.","After the three-year fermentation and aging period, they break up the salt and open the barrel.","What was once pungent and acrid is now aromatic, with a mellow, complex flavor.","However, it still needs significant refining.","So they pump it into large mixing tanks, add vinegar, then churn for three to four weeks.","That's now long it takes for the vinegar to break down the pepper solids into smaller particles.","During that process, the vinegar also takes on the color, flavor, and aroma of the peppers.","The sauce requires no cooking whatsoever because the vinegar acts as a natural preservative.","The next step is a two-stage milling process.","The first mill extracts the pepper pulp.","The second mill removes the seeds.","The sauce is now finished.","The quality-control department analyzes samples from every batch of sauce for viscosity, ph, salt level, and other criteria.","Lab technicians also perform taste tests for flavor, clearing their palate in between with crackers and cooling the fiery heat with ice-cream bars.","Once the batch gets the thumbs-up, it's pumped to the bottling line.","The company uses glass rather than plastic because glass is a better barrier against oxygen.","Oxygen penetration would adversely affect the flavor and color of the sauce.","The capping machine twists on a plastic screw cap.","Then the bottles travel to the labeler, which adheres the main product label, slips on a decorative neck band, and applies a clear plastic seal over the cap.","Hot off the production line and ready to go.","People have been making jewelry and other objects since about 4,000 b.c. silver remains popular today because of its beauty and its affordability compared to gold and platinum.","Pure silver is rather soft, so it's traditionally combined with one or more metals to give it hardness and strength.","The silver used in jewelry is traditionally sterling silver.","Sterling is composed of 92.5% silver and 7.5% alloy.","The alloy is usually copper or copper combined with other metals.","This mexican jewelry manufacturer melts the standard ratio of copper and zinc alloy to silver...","Then also remelts silver left over from the jewelry production process.","At 1,760 degrees fahrenheit, it takes just seconds for these solid metals to become molten sterling silver, at which point workers pour it into a stainless-steel mold.","The silver rapidly cools and hardens into a flat bar.","Workers extract the bar and clean it with sulfuric acid, then pass it between two rollers and a press.","The rollers apply more than 3,300 pounds of pressure.","Workers feed the bar into the press repeatedly, each time turning the wheel to narrow the gap between the rollers to progressively thin it out.","Rolling the bar scrambles its molecules, making the silver brittle.","So they reheat it to rearrange the molecules into a regular pattern again and restore flexibility and malleability.","The bar now goes through another rolling press to radically reduce the thickness.","This 4/10-of-an-inch-thick bar becomes a thin strip a mere 1/100 of an inch thick.","In doing so, it also lengthens dramatically from 10 inches to just over 4 yards.","The strip now passes through a series of forming rollers, which progressively curl the edges up and inward until the strip becomes a hollow tube.","Then the machine solders the edges, sealing the tube.","The tube is still way too thick for making earrings and rings, so on it goes to another thinning operation.","The machine grabs one end of the tube and pulls it through a series of circular dies which have progressively narrower diameters.","Once the tube is the required diameter, a winding machine curves it.","Some tubes then move on to a cutting machine which uses a diamond head to engrave a pattern in the surface.","To make hoop earrings, an artisan steadies a piece of curved, engraved tube in locking tweezers and solders on an earring hook, then the latch into which the hook snaps.","Some pieces of jewelry incorporate cubic-zirconia stones.","In this design, a computer-guided laser machine has already cut two patterned pieces out of an ultra-thin silver sheet.","A stamping machine then rounded each piece into a half-sphere.","The artisan now solders the two halves together, encasing the cubic-zirconia stones inside.","Then he solders the rest of the earring components made from silver tubing and silver wire.","Here an artisan is making a pendant.","He locks cubic-zirconia stones in between the front and back frame pieces.","Then he positions the center piece within the frame, soldering it in four spots.","Next, he solders a ring to the top of the pendant...","Then the bail, the loop for the chain, around the ring.","Next, into the finisher, a rotating barrel of abrasive powder that rounds edges and smoothes rough spots.","A buffing with a cloth wheel then polishes the silver to a mirror finish.","The same computerized laser machine that cut the sphere earrings can also etch an elaborate design on the surface of a piece.","It can reproduce virtually any image that can be created or copied with software.","The laser draws by pulverizing a microlayer of silver.","As the laser works, a built-in suction device vacuums the silver powder away.","Besides adding strength and durability, the alloy makes sterling silver less porous and, therefore, shinier.","And the copper in particular has anti-corrosive properties which reduce tarnishing.","The mexican barrel chair is sometimes called montezuma's chair, after the 9th aztec emperor who, as legend has it, enjoyed sitting in one.","After the spanish conquest of the aztec empire, these chairs were deemed seats of honor for visiting v.i.p.s.","Now considered more rustic than regal, anyone can sit in a chair like montezuma's.","There are various versions produced in mexico today, many handcrafted using techniques that date back centuries.","With a sharp, curved blade, the craftsman first splits a chunk of mexican rosewood into long, narrow pieces.","He cuts 36 splints for the chair's distinctive lattice work.","He pares down the ends of each splint, and he carves a round head onto each end.","These heads will stop the rope from sliding off as he ties the splints together.","He pulls the back away from a much longer piece of wood and then trims it to slimmer dimensions.","This wood is fresh from a local shrub called guizema.","It's so pliable, it's almost elastic, allowing the craftsman to bend it around his knee into a \"u\" profile.","Too much force, and he could crack the wood.","Too little, and the curvature won't be right.","A thick nail used on railway tracks is now used as a hammer as he nails a linear piece of wood to a curved one, completing his chair base.","He now loops plastic rope around the tips of the two splints and ties them together.","He lays the tied splints to holes in the guizema wood base.","He angles the top end of the splints diagonally and ties them together to create the chair's trademark lattice.","He then arranges the rounded willow wood frame on top and lashes the tied tips to it.","He reinforces the chair base with willow wood branches that have been scraped flat.","He nails five of these poles to the base of the chair.","The next craftsman secures a rounded bundle of willow branches to the protruding poles.","This completes the back framework.","Another worker now strings rope made of agave plant fiber across the seat framework and ties it to it.","He creates a strong yet flexible webbing to support the seat.","He now splits open some locally grown reeds and flattens them with a stone.","Basket-weave-style, he interlaces the flattened reeds to create a plated material that will be the next layer for the seat.","After cutting it to the exact shape and dimensions, he places it on top of the webbing.","He then stitches a strip of leather along the border.","His co-worker now reinforces the plastic ties at the chair base with leather rope.","The leather ties also give the base a more finished look.","He turns the chair on its side and trims the poles.","He also carves slivers of wood from the base so that it's even all the way around, allowing the chair to sit level on the floor.","The next worker drapes tanned and stretched pig-skin leather over the back framework.","He trims it to the contours of the bent willow wood.","He covers the reed seat with more leather from the same hide and cuts away the excess.","Using a leftover swatch of leather, he applies wax made from pig and cow fat to leather rope.","The wax allows the rope to slide easily through holes in the leather so there are no snags as he stitches the upholstery together.","The leather upholstery is now tight and tailored.","The next worker sprays mineral dye onto the leather.","It's honey-colored for a warmer look, and it also hides any minor flaws.","After the dye, he applies a protective coat of lacquer.","They heat an iron stamp and apply it to the latticed base to brand the wood with the company name.","And with that job done, it's time to take a seat.","But with so many twists on this ancient design, it could be tough to decide which one."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Macarons","Pine Needle Baskets","Micrometers"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" macarons...","Pine-needle baskets...","And micrometers.","Meringue cookies with a flavored filling, macarons were first produced in the eighth century in venetian monasteries.","In 1533, the recipe came to france with the pastry chefs brought by the italian noblewoman who arrived to marry the king.","Macarons have been considered french ever since.","Macarons are as much a treat for the eyes as for the mouth, with colorful meringue shells sandwiching a flavorful filling.","To prepare what's known as italian meringue for the shells, the bakers combine sugar and water.","They heat the mixture to precisely 222 degrees fahrenheit, slightly above the boiling point.","In a mixing bowl, the bakers combine egg whites with dehydrated egg whites.","Using a combination of liquid and dried egg whites reduces the amount of moisture in the meringue mixture.","When there's less moisture, it's easier to control the baking.","Workers mix the egg whites for about 8 to 10 minutes to make an emulsion, then add the boiling water and sugar.","The combination mixes until the temperature drops to 104 degrees fahrenheit.","No thermometer is necessary.","Bakers can tell by the stiff texture of what is now meringue.","The next step is to flavor and color the meringue.","Workers weigh very precise quantities of almond powder...","Then icing sugar.","They transfer these ingredients to the mixer...","And blend them thoroughly.","The baker adds the blended almond powder and icing sugar to a mixture of egg whites and, in this case, red food coloring because these will be raspberry macarons.","They resume mixing for another two or three minutes until everything is thoroughly blended.","Then the baker adds this mixture to the meringue to color and flavor it.","Five more minutes of blending, and the meringue is ready.","It's time to form the meringue shells.","A worker pours the meringue into the feed vat of the depositer.","The depositer dispenses 5-gram disks of meringue, 60 disks per lined baking sheet.","Using a micrometer, a worker measures each disk to make sure it's between 1.69 and 1.77 inches in diameter.","Meringue expands with baking, so this ensures each disk will bake into a shell that's the correct size.","Then, fans blow air to dry out the tops.","Evaporating the moisture prevents the top of the disks from rising as they bake in the oven for 15 to 20 minutes at 249 degrees fahrenheit.","When they come out of the oven, the baked shells are set out to cool.","Meanwhile, the bakers prepare the filling, mixing chocolate with piping-hot 35% cream.","As the chocolate melts, they blend the ingredients thoroughly.","Then the baker refrigerates the filling for 12 hours at 48 degrees fahrenheit.","When the filling comes out of the fridge, it's firm but malleable enough to be scooped up and put in a pastry bag.","With filling and shells now ready, the baker can begin assembling the macarons.","They squeeze about 5 grams of filling onto each shell...","Then place another shell on top, pressing gently to spread the filling outward.","The macarons fit perfectly into the slots of plastic retail trays, thanks to the careful measuring of the meringue disks prior to baking.","The trays pass through a machine which seals them in a pocket of plastic film to keep out moisture.","Then, each tray is packaged in a retail box.","This colorful selection features five flavors of macarons-- raspberry, blueberry, lemon, cherry, and exotic fruits.","When indigenous north americans needed containers, they looked no further than the pine needles that littered the forest floor.","They wove the needles into sturdy baskets for their daily use.","The making of these coniferous containers continues today, ensuring that it doesn't become a lost art.","Pine-needle baskets are beautiful examples of resourcefulness.","They prove that something substantial can be made from needles that would otherwise just end up on the ground and be trampled on.","The norway red pine in the northern united states sheds needles in the fall.","Just before they drop, they can be easily plucked from the branches.","This forager also collects needles that have fallen to the ground.","He tosses some pinecones into the bag too.","Back in the studio, a craftsperson immerses the needles in boiling water and simmers them for five minutes.","This softens the needles so that they're flexible enough to work with.","She selects a pinecone and boils it for 15 or 20 minutes.","This causes the scales to close up, and the cone shrinks.","Here are the pinecones before and after boiling.","The shrunken cone will serve as a handle for a basket lid.","After winding waxed linen thread around the cone's base, the craftsperson loops thread around the strands to hold them firmly together.","She now coils a bundle of pine needles around the cone and sews them to it.","She sets the cone aside for now.","Next, for an effect that is simply decorative, the craftsperson coils pine needles around a colorful piece of stone that's been sealed in acrylic.","Holes around the edge of the acrylic envelope make it easier to stitch the pine-needle coil to the decorative center.","The craftsperson gives each stitch a gentle tug to pull the coils snuggly so that it encompasses the acrylic edge.","This decorative center is now ready to be used as a starting point for a basket or a lid.","Using another technique, she crafts a basket center using only softened pine needles and thread.","This will be a bit trickier.","Using pliers, she pulls off the sheaths that hold the groupings of needles together.","Without the sheaths in the way, it will be easier to work with the needles.","The craftsperson now takes a bundle that's almost the thickness of a pencil and forms a small loop.","She ties a knot at the cross point.","She stitches the bundle all the way around, creating a spiral with a threaded pattern that radiates outward, like spokes on a wheel.","The craftsperson continually tucks more pine needles into the tail of the spiral to make it thicker and more even.","She then weaves a basket base from the center spiral outward.","She stitches each coil of pine needles to the one before it.","And she aligns the stitching to create a decorative pattern that adds to the appeal of the basket.","The craftsperson now tucks in pine needles with the black sheaths still on, to add even more visual interest.","She artfully arranges them around the basket base and stitches them to it.","From start to finish, it takes about 12 hours to craft the entire basket.","After completing the lid with the decorative stone, the craftsperson tests the fit.","For an alternative embellishment, she weaves red dogwood twigs into a pine-needle basket.","It's another way to be creative with the materials that nature offers up in abundance.","Each one of these pine-needle baskets is an original, handcrafted by an artisan.","And that makes them worth holding on to.","A micrometer is a handheld precision-measuring tool typically used in manufacturing.","A toolmaker producing parts for factory equipment or a machinist making parts for a product would use a micrometer to take precision measurements to make sure the part dimensions confirm to engineering specifications.","Micrometers come in different types and ranges of measurement.","This model is designed to measure the outside diameter of an object.","The graduations are in imperial units up to 1 inch.","The micrometer's frame starts out as a forged-steel part that needs to be machined to the final shape.","Workers secure the part on a mechanical milling machine.","The machine first squares the ends...","Then slices the part down the middle, dividing it into frames for two micrometers.","A computer-guided mill profiles the frame.","This is the forged frame before this step and after.","Another computer-guided mill reduces the inside and outside diameters of the frame's hollow stem.","Workers insert a nut in the stem, then dip a piece of solder into a soldering chemical called flux and insert it through a hole in the stem.","They hold the stem inside a soldering coil.","The heat instantly melts the solder, fusing the nut to the stem.","Workers remove excess solder with a wire brush.","Then, they grind the stem to finalize the diameter.","Here's what the stem looks like before this last grinding and after.","Next, on the opposite end of the frame, they mill a notch.","This is for the lock nut that locks the micrometer against the object while you read the measurement.","Workers now sandblast the entire frame.","This removes all traces of metal dust and machining lubricant, leaving the surface pristine, a requirement for the next step-- electroplating the frame with chrome.","They complete the micrometer's frame by laser-marking the brand name and a reference chart of measurements in fractions of an inch and the decimal equivalents.","This machine shapes a long steel rod into the micrometer's inside shell, which, in conjunction with the outside shell, displays the measurement reading.","The machine first drills through the rod to form a hollow cylinder.","Next, it reams the inside and grinds the outside to the required diameter.","The same machine also shapes a steel rod into the micrometer's outside shell.","It carves a diamond pattern onto it called a knurl.","This textures the surface, making it easier to grip.","Then the machines reams the inside to the required diameter.","After sandblasting both shells, workers hang them on a rack, then dip the rack into a tank of chromic acid.","Copper prongs on the rack deliver a positive electrical current to the shells while the chromic acid is charged with a negative current.","This magnetically draws a chrome layer onto the surface of the shells.","Then a computer-guided laser marks the brand name and the graduations on the inside and outside shells.","This computer-guided mill shapes a steel rod into the micrometer's key measuring component, the spindle.","The machine first profiles the outside.","Then it drills a hole 1/2 inch deep and reams it to the correct diameter.","It's critical that the spindle not wear down with long-term use, as this would effect the micrometer's measuring accuracy.","To prevent this, they harden the steel through a heat-treatment process.","First, workers put the spindles in a furnace at a temperature of 1,526 degrees fahrenheit.","After an hour, they submerge the spindles in oil, then freeze them overnight to stabilize the steel.","The next day, workers temper the steel by putting the spindles back in the furnace for an hour, this time at a lower temperature.","Once the spindles cool, a machining tool grinds threads into them.","The precision of that threading determines the micrometer's measurement accuracy.","To use a micrometer, you place the object you're measuring against the stationary end of the frame called the anvil.","Then you rotate the spindle on the opposite end until it's seated against the object.","You turn the nut to lock that position and read the measurement.","The spindle for this model has 40 threads per inch.","So turning it one revolution in either direction moves it 25/1,000 inch.","If the steel hadn't been hardened, those threads would wear down over time, causing inaccurate measurements.","For the same reason, this disk they now prepare to solder onto the face of the spindle is made of tungsten carbide, the hardest type of steel.","After fluxing the face of the spindle, topping it with the disk of solder, and positioning the fluxed carbide disk on top of that, workers place the spindle inside the hot soldering machine to fuse the carbide to the face of the spindle.","They grind the diameter of the carbide disk to reduce it to the same diameter as the spindle.","After this grinding, the disk becomes integrated with the rest of the spindle.","They grind the face of the carbide disk flat.","Then this lapping machine polishes the face to perfect the flatness and produces a mirror finish.","They perform a quality-control check with an optical parallel made of sapphire.","It projects bands of light which detect flatness to a degree the human eye can't perceive.","This second test reflects light off the mirror-finish face.","When rotating the spindle, the light should stand still.","This indicates the face is perfectly perpendicular to the diameter.","The micrometer's anvil, the fixed surface opposite the spindle against which you place the object you're measuring, is also machined from carbide.","To assemble the micrometer, a worker places a spring in a recessed area of the frame stem, then the inside shell onto the stem.","The spring applies enough tension to hold the shell in place.","The inside of the stem will have female threads to match male threads on the spindle.","This adjusting nut on the end of the stem controls the thread engagement between the two, enabling the spindle to move more tightly or loosely.","The next step is cutting those female threads into the inside of the stem.","First, a worker reams the stem to the required diameter, then switch the reaming tool on the lathe for a tapping tool.","Tapping is the term for cutting threads.","They put the stem back on the lathe and tap 40 female threads per inch.","Now, workers can assemble the spindle to the stem.","They mount the spindle on an automatic lapping machine.","Then a worker slides the stem over the spindle, going back and forth multiple times to fit both sets of threads together.","They lubricate the threads with instrument oil so they'll glide smoothly against each other.","After assembling the lock nut in its notch, the worker cleans the spindle face with alcohol and glues the anvil to it temporarily.","Then they rotate the spindle until the anvil reaches its adhesive-coated position at the opposite end of the frame.","When the adhesive sets, the worker separates the spindle and anvil.","Using an optical parallel, they check the spindle and anvil faces to make sure they're perfectly parallel to each other.","The worker completes the assembly by fitting the outside shell to the frame.","It covers the end of the spindle that's protruding from the stem.","A steel ratchet locks it into position.","A final round of quality-control testing ensures the device works smoothly and measures accurately.","In this test, they measure four different-sized measuring blocks.","In this one, they bring out those optical parallels again to check flatness and parallelism.","They also perform a cosmetic inspection and check that the graduations are all legible because, of course, no one wants a micrometer that doesn't measure up."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Kitchen Knives","Mannequins","Socks","Hypodermic Needles"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Kitchen knives...","Mannequins...","Socks...","And hypodermic needles.","Any good cook knows that you're only as good as your tools, so using the right kitchen knife for the job is essential.","From chef's knives and cleavers to boning knives, filleting knives, and paring knives, a serious cook buys only quality cutting utensils and stores them in a block to keep their blades sharp.","Today's blades are truly a cut above the stone tools the cavemen used.","Knife-making is now a science, producing tools that really give you that edge in the kitchen.","First, they roll out steel by the sheet from a big coil.","Then this machine, called a press, cuts out the blades with a punch.","And it really does pack a punch.","It presses down with 110 tons of pressure in order to make these steel cutouts.","Next, things get really hot.","They roll baskets full of the blade cutouts into a high-temperature furnace.","The blades bake at almost 1,600 degrees fahrenheit for 2 hours.","This hardens the steel.","Out of the fire and into the freezer, the blades chill out at subzero temperatures-- negative 56 degrees fahrenheit for two hours.","This freezer is cooled by liquid nitrogen.","Now we have what they call \"cold, hard steel\".","Next, they douse each blade with water while a belt grinder smooths the back of the blade and sparks fly.","Continuous water keeps the steel cool and hard while a sander smooths the back of the blade.","Now a robot moves in.","This robotic arm has vacuum grippers like an octopus.","It picks up a blade by suctioning, then it transports it to a grinding machine.","The machine grinds the blade to give it that cutting edge.","Water flows continuously through the grinder, again to keep the steel cool.","The robot keeps everything moving, putting a paring blade through the grinder every 12 seconds.","The automated process for this bigger blade is a bit different.","This robotic arm holds the blade in a grip, rather than through fast-action suctioning.","That's because it takes more time to grind this big blade, called a cook's knife.","So this arm holds onto this blade a few seconds longer.","But if this makes you nervous, relax.","The robot doesn't have a habit of dropping them.","Some blades require a personal touch, like this shiny chef's knife, used for chopping vegetables.","The worker runs the blade over the grinding stone very carefully.","This gives it a very thin edge.","Then a laser burns the brand name onto the side of the blade.","Next, a piece of wood goes into a clamp, and a router shaves it into the shape of a handle.","The end of the blade now fits neatly into the handle.","A worker clamps the knife onto a riveting machine.","Those things that look like bullets on an ammunition belt are actually the rivets.","The machine forces the rivets into the handle from both sides.","The rivets lock together inside the handle so they can never be taken apart.","Now they grind down any protruding steel from the handle.","This makes the wood flush with the steel from the blade.","The piece of metal that extends into the handle is called the tang.","It gives the knife weight and balance.","Finally, they hone the knife between two stone grinding wheels.","With this kind of an edge, these knives will slice paper.","But these knives will do their best work on the cutting board, where they'll make the cook's life easier and meals tastier, no matter how you slice it.","They strike alluring poses in store windows, motionless models flaunting the latest fashions.","For clothing retailers, mannequins are a vital sales tool.","They come in fixed or flexible versions, the bodies realistic or abstract.","And they can be made out of a range of materials, from wood to fiberglass.","Meet lady swing and mr.","X-- not flesh and bone, but polyurethane foam.","These fully flexible fashion figures start out as humongous blocks of soft polyurethane foam.","Using a band saw, workers divide them into smaller blocks, about the size of a large refrigerator.","A worker creates a pressed-wood mold using both a grinder and a sander to soften the inside.","She applies a layer of putty over rough or damaged areas.","This will harden and prevent the foam from clinging.","She'll make separate molds for the arms, legs, head, and torso.","A 3-square-foot slab of foam goes on top of the mold, then a slab of harder foam, called a pattern, on top of that.","The foam layers and wood mold now go through what's called a pressure cutting machine.","Pressure forces the slabs together, while a thin blade slices the excess foam away.","Exactly how much pressure the machine applies is a closely guarded trade secret.","The foam arms pop right out on the other side.","For the head and torso, they use a foam slab measuring 58\"x17\"x5 1/2\", and a foam pattern that includes shapes for breasts and a belly button, and grommets to shape the nipples.","This foam pattern is impressionistic.","This mannequins are not meant to be anatomically correct.","Here's the pressure-cutting machine close up.","Nine rollers compress the mold, soft foam, and pattern slabs together, forcing them through a paper-thin opening, and slicing away up to six inches of foam.","True to form, lady swing pops up on the other side.","Her flexibility is her best trait.","She and mr.","X are often displayed on sports equipment, like snowmobiles and bikes.","Their manufacturer first named them in the 1970s, and the monikers just stuck.","Workers inspect the mannequin and trim the excess material.","They extract her easily because they sprayed the empty mold cavity with lubricant.","Next, a worker assembles a quarter-inch-thick steel skeleton to give the mannequin some structure.","Workers will insert the skeleton between the half-sections of the foam body.","A welder fuses together 16 joints in the ankles, knees, thighs, hips, elbows, and shoulders.","Another worker sprays slow-drying, water-based glue on the skeleton and on the foam body sections that'll cover it.","This will make them adhere together snugly.","The hand skeletons are thin and pliable, like coat hangers, so they'll bend.","A worker places the skeleton between the torso halves, positioning the foam so the edges meet evenly.","These dummies don't come cheap.","They sell for between $600 and $800 each, depending on the market value of the foam's main ingredient, oil.","Still, that's a bargain compared to their more realistic-looking, but much less flexible, fiberglass cousins.","They cost up to $2,000 each.","After letting the parts dry and set overnight, a worker tests the limbs for flexibility.","She joins together the lower leg portions.","The skeleton protrudes at the heel so that it can be secured to the floor when the dummy goes on display.","Now, here's a scene worthy of a horror movie.","Using an electric carving knife, a worker slices of 2 1/2 inches from the front of the head.","She glues on a hollow face mask made of plastic, using solvent-based glue for an extra-strong bond.","Next, they spray the mannequin with a flesh-colored water-based glue, then sprinkle it with a fine powder made of tiny cloth particles.","This is called flocking.","It takes 12 hours to dry and gives the mannequin a protective fire-retardant skin.","This factory's flocking comes in 18 different colors, from a variety of skin tones to several vibrant colors.","Before lady swing makes her debut, a makeup session-- powder blush to color her lips and cheeks, and water-based paint on her eyes, lashes, and brows.","They add a wig, and voilà-- she's ready for her date with mr.","X. socks are something we put on without thinking.","But consider this-- the very first socks were strips of cloth or hide wrapped around the feet.","Imagine walking around in those.","Thankfully, that's ancient history, and today's socks are much better for the sole.","With so many styles and fibers for sock these days, it's no problem putting your best foot forward.","But you have to step into this room of knitting machines to truly understand what a science sock-making has become.","Here's a machine with the top open so we can get a view of the knitting action.","An automated whirling cylinder pulls yarn from spools through holes in metal spokes.","Little hooks on the needles grab the yarn.","The hooks have latches.","The latches open as the hooks snare the yarn and close as they knit so you don't lose a stitch.","As you can see, this machine knits socks a lot faster than grandma, sometimes making over 360 pairs a day.","As the layers are added, a sock emerges from a tube at the bottom.","The knitting machine is fully computerized.","It automatically switches to a different color of yarn to make a stripe or a company logo.","Now the machine changes gears to make a heel.","It does a half rotation instead of a whole one to knit the heel shape.","The needles go up and down as the latches open, and the needles pick up the yarn, pulling it in.","Knit one, purl two.","Here it is in slow motion.","This is about the speed at which a human could knit at, but this machine normally runs at a speed of over 200 revolutions a minute.","A tension mechanism moves back and forth, keeping the yarn from going slack and getting tangled.","Now a sock shoots out of a vacuum tube, and a worker turns it inside out.","She sews the toe closed and cuts off the extra fabric.","Then she turns the sock right side out again, and it's sucked up by the vacuum.","Next, the vacuum tube deposits the sock into a bin.","The trapdoor on the end of the tube ensures that vacuum pressure isn't lost.","But there's more than one way to close a sock toe-- a more automated way.","A worker slides the sock between two metal plates.","Pressure holds them in place.","Then a motorized conveyer system transports the sock to a sewing head.","A blade cuts off excess fabric, and a needle goes up and down like an oil rig, stitching one row and then another as reinforcement.","This automated system produces a finer seam than a sewing machine that's run manually.","Now that the toe is closed, a robotic arm moves in and feeds the sock to a set of rollers.","A blade pushes the sock down while the rollers turn the sock right side out.","A vacuum chute fires the sock into a bin.","Then it's on to the rotary dying machine.","He loads 1,800 pairs or more, depending on the size of the dying machine.","The socks toss around in a bath of dyes, chemicals, and softeners.","For athletic socks, they add antimicrobial treatment to the mix.","It will help prevent fungus or bacteria that cause foot odor.","Now they slide the sock onto a foot form made of polished aluminum that won't cause snags.","The aluminum leg forms stretch the socks to the prescribed size as they travel down a conveyer belt into a boarding machine.","The boarding machine is like a gigantic iron, and the heat seals the stretch in the nylon so the sock stays that size.","Once out, a robotic arm grips the sock and pulls it off the aluminum form.","It's called a stripper.","Then an automated rack with protruding pins collects the socks.","The worker removes them a bunch at a time, and the socks are ready for packaging.","And then, all you have to do is pull up your socks.","A hypodermic needle is the proper term for a syringe and needle.","It's used to draw blood or inject medication.","This indispensable tool was invented back in 1853, but it wasn't until 1954 that mass-produced disposable syringes came on the market, developed for the vast immunization campaign against polio.","A syringe may make you cringe, but the treatment it delivers could be a lifesaver.","To make a hypodermic needle, they start with a flat strip of stainless steel.","The milling machine rolls it into a tube shape.","A laser welds the seam together.","But what makes the steel stiff enough to use is something called cold-work, in which they press the tubing through a die several times.","This also slims the tube dramatically, so now you have a thinner, tougher tube.","It takes about a couple of days to turn this stainless-steel strip into a tube with needle potential.","But it will have to be sharp to perform, and the next steps will focus on getting the steel tube to a point where it's more than just a blunt object.","An electrically powered blade scores the walls of the tubes as rubber pads bear down and roll.","This rolling causes the tubes to finally break at the score line.","The tubes are being cut down to size-- about two inches long.","The tubes fall into a bin, a tangled mess.","The bin, driven by air pressure, agitates, and this shaking motion straightens them out.","An operator bundles them together with a plastic band, but removes a few to check the specs.","This micrometer uses laser light to measure the outside diameter.","The tube is supposed to be 8/100 of an inch, and it's right on.","Next, a mechanically driven drum rolls superadhesive tape onto the tubes.","The tape will hold the tubes in place as more work is done on them.","They razor cut five-inch strips of the tape tubes so that there are about 100 tubes per strip.","Then they spray aluminum oxide on the ends of the tubes.","This roughs them up so that the surface will be easier to work with.","Now they place the strips of tubes into the grinding fixture, and then they snap it shut.","Coolant flushes over the tube tips as the fixture moves across a grinding wheel.","The wheel grinds through the tops of the tubes, shaping them into a rough point.","This is only the first grind, so it's not yet needle-sharp.","Now the fixture rolls and rotates the tubes.","Then it's back to the grind.","The angle of the wheel is changed so that it sands the sides of the tubes.","These two secondary grinds sharpen the tubes into a finer point.","This is how they look before grinding, and this is after, with their sharp needle tips.","Now it's time for the big inspection.","She pushes the ends of the needles with the back of her tweezers to make sure they're even, and then pulls out a needle for sampling.","She measures the length of the grind.","It should be a few hundredths of an inch long.","Next, she sizes up the needle's outside diameter with a micrometer.","Holding the needle between posts, it measures the space between them.","Then she checks the inside diameter by inserting a plug gage into the tube.","Now she inspects a whole bundle of needles for irregularities or burrs.","Using tweezers, she removes one for a closeup look under the microscope.","Once they pass inspection, it's on to the big wheel, or the automated assembly machine.","Brass- and nickel-plated fittings, called hubs, drop onto pins on the wheel.","Then needles fall into the hubs.","Metal fingers align them so they fit together precisely.","The hub is the piece that will connect the needle to the syringe.","Automated crimpers press the needle into the hub.","Sheer friction bonds them.","Now two metal pads on the same wheel position the needle.","A plastic sleeve drops down, encasing the pointed tip.","Finally, a robotic arm lifts the needle off the wheel and drops it into a bin.","The needles are now ready for you, but are you ready for them?"]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Anatomical Models","Jukeboxes","Tortilla Chips","Spark Plugs"]},"text":["In the 18th century, anatomical models became widely used for educational purposes.","However, they were unique pieces carved in wax, which made them expensive and fragile.","Today, they're made of plastic-based resin and are found in medical schools, doctors' offices, even art schools.","This model of a human torso has 20 removable parts.","The front, sides, and back all provide different views of the body's inner and outer structure.","Workers cast each part of the model using a plastic-based polymer resin.","They pour the resin into nickel molds of the different parts, like this skullcap mold...","Or this heart mold.","Then they join the two molds that make up each part and clamp them shut.","The molds go into a gas oven set to 437 degrees fahrenheit.","As the heat penetrates the molds, the resin evenly coats the entire inner surface.","After about 10 to 12 minutes, they come out piping hot.","Workers spray them with water to cool them down before they unclamp the mold and release the warm casting.","Here are some shoulder muscles fresh from their mold...","The cross-section of a heart...","An arm...","And a leg that workers set to cool into shape on a form made of heat-resistant gypsum.","Using a needle, a worker punctures the resin to release trapped air so the part doesn't shatter.","Then he drills small holes for the pins that will hold the parts together.","Each part is hand-painted to single out key features.","An artist carefully paints in the veins in blue on this leg...","And then uses yellow for the nerve endings...","And red for the arteries.","Even the toenails get some color.","Before they can assemble the model, workers must first insert metal pins into each part.","They help attach the parts to one another.","Now the artist can finish painting in the arteries on this shoulder muscle.","The gray areas indicate the ligaments.","Next, she turns her attention to the head, painting in the eyes first to give the figure some life.","It's all in the details.","This final touch really makes the eyes come alive.","The parts go into a warm oven for about 15 minutes to soften the plastic.","This makes them easier to assemble.","Here, a worker lowers the model's head onto a metal pin set in the torso.","She puts the brain inside the model's skull and covers it with the skullcap.","Next, she adds muscles to an arm, guiding the pin into a hole on the adjoining part.","She adds the bicep, a muscle that helps flex the hand...","And, finally, the deltoid, the muscle that lifts the arm at the shoulder joint.","She tapes up the arm to keep all parts together as she attaches it to the torso.","Nickel-plated hooks and fasteners hold the removable parts in place on the assembled model.","This life-size muscular figure measures in at 4 1/2 feet.","It has 45 separate parts, all anatomically correct.","The human body-- truly an extraordinary structure.","The jukebox actually started out as a memo-recording device for executives.","That phonograph recorder was invented by thomas edison back in the 19th century.","It evolved into a coin-operated music machine because music is a lot more fun to dance to than the boss' orders--  \"take a memo\".","Put a coin in the slot and people will dance to your tune.","Records replaced the phonographic cylinder early in the 20th century.","Amplifiers were added in the 1930s and gave the big box a big sound.","In the 1980s, compact discs came along, putting a different spin on the jukebox.","With those smaller discs, manufacturers could pack a lot more music into a machine.","Now compact-disc technology is becoming outdated, and the latest jukeboxes contain computers that download songs from the internet.","To make a modern jukebox, they start with the door.","They sandwich a red panel with swirled designs on it between layers of plastic.","The assembler aligns them, then screws them together.","He snaps the jukebox name into a snazzy piece of plastic, then fits it in one of the cutouts in the front of the door.","Next, he installs aluminum framework around the door.","He supports it at the corners with metal brackets.","He screws a little metal wheel on the latch so the door will open and close smoothly.","He mounts the touch screen in the big cutout on the door.","He strings wiring for lighting around the perimeter of the door and fastens two long panels equipped with l.e.d. lights to the back.","He plugs in the lights for a test, and it proves this door is flashy enough for the entertainment biz.","He runs plastic trim along the perimeter of the door and screws a long metal hinge to one side of it.","This jukebox door is now complete, and the rest is an inside job.","The assembler installs an exhaust fan in the jukebox cabinet.","He screws an audio amplifier to the back wall.","The wireless router that allows the jukebox to connect to the internet goes in next.","He mounts the power-supply system to the sidewall of the cabinet.","He tucks the computer into a lower corner of the box.","The power transformer for the amplifier goes on the back wall.","He installs an audio-control system just below the transformer.","He connects the amplifier to the audio-control system, and then he wires the computer to the router.","He hooks up a communication system that passes information between all the devices in the jukebox.","And he installs a transformer for the speaker system.","Now the jukebox is ready for the showpiece-- that light-studded door with the touch screen.","He screws the door's long hinge to the cabinet.","He inspects his installation job and determines no adjustments are needed.","So he fastens the bill box to the back of the door...","And installs the computer hard drive in the cabinet.","And, finally, the money test.","He feeds the jukebox some cash and makes musical selections to check its function.","At the jukebox factory, when the job is done, it really is party time.","On their own, dipped in salsa or guacamole, or topped with chili and melted cheese, tortilla chips are the quintessential mexican snack, even though they're actually an american invention.","In the late 1940s, a los angeles tortilla factory began cutting and frying leftover tortillas, selling the first tortilla chips.","When the chips are down, they usually go fast.","Tortilla chips start out as raw yellow corn.","The supplier cleans the kernels and dries them to a moisture content of 14%, then ships them to the chip factory.","There, the corn goes into large stainless-steel cooking kettles filled with almost-boiling water.","Workers then add lime, an ingredient that does many things.","It's antibacterial, it gives the corn a parched flavor, it helps loosen the hull--  the kernel's shell-- so it will come off later on, and lets moisture penetrate the kernel.","Each cook kettle contains more than 650 pounds of corn and almost 200 pounds of water and lime combined.","Next stop is a soak tank.","The cooked corn sits there for 12 hours to further absorb water.","Once the moisture content hits 45% and the hulls are soft and loose, a pumping system moves the corn to the washer.","This machine strains the water so that what's left is just soft, hydrated corn.","The next stop is the tumbler, a rotating drum with perforated walls.","Water jets blow off the loose hulls.","The corn travels on a conveyor from the tumbler to the mill.","An auger feeds the corn into a stone grinder.","It literally pulverizes the corn kernels between two stones, producing a soft corn dough called masa.","The masa exits the mill through a narrow nozzle that shapes the dough into a thin sheet.","The sheet then runs through rollers that have triangular dies on their surface.","The triangles move into an oven heated to 644 degrees fahrenheit.","They spend just 16 seconds inside, but that's enough time to dry the dough to the point where it won't break apart when handled.","The heat also traps tiny pockets of moisture in the dough, creating little blisters.","This gives the tortilla chips their trademark bumpy texture.","From the oven, a conveyor belt transports the triangles to the fryer.","The corn oil is 360 degrees fahrenheit.","They take just 55 seconds to fry into chips.","A mesh conveyor belt then lifts them out.","As they leave, the excess oil drains back into the fryer.","At the next stop, augers feed nacho-flavor seasoning into a tumbler.","The seasoning's main ingredients are powdered cheddar, parmesan and romano cheeses, and spices.","Nozzles spray the chips with corn oil to make the surface adhesive.","Then the seasoning tumbles on and sticks.","After exiting the tumbler, the chips travel to the packaging department.","Chutes route them to different packaging machines.","The packaging equipment represents technical choreography at its finest.","Each machine has 14 bucket-shaped scales.","When there's enough for one package, a trap door opens.","The chips drop just as a forming device shapes a piece of foil and plastic film into a bag.","The chips land in the bag.","Then a heat sealer immediately closes the top and cuts it free while simultaneously sealing the bottom of the next bag.","From bucket to bag to bowl.","It takes a spark to get your motor running.","The spark plug was invented in the 19th century to fire the internal-combustion engine.","There are usually several in an engine, and they fit into the cylinder head.","When the plugs are all working, it means your trip will have a good start.","The spark plug produces what looks like a mini lightning bolt to ignite the gas that runs your car.","To make spark plugs, they blend alumina ceramic powder and other ingredients with water.","After a thorough mixing, the milky-looking brew drains into a big dryer, which converts it back to powder.","The powder funnels into a mold.","It closes to press the powder into the shape of spark-plug insulators, and a binding ingredient in the mix helps them keep their shape.","An automated system loads them onto mandrels that spin the ceramic insulators against a grinding wheel.","It grinds them into a more graduated shape and does a very precise job.","These ceramic shapes are quite fragile, and they'll need to be baked in order to harden.","But first, a tester double-checks the measurements with a laser tool.","Then they bake in this very hot kiln until they're extremely hard.","This takes up to 24 hours.","While the insulators are in the kiln, tools ram steel through shaped cavities called dies.","They're essentially punching out shells that will be the spark-plug casings.","Other tools bore into the upper part of the shells to give them a hexagonal profile.","This will later enable mechanics to wrench them into a vehicle's engine block.","More tooling contours the spark-plug shells, and the result is quite a transformation.","A conveyor now shuttles the spark-plug shells forward, as nickel-alloy wire unwinds overhead.","An automated welder fuses the wire to the shells.","This wire will serve as the spark plug's ground electrode, and it will be bent towards a firing electrode later.","The space between them will contain the spark.","Ridged rollers carve threads in the steel shells so they can be screwed into the engine block.","The shell then gets a protective silvery finish.","The ceramic insulators are now out of the kiln, and it's time to roll on the insignia.","The insulators then brush by a rubber wheel that coats them with glaze as a protective finish.","They install center electrodes in the insulators, and powder funnels into them to fill the space around the electrodes.","The powder is a mix of glass and metal.","Automated prongs compress it in the insulators.","Grippers then insert the terminal studs into the insulator.","The stud will act as the electrical connection to the center electrode.","The insulators now go into an oven.","The black powder melts around the studs and center electrodes to seal them inside the insulator cavity.","Nozzles squirt oil onto the metal shells to lubricate them.","The insulators funnel into the grip of robots which will install them in the shells.","They slide in easily because of the lubrication job.","Tools called shrinking punches apply an electrical current to each shell to fit it tightly to the insulator.","A robot positions the assembly right side up with the side electrode protruding, then bends that side electrode towards the center one.","The robot then collects the spark plugs and sends them down the line.","It's time for an inspection.","She looks for imperfections in the glaze, the inscription, and the nickel plating.","She measures the space between the two electrodes before sending them over to the packaging department.","And now these spark plugs are ready to keep your engine firing on all cylinders."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pewter Flasks","Potato Salad","Hydrogen Fuel Cells","Engineered Wood Siding"]},"text":["Long before the plastic water bottle, there was the hip flask, carried in a pocket or strapped to the waist or hip.","Unlike a water bottle or earlier canteen, the flask was used for carrying a very different type of thirst quencher-- several ounces of hard liquor.","In the 18th century, it became quite fashionable for well-to-do europeans to carry elegant flasks crafted from silver or pewter.","Today, flasks are typically given as gifts, often engraved with monograms or messages.","Pewter is an ideal metal for flask making because it's so malleable.","They begin with a sheet of raw pewter that's about 8/100\" thick.","With a guillotine cutter, they slice a rectangular starting piece called a blank.","They lay this blank onto a copperplate, which has the flask decorations on it in raised form.","They feed the plate and blank through a rolling press.","The compression stamps the design into the malleable pewter.","Next, they place the imprinted blank in a hydraulic press outfitted with flask-shaped forming dyes.","In a single strike, the press shapes the blank into half a flask.","They transfer it to a trim press and clip off the excess pewter around the perimeter.","They repeat the entire process to produce the other half of the flask, then solder the two parts together.","They shape certain styles manually.","A metalsmith heats the blank with a gas torch to make the pewter pliable, then wraps it around a flask-shaped aluminum block.","He hammers the adjoining edges flat with a wooden mallet and removes the block.","He fuses the edges by running a line of pure tin solder down the entire length of the joint.","Meanwhile, on another press, workers stamp out pewter-sheet rectangles.","The metalsmith solders one rectangle to the top of the flask...","Then cuts it to the right shape with jeweler scissors.","Next, he solders on a pewter thread for the cap.","Before fusing a pewter rectangle to the bottom of the flask, he stamps it with a maker's mark.","Then he dabs the bottom of the flask in flux, a chemical which helps solder run smoothly without globs.","Then, just as he did with the top, he solders on the bottom, then contours it.","Next, he puts a drill through the cap thread and bores a hole for filling and boring.","Then, with an abrasive belt, he grinds all the solder seams flat, making them barely noticeable.","Workers now fill the finished flask with water to check for leaks and rinse out the interior.","Then they screw a pewter cap onto each thread.","Now a buffer takes over.","With a cloth wheel and pumice, he removes any surface imperfections, such as marks left by the abrasive belt they used earlier to grind down the solder seams.","Once the buffing's complete, the flasks go through a dishwasher cycle to clean off pumice residue, then the finishing touch.","A polisher shines up the pewter until it has a reflective-mirror finish.","They pour out whatever water's still inside, emptying the flask for its new vocation.","Unlike the flasks used to conceal liquor under clothing back in the days of prohibition, these modern-day pewter flasks are meant to be seen and treasured.","In many families, a potato-salad recipe is a closely guarded secret passed down through the generations.","The family barbecue just wouldn't be the same without it.","But when there's no time to whip up a homemade batch, there's always the factory-made kind.","The appeal of potato salad knows no boundaries.","People around the globe have cooked up various versions of this dish over the years.","There are so many different recipes, they could fill an entire cookbook.","But no matter how you toss it, potato salad is always pure comfort food.","Of course, it's all about the potato.","At this factory, they use varieties with low water content so the potato salad doesn't end up soggy.","They arrive fresh from the field and funnel out of the truck trailer onto a conveyer for an efficient and gentle unloading.","They head up to a washer to clean off the dirt and remove stones and pebbles.","The potatoes then bounce across rollers covered with fine grit abrasive.","This scrapes off the skins.","Once peeled, a worker inspects the white flesh for bruises or other flaws.","They then tumble down a chute towards the dicing machine.","It's equipped with these cutting cylinders.","The blades are positioned vertically on one, while they're in a horizontal configuration on another.","As they revolve in sync, they carve the potatoes into cubes.","The blades can be adjusted to cut the cubes larger or smaller, depending on the recipe.","Here they turn out medium chunks for a creamy, american-style potato salad.","Workers roll trays full of potato cubes into a big pressure cooker to steam-cook for 6 to 10 minutes.","Pressure cooking preserves the nutrients and original flavor of the potatoes.","While the potatoes are cooking, they prepare the crunchy component-- the celery.","The celery sticks first go for a sudsy ride to scrub them clean.","Along the way, an inspector sorts out leaves and over-ripe pieces.","They set cutting cylinders to dice more finely than with the potatoes.","Out of the washer and thoroughly rinsed, the celery sticks tumble into the dicer, and it chops them into small bits.","The minced celery exits into a vibrating trough and tosses about in a peroxide solution for a second cleaning.","It's an extra precaution because the celery won't be cooked, and cooking kills bacteria.","After another rinse, the soaked celery lands in a perforated drum that fits into another drum.","The colander rotates within the drum to spin-dry the celery.","The next ingredient is the eggs.","They arrive at the factory already hard-boiled and de-shelled by the supplier, so all that's left is the slicing and dicing.","The egg whites cube nicely.","The yolk separates and crumbles completely.","With so many yolk crumbs, their favor will permeate the entire potato salad.","They're now ready to combine some of the ingredients.","A worker adds finely cut onion to the egg, followed by diced red pepper and then celery.","They weigh the mix with each new ingredient to confirm that the portions are right.","And now for the dressing.","They pump the ingredients out of big storage tanks.","They include vegetable oil, sugar, vinegar, and egg yolks.","Whipped into a frothy mayonnaise, the dressing flows into an enormous, steel mixing vat.","They add the chopped-egg-and-vegetable combination.","The now cooked potato cubes join the other ingredients in the vat.","Blades spiral slowly for a gentle mixing to ensure the potato salad doesn't turn to mush.","With the salad now ready, suctioning devices set plastic tubs on a track conveyer.","Sensors signal their approach to dispenser nozzles, and the tubs stop right on cue for a fill-up of creamy potato salad.","Suctioning arms then flip the lids onto the tubs, and once sealed, they're on their way.","In just 40 minutes, they've manufactured enough potato salad at this factory to feed 500 people.","It should be quite a picnic.","A hydrogen fuel cell runs vehicles and other machines by directly converting the chemical energy in hydrogen gas into electrical power.","Hydrogen is an abundant fuel source.","It can be extracted from water, enabling almost any country to produce it domestically.","Hydrogen-fuel-cell engines can power vehicles and run backup generators for large computer operations.","They produce electrical power without any emissions.","At the heart of the engine is a stack of super-thin hydrogen fuel cells.","The engine's blower blows in air.","The fuel tank feeds in hydrogen gas.","Hydrogen and oxygen react and create electricity.","Each fuel cell is made of five parts.","On each end, there's a channelled plate made primarily of carbon, a material which conducts electricity.","Hydrogen enters the cell through the first plate, which channels it through the next component-- a chemically treated paper which conducts both gas and electricity.","Then the hydrogen enters this membrane, where it splits into protons and electrons.","The protons react with the drawn-in oxygen, producing water.","The water passes through another paper to the cell's outer plate, where a pump draws it away.","Meanwhile, the electrons travel to the end of the stack of fuel cells to electrical wires.","After assembling the stack, technicians compress the fuel cells in a hydraulic press.","Compression helps the current flow smoothly from cell to cell.","It also presses the rubber casket around each plate to the adjacent one, sealing the stack so that hydrogen can't leak out.","The technicians run a quality-control test with nitrogen gas to verify the seal.","Before releasing the press, they install high-strength steel rods to bind the compressed cells together.","For a stack this size, the rods apply 3 1/3 tons of pressure.","With a stack now off the press, they hook up an electric circuit board which monitors the voltage of each fuel cell.","After securing the connectors to the stack with an adhesive strip, it's just a matter of connecting one to each fuel cell...","And securing that connection with a special type of epoxy which contains silver to conduct electricity.","Next, they mount the circuit board in a plastic cover to protect it.","The fuel-cell stack is now fully assembled and moves to the factory's test area.","A technologist mounts it on a test station and, simulating installation in an engine, hooks up a hydrogen line, an air line, and a water line for cooling.","The testing machine runs a three-hour, automated performance test.","They mount the stack onto the engine's structural frame, then install the hydrogen recirculation pump.","Next, a water-recirculation pump, which cools the fuel cell by pumping in cool water.","Then they mount the components, which feed hydrogen stored at high pressure in the fuel tank.","That pressure pushes the gas through stainless-steel fuel lines to the cell.","Next, the fan that blows outside air into the fuel cell to react with the hydrogen.","This filter removes dust and other contaminants from the air the fan draws into the fuel cell.","Meanwhile, technicians have assembled the computer that controls the whole engine.","They now connect the wires from the fan, the pumps, and the other engine components to the computer.","They hook up the fuel-cell output wiring, the wires which carry the current the fuel cell creates, and sends it to whatever vehicle or device the engine is powering.","A tiny portion of the cell's output runs the pumps and other engine components.","Now fully assembled, the engine undergoes extensive performance and safety testing.","Once it passes every test, technicians perform a final visual inspection, then install the sheet-metal cover.","The hydrogen-fuel-cell engine is now ready to be shipped to the customer and installed in the machine it'll be powering.","Whether running a vehicle like this forklift or powering computer servers, the only by-product is waste heat and water, which is why hydrogen power is clean energy.","Engineered wood siding is essentially clapboard reinvented.","With its rough grain, it resembles natural wood.","Each board contains wood strands that are resin-bonded for strength and durability.","They're also treated to resist rot and termites.","Engineered wood siding is a chip off the old block-- or a lot of chips, for that matter.","But how do they transform a bunch of wood chips into a solid piece of wood?","It starts with aspen and other kinds of wood.","They transfer the logs to ponds to maintain a consistent moisture content and temperature until production.","The logs land soaking-wet on a conveyer.","Grooved rollers feed them into a debarker.","It shaves off both the tree bark and the cambium-- the soft, green layer beneath the bark.","This exposes the white aspen wood.","The logs land on the next conveyer in a horizontal configuration.","Circular saws cut the logs into smaller chunks, known as bolts.","The bolts head towards a machine called the waferizer.","Here's a look under the waferizer hood.","A 10-ton steel disk holds 48 razor-sharp knives.","When the disc spins, the knives slice the bolts into wafer-thin chips, known as strands, in just seconds.","The strands are the same length, but slightly different widths.","Most are roughly the size of a business card.","They remain flat and don't curl up because of the stability of the aspen wood itself.","A conveyer delivers the wood strands to big, steel bins, and from here, they're fed at a controlled rate to a dryer one floor below.","Heated by a furnace, the cyllindrical dryer is superhot.","It rotates to tumble-dry the aspen strands.","A blender coats the strands with resin adhesive, wax for moisture resistance, and a preservative to ward off rot and termites.","They spray a release agent onto the next conveyor to keep the strands from sticking to it.","Rotating disks orient the first layer so the strands all land in the same direction.","The next layer lands in a more random configuration.","The third layer is again uniform and parallel.","The result is a loosely interwoven mat of wood.","Layering the strands will provide dimensional stability in the finished siding boards.","A carriage now moves a large, circular saw back and forth to cut the mat into sections approximately 16 feet in length.","The sections transfer to a faster conveyor that pulls them forward.","A steel carriage stretches a sheet of heavy, industrial-grade paper across the mat of wood strands.","The paper has been coated with a primer and saturated with a durable adhesive that bonds with the wood strands.","A multitiered press closes to compact the mats and bake them.","The heat and residual moisture activate the resins to turn wood strands and paper into one solid piece of engineered wood.","At the same time, the press embosses the paper topping with a deep, cedar-like grain.","The press opens, revealing the cured and compacted composite sheets.","The thickness has gone from roughly 4\" to just under 4/10\" a conveyer doubles as a scale to confirm the content of each sheet is exact.","Saws trim the sides and slice the sheets in two.","A pusher pushes then shoves the smaller sheets forward, and another saw trims the ends.","The trimmings don't go to waste.","They're ground up and used as fuel for the dryer.","They now have a stack of 40 engineered wood sheets.","They're ready to be turned into siding boards.","Rollers push the sheets one at a time into saws that slice them to siding dimensions.","Now separate strips, they exit in a cluster and separate.","A paint gun coats the trimmed edges with primer.","This seals any exposed wood from the elements.","After a trip through the oven to dry the primer, the engineered siding boards head towards an inspection station.","Here, a worker scrutinizes each board for blemishes or damage.","If he finds any, the board is rejected.","The siding will be painted postproduction to the homeowner's preference, and once installed, this engineered wood product is sure to fit into the neighborhood."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Scalpels","Oil Paints","British Police Helmets","Ice Axes"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Scalpels...","Oil paints...","British police helmets...","And ice axes.","The scalpel is the surgeon's trademark tool.","Its short blade is razor-sharp and designed to slice swiftly and cleanly.","This little knife may seem like a simple instrument, but its incredible precision, along with a surgeon's steady hands, is key to a safe and accurate medical procedure.","Scalpel handles are made from rods of stainless steel.","The blades are made of either carbon steel or stainless steel.","They're sterile and designed for one-time use only.","The blade steel is extremely thin, less than .","02 of an inch.","It arrives at the scalpel factory in coiled strips.","The first machine feeds the strips into a press.","A die inside punches out unfinished blades, called blanks.","Blades will vary in size and contour, but they all have the same center slot for attaching the handle.","When you flex a blank, it bends entirely out of shape.","That's because the steel still needs to be tempered.","The blanks pass through a furnace for about 30 seconds.","The heat alters the molecular structure of the metal, hardening it.","Now the blank has the flexibility a scalpel blade requires.","Next, the blanks move through a punching tool that pops them from the strip...","And stacks them on a peg.","A worker threads a metal ring through the slots to keep them together, then sends the whole set of blanks for surface polishing.","This process will restore the metal's original sheen, which was dulled by the heat treatment.","Next, workers visually inspect every blank, discarding any defective ones.","They transfer the blanks from the ring to a metal rod using a gauge to measure out the right number.","From here, the rods are mounted onto grinding machines.","Each one picks up a blank with a magnet, then places it in a holder.","The holder runs the blank against a wheel coated with diamond particles.","This powerful abrasive shapes and sharpens a cutting angle, transforming the blank into a blade.","As the blades come off the grinder, they cling together because the magnet that fed them into the machine magnetized them.","To cancel this effect, a demagnetizing machine passes an electromagnet behind the stacks of blades.","After a thorough washing in an ultrasonic cleaning tank, the blades move on to final inspection.","Wearing protective rubber gear, workers carefully scrutinize the cutting edges, discarding any blade that's less than perfect.","Each and every blade passes through two different inspectors.","In the packaging department, a machine covers each blade with a brown paper strip that contains an anti-corrosion chemical.","This provides extra protection against rust.","A second machine slips each blade into a foil packet, then cuts the packets apart.","Each packet bears the blade model number and tracking code.","As the blades come off the packing machine, an inspector does one last quality check.","Then he counts the blades and boxes them.","Of course, it's critical that surgical blades be sterile, so the boxes go into a cobalt radiation chamber for about six hours.","This obliterates any lingering contaminants.","When the boxes exit the chamber, they're hospital-ready.","In the operating room, it's simply a matter of sliding the blade onto the protruding part of the handle, called the bayonet.","Surgeons make the most of their dexterity by choosing a handle that best fits their hands and best suits the procedure their hands will be performing.","Coming up, mixing up a wide palette of colors at an oil-paint factory.","Oil paint dates back to ancient times when artists mixed minerals and other elements with wax or oil.","In the 1400s, they discovered that linseed oil was ideal as a pigment binder because it allowed blending and glazing in layers.","Centuries later, the colors in those paintings are still vibrant.","Today, many oil paint pigments still come from natural sources, though most are synthetically made.","Factories buy both types of pigments in powdered form to make their paints.","Cuttlefish ink yields brown pigment, lead produces a specific yellow, and mercury ore makes red.","In the past, pigments have also come from stones, tree bark, plant gum, ground up glass, and even arsenic.","This company's research laboratory spends about two years developing a color recipe.","A chemist mixes specific amounts of linseed oil and pigment into a machine called an automatic mueller.","It rubs the ingredients together, dispersing the pigment particles throughout the oil.","For each sample, the formulation is altered slightly in search of the perfect result.","The research team compares the resulting colors and selects the best one.","To produce a color on a large scale, workers start by pumping a specified amount of linseed oil into a mixer.","Then they add the precise amount of pigment.","Most colors are made with just one pigment.","The precise mixing time and speed depends on the kind of pigment formulation being created.","Next, the mixture is spooned into a mill.","Three dispersion rollers rub the ingredients, separating pigment particles and coating them in oil.","The recipe specifies how much pressure the rollers apply, how fast they turn, and how long they work the mixture.","Milling can take hours or even days, depending on the texture of the pigment.","The quality-control lab takes samples from each batch coming off the mill and subjects them to a series of tests.","Technicians scrutinize paint from both sides of the mill to ensure the mixture is being processed evenly.","First, a spread test.","A heavy brass weight goes onto a blob of paint for a prescribed period of time.","Then, inspectors evaluate the volume of color and measure the distance it spread.","If it doesn't spread far enough, it needs more milling.","Next, a dispersion test.","The markings on this gauge indicate the size of the paint's particles in microns, millionths of a meter.","If the particles are too big, the paint hasn't been milled enough.","Finally, inspectors time how long it takes the paint to dry to the touch.","Each color has a specified drying time, ranging from two days to two weeks.","The factory produces a chart that displays its 120 paint colors.","Workers brush each color onto a primer-coated paper.","When the paint dries, they cut each bar into rectangular swatches called chips.","The chart is assembled using this mounting machine.","The bottom has a section for chips of each color.","And the top contains a cardboard chart coated in glue.","As the machine closes, each chip aligns perfectly with its designated spot on the chart.","Back in the production line, the factory packages one color at a time in toothpaste-style tubes that will be finished off with twist caps.","Once the labels go on, the tubes make their way to the filling machine.","There, the tubes have their tops screwed on.","A nozzle squirts in the paint.","Then clamps flatten the edges shut.","A roller folds over the edge to strengthen the seal against squeeze pressure.","Now these oil paints are finally ready to meet the canvas.","When we return, a new twist on the traditional british police helmet.","British bobbies are used to standing tall because of their distinctive hats.","These traditional police helmets are almost a foot high.","That added height can't hurt when you're staring down a bad guy.","Bobbies' helmets have looked the same way for a century and a half.","Today, hatmakers use a metal mold to create that signature shape in fortified plastic.","The mold descends into an oven.","A worker places a sheet of plastic overhead.","He lowers the lid and slides the heated cover over it.","It takes a couple of minutes for the heat to soften the plastic.","The mold rises.","A vacuum below pulls the plastic into shape.","It hardens almost instantly.","A firm tap with a rubber mallet releases the shell from the mold.","A band saw slices away the excess plastic along the brim.","And now the helmet is ready to be covered.","For that, the factory uses water-repellant wool.","The helmet pattern is cut out in two pieces.","These halves are stitched together, making a raised seam, which gives the helmet a smoother line.","The insides of the fabric covers are covered with glue.","Then they're steamed.","A coating of glue is brushed all over the helmet's shell.","The fabric cover has now reached the perfect dampness, making it easier to pull over the glued surface of the plastic helmet shell.","The fabric gets stretched a bit so it'll fit tightly without buckling.","Then, a wooden tool is used to smooth away any remaining air bubbles.","The excess fabric is trimmed away.","Then, rubber piping is sewn around the brim to reinforce it and give it a neater edge.","The prong ends of the helmet's decorative metalwork are dipped in a chalky powder, which mark its positioning on the crown.","Holes are drilled through the markings.","Then the ornament is installed and its prongs are folded against the inside of the helmet.","Next, workers stitch together strips of tape, plastic, and foam to make the helmet's harness and chinstrap.","They fit the harness assembly inside the helmet, then secure it with an industrial stapler.","Metal banding is wrapped around the helmet and pinned down.","Not only does this banding hide the staples, it gives the helmet a snazzier look.","An ornate helmet plate featuring the police department's insignia goes on the front.","Next, a sponge liner is tucked inside the helmet to protect the officer in the event of a blow to the head.","Ventilation holes are punched in the sides.","Now it's time to size the helmet with a special gauge.","Any excess fluff is tweezed away and the wool is brushed to bring up the pile.","Finally, workers attach the label that assures the product meets all specifications.","This police helmet is now ready to report for duty.","It takes about half an hour to make one of these helmets, but it should keep a bobby on the beat safe and stylish for much, much longer.","Up next, ice-axe production begins with a little heat.","When it comes to mountain climbing, the ice axe is a fundamental tool.","Ice axes were invented in the mid 19th century to help mountaineers get a grip on slippery slopes, pull themselves to the summit, and stop a fall.","They're designed for peak performance.","Talk about a steep learning curve.","Climbing with an ice axe takes a bit of practice and a lot of courage.","Production of an ice axe starts with an aluminum rod.","A powerful press bends it into a curve, giving it the basic contour of an ice axe.","It's flattened and shaped in two fiery dies.","Each die has a top and a bottom half, which are lubricated between forgings.","The hot forging transforms the metal rod.","It starts to look a lot more like the shaft of an ice axe.","The long ridges add strength to the metal while other indentations mark where the attachments are to go.","The forging creates a lip around the perimeter of the shaft.","They call this excess metal flash.","This press takes care of it in a snap.","Now, the ice-axe shaft has a cleaner edge and it's quite a bit lighter than the original rod, an advantage when you're toting it up a mountain.","That aluminum rod has gone through quite a few stages, and now it has a whole new profile.","This tub of vibrating ceramic cones will smooth the shaft's rough edges.","Here, a computerized drill makes holes into recesses that were stamped into the shaft earlier.","These holes will be used to attach other parts.","The machine changes the drill bit to a circular blade.","Then, guided by the computer, it cuts a slot for the ice-axe pick.","Next, the saw moves to the other end and thins out the area where the handle will be attached.","Using another drill bit, the saw carves out a hole for the adjustable finger rest.","Here's a shaft that's already been milled and drilled compared with one yet to undergo the process.","The shaft gets a protective coating.","Then, it's time to bring all the pieces of the ice axe together.","A worker applies epoxy to the inside of the rubber handle and slides it onto the shaft.","The handle has an open end.","He beads a little more epoxy onto it and inserts a steel spike.","The spike is then riveted to the ice-axe shaft.","This spike will come in very handy on the mountain side.","Plunging it into a snowy slope can help a climber maintain his or her balance on a slippery uphill trek.","Next, the adz slides into the slot at the head of the shaft.","Climbers use this tool to chop steps in hard snow and ice.","The worker secures the adz with nuts and bolts, and then he installs the pick.","This hooked and jagged attachment will help get the climber up a mountain of hard ice.","The bolts are tightened with a torque wrench.","After all, a solid job here could be a lifesaver.","And finally, the adjustable finger rest is screwed to the shaft just above the handle.","And now you have a tool that can help you scale new heights."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Hearing Aids","3"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Hearing aids.","We're turning up the volume for this one.","3-d puzzles-- a traditional pastime enters a new dimension.","Rubber mats-- we bring you a step-by-step explanation.","And toilets-- this fascinating report leaves us flushed with pride.","When you stop and listen to all the sounds around you, you suddenly realize how easy it is to take your hearing for granted.","If you ever develop a hearing disorder, you'll undoubtedly feel the loss.","Thankfully, though, hearing aids are tinier and more effective than ever before.","Loss of hearing causes a serious handicap, but, happily, it can be remedied thanks to hearing aids.","But before fabricating the aid, the degree of hearing loss must be precisely measured with this apparatus called an audiometer.","So they make a mold of the ear canal.","To protect the eardrum, an autoblock is inserted.","The next step is to pour in a silicon impression-making material.","It solidifies and is then removed from the ear.","This congealed mass representing the ear canal is then soaked in warm wax to obtain a positive imprint.","Then the silicon container is filled.","The silicon hardens in only 10 minutes.","The hardened silicon block is removed, and the excess of the imprint is trimmed away so that only the essential part is retained.","The imprint must slip easily into the ear.","It's now the molding stage for the hearing aid.","Acrylic is poured into the mold before placing it into this ultraviolet oven.","Without emitting any heat, this oven hardens the acrylic.","Here is the raw prosthesis without its electronic components.","This plan details the electric circuit of the amplifier.","Holes are pierced for the volume control.","These components are tiny.","Here is the volume control...","The miniature microphone that captures sounds...","And the earphone, which functions as a speaker.","This tiny braided wire of seven conductors is soldered to the amplifier and other parts of the prosthesis with pewter.","The hybrid circuit is inserted into a silicon casing, which assures its protection.","Then the wires are soldered to the speaker.","And they verify the proper functioning of the volume control.","A hearing aid must be very discreet.","That's why they cut the excess with a diamond disk.","They also remove the roughness with fine sandpaper.","The holes we see here are used to vent air from the earphone.","This silicone tube is used to make the vent.","Acrylic is poured onto the tube to form a tunnel.","Ultraviolet light is used to harden the acrylic.","Afterwards, the tube is removed.","This hole is used to position the fastener, a small wire which allows for removing the hearing aid from the ear.","Then the battery is installed.","Only a few parts, such as the microphone, remain to be put in place.","Then everything is delicately assembled into the interior of the prosthesis.","The two parts of the hearing aid are then glued together.","Ultraviolet hardens the glue.","The plate used to position the prosthesis components is cut away with the drill.","Then the hearing aid is manually polished to make it perfectly smooth and comfortable.","The prosthesis is now completed.","There remains one important step-- verifying its electroacoustic characteristic.","It's with this analyzer that they validate that the hearing aid conforms to the original prescription.","These minute prostheses allow us to solve the main hearing problems.","Microfabrication of a single unit requires a little more than two days of work.","Remember spending lazy afternoons putting together simple 60-piece jigsaw puzzles?","Well, put that image out of your mind, because today's sophisticated puzzles can have 1,500 3-d pieces that go up, down, and even sideways.","Are you up for the challenge?","Flat puzzles are well known by everyone, but 3-d puzzles present a different challenge.","These 3-dimensional puzzles are first conceived with computer software.","Good blades are needed to cut puzzle pieces.","Here are the blades for the master die which will cut out printed sheets of different models.","This rubber will be used to eject the die.","The master cutting die is unique to each puzzle.","It is the specific pattern used to make the puzzle.","They measure it meticulously to obtain a perfect register.","It's imperative that the die not move during the cutting, otherwise the pieces would be cut at the wrong points, so they very firmly secure it in place.","The carbon of the die is positioned.","It's somewhat like printing the master.","Alignment is again verified, a highly important step which assures the quality of the final product.","Finally, they install this large metallic plate, which is the cutting base.","It will be on this surface that the master die will strike.","Once measurements are finished, the drawer of the die is slid into place.","This press cuts the pattern seen on the puzzle.","Here's how it works.","The sheets, or printed cardboards, go into the drawer one by one, where they are cut according to the master model.","We clearly see the press making the cut in the puzzle sheet.","The cut sheets pile up on one another.","At this checkpoint, they verify the precision of the cut.","They make sure that every piece is correctly shaped.","Now they go to the foam support of the puzzle.","This guillotine is used to cut the polyethylene sheets onto which they will glue the cut images.","Foam sheets are inserted into this laminator heated to 450 degrees.","The sheet with the design on it is glued onto the foam with a thermosetting adhesive.","Now they glue the printed sheet onto the foam sheet.","Once the adhesion is finished, the puzzles are stacked on one another, and they proceed to the unbuckling operation.","By pulling, they remove the surplus cuttings.","The same design is printed several times on a sheet, so they must separate each puzzle.","This step is called the reduction of the models.","Now the pieces have to be separated.","This decorticator handles this task and sends the pieces down a chute.","Packing cartons arrive already made up, and the puzzle pieces are placed in their boxes.","No less than 15,000 puzzles are produced here each day.","Since it began operations, the company has created more than 300 different puzzle models from quite simple ones to much more complex designs.","The largest of them contain a total of more than 3,000 pieces.","And you need real patience for this one.","Ever wonder what happens to the millions of used tires we throw out every year?","Well, you'll be relieved to know that burning tires is a thing of the past.","Today's tires are often given new life as rubber mats.","Some are even big enough to cover whole arenas.","Now, that's recycling.","Used tires are a real source of pollution.","This pile represents about 100,000 of them.","At any rate, these tires will have a second life.","They'll be recycled to make rubber mats.","Each day in this factory, they recycle 15,000 tires into mats.","Tires have to be reduced to little granules, but first this conveyor feeds the tires into the washer.","Tires are washed with a water-based biodegradable preparation.","Then they're sent to the shredder.","The shredder has two rows of large teeth.","These grind up the tires into pieces.","This shredder is able to cut up almost 1,000 tires an hour.","They come out as fairly good-sized pieces of tires, which are then shredded a second time.","Metal is magnetically separated from the rubber, and the metal pieces are recycled at another factory.","Other components of the tires, such as fiberglass and nylon, also have to be separated.","They use a sifter to get out unwanted rubbish.","Recuperated rubber particles purged of foreign materials measure about 1/10 of an inch.","Some 16 tons of tire particles are piled up in this recycling depot.","But the particles are still too large to be used.","They're sent to a secondary shredder supply tank, where they'll be reduced even further.","This tractor feeds the secondary shredder.","Grinding action produces a kind of rubber powder.","The powder is spread out on these enormous molds.","This mold has a length of 23 feet and a width of 4 feet.","Thickness varies according to the product being made.","The molds filled with rubber powder are stored in this loading magazine of the press.","Once full, the molds are sent to the rubber-mat press.","Here's the mat press.","The powder has to be cooked at a very high temperature for about 30 minutes.","Cooking time depends on the product being made.","The cooked mat goes to the unmolding unit before being sent off to cool.","The rubber mats are still extremely hot.","They're cooled with jets of water for a period of several minutes.","The cooled mats can now be sent to the next department.","This conveyor in the cutting center positions the mat before it's cut.","The mat is vibrated to eliminate any surplus water.","Each rubber mat is now cut up into three pieces.","The cut mats are then stacked into a pile and stored before being shipped.","The company also makes mudguards.","These are fabricated the same way as the preceding mats.","After having been cooled in water, but while they're still warm, they remove the surplus rubber.","This operation is called \"notching\".","Hard rubber rings are also produced at this facility with the same fabrication methods and, as always, from old, used tires.","Over a 12-hour period, this facility makes no less than 12,000 rubber mats from old, recycled tires.","This translates into good news for our environment.","We tend not to put much thought into this humblest of household appliances as long as it keeps doing what it was built to do.","But like most of the machines we've invented to do our dirty work, we may take it for granted, but it's next to impossible to imagine life without the toilet.","The first public restrooms appeared in ancient rome when the emperor vespasian built latrines.","Such public urinals became widely known as vespasiennes by 1840.","In 1775, the invention of a water-flush system created toilets somewhat resembling today's convenience.","The valve and siphon were added in 1784 and the septic tank in 1896.","A toilet is an everyday object whose fabrication requires several days of work.","It involves assembling several molds called \"tools\".","Each new product requires the design of a master plaster mold from which they will produce a plastic tool.","This latter will be used to create plaster duplicates used as production molds.","The plaster production mold of a toilet is made from six different tools which have to be assembled.","Their life-span is only two months.","The process begins with a mixture of water and plaster according to a precise recipe.","Then the liquid is poured into this filling hole of the tool.","Once the plaster hardens, they can proceed with unmolding.","They strike the end at the junction of the plaster mold and the tool with a rubber hammer so as not to damage the plaster.","Pieces are gently assembled.","The toilet softly takes its shape.","It is in this same mold that they will later color the clay.","Then they install tensioning straps.","Little blocks are inserted between the mold and the strap to increase the tension.","The mold will soon be filled with liquid, and they thus prevent any distortion.","Here a new recipe is being prepared.","This time it's a slurry, a composite of clay and silica.","This preparation is spread out over 48 hours.","Now they install the core, the upper part of the mold.","They can now proceed with the filling.","This copper distribution pipe connected to the tank containing the slurry permits the filling of several molds at a time.","They need about 45 pounds of the mix per bowl mold.","After an hour, the slurry has attained a thickness of 4/10 of an inch.","The plug is pulled to allow the excess slurry to run out.","They can now unmold the still-fragile piece.","This thicker slurry is used to adhere these two pieces together.","They cut the holes and unmold the ensemble.","The toilet is now molded.","Then, to obtain a perfect appearance, they remove the little fillet formed by the surplus adhesive slurry.","The toilets air-dry for 36 hours, then in a warm-air dryer for 12 hours.","Finishing must be impeccable.","They carefully sand the surface to make it perfectly smooth.","A vacuum draws up the dust.","Then, with a jet of compressed air, dust and debris are blown away.","Bowls are hand-painted in a special room.","As for the water tanks, they are painted by an automated robot.","This truck carries the different parts to the final fabrication stage-- baking.","The toilets remain in this oven at the very high temperature of 2,150 degrees for 23 hours.","It takes this long to fuse the clay and silicone.","The paint then becomes hard and shiny, and it's all done.","The toilets and the different bowls now take on shapes more elegant than in the past, but the fabrication of each one of them will have the same basic construction steps involving 45 pounds of slurry and almost 4 days of labor."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Motorcycle Sidecars","Frozen French Toast","Refrigerator Compressors","Superchargers"]},"text":["A sidecar is a passenger attachment that bolts to a motorcycle.","Sidecars are aftermarket products, meaning a separate company--  not the motorcycle maker-- manufactures and markets them.","You buy a model that's compatible with your motorcycle.","A motorcycle sidecar carries one passenger or two, if they're small children or pets.","Manufacturers typically produce several models, designed to fit the most popular bikes on the market.","This one has a fiberglass body, surrounded by a steel perimeter chassis.","Workers construct the chassis using several sections of steel tubing.","They form each section to the required shape on a hydraulic bender, measuring as they go.","There are sections in the front and back, along the sides, and underneath.","Once the sections are each bent to specifications, workers clamp them into a jig, which aligns them all in the correct configuration.","The smaller-diameter sections fit into adjoining larger-diameter ones.","Once all the parts are in position, a welder fuses them.","The structure of the perimeter chassis is now complete and ready for a coat of baked-on powder paint to prevent the steel from rusting.","Next, workers mount the suspension and wheel to the chassis, then install a fiberglass mudguard that has a reflector, a taillight, and a turn signal.","They make the sidecar's fiberglass body with upper and lower molds, first painting each one with gel coat, a polyester resin that creates a smooth and shiny surface over fiberglass.","When the gel coat dries, about 45 minutes later, they lay fiberglass mat over it, then saturate the fiberglass with resin.","They lay two fiberglass layers in most parts of the mold and a few extra layers in areas that need a bit more strength to support attached components.","In the lower mold, they re-enforce the floor with plywood and, in specific locations, bond in steel mounting plates for bolting components to the fiberglass later on.","24 hours later, once the resin has cured, they extract the upper- and lower-body halves from their respective molds, trim the rough edges, and join the halves on the inside with more fiberglass and resin.","Then they place the now-assembled body inside the perimeter chassis to check the alignment.","But they don't connect the chassis just yet.","First, to snazz up the body, they mount a nose badge made of stainless steel and anodized aluminum.","Then they attach aluminum strips to the nose badge, affixing them to the fiberglass with rivets.","They gently tap the strips with a mallet, shaping them to the contour of the body.","Then they set a rubber insert into each strip.","This adds a decorative touch, while hiding the rivets.","Next, the sidecar's windscreen.","It's made of polycarbonate, an ultra-thin yet strong type of plastic, encased in a durable aluminum frame.","They finish off the body by installing carpeting and an upholstered vinyl seat.","Workers position the sidecar so that its wheel is turned slightly inward.","This ensures the bike and sidecar handle correctly.","Then they bolt the chassis to the bike frame with four steel arms-- two at the front and two at the back.","Next they fit a steering damper.","This prevents the sidecar from causing a wobble in the steering.","The final step is to connect the electrical wiring to the lights and the mudguard.","The perimeter chassis is now ready to receive the body.","They thread bolts into the holes of those mounting plates that were bonded in with the fiberglass during the molding process-- two bolts at the front and two at the back, through the floor.","With that, this motorcycle sidecar is ready to hit the road.","Love french toast for breakfast but don't have the time or patience to make it from scratch?","That's why there's ready-made frozen french toast that you simply pop into the toaster-- no cracking eggs, pouring milk, or dipping bread required.","Just pour on the syrup and enjoy.","A breakfast favorite for generations, it's easy to get sentimental about french toast.","To get that traditional taste without the traditional mess, there's frozen french toast.","They go from your freezer to your breakfast table in just minutes.","French toast starts with freshly baked bread.","A local bakery supplies this factory with custom-made 16-inch-long loaves.","When those fresh-baked loaves arrive, workers load them horizontally onto a conveyor belt.","The belt winds its way to the first machine on the production line--  the slicer.","The slicer has several vertical blades, crossed in a figure eight over two drums that drive them.","Because each blade crisscrosses, it cuts two slices at once.","For this production run, the slicer cuts each loaf into 28 slices almost half an inch thick.","At the output end of the slicer, workers discard the two end pieces.","However, these heels, as they're called, aren't wasted.","They're used for animal feed.","Workers load the cut loaves into side-by-side vertical columns.","The slices drop down onto a wire conveyor belt.","The spacing between rows and slices is perfectly positioned to align with the upcoming stations, which will transform them from bread to frozen french toast.","First, the slicer enters the batter station, which bathes their underside in a mixture of eggs, milk, water, and sugar.","The slices then pass under a batter waterfall, which thoroughly coats their top surface.","The slices exit the batter station onto a wire belt, which feeds them onto cast-iron griddle plates.","Gas flames underneath heat the plates to 275 degrees fahrenheit.","After several seconds, the underside is cooked, and a row of automated spatulas, appropriately called flippers, turns the slices over to cook the reverse side.","Seconds later, the fully cooked french toast slices are removed from the griddle plates...","And deposited onto a conveyor belt.","All of the single-file conveyors now converge on a larger conveyor belt, which transports the slices into the freezer.","The temperature inside--  negative 4 degrees fahrenheit.","After a frosty 23-minute ride, the french toast is completely frozen.","It exits the freezer, ready to be sorted into packaging portions.","For this order, workers stack the slices in fours.","Each package will contain two stacks.","The packaging machine inserts each portion into a continuous plastic-film pouch.","Then, at both ends of each portion, it simultaneously heat-seals the film and cuts the pouch free.","An automated arm picks up each pouch and inserts it, either into small retail cartons destined for supermarkets or into large boxes for bulk orders to cafeterias, hospital kitchens, and restaurants.","All packaging, warehousing, and shipping occurs in temperature-controlled facilities to keep the product frozen until it's time to toast this breakfast tradition.","Behind every chilled beverage, there's a compressor, a crucial component in refrigeration systems.","It pressurizes and pumps refrigerant to the condenser so the cooling process can begin.","With a well-functioning compressor, a refrigerator is more likely to keep its cool.","Behind the glossy exterior of a supermarket refrigerator, there's a substantial compressor doing its part to chill the merchandise.","They often remanufacture old compressors to save resources and money.","They immerse the cast-iron body in a chemical bath to remove the grime and rinse off the residue with hot water.","That old compressor already looks a lot less tired.","A worker polishes the cylinder bore with an abrasive pad attached to an air drill.","He sands the surfaces around the openings so that all the parts will fit without leaking.","Smaller parts bounce around in a vibratory bowl with steel pellets and cleaning compound for a good scouring.","Out of the bowl, a worker places a valve plate on a magnetized turntable to keep it in one place, as a grinder smoothes the surface.","This makes it look new.","He screws two new valves to the plate.","These valves will open and close to move refrigerant in and out of the compressor.","The next worker assembles the terminal plate for the compressor's electrical motor.","Most of the components have been reconditioned, including the lugs for the wires.","He slots the lugs in the terminal plate from the back and flips the plate around.","He slides new rubber seals onto all the lugs...","And then installs rubber insulators and metal washers.","He secures the lugs with screws, using a precisely calibrated torque wrench.","The compressor's original crankshaft has also been thoroughly cleaned.","As it now spins in a chuck, a worker polishes it until it's completely smooth.","This will allow bearings and connecting rods to operate efficiently.","He measures the shaft to confirm that the circumference is right.","With many parts now reconditioned and partially assembled, they're ready to reconstruct the compressor.","The worker installs new bearings and the refurbished crankshaft into the compressor body.","He inserts the connecting-rod and piston assemblies.","Moved by the crankshaft, these pistons will compress the refrigerant gas to pump it through the system.","He slides the rotor part of the motor into the compressor, and it links up to the crankshaft.","He aligns the rotor to the crankshaft with a long pin.","He secures the rotor to the hub with a substantial bolt.","The next part is the stator.","It's the magnetized mechanism that drives the rotor and, subsequently, the crankshaft.","He connects protruding wires to the lugs on the terminal board we saw reassembled earlier.","He sets the terminal board flush to the compressor and bolts it to it.","He fits the valve plate on the cylinders, adjacent to the terminal plate.","He places the cylinder head over the valve plate and bolts it to it.","The remanufacture of this compressor is complete.","To test the compressor, they pump dry nitrogen through it.","A machine measures the suction and discharge pressure, as well as the electrical draw.","And still running dry nitrogen through it, they immerse the compressor in water and check for bubbles that would indicate leaks.","They make repairs if needed and then spray the compressor with enamel paint to protect it from rust.","Remanufacturing this refrigeration compressor has taken 24 hours.","It's given it a whole new lease on life.","An engine naturally takes in air from the atmosphere to burn the fuel with oxygen.","If you're looking to give your car a boost, a supercharger compresses air and force-feeds it into the engine.","The increased mass of oxygen burns more fuel, giving the engine more power.","A supercharger is particularly popular in drag-car racing.","It attaches with a belt to the engine's crankshaft, and, voilà, the car's on steroids.","They begin with a plate that forms the rear of the supercharger's aluminum housing.","Using a press that applies several tons of pressure, they install two steel ball bearings.","These will enable the supercharger's two rotors to spin, which is what compresses air and forces it into the engine.","After bolting the steel cap over each bearing, workers insert steel dowels into holes along the perimeter of the plate.","These dowels, which they now fully seat with the press, will align with receiving holes on the adjoining housings.","They take the plate that forms the front end of the housing and press a steel ball bearing into it.","This bearing will enable the supercharger's input shaft to rotate and, by doing so, spin the rotors.","They press a rubber-lip seal on top of the bearing to keep oil in and dirt out.","Next, they apply a retaining clip to hold the seal in position.","Using the press, they seat the clip in its groove.","Next, they insert the input shaft.","Its flanged end will protrude out of the supercharger, where a belt and pulley will rotate it so that it turns gears which spin the rotors.","A computer-guided mill machines each rotor out of extruded aluminum.","Once both rotors are ready, workers take the central section of the supercharger housing and apply sealant to one end of it.","They affix the rear plate containing the two bearings for the rotors.","They secure the plate to the main housing using socket-headed screws, which they tighten with an air driver.","Flipping the housing to the other side now, they install the first of the two rotors, inserting its shaft into the first bearing in the just-attached rear plate.","Then they install the second rotor, inserting its shaft into the second bearing in the plate.","The second rotor lies perpendicular to the first.","This positioning allows the spinning rotors to capture air at the top of the housing, compress it, and force it downward to the bottom of the housing.","They close up the housing with another plate which also contains bearings for the rotor shafts.","However, on this end, the shafts protrude beyond the bearings in order to receive gears.","Then to this, they'll attach the housing containing the input shaft, which, driven by the belt and pulley, rotates these gears to spin the rotors.","Before continuing further, the team puts the supercharger through a performance test.","The machine, called a dynamometer, assesses the ratio of speed to air flow to ensure the rotors are compressing air the way they should be and therefore outputting the required boost.","If the rotors pass the test with flying colors, workers then hand-polish the aluminum housing to a shiny finish.","A key component in the supercharger is a feeler gauge-- that fan-shaped part shown on the lower left.","It ensures that the distance between the rotors is correct, which is critical, because if the rotors are too far apart, they don't compress air adequately.","And if they're too close together, they jam.","It's the customer who, when installing the supercharger, attaches a pulley to the end of the input shaft, then a belt onto the pulley.","The other end of the belt loops around the car engine's crankshaft pulley, connecting the supercharger to the engine for a mega boost of power."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Power Steering Pumps","Asian Bowl Meals","Walking Canes"]},"text":["In the first half of the 20th century, power steering was not an option.","Prototypes were too expensive for production.","During world war ii, the british and american armies began to use power steering in heavy vehicles like armored cars, and auto makers soon began adding it to passenger vehicles.","These hydraulic steering pumps are the steering muscle in muscle cars, providing a power assist to give the driver more control.","Using computer software, manufacturers design the pumps to fit specific classes of vehicles.","They print a plastic model using a 3-d printer.","This is a time-lapse video of the process.","The designer removes the plastic model and he sends it, along with the computer design, to a casting facility, which produces aluminum pump-housing parts.","Back at the factory, a worker mounts 12 of the castings in a machine with computer-controlled tooling.","He activates the system, and it moves the rack of castings into position.","The tools machine the face of the castings.","They bore center-bearing holes and drill threaded holes for bolts.","This is precision work, which will now be double-checked by a device known as a coordinate measuring machine.","A worker clamps the pump housing in the machine.","Then, a ruby-tipped probe scans its dimensions.","The machine analyzes the information.","It verifies that every part of the housing meets the precise specifications.","With that confirmation, he unclamps the part.","This is the pump housing in the various stages of production.","Other tools turn a solid aluminum dowel into a fitting for the pump's pressure bore.","They sculpt the circumference and carve a complex geometry in the center for controlling the flow of power steering fluid.","Another tool carves the thread to screw the fitting into the pressure bore, and the final one drills the fluid bypass hole.","A blue anodized coating protects it from corrosion.","A worker now locks the pump housing in a honing machine.","The machine floods the pressure relief bore with lubricant as the stone hones the inner diameter to a precise tolerance.","He then transfers the pump housing to a press.","He inserts a bearing and shaft in the center bore.","He places an aluminum tool over the bearing and shaft to align them correctly as he manually presses them into the bore.","Once the bearing has been solidly entrenched, he removes the tool.","He inserts a metal snap ring in a groove to retain the bearing and shaft.","He turns the power steering pump over an installs o-rings to seal the pressure section.","Then the worker installs the cam ring and the rotor with the veins.","As the rotor spins, the veins will move in and out, collecting hydraulic fluid.","This process adds pressure, taking the load off the steering wheel.","The worker installs this critical sub-assembly in the pump housing.","He screws the device in place in the four corners.","He turns the power steering pump over and seals the end of the pressure bore with an aluminum plug and copper washer.","He now tucks the pressure relief valve in the open part of the pressure bore.","He secures it with the special flow fitting we saw machined earlier on.","He tightens the fitting with a torque wrench.","He turns the power steering pump onto its side.","He attaches a fitting to the intake port for the hydraulic fluid.","The power steering pump is now equipped with all the working parts.","Here's a look at the transformation.","A display model with a cutout offers a peak inside.","At the test station, a technician makes all the connections and runs it as if it was in an actual racecar.","A computer measures its performance and confirms that it meets all the technical requirements.","The power steering pump is now ready for the twists and turns of professional racing.","Across asia, rice bowl meals are an enduring tradition.","By combining protein and vegetable elements with rice in a bowl, people have a meal.","It's asian comfort food, and somehow it just tastes better in a bowl.","And people around the world are discovering the appeal of these one-bowl meals.","Asian bowl meals start with the rice.","Then people add whatever they want.","At food bars like this, there's any number of choices.","The bowls can be served up fast, and the food is healthy.","Because there are many possible combinations, these one-bowl meals never get boring.","Preparations start with the rice.","This food worker measures enough for 40 portions.","After rinsing the grains repeatedly, he adds it to a rice cooker.","He then measures the water for cooking.","He adds it to the cooker.","It will steam the grains so they cook uniformly for one hour.","While the rice is cooking, the food worker then pours peeled garlic cloves into a food processor.","He adds a half cup of vegetable oil.","The garlic will flavor several dishes in the asian food bar.","The food processor chops the garlic to a fine consistency.","Using a mandolin vegetable slicer, he slices slivers of carrots.","Along with chopped onions, the carrots will enhance the flavor of fried rice.","He now removes some rice from the cooker, in order to make fried rice.","He separates the grains so they'll fry more uniformly.","The food worker is now ready to fry.","He heats the wok to a very high temperature.","He adds cooking oil, and it starts to sizzle.","He tosses in the carrot slivers, chopped onion, garlic and frozen peas.","He constantly stirs the ingredients, and the flavors sweeten and deepen.","He turns down the heat a bit an adds the rice.","He mixes the rice with the other ingredients as the cooking continues at a slightly lower temperature.","He measures the temperature.","For food safety reasons, it needs to be over 143 degrees fahrenheit.","The food worker pours soy sauce onto the hot wok.","It trickles down to permeate the rice, adding flavor and color.","That completes the fried rice component of the food bar.","Next up are the vegetable and protein choices.","The food worker cubes sushi-grade tuna.","It will be marinated with a spicy saucy shortly.","He places the tuna in a food bar container.","He peels cucumber and then juliennes it.","The cucumber will be a raw food choice that will offset the strong flavor of the tuna.","The food worker then prepares the tuna's spicy marinade.","He adds chili sauce and a smaller amount of chili oil to mayonnaise.","It's hot stuff.","A seaweed salad dish is another refreshing choice that will cool the palate.","He adds the chili mayonnaise to the tuna.","And he turns up the heat a little more with some extra chili oil.","A thorough mixing completely saturates the raw fish with the spicy sauce.","Next, the food worker prepares the dressing for a cabbage salad.","He starts with a white miso paste.","A generous amount of soy sauce follows.","Sushi vinegar and vegetable oil are the next ingredients.","After adding some sesame oil, he blends all the components.","He coats the shredded cabbage with the miso dressing.","He sprinkles black sesame seeds onto the cabbage salad.","Teriyaki beef is the next option.","The main ingredients are shaved filet steak, chopped ginger, and shredded onion.","The food worker sautés the onion and ginger to provide a flavor base.","He adds the shaved steak, and as it cooks, it takes up the essence of the onion and ginger.","The soy-based teriyaki sauce provides the final layer of flavor.","With this dish now complete, it's time for the fun part-- mixing and matching components for the asian food bowl.","There was a time when an elegant walking cane was a status symbol for fashionable gentlemen.","Today, a cane is no longer considered an accessory, but rather a utilitarian medical aid for people with mobility issues.","However, one can still find canes which combine both function and fashion.","Walking canes can indeed be stylish, with straight or crook handles made of exotic wood or bone, elegant knob handles, or elaborate figurative handles.","This family enterprise has been hand-crafting walking canes since 1909.","Making a crook handle requires bending the handle material.","After heating a curved steel form in a fire, workers insert a square stick of ebony in a steel spring and mount it on the central axis of the machine.","The clamp the machine's guide wheel against the form, then clamp the part of the stick that will remain straight.","Using their body weight, the worker forces the machine's lever forward, wrapping the top part of the stick around the hot, curved form.","It's critical to do this slowly to prevent the wood from snapping.","Workers then lock the bent stick against the form with a brace...","And remove it from the machine.","They set it aside for a week.","One week later, they remove the brace and spring and mount the curved stick on a lathe.","As the stick spins, a carriage moves a saw down the straight part of the cane, known as the shaft, reducing the diameter and rounding it out.","This is the shaft before and after this step.","A worker runs the handle against a coarse grit sanding belt to pare it down and begin rounding it out.","He uses a router to refine the shape and works on the harder-to-access inner part of the curve.","Once the handle is rounded, and its diameter equal to that of the shaft, he performs a final fine sanding.","Then he polishes the entire cane with polishing compound against a cotton buffing wheel.","Slowly but surely, this makes the ebony sleek and lustrous.","All wooden canes--  these here are made of maple-- warp a bit during woodworking.","Another worker heats the cane to make the wood flexible, then inserts it in a v-shaped holder and peers down the length of the shaft to assess the direction of the deformity.","Then he manually straightens out the cane.","These canes undergo a final step to add a decorative feature.","A worker sands off some wood on the crook handle, creating a flat, oval surface.","He applies glue, then he adheres a piece of cow horn.","Once the glue dries, he grinds the horn flush with the surrounding wood.","The result is a horn inlay.","Wooden canes also need protection against moisture and wear.","The factory submerges them in varnish for a half hour, so that the varnish deeply penetrates the pores of the wood.","Hanging the canes to dry would leave varnish drip marks, so the factory uses this ingenious pulley-driven contraption that dates back to the 1900s.","With its wood wheels and leather belts, the machine continuously rotates the canes to prevent the wet varnish from dripping as it air dries.","That's how to make a wooden crook-handled cane.","As you'll see next, fancier walking canes require additional steps.","Whether it's decorated with ornately carved wood, sleek horn or gleaning metal, brandishing a fancy walking cane is like wearing a bold pair of eyeglasses.","What might otherwise be a bland necessity can be elevated to a fashion statement.","Elegant canes can have horn or knob handles, or silver-plated figural handles.","The figural ones are molded two at a time.","After placing a screw mechanism in each cavity, a worker closes the mold and places it in a centrifuge machine.","As the mold spins, he ladles pewter into a funnel that feeds the channels leading into the mould cavities.","The centrifugal force shoots the pewter onto the cavity walls in an even layer, where it cools and solidifies in about five minutes.","Then he stops the machine and removes the mould.","The worker opens the mold and extracts the two pewter castings, each with it's screw mechanism securely embedded.","One is a cobra handle.","The other is a dog and boar handle.","They require a bit of refinement, so the next step is to remove the excess metal with a rotating wire brush.","A worker then shines up the surface with some polishing compound and a cloth buffing wheel.","He washes off the polishing compound and silver-plates the pewter.","The handle will top an equally elegant ebony shaft.","A worker places the square stick of ebony in a lathe, which rounds it.","The shaft goes through several sanding and polishing steps.","Then a worker drills a two-inch-deep hole in the top of it.","He puts some glue in the hole and screws in the handle.","If silver-plated cobras aren't your style, how about a handle made of white cow horn?","First, a worker heats all but the tip of the horn in a fire.","This destroy the nerves in the bone inside the horn's shell.","This horn will be shaped into a crooked handle using the same bending machine the workers use for wood crook handles.","The base of the horn is hot, so they use a small block of wood as a buffer.","After clamping the machine's guide wheel against the middle of the horn, they use their body weight to move the lever forward, and wrap the top half of the horn against the curved form.","Before heating the horn, the worker drilled a small hole through its tip.","Now he inserts a thin steel wire through that hole and ties the wire tightly around the opposite side to hold the horn to the round form.","He sets it aside for a week.","A horn handle undergoes the same multi-step sanding process as a wood handle, however, a worker drills a hole into the bottom and screws in an aluminum rod.","This makes the handle easier to hold while sanding.","The worker removes the final traces of the outer layer with a router and finalizes the crook's shape.","He removes the handle from the metal rod and finishes it off with a fine sanding.","The horn surface is now as smooth as silk.","He then polishes the handle on a cotton buffing wheel using a polishing compound specially formulated for horn.","That brings out the color and sheen.","Then the worker screws and exotic-wood shaft into the same hole used for the metal rod.","This fashionable cane, which has taken 4-6 hours to craft, is ready to be modeled on the walkway."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Upright Pianos","Flags","Wet"]},"text":["Unlike a grand piano, an upright piano is vertical, so you can place it against a wall.","Uprights come in various heights.","The taller ones have longer strings and a larger soundboard, so their sound is closer to that of a grand piano.","Around four feet tall, this is the largest upright piano on the market.","It's designed for those who lack the budget or space of a grand piano.","A piano technician spends several days calibrating the pre-assembled action stack.","It has 88 wooden hammers with heads wrapped in felt.","Pressing a piano key causes the corresponding hammer to strike a particular string.","The string vibrates, producing a specific musical note.","A damper stops the string vibration a split second later, ending the sound.","Each key has two slots called mortises.","They are lined with a felt bushing to protect the wood from wear.","At the back of each key, there's a height adjustment rod called a capstan.","Each key has an embedded lead disc.","This disc equalizes the pressure that's needed to play an individual key.","Without this pressure equalization, you would have to press harder on the bass keys because their hammers and strings are heavier.","The soundboard is already installed in the piano cabinet under a cast iron frame.","The technician checks the clearance between soundboard components.","He verifies that each steel string is properly wound to a tuning pin at the top, loops over a hitch pin at the bottom, and passes over a wooden bridge in between.","After making necessary adjustments, he measures the pressure of each string over the bridge, a critical factor producing fine tone.","then he tunes below the bridge, adjusting string tension as needed.","the technician assembles the keyboard by aligning each key with corresponding pins on the key frame.","He uses round spacers called punchings to equalize height so the black and white keys are level.","He checks the tightness of each key's bushings.","If a key needs to be loosened, he compresses the bushing and widens the mortise.","Then he installs the action stack directly above the keyboard, attaching it to bolts mounted on the cast iron frame.","He presses each key a few times to make sure it functions properly.","If it doesn't, he adjusts the capstan to better strike the key.","Then he connects the pedals to the components they control.","The right pedal pulls the dampers away from the strings to let the sound continue.","The left pedal draws the hammers closer to the strings, which reduces the volume of the sound.","Then several more calibrations-- each hammer to make sure it moves correct, each backcheck so that it doesn't rebound and strike again.","And finally, each key is checked to ensure that the pressing depth is identical across the keyboard.","If a key needs adjustment, he adds or removes punchings.","They come in a range of thicknesses from heavy felt to ultra-thin tissue paper.","He plays with different combinations until the pressing depth is perfect.","now he strikes a tuning fork to sound an \"a\" and tunes the corresponding \"a\" key.","Then he tunes all the other keys in relation to that note, tweaking each tuning pin with a special wrench.","an assembler completes the piano by mounting the remaining sections of the cabinet.","This cabinet is made of wood and laminates, coated in high-gloss polyester resin-- an elegant yet simple exterior, enclosing very complex internal workings.","Flags bring strangers together to support a cause or a nation.","For many centuries, a flag fluttering above the fighting was a visible communication signal.","Flags eventually became patriotic symbols away from the battlefield.","And today there is one for every country and almost every cause.","Flags bring strangers together to support a cause or a nation.","Rippling in the breeze, flags have a kinetic energy that draws people to them.","At this factory, they make flags from special polyester.","It's extra strong, but it's also translucent to make the design visible from both sides.","A machine unwinds the fabric over rollers that pull it straight and tight.","It then enters a digital printer.","The first printing head lays down the image and a second one deepens it.","Printing in two steps keeps the dyes from running.","The employee transfers the printed fabric to the next machine.","He loops it through guide rollers and secures the end.","The flag material travels over a larger cylinder that's heated to 419 degrees.","This bakes or fixates the dye into the fabric.","At the wash line, a worker aligns the flag with a sheet of leader fabric and trims the end.","A sewing machine stitches the fabrics together in a chain lock configuration.","This seam is tough enough to withstand a series of wash cycles.","The first wash removes any excess dye that wasn't fixated on the fabric.","They add special chemicals to this wash because ordinary soap isn't strong enough.","The second bath contains chemicals that neutralize the cleaning substances.","Finally, the fabric travels through a rinse station to remove the residual chemicals.","Pressurized rollers wring out the water.","The damp fabric travels over steamed heated cylinders that dry and iron the fabric.","The flag material winds around rollers before reaching the cutting table.","The worker first cuts out the color code printed on the side of the fabric.","She uses a spectrometer to confirm that the colors are correct and haven't faded during the wash.","Then she cuts out the flags using a pair of industrial scissors.","The polyester material is strong and doesn't unravel or fray during the cutting.","The next worker stitches a sleeve onto the fabric for the banner hardware.","She also hems the other three sides.","At another station, a machine installs a grommet on the front and a washer on the back to make an eyelet.","An employee inserts a fiberglass rod in the sleeve and threads a bungee cord through the eyelet.","He inspects the fit and confirms that the flag will withstand strong winds.","From conception to completion, it takes about three days to manufacture flags.","Then the sky's the limit.","You can use a wet/dry vacuum both inside and out, to clean up messes that an ordinary cleaner can't handle.","This powerful picker-upper can suction everything from leaves to small pieces of wood, and if you remove the filter bag from the tank, it can vacuum liquids, too.","A wet/dry vacuum is lightweight, yet can handle heavy-duty pickups that would ruin an ordinary vacuum cleaner.","Most of the components are plastic.","This machine produces them by shooting molten plastic into molds, then cooling it to a solid state.","A robot extracts the finished parts.","All the vacuum's parts are injection-molded except for the electric motor.","The motor has two fans.","One cools the motor itself with ambient air and the other creates a vacuum to suck debris through the hose.","The vacuum fan is in a separate chamber so that liquid never comes in contact with the motor's electrical components.","Workers place the motor in a plastic housing with the drive shaft facing upward.","They put a spacer on the shaft, then mount the vacuum fan, securing it with a nut.","They close up the housing with a grid plate.","This prevents fingers from accidentally touching the fan.","They now take the head assembly to a testing area.","They'll run the motor for up to 10 minutes to make sure everything functions correctly.","Then they plug it into a second test station, which verifies that there's adequate suction and no electrical short circuits.","If everything checks out, they send the head assembly to the packaging area.","There, workers assemble the rest of the vacuum.","At the first station, a press locks the inlet securely in a hole at the front of the tank.","At the next stop, a worker places a package of screws, an instruction manual, and four casters to be installed by the purchaser in the tank.","Next, workers take the head assembly and add it to the vac's top cover.","They load the vacuum's lid onto a carousel along with a pleated paper filter.","The filter prevents dust and fine debris from getting into the vacuum fan chamber.","Then they mount the head assembly on an automated screw-driving machine and place the lid on top after first removing the filter.","Once the lid is screwed to the head assembly, they put the filter back on.","Now they place the assembled lid onto the tank...","And snap down the latches to secure it.","The final stop on the line checks the suction power, the electrical system, and makes sure the on/off switch works correctly.","If the vacuum passes testing, a robot picks up the unit and places it in a retail box.","Workers add extension wands, a nozzle, and a hose, then finally a filter bag is added, which is only used when vacuuming up dry debris.","Consumer wet/dry vacs come in several tank sizes, from 1 to 24 gallons.","During the medieval era, axes were more than tools.","They were terrifying weapons that could inflict very deep wounds.","Today, craftsmen still make battle axes for use in the entertainment industry.","The medieval battle ax was a brutal weapon.","With a single blow, it could break through a knight's armor and fatally wound him.","To produce an authentic replica for movies and tv shows, the blacksmith consults reference books.","He sketches the ax head design on paper, roughing out the details to the desired scale.","He cleans up pieces of old carbon steel, which he'll combine with other metals.","In total, there will be 75 metal strips of varying composition.","To complete the mix of metals, he cuts an old blade made of nickel steel alloy into equally sized strips.","He loads 37 strips into a vice.","He tightens the vice and tack-welds them together.","He sands the welded stack.","He rubs oil into the stack to prevent oxidation.","Now, exposed to intense heat, the metal layers forge together.","He spreads a mix of borax and other minerals called flux onto the surface.","This deters oxidation as the forging continues with a pneumatic hammer.","The hammer slams the layers together to become a solid laminated block.","It's ready to be transformed into the ax's cutting head.","Repeated strikes pinch the metal in the center.","He sprinkles the flux mixture onto the surface of the metal form, heats it again, and folds it into a \"c\" shape.","After a reheat, he inserts a layer of carbon steel in the center for the blade.","He hammers the \"c\" shape flat, leaving the pinched section round for the handle.","The 75 strips have been forged into one.","Next, the power hammer refines the handle knob.","He drives a steel stake called a tapered drift into the center of the knob.","This forms an opening for inserting the wood handle.","Using the power hammer, he now flattens the blade end of the ax head substantially.","He flares it to form a cutting edge and removes the excess with a plasma cutter.","He saws it off, and the result is fierce.","The ax head has taken shape, but it needs some refining.","He hammers the handle area to spread it wider.","And dips the ax head in water to cool it down.","Then he grinds the blade thinner using a belt sander and rinses off the residue.","He grinds it again to get rid of any hammer marks or oxidative scale.","The different metals react when dipped in acid, creating a swirled pattern on the surface of the head.","The first bath was contaminated, so he polishes it off and gives the ax head another rinse in clean acid.","After heat treating and tempering, he polishes the face of the ax and hones the edge.","Next, he grinds spiral grooves into a piece of oak for the ax's handle.","A colleague stains the entire handle to accentuate the carved spirals and enhance the grain of the wood.","Once it dries, the blacksmith wedges the ax head onto the handle.","A few strikes against a steel block improves the fit.","Finally, he hammers upholstery studs onto the handle to simulate the rivets that reinforced the original medieval ax handles.","This medieval ax is ready for action.","Medieval ax replicas are authentic props for any tv show or movie.","Handled carefully, no one will get hurt."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Airstream Trailers","Horseradish","Industrial Steam Boilers","Deodorant"]},"text":["In 1931, airstream founder wally byam sold plans to build your own travel trailer.","In response to a growing demand, he decided manufacturing was the better way to go.","He then introduced the airstream trailer, with its familiar modern design that has withstood the test of time.","The airstream trailer is a recreation vehicle that can take you to the most remote areas, yet still enjoy a fully functional living space.","They can also be hooked up to outside services, so you can stay as long as you like in the comfort of home.","To start, an operator puts a sheet of aircraft-grade aluminum into a press that punches the rivet holes.","A worker then rivets the sheets together to make the walls of the trailer.","Here they're assembling the end shells, the rounded end sections for the front and back of the trailer.","They apply sealant to all the seams.","Technicians then rivet the two ends to the components that make up the trailer shell, including the floor, the walls, and the roof.","A worker uses a router and a template to cut out window openings from the walls.","He puts the windows in the openings and secures them in place.","Another worker applies a weatherproof sealant to all the interior seams, then smoothes it out to ensure good coverage.","Using a crane, they lower the shell onto the chassis.","At this point, they thread some of the wiring into the shell.","Next comes the plywood floor, which a worker attaches firmly to the chassis.","Another associate puts the door in place.","He rivets the door to the shell.","He takes extra care to protect the aluminum from being damaged by the force of the rivet gun.","The trailer then goes into a rain-test booth that simulates hurricane-strength rain.","The test lasts about an hour, during which a technician makes sure the shell is watertight.","Next, they apply a water-based adhesive to the interior and install insulation throughout the shell.","Now they bring in the interior skin.","It's the same aircraft-grade aluminum used on the outside.","They trim the walls for the window openings then lay down the vinyl floor covering.","An installer trims the vinyl and uses the old-fashioned way to make it snug against the shell because a standard carpet stretcher would poke holes in the vinyl.","A worker installs the fiberglass shower stall and hooks up the drain and plumbing.","He cuts a hole in the fiberglass then installs all the shower-control components and the showerhead.","He finishes off this residential-style shower with a frosted-glass door.","Next, they put in the convertible couches and beds and all the other amenities of home, including a gas stove.","Finally, a technician performs quality-control checks to make sure the electrical and mechanical systems work flawlessly.","Only then is an airstream trailer ready to hit the road and continue the time-honored tradition of discovery and adventure that makes this iconic recreation vehicle an american original.","Horseradish has a hot history.","The ancient greeks used it as an aphrodisiac.","They also rubbed it on sore body parts to alleviate pain.","During the renaissance, eating horseradish made its way from central europe to england.","By the late 1600s, it was customary among the british to eat horseradish with beef and oysters.","At the root of this hot condiment is a root.","You peel away an outer skin to access a thick white flesh.","Chewing or grinding the flesh releases enzymes, which produce horseradish's heat-- the plant's natural defense mechanism against predators.","Horseradish is a leafy, flowering plant with a thick central root, called the mother root, and smaller offshoots called sets.","After culling the mother root, farmers re-plant the sets, each of which will spawn a new plant.","At harvest time, the first farm machine chops down the plants to ground level and rakes the leaves out of the way.","Then a horseradish harvester digs up the roots.","As the roots bounce onto a mesh conveyer belt, most of the soil breaks off and falls back onto the ground.","You have to keep horseradish cold to keep it hot.","So the roots go directly into a cooler.","The temperature is just above freezing and the humidity high so the roots retain their moisture.","To grind them fresh from the field would produce horseradish with a grassy flavor, so the roots spend about a month in the cooler.","Only then are they ready for processing.","At the horseradish factory, a machine washes the roots in cold water.","Then a conveyer belt runs the roots through a final rinse.","Workers carefully inspect the roots.","They pick out any debris and discard any dark roots that would sully the whiteness of the final product.","Next, the roots travel to the automated grinding system.","The conveyer belt has built-in scales that control how much goes into the grinder at a time.","The grinder works like a giant food processor.","While grinding, it automatically feeds in a specific amount of vinegar.","This stops the enzyme reaction, preventing heat from escaping.","The grinder also automatically adds water and salt brine.","The salt adds flavor and keeps the horseradish from browning.","Next, the horseradish moves into a blender.","This is where the factory adds the extra ingredients for specialty flavors, such as fresh cream for cream-style horseradish.","A pumping system transfers it from the blender to a holding tank.","Inside the tank, mixing blades continuously turn to prevent the ingredients from separating.","En route to the filling station, the inside of every single glass container gets a blast of air to blow out any debris.","The filling process is entirely automated.","The machine grabs each container, aligns it under a nozzle, then squirts the horseradish inside.","The filled containers move on a conveyer to the capping machine.","There a spinning head descends, screwing a plastic cap to the container.","Next, the containers move to the labeler.","It applies glue to the back of the labels, then slaps one on to every container.","From there, the containers go off to cold storage until shipping time-- shipping via refrigerated truck, of course.","Prepared horseradish has a seven-month shelf life, thanks to the vinegar and salt, which act as natural preservatives.","Those critical ingredients maintain the color, flavor, and heat until you're ready to eat.","Industrial steam boilers heat water to produce steam to do such things as sterilize surgical instruments, cook food, and heat or humidify buildings.","They are even used for dry cleaning.","The water inside an industrial steam boiler is heated by natural gas, oil, or electricity.","Industrial steam boilers are usually found deep inside buildings, where they inconspicuously create valuable steam and heat.","It starts with a plasma torch that cuts holes in a solid sheet of steel.","The thickness of the steel used depends on the operating pressure of the boiler.","Using a hydraulic bending machine, a worker shapes the metal into what will become the inner shell of the boiler.","This inner shell will contain the water that gets heated inside the boiler to create steam.","He stops the rolls and prepares an edge of the shell for welding.","He continues shaping the metal to a preset diameter, and then he grinds the other edge to prepare it for welding.","The shell shape is now fully formed and ready to be welded closed.","A submerged arc-welding machine deposits a special granular material that protects the weld from air contamination.","He removes the protective granular material, leaving behind a perfect weld.","Next, a worker welds what's called a boiler head to the shell.","He fits steel pipes into the boiler heads located at both ends.","He welds the pipe securely in place.","Workers then insert a combustion chamber into the shell.","Later, a burner, used to heat the water, will be fitted into the combustion chamber.","A worker then tests the fully assembled pressure vessel, as it's now called.","He fills the space between the combustion chamber and the shell with water to ensure it doesn't leak.","Workers then wrap the pressure vessel in insulation to help the boiler retain heat.","They wrap an outer jacket around the pressure vessel and secure it in place using sheet-metal screws.","All boilers then receive a blower, which feeds air into the burner and the combustion chamber.","Next, a worker attaches what is known as a water column.","This apparatus supports various control devices and sensors, as well as a visual indicator that shows the water level inside the boiler.","A worker connects the electrical-control panel, so he can test the safety and operation of the boiler.","He powers up the unit and fires the burner that is installed inside the combustion chamber.","He opens a steam-outlet pipe on a test line and makes sure all the control devices, including the water-level indicator and the blower, are working properly.","This boiler passes the test.","It generates the correct amount of heat and steam.","Finally, a worker applies the appropriate labeling on every boiler, whether it's a smaller unit, the type used in a dry-cleaning business, or one of the larger boilers used in a food-processing plant.","Before bathing became common, people used heavy colognes to mask unwanted odor.","It wasn't until the late 1800s that chemists created the first commercial deodorant.","Today deodorants are available in a variety of forms, from natural alternatives, like body crystals, to antiperspirants that use chemicals to reduce perspiration.","Almost everyone applies deodorant at some point during the day.","Convenient packaging helps make application easy.","First step to making deodorant-- mixing up the batch.","Workers pour a blend of ingredients into a kettle mixer, then add powdered wax-- the main ingredient that holds everything together.","They also add silicone for a smooth texture.","Steam heats the mix to 167 degrees fahrenheit, melting the ingredients.","A standard recipe for deodorants includes wax, active ingredients that prevent perspiration, dimethicone-- a blending agent, silicone, and fragrance to mask odors.","Deodorants, like all personal-care products, must meet strict quality-control standards.","The chemists in this plant's laboratory perform a variety of tests to ensure their product meets the highest standards.","To make sure that the product has the right consistency, this chemist will perform a viscosity test.","She stirs a sample at a constant speed, then verifies that the force required is within the accepted range.","These containers will dispense the deodorant.","They're mechanically unscrambled on a rotating platform that sends them spinning into individual pockets.","Sensors overhead detect the ones that aren't lining up properly.","A blast of air sends them back onto the platform to repeat the process.","Now that they're all right-side-up, they move along to the filling station.","There, a system of levers raises them up to align with filling nozzles that dispense the mix.","A system of rotating wheels keeps the containers moving.","One wheel conveys them to the next for filling, and then a third wheel leads them out.","It's best to fill using hot mix that flows freely.","But the deodorant must cool in order to harden.","An overhead rake evenly lines up the containers inside a refrigerating tunnel.","Once it's full, workers set the cooling system to 14 degrees celsius.","The deodorant will remain here for several hours.","Next, chemists perform a hardness test on a cold sample of deodorant.","A force meter measures the amount of pressure required to crush the sample.","It has to be just right.","Too hard, and the deodorant crumbles without spreading.","It must be able to flow smoothly out through this perforated dome that will cover the deodorant.","Each container gets one over at the doming station.","Again, a system of revolving wheels works together to convey the containers through the station.","At the center wheel, cappers overhead lay the perforated dome on top of each one.","The containers then move to the next station, where they each receive a strip of adhesive plastic that covers the dome's surface-- a safety seal that protects the deodorant.","Back to the doming station.","The containers pass through once more as the cappers now snap a plastic cover onto each one.","Now they're ready for the final step-- labeling.","The containers roll past a plate that lifts off adhesive labels from a continuous strip and applies them.","A brush smoothes over the labels.","That's the final touch.","Now the deodorant is ready for shipping to customers.","Good things do come in small packages of all kinds."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Turbochargers","Enchiladas","Watches"]},"text":["A turbocharger harnesses a vehicle's exhaust gases to compress fresh air, forcing the pressurized air into the engine's combustion chamber for a turbocharged performance.","With it, a small engine can be as powerful as a larger one, using energy that would otherwise disappear out the tailpipe.","The exhaust gas turbocharger is an invention that dates back over a century, but in recent years the concept has literally been picking up speed.","Design tweaks and the use of lighter materials mean a bigger boost to engine output so a small engine can be as powerful as a larger one without guzzling extra fuel.","Production begins at the foundry, an overhead sprayer blows sand into the shaped cavity of this box.","The spraying action activates a binder applied to the sand.","This causes a chemical reaction that solidifies the particles.","The worker extracts the hardened sand shape from the box.","The shape is called a core.","It will be used to mold the inside of the turbocharger's housing.","He files down any little bumps and rough edges.","He then pipes adhesive around the border of a second sand mold and glues the first part to it to build up the core.","He applies a putty-like compound to the seam to plug any gaps.","Meanwhile, another worker uses a different technique to make smaller cores.","He rocks the box, and this causes sand to flow into a shaped cavity.","The sand has been mixed with heat-sensitive chemicals.","He aims a flame at an opening in the box as burners warm it from the sides.","This triggers a reaction that hardens the sand inside so it takes the shape of the cavity.","The result is another smaller turbocharger core.","These snail-shaped sand cones are now ready for casting.","He places the cores in a mold which is also made of hardened sand.","Machinery lifts the bottom half of the mold to the top half, essentially closing the mold.","He pours molten aluminum into it, and it flows into the spaces between the cores and outer mold.","The aluminum solidifies in a minute, and the molds tumble onto to a conveyor, revealing the cast turbocharger parts.","They are connected by hardened flow lines.","After separating the parts, they ship them to the turbocharger factory.","Here, computerized tools carve and contour the aluminum part to specifications so precise, they are measured in thousandths of an inch.","This is the turbocharger housing before the work was done...","And after.","Using a computerized probe, a technician looks for irregularities.","Even miniscule ones will need to be fixed.","It's now time to assemble all the parts.","The worker inserts a bearing into one end of the iron center housing.","He lubricates a second bearing and slots it into the other end.","These bearings will ultimately support a shaft with a turbine on one end and a compressor on the other.","He adds a metal collar and a third bearing to the assembly.","He caps the bearing parts with a metal plate.","It will keep lubricant from spilling out when the turbocharger spins.","He flips the center housing around and installs a metal heat shield on the bottom.","He inserts the shaft and turbine wheel assembly.","He installs the compressor wheel on the other end of the shaft.","He heats the wheel briefly, causing it to expand, which allows it to be pushed further down the shaft.","Once cold, it shrinks to the shaft for a tight fit.","Next, a machine called a vibration sort rig spins the compressor at a high speed as a computer analyzes it for vibrations.","Even the slightest tremor indicates an imbalance.","The computer also detects the source of the problem so it can be fixed.","He grinds the compressor nose ever so slightly to balance the part.","He now nestles the compressor into the curled aluminum housing.","It's a shape that's designed to funnel air into the engine.","He secures the compressor to the housing with a metal ring.","He fits the turbine end into its housing.","It, too, has the distinctive curl to pipe the exhaust gases in the right direction.","A blast of air now simulates the effect of those exhaust gases, spinning the turbine to power the compressor.","It takes about 15 minutes to build one of these turbos.","Once installed in an engine, it's full speed ahead.","\"enchilada\" means dipped in chili in spanish.","And true to its name, these stuffed corn tortillas are typically smothered in sweet and mildly spicy chili sauce.","First cooked up by native mexicans centuries ago, enchiladas are an ancient food, but they are definitely not passé.","In modern times, the enchilada has become a metaphor for having it all.","\"the whole enchilada\" means there's no holding back.","There are numerous enchilada recipes today.","This black bean and veggie version starts with a filling sauce.","It's a chili-flavored tomato puree.","They add organic corn, a firm variety that's mildly sweet.","That means the flavor won't clash with the chili spice.","Spiraling blades fold the corn into the filling sauce.","The mixing action is gentle to keep the kernels intact.","The next ingredient is tofu, diced into cubes.","Like the corn, it's a firm type for a more substantial texture.","The firm tofu is also quite porous, so it readily absorbs the flavors of the enchilada filling sauce.","They green up the sauce with chunks of organic zucchini, uniformly diced with the skins on.","Black beans are next, already cooked with the juices drained.","This completes the enchilada filling sauce.","They cool it to preserve its thick consistency and overall freshness.","And now they are ready to wrap.","They pump measured amounts of the black bean and vegetable mixture onto each tortilla.","And here the chilling of the filling pays off.","A warmer, runnier sauce would spill out and make a mess, but this cool, thick sauce stays where they put it, in the middle of the tortilla.","Workers now roll the tortillas around the black bean and veggie mix.","There is a trick to this.","If the tortilla is rolled too tightly, there could be leakage.","Too loose, and the enchiladas could come undone.","A perfectly rolled enchilada fits neatly into the trays.","They place the enchiladas seam-side down in the container.","Elsewhere in the factory, they sauté various chili powders in flour and oil.","They liquefy this flavorful mix with vegetable broth.","Mixing blades blend the simmering ingredients, and the flavors intensify.","It thickens to a gravy-like consistency.","And as one would do with gravy, they strain out any lumps or impurities.","What exits the sieve is pure enchilada chili sauce.","Next, it flows into a dispenser.","The nozzle head is the exact same length as the enchiladas, ensuring complete coverage as the sauce is pumped onto them.","The enchiladas are now swimming in chili sauce, imbuing the dish with mild spice.","The chili sauce also serves to keep the tortillas moist during cooking.","They sprinkle on freeze-dried chives.","This herb adds an onion-y nuance to the dish.","Every few minutes, they pull a tray off the production line and weigh it to confirm that the portion size is right.","They churn out 53 enchilada entrees a minute at this factory.","Next, it's into the freezer to preserve the enchiladas at arctic-like temperatures.","It's a new day and a new shift of workers.","They place the enchiladas on a conveyor en route to the packaging line.","It takes just one minute to wrap and box 75 frozen enchilada entrees.","Technology and humans team up to get the job done fast.","Enchiladas have come a long way over the centuries-- from a simple meal first whipped up by the mayans of mexico to a mass-produced frozen meal.","Today, they are consumed in countries around the world.","And with these frozen versions, mealtime is no trouble at all.","Just heat and eat.","The mechanism inside a wristwatch that measures time and moves the hands accordingly is called the movement.","High-end watches typically use traditional, very intricate mechanical movements.","Such premium watches are made up of a multitude of components, requiring hundreds of manufacturing and assembly operations.","Luxury wristwatches are made of top-quality materials, often precious metals.","They are crafted with painstaking precision, partly by traditional watchmakers, partly by high-tech machines.","The main section of the watch case starts out as a block of metal-- stainless steel for this model.","A press stamps the preliminary shape, which a computer-guided milling machine then finalizes.","Another computer-guided machine drills a hole on the side for the stem and crown, the manual watch-winding mechanism.","This tool refines the edges.","Next, using an abrasive tool, they manually etch the surface to give it a brushed metal finish.","Then they apply some polishing compound to a felt buffing wheel and polish the entire surface.","Certain models undergo a second polishing performed by a robot.","The two other parts of the watch case, the back and the ring around the watch face, called the bezel, are made the same way as this main section.","To produce the movement, they cut a square brass plate and stamp it into a preliminary shape.","This computer-guided mill then refines it to the correct thickness.","The next computer-guided machine makes several slots and holes.","This part, called the main plate, is the base upon which all the movement's components will be assembled.","The milling process leaves behind traces of metal dust and oil on the surface, so the main plate undergoes a thorough washing with water and solvent.","Once dry, a computerized inspection device examines the plate from three dimensions, verifying that every last detail is precisely as it should be.","Then the last machine cuts the final circular shape.","The main plate is now technically perfect.","Only finishing steps remain.","First, to remove tool marks, they sand-blast the surface to give it an even matte finish.","Here's what the plate looks like before sand-blasting and after.","Another computer-guided tool etches tiny circles onto the main plate surface to produce a pearl-like effect.","This next component, called the bridge, covers most of the parts assembled onto the main plate, and itself holds a number of parts.","After a laser engraves the company name, they fill the lettering with varnish.","They put the bridge into an automated machine that etches a brush finish and wipes off the varnish.","Some varnish residue remains inside the letters, making them more visible.","Next, a robot sets a jewel into each hole in the main plate.","Jewels are tiny, cup-shaped synthetic rubies.","Each jewel will hold one of the movement's moving parts in a drop of lubricating oil.","After installing two barrels containing a spring each, the watchmaker positions four wheels.","These form the gear train that moves the hands of the watch.","Next, he mounts the auxiliary main plate on top.","This sandwiches the barrels and gear train, holding them in place.","Then the escapement, the regulating mechanism.","Winding the watch fully coils the springs inside the barrels.","The escapement paces the springs as they slowly unwind and turn the gear train.","Now a robot takes over, squirting a drop of oil in each jewel.","Meanwhile, a laser engraves the watch brand name and logo into the oscillating weight.","This component is a heavy metal disk first stamped in a press, then refined by high-precision computer-guided tools.","The oscillating weight is an automatic winding mechanism.","This weight, located on the back side of the movement, automatically winds the watch as it's on your wrist.","Therefore, the more often you wear the watch, the less often you have to wind it manually by turning the crown.","The watchmaker connects the oscillating weight to the springs which move the gear train so that the weight will shift backwards and forwards with any wrist movement, automatically coiling the springs.","On the front side of the movement, he screws in the date indicator and the dial.","The dial is comprised of two brass plates, the top one coated in oxidized copper with cutouts to show the bottom one, which is painted with this company's secret formula of glow-in-the-dark pigments.","Next, a machine mounts the brass hour and minute hands.","This operation is automated because applying even slightly too much pressure could damage the tiny, delicate hands.","Now for the watch case.","After twisting an arched ring called the bezel onto the front of the main case, he slides a plastic gasket into it...","Then positions the main case onto to a press...","Cleans the crystal...","Then presses it forcefully into the bezel.","The gasket seals the minute gap between the crystal and the bezel so that water can't seep inside the case.","Next, the stem and crown.","Then on the back of the case, the casing circle, a ring that comes between the movement and the case.","Here, too, a gasket seals the gap to make the case water-resistant.","He installs the ring in crystal that form the back of the case.","He applies grease so that it twists on smoothly.","He closes it tightly with a tool.","Then the fully assembled case goes off to be tested for water-resistance.","If it passes, it comes back to the watchmaker to receive the movement.","He removes the crown and the case back, cleans the movement, then places it in the case.","Next, he squirts grease in the crown hole and reinstalls the crown.","This time, because the movement is in place, the crown stem connects to the two springs so that turning the crown now winds them.","The watchmaker affixes the movement in the case with several tiny clamps and screws.","Then he closes up the back for the last time.","After checking that the movement works properly, he has just one last component to assemble to the watch head.","This particular watch company has developed a unique protective device that goes over the crown.","A computer-guided mill shapes it out of the same type of metal as the case so that, aesthetically, it blends seamlessly.","The watchmaker screws the device to the case so that it bridges the crown.","The device has a lever, the tension of which the watchmaker carefully adjusts with the help of this gauge.","The lever closes the device tightly over the crown, immobilizing the crown so that it can't be turned accidentally.","Finally, they mount the watch head on an automated machine which closes the back tightly.","This is critical for water-resistance.","Every single watch head this factory manufactures must pass several quality-control tests to ensure time-keeping accuracy and water-resistance.","For water-resistance, they first test using air pressure.","Then actual water tests.","First a low-pressure test in 4 inches of water.","Then a high-pressure test in 410 yards of water, which far exceeds the 328-yard depth to which the watch is guaranteed to be water-resistant.","Finally it's time to assemble and attach the watch strap, either a link bracelet in matching metal or a strap made of fine leather, a fitting finale to this luxury wristwatch, the elegant product of precision technology and time-honored tradition."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pipes","Rock Climbing Gear","Leather Bike Saddles","Luxury Sports Cars"]},"text":["When christopher columbus discovered the americas, he also discovered the tobacco pipe.","The pipe was an important part of native culture to be shared during times of negotiation and celebration.","Columbus and other explorers brought the concept home, and the rest is history.","Since the 19th century, pipes have been made from briar, a hard, fire-resistant wood from the root of a mediterranean heather shrub.","After the briar has cured for several months, the pipe-maker saws it into a rough pipe shape.","Using a lathe and chisel, he rounds the larger block to approximate the shape of the pipe bowl.","He bores through the center to carve out the tobacco chamber.","Then he slims down the stem, marking the center for drilling later.","The pipe-maker finalizes the shape by hand.","He now sands both the inside of the tobacco chamber...","And the outside of the pipe bowl.","Next, the pipe's mouthpiece takes shape.","The pipe-maker pierces a piece of hardened rubber called vulcanite to establish the center and then drills a channel through it.","Using a grindstone, he sculpts one end, taking it from round to oval, a shape that fits more comfortably between the lips.","He checks his work with a sizing template...","Then shaves the exterior of the mouthpiece, reducing it considerably.","He shapes the other end to form the tenon, which fits into the pipe stem.","He polishes the tenon with a special compound.","The smoother surface makes this part easier to join to the pipe stem.","Using a series of sanding disks with progressively finer grit, he gives the exterior of the mouthpiece a sleek finish.","Then he steadies it in a clamp and widens the hole in the center of the mouthpiece to broaden it into a funnel-shaped cavity.","Attention now turns to the seam between the rubber and wood parts.","He sands it to make them perfectly flush.","Hand-filing removes blemishes and adjusts the thickness for a more comfortable bite.","The thickness can be customized for individual preferences.","He drills a tiny hole into the top of the mouthpiece...","Then dips a thin plastic rod in glue and inserts it in the hole.","He sands it down, leaving a white spot, a marker that indicates the mouthpiece is right-side-up.","For bent or curved pipes, the mouthpieces are heated in an oven at 320 degrees fahrenheit.","This makes the vulcanite flexible enough to be shaped by hand.","The pipe-maker bends the mouthpiece to the desired shape, and a quick cool-down in water re-hardens the vulcanite, fixing its curve.","Next, he buffs the wooden part of the pipe.","This removes fine scratches and brings out the wood grain.","It also gives the wood a glossy finish.","But for a different finish, a craftsman sand-blasts the briar wood, giving it a ripple texture.","He stains it darker with an alcohol-based dye, working the stain into every crevice.","And now for a neat trick.","He sets it on fire, and the alcohol burns off to set the stain.","The pipe doesn't go up in flames, proving it's truly fire-resistant.","He burns up to 10 layers of stain into the pipe, depending on the effect he's trying to achieve.","Finally, he stamps the company name and other information into the pipe.","After a final quality inspection, this handcrafted briar pipe is on its way to making a statement at the country club.","Rock-climbing is no pastime for the faint-hearted.","Scaling natural rock formations or manmade rock walls requires a certain fearlessness, along with good physical conditioning, balance, agility, and you must be well-trained in climbing techniques and use specialized equipment.","Climbers usually work in pairs, using a system of ropes and other devices to catch them if they fall.","A key piece of gear is the spring-loaded camming device.","The climber pulls the trigger to contract the cams and position it in a crack then releases the trigger to expand the cams, which securely grip the rock on either side, then attaches a rope through a device called a carabiner.","Climbers typically carry several types and sizes of cams, carabiners, and other devices.","The equipment must be as lightweight as possible, yet, at the same time, strong enough to save a falling climber.","Which is why this manufacturer uses aircraft-grade aluminum.","To make carabiners, automated saws cut aluminum bars into pieces the required length.","Then a bending machine forces each piece around a form in the basic shape of the carabiner.","Carabiners come in various sizes and shapes.","Workers simply mount the appropriate form on the machine.","Next, they place the roughly formed carabiner onto a hot die.","Another die slams down on it with up to 800 tons of force, forging the final shape.","Then the most critical part of the manufacturing process-- a multi-phase heat treatment to harden and strengthen the aluminum.","Next, they use a clipping press to slice off excess metal along the perimeter.","This leaves rough edges, which they now smooth out using an abrasion process.","The carabiners go into a vibrating tub, where they rub against porcelain chips for the next 20 hours.","Next, workers drill holes for the rivets on which the spring-loaded opening mechanism will hinge.","That mechanism, called the gate, has channels which align with these holes.","Assemblers slide a spring and spring-pusher into the gate, then insert the rivets through the aligned holes and channels.","A riveting machine locks each rivet in place by rounding and widening the head.","Then they adjust the carabiner's frame until the alignment is perfect.","After a thorough inspection, a laser etching machine inscribes product information and a unique serial number.","Random samples undergo strength and other quality-control tests.","Elsewhere in the factory, camming device production is under way.","Computer-guided equipment machines the same aluminum alloy to a preliminary shape, saws off slices, then machines each slice to the final shape of a cam.","An assembler attaches a wire to each cam...","Then takes four cams and joins their wires to the trigger wires with a metal crimp.","The cams, by this point, are different colors.","That's because they've undergone chemical treatment to make them corrosion-resistant.","This process can, in fact, produce various colors.","So, at the same time, the company can color-code the different models.","As assembly continues, they thread the cams onto an axle-like component called the spindle, positioning a spring in between each cam.","The springs provide the resistance required to expand and retract the device.","A cone-shaped washer on each end of the spindle holds everything together.","This time, the riveting machine locks in the components by flattening and widening the end of the spindle to fill the hole in the washer.","With that, the camming device is finished.","This is how camming devices, carabiners, and other climbing gear all work together to catch climbers who lose their foothold.","Not only do they keep the climber safe, they also protect nature, because they attach to the rock face without damaging it in any way.","Leather bike saddles feature a leather top suspended on a metal frame.","With time and use, the leather molds itself to perfectly suit the rider's anatomy and their cycling style.","And just like a pair of leather shoes, the saddle becomes very comfortable.","Leather bike saddles look almost the same as they did 100 years ago.","They are still made by hand and by some machinery that is sometimes over 60 years old.","Saddles are made exclusively of metal and leather, traditional materials that retain the style and quality of the early days.","The first step is making the steel wire springs for saddles that have a suspension.","The machine coils and cuts the wire to the proper length.","Liquid lubricant keeps everything running smoothly.","Depending on the saddle's model, some springs are then chromed.","This machine folds and curls steel or titanium wire to form brackets.","It's adjustable, so it can make brackets of different sizes and shapes, depending on the model being produced.","A technician assembles the springs and brackets to form the saddle's frame.","He attaches the clamp so that the saddle can be attached to the bicycle's seat post.","Saddles come in different sizes and shapes, with or without suspension springs to accommodate various riding styles-- racing, mountain biking, or city commuting.","Now for the saddle's leather top.","Using a hydraulic clicking press, the worker cuts the leather with a sharp blade.","The blade cuts ventilation holes at the same time.","Tanneries provide leather in any color required by the factory.","After the tops are cut, they soak in tepid water for 20 minutes to an hour, until the leather is completely saturated.","The wet leather top then goes to a press, which applies 2,000 pounds of pressure per square inch.","Using a leather cushion, the technician pads the leather piece to help reinforce the shape, especially in the narrow front end.","Because the top is wet, it retains the shape and does not bounce back.","They carefully sand the leather to get a smooth edge.","The tops now go into the oven for three hours at a maximum temperature of 130 degrees fahrenheit.","Now they're ready for the finishing process.","A worker rivets a name plate to the rear of the saddle...","Then stamps a trademark on each side.","Each saddle model has its own trademark.","They attach the nose to the front of the saddle using solid copper rivets.","They hammer each one down carefully to follow the contours of the leather without scratching it.","This machine now rivets the frame to the back of the saddle.","They insert a tension pin between the frame and the nose.","This pin will allow the rider to adjust his saddle if the leather starts sagging after a few years.","It takes about three days to make a leather bike saddle.","And with careful care, it can be used for years to come.","Luxury sports cars are coveted by people around the world, and with good reason.","The extraordinary skills and materials that go into making them were developed from a long racing heritage.","Each one of these automobiles is born from expert craftsmanship and a passion for racing.","Underneath the beautiful exterior of these cars lie a chassis and power train capable of delivering remarkable performance.","The aluminum frame is engineered to be lightweight, yet rigid, and provide crumple zones that can evenly distribute force in the event of an impact.","It takes highly skilled technicians to perform these complex welds.","On the factory floor, robots transport the body panels that will later be fitted onto the chassis.","Once the frame is completed, technicians use a pneumatic hoist to position and attach exterior panels and doors.","Door panel cutouts reduce the car's weight while retaining a high degree of structural integrity.","The elongated cutouts on this model will house its stylized headlights.","Next, they coat the car in a compound which fluoresces under a special lighting system.","This helps technicians detect any minute imperfections.","These imperfections are then filed down by hand.","Here, a robot fully immerses and rotates the chassis in a galvanizing solution that prevents corrosion.","Once the body has been primed, it passes through a device that dusts off the entire body with ostrich-feather brushes.","Next stop, the paint room, where robots spray the car body with a smooth, even coat of paint.","Once the paint dries and cures, the robots apply several coats of varnish.","The final step in body prep is a meticulous waxing by hand to remove any remaining blemishes.","Moving on to the chassis, a technician uses a hoist to position and fasten the engine and gearbox in place.","Here, robots transport the completed power train to the assembly area...","Where an automatic crane gently lowers the car body onto the chassis, which includes the fully assembled suspension, gearbox, and engine.","This step is known as the marriage.","Next, a worker installs the wheels with some help from a hydraulic lifting system.","At the next station, technicians test all the dashboard components.","This vehicle features a combination of analog and digital displays.","A master computer runs the electronics and information systems.","Again with the help of the crane, technicians install the finished dashboard.","The next step is the steering wheel.","Assisted by a special assembly jig, a technician positions and tightens it onto the steering column.","Workers lower the trunk cover and convertible hardtop into position, which is particular to this model of car.","A worker double-checks the installation of the hydraulic mechanism.","This beautiful road machine is the culmination of years of racing history, modern engineering, and dedicated craftsmanship.","Now watch this.","This is one of the few cars that features a fully automated convertible hardtop.","This beauty is now ready for the sun, wind, and the open road."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Racing Shells","Stainless Steel Sinks","Leather","Pedal Steel Guitar"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Racing shells...","Stainless-steel sinks...","Leather...","And pedal steel guitars.","The racing shell is a high-tech rowboat that's built for speed.","Long and exceptionally narrow, it's designed to cut through wave drag and leave the competition in its wake.","Racing shells are made for single rowers, called scullers, for pairs, or entire crews.","They're custom-made to precise specifications.","Racers need to travel light to maintain speed, so these boats are made from reinforced carbon fiber, which weighs a lot less than wood.","First, several of these carbon-fiber sheets are layered in a mold and trimmed along the edge.","Textured thermoplastic called honeycomb gets a spray of glue and is then pressed onto the carbon-fiber plies.","Sandwiched between layers of carbon fiber, the honeycomb will serve as the shell's core, lending some lightweight reinforcement to the delicate hull.","Next, the entire boat is wrapped in breather cloth and a plastic bag so that the air can be vacuumed from between the layers.","The breather cloth is a permeable layer that prevents the plastic from sticking to the mold and creating air pockets.","Next, the shell goes into a long oven, which melts the glue that's been impregnated in the carbon material, fusing the layers together.","The shell bakes at 210 degrees for 8 hours.","Then the plastic and breather cloth are pulled away.","And the boat is pried out of the mold using plastic wedges.","The hull comes out in one solid piece, and a primer paint sprayed into the mold earlier has adhered to the shell's surface.","Workers check the weight, which has to be exactly what the customer ordered.","Next, they reinforce the boat's cockpit with several carbon-fiber bulkheads.","Foam is glued on the inside rim of the racing shell, using a piece of wood as a guide.","Glue is applied around the bulkheads.","Then the cockpit panel is lowered so that it adheres to the glued areas and rests on top of the foam that's been installed along the edges.","Next, a computerized tool drills holes for the hardware and riggers and workers trim the rim from stern to bow.","They smooth the holes' finish with a grinding tool.","And now it's over to the paint station for some sanding and priming.","Any flaws are marked for repair because the slightest imperfection could affect the boat's ability to speed through the water.","Once the boat is perfectly smooth, it gets a high-gloss urethane coating.","Next, a fin is installed for a little stability.","A laser guide helps align it into perfect position.","A rudder goes into the bottom of the boat.","The system of ropes that's attached next will allow the rowers to steer.","This boat comes with special shoes and sliding seats that allow rowers to put a lot of leg power into their strokes.","Finally, the rigging equipment for the oars goes in.","Now this sleek racing shell is ready to hit the water.","When we return, turning stainless steel into a sparkling new sink.","The stainless-steel sink is an invention born of patriotism.","It evolved during world war ii when sinks were often made from copper-nickel material called monel.","When that material was needed for the war effort, stainless steel was drafted for use on the home front, and it's still on kitchen duty to this day.","Stainless steel is lightweight and heavy-duty, which makes it great for sinks.","The process begins with a large sheet of stainless steel, uncoiled and sliced into pieces called blanks.","Each blank goes under a 1,000-ton press.","As the press descends, a punch rises from below, stretching the steel into a rough sink shape.","This process also transforms the steel on a molecular level, hardening it.","Workers brush lubricant in and around the sink bowl to make it easier to stretch it again.","The bowl goes under the same punch press a second time for more precise shaping.","This second working of the steel hardens it even more.","Now the sink goes under a different punch device that cuts out a drain hole and forms a lip around it.","As coolant flushes the sink, an abrasive belt grinds the surface to give it a brushed look.","Next, a sink bowl slides into a welding machine.","A second sink bowl is lined up against the first one.","Inside, an electrode welds the two sinks together.","Using enormous force, a roller moves across the seam to flatten it.","A grinding belt behind the roller sands it down.","Now that the seam joining the two sinks is level and smooth...","It's time to give the sink's rim some shape.","This die forms recesses along the sink's perimeter.","These recesses give the sink a sleek look and collect water runoff.","Another press trims the rim and gives it a bevel finish, which softens those rough edges.","Now, using a punch cutter, workers pierce the back rim of the sink to make holes for faucets and a soap dispenser.","Then they grind and buff the sink to a fine finish.","It's a very intensive process that takes about 25 minutes.","The company's trademark is embossed on the sink.","Then the sink's drains are plugged and a substance similar to latex paint is sprayed onto the outside.","The finish will muffle the sound of clattering dishes and protect the outside of the sink from condensation.","It takes about 2 1/2 hours to make a stainless-steel sink-- a functional and stylish addition to any kitchen.","Coming up, turning hairy cowhides into buttery-smooth leather.","Leather production dates back to primitive times when humans rubbed fats into animal skins to preserve them.","Times have changed, but leather endures.","From footwear to furniture, this tough material remains an integral part of our lives.","This leather comes from the hides of cows killed for meat.","Without tanning, these cowhides would go to waste.","Converting them to leather is a kind of recycling.","The first step is to cut each hide in half.","The hides are draped over a sawhorse, stamped with an identification code...","And sliced down the center.","Two smaller pieces will be easier to handle and process than one large hide.","Hundreds of these hide halves are loaded into a modified cement mixer for some serious hair removal.","As the mixer fills with water, a worker dumps in a combination of sodium sulfydrate and lime.","A chemical reaction strips the hair from the hides.","The hairless hides now get an acid bath to prepare them for the tanning process.","The tanning itself happens inside big wooden drums with prongs to keep the skins from getting tangled.","Chrome salts turn the hides a robin's-egg blue as they bind to the collagen fibers of the skins.","The hides have now been preserved into leather.","Next, the pieces are fed grain-side up into a machine that slices the leather to an even thickness.","The cutoffs won't be wasted.","They'll be recycled into suede.","Workers check each piece of leather with a gauge to confirm that the thickness is uniform.","Now it's back into the wooden drums for a second tanning, this time using a solution of vegetable extract, tree bark, and water.","Dye is added along with a chemical that will make the leather water-resistant.","The solution binds to the leather, giving it a brownish tone.","It's a gentler process than the first tanning, and it softens the leather.","Now a mixture of starch and water is brushed onto the tanned hides.","This paste-like solution allows the hides to be pressed onto big glass frames, which also have been moistened with the same starchy mixture.","This process allows the leather to dry flat...","Prevents it from shrinking...","And stops the edges from curling up.","After four hours in a dryer, it's time to remove the leather.","It easily peels away from the glass.","A revolving paint-gun system dyes the leather.","And now it's time for the finishing touches.","A glazing jack pulls a glass cylinder over the leather, and the abrasive action polishes it.","This glass is very strong, so it can do this vigorous work without shattering.","Finally, huge heated rollers smooth out any wrinkles.","It's the end of the production line for this big pile of leather but just the beginning for so many other products.","Fashionable and tough, it's no wonder this ancient material continues to be one of our favorite products today.","Up next, an instrument that's almost as tricky to build as it is to play.","Playing the pedal steel guitar takes quite a lot of skill.","You slide a steel bar up and down the strings as you pluck them, all the while operating a system of pedals and knee levers below.","This means using both hands, both feet, and both knees.","But a pedal steel guitar's unique sound and impressive range are worth all the effort.","to make one, a guitar maker first carves the neck of the instrument from hardwood.","He beads glue around the edges of the neck and applies strips of intricate wooden inlay.","Once the fretboard design is silk-screened onto the top, the guitar neck is complete.","The guitar maker then outlines a design onto aircraft-grade aluminum and cuts it out to make an end plate for the guitar frame.","He pops the end plate out of the holding device.","Then he welds it to the rest of the framework and polishes everything to a mirror finish.","Next, the part of the guitar called the steps is machined.","The holes in the steps will be used to attach tuning pegs.","There's one for every string.","The steps are attached to the neck just above the fretboard.","This is the pickup plate.","It will hold the device that transfers sound to the amplifier as well as a series of metal fingers.","The fingers are made from several aluminum pieces that are machined and assembled together.","The fingers pivot to raise and lower the pitch of the strings.","All of the fingers are fitted into the pickup plate and secured with screws.","The guitar maker double-checks the fingers' movement, then he hooks springs to the end of each one to maintain the proper tension.","A little grease ensures that this next step goes smoothly-- the production of the guitar's cross-shafts.","Then it's on to the guitar's undercarriage and the system of foot pedals and knee levers that will move the fingers.","The guitar maker screws several cross-shafts, one for each pedal, into the undercarriage.","He attaches bell cranks to the cross-shafts...","Then connects thin steel rods from the fingers to the bell cranks.","This system will allow the performer to tighten or relax strings while playing, which gives the instrument its characteristic sound.","The guitar maker tests the knee lever.","Here he's winding copper-coated wire around a cartridge thousands of times to make the guitar's pickup, which transfers sound from the guitar to the amplifier.","He takes two of the wire-bound cartridges and places a magnet between them to complete the pickup.","Then he fits it into the other slot in the pickup plate just above the fingers.","Now, using a gauge and a level, he adjusts the pickup.","It has to sit low enough in the slot that it won't interfere with the strings.","There's no room for error here.","The positioning must be exact or the guitar won't sound right.","10 to 12 strings are attached to the guitar neck.","Some instruments have two necks to add even more dimension to the sound."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Western Revolver Replicas","Arc Trainers","Used"]},"text":["In the american wild west, the gun ruled, and that gun was usually a six-shooter revolver.","Today, replicas of those revolvers can take you back to dodge city, and they do at cowboy shooting competitions.","It's a chance to engage in a little old-fashion gunslinging for old time's sake.","With its six-shot cylinder and innovative cocking mechanism, the 1873 colt was carried by the likes of jesse james.","They start these automatic replicas by shaping and machining the gun's frame.","A computerized blade carves the cylinder.","It cuts slots for the ammunition and notches for rotating the cylinder after a shot is fired.","A technician files down rough edges so the parts will fit together perfectly.","He then screws the curved grip and the trigger guard to the frame.","He assembles the wooden grip casing to the metal back strap and attaches them to the grip.","Once he confirms it's a good fit, he removes the casing the writes the gun's serial number inside.","He stamps a matching number onto the grip and polishes it and the gun's frame to a glossy finish.","He now rolls the model number and other identifying information onto the gun's barrel.","To add a bit of flourish, an artist engraves designs copying the artwork on an original colt.","Another worker now dips the parts in hot salts, then in cold water.","A reaction occurs that both hardens the parts a bit and tints them.","In this case, they turn a bronze color.","This is called color case hardening.","The grip and trigger guard have been removed from the gun frame for color casing.","This makes it easier for the technician to install the cartridge loading gate on the frame.","He files down the mechanism for rotating the cylinder to make the dimensions perfect.","He then inserts a bushing and a pin in the cylinder's center.","He uses that pin to install the cylinder in the gun frame.","The pin will also serve as the axis for the cylinder to revolve on.","He slides a couple of test slugs into the chambers to confirm the gap between the cylinder and gun frame is spot on.","He then fits the gun barrel to the frame.","And, using a special measuring rod, he checks the alignment of the cylinder and barrel.","He tightens the barrel to the gun frame, using a stick as a lever.","The technician aims the assembled gun and eyeballs the alignment of the barrel to the frame.","Once he's certain the configuration is right on target, he installs the gun's hammer and trigger.","He pops the cylinder back into the gun frame and inserts the rod for ejecting spent ammunition.","He screws a spring into the side of the hammer and cocks it in its three different positions to verify that it's in working order.","He then reattaches the grip and trigger guard.","He assembles a flat spring to the curved grip.","This is the main spring.","It transfers energy from the trigger to the hammer to cause the revolver to fire.","Then it's over to a government testing facility called the proof house.","Behind bulletproof glass, special equipment fires ammunition at three times the usual operating pressure.","If the gun can handle this, it's deemed safe to operate.","After a few more parts have been color cased, this revolver replica is ready for its target market.","And that would be history buffs who are interested in a real blast from the past.","Arc trainers can give you a full-body workout.","They provide a number of exercise programs to choose from, like strength training, weight loss, and cardio.","They monitor such things as heart rate and calories burned.","Like any piece of exercise equipment, using one properly is the key to a safe and healthy workout.","Arc trainers are made to give you a wide range of incline and resistance levels to let you train as easy or as hard as you like.","To start, a tube laser machine-cuts and profiles the steel tubing that will make the arc trainer's side frame.","A worker cleans the steel tubes, then runs them through a computer-controlled roll-forming machine.","This machine shapes all the steel used to build the arc trainer's frame.","They use a robot to weld all the parts together because robotic welding is more consistent and accurate than hand-welding.","The completed frames then get a surface preparation, giving the steel a uniform finish that is now ready for powder painting.","Workers then paint the frames using an electrostatic paint process.","These guns spray electrically charged paint particles that are drawn to the grounded frames in a smooth and even coat.","The frames then bake in an oven for 40 minutes to cure the paint.","Next come the handlebars.","A worker then makes them by lubricating a rubber tube and sliding it onto an assembly frame.","He then locks a preformed metal tube in place and lubricates it, as well.","He turns a handwheel, which brings the two tubes together, forming the handgrip.","He completes the assembly by screwing on an end cap.","Meanwhile, a worker assembles the control panel by putting on the overlays for the user interface.","She then hooks up the printed circuit board that controls the unit.","She closes the housing but leaves the connectors exposed for connection to the mainframe later.","A worker then attaches a steel support fixture onto the frame.","Next comes this drive-wheel assembly, which he bolts onto the support fixture.","He puts a drive belt around a pulley that provides various resistance levels for the user and rolls the belt onto the drive wheel.","He then uses a pneumatic tool to tighten down the pulley, which stretches the drive belt and sets it to the appropriate tension.","Next, he attaches the computer board that controls the various fitness programs.","A worker then installs the leg bars onto the arc trainer's frame and attaches a foot pedal onto each leg bar.","He installs linkage bars onto the drive-wheel assembly.","Then he aligns the drive wheel and puts on the molded front housing...","Followed by the protective side covers.","He connects a linkage bar that extends from each leg bar to the drive wheel, then connects one linkage bar to each arm handle.","He makes sure all the linkage bars are working properly.","Finally, he tests the free-floating foot pedals and the dual-action arms, as well as all the other functions and features.","These arc trainers are high-tech exercise machines.","Some models even come with a tv.","Used-oil furnaces generate heat by burning used oil without having to refine it.","These furnaces are found in automobile shops, maintenance facilities, and construction sites.","Transport fleets and trucking companies also use them to turn the used oil they produce into heat for their facilities.","It takes a special furnace to burn used oil.","Used oil is thick and dirty compared to residential fuel oil and must be turned into a fine mist to burn properly.","It all starts with a computer-controlled laser making what's called the front and rear flue plates out of steel.","The plates for this hot-air furnace are made of stainless or hot-rolled steel depending on the size of the unit.","A worker then makes what's known as the heat exchanger by joining the flue plates together with steel tubes called flue tubes.","This device is called a swagger machine.","It expands just the ends of the flue tubes, binding them in place with the flue plate.","Next, he assembles the section in which hot gases collect after passing through the flue tubes on their way out of the furnace.","He then sets a combustion chamber on the top of the heat exchanger and welds them together.","He completes the heat-exchanger assembly by welding on a base equipped with two air-deflector plates.","These square plates help direct the ambient air as it enters the furnace and circulates around the combustion chamber.","Meanwhile, an electrostatic powder-coating machine paints the outside covers for the furnace.","Next, they put on inner air deflectors, then assemble the cabinet.","They bolt everything in place, then put on an insulated door.","Now he hooks up a blower control box.","This electrical box regulates when hot air is sent into a room.","A worker then connects a tester box to the temperature controls that measure the temperature inside the furnace.","He runs a number of tests to confirm that both the blower and the burner will turn on or off when they're supposed to.","He verifies the operation of the door that allows for cleaning out ash residue.","A technician installs a 100-watt pencil heater inside a brass nozzle adaptor, then threads a thermostat into it.","This nozzle adaptor heats the oil and turns it into a fine mist so it burns properly.","She then attaches assembly fittings to the adaptor so she can later mount it inside a burner housing.","She checks these fittings with a leveling tool to ensure the adaptor will go on straight inside the housing.","She also installs an assembly that controls oil flow, temperature, and air pressure.","Then she mounts the nozzle adaptor and covers it with a retention head that shapes the flame for optimal heat, completing the burner assembly.","A worker then hooks up the used-oil and compressed-air lines to begin testing the burner.","He turns on the oil, ignites the burner, and looks through an observation port to verify the burner is working properly.","A closer look shows the flame is at the right intensity for optimal heat with minimal emissions.","The furnace is now ready to turn used oil into useful heat.","Top-of-the-line pizza cutters and vegetable peelers can be a pleasure to use.","They make preparing and serving your favorite foods quicker and easier and are ergonomically designed for style and comfort.","They are also easy to clean and guaranteed for life.","Vegetable peelers and pizza cutters work like a charm, making straight cuts without damaging your pans or your fingers.","Quality pizza cutters start with cutlery-grade, high-carbon stainless steel from which a stamping press punches the cutter blades.","The blades go through a three-step heat-treating process.","First, they enter a high-temperature furnace.","Then it's into a deep freezer to maximize hardness and corrosion resistance.","Finally, they go into a tempering oven, which increases the durability of the metal.","A polishing machine with two buffing heads then polishes both sides of the blade, giving it a protective and cosmetic finish.","A worker than loads the blade onto a bevel-grinding machine that thins out the edge of the blade.","It grinds a beveled edge that is thin enough to cut pizza but not sharp enough to cut your finger or damage a cutting surface.","A worker puts a steel-bar insert into an injection molding machine that makes the soft-polymer handle.","He then cools it down in water.","He puts the handles on an extraction fixture which removes the inserts, making the handles ready for assembly along with all the other molded parts.","He then attaches what's called a swing arm to the blade holder, and he secures it in place with a screw.","He dips the tip of the blade holder into lubricant and uses a pneumatic-assembly fixture to insert the blade holder into the handle permanently.","Using the swing arm, he snap-fits the blade onto the blade holder and hides the swing-arm screw with a cover cap.","Finally, he ensures the blade rolls properly and safely so it will cut through pizza with ease.","The finest vegetable peelers also do their job quickly and effectively.","They also start with cutlery-grade stainless-steel blades that undergo tempering to ensure the metal is durable and corrosion-resistant.","After cleaning and polishing, the blades are dried in a vibrating medium of ground corncob, then removed from the tub by a magnet.","The blades are now ready for sharpening.","A worker mounts the peeler blades on a computer-controlled edge-grinding machine.","The grinder sharpens one edge of each blade at a time.","Once both sides of the peeler blades are fully sharpened, they're ready for assembly.","Meanwhile, an injection molding machine makes the blade holders.","A worker dips each blade holder into lubricant and inserts it into the molded soft-polymer handle, joining them together permanently.","Finally, he attaches the blade by deflecting the holder just enough to insert the tip of the blade into a tiny hole.","These top-quality vegetable peelers are sold individually or in combination with other kitchen utensils like pizza cutters, and they sure are handy in the kitchen, even if you're not."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pre"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Pre-inked stamps...","Cranberries...","Cotton yarn...","And road signs.","\"paid,\" \"rush,\" \"approved\" are some of the terms routinely stamped onto documents.","Professionals, such as engineers, have their official stamps, too.","For years, you had to dab the stamp on an ink pad for each impression.","Nowadays you can get stamps with the ink built right in.","The process begins with a design that either the stamp company or its customer creates with standard graphics software.","They print the stamp design onto paper using a high-quality laser printer, then place the printout under an imaging camera.","They feed in a blank sheet of negative film...","Then photograph the printout.","30 seconds later, out comes the negative.","The design is light, the background dark.","Now they can begin making the mold for the stamp.","They apply the negative to a plate of light-sensitive polymer-- a plastic-like material.","Then they vacuum out the air to prevent defects in the mold.","Then they expose the polymer plate to ultraviolet light for approximately three minutes.","The u.v. penetrates through the light part of the negative-- the stamp design-- and hardens the polymer underneath.","The rest of the polymer is shielded by the dark portions of the negative, so it doesn't change.","A wash cycle then scrubs away this unhardened polymer, leaving behind a perfect mold in the shape of the stamp.","Now they cover the mold with a sheet of synthetic resin called bakelite and put it into a machine called a vulcanizer.","The machine heats the bakelite to just over 309 degrees fahrenheit, then forces it into the mold using 2 to 3 tons of pressure.","After four minutes, the bakelite stamp is ready.","To be more productive, the factory actually molds several stamps at a time.","Next comes the built-in ink.","They screw the bakelite stamp into what's called the pre-ink mold, then pour in a mixture of ink and gel.","They cover the mold and vacuum out the air, a process that takes 12 minutes.","The mold then goes into a heat press for 17 minutes.","The press applies 2 tons of pressure to expel excess ink and heats the ink gel to about 260 degrees fahrenheit, transforming it to roughly the consistency of a marshmallow.","So it won't overcook, the mold goes onto a special cooling table for 12 minutes.","Next, it's set out to cool for another 45 minutes, this time on newspapers, which soak up more excess ink.","Finally, they wrap the mold in paper towels and newspapers and vacuum out the last drops of excess ink.","Then they quickly seal the back of the stamp to lock the ink in.","Now they can cut apart the individual stamps.","They glue the stamps by hand onto the base of the stamp handles.","Before they're shipped out to the customer, all stamps undergo a quality-control check to make sure they'll leave a lasting impression.","Cranberries are one of just a handful of fruits that are native to north america.","Before the europeans arrived, the indians used them for food and medicine.","The cranberry vine is well-suited to a harsher climate.","It thrives in low temperatures and loves acidic soil that's scarce in nutrients.","Cranberries are ripe for the picking in late september.","At harvesttime, farmers flood their fields to make the cranberries float to the surface.","Then they use a machine called a beater.","It generates underwater turbulence, pulling the berries off the vines.","The beater is suspended from a mobile bridge that's computer-guided to systematically work its way through the entire field.","The beater cuts a swath about 23 feet wide with each sweep.","Workers move the floating cranberries to one corner of the field...","Where a pump transfers them to a waiting truck.","Along the way, the berries get a preliminary rinsing to remove branches and leaves.","At the factory, the truck unloads its cargo.","The cranberries travel along the water canal and onto a conveyor belt, then through a cleaning station, where workers use brushes and water jets to get rid of any remaining leaves and branches.","Then they dump the cranberries into large bins to be frozen for up to several months.","To produce cranberry juice, they defrost the frozen berries in hot water, then mash them--  skins, seeds, and all-- into a puree.","They add special enzymes to break up the pectin molecules, making the puree less viscous and therefore easier to press.","The press processes almost 9 tons of puree at a time.","That's the weight of 1 1/2 elephants.","It takes three to four pressing cycles to extract all the juice.","The juice then goes through a sophisticated filtration system.","The 216 filters remove any plant particles or bacteria larger than one micron.","A micron is about 25,000 times smaller than an inch.","Then they evaporate the water until the juice is 10 times more concentrated.","Cranberries not destined for juice go through a grading process.","Undersized berries drop down through the holes of a giant sifter.","The bigger cranberries move on to the grading table, where workers remove any that are substandard.","An electronic sorter then scans the remaining cranberries for color, signaling an air gun to blow any reject berries off the production line.","The rest move on to the packaging department or continue down the line to be dried.","Cranberries destined for drying are automatically seeded, cut in half, and pressed, then soaked in a sugar-and-water solution to make them sweeter.","The side-to-side motion of the conveyor belt spreads the berries thinly so that they'll dry evenly.","The hot-air dryer subjects them to temperatures varying from 86 to 176 degrees fahrenheit.","After about three hours, the cranberries come out looking like this.","As you sip your cranberry tea, ponder this-- cranberries are a source of potassium and vitamins \"a\" and \"c,\" and drinking cranberry juice can prevent and treat urinary tract infections.","Twisting plant or animal fibers into yarn dates back to ancient times, when people fashioned primitive spindles out of sticks.","Around 500 b.c., the spinning wheel was born in india.","Today's factories have fully automated spinning machines that work on the same principle as the spinning wheel.","This is a 2-ply commercial yarn, the kind factories use to weave fabric for making jeans and tops.","It's made from large bales of raw cotton.","Cotton comes from a plant, so, naturally, some leaves and stems are mixed in with the cotton fibers.","To remove them, the first machine passes over the bales and removes a layer of cotton .","2 of an inch wide...","Then sends it through a duct system to the blending and cleaning machine.","The machine processes half a ton of cotton per hour.","The cotton comes out evenly blended and cleaner, but still not clean enough, so it goes into a second cleaning machine, which finishes the job.","Now the cotton goes through what's called a carding machine.","It has huge rollers with wire teeth.","They comb out the tangled fibers and line them up in parallel rows.","The machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process.","Next stop-- the coiler.","This device takes the rows of fibers and forms them into a thick and loose first-stage yarn called sliver.","The slivers move on to the drawing machine.","It lines them up six at a time and draws them out, stretching them to form a second-stage yarn.","Then a machine called a roving frame stretches this second-stage yarn, strengthening it by thinning it out...","Until it looks like this.","This third-stage yarn is called roving.","Depending on the type of yarn they're making, it's anywhere from 3 1/2 to 16 times thinner than sliver.","They now stretch the roving up to 30 times thinner, which strengthens it even more.","The yarn is finally finished.","Now they have to transfer the yarn from all these small spools onto huge, industrial-size cones-- 20 spools to a cone.","One transfer method uses the winding machine.","It winds the yarn from the first spool onto the cone.","Then it automatically takes the back end of that yarn and attaches it with a knot to the front end of the yarn from the next spool.","It winds it onto the cone, then attaches the back end to the front end from the next spool and so on.","As each spool empties, the machine automatically discards it.","And while all that winding is going on, the machine's optical sensor-- that white object you see crossing the screen-- does a quality-control check.","If a portion of yarn doesn't meet specifications, the winding stops, the machine cuts off the offending portion, then reconnects the ends and resumes winding.","This is air-jet spinning, another method of making yarn from slivers and winding it onto giant spools known as tubes.","A suction tube grabs the front end of one spool and connects it to the back end of the previous one, again with a tiny knot.","Before fully automated machines like this were invented 50 years ago, all that knotting had to be done by hand.","The thin, finished yarn is 200 times lighter than the thick, first-stage yarn that came out of the carding machine.","From start to finish, spinning this yarn has taken 48 hours.","You might not have noticed, but road signs have undergone a subtle change in recent years thanks to advances in technology.","Today's signs are more reflective than ever.","You can actually read them in the dead of night, even when the only source of illumination is your car's headlights.","The earliest road signs were crude-- a stick in the ground or a heap of stones to mark a route.","In the roman empire, stone posts were erected along roadsides at regular intervals, indicating the distance to rome.","Centuries later, stone-marker systems gave way to wooden cross signs pointing in several directions at once.","The international system of road signs we know today came out of the first international road congress, held in 1908.","The process of manufacturing a road sign starts with a computer.","The government strictly regulates the specifics of the design and requires a certain degree of reflectivity.","The computer's specialized software guides a machine to cut the design on a sheet of film.","Once the design is cut, workers carefully peel off and discard the pieces.","What's left is a film stencil of the sign-- in this case, a french stop sign.","They inspect it for defects, then prepare a screen of polyester fabric that they'll later use to print the sign.","They start by coating it with a thin layer of light-sensitive emulsion.","Once the emulsion is dry, they adhere the film stencil using vacuum pressure to flatten it and get rid of any creases or air bubbles.","Then they expose the screen to an intense, 6,000-watt light for seven minutes.","This activates the emulsion on the lettering and area outside the octagon-- what's not shielded from the light by the film stencil.","This exposed emulsion hardens, plugging the minute holes between the screen's fibers.","After rinsing, you see the result.","Elsewhere in the factory, workers cut the aluminum panels on which the signs will be printed.","Using a punch press, they round out the edges.","They make holes for the bolts that will later attach the sign to the post.","They stamp on the company name and the year of manufacture for warranty purposes.","They immerse the panels in a chemical bath to remove grease and other residues.","Then they rinse off the panels and dip them in an acid solution that seals the metal to make it better withstand harsh weather.","Next, they laminate the aluminum panels with a film containing miniscule glass particles.","This film will make the sign reflect in the dark when light hits it.","Then they cut the panel to the final shape.","Now they can finally print the sign.","The process they use is called silk-screening, although the fabric screen, as you saw earlier, isn't actually silk.","It's polyester.","The machine forces the ink down through the screen onto the panel.","The ink penetrates through the open fiber holes of the octagon, printing the red background on the stop sign.","But it can't penetrate through the blocked fiber holes of the lettering and the area outside the octagon, so those remain white.","The freshly printed signs pass through a dryer at about 150 degrees fahrenheit for 5 minutes.","To produce street signs, workers first laminate aluminum panels with reflective film for the background color...","Then either silk-screen the street name or apply self-adhesive reflective lettering.","But it's back to the silk-screening process for printing multicolored signs.","Workers print them one color at a time with a drying cycle between colors.","All the film stencils are carefully stored for future use.","The printed signs go into an oven for a final curing at 349 degrees fahrenheit-- an hour for a one-color sign, a half-hour per color for a multicolored sign.","The ink is transparent enough not to block the reflective film underneath.","Therefore, the entire sign, not just the lettering, is highly reflective.","That maximizes the sign's visibility, thereby minimizing the excuses drivers can come up with for not heeding it."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Tasers","Canned Soup","Jaw Harps & Mouth Bows","Diving Boards"]},"text":["A taser device fires bursts of electricity to deliver a high-voltage, low-amp shock that temporarily disables the subject.","Invented in 1969 by an american aerospace scientist, the taser has become a weapon of choice for police forces around the world.","Today, when an officer reaches for his or her gun, it's often one without bullets.","From a cartridge on the front, the taser fires electrified darts, which, on impact, cause muscle contractions in the target's subject.","The subject is immobilized but usually recovers in a few minutes.","This metal capsule contains the propellant, pressurized gas.","A robotic arm inserts the capsule in a plastic chamber.","The next robot places a part, called the primer disc, on the capsule.","It contains chemicals to generate a mini explosion that will drive pins into the capsule, releasing the gas.","Another robot adds a protective screen.","That's the primer disc on the left and the screen on the right.","They punch out a round piece of foam, and the robot thrusts it into the chamber and tamps it down.","After welding it in place with ultrasonic vibrations, a robot flips the unit up and into a second plastic chamber.","The placement leaves just enough space between the inner and outer chambers for wire bundles to be inserted later.","A robot then tucks the assembly into the plastic cartridge.","It has slots for other components, like insulated copper-wire bundles.","A machine winds the wire in a tight figure-eight formation.","This wire will electrify the darts as they're deployed, and the figure-eight winding reduces the possibility of tangling.","A worker places two bundles in the designated spaces in the cartridge.","He tops each bundle with a piece of strong polyester film.","It keeps the wire pack from spring apart as he slides it off the fork and presses it into the cartridge.","He's now ready for the barbed taser darts.","He threads the end of each wire bundle through one and knots it.","He installs the darts in the cartridge, using a special tool to seat them correctly.","He selects plastic wedges--  one for each wire-- and wraps the other end of the wires around it.","He attaches electrodes to facilitate the flow of electricity to the cartridge.","The next part is called the blast door.","It will blast apart and break in two as the taser darts are deployed.","The robot snaps it in place on top of the cartridge.","The door is color-coded to signify the range of the dart probes.","Yellow indicates five yards.","With the compressed-air cartridge complete, they now focus on the taser's deployment mechanisms.","A technician installs a laser system and two l.e.d. lights in the plastic casing.","The laser is an aide for aiming the electrified darts, and the lights will illuminate the target.","He adjusts the laser's aim to sync it with one of the darts, using a bull's-eye target as an alignment aide.","Next, they immerse the high-voltage board in epoxy resin and pump more directly into it.","This board is in the part of the taser gun that generates electrical pulses when the gun is in stun mode.","Once cured, the epoxy encapsulates this unit to insulate the components.","The technician inserts the high-voltage board in the gun casing.","Along with the controller board-- the brains of the taser-- he also installs an information display board and makes the necessary connections.","He plugs the assembly into a power source and tests the laser and l.e.d. lights.","He snaps on the trigger and confirms that it makes contact with the plunger on the control board.","He joins the other half of the taser casing to the one with all the working parts.","Then, an ultrasonic welder fuses the casing parts at the tongue and groove seams.","Protecting the outer casing with a sheet of plastic, the technician welds a safety switch to the trigger.","This critical part will prevent accidental deployment.","In a test chamber now, they activate the taser without the air cartridge.","Without the cartridge and its projectile darts, the taser works as a handheld stun gun to zap the target directly.","Once it meets the tester's approval, this taser is ready for the police beat.","A consumer model is also approved for use in some jurisdictions.","Like the police version, it should deliver a shocking performance.","Soup is a liquid food that is as old as cooking itself.","Its appeal is quite literally biblical because in the old testament, a son trades his inheritance for a pot of lentil soup.","Of course, today, one doesn't have to sacrifice it all for soup because it's usually readily available in cans.","With the invention of canning in the early 19th century, soup soon became available on demand.","On the home front, this caused quite a stir.","No need for a long simmer.","Just open the can, reheat, and soup's on.","To manufacture lentil soup, they make a hearty soup base.","They load measured amounts into a heated mixer, beginning with purée garlic.","The mixer's walls are steam-jacketed so the mix will cook evenly with no scorching on the bottom.","The next ingredient is olive oil.","They activate the steam heat, and the garlic begins to sizzle.","They add chopped onion.","The mixing blades gently toss the ingredients as they sauté.","They blend in diced celery and cook until translucent.","The next round of ingredients takes the flavor up a notch.","They include chopped carrots, sea salt, and fragrant spices.","Balsamic vinegar adds a sweet tartness to this lentil-soup base.","They're now ready to liquify the ingredients.","They open the tap, and filtered water spills in.","As the soup begins to simmer, they add crushed and diced tomatoes.","The final ingredient for this robust lentil-soup base is spinach.","Mixing it makes for a colorful swirl, and, as the ingredients cook, they become increasingly aromatic.","Meanwhile, raw, peeled potatoes ride a steep and slatted conveyor upward.","The slats keep the potatoes from rolling back as they make the climb up to a hopper.","From the hopper, the potatoes slide down a chute and into a revolving drum with cross-cutting blades.","The blades cut the spuds into small cubes and spit them out.","After a trip past a metal detector, the potato cubes land in a bin.","In small-cube form, they'll cook faster later.","Next, lentils, hard and dried, surge in a steady stream onto a revolving round table.","The table has openings that lead to little chutes with doors.","They open to funnel the lentils into cans moving on a conveyor below.","This ensures that a specific amount is fed into the cans.","Partially cooked green beans and the raw potato cubes now flow onto a second revolving table.","The cans with the lentils have now moved into position below.","The veggies fall through the holes and into the cans.","The cans, with mostly uncooked ingredients, now head towards the piston filler.","It pipes the steaming hot vegetable-soup base directly from the kettle mixer into the cans, filling them to the brim.","Immersed in the hot liquid, the lentils, potatoes, and green beans at the base of the can cook a little and soften up.","Sensors detect the approach of the cans and cue the lids.","The lids drop one by one onto the cans below.","A device then interlocks the rims of the cans and the lids for a hermetic seal.","The cans move into another lane and travel past an x-ray machine.","It scans the soup inside for metal contaminants like stray bolts or screws.","If the images are clear, the cans of soup move on to a giant pressure cooker.","Here, the contents cook under pressure for about a half hour.","Pressure-cooking simulates the effect of a long simmer in a fraction of the time.","The soup then cools for 10 minutes.","It is now thoroughly cooked and preserved.","Now on their sides with glue applied, the cans of lentil soup roll over labels, and the labels adhere.","They produce more than 15,000 cans of lentil soup an hour at this factory.","That's 105,000 cans in one shift.","It's enough to feed a small city.","The jaw harp and the mouth bow are among the earliest musical instruments.","A chinese drawing from the 4th century b.c. is believed to be the first record of a musician playing a jaw harp, and cave paintings in southern france from 15,000 b.c. depict someone playing a mouth bow.","The mouth bow is a stick of wood with a single string the musician plucks or strums, while altering the vibration-generated sound by mouth.","The jaw harp is a metal instrument.","The musician plucks its flexible tongue to produce a twanging sound, which he then modulates with mouth positions and breathing.","This craftsman makes the jaw harp's frame out of 1/10 of an inch thick square steel rod.","He measures and marks the required length and bend points.","He cuts the length with a standard hacksaw...","Clamps the rod in a vice...","Then slips metal pipes over the ends to prevent them from twisting as he bends them to form the arms of the frame.","He aligns the arms, leaving just enough space between them to allow the tongue to vibrate without obstruction.","For the instrument to produce quality sound, the arms must be perfectly parallel to each other-- their edges in mirror image.","He marks the tongue's position in between the arms and files down the metal within the markings.","This creates a notch in which the tongue will sit.","The tongue is made of spring steel-- a type of steel, which when bent, resumes its original shape.","Before attaching it, he saws a tiny undercut in each side of the notch.","Then he inserts the tongue and hammers the undercut sides to compress them over the tongue and lock it into position.","He heats the tip of the tongue with a propane torch.","Once the metal softens enough to bend, he angles the tip to form what's called the trigger.","Then he heats the end of the trigger and bends it into a loop.","This is what the musician's finger strikes to make the tongue vibrate.","Finally, he files the tongue's edges sharp-- a last detail to improve the instrument's sound quality.","To make a mouth bow, his first step is to find a stick that's between roughly 1 1/2 to 6 1/2 feet long, not too heavy, and ideally with a \"t\" shape at the end.","In his workshop, he clamps it in a vice, trims it to the required length, and, using a rasp, files the knots flat.","He files the top end until it's about 2/10 of an inch thick.","This forms the mouthpiece, which you hold gently to your lips while plucking the string.","The string vibrates the mouthpiece, producing sounds that you alter by changing the shape of your mouth.","He drills a hole toward the base of the mouthpiece for the string, then, just below that, files a notch for the bridge that supports the string.","Just below the notch, he hammers in a steel nail called the pin.","He drills a 2/10 of an inch hole at the \"t\"-shaped end of the stick.","This is where he'll insert the tuning peg, which he constructs out of a wood knob and dow.","He makes the string from a length of piano wire.","He forms a loop at one end by twisting it with pliers around an awl.","He feeds this end through the hole at the base of the mouthpiece...","And hooks the loop onto the pin.","Then he threads the other end of the string through a hole in the shaft at the tuning peg at the bottom of the stick.","He turns the peg to tighten the string.","Just as on a violin or a guitar, the tauter the string, the higher the note it produces.","the final step is to position the bridge-- a hardwood dow-- in its notch, under the tense string.","By elevating the top of the string, the bridge prevents it from cutting into the stick.","The mouth bow and the jaw harp are played alone or alongside other instruments in the folk music of numerous cultures around the world.","The earliest known reference to a diving board appears in a hieroglyphic from 480 b.c. it depicts a man plunging headfirst into a pool of water from a platform.","Today, diving boards are standard equipment at neighborhood and backyard swimming pools.","One end of the diving board is fixed to give the other end the bounce required for a big-splash cannonball or a graceful swan dive.","To make the diving-board shell, workers load a sheet of acrylic into a clamping machine that transports it into an oven.","The oven heats the sheet for about 30 seconds to soften it.","Then, a forming machine applies suction to draw the softened acrylic tightly over a mold in the shape of two diving boards.","Fans blow cool air, hardening the acrylic to this shape within seconds.","They extract the molded acrylic, then saw it in half to separate the two diving-board shells.","They coat the shell surface in a resin and fiberglass mixture.","This tool is called a chopper gun because it chops and shreds the fiberglass string, then shoots it out drenched in resin.","They roll it to compress the fibers and push out air pockets.","Any trapped air would create a weak spot in the diving board.","After letting the resin dry and harden for 30 minutes, they begin filling the shell cavity with 2/10 of an inch thick fiberglass mat.","They drench the mat in resin, rolling it over to ensure every fraction of an inch gets well-saturated.","Then they lay down another fiberglass mat, this one a bit thinner and saturated with the existing resin.","The diving board's core is made of laminated wood, which is several thin layers of wood glued together.","Laminated wood is actually stronger than a solid piece of wood.","After rounding the top edge, they lay two wood-laminate cores over the resin-saturated fiberglass mats.","They position clamps to hold the cores in place.","But before tightening, they insert metal spacers to ensure the cores are correctly positioned within the shell.","Once the positioning is perfect, they tighten the clamps, then let the resin cure at room temperature for a half hour or so.","Then the clamps come off, and workers cover the cores with an even thicker fiberglass mat impregnated with resin.","This is the bottom of the diving board.","They make sure the mat is centered...","Then manually form it to the shape of the board, pushing out the air pockets as they go.","They spray on some decorative paint, then put the board in an oven for 24 hours to cure.","When it comes out, they use a diamond blade to saw off the excess fiberglass around the edge.","Then they do a final trimming to make the edge neat and smooth.","They mask the sides with tape, leaving only the top exposed.","This is where they'll now apply a rough texture-- a safe, non-slip surface.","First, they roll on a thin coat of resin.","Onto that, they sprinkle a layer of silica sand, making sure to cover the surface thoroughly and evenly.","The sand sticks to the resin, which sets and cures in about 15 minutes.","After sweeping off the excess sand that didn't adhere, they roll on a coat of laminating resin, which bonds to the sand, giving the surface a clean, finished look.","They pull off the tape and apply the manufacture's decal to the side.","The diving board is now all set to be installed on a stand at the edge of the deep end to await anyone ready to take the plunge."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Riding Mowers","Popcorn","Adjustable Beds","Cultured Diamonds"]},"text":["When it comes to sitting down on the job, the riding mower is just the vehicle.","Animals powered the first ones in england in the 19th century.","When motorized mowers came along in the 20th century, they improved on the concept, and we were on our way to greener pastures.","Step behind the controls of a riding mower, and you can tame that unruly lawn without even breaking a sweat.","The job can be done speedily because a riding mower moves at quite a clip.","To make one, a robot delivers a sheet of steel to a die.","The die closes with 1,000 tons of force to make a big impression.","It shapes it into the part that holds the mowing blades-- what's called the mower deck.","They transfer the mower decks to a series of presses.","They punch holes for the blade attachments and trim the edges.","Workers stack the decks for washing.","After a treatment with a chemical rust inhibitor, it's time to plunge them into a primer solution.","The overhead rack delivers a negative charge to the decks, while the primer has a positive charge, which draws it onto the decks in an even coat.","This is called electrostatic painting.","They assemble three spindles to mowing blades and hoist the mower deck over the blade assemblies.","They bolt the head of each blade subassembly to the mower deck.","Then they thread rubber belts around pulleys to drive the blades.","Assembly continues with gauge wheels, a protective belt casing, and a chute for the cut grass.","Next, they clamp a set of steel rails along with some attachments to a welding table.","The welding table swings around to an awaiting crew of robots.","The robots move in and weld the attachments to the rails.","These rails will serve as the framework for the riding mower.","The attachments are for the front wheels.","Once the rails have been primed, an overhead conveyor takes them into a paint booth.","Nozzles spray a powder paint onto the parts for an enamel-like finish.","The powder that doesn't stick is recycled.","They lower the engine subassembly into position to build the vehicle framework around it, then bolt the welded and freshly glossed side rails to tubing at the front and back.","They attach the footrest to the frame, then install the platform for the seat.","They assemble those nifty steering levers, which can be moved into 15 positions.","Then they install metal yokes on the front wheels.","They slot the yoke's shaft into the frame rail, securing it with a metal snap ring.","Now comes the front grill, that's vented to protect the engine from overheating.","The rear wheels go on next.","They're more substantial than the front ones because this is a rear-wheel-drive machine.","It's time to mount the mower deck and blades onto the vehicle.","They position it in front and roll the vehicle over it.","The workers activate a lift that elevates the worktable to a height that makes it easier for them to secure the mower deck to the framework.","They attach the belts on the mower deck to the engine.","Monitoring equipment will help them see if this mower's got what it takes to mow down the competition.","They put it in gear and check the wheels to confirm that they turn at the correct speed.","They adjust the transmission if they're not.","They also check the electrical components, and if all systems are go, they complete the assembly.","They bolt a side panel in place, followed by the instrument panel.","And last comes the seat, complete with armrests.","It takes 72 minutes to assemble one of these riding mowers, and it should be good for at least a decade of mowing.","Good thing, because it's workload is constantly growing.","We don't know exactly when popcorn first exploded onto the snack scene, but it was likely thousands of years ago.","Popcorn grains dating back nearly 5,600 years have been discovered in caves in new mexico.","And down through the ages, this unique grain just keeps popping up.","Nothing says it's showtime like a big bowl of popcorn.","This grain has certainly made it big in the entertainment biz.","This success story has its roots on the farm, of course.","Popcorn is one of six types of corn, and it's the only kind that pops.","They even breed the popcorn plant to enhance traits like color, taste, and popability.","By fall, the crop is ready to harvest.","Peeling back the husks reveals kernels that are smaller and harder than those of other corn.","At harvesting, popcorn has moisture content of 16% to 20%.","That's a bit too high.","So to bring it down to 14%, they condition the crop in these giant bins, pumping warm air up through it to accelerate the drying.","It's a critical step.","Popcorn that's too dry may not pop.","And if it's too wet, it could spoil when stored.","In the factory, a series of oscillating screens sift chunks of cob and broken kernels out of the popcorn.","Vacuum pipes pull the finer impurities to a dust collector and suck the larger impurities into a chute.","They end up in a waste bin to be discarded or used in animal feed.","At this junction, the system funnels the filtered popcorn in one direction and the impurities in another.","It's the perfect opportunity to see the difference between the two streams.","The purification process continues at the gravity table.","Its vibrating action, along with powerful fans, cause the popcorn to rise and float on air.","In the process, kernels that are too heavy or too light gravitate away from the center and are shunted aside.","The grains in the middle of the mass are the optimal size, but leaving nothing to chance, they go through one more screening.","The kernels now head into a very different kind of sorter.","Inside, the kernels fly by an electric eye.","It detects remaining debris or defective grains.","The machine sends a blast of air to get rid of them.","It's time to test a sample of the production run.","He pours in a half pound of kernels along with some oil.","As the pot reaches 446 degrees fahrenheit, the water in the kernel starts to steam.","As the pressure builds, those kernels explode and turn inside out.","This reveals the starchy part of the kernel and creates a white, fluffy puff.","To pass this test, the popcorn has to expand 44.5 times the original volume.","The tester loads the popped puffs into a tube with measurements on it, and this bach of popcorn is right on the mark.","As you can see, a little bit of popcorn can really go a long way, from a pea-sized kernel to a puffy, white treat in a matter of minutes.","And although popcorn kernels come in a range of colors, that starchy part that's exposed by popping is always white.","Now it's all in the packaging.","Maintaining the correct amount of moisture in each kernel is critical.","Heat-sealing the bag locks in the grains to keep them from drying out on a store shelf.","This paper bag destined for the concession market, like movie theaters, is multilayered.","It includes a vapor barrier to control moisture loss.","It's taken six months to grow this popcorn and a couple of weeks more to process it.","But it will all be worth it at snack time, because when these grains explode into a mountain of munchies, there should be enough for the whole gang.","Some people enjoy the health benefits that adjustable beds may give.","Others like the built-in massage system that gently rocks them to sleep each night.","Whatever a person's fancy, adjustable beds can be custom-made to suit their lifestyle and total comfort and class.","An adjustable bed helps you sleep with a push of the button.","This convenient hand control easily adjusts the head and foot positions to the contours of your body.","It all starts with a quilting machine.","It sews foam padding, fire retardant material, and two layers of backing together.","Hundreds of thousands of stitches produce a quilted top panel with comfort and style in mind.","A machine cuts the panel to a specific bed size.","The four layers that make up the quilted top panel add luxury and security to the mattress.","Meanwhile, another worker prepares the coil spring.","He covers it with protective netting.","This high-density foam pad comes next.","He staples the pad and netting to the coil spring.","He puts a bottom cover on the mattress and tucks the foam and coil spring inside.","He turns the mattress over, covers it with netting, then staples it.","He puts another high-density foam pad on this side and staples it.","Then he lays down the quilted top panel.","He holds on to the backing layer and staples the top panel onto the spring.","He fills the corners with packing, which gives them a nice, firm edge.","Then he sews the mattress together with the tape-edge machine that uses binding tape and fire-retardant thread.","The tape-edge machine makes a perfect seam all the way around and finishes the mattress.","Next, a length of steel rod goes into a thread-roll machine.","Its threaded rollers use hydraulic pressure to transform the rod into a worm screw.","They put the worm screw and gear assembly inside a casing.","The worm and nylon gears will turn a steel shaft, which raises and lowers the bed.","A worker closes the motor casing.","Another worker assembles the bed's foundation.","He puts flexible nylon hinges between platform boards and staples them in place.","He turns the platform over and staples them again.","He protects the platform with a polyester dust cover.","A worker now bolts a steel frame to the platform.","He fastens a head motor to one of the metal tubes.","To another metal tube, he bolts a foot motor.","Finally, he attaches a massage motor.","Then a worker covers a support fixture with a cotton bed cover.","He puts down four-inch high density foam, then places the fully assembled frame on top.","He pulls up the bed cover and upholsters it to the base.","The bed is ready for its adjustable bed sheets, but not before a final testing for quality control.","Every part must pass a flex test the operator controls.","The paper-protected foundation, the steel frame, and all three motors must allow the bed to rise and descend with gentle, uninterrupted precision-- exactly as it would in the comfort of your own home.","All you need now is a bowl of popcorn, a movie, and perhaps a soothing massage, and then it's lights-out.","Diamonds are a flash of brilliance for mother nature.","Formed in the earth's crust by intense heat and pressure, they're prized for their crystalline beauty.","But now mother nature has some serious competition, because gem-quality diamonds are actually being grown in laboratories.","Diamonds grown in labs are dazzling even the skeptics.","While lower-grade diamonds have long been grown for industrial use, they were more grit than glitter.","But these diamonds have that gem-quality sparkle.","They start with a robotic laser.","It slices slivers from a chunk of real diamond to produce tiny wafers.","They're five millimeters wide and a quarter millimeter thick.","That's about as thin as a human hair.","The laser blackens the diamond, so they place it on a steel block for polishing.","They rim the wafer with epoxy to keep it from sliding around.","This epoxy requires an activator, so they brush it on next.","The chemical reaction causes the epoxy to solidify in seconds to firmly secure the sliver on the block.","They screw the block to a threaded rod that's attached to a metal arm.","They lower the block and its diamond wafer onto a wheel that's swirling with diamond grit.","They apply weights to press the diamond wafer into the grit.","And as the wheel spins, it creates the necessary friction to polish away the grime.","A level confirms the wafer is correctly positioned.","Diamonds are the hardest of minerals, and only other diamonds can effectively polish one.","The difference is impressive.","The diamond wafer has gone from sooty to crystal clear, and now it's ready to grow.","A technician places several wafers on a special metal pedestal using a suction tool.","He arranges them in a uniform pattern, giving them room to expand, because these slivers of diamond are destined for bigger things.","He lowers a metal chamber over them.","Pumps inject hydrogen and methane gas, and the machine heats them to thousands of degrees at just the right pressure.","The gasses form a plasma, which rains onto the diamond wafers and causes them to grow.","After just two weeks, the diamond slivers have grown into stones at least 10 times the original size.","It's quite a transformation.","But these diamonds in the rough need a lot more work to really sparkle.","That dab epoxy onto the tip of a pointed steel rod called a dop and center the lab-grown diamond on the epoxy-coated tip.","Then it's into the laser booth, where the dop is gripped by a robotic arm.","It turns it so a laser can trim the lab-grown diamond from all sides.","The process exposes the crystal clarity of the gem.","A technician checks the quality of the lab-grown diamond with a jeweler's magnifying glass.","Then she lowers it into another polishing wheel.","It's similar to the one that was used to clean it when it was just a sliver.","But this wheel actually contours the grown stone to give it that classic diamond shape.","The process brings out all of its glittering facets.","It's taken just a couple of weeks to grow this diamond.","The process puts geology on fast-forward, because it takes tens of millions of years for real forces to push real diamonds to the earth's surface.","Only very sophisticated testing can separate the lab-grown diamonds from the mined ones.","But since they cost 15% less, you'll notice the difference in your pocketbook."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Traffic Signal Poles","Coffee Filters","Chainsaw Mining Machines"]},"text":["Traffic-signal poles must be strong enough to bear the weight of road signs, street lights, and, of course, traffic signals.","The poles are also built to withstand extreme weather conditions, such as high winds and heavy snow accumulation.","Traffic signal poles are made of high-strength steel.","Years of weather exposure can cause corrosion, so the poles are galvanized on both sides for protection.","Each pole has a welded plate to connect it to a perpendicular pole.","The poles are made out of these steel sheets.","The steel arrives at the factory in one large roll.","They use a decoiler to unwind the sheet and flatten it out.","Then a shear cuts it to the correct length.","A computer-guided plasma cutter marks short lines on both ends of the sheet.","These lines indicate where to bend the flat sheet to form a round pole.","The machine cuts the sheet into a rectangular shape, or a trapezoid shape if the pole will taper at the top.","Workers number the machine lines with chalk, giving lines directly opposite of each other the same number.","Then they transfer the sheet to a bending machine called a press brake.","The press brake bends the sheet along the marked line to a preprogrammed angle.","Workers use a digital measuring device to make sure the first bend is accurate.","If it is, they continue bending along the remainder of the lines, transforming the flat sheet into a multisided round pole.","Now the pole moves to a welding station, where hydraulic rollers apply pressure from both sides.","This forces the edges of the sheet together so that a welding head can fuse the seam with molten steel.","At the same time, the head deposits a granular powder called flux, which prevents air from penetrating the weld and weakening it.","Workers place the pole in a hydraulic press so it doesn't warp as the seam weld cools and shrinks.","Next, a computer-guided plasma machine cuts a connection plate out of thick steel.","The machine also drills holes for the high-strength bolts needed to attach the plate to the traffic-signal pole.","Workers center the connection plate on support plates they've already welded to the pole.","Then they weld everything in place.","Next, workers weld a baseplate to the bottom of the pole.","It has holes for the anchor bolts, which are used for securing the traffic signal to the street.","Workers inspect the welds with a testing device.","It uses an electric current to magnetically draw colored powder into any defective area.","The factory ships the finished poles to a galvanizing plant, where they're dipped in a series of wash tanks.","The plant's tanks are deep enough to fully submerge the poles so they can treat both the inner and outer surface at the same time.","Now the poles go into a vat of sulfuric acid.","This bath dissolves the more stubborn contaminants that washing can't remove.","The next tank contains a chemical that weakens the surface of the poles.","This allows the galvanizing metal to penetrate the steel, rather than sit on the surface.","The final tank contains molten zinc.","As the poles bathe in the 842-degree zinc, workers in fire-protection suits skim the surface to remove iron oxide and ash that floats to the top.","This keeps the freshly galvanized surface clean as the poles are hoisted out of the tank and set aside to cool.","Because they're galvanized rather than painted, these poles are able to support traffic lights, signs, and street lamps for 40 years or more.","In 1908, a german housewife came up with a solution to get rid of bitter-tasting sediment in her coffee.","She punched nail holes in a pot and covered them with blotting paper.","Then she placed ground coffee on the paper and filled the pot with hot water.","It worked so well that she started selling her coffee filters worldwide.","These coffee filters are made of 100% cellulose fiber harvested from slow-growing pine and spruce trees in the forests of southern scandinavia.","The raw material produces paper that lets about 3 ounces of water pass through it in approximately 40 seconds.","That's the optimal saturation rate for producing good coffee.","30% of the paper's cellulose content is left over from earlier production.","The other 70% is raw cellulose fiber.","The materials go into a machine called a pulper, which works like a giant food processor.","It blends the raw materials with hot water, making a fiber soup called pulp.","A paper-making machine spreads a one-inch layer of pulp across a wire-mesh belt.","Water jets cut a straight edge on both sides.","As moisture drains down through the belt, the pulp forms a soggy sheet of paper.","It has a water content of 80%.","All this happens at an astounding pace.","The machine lays down 1,300 feet of pulp a minute.","At the next station, heavy compression rollers squeeze almost half the water out of the paper.","A tool applies a crepe texture.","This increases the surface area of the paper and improves filtration speed.","Next, they use 38 steam-heated rollers to dry the paper completely.","The rollers' surface temperatures are around 250 degrees.","As the finished paper exits the machine, a camera registers the location of holes, dirt, or other defects that have to be cut out.","It takes the machine 45 minutes to produce an 11-mile-long sheet of coffee-filter paper.","The roll is transferred to a cutting machine.","The paper is sliced into two-foot rolls so it can fit in the filter-making machine.","Sensors in the filter-making machine make sure the paper is aligned correctly.","At the machine's first station, tiny needles pierce holes in the paper to enhance the quality of filtration.","At the next station, a stamp imprints the company logo in the paper.","A knife slices the paper in half, creating two side-by-side production lines from this point forward.","Each line enters a folding station, where guides fold the flat sheet in half.","A roller embosses a seam connecting the two layers of paper along the bottom and side.","Then a second roller cuts the conical shape of the filter.","The machine produces 4,000 filters per minute.","The next station cuts the filters apart and collects the leftover paper, which will be recycled into pulp.","The filters are sent to an automatic counting machine that divides them into stacks of 80.","The machine feeds the stacks to the packaging line.","An automated packaging machine aligns each stack with a flattened box.","Then it opens the box with a vacuum and inserts the filters.","If the machine's sensor detects a problem, like filters in the wrong position or missing filters, it ejects that box from the line.","This factory produces a few different types of filters.","How the cellulose is processed in the pulper determines how the filter will perform.","For example, the factory processes cellulose finely to make filters designed to brew strong coffee.","Fine cellulose produces paper that drains slowly, keeping the water and coffee beans together longer, resulting in a stronger flavor.","Chainsaw mining machines are among the largest and heaviest chainsaws in the world.","They're used in rock quarries to cut and extract some of the toughest materials on earth.","The machine's massive blade can make both vertical and horizontal cuts, slicing through hard stone as if it were butter.","Hundreds of feet underground, this monster chainsaw is carving through geological deposits of marble.","The chainsaw arm can rotate to make both horizontal and vertical cuts as needed.","It cuts uniform blocks of marble.","Then a loader extracts the blocks from the rock face.","They're the exact size the customer requested, thanks to the precision and power of the chainsaw mining machine.","It takes several steel tubes of various dimensions to make a chainsaw mining machine.","They use an automated saw to cut the tubes to the correct length.","This one will be used for the chassis.","They assemble the tubes in the correct configuration.","Then a worker joins them with welds.","They lower the completed chassis onto the chainsaw machine tracks.","The chassis is bolted to the fifth-wheel coupling.","This allows the machine to rotate 360 degrees.","They bring in the framework that will house the motors, oil tank, and electrical components.","They bolt the framework to the chassis.","The next part is a rail system for raising and lowering the chainsaw blade.","A worker attaches the rail system to the chassis using a thick pin.","This pin acts as a hinge, allowing the vertical structure to be folded down when needed.","After verifying that the machine's basic framework fits together well, they take it apart for painting.","They also paint the gear motors.","This one will power the carriage that moves the blade back and forth.","Once all the parts have been painted, they reassemble the framework.","Next, they mount the carriage to the front of the machine.","It rotates within the vertical rail to position the blade for cutting.","Workers then install the gear motor that powers the horizontal movement of the chainsaw blade.","They secure it with several bolts.","Two more gear motors will drive the cutting chain and rotate the blade.","The team mounts them to the front of the carriage, to the right of the other gear motor.","At the back of the carriage, a worker assembles a gear known as a pinion.","The pinion engages with a track called the rack.","This rack-and-pinion system allows the carriage to slide back and forth.","A worker folds hydraulic hoses in a long metal cage and bolts the cage to the front of the machine.","Then he connects the cutting-chain hoses to the motor, protecting the connections with metal half-flanges.","They make all the electrical connections...","Then screw fireproof and waterproof covers onto the electronics boxes.","They program the chainsaw machine's operator screen.","Stay tuned, because the big chainsaw blade is next.","Few things are as fierce as the blade of a stonecutting chainsaw machine.","It's 10 feet long, weighs over 1,300 pounds, and has big teeth that make cutting through solid rock look easy.","It's no surprise that making one of these giant blades is a huge job.","A computer-driven plasma flame cuts a large blade from a sheet of high-carbon steel.","Using a crane with a powerful magnet, they transfer the chainsaw blade to a milling station.","Here, computerized tools smooth out the steel.","They also bring the blade to the correct width and carve channels for lubrication tubes.","They drill holes for metal plates that will align the cutting chain.","The team paints the saw and adds an attachment bar, then mounts it to the front of the chainsaw machine.","They slide the bar into the blade support on the front.","It's a critical connection because it bears the weight of the heavy blade as it saws through stone.","They secure it to the blade support with a thick pin and a nut.","Next, they make the cutting-chain sprocket.","A computer-guided tool carves toothlike projections around the rim of a steel disk.","These teeth are designed to grab the links of the cutting chain.","The sprocket is ready to be mounted to the chainsaw machine.","An employee slides the sprocket onto a shaft protruding from the cutting-chain gear motor.","He bolts the disk to the surrounding hub.","Next, they assemble the cutting chain.","A two-part fastener system holds the links together.","It starts with this hollow pin.","A worker drives the hollow pin into a hole in the links using a hydraulic press.","He inserts an l-shaped pin into the hollow pin.","The tongue of the l-shaped pin fits into a groove adjacent to the hollow pin.","The press forces the l-shaped pin into the groove.","He alternates outer links and inner ones to build a 30-foot chain that will fit to the saw body.","Then another worker loops it around the saw blade and sprocket.","The chain fits perfectly to the saw.","He joins the ends of the chain with a hollow pin and an l-shaped pin to complete the loop.","He flattens them with a hammer instead of a press because it's easier to use a hammer at this angle.","The chain is in place, but it doesn't have the teeth it needs to cut stone yet.","These parts, a carrier and a tungsten carbide cutting bit, give the blade its cutting edge.","He places a set on each of the chain's outer links...","Then screws them in.","Studded with tough, sharp teeth, this mega chainsaw is now ready for rock-cutting action.","It cuts through stone cleanly and efficiently.","Its size and power make it a force to be reckoned with underground.","Despite its bulky frame, this chainsaw mining machine has a wide range of motion.","Here, the front carriage rotates the blade to demonstrate how it can be repositioned between cuts.","No matter how you slice it...","That's pretty impressive."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Flight Simulators","Bookbinding","Greenhouse Tomatoes","Hurricane"]},"text":["Most hands-on pilot training occurs not in the air, but on the ground.","The classroom in which this instruction takes place is a flight simulator-- a high-tech replica of the aircraft cockpit.","Through the magic of sophisticated computer software, the simulator mimics the process and feel of flying the aircraft.","The flight simulator can produce darkness or daylight, clear or stormy weather, or an emergency such as engine failure or a runway tire blowout.","Simulators are modeled after specific aircraft, such as a boeing 737.","The simulator manufacturer buys the technical data from the aircraft manufacturer so it can build a cockpit which is an exact replica in both look and feel.","After assembling a steel frame and building the instructor's station behind the cockpit, they mount a sound system beneath the cockpit.","This enables crew communication and produces realistic aircraft and weather sounds.","A computer-driven image generator produces the cockpit view on a large, spherical mirror made of a thin polyester film.","A vacuum pump sucks it flat and wrinkle-free.","The image reflecting on the mirror creates the illusion of the infinite view pilots have in a real aircraft.","The image generator doesn't send the visuals directly to the spherical mirror facing the pilots.","A projector first shoots the image onto a flat, rectangular mirror that reflects the image onto a front projection screen-- that round part at the top.","The image on the projection screen then reflects in the spherical mirror in front of the pilots.","This diagram illustrates how the image travels.","Technicians prepare the cockpit throttles, adjusting the lever tension to be identical to that of the real aircraft.","Inside each throttle, they check the thrust reverser that pilots activate upon touchdown to reverse air flow and stop the plane.","Next come the control panels, with all the buttons and switches to operate everything from the engines to the air-conditioning to the lights.","Next, the motion actuators-- giant legs which move the cockpit.","They attach to a concrete slab with jumbo bolts.","Technicians attach conduits through which electrical cables and air hoses run to the actuators.","The motion is electropneumatic, meaning that air assists the electric motor that moves the legs.","To attach the actuators, technicians activate the brake inside each one.","This enables the leg to stretch far enough to reach the base.","After checking the alignment with this tool...","They insert a pin.","Then they test the movement of the entire apparatus.","The test pilot runs the finished flight simulator through different maneuvers to ensure it performs perfectly.","The image generator is run by highly sophisticated software.","It knows the design of every airport in the world, enabling the instructor to conjure up any scenario imaginable...","Takeoffs, landings, and taxiing at a specific airport, any weather conditions or runway hazards, or any unforeseen events, such as a blackout that plunges the entire airport into darkness.","Faking it doesn't get any more real than this.","Today's books are mass-produced by automated equipment, but before the industry was mechanized, book pages were hand-bound, their covers meticulously hand-crafted one at a time by talented book binders.","This skilled trade still exists, but is now a specialty service.","Book binders are part artist, part restorer, because they craft new bindings, yet also repair originals.","Before rebinding a book, the book binder has to unbind it.","She uses a surgical scalpel to cut the strands of old binding thread.","This separates the covers and the sections of assembled paged, called signatures.","Using a paper cutter, she trims the components just enough to make their edges neat and smooth.","Then she positions the signatures in a vice, sandwiched between cardboard for support.","She draws lines across what will be the spine of the book.","Then she carefully saws a groove in each line.","The groove is just big enough to fit a piece of hemp binding cord.","One at a time, she reconnects the signatures on a sewing frame.","The frame has binding cords that correspond to the grooves she sawed into the signatures.","She sews a linen thread horizontally, looping it around the cords.","A chain stitch on each end links each signature to the neighboring one.","When she's done, she coats the sewn area with glue.","She then lays a thin cloth backing over the glue, then closes the vice tightly to round the back and form joints into which the book's covers will fit.","She perfects the joints using a hammer.","Next, she weaves the binding's headband by wrapping threads around support sticks in a specific pattern.","She does this on both the top and bottom of what will be the book's spine.","Next, by folding and gluing pieces of paper, she constructs a tube the exact width and length of the spine.","She glues the tube to the spine.","Now for the book's front cover.","She layers pieces of cardboard to create a design, then glues it onto a rectangular piece of leather.","She presses the leather against the cardboard with a plastic tool called a bone folder.","Next, she cuts a strip of thick paper the width of the book spine and glues small bands across it.","Then she glues this onto the leather, right next to the cardboard.","Using the bone folder again, she presses the leather down.","After adding a second cardboard for the back cover, she glues and folds over the edges.","Then she makes two swift incisions to remove a triangle of leather.","This produces perfect corners every time.","Next step-- to embellish the cover and spine with gold-embossed decorations and lettering.","She lays down a sheet of genuine gold foil and hot-stamps the design onto the surface.","After attaching the bound pages with leather hinges that match the cover, the book binder applies the finishing touch-- decorative paper on the inside covers.","From such traditional styles to ultramodern fish-skin bindings, it's hard not to judge these books by their covers.","Some of the finest tomatoes come not from the field, but from the greenhouse.","When cultivating tomatoes indoors, producers can strictly control the growing conditions, so greenhouse tomatoes are more uniform in size, shape, and color than field-grown tomatoes.","Some would argue that they taste better, too.","This company grows large cluster type and smaller cocktail-size tomatoes.","It also produces a kit containing tomatoes, a pouch of italian spices, and a bruschetta recipe.","In this hydroponic greenhouse, the tomato plants grow in a substrate rather than soil.","The substrate is a block of coconut-shell fibers that retains and drains water very well.","Greenhouse workers mix fertilizer primarily out of powdered iron and calcium nitrate.","They dissolve these and additional chemicals in water, which they then dilute and store in tanks.","Computerized fertilizer injectors shoot controlled amounts of the solution directly into the irrigation-system water supply.","A new tomato plant takes 30 to 55 days to blossom, then another 8 weeks to produce fully ripened fruit.","Each plant receives up to one gallon of fertilized water per day via an irrigation dripper.","The irrigation system collects whatever the plant doesn't absorb, mixes it with fresh water, adjusts the fertilization, then re-feeds it to the plants.","The task of pollination is left to a resident colony of bumblebees.","The plants grow at an astounding rate of 8 to 12 inches per week.","To train them upright so they won't get tangled with neighboring plants, workers twist each one around a nylon cord every week.","Tomato plants grow to a height of more than 36 feet.","That's taller than the greenhouse, which is why, once a week, workers lower the plants by 8 inches.","The lowering process also lines them up at the same height, which makes harvesting much easier.","The greenhouse temperature is 70 to 77 degrees fahrenheit during the day and 54 to 61 degrees at night.","Artificial lighting simulates 18-hour stretches of sunshine.","Thanks to these controlled growing conditions, greenhouse tomato plants, unlike field plants, are in continuous bloom.","Every week, a new cluster appears at the top of each plant, while a cluster at the bottom is ready for picking.","In its one-year lifetime, a tomato plant yields some 200 large tomatoes or 500 cocktail tomatoes.","As conveyor belts move the tomatoes through the packaging area, workers separate the green ones from the ripe ones.","Each shipping box must contain 11 pounds.","Workers place the box on a tray scale and clusters of tomatoes on digital scales above it.","A computer calculates which combination of clusters would total the target weight, then illuminates the light under those clusters to tell the packer which ones to put in the box.","Once filled, the box is passed through an automated labeling machine.","A camera takes a photo of the configuration, then guides an applicator to slap a code sticker on every tomato.","Besides selling bulk tomatoes in the bruschetta kit, this company packages cocktail tomatoes in two formats-- loose and still on the vine...","Giving greenhouse-tomato lovers a few tasty options.","Hurricane-proof shutters prevent violent winds and flying debris from shattering windows.","Not only can breaking glass cause injury and let winds enter and wreak destruction inside, but the difference between indoor and outdoor air pressure can cause the roof and walls to collapse.","Roll-down shutters move vertically...","Whereas accordion shutters consist of two sections that move sideways.","To make the accordion style, they cut stacks of blades to the height of the customer's window.","Blades are interlocking aluminum strips manufactured for the shutter factory by a supplier.","Workers assemble enough to build two shutter sections that cover the width of the window.","These two sections are called vertical stacks.","They punch holes in the last blade of each stack for a locking mechanism.","These two blades are called center mates because they overlap at the center of the window and lock together.","They slide each center mate into its respective vertical stack.","The next step is attaching nylon bushings and wheels, which ride in horizontal tracks installed at the top and bottom of the window opening.","Each center mate has vertical locking pins.","Activated by a thumbscrew, these pins slide through a hole in the track to lock the shutter open or closed.","The horizontal slats of a roll-down shutter are made of the same material as the accordion shutter's vertical blades.","After cutting the slats to the width of the customer's window, workers assemble enough to cover the window's height.","These slats have a different type of interlock than the accordion shutter blades, but they connect the same way.","The tongue edge of one blade slides into the groove edge of the next.","Nylon locks prevent the slats from disconnecting.","After hammering the locks into place, they crimp the edge of each slat.","The connected slats will later be coiled around a motorized tube inside the shutter's aluminum housing.","A technician installs a ball-bearing assembly in one side of that housing...","Then a safety plate to prevent the slat roll from shifting sideways.","On the other side, they install a plate with protruding screws to which they mount the motor.","Next, they install a safety plate to prevent the slats from catching on the motor's power cord.","On each end of the motor, they fit spacers...","Then, over the motor, a roller tube.","They insert a connecting shaft, which attaches the tube to the ball-bearing assembly on the other side.","All these steps assemble a motorized axle around which the roll of slats will wrap.","Once a quality-control check ensures it operates flawlessly...","They close off the back of the housing with an aluminum cover.","Working from the front of the housing, they rivet plastic rings along the length of the tube.","These help muffle the noise the slats make as they roll and unroll.","Workers rivet slat hangers to the roller tube.","They slide the first slat onto these hangers.","Then they slide the slat roll onto that first slat.","The slat edges run in vertical side rails, which installers mount in the window opening.","Now for a last round of quality-control testing.","Workers lift and lower the shutter in manual mode, as well as by remote control.","When everything works perfectly, the shutters are subjected to one final test to ensure they can handle everything that a hurricane can muster."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Barber Chairs","Sewage Pumps","Bimini Boat Tops","Diesel Filters"]},"text":["The reclining barber chair was invented in america in 1878.","At the time, it was a grooming breakthrough.","With a chair that leaned back and moved forward, the barber could shave the customer with greater precision, and when wielding a straight-edged razor, precision is definitely a good thing.","The barber chair is the original easy chair.","Just sit back and enjoy the recline.","The client doesn't need to position himself for a shave.","The chair does all the moving.","It even lifts and swivels.","Production starts with the base of the chair.","An employee places a flat, round piece of steel in a two-part die.","The die comes together and applies pressure to take the steel from flat to domed.","The domed chair base then spins as an abrasive wheel etches a brushed finish onto the surface.","Next, the worker tucks the end of a strip of steel between rollers and turns them to curl the steel into a sleeve for the hydraulic chair lift.","He slides a piece of plastic into grooves on the ends to close the steel sleeve.","Then he slides it onto the chair lift pump.","He places a large trim ring on the end of the pump and sets the domed chair base on top.","Screws secure the base and chair-lift assembly.","With the assembly now right-side-up, he attaches a u-shaped foot pedal to the pump.","Production then moves to the construction of the actual seat.","The worker glues several sheets of russian birch and staples them together.","She continues to layer until the birch is nearly an inch thick.","The last layer is thick plywood.","It's been cut to accommodate a steel frame.","She glues and staples the plywood to the layered birch.","Then it's into a press for the chair's seat, back, and arms.","It bends the parts to a gentle curvature that will make the chair more comfortable to sit in.","With a hot stamp, the worker brands the company name and logo into vinyl upholstery.","He places the wood chair back into a bed of cushy foam.","He pulls the edges of the foam tightly to the wood and staples it.","He trims the excess.","He covers the chair back with the pre-sewn vinyl upholstery, and it's a snug fit.","Next, he gets a hand from a pneumatic device.","It holds the chair part in place as he staples the upholstery to it.","He trims the vinyl for a clean edge.","He checks the fit, and, once satisfied, he moves on to the chair arms.","He locks an arm in a clamp and installs the chrome end piece.","The chrome resists wear better than vinyl does-- important on this gripping part.","The crew attaches the steel chair frame to the underside of the upholstered seat.","They screw the arms onto the frame.","They install the pneumatic mechanism that makes the chair recline.","They screw the upholstered chair back to the steel frame and link the recliner mechanism to it.","They test the recline and incline functions.","The footrest is next.","They then pump up the lift shaft and transfer the upholstered chair to it.","They close the back of the chair with an upholstered panel, and finally, they give the customer a place to rest his head.","With the headrest installed, this barber chair is ready for customers.","Time spent reclining in it will no doubt leave the client looking and feeling refreshed.","A sewage pump is part of an underground operation to dispose of human waste.","It is essential equipment when sewage must be pumped to a septic system or sewer line at a higher underground location.","Working below the surface, sewage pumps take care of unpleasant business.","When it comes to sewage, people understandably prefer to flush and forget.","The sewage pump helps make that possible.","It is the number-one way to move waste.","When the sewage reaches a certain level upon discharge, the pump's floating sensor activates a switch to start pumping.","Then it's on its way to a septic system or sewer line, ensuring that sewage receives the necessary treatment.","They make the sewage-pump housing from a rugged cast iron.","A chain conveyor takes the housing parts for a rinse and an application of a chemical that slightly etches the surface in preparation for finishing.","The journey continues through a big dryer that removes residual moisture.","The parts now head into the spray booth for a finish that will protect the surface.","The conveyor delivers a negative charge to the parts, causing the positively charged powder finish to gravitate to them.","It completely coats the parts, and they travel through an oven to bake on the powder finish.","Next, workers move the pump-housing units across to a spinning, abrasive disk.","This grinds the edges flat to allow for a tight seal to other parts.","Here's the housing before grinding, and here it is after.","He places a gauge under the part in several places to ensure that it's completely even.","Next, a tool machines the part of the housing that holds the stator, the stationary part of the motor.","It carves the opening so that the stator will fit to it and also align next to the motor housing.","Using a drill press, a worker cuts a thread into another part of the pump.","This will allow it to connect to a discharge pipe.","The parts are now ready for assembly.","A worker presses the carbon half of a seal for the rotor shaft into place.","He lubricates the rotor shaft and inserts it into the pump housing.","A blast of compressed air removes any contaminants.","And he installs the ceramic half of the rotor-shaft seal.","Next, he screws the impeller to the rotor shaft.","The impeller will move sewage from the pumping chamber to the discharge pipe.","He installs an o-ring around the opening to the motor.","He inserts the stator...","And screws it into place.","He connects lead wires to terminals in the motor housing and sets it in place.","He runs the power cord through the motor housing and tightens a seal around the cord.","He attaches a metal guard to give the pump float adequate clearance, then seals the motor housing and wires the pump switch.","He screws the switch case to the housing.","A worker plugs in the pump to test for any shorts in the electrical components.","The pump passes all the tests.","It's ready for the float that actuates the pump switch.","A piece has been cut out of this pump to give us an inside look at the sewage pump and its operation.","As waste water rises, so does the float, and it activates the switch to turn on the pump.","When the sewage subsides, the float lowers and switches off the pump.","Next, the pump takes the plunge in a test tank to ensure that it can handle the pressure and that it meets all the performance standards.","Once the computer gives the sewage pump the green light, it's on its way to a septic system near you.","Built for a life of effluence, this sewage pump is now ready to go with the flow.","There are unofficial claims that bimini boat tops were named for the sun-drenched bimini islands of the bahamas.","The open-sided canvas tops are usually retractable, and beginning in the early '60s, were developed to offer boaters protection from the sun.","Out on the open water, bimini boat tops provide shelter from the rain and shade in the sun.","Their durable and versatile materials withstand rugged sea breezes and intense u.v. rays while providing ample headroom for boaters.","A worker measures a piece of anodized aluminum tubing for the exact leg height needed for each custom-made bimini boat top.","Then he cuts the tubing to the dimension needed for each boat.","They use aluminum and stainless steel because they don't rust.","The worker begins bending the frame of the boat top.","The eventual roof support is on the floor while he holds the leg height in his hand.","He must be careful to not overbend.","The final angle is about 88 degrees.","The worker crowns the tubing, a process that puts a rise in the center of the roof and pulls the legs inward.","Each bimini boat top is made of three bows of different heights.","The front is shorter than the back, while the center is usually about 40% of the back leg height.","Workers now assemble the bows.","They attach eye ends and jaw slides to form rudimentary hinges.","They now unfold the assembled tubing using the precise measurements of a customer's boat.","They simulate the final shape of the boat top by using tape to spread the bows to exact widths.","Once the bows have been spread and the distance is measured, they can see the shape of the final boat top.","All that's left is installing the roof itself.","The roof is made of acrylic canvas that is both water- and fade-resistant.","And there are plenty of colors to choose from.","The patterning process begins.","Once the roof is cut, a worker stitches the roof panels.","Workers spread the cut panels over the bow setup to finalize the roof dimensions.","The canvas fabric is clamped to the bow setup as a worker marks the edges on the outside of the fabric.","The roof is made in panels.","It usually takes two or more panels to complete a roof, depending on the size of the boat.","Once excess material has been trimmed off, the worker begins stitching.","She turns the outer edge of the roof and uses a straight stitch.","She works on the sides of the canvas roof before the ends.","The worker now patterns the listing, which is a pocket through which the bow will be inserted.","Here's what the listing's raw pattern looks like once measured and cut.","She places the finished listing on top of the panel and stitches it to the end of the roof panel.","The stitching process is key to the durability of the boat top.","She turns the roof over so the listing is backwards.","It's actually sewn on inside-out and then turned over.","She stitches the entire length of the listing closed...","Then the company's identification tag.","Workers now insert the pieces of tubing into the listings of the canvas roof.","First, they push the rear bow all the way through.","Once the rear bow is in place, they prepare to insert the center and front bow of the boat top.","They unfurl the remainder of the roof and position the center bow on the center listing.","Gradually, they slide the tubing all the way through the center listing.","With the front bow inserted, the bimini boat top is almost complete.","An employee inspects the boat top for any defects.","Once installed, the bimini boat top can either be tucked away in its boot or opened up and held in place by front straps.","For the life of your boat, a well-maintained bimini boat top has it covered.","Running an engine on diesel fuel is efficient, but it emits smelly, black exhaust, soot, leftover carbon that didn't burn off in the combustion process.","To prevent exhaust emissions from polluting the air, diesel engines and diesel-powered generators need powerful filters.","This self-cleaning diesel filter traps engine-exhaust soot and burns it off by heating the filter elements.","This effectively completes the combustion process.","At the core of those filter elements are heating strips made of steel fiber, which is like dense steel wool.","But the steel is a special mix of alloys resistant to high temperatures and corrosion.","Each heating strip goes into a machine which repeatedly folds it up then down, pleating it like an accordion.","The thick steel fibers are what trap the soot particles as the engine exhaust flows through.","An electrical current heats these conductive fibers, burning off the soot regardless of engine-exhaust temperatures.","Using nickel crimps, workers connect--  depending on the filter size-- up to seven pleated strips per filter element.","They press the crimps securely into the steel fiber with a press.","They attach a different type of crimp at the far ends.","This type has a tab with three holes for the electrical connections.","Next, they bend the assembled strips into a circle and place them inside a perforated steel housing.","A temporary cardboard spacer creates a gap between strips and housing to insulate against short circuits.","The electrical-connection tabs on the ends fit through slots at the front.","An insulating block made of mica, a non-conductive mineral, goes behind the tabs, followed by steel-fiber spacers.","All this sets up a clear and strong conductive path from the power source to the strips.","They fasten the insulating block to the housing.","Then, using tweezers, they place a mica spacer in between each pleat.","This prevents the pleats from touching each other and causing a short circuit as the electrical current passes through the strips.","They place a spacing stick inside each pleat.","This is just temporary, to size the pleat's width uniformly until they're cemented permanently in position.","To do that, workers pour ceramic cement into a circular bottom plate made of perforated steel.","The perforations ensure better bonding.","They spread the cement evenly across the plate...","Then position a stainless-steel tube in the center to connect this plate to an identical plate on top.","They carefully place the strips into the cement and position the top plate...","Then add a weight to hold it down while it goes into an oven at 85 degrees to cure the cement.","45 minutes later, they take it out of the oven and remove the top plate.","They also remove the spacing sticks and cardboard spacer, which are no longer required because the spacing is now permanently set in cement.","They repeat the cementing process with the top plate.","After a final four hours in the curing oven, the electrically heated filter element, this diesel filter's key component, is completed, and the main assembly can begin.","The larger the filter, the more filter elements it contains in its stainless-steel housing.","For this mid-sized model, technicians stack four sets of six elements then connect electrical cables to the tab holes of each one.","Next, technicians install a flow-control valve for each stack.","When activated, the valve reduces exhaust flow to that stack, enabling the system to automatically clean elements by electrically heating the strip.","An internal computer manages the cleaning cycles.","It uses sensors that detect soot accumulation in the elements, isolating and cleaning one or multiple elements at a time.","On the front, techs mount the inlet flange through which the dirty diesel exhaust enters the filter...","On top, the outlet flange through which that exhaust exits soot-free."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Escalator Handrails","Highlighters","Guitar Strings","Wigs"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Escalator handrails...","Highlighter pens...","Guitar strings...","And wigs.","The escalator was invented over 100 years ago as an amusement park ride.","The moving staircase was soon equipped with a moving handrail for safety reasons, but those early handrails were driven by oily chains, leaving passengers with greasy hands.","We get a cleaner ride on today's escalators, and if we want thrills, we try a roller coaster.","An escalator's handrail moves at the same speed as the stairs.","This makes the trip up safer because you have something to hold on to the entire way.","To make an escalator handrail, a machine called an extruder pulls synthetic rubber up into it.","A turning screw inside the extruder forces the rubber through a die the way a pasta maker squeezes out spaghetti.","4- to 6-inch-wide rubber strips roll out into a tank of water to cool because the heat from the extruder could alter their molecular structure.","Now the rubber strips move over rollers that are part of a mechanical measuring system.","There's a little indicator on the roller that gauges the width and thickness of the rubber as it moves across.","Over at the splitter machine, small round knives slice rubberized cotton the same width as the rubber strips.","Then a mechanical puller unrolls material from four different spools.","There are two streams of rubberized fabric-- one stream of the synthetic rubber which came out of the extruder earlier and one of rubberized cable wiring.","They merge and stick together as they travel over a big steel roller.","An unwinder peels away a plastic liner from the now four-plied strip.","Next, a worker places a piece of rubberized fabric and one of synthetic rubber on either side of the four-plied strip.","He presses everything except the strip of rubber around a u-shaped aluminum former.","With a piece of steel, he bears down on the shape so the layers stick together.","Then he brushes tack cement on the outside and pulls that piece of synthetic rubber at the bottom up around it.","He folds the rim down, and, using a hand roller, he seals its edges.","Now the handrail has taken shape, but it's not strong enough, so a worker places it in a molding press.","He positions a steel form inside the handrail so that it holds its shape.","The top part of the mold lowers, and the handrail bakes under high pressure at 350 degrees fahrenheit.","10 to 15 minutes later, the mold lifts, and a chemical reaction called vulcanization has occurred.","The layers have been laminated, and the handrail is now strong enough.","The last step is to trim away the flash or excess material.","Here's the latest way to make an escalator handrail.","A puller unwinds brass-coated steel wires from spools, drawing them, along with thermoplastic urethane and polyester fabric, through the dies of an extruder.","What comes out is a strip of plastic-encased wires and sliders.","The handrail shape passes through measuring devices that check its dimensions.","Now they splice the ends of two plastic handrails together to form an endless loop.","Using a roller, a worker presses the wires and plastic sliders of the inner carcass together.","As he rolls, he blasts hot air into the splice with a heat gun.","This softens the plastic so that it melds together.","He covers it with a piece of thermoplastic urethane and, again, uses a heat gun to join the pieces.","He wipes it clean with alcohol.","Then he heats it up in a mold for a minute or two.","The spliced section melts together, and then cool water hardens it.","There's no seam line where the handrail could break.","It's just one long, continuous piece.","And that's the inside story on the escalator handrail-- something to think about when you're on your way up.","The highlighter pen was invented in the 1960s simply to get your attention.","When text is shaded with transparent, vivid inks in hot pinks or warm yellows, our eye goes directly to it.","Marketers have always known that color has impact, and it's a principle highlighted by these pens.","Highlighters come in lots of shades and colors-- even neon.","This is how a highlighter pen gets its start.","A vacuum siphons plastic pellets into this container.","The red ones will tint the whole mix as it melts inside a heating tube.","A mechanized steel screw pushes the melted plastic into pen molds.","The force applied is equal to the weight of 350 elephants.","Cooled by water, the newly-molded pen barrels spill into a container below.","Now some clear-colored pen barrels drop onto a conveyor track, and ink reservoirs that look like pieces of chalk but are made of polyester drop down a shaft, and a robotic arm thrusts them into the plastic barrels.","The back-end plug goes in the same way.","The plugs fall to a robotic arm, and it pushes them into the back of the pen.","Now a chemist drops a concentrate of dye into a beaker of water.","Just over 1/3 of an ounce or 10 drops is enough to turn it fire-engine red.","A humectant, already in the water, will keep the ink from drying out when it's in the pen.","Next he measures the ink's thickness.","He lowers a steel probe into it, and the probe turns.","A gauge measures the speed.","If the probe turns too fast, it means the ink is too thin.","If it revolves too slowly, then the mix is too thick.","At four revolutions per minute, the ink is just the right consistency.","A vacuum pump sucks the ink into six-inch steel needles, and a robotic arm pushes the needles into the polyester reservoirs, injecting them with ink.","Now we arrive at the next part of assembly.","A combination of mechanical vibrations and compressed air drive a conveyor belt carrying the pen nibs.","The nibs fall into the clutch of a mechanical claw which drops them to a circular pusher.","It shoves the nibs onto the pens, and they interlock.","The impact floods the reservoir inside the pen with ink.","Now it's time to top it all off.","A conveyor transports caps to a mechanical gripper.","The gripper slides them over the nibs.","Over on another assembly line, they're making a three-in-one marker.","A conveyor bowl funnels smaller ink reservoirs into a shaft, and they drop to a robotic arm.","The arm stuffs the reservoirs into the small barrels, and then a needle injects them with ink, quickly saturating the reservoirs with vibrant color.","The next robotic arm shoves a receptacle onto the barrel, and then another robot presses a polyester nib onto it.","A robot now slips a hood-like cap over the nib.","Another mechanical arm suctions up the fuchsia-colored mini markers and transfers them to a triangular case.","Down the line, another suctioning arm picks up a red mini marker and deposits it in the triangle.","A steel probe presses it in.","Finally, a yellow-colored marker completes the triangle.","Now a robot uses an electrical charge to pick up metallic confetti.","When the charge is turned off, the confetti drops into the triangle, adding some glitter.","Next a suctioning robot drops the top part of the triangle onto the lower case, and a metal cylinder presses it shut.","Another suctioning arm carries the three-in-one marker to a conveyor belt which unloads it into a box.","This three-in-one highlighter makes it easier to color-code text-- a different color for each theme.","Now an electrical conveyor moves the highlighters to a mechanical arm.","The arm flips it around, positioning it for the next step.","A squeegee silk-screens a logo onto it.","I wonder how they came up with that one.","Now the highlighters enter an ultraviolet-light chamber.","The light bonds the ink to the case.","And finally, the ultimate test-- plastic grippers guide markers as they make circles.","700 to 1,000 circles means this particular production line will definitely stand out.","Playing the guitar is all about vibrations.","The guitar uses vibrating strings to generate the tones that the audience hears.","Strings under tension vibrate at a specific frequency or pitch, so if the song that you're hearing is in tune, it's because those guitar strings are vibrating correctly.","a good set of strings is behind many a soulful tune.","They're an important part of a guitar's sound.","To make a guitar string, they start with a steel core wire that they examine under a zoom stereomicroscope.","They magnify it 100 times, looking for flaws in the hexagonal wire.","Next, they measure the core wire's diameter with a digital micrometer.","It has to be just the right size.","Now they coil the wrap wire made of nickel-plated steel around posts on the instron testing machine.","This machine stretches the wire until it breaks.","It's a test of its ability to perform under tension.","A computer measures the distance and the amount of load the wire was under before it broke to determine how much tension this string can take.","Now the core wire undergoes a twist test.","They loop the wire onto a hook in a machine called a torsion tester.","It spins rapidly, twisting the core wire until it breaks.","This is a test of the wire's strength and elasticity.","These plastic hoppers are full of ball ends.","This machine is called a ball-end sorter.","Hollow pistons move up and down, selecting one ball end at a time.","This ensures that only those of the proper size will get through.","The ball ends shoot out of the pistons into a bucket underneath.","From here they'll go to the core-string machine.","A mechanism places the ball ends on a pin as they drop from a hopper.","Rollers feed the core wire into a clamping guide which aligns it with the ball end.","Then the pin spins, twisting the wire into a neat loop around the ball end.","This is the twisting action in slow motion.","The core strings with the ball ends now attached drop into a repository.","Then a worker hooks a ball end with its core wire onto the string winder, and he loops bronze wrap wire around the core wire.","A string-winding carriage guides the bronze wire down the length of the core wire as it wraps around.","The electrically powered winder spins the core wire, and it's that action that grabs the wrap wire as the carriage ensures that it gets wrapped neatly.","Computerized sensors monitor the speed that the string is wound at, as well as the tension.","The winder applies a critical amount of tension as it wraps the bronze wiring around the core.","They're bundled up like straw, 144 wires to the bunch.","Guitar strings are also made from nylon.","They hook the nylon core material onto a winder, pulling it down from a big spool.","Next, they loop silver-plated copper wrap wire onto the nylon.","The hook spins, and this coils the wrap wire around the nylon string binding it.","Again, a carriage system, run by an electric motor, ensures that everything falls into place.","A worker removes the strings and hangs them on a rack.","Gravity causes the strings to slide into a station where workers coil them and then place them on a conveyor belt.","Further down the line, another worker puts them in a bag that has a gas-neutralizing barrier built into the plastic to prevent corrosion.","And now these strings are ready for some playing.","Throughout history, wigs were status symbols-- hence the term \"bigwig\".","One early wig-making technique was to use goatskin to simulate a scalp and then hook hair into it with an embroidery needle.","Today, animal skin is no longer used.","These days, wigs can look so real that no one would notice.","To make a custom wig, a wig master measures the client's head from all angles, because heads come in many shapes and sizes.","He wraps her head in cellophane, twisting it just under the earlobes.","Next, he sticks filament tape all over the cellophane wrap.","He layers it four times to make a cast.","He lifts the tape and cellophane cast from her head and places it on a wig block, a head shape made of canvas or wood.","Using a grease pencil, he traces around the cast, making a pattern of the client's hairline on the wig block.","The wig master then cuts pieces of plain blue paper.","He pins it on the wig block within the pattern lines.","The paper will prevent light from reflecting into his eyes as he works.","Now he places a large-sized polyester-and-cotton lace on the block and cuts it to pencilled outline.","He pins a finer lace from front to back, pleating the edges with pins.","He pulls open a drawer full of real and fake hair, and it's hard to tell the difference between them.","He chooses a tail of synthetic hair labelled \"venetian blond\".","Pieces of pink and orange synthetic hair will be blended into the venetian blond tresses to create dramatic highlights.","This is the tool for the job.","It's a giant comb with rows of sharp steel teeth.","It's called a hackle.","The wig master places the venetian blond synthetic hair between the teeth of the hackle and sets the bright pink and orange locks on top.","Now he repeatedly drags the hair through the hackle.","He loses some strands in the comb, but those are usually the weaker ones.","This is called hackling, and the action gets progressively more vigorous.","He twists and twirls the tail as he pulls it through the hackle.","This is actually dangerous work.","One wrong move and he could pierce his hand on the barbed comb.","Once the hair is blended, he cuts it in two.","Then he presses the hair into little metal pins on a leather holding card.","The pins on a top card interlock with the bottom one.","He pulls hair out of the holding cards a few strands at a time.","With a small needle that looks like a fishing hook, he knots the strands into the lace beginning at the nape.","This is called ventilating.","It's very similar to rug hooking.","In fact, it may be why toupees are often referred to as rugs.","Ventilating is labor-intensive.","He spends a minimum of 50 hours knotting the thousands of strands that it takes to make a wig.","Partway into the job, he combs out any tangles and flounces the hair to make sure it moves naturally.","Wigs for film and tv are usually made by hand rather than machine because the result is more authentic-looking.","Because the camera tells all, the wigs need to look as real as possible.","He weaves the front of the wig one strand at a time, because the front hairline always gets the most scrutiny.","Now it's time for the fitting and the transformation.","The wig needs a little styling...","And he trims the ends.","He cuts away the extra lace, and voilà.","She's ready to let her synthetic hair down and get into her new role."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Racing Leathers","Evaporative Cooling Towers","Wood Rocking Chairs","Wire Wheels"]},"text":["With no car frame around them, motorcycle racers look to their clothes for protection.","One-piece suits called racing leathers provide it.","They're made of padded leather, and the design is form-fitting and aerodynamic.","Motorcycle racing leathers are a kind of body armor.","Equipped with padding and airbags, the suit is a protective shell.","It must fit the rider like a second skin.","To achieve this, racing leathers are usually custom made by a team of specialists.","They take over 40 measurements as the racer assumes different poses.","The pattern maker types the measurements into a computer.","Special software creates a pattern for the suit.","She assembles the pattern parts on the screen to ensure they match up and then sends the drawings to a printer.","It prints the life-sized patterns onto large sheets of thin tracing paper.","A member of the team then sprays the backs of the paper patterns with adhesive.","She presses the patterns onto sheets of cardboard.","She cuts out the cardboard following the designs on the paper.","The cardboard backing gives the patterns a more substantial structure.","Before cutting the leather, they clamp a sample in an automated tool that moves it repeatedly across a piece of sandpaper.","This confirms that the leather is strong enough to withstand significant abrasion.","They apply graphics to the patterns to estimate the placement, and then they're ready to cut.","The cutter carves into the white leather with a thin blade.","He follows the lines of the pattern and leaves a generous margin.","The parts will be cut more precisely later.","He transfers the leather panels to a large sheet of paper stretched across the bed of a printing machine.","Light glue applied to the paper keeps the leather pieces in place during printing.","The printer's jets spray designs onto the parts.","It uses inks that have been specially formulated for leather.","The inks start to dry immediately, but they leave the printed leather to set overnight for a full cure.","Next, using a hinged scissor frame, they stretch and expand an elastic fabric.","A member of the team sprays adhesive onto the back of a leather panel.","She presses a piece of kevlar onto the leather, and this reinforces it.","She then places the kevlar and leather panel on the fabric that's still pulled tight in the scissor frame.","She stitches the leather and kevlar part to the stretched material, creating a ribbed pattern.","She now cuts the panel to its final dimensions.","The elastic fabric contracts, causing the leather to pucker into accordion-like folds.","A seamstress stitches the ribbed panel to the back of the motorcycle racing suit.","It takes over 200 parts to achieve the desired shape and fit.","Some of them, like these shoulder protectors, are made of molded plastic and foam.","They're designed to dissipate the force of an impact.","Meanwhile, at a test station, they slam weights into a molded knee pad and measure the energy that penetrates.","Now a member of the team inserts a pair of pads into suit leg pockets and secures them with velcro.","The suit is ready for airbags.","She installs them over the shoulders.","She tucks the microprocessor and gas inflation canisters in the hump.","This is an aerodynamic part at the back of the suit.","She connects the sensors and powers up the airbags.","L.e.d. lights on the sleeve illuminate, indicating that they're operational.","With the leather suit complete, they sew a microfiber liner.","The liner wicks sweat away from the body, making the suit cooler to wear.","The racer suits up and tests the fit, and they make any final alterations.","These racing leathers are now ready for the thrills and spills of the sport.","Evaporative cooling towers keep large buildings and industrial machines cool.","Circulating liquid carries the excess heat to the cooling tower, typically installed on the roof.","The tower uses cold water to cool that fluid, then transfers the heat to the atmosphere through an evaporation process.","Pumps move the fluid carrying the excess heat through the cooling tower's closed-circuit coil.","Nozzles spray the coil with cold water.","The spray water absorbs the heat, and the cooled fluid returns to the building.","Fans blow air onto the now warm spray water to evaporate just enough to release the heat.","Then the cooled water loops back to the spray system, and the cycle repeats.","Depending on the size, the coil is made up of as many as 56 circuits.","A circuit is a zigzagged tube one inch in diameter.","The mill forms a continuous straight tube from a strip of carbon steel.","The rollers progressively curve the edges upward until they join at the top.","The last station on the mill welds the joined edges together to form a continuous seam.","Next, workers transfer the straight tube to a semi-automated tube bender, which forms it into a circuit.","Depending on the size of the circuit, there can be as few as 6 bends or as many as 18.","To make a circuit with 18 bends can require a straight tube that's over 300 feet long.","Once all the circuits are ready, workers stack them on a frame, then weld the tube ends to the corresponding holes of a steel plate.","They close up the plate with a cover called a header.","After clamping the header in position, they weld it in place, forming a pressure-tight seal.","The coil is now fully constructed and ready for testing.","Technicians submerge it in water, then pump air through at high pressure and look for bubbles, which would indicate a leak in a circuit.","If they do find a leak, they either repair or replace the circuit.","Meanwhile, work is under way on the cooling tower's mechanical section.","A computer-guided laser cutter prepares the steel panels that make up the section's rugged structure.","Workers then bend the panels where required with a machine called a press brake.","Then, they assemble the panels to build the structure.","Meanwhile, another team has assembled the mechanical section's ceiling, which houses the fans.","Workers lower this onto the structure.","Inside the mechanical section, they install the belt that links the motor's pulley to each fan pulley.","After tightening the belt screw with an impact wrench, they test the fans.","Meanwhile, the coil has been dipped in molten zinc to make it corrosion-resistant.","Workers mount it next to the cooling tower's mechanical section.","They cover it with a steel housing and install the water-spray system on top of it.","The sprayed cold water absorbs the heat from the fluid circulating through the coil.","The fans then cool the water by evaporation as it flows downward through a bundle of pvc sheets.","The machine first heats the pvc to soften it, then stamps it with the mold plate.","This imprints a proprietary pattern of peaks and valleys.","This pattern is the secret to the evaporative cooling process because it moves the air and spreads the water in a way that maximizes efficiency.","Workers stack the sheets on pole supports to construct a bundle of 300 sheets.","After placing the bundle in a housing, they install it over a basin.","This basin collects the cooled water before it's pumped back up to the sprayers to repeat the cycle.","This completes the cooling tower's lower module.","They now mate it with the upper module, containing the fans, coil, and spray system.","This evaporative cooling tower has more than 300 times the capacity of a typical residential air-conditioning system.","Now, that'spretty cool.","The rocking chair was invented back in the 18th century, when when people first thought of putting skates, or rockers, on the bottom of chairs.","The tilting movement it produces reminds us of a cradle or a rocking horse, which might be what makes rocking chairs so comforting.","These stained jumbo rockers are caned in a herringbone pattern with indonesian rattan vine.","22 pieces of solid appalachian red oak form the frame and the base of these rocking chairs.","To start, the carpenter connects the tenon joints of the stretchers to the mortises of the back frame and hammers them in place with a rubber mallet.","A caner drains a coil of binder cane, which is soaked overnight to make it more pliable while weaving the back and seat of the rocking chair.","She uncoils the rattan vine threads and starts wrapping the back frame from bottom to top.","The wrapping and weaving process for each chair lasts about eight hours and requires about 2,000 feet of rattan vine threads.","When the caner reaches the end of a rattan vine, she fastens a new coil to the first one.","She staples the threads together and closes them tight with a pair of needle-nose pliers.","She continues wrapping the back frame.","She tightens the wrapping around the frame, leaving no gap between the cane strands.","She then tucks the final strand underneath one of the rails.","She now starts the weaving process moving from left to right, using the wrapping as a base grid for the pattern.","Each thread passes over three, then goes under three.","She turns the frame over to weave the back of the frame in the same fashion.","The challenge is to keep the weaving straight and sleek to give it the classic herringbone finish.","A carpenter attaches side stretchers to the front posts, which are already assembled to the front rounds.","He hammers the pieces in with a rubber mallet and assembles the seat frame with the back posts.","There's no need for glue.","The seat caning will solidify the rocker's structure.","A caner uses the same rattan vine that was used on the back to wrap the seat frame.","He makes sure there are no gaps between the strands of cane before he starts weaving the herringbone pattern.","He weaves the over-under pattern in the center of the seat, where there's more slack in the wrapping.","Then he pushes the threads up with a wooden wedge to tighten the caning as much as possible.","Straps reinforce the structure of the chair before the seat frame is caned.","To ensure authenticity, a carpenter brands the left armrest of each chair with the original branding iron used by the company since 1875.","He hammers the armrest into the back post.","Then he aligns the spokes of the front post with the hole in the armrest.","A clamp keeps the back and front post aligned while he inserts the armrest.","A wooden wedge in the spoke prevents the armrest from disconnecting from the front post over time.","The carpenter hammers it in with a steel hammer.","The wedge replaces the need for glue and ensures a snug fit between the armrest and the front post.","The carpenter secures the armrest to the chair by drilling a solid brass carriage bolt through the back post.","With a belt sander, he levels the wedge and front post with the armrest and makes it smooth to the touch.","Before the runners, or rockers, are assembled to the base, the carpenter stains the chair.","The oil-based stain protects the wood and brings out the natural grain of the solid oak frame.","The stain is then sealed with two coats of clear varnish that will endure high humidity levels, sun, and climate changes.","The carpenter assembles the runner to the base and measures the distance to the front post.","This ensures an even rocking movement on every chair.","He fastens them with brass carriage bolts.","The finished chairs will endure the test of time and provide comfortable seating options for both indoors and outdoors.","Wheels with wire spokes ruled the highways until the 1970s, when they were replaced by cast alloy ones.","But factories still make wire wheels for the classic car market and for drivers who want to use them to customize their ride.","Wire wheels suspend the weight of a car with flexible metal spokes arranged in a specific geometric pattern.","They start with an aluminum alloy disc.","A factory worker clamps the disc in a metal spinning machine.","This machine shapes metal as if it were a piece of clay.","It spins the disc at a high speed, while a series of tools press it to a round form.","It takes 20 minutes to transform the flat disc into a wheel rim, complete with a bead for the tire.","The process also causes the metal to undergo molecular transformation, and it becomes stronger.","After polishing, a worker moves the rim under a tool that punches dimples in it.","The dimples will accommodate nuts that will be used to secure the spokes.","He drills into the dimples to create holes for attaching the spokes.","He angles the holes slightly so that the spokes sit correctly.","He stamps the wheel's design number and other identifying information into the outer edge of the wheel rim.","By now, the wheel's steel centerpiece has also taken shape.","An employee turns it for even spacing, as a tool repeatedly punctures it.","This creates rows of small holes in both the inner ring and outer flange.","He then drills those holes larger to prepare for the spokes to be assembled to the part.","At the next station, a worker inserts spokes into a press that bends its ends with hooks.","The angle of the hook varies depending on the part of the wheel the spoke is to be assembled to.","He adjusts the settings on the press to achieve the different bends.","Then it's over to an automatic blade that cuts the spokes to length.","This also varies.","They cut outer spokes longer and inner ones shorter.","He now places the ends of the spokes in a device that rolls them against a cutting block.","It carves threads in the metal in mere seconds.","With the spokes now hooked, cut, and threaded, the wire wheel is ready for assembly.","The employee hooks the appropriate spokes into the holes in the centerpiece.","He places the aluminum rim around the centerpiece.","He attaches the threaded ends of the spokes to the rim using steel nuts that fit into the tapered holes.","He screws them loosely into place.","He configures the spokes in a criss-cross geometric pattern, specified by the engineers.","This pattern is designed for strength and flexibility, but it also gives the wheel a visual appeal.","Once he's laced all the spokes from the centerpiece to the rim, he tightens the fittings.","This secures the assembly, but it's not the final torque.","They now transfer the loosely assembled wire wheel to a shaft and turn a crank to lower the centerpiece within the rim.","This brings the spokes into the correct position, and a worker tightens them substantially.","All 72 of them.","He does the final tweaking by hand.","Seven hours in the making, this wire wheel is now ready to roll.","With the rubber tire attached, he secures the wheel to the car using a single large nut.","It's called a knockoff nut because you simply knock it off to change the tire.","It's just one of the things that makes the wire wheel a classic choice."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Halogen Bulbs","Cellulose Insulation","Aluminum Ladders","Bamboo Fly Rods"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made\"...","Halogen bulbs...","Cellulose insulation...","Aluminum ladders...","And bamboo fly rods.","Halogen headlights are an example of technological progress.","The halogen bulbs throw cool, white light that mimics daylight, illuminating the road ahead.","And because they're energy-efficient, they don't burn out too often.","That's a plus when you're trying to keep your eyes on the road.","To make a halogen headlight, mechanical jaws load three lead wires into a machine.","A gripper moves in and bends the wires at the bottom.","Meanwhile, a conveyer system feeds little glass rods to a burner.","The softened glass is now pressed under either side of the lead wires, encasing them.","Next, a welding head fuses tungsten coils to the lead-wire assembly.","The coil is the filament, the part of the bulb that emits light.","Over at another station, a mechanical arm loads a glass tube into a machine head.","A burner aims a flame at the center to soften it up.","Then mechanical heads pull the glass at both ends as the burner continues to fire heat at the middle.","This creates a neck in the tube.","Now mechanical arms position the coil-and-lead-wire assembly under the newly shaped glass tubes.","Grippers lower the glass tube over them so they sit under the neck.","Burners move in and encircle the glass at the bottom, softening it.","Then a press seals the glass around the lead wires, which protrude from the bottom.","Next, a test-- an electrode sparks the lead wires.","When the capsule illuminates, it means there's ambient air inside that would interfere with the bulb's function.","Vacuums at the top of the bulb suck out all the air and contaminants.","Then nozzles spray liquid nitrogen onto the bulb.","This freezes it inside and out, creating a pressure difference.","That change in pressure pulls halogen gas into the bulb from a chamber above.","Allowing no time for the gas to escape, burners heat-seal the bulb at the neck.","The bulbs then cool as they move on a transfer chain.","Grippers now load the bulbs into another machine.","A pusher moves up and snaps a steel retainer around the bottom of each bulb.","Meanwhile, another machine builds the base for the bulb.","It pushes electrical contacts into the plastic receptacle.","This is the view from the bottom.","These prongs will eventually connect the headlight to the vehicle.","Next, jaws flip the bases.","They load them onto a tray on tracks.","The tray delivers the plastic bases to a mechanical arm that installs metal retainers on each one.","The bases slide forward, and the machine inserts the glass bulbs into them.","But it's a loose fit.","This machine aligns each bulb to its base.","Jaws tilt and slide it into place, then a laser welds it together.","This alignment is critical.","Coils for the low-beam and high-beam mechanisms must be precisely positioned for the headlight to project the right light.","Next, a series of claws pick up the bulbs.","They dip them in an opaque coating.","It's called blacktop because it only covers the tops of the bulbs.","This will direct light out of the sides of the bulb.","Now it's time to take these headlights for a test-drive, so to speak.","A bracket holds them down while probes underneath energize them to make sure they work.","A plunger places a gasket around the base.","This will seal the headlight capsule to the automobile.","And now they're ready to guide you on your nighttime drives.","Insulation keeps your home warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer.","One type of insulation material is cellulose fiber made from recycled paper.","It's derived from a natural source, wood fiber, so it's nonpolluting.","It contains no asbestos, no fiberglass, and there's no formaldehyde in it, so it doesn't emit any gases.","Like other insulation materials, cellulose fiber has to meet strict government safety standards.","One firesafety test assesses what's called smolder resistance.","The company lab weighs a sample from the production line, then inserts a lit cigarette in it.","Once the cigarette burns out, which takes an hour or two, the lab weighs the sample again.","The weight loss must be less than 15%.","How they make cellulose insulation isn't very complicated.","It all begins with recycled paper delivered in bulk.","Workers load it onto a conveyor belt, and from that point on, the entire process is automated.","The paper first goes into a machine called the primary mixer.","It separates the bunched-up pieces, preparing them for shredding.","The machine's powerful magnet removes staples, paper clips, and any other pieces of metal.","From there, the paper goes into a shredder, which rips it into pieces about 2 inches long.","The factory mixes the shredded paper with boric acid, a natural compound that acts as a fire retardant.","It also makes the insulation pest-resistant, and it helps fend off mold, wood decay, and corrosion.","Now a machine called a fiberizer shreds the paper into tiny pieces only about 1/8 of an inch long, and it mixes them with more boric acid.","From the time the recycled paper arrives by truck to the time it comes off the line as cellulose-fiber insulation, only about five minutes have passed.","But the insulation doesn't leave the factory before undergoing thorough safety testing.","This test assesses what's called open flammability.","They heat the insulation to 122 degrees fahrenheit to represent the temperature of a roof in the hot sun.","Then they ignite it.","The flame travels but then dies out, thanks to the boric acid.","If that happens within a certain distance, the insulation is safe.","Outside research firms also test the product for safety to independently corroborate the results of the company's tests.","The automated packaging equipment blows 25 pounds of insulation into a bag, at the same time compressing the fiber into a block.","Some types of thermal insulation come as thick rectangular blankets known as batts.","You install them by hand, fitting them snugly between the wall studs.","Cellulose fiber doesn't come in batts.","It's known as loose-fill insulation.","A professional installer has to inject it in between the walls.","By spraying it under pressure, it fills all the spaces without any gaps, something that's hard to do with pre-shaped batts.","Insulating performance is referred to as r-value.","The higher the r-value, the more effective the insulation.","Cellulose-fiber insulation has a higher r-value than loose-fill mineral-fiber insulation and, depending on which statistics you're looking at, has either the same r-value as loose-fill fiberglass or a higher r-value than fiberglass.","Cellulose fiber is denser than other materials, so it better resists air movement, making it less likely to move out of place after installation.","The aluminum ladder is very convenient.","Lightweight and sturdy, it makes any ascent easier.","Back in the 1930s, wooden ladders were the standard but were extremely heavy and difficult to position.","The use of aluminum took things to a whole new level.","For a ladder to really hold up, the aluminum needs to be strengthened with these ingredients-- silicon, magnesium, manganese, and copper.","It all goes into an enormous furnace.","It takes a crane to transport a hopper full of aluminum over to the furnace.","The hopper opens at the bottom to unload.","A worker opens a door at the front of the furnace.","He wears a face shield to protect him from the blistering 1,300 degrees fahrenheit.","He adds the other ingredients, and the heat turns it all into a liquid mass.","The liquid flows out of the furnace into troughs.","It seeps through holes in the troughs to molds in the ground.","The liquid cools and hardens in the molds.","This makes log shapes that are almost 23 feet in length.","A hydraulic lift extracts them from the molds and slowly takes them to the next station.","You wouldn't want to rush this job.","Each log weighs about 1,100 pounds, and dropping one could do serious damage.","A saw cuts them into pellets.","The size depends on the type of ladder being made.","A mechanical lift delivers a heated pellet to an extruder, and a ram pushes it into the opening.","They move the die plate into position.","The ram forces the hot pellet through the holes in the die plate.","This makes a rail shape about 130 feet long.","A puller drags the rail onto a table and leaves it to cool and harden.","Then a circular saw slices it into manageable lengths--  19 1/2 feet.","Operators feed each end of the ladder rail to jaw systems which pull it to make it completely straight.","The straightened rails now move on to the next station, where they rivet plastic feet onto the ends to keep the ladder from slipping.","They stick safety information onto the rails.","And now they assemble the ladder one step at a time.","Workers fit each step in the rims of the ladder rails.","They rivet them into place.","This will be the front of a light-duty stepladder.","They install a diagonal brace...","And turn the ladder over to rivet the steps from the other side.","It's a little more reinforcement.","Then they build the backside of the stepladder.","They rivet the sturdy blue plastic top onto the front and back pieces, joining the two.","They install a spreader, securing it with rivets, as well.","And now this stepladder is ready to provide a little elevation.","For a lot of elevation, they make extension ladders.","They use round rungs for greater strength.","They feed each rung to a coining machine, which tapers the ends.","Another machine presses aluminum ferrules on rings onto each end.","This allows the rungs to fit snugly into slots in the extension ladder's side rails.","Hydraulic arms reach from above and below to press-fit the rungs into the side rails.","Finally, workers rivet rubber pads onto the ends of the rails.","This provides a firm footing for the ladder.","These ladders are now complete.","And if you're on your way up in the world, they'll come in handy.","The bamboo fly rod is a classic.","The split-bamboo rod has been around since the early 19th century, and for many years, it was the only kind of rod available.","These days, synthetic rods abound, but bamboo still holds a traditional appeal to those that like to fish the old-fashioned way.","Going fishing?","A bamboo rod is considered a work of art in fly-fishing circles.","To make one, a craftsman toasts a bamboo pole on an open flame.","He holds it close to the fire, but not too close-- one false move, and he could scorch it.","The goal is to turn the bamboo a golden brown.","He pounds a wedge into the toasted bamboo and drives it down the length of the pole.","He pulls the pole apart, splitting it in two.","Then he continues to split the bamboo, making strips that are less than a half-inch in width.","He grinds down the bumps on the exterior of each bamboo strip using a belt sander.","Next, it's over to the milling machine.","It tapers the underside of the bamboo strip, beveling it to a 60-degree angle from end to end.","The tapering is a critical step that will affect the rod's casting performance.","Each strip has to be perfect.","The rod maker inspects them for flaws...","And then fits six together in a hexagonal configuration.","He wraps them with cotton twine to hold them together very loosely at one end.","Then he dips the bamboo strips in a tank of thermosetting glue.","He feeds them to a twining machine which binds the strips tightly together.","It's a temporary wrap--  a kind of clamp to hold the pieces together while the glue dries.","The pieces are now laminated into one, but the result is never perfectly straight, so the rod maker heats it over an open flame.","The heat softens the bamboo so he can smooth out the kinks.","Next, he glues ferrules made from nickel silver onto the laminated bamboo pieces.","This tubing will be used to connect the tip and butt pieces of the rod.","The butt section now turns on a lathe while a blade cuts into it.","It's slimming down sections to accommodate the handle and reel seat.","He slips on the walnut reel seat and then slides cork rings onto the rod to make the handle.","He glues each ring.","It takes 12 to 14 to make a handle for the typical bamboo rod.","It will allow for a soft, nonslip grip.","Once the glue hardens, he shapes the cork on a lathe.","He sands it to give an even finish.","Next, he heats glue over a flame.","He applies the hot glue to the stainless-steel tip and sticks it on the narrow end of the rod.","With black india ink, he inscribes the model and serial number onto the rod.","Now they coat it with varnish, using a turkey baster.","He hangs the rods to dry.","It will take three coats to give them a nice gloss.","After that, they wind silk thread to attach the steel guides to the rod.","They're the loops that the fishing line will go through.","They brush three coats of varnish onto the string.","This solidifies the wrap...","And fuses it to the rod.","They slide a ring onto the reel seat.","It provides a little separation from the cork grip.","They fit the butt and tip pieces of the bamboo rod together and do a final inspection.","It has taken 40 hours to make this bamboo fly rod.","But it shouldn't take you that long to catch the big one."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Ski Goggles","Tower Cranes","Porcelain Figurines","Diesel Engines"]},"text":["Fog and blinding snow can obscure the view from the top of a ski mountain, but a good pair of ski goggles can add some clarity to the situation.","They shield the eyes from the elements, and certain lenses add contrast in low light to allow the skier to see the bumps and dips ahead.","Goggle lenses come in different tints to adjust for specific weather scenarios.","They start with this injection molding machine.","The operator sprays a nonstick substance into the mold and closes the door.","The machine sucks up urethane pellets, then melts them into a thick liquid to mold into goggle frames.","It takes just seconds for the shape to harden.","A worker clips away unwanted bits, and then he's ready to give these goggles a more graphic look.","He immerses the cellophane-like material, printed side down, in a mix of water and solvent.","A chemical reaction lifts the graphic design off the film and suspends it in the liquid.","He sprays solvent on the other side to both activate a bonding agent and dissolve the film.","He then immerses a rack of goggle frames in the floating graphic.","The surface tension of the water causes the graphic pattern to wrap around the frames, and the bonding agent makes it stick.","This technique is called hydrographics, and it's a good way to transfer a pattern onto a three-dimensional surface.","He washes away any paint or dirt from the surface of the frames.","A clear lacquer is the finishing touch.","For an understated look, there's always monochromatic white.","A worker applies glue around the vents of a pair, then presses foam onto them.","The foam will keep snow out of the goggles but allow air to be vented to prevent fogging.","She applies thicker foam around the perimeter for a weather-tight fit on the skier's face.","Once the straps are installed, the goggles are ready for the latest innovation, a microelectronic fan.","It will pull warm, humid air out of the goggles to further of the goggles to further prevent fogging.","Prevent fogging.","He screws the mini fan to the frames and listens to it spin to confirm its operating correctly.","Next, a machine cuts shapes out of polycarbonate to make lenses.","Then, this special press applies heat to bend the lens.","This shape will make it easier to secure the lens to the frame, and it also reduces optical and it also reduces optical distortion.","Distortion.","Production now moves to this liner-backed foam with precut lens patterns.","The worker peels off a strip to expose a goggle-shaped strip of foam.","She then presses a colored lens onto the strip.","High-strength adhesive on the foam bonds to the lens.","She pulls away the rest of the material, leaving that narrow ribbon of foam.","It will serve as spacer between the outer-colored lens and an inner clear one.","The space between the two lenses is a buffer zone to prevent condensation buildup and fogging.","Now they shoot a steel pellet at a randomly-selected pair of goggles.","It doesn't shatter, which means it will effectively shield the skier's eyes from sharp objects like tree branches and ski poles.","It's time to snap the dual-layer lens to the frame's molded groove.","A u.v. mirror coating has also been applied to protect the eyes from the sun's rays and reduce glare.","These goggles have everything covered, leaving the skier free to focus on the thrill of the to focus on the thrill of the ride.","Ride.","A tower crane moves building materials up to construction crews working above the ground.","The operator's cabin is near the top.","Just above that is the jib, which hoists the load and trolleys it back and forth.","The jib and cabin rotate on a turntable called a slueing platform.","A crane's tower is modular, meaning the more tower sections installation crews add, the taller the crane.","At the crane factory, workers construct the slueing platform by welding together huge steel plates and square tubes.","Welders also fuse sections of ladder to sections of safety cage.","Then they weld each ladder and cage unit to a tower section.","Throughout the assembly process, robots perform the simpler welds.","Once all the crane's structural components are welded, they go to the paint shop for an anticorrosion primer, then a top coat of paint.","After each application, the part dries in an oven for about an hour at 175 degrees.","The slueing platform sits on a turning mechanism that consists of two concentric rings with ball bearings in between.","Computer-guided machines grind teeth on the outside and grooves on the inside in which the bearings will ride.","After lubricating the grooves, workers install the outer ring around the inner one.","Then they fill the groove with steel balls and high-strength plastic spacers.","This allows the outer rim to revolve smoothly around the stationary inner ring.","The operator cabin is made of steel panels.","It's integrated into the slueing platform.","The cabin's large windows enable the operator to view how the jib is maneuvering the load.","The crane's controls are built right into the cabin seat.","The seat itself is designed to be as comfortable as possible because you can't step out of because you can't step out of the cab to stretch your legs.","The cab to stretch your legs.","A motorized gear rotates the slueing ring which rotates the slueing platform, supporting the crane's cabin and jib.","The factory's computer-guided machining equipment makes all the parts for this gear as well as for the gears which enable the jib to hoist and trolley the load.","Workers assemble the slueing gear and mount the motor that drives it.","Then they connect the slueing gear to the slueing ring and mount the ring on the slueing platform into which they've platform into which they've installed the cabin.","Installed the cabin.","An automatic greasing system keeps the ring's teeth lubricated as it rotates the platform.","After an extensive test, they install the tower head on top of the cabin.","Now this entire slueing unit goes off to the construction site.","After anchoring the crane's base, the installers use a mobile crane to mount the slueing unit on the tower and the jib onto the slueing unit.","Then they add tower sections to build the crane to the required height.","An elevating device lifts the slueing unit, clearing enough space underneath to insert an additional tower section.","They connect the tower sections with giant high-strength bolts.","Then, repeat this procedure until the crane is as high as it needs to be.","Once the crane is fully erected, the operator climbs the tower ladder up to the cabin.","As he works, he observes what he's doing through the windows.","He also watches a computer monitor which displays how the jib is hoisting, trolleying, and depositing the load.","He can communicate with the ground via phone or walkie-talkie so things are walkie-talkie so things are never left up in the air.","Never left up in the air.","Europe is renowned for producing magnificent porcelain figurines even though it was the chinese who first invented the art.","In 1718, the first european factories began making ornate porcelain objects, which quickly became a status symbol among the nobility.","This viennese palace is home to europe's second oldest manufacturer of handmade porcelain.","Following photos of a subject, a modeler sculpts a three-dimensional figure out of clay.","Not only must he include all the intricate details, he also has to make the model 14% larger than the final size because porcelain shrinks during the firing process.","He uses the model to cast a master mold out of plaster.","From the master mold, he casts a plastic mold and from that, plaster production molds with which to cast the figurines.","In its raw form, porcelain is a paste which contains water, the minerals feldspar and quartz, and white kaolin, a type of clay.","They water down the paste into a liquid called slip, then pour it into the plaster production molds.","The plaster immediately begins drawing out the water, causing a firm layer of slip to form against the mold cavity.","They pour out the remaining liquid.","When the slip layer is finally thick enough, they open the mold and carefully extract what is by now a figurine with fine details.","More complex figurines are cast in parts, each in its own mold.","The modeler carefully touches up each casting, scraping off seams and fine-tuning the details.","Then, he assembles the parts, using a slip to stick them using a slip to stick them together.","Together.","It's critical to keep the figurine hydrated because if it dries out even slightly, it will crack during firing.","The figurine goes through two main firings.","The first time at over 1,700 degrees-- hot enough to harden the porcelain but also keep the surface porous so the glaze will adhere.","They inspect and dust the fired figurine then stamp it with coat of arms in cobalt-blue enamel.","The mark as described this brand of austrian porcelain since 1744.","Then they dip the figurine in glaze-- a mixture of water and several materials, including quartz, feldspar, kaolin and ground-up porcelain.","Then, into the kiln again, this time over 2,500 degrees.","This bakes the glaze to a glassy finish and further hardens the porcelain.","The figurine exits this firing about 14% smaller as the remaining moisture has evaporated.","Once it cools, they begin decorating the figurine.","Using a variety of fine-tipped pens and brushes, an artist paints enamel onto the glazed paints enamel onto the glazed surface.","Surface.","Between paint applications, depending on the number of colors and intricacy of color blending, the figurine undergoes as many as six minor firings at 1,500 degrees.","This melts the vitreous ingredient in the enamel fusing it with the glaze.","The end result is rich, permanent color that never fades.","Despite its delicate appearance, porcelain is nearly as strong as steel when under compression, but it's not nearly as resistant to impacts, so when handling these magnificent works of ceramic art, a good grip is ceramic art, a good grip is highly recommended.","Highly recommended.","Drivers looking for greener cars, but with more powerful acceleration than hybrids deliver, can opt for a vehicle that runs on diesel.","Today's diesel fuel burns as cleanly as gasoline, yet diesel-powered cars are 30% more fuel efficient than gas-powered cars, meaning they consume less fuel and, therefore, pollute less.","The secret behind this car's powerful diesel engine is a turbocharger.","It compresses the air entering the engine's combustion chambers filling them with a greater quantity of air.","The more air, the better the fuel burns, generating extra power.","The engine assembly begins with a v-shaped block with two sets of three cylindrical holes called cylinders.","Robots first mount a retaining frame to support the crankshaft.","Each cylinder will contain a piston that moves up and down with the combustion cycle.","This piston motion will turn the crankshaft which, in turn, will move the whole vehicle.","But first, a laser-beam device hones the cylinders.","The laser's heat melts the surface of the inner walls, smoothing them.","This ensures the pistons will move with minimal friction.","Meanwhile, a robot oils up the crankshaft's main bearings.","Then, once the cylinder honing is done, workers install the crankshaft at the bottom of the engine block, locking it in position with a retaining frame.","Now they flip the engine block right side up to install the pistons, which are already attached to connecting rods.","Once all six pistons are in, they turn the engine block upside down again and fasten each connecting rod around the crankshaft.","Next, they connect the chain drive to one end of the crankshaft.","The chain drive operates camshafts that open and close the valves on top of the cylinders.","Those valves are located in these cylinder heads, four valves per cylinder-- two through which air enters the combustion chamber and two through which exhaust exits following each combustion cycle.","Workers flip the heads upside down and insert long bolts.","Then they position the heads over the cylinders, aligning the bolts with holes in the engine block.","Robots drive in the bolts to a specific tightness.","This caps each cylinder, closing its combustion chamber.","Next, workers install a fuel injector into special shafts in each cylinder head.","Injectors shoot a specific amount of fuel into the combustion chambers at precisely the right time.","These cutting-edge piezo injectors do that multiple times per cycle rather than just once, making the combustion process much smoother.","The engine, therefore, is quieter and pollutes less.","The next component is the air-intake manifold.","It goes on top of the engine.","Air enters on the left and, as this animation shows, runs to the intake valves on top of the cylinders.","It's time to install this engine's secret weapon, the turbocharger.","It contains two turbine wheels that spin at nearly 200,000 rpm.","One turbine compresses air entering the air-intake manifold.","The other draws out the hot exhaust and sends it out the car's exhaust pipe.","The turbocharger sits at the rear of the engine block in the \"v\" between the cylinders.","Over at the testing department, technicians analyze the engine's performance, in particular, its torque, which determines how much power the engine can produce.","Next, the engine goes into a test vehicle which runs through specific driving cycles that simulate both highway and city conditions, all the while collecting the emissions exiting out the exhaust pipe.","This test insures that the engine meets or exceeds all the engine meets or exceeds all the emission standards.","Emission standards.","Not only does the turbocharger give the car better acceleration, it also solves a common problem in high-altitude regions, where decreased atmospheric pressure slows down nonturbo engines.","Because turbocharging compresses the air going into the engine, even at high altitudes, the car even at high altitudes, the car drives at full power.","Drives at full power."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Commercial Drones","Aquarium Fish","Runway Cleaners","Shuttlecocks"]},"text":["A commercial drone is a small, unmanned aircraft with an onboard camera it can capture a bird's-eye view of the ground, collecting up-to-the-minute data useful for many types of applications.","They're used to plan infrastructure projects, overseeing natural resources, or manage farmland.","Spanning about five feet and a half in diameter, this commercial drone is known as an octocopter it has eight rotors, which enable it to maneuver in the air like a helicopter.","The drone's components are made of carbon fiber, a highly stiff, strong, and durable material carbon fiber is also lightweight, a critical factor in aviation.","Computer-guided milling machine cuts the parts.","A technician manually sands their edges smooth.","This component is half of one of the drone's legs.","The mill also cuts out the top and bottom frames for the drone's body.","Technicians then assemble the two halves of each leg.","Some of the drone's components are produced by a 3-d printer, the printer builds each part layer by layer out of a thin stream of plastic.","This is one of the drone's eight arm receptacles.","A technician bores the hole where the arm will be fitted.","The hole must be precise to ensure a secure fit.","After verifying its diameter with digital calipers, the technician installs the back part of the receptacle and the lever that clamps the inserted arm firmly in place.","He attaches an electronic speed controller to one end.","Then, he screws the receptacle to the bottom frame of the drone's body.","The wires coming out the other end of the controller connect to an electrical power harness and to the autopilot.","The autopilot is the onboard computer that runs the drone.","He installs the seven remaining receptacles, then the power harness.","It has eight connectors, one for each electronic speed controller.","Next, he attaches the top frame, then the payload mount that holds the camera and hard drive.","He links the payload mount to this servomotor, which is guided by the autopilot.","The drone's body is protected by a cover.","Workers mount a sheet of plastic on a vacuum former machine.","They start up the machine's heating element and position the plastic just beneath it.","This gradually heats the plastic to a malleable state.","Once the plastic is soft, they position a wooden mold on the machine, activate the suction, then drop the sheet onto the mold.","The vacuum draws the plastic tightly against it.","They let the vacuum-formed plastic to cool and harden, then carefully trim off the excess they cut out a rough opening for the payload mount through that opening, they secure the cover to the computer-guided milling machine, which finalizes the shape to precise specifications.","Once the cover is finished, they install it on the top frame.","They attach the four legs to the bottom frame.","Then, they install the camera on to the payload mount.","The mount pivots to angle the camera at the ground.","They insert and clamp the arms into the receptacles.","Each arm is a carbon fiber tube with a plastic rotor that's driven by a small motor underneath.","Upon inserting an arm, its motor makes contact with its electronic speed controller.","They also install the autopilot, the autopilot executes the programmed flight path and operates the camera, the servomotor that moves the payload, and the electronic speed controllers.","The drone operator can communicate wirelessly with the autopilot using a remote control.","But it's more common to program the gps coordinates of the drone's route prior to takeoff.","Aquariums have been around for hundreds of years.","Even now, having a body of water in a glass box seems like magic.","The most common aquarium fish is the goldfish, domesticated in china more than 1,000 years ago.","Goldfish are a type of carp native to asia.","They tend to be silver or gray in color.","But ancient chinese breeders took advantage of orange and yellow mutations to breed a gold-colored fish.","Like all fish, aquarium goldfish start life as eggs.","To start the breeding process, a worker separates the males from the females.","Telling the girls from the boys can be difficult.","But if she finds eggs, there's no question.","It must be female.","The eggs fall to the bottom.","This facility harvests around 1,000 eggs a day.","Adding oxygen helps the eggs mature.","A week later, the eggs hatch.","The hatchlings are called fry.","By the second week, they're little fish.","Not all of them are the typical orange color even after centuries of breeding, many of them are still silver and gray.","As the fry increase in size, workers must transfer them from buckets to larger holding tanks.","This facility sells fish at different stages of growth.","Here, a worker selects a particular size to sell.","Once the selection process is complete, she transfers the selected fish to a bag for transportation.","She adds air so the fish will have enough oxygen during transport.","A worker tosses dry food into a series of ponds.","Each pond is roughly 100 square feet and holds about 500 fish.","The food provides the nutrients needed for growth.","A worker checks the fish tanks for signs of illness, such as parasites or fungus.","He carefully portions out and adds a liquid known as methylene blue.","It's an anti-fungal treatment.","These 1-year-old fish are a different type of carp known as koi.","Koi were first bred in japan for their color and pattern variations.","A worker isolates a quantity of koi with a specially designed shallow net.","This allows her to select the right-sized fish to bag for sale.","The bagged fish await transport to the market.","It's time to prepare the bags of goldfish for shipping.","A worker empties a batch of them into a netting suspended in water.","A team of workers sort through the goldfish.","They select the fish that meet the size criteria and use spoons to transfer them to a bucket.","To prepare fish for shipment, workers dip them in a green solution.","They then rinse them in clear water before bagging them again.","The green solution contains a specially calibrated medication that helps reduce stress during transport.","Next, a worker adds air to the bag, ensuring the fish have plenty of oxygen while en route.","The fish have been double bagged for protection.","A second worker squeezes out some of the oxygen so the bag won't take up too much room, then seals the top of both layers.","A packer carefully loads four bags into a styrofoam box.","The box provides a rigid casing to protect the fish while insulating them against temperature fluctuations during transport.","This facility also sells whole aquariums already populated with fish.","A worker inspects a row of aquariums, assessing the size and quality of the fish while checking for any signs of disease.","The facility sells 50,000 fish a week, or to two million every year.","When a plane lands, the tires burn rubber that melts into the pavement.","This can make the runway slick when wet.","Special cleaning machines ensure that the runway is always clean and clear for takeoff and landing.","They blast off the rubber streaks, then suction the rubber bits into tanks.","A runway-cleaning machine is a serious power washer.","It pressurizes hot water to at least 20 times the force of the average power washer.","The spray heads are designed specifically for blasting away aircraft tire rubber that's melted into airstrip pavement.","They ensure airports are a safe place to land.","Making one starts with the hydraulic motors that spin the sprayers.","A technician inserts a shaft that will hold the spray bar into a motor unit.","He installs sealing cylinders to prevent hydraulic oils from leaking.","He tops the assembly with a metal plate.","The plate serves as a base for thrust bearings, which he installs next.","Ceiling caps complete the thrust bearing assembly.","A computerized test system now measures the motor's torque and the flow of hydraulic fluids.","The system also simulates the force of the highly pressurized water to confirm that the thrust bearings will keep the motor stable.","A powerful water-jet tool carves through steel to produce the components for the arm that holds the runway cleaner's spray heads.","A worker then fits the steel plates together.","He welds the seams to create permanent bonds.","And this completes the stray arm's structure.","After the arm has been sandblasted and painted, they hoist it to the front of the runway-cleaning truck.","They attach it with large, zinc-coated steel bolts.","A worker then mounts hydraulic motors to a long, wheeled bracket.","He removed the sealing caps before this installation to make it easier.","Once the motors have been secured to the bracket, he replaces the caps.","He attaches the wheeled bracket to the spray arm and installs metal shrouds for the sprayers.","They have fringes of nylon bristles to contain the spray.","He fastens rotating sealers to the hole in the center of each shroud to keep out dirt and water.","He screws the spray bars to the shafts that extend from the motors.","The nozzles are made of sapphire, a tough mineral that can withstand the force of the pressurized spray.","The next worker runs vacuum hoses to the shrouds and connects them using cam and groove couplings.","The sprayer assemblies are now complete.","The team lowers a large gearbox between the frame rails of the truck.","They bolt it to the rails.","This gearbox will transfer power from the truck engine to a high-pressure pump and the vacuum.","The pump and vacuum systems have been assembled into one big module.","A technician tests the belt and pulley that will connect to the gearbox.","It's in good, working order, so they cover the system with steel casing for safety reasons.","This module is ready to be assembled to the runway cleaner truck.","It weighs 2 1/2 tons, so a crane does the heavy lifting.","Workers then build a tank that's as tall as they are.","This tank will contain the rubber bits vacuumed off the runway, along with the water used in the cleaning process.","Once it's been painted, they assemble it to the chassis next to the clean water tanks.","Moving inside the truck cab, a worker installs controls for the runway cleaner's operation.","One console has a joystick for manipulating the position of the spray heads.","Other switches are for the operation of the water pump and vacuum.","Runway cleaners can also be used to erase painted lines when landing strips need to be reconfigured.","Just adjust the nozzle size and forward speed, and, like the rubber streaks, the lines disappear.","People have been playing games with shuttlecocks for millennia.","In the mid-19th century, the british created the game badminton, in which players hit a shuttlecock back and forth over a net.","Made of feathers and cork, the shuttlecock predates badminton by thousands of years.","Many people are familiar with the plastic shuttlecocks used for badminton games in backyards everywhere.","But serious players use the original feathered shuttlecock.","This facility uses duck feathers to build their shuttlecocks.","Workers start by aligning them with the feather side up and storing them in cups in preparation for the next phase of production.","Having the feathers aligned makes it easier for a worker to feed them, one by one, into a specialized sorting machine.","This device has 26 different sensors that measure each feather.","The feathers must be a specific size and have a precise angle.","The machine sorts feathers of the same size and angle into different bins.","Sometimes, the sensors are unable to measure certain feathers, those feathers fall into a separate bin.","A worker uses a special chart to measure them by hand.","The tips of these shuttlecocks are made of cork and synthetic foam covered with white leather.","It's time to start assembling the shuttlecocks.","Each shuttlecock has 16 feathers, which must all be precisely the same length.","The punching machine begins the assembly process.","It starts by punching 16 holes in the perimeter of the shuttlecock tip.","The worker feeding the feathers into the device must keep pace with the machine.","A worker uses flat-nose pliers to adjust the angle of each feather.","She then places the shuttlecocks inside a miniature wind tunnel to see if they're properly balanced.","On some shuttlecocks, each feather might have a slightly different angle to maximize balance.","Once the angle of the feathers has been adjusted, they're transferred to a machine that applies a bead of glue around the interior perimeter of the shuttlecock tip.","This secures the feathers in place.","To further stabilize the feathers, workers place them in a specialized sewing machine that binds them securely together with two rows of thread.","The threads stitch each feather to the next.","This process strengthens the shuttlecocks, helping them maintain their shape even when they're getting slammed back and forth over a net.","When the machine has finished stitching a shuttlecock, a worker ties off the thread to keep it from unraveling and cuts off the excess.","Finally, she evens out the thread rows.","With the threads in place, the shuttlecocks must undergo a final tuning.","A worker once again adjusts the feathers to ensure proper balance.","A machine applies glue to the threads on the shuttlecock, locking them in place to give them the necessary rigidity.","The thread is made to quickly absorb glue.","A worker applies a green strip, which indicates a slow-speed shuttlecock.","Medium-speed shuttlecocks get a blue strip.","Fast ones are red.","It's time for quality-control testing.","A machine equipped with a racket-like arm fires the shuttlecocks to a waiting worker.","Shuttlecocks can travel at speeds as high as 300 feet a second.","That's twice as fast as a pitcher can throw a baseball.","Once the shuttlecocks have passed the quality-control test, a worker inserts 12 at a time into long cardboard tubes similar to those used to hold tennis balls.","With its 16 feathers, it's no wonder the shuttlecock is also known as a birdie.","These high-quality products are ready to fly."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Stuffed Olives","Astrolabes","Western Saddles"]},"text":["Several millennia before it ever adorned a martini, the olive and its oil were central to many ancient economies.","Today, olives remain as popular as ever.","Not only are they tasty, they're also healthy, low in calories and cholesterol and high in dietary fiber and iron.","Olives are inedible unless they're pickled.","These gourmet olives are stuffed by hand with all kinds of fillings, from almonds to garlic cloves, even blue cheese.","Straight from the field, they go into barrels of brine.","For nine months, they ferment.","Their hard and bitter flesh becoming softer and sweeter.","Then it's on to a conveyor that takes them to the cleaning area, where workers remove leaves and other debris.","Next, they drop on to a belted conveyor.","The openings between the belts gradually widen.","As an olive reaches an opening exceeding its width, it falls through into a barrel below.","By the time the olives reach the end of the conveyor, they're all sorted by size, from small to extra large.","The next stop is the pitting room.","The first phase of the pitting operation is a spinning drum with olive-sized pockets lining its perimeter.","As the drum rotates, an olive settles into each pocket.","This lines them up so that they exit the drum in a line onto the conveyor that transports them to the pitting machine.","The machine pits 900 olives per minute.","Let's slow it down to show you what happens.","A coring knife enters one end of the olive, pushing the pit out the other end.","As the pit exits, it creates a hole that's just the perfect size for the stuffing.","Next, a quality inspection.","Workers weed out any olives that aren't perfect.","Then it's off to the stuffing department.","These beauties are being stuffed with pickled garlic gloves.","The stuffer cuts the gloves into hole-sized pieces, then inserts one piece into each olive.","It's the same procedure with other stuffings, such as jalapeño peppers, sun-dried tomatoes, habanero peppers, onions, almonds, and more.","Workers empty the baskets of stuffed olives onto a table of empty jars, spreading them around until every jar is full.","On their way to the capping machine, the open jars pass under nozzles that fill them with fresh brine.","An air jet blows off just a bit to help the cap go on easily.","From there, it's into the capping machine, which twists a lid on each jar, heat-sealing it for an airtight fit...","Then stamping on a lot number for tracking purposes.","Finally, the jars head into a machine that rolls on an adhesive label.","The brine serves as a natural preservative, giving these delectable gourmet olives a two-year shelf life.","In the middle ages, navigators looked to the stars and planets to find their way, and for that, they relied on a scientific instrument called the astrolabe.","Using this instrument, they could measure the angular distances between celestial objects to calculate latitude.","It was the medieval equivalent of gps.","Today, craftsmen still make astrolabes to celebrate their place in history.","Without it, columbus may not have discovered the americas in 1492.","Back then, astrolabes were hand-forged and hand-engraved.","Today, these instruments take shape in two-part rubber molds and closed in a metal drum.","The operator ladles molten pewter into the mold through an opening in the drum's lid.","Inside, the mold spins, forcing pewter into every part of this astrolabe plate, complete with geometric engravings on both sides.","He molds the dial and pointers the same way.","He slices off excess pewter.","It will be remelted and reused.","He then sands the ragged edges of the plate for a smoother circumference.","Next, he pours an acidic liquid onto the astrolabe plate, which blackens the pewter.","He swishing the blackening agent around to ensure it covers every surface completely.","He places the blackened plate in a barrel full of gritty, plastic cones, soap, and water.","As it revolves, everything tosses about inside to scrub the surface of the astrolabe plate, believe the engraved designs black.","This process adds definition to the markings.","In columbus's time, they would have used a pumice stone and a lot of elbow grease to achieve this effect.","Next, the astrolabe plate goes for a tumble with bits of ceramic to buff the pewter to a glossy shine.","Against the shiny pewter backdrop, the geometric markings now stand out.","Clearly visible on the front is a map of the sky and the zodiac calendar.","And on the back, the mathematical scales are now clearly defined.","The elaborate dial undergoes the same processing to enhance its celestial engravings.","He now inserts a brash bushing in the center hole of the astrolabe plate and twists it into position.","This bushing will act as a pivot for the dial and pointers.","Once the dial is in position, he installs a pointer on each side of the plate.","These pointers can be turned like the hands of a clock, and the user measures the angle of the stars and planets in relation to the horizon to calculate his location.","He caps the bushing with a screw on one side and a nut on the other.","He secures the assembly with a specific amount of torque to allow the dial and pointers to move freely.","He slips a metal ring through the top hole of the astrolabe so this instrument can be linked to a chain if the owner wishes.","He spins the dial and pointers to confirm that they don't snag on the outer lip of the instrument.","Centuries after its heyday, this incredible instrument still fascinates.","The amount of information that can be gleamed from holding it to the sky is astounding.","More than latitude, the astrolabe can be used to tell time, determine seasons, and predict the future with horoscopes.","Of course, it takes a basic understanding of geometry and astronomy to use it.","To the trained eye, this astrolabe now reads 1:00 p.m., proving that this instrument from another era can still provide up-to-the-moment information.","In the american wild west, cowboys spent long days in the saddle, which could leave them too sore to ride off into the sunset.","And that led to the development of the western saddle.","Large and sturdy, this saddle was modeled on the type used by spanish conquistadors, and it made chasing cows a less painful experience.","Today, riders still saddle up western-style, which is more relaxed than english-stile, with the reins held in one hand instead of two.","The contours of the saddle seat are more pronounced for added comfort.","A western saddle also has a horn for looping rope, called the lariat in cowboy lingo.","It starts with the saddletree, made from laminated wood covered in sections of rawhide.","An artisan cuts out the saddle skirt and other components using a hydraulic press.","He cuts the saddle seat by hand with this tool, called a head knife.","The seat gets special attention because it's being custom-made for a particular horse.","He shaves the edges of each cut out so it can be tucked neatly onto the saddletree.","The technique is called skiving.","He brushes glue on the leather section that fits around the stem of the saddle horn.","Then he works it into position, creating a lip around the horn's top.","He presses the horn cap onto the leather-rimmed top, then crimps the edges together.","He collects tacks with a magnetic tip of a hammer, then pounds them through the leather cap, securing it to the wood.","A thick leather cutout hides the nail heads.","He carves a groove around the top of the horn and punches holes through the leather.","This will make it easier to sew the layers together.","He uses two needles to interlock the stitches.","This secures the cap and gives the saddle horn a tailored look.","To complete the horn, the saddlemaker trims away excess leather with a special forked blade.","Now the artisan builds up sections of the saddletree with strategically placed strips of leather.","He skives away some leather to improve the form.","Then he places a leather-backed piece of tin over the built-up areas and nails it down.","This part will add strength to the seat.","He continues shaping the seat, then shaves the edges to blend it to the saddletree.","The seat area gets one last leather buildup and some intensive skiving and sanding.","Next, he glues the nail's leather around the base of the horn-- an area called the swells.","He then applies leather to the back of the seat, called the cantle.","After cutting away surplus leather, the artisan uses this edging tool to trim the skirt.","This makes it smooth so it won't chafe the horse or the rider.","Another worker immerses the saddle seat in warm water.","This makes the leather soft and pliable, allowing it to be shaped.","He drapes the seat around the built-up saddletree and straps it down.","As it dries, it hardens into the shape of the tree.","He shapes the back section of the seat separately and pins the wet leather to dry to the form.","Then he glues the whole seat to the saddletree.","But there is much more to be done before it's ready for ranch duty, so stay tuned.","A western saddle serves an important function, but it also sports elaborate artwork engraved in the leather.","This custom goes back to the wild west, when a saddle was a status symbol and ornate art and decorative silver signified that a cowboy was riding high.","The saddlemaker now shapes the seat right up to the back of the cantle.","He crimps the edge to build up a part called the cheyenne roll.","He maps out its precise dimensions with a compass...","Then trims the part following his scratch line.","With a wooden dowel, he again presses the leather seat to the saddle's contours for a final shaping.","He sews through four layers of leather to finish off the cheyenne roll.","The thread is an artificial sinew-- a superstrong nylon that makes the seam virtually indestructible.","The focus now moves to the leather saddle skirts, as an artist engraves a floral design.","The artist uses a wide range of tools with expertise, like this one, called a back rounder, which he uses to carve recesses around the design.","A spray of water softens the leather, making it easier to engrave.","Next, he installs metal plates on either side of each skirt.","They're part of the saddle rigging, which will be used to secure the saddle to the horse, so it's crucial that these plates be firmly entrenched in the leather.","He secures each plate to the skirt with several rivets, then rounds them off, getting rid of any sharp edges that would irritate the horse.","The saddlemaker then brushes glue on the back of the skirt to attach a leather part with a rear cinch ring riveted to it.","Here, he glues and rivets the top part to this skirt to the main section.","He arranges a piece of sheepskin facedown...","Then glues the back of the saddle skirt to it so the woolly side will rest against the horse.","This part is all about the horse's creature comfort.","The saddlemaker sews the skirt onto the sheepskin using a machine with a heavy-duty needle.","He then trims the excess sheepskin following the line of the leather skirt.","To remove some of the bulk, he shears the wool, tapering it around the edges.","Next, he braids leather lace into a tight weave called latigo lace.","It ties both halves of the skirt together and will later be used to fasten the skirt to the saddle.","He pulls the lace under the weave to secure it.","Next, he applies a generous amount of glue to a leather stirrup cover.","The stirrup is meat of oak, steamed into a \"u\" shape and then reinforced with galvanized tin.","He presses leather into the crook of the stirrup.","Then he bolts a metal spacer into the top.","Now it's time to attach the saddle skirts to the tree.","He threads cinch strings through the cinch keeper and nails it to the saddle.","Another worker now rubs special oil into this western saddle to add color to the leather and preserve it.","The oiling also exposes the grain of the leather and highlights the engraved designs.","From start to finish, this western saddle has taken 40 hours to make, but the modern cowboy should get plenty of mileage out of it."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Rice Cookers","Concealment Furniture","Promotional Origami","Hedge Shears"]},"text":["Preparing rice in an electric cooker is easier than cooking rice on the stove.","You throw in the rice and water, press a button, and walk away until it's ready.","This machine is designed to steam rice to perfection.","Rice cookers use indirect heat to circulate steam around rice and water, from the outer pot to an inner pot.","This process cooks the rice evenly in half an hour.","To cast the outer cooking pot, aluminum ingots are melted in a furnace.","A robotic arm scoops up the required amount of molten aluminum with a ladle...","Then pours it into the top of the mold.","It takes the metal four minutes to cool and solidify.","Then technicians extract the pot from the mold.","To refine its form, the pot is mounted on a computer-guided lathe.","As it spins, several machines contour the pot's outside surface to its final shape.","Next, the pot is loaded onto an automated drilling machine.","The machine punctures 18 holes through the bottom.","The rice cooker's heating components and its painted steel shell are attached to the outer pot through these holes.","Then the pot is returned to the computer-guided lathe.","A tool polishes the interior until the aluminum is smooth and bright.","A disk of stainless steel is placed in a press.","The press molds the steel into the inner cooking pot.","The next press trims off any excess metal around the top, leaving a clean and even edge.","Another machine curls that edge to form a rounded lip.","The lip strengthens the pot and provides a place to grip when the inner pot is placed into the outer pot.","Once polished, the pot is placed in another press.","This press stamps water-level lines on the side and a trench on the bottom.","The trench helps the water evaporate quickly.","Next, an automated booth paints the rice cooker's steel shells.","The shells are baked in an oven for 15 minutes at 390 degrees fahrenheit so that the paint can set.","With a pad printer, the company logo is applied to the shell.","Technicians install part of the switch mechanism to the shell.","Another technician places the heating element in a slot on the bottom of the outer pot, securing it with three clips.","They install two connection plates used to attach the steel shell-- a porcelain plate and a magnetic core.","The core controls the on/off switch based on the temperature inside the cooker.","The technician connects the power cord and attaches the thermal-insulation sheet, which allows the cooked rice to maintain a temperature of 158 degrees fahrenheit.","This part of the switch mechanism hovers over the magnetic core.","When the cooking temperature hits 158 degrees fahrenheit, the core activates the switch to turn off the heating element and start up the thermal-insulation sheet.","After more switch wiring, technicians install the fuse, which prevents the cooker from overheating.","One end is connected to the heating element, the other end to the power cord by the porcelain plate.","The painted steel shell is attached to the base of the outer pot.","Once attached, each connection plate is secured with screws, then handles are installed.","Finally, every rice cooker undergoes a temperature test.","After starting the machine, the cooking temperature is measured with a thermometer.","Once approved, the cooker is packaged with a cover and perforated insert for steaming other foods.","To use the cooker, you put rice and water in the inner pot and water in the outer pot.","In under an hour, the heating element turns off, and the insulation sheet kicks in to keep your rice warm.","One way to keep personal valuables secure and safely out of sight is by storing them in concealment furniture.","This custom-designed home decor allows you or your family an understated place to store and lock a number of items.","This seemingly ordinary bookcase has a few surprises.","Behind it's decorative medallion is a hidden release for side pullout compartments.","And inside the lower section is a wireless keypad which unlocks a drawer.","This company handcrafts various items, from dressers to mirrors to wall art.","Each piece of furniture is customized based on the customer's wood, finish, and storage configuration.","To create a valance at the top of a bookcase, a planer levels a piece of wood to its required thickness.","A computer-guided router carves designs into the wood and cuts out the shape of the medallion.","Next, the medallion is attached to the valance and release device through three slots at the center of the valance.","This is one of the side pullouts after assembly is complete.","Like the valance components, the router carved the design on the front panel.","A craftsman uses an electric sander on the pullout's side panel which has no carving.","All the decorative details are sanded by hand.","The craftsman assembles the second side pullout.","A laser engraves the company's name and logo on the inside of the side panel.","The craftsman measures and marks where the pullout's bottom and top panels will be placed.","Glue is applied into a groove running the length of the fluted front panel.","Then the side panel is inserted into the groove and the parts are clamped together.","The bottom and top panels are glued at the pre-marked points and secured.","All the wooden components of the bookcase are glued to each other.","Three temporary boards in between the top and bottom panels keep the structure square while the glue dries.","Next, a craftsman assembles the top of the bookcase, attaching the base and sides, back, top, the valance, and crown molding.","The customer selects the color of the finish.","Painted on by hand, the stain takes up to an hour to dry.","A craftsman sprays on a coat of vinyl sealer.","Once the sealer dries, the surfaces are sanded and two coats of fast-drying lacquer are applied.","The craftsman sands the wood between applications.","Next, the hardware is installed.","A technician attaches the drawer slides for each side pullout...","Bolts in the lock for the hidden release device, and secures a triangular latch to the pullout.","Then a long rod is inserted.","This connects the locks to the release so when you slide the center medallion right or left, it pushes the rod against the pullout lock, popping the latch.","The corresponding drawer slides are attached to the pullout.","The triangular latch, which releases the pullout, goes in the top front corner so that it aligns with the lock.","Once the pullouts are installed, they form the sides of the upper section of the bookcase.","These sections are now useable, sturdy storage compartments.","The next step is to connect the rod to the center medallion.","The craftsman bolts a rectangular piece of metal to the medallion through the valance's top slot, connecting the medallion to the valance through the other two slots.","A large opening on the top of the bookcase provides access to the device should it ever need repair.","Once joined with the lower section, the bookcase, like this china cabinet, is ready for double duty.","Often associated with japanese culture, traditional origami is best known as the art of paper folding.","It dates back to at least the 17th century.","Today, marketing companies are engineering origami for promotional use, creating materials with more impact than your standard brochure.","Open this invitation, and an interesting scene unfolds.","Based on strategic marketing research, nontraditional invitations and three-dimensional paper structures can attract more interest.","A specialist known as a paper engineer replicates an ultrasound machine in origami.","The paper engineer breaks down the design into flat parts to be printed and folded into modular pieces.","Guided by a digital design, a machine cuts and scores a thick sheet of paper in the shape of the engineered origami parts.","Later, the scored shapes will be punched out and assessed.","The design will need tweaking before the pieces of paper ultrasound are ready for mass production.","Next, the designer folds the cutouts and glues them together, creating the base of the ultrasound.","This particular module is a test build to confirm that it folds correctly and will fit to the other parts of the mini paper replica.","The designer makes more prototypes and adjusts some of the parameters.","He builds the undercarriage and wheels out of chipboard.","These elements support the paper modular structure.","Each part is labeled accordingly.","The designer constructs the final prototype, checking that the seams are tight and that all the parts are in perfect alignment.","Once structurally sound, the designer starts building the graphic details.","He refers to photos of the prototype and compares them to the flat screen image.","When complete, the artwork is printed, producing a proof.","The proof is a test copy of the artwork.","The areas to be glued or cut out are printed in green.","This is done to indicate that no ink or coatings are needed during the final printing.","The technician does an initial check to confirm the quality of the print and that all the art has been properly placed.","Then, the designer and the production supervisor evaluate the proof.","They confirm that the lines correspond with those of the cutting die by comparing folded modules to the flat proof.","This step ensures that when the artwork is printed for mass production, the cutouts will fit.","Adjustments are made to any problematic areas of the proof.","Once the artwork is complete, the revised artwork is printed and scored by a digital cutter.","This computerized cutter is only used for test purposes.","A cutting die will be used for mass production of the origami parts.","Technicians insert the cutouts in the corresponding parts of the die.","This step confirms that the lines are correct and are ready to go to print.","Machines may mass produce thousands of printed and die-cut sheets, but it's up to the assemblers to fold and glue the modules together.","The assembler starts with a base, followed by the articulating arm for the ultrasound screen.","The arm fits into a slot in the base, which can be lifted and lowered.","The assembler attaches the control panel to the lower part of the arm.","He installs the folded ultrasound screen on the top and inspects his work.","Weeks of design and planning have gone into this moment.","Now assembled, this piece of promotional origami can be packaged and mailed to targeted recipients.","Hedge shears have long steel blades that hold a sharp edge.","They're essentially a serious pair of scissors.","Used by a skilled gardener, they can cut a large area of vegetation with one stroke.","Needless to say, hedge shears can truly change the landscape.","Taming an unruly hedge or garden often calls for sheer strength.","That's why, for many gardeners, hedge shears are a go-to tool.","To make hedge shears, technicians cut out the blades from carbon steel using a die cutter.","The steel uncoils and travels over a roller conveyor, sending it to the cutter.","The die cutter stamps out multiple blade blanks.","Once the steel advances, the die cuts the next batch of blanks, cutting a hole in the center for the assembly of the shear blades.","A technician arranges the blade blanks on a conveyor heading to the oven.","The blanks bake at 1,470 degrees fahrenheit.","This heat treatment is the first stage of the hardening process.","Another technician exposes the cutting edge to the heat.","This makes the edge a little stronger than the rest of the blade.","The technician submerges the blade in oil to bring down the temperature, which completes the hardening process.","A grinding stone removes the dull, gray layer on both sides of the blade.","This gets rid of scorch marks, and it brightens the finish.","Then the grinder cleans and sharpens the blades.","Before the grinding, the hedge-shear blade looked lackluster, and its performance would have been dull.","The grinding has given the blade a sheen and a cutting edge.","Next, technicians install a rubber bumper device on the blade's stem.","The rubber will cushion the force of the impact created as the shear blades come together.","Another technician joins the blades with a pivot bolt and nut.","This connection allows the shears to swing toward each other.","A team examines the blades to confirm they're engaged properly and operate smoothly.","If needed, they adjust the interface by bending back the blades.","This tweaking can be critical to the functioning of the hedge shears.","Then the shears are placed in a fixture, and the device press-fits telescoping handles onto the tangs.","An inspector tests the telescoping action to confirm that the handles extend and retract effectively.","Other technicians slide plastic gripper sleeves onto the ends of the handles.","It's an initial installation.","The gripper sleeves will need to be pushed further up the handles.","A mechanical pusher shoves the grippers into their final position.","It's a press fit--  no glue or screws required.","The tips of the hedge shears are dipped in an anti-rust solution and placed on a rack to dry.","Then a worker rubs the solution residue into the steel.","The shears undergo another inspection, which checks the interface of the blades one last time.","The technician tweaks the angle of the blades and tightens the pivot bolt.","A label is pressed on the shears, providing product information and safety precautions.","The hedge shears undergo a final inspection.","Once cleared, they are packed for shipping.","These hedge shears should hold up to years of trimming, cutting, and pruning.","Without them, gardens might look a lot wilder."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Audio Vacuum Tubes","Light Bars","Wood Model Aircraft","Metal Snare Drums"]},"text":["When it comes to sound quality, audiophiles swear by amplifiers which contain vacuum tubes to boost and modify the electrical signal.","They were the norm until transistors came along in the 1950s.","Many audio enthusiasts still prefer tube sound, which they find warmer, richer, and more natural.","once standard in radios, phonographs, and televisions, today you see vacuum tubes only in very high-end audio equipment.","They come in an array of models designed to perform specific sound-enhancing tasks.","Technicians at this czech factory first wind wire a precise number of revolutions with a very specific degree of tension.","Then they clean the surface and weld it to a support structure.","This completes the grid, one of the tube's main components.","Next, technicians take the second main component, the cathode, and insert it into the grid.","When the sound signal enters the tube, the cathode produces a flow of electrons.","The grid controls that flow as it travels to the third main component, the anode.","The anode's top secret black coating increases the effect of the electrons hitting it, causing the anode and cathode to have two different voltages, both of which are greater than that of the original signal.","This makes the signal larger and more powerful, meaning it amplifies the sound.","With those three components now assembled into one unit, the inside structure of the tube is complete.","Now for the bulb, which will encase the unit.","A glass blower skillfully crafts it out of hard, laboratory-grade glass.","Using a high-temperature torch and glass-making tools, he melts the open end and seals it off.","Then he blows in a bit of air to shape the end into an evenly rounded dome.","Now he mounts the bulb on a lathe to complete the shaping.","Keeping the glass evenly heated, he blows in just enough air pressure to keep the bulb from collapsing inward.","When the glass reaches just the right temperature, a die presses against it, setting the final shape.","Next, they mount a glass collar over copper wires clamped into a motorized vice, then insert a glass straw called an evacuation port.","As the vise rotates, they heat the collar uniformly with stationary torches.","Using a handheld torch, they remove any stretches or runs in the softening glass.","When the time is right, they activate a die to press the glass into the final shape.","This completes the stem on which the tube's inside structure sits.","The wires protruding from the top of the stem connect to the structure's terminals.","Now they put this assembled unit on a turntable and center the bulb over it.","As the turntable revolves, they heat the bottom of the bulb.","As the glass melts, they press it inward, fusing it to the stem.","They remove the excess glass and continue heating to ensure the bottom is fully sealed.","Next, they prepare to suction out the air.","This step is critical to the tube's performance, because air molecules hinder the flow of electrons.","Technicians fuse the tube's evacuation port to the glass evacuation line of a vacuum pump.","The pump then extracts the air through the port.","At the same time, they heat the tube in a pull-down oven.","This increases pressure inside the tube, creating a stronger vacuum.","Next, they run an inductive heater over the tube.","This dislodges damaging impurities, enabling the vacuum pump to draw them out.","They target the stem area with a second inductive heater to draw particles called ions onto the glass permanently so that they can't later damage the tube.","Finally, they connect the protruding wires to a plastic plug-in base.","There are subtle technical differences between tubes of the same model.","So the factory tests each tube, then matches pairs with similar performance features.","This ensures they'll amplify sound evenly.","A light bar is that strip of flashing lights on top of a police car or emergency vehicle.","The lights are high-output l.e.d.s, far more efficient and durable than incandescent or quartz halogen bulbs or strobe tubes.","The mounting system is designed to withstand emergency high-speed driving.","the l.e.d.s are grouped by color within a module.","Modules can be arranged in any configuration on the light-bar base.","The base mounts to the vehicle's roof via straps made of high-strength stainless steel.","Those straps begin as flat pieces, laser cut to a starting shape.","A 50-ton forming press bends them to the final shape, which fits the exact contour of the vehicle's doorjamb.","The light bar's white light modules fasten onto the base with the aluminum brackets this worker is assembling.","These brackets also help draw out the heat the lights generate.","This is critical, because if l.e.d.s overheat, they burn out.","The base is made of extruded aluminum.","This computer-controlled laser, working on six bases at a time, cuts out holes for venting and cables.","The light bar has two cables-- one running power from the vehicle's battery to the light bar and another connecting control switches on the dashboard to the light bar's electronic control board.","An automatic machine measures and cuts the required length of each cable, then strips off a specific amount of the pvc outer jacket at both ends.","This exposes three wires, two of which are insulated and inside a foil wrap.","After stripping off the foil, an automatic stripping machine removes some insulation, bearing the tin-coated copper wire within.","Workers put contacts onto two of those wires-- the ground and the power-- then press the contacts on securely with a crimping device.","Next, they connect a terminal to the third wire, the shield drain.","This wire reduces electronic interference from sources like the police radio.","Now for the l.e.d. light modules, the main component of which is a reflector.","They put the reflector's plastic body into the sealed chamber of a metalizing machine.","The machine then releases argon gas while applying hundreds of volts of electricity to a solid piece of aluminum.","This vaporizes the metal into tiny particles, which a vacuum draws onto the plastic body in an ultra-thin reflective coating.","To broaden the horizontal range of the reflection, workers install a device called a collimator.","Then they take an l.e.d. light, put an electric insulator on the back of it...","And mount it inside a housing that's specifically designed to remove heat from the l.e.d.s.","Then they install these assembled light components in the reflector...","Install the connector that plugs into the wire harness that leads to the control board...","And test the finished module.","To assemble the light bar, they slide the control board onto the base, plug in the control cable that connects the board to the dashboard switches, install the power cable that runs from the vehicle's battery to the light bar, and the wiring connecting the lights to the board.","After mounting the white light modules on the brackets and securing them to the base, workers take the colored l.e.d. modules and slide them onto the tracks on the base.","They make the internal connections to the control board, then plug each module into the control board harnesses.","After testing to make sure everything works properly, it's just a matter of encasing the modules, starting with an aluminum top, then slide on transparent plastic lenses with divider gaskets in between to prevent rain from penetrating and shorting out the light.","A cap closes up each end.","After a final round of testing, the light bar is ready to hit the roof and the road.","Flying a wood model aircraft is a way to experience the adventure of flight on a small scale.","But there's a lot to do before takeoff.","These miniature planes usually come in kits that can take dozens of hours to piece together.","But, of course, that's just part of the fun.","Wood model planes are part of aviation history.","The first real flying machines were made of wood, and soon after their invention, people began building miniature wood replicas in kit form.","Today modern manufacturing techniques take the concept to a whole new level.","Production begins with blocks of wood that circle on a system of conveyors.","Each time around, a long blade slices away a thin piece.","They transfer the sheets of wood to a table that moves in a computer-choreographed sequence while lasers overhead make cuts.","This computerized system produces parts that will fit together perfectly, no matter how intricate the design.","To assemble the kit at home, the modeler extracts the precut parts.","He then builds the fuselage right on top of the plans in order to follow them to the letter.","After the fuselage has been assembled, he focuses on the wings.","He braces the main spar with numerous ribs to create a cross-sectional air foil that will generate lift.","He then glues the wings' leading edge to the framework.","The framework is very similar to that of full-sized wooden wings built in the early days of flight.","It's made mainly of tropical balsa, a wood that's both lightweight and exceptionally strong.","The modeler joins the two wings.","The tongue of one fits into the laser-cut slot of another.","This joint will later be glued to reinforce it.","He demonstrates the next step using the wing of another model.","He drapes plastic film over the wing's skeleton.","He tacks the plastic to it and smoothes out ripples and bubbles.","He then heat-shrinks the plastic to give the model aircraft its tight skin.","Of course, there's no need for a paint job because the plastic is tinted.","Finally, he confirms that it's drum tight.","Back on the production line, they're now winding wire to produce a spring.","This spring is a shock absorber for the plane's front landing gear.","With that complete, they now position a sheet of preheated plastic above six molds of wheel covers.","He activates a vacuum that pulls the plastic over the molds.","In seconds, it cools and solidifies into the shape of the wheel covers, called pants.","With the wheel pants assembled to the craft, the modeler now installs the two-stroked alcohol-burning engine in the front compartment.","He attaches the muffler to the engine's crank case.","He then secures the spinner's back plate and propeller onto the engine's driveshaft with a washer and bolt.","This assembly will have to withstand the force of the spinning propeller, so he tightens it to the max.","And this model plane is now ready for flight.","Incredibly, it started out as a bunch of parts in a box, but they all come together in the hands of a skillful modeler.","Of course, a good set of instructions is essential.","Assembling each model can take up to 50 hours.","We've just shown the highlights.","The payoff comes when the operator manipulates the transmitter joystick and the parts of the plane move right on cue.","From fighter planes and biplanes to civilian aircraft and extreme aerobatic machines, when it comes to these historical replicas, the sky really is the limit.","The sound of a snare drum is unmistakable-- a sharp rattle with a somewhat tinny resonance.","What produces this distinctive sound?","It's a vibrating set of wires called the snare wire stretched across the bottom of the drum.","The snare drum is the center of the drum kit.","the circular frame of a snare drum, called the shell, can be made of either wood or metal.","Metal shells produce a sharp, loud, and more brilliant sound.","The metal this german drum company uses is known as bell bronze, which is approximately 78% copper and 22% tin.","Workers first glue together a three-part mold.","It's made of a sand and chemical mixture because sand can withstand the temperature of the hot molten metal.","The glue sets in about half an hour, and the mold is ready.","They steady it with heavy steel plates, then scoop a bucket full of bell bronze from the furnace and pour it in.","It took four hours at 2,300 degrees fahrenheit to melt the metal, but just a few seconds for it to solidify inside the mold cavity.","They let the casting cool for a couple of hours, then break the sand mold to extract it.","They clean off the loose sand with a wire brush, then ship the shell to the drum factory, where its first stop is onto an automated lathe.","As the lathe spins, a cutter skims off a thin layer of metal, making the shell's exterior surface clean and smooth.","Next, a computer-guided drilling machine bores 47 holes for various components, including fittings that hold and adjust the drum heads and a vent hole that increases the drum's volume.","Then the machine changes the drilling tool for a milling tool and makes two recessed areas called snare beds in the shell's bottom edge.","The drill left rough edges, so they clean and smooth the holes with a small grinding tool.","Then they manually sand the snare beds.","Next, they sand the shell's outside surface, first with a rough abrasive belt, then with a fine one.","This leaves the metal shiny and silky smooth.","Now they sand the inside surface by hand.","Then they spray it with bronze-colored lacquer to give the metal an even color and prevent tarnishing.","They taped over the holes to keep the colored lacquer from hitting the outside surface.","Now they remove the tape and spray the outside with transparent lacquer, which allows the natural color of the metal to show through.","25 minutes in an oven hardens the lacquer into a super durable finish.","Then final assembly begins, starting with the tension lugs, the fittings that hold and adjust the tension of the drum heads.","Next comes the action strainer, the mechanism the drummer flips up or down to activate and deactivate the snare sound.","The top drum head is made of a strong polyester material.","A chrome-plated metal hoop will hold the head to the shell.","To tune the drum to a higher or lower pitch, the drummer tightens or loosens the screws to increase or decrease tension.","Drumhead tension determines pitch.","The bottom drumhead is made of clear polyester film.","It's much thinner than the top drumhead to enable the snare wire to respond faster.","That snare wire is made of multiple strands of stainless steel, brass, or copper wire.","They stretch it across the bottom head, laying each end on a snare bed.","They attach the ends with nylon cords to the action strainer on one side and to a part called the butt end on the other.","To play the drum with the snare sound, the drummer simply pulls up on the action strainer's handle.","Every drum undergoes a final inspection, then tuning, and a thorough performance test.","talk about ending with a bang."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Hot Rods","Decorative Eggs","Fire Hose Nozzles","Baseballs"]},"text":["A hot rod is a normal car that's been radically modified to look snazzier and drive faster.","Some amateur mechanics tinker away at building one in their garage, while other car buffs custom-order one from a specialty auto shop.","Either way, hot-rod lovers are driven by their passion for these mean machines.","Hot rods are customized inside and out.","The classic cars they start out as are pretty scarce these days, so specialty shops now design and build hot-rod bodies from scratch, using state-of-the-art technologies.","It all starts with curved steel rails 15 feet long that form the basis of the chassis.","Every 12 inches, workers weld the rails to the car's frame.","Next they position cross members to reinforce the frame.","With utmost concern for quality control, they'll assemble and install by hand the transmission, the suspension, and the shock absorbers and weld those precisely aligned cross members to the curved rails.","Elsewhere, someone polishes the stainless-steel wings, which have been laser cut.","These wings make up the hot rod's signature front grill.","Mounting the disc brakes onto such a high-end machine takes specialists.","First, they screw the spindles to the suspension arm...","Then grease the ball-bearing mechanism...","And finally block the disc brake with a cotter pin to fasten the pieces together.","The brake system has four calipers, one per wheel.","Each one holds two brackets called the brake shoes.","They close down on the brake disc to slow down and stop the wheel's rotation.","A couple of slide pins lock the caliper into place.","Brake shoes are prone to wear, so their alignment and oiling must be perfect.","Time has come to install a hydraulic device that reacts to the steering wheel's movement, directing the tie rods to turn the front wheels accordingly.","A pneumatic tool is used to affix the pinion of the steering mechanism.","At every step, workers check and double-check each part.","Using a jack, they lift the differential housing into position.","It anchors the rear wheels' propulsion system to the car's frame.","They attach the suspension arms to the axles at an angle.","Meanwhile, a painter sprays a coat of resin gel on the plastic molds with which they make the car's fiberglass body parts.","The gel coating eases extraction and gives the fiberglass a high-gloss finish.","To mold the parts, a worker spreads resin on fiberglass cloth.","They call this step \"wetting the fiberglass map\".","They lay the map on the mold--  in this case, on a door mold-- then with a roller, carefully press out all the air bubbles.","It takes about 40 minutes for the resin-impregnated map to solidify.","Extracting the body part is a tricky procedure.","They hammer wood wedges in between the hardened fiberglass in the mold.","It's crucial to angle the wedge just right.","Otherwise, the mold may collapse.","It typically takes about 25 molded parts to make up a complete hot-rod body.","After three week's work, final assembly begins.","After the back panels comes the front, otherwise known as the nose.","Next come the fenders, then the stylish running board.","And no hot rod is complete without its signature grill.","The windshield frame helps support the roof, or \"carson top\" in hot-rod lingo.","The front hood completes this '37-ford-inspired body.","It ships out without a paint job.","That's because customization is everything in the hot-rod biz.","The buyer decides how to finish the car by choosing, for example, this retro dashboard designed to blend spectacularly with the rest of the car.","Even car junkies can be forgiven for struggling to keep up to speed with the ever-growing customization options out there.","From the engine to the rims to the seats to the chrome-- when it comes to customizing your hot rod, you're in the driver's seat.","Egg decorating is a craft practiced around the world for centuries.","The ancient persians painted eggs for noruz, their new year celebration, a tradition that continues today.","Probably the most famous are the exquisitely decorated fabergé eggs, except they aren't eggs at all.","They're made from precious metals and gemstones.","Each one of these decorative eggs is a unique piece.","The artist paints them, collages images and fabric, and creates jewelry and music boxes or hangs them as ornaments.","She always works with real eggs from birds like the rhea, the emu, geese, or turkeys.","Here, she selects an ostrich egg and gently clamps it in place on an egg-marker stand.","On the underside of the stand are a series of guidelines to help divide the egg into two or more equal parts.","Working with the pencil held in a brace, she divides the egg into four equal parts.","Then she draws a horizontal line across the egg where she'll cut it in half to create a lid.","She'll use a hinge to hold the lid in place, so first, she draws the contour...","Then a loose, wavy line all along the egg circumference, using the pencil guidelines as reference.","A rotating cutter equipped with a diamond dusted blade makes a cut where the hinge will be.","The artist now prepares some five-minute epoxy glue.","She has a neat trick to apply just the right amount.","She works with a strand of uncooked spaghetti, then sets the hinge in place.","Once the hinge has set, she cuts all around the egg, then opens and closes it to make sure that hinge works properly.","It's the first time she sees the egg's interior.","If it needs cleaning, now's the time.","Though this artist often chooses to leave ostrich eggs their natural color, here she's decided to give the lid a thin coat of acrylic paint.","For the lower half, she chooses a dark tone.","Acrylic paint allows her to work quickly, as it tries in just a few seconds.","Next, she uses a special glue to collage strips of japanese rice paper onto the egg.","She layers small pieces to achieve a tortoise-shell finish.","She's ready to set the egg on its stand, so she coats the rim with epoxy, then sets the egg down, making sure the hinge is level with the stand's rim.","The artist now turns her attention to the egg's interior.","She lightly glues perfumed cotton balls to fill out the top and bottom parts.","Then she applies glue along the inner rims and clips on a piece of ivory satin.","By the time she makes it around both halves, she can remove the clips.","The fabric now holds firmly in place.","Next, she glues a fabric braid to trim the satin's edge.","Here, the artist lays down a delicate strand of rhinestones.","She applies more glue to add another braid along the lower rim...","Then places a final strand to complete the effect.","She sets in a tiny rhinestone to decorate the metallic filigree that hides the hinges.","Even the egg's underside gets special attention.","She glues another filigree to cover the hole through which they emptied the egg, then applies a water-based varnish.","This strengthens the egg and gives it a glossy finish.","Here's the finished piece-- a delicate jewelry box that opens with the help of a fine chain to reveal its satin interior.","There's no end to the creativity that goes into making these decorative eggs.","This model even has a music box built in.","Precision tools that perform their tasks with split-second speed and accuracy are key in jobs where time is off the essence.","Take for example the nozzle at the end of a firefighting hose.","It allows a firefighter to regular the pressure of the water exiting the hose, no matter how confined or widespread the flames.","A fire-hose nozzle isn't a simple point-and-shoot device.","It enables firefighters to tailor their tactics by firing water in a stream or flush.","Production begins with a long aluminum tube.","A saw slices off 6-inch pieces called blanks.","Just one tube makes about 46 blanks.","A robotic arms swoops down to transport them to a lathe.","Cutting tools form the valve body, which controls the flow of water.","Then they rough up the surface, making it easier to grip.","They make a ball groove on the outside rim for attaching the hose coupling.","Next, they form the interior.","Technicians verify the inside shaping with computer-imaging software.","It's on to the milling process.","A computer-guided drill bores several holes for the nozzle and grip attachments.","Coolant washes away the metal chips and keeps the drill bit from overheating.","The transformation from a blank to valve body is structurally complete.","A laser now engraves the flow indication.","Workers install rubber o-rings on a mandrel shaped like the valve-body interior.","The rings keep water from leaking out the side of the nozzle.","They position the valve body over the mandrel and blow the rings into place with a blast of air.","Automated machines now mate the valve body to the nozzle's handle.","A heated mold melts granulated rubber and casts it into ridges at the top of a rubber cylinder.","This makes the shaper, the nozzle's adjustable head that switches the water from a wide spray to a narrow stream.","Workers snip off any excess rubber, then ensure the rubber is solidly molded.","Next, they apply grease to the inside to lubricate the parts and prevent corrosion.","Two more o-rings are inserted to keep water from leaking out under the shaper.","Using a specially designed spoon, they scoop up tiny, plastic ball bearings and drop them into a groove in the shaper.","These allow the shaper to rotate easily.","The shaper then goes over a barrel-- a metal tube that helps form the stream of water.","To attach it, they apply an adhesive to the threads on the shaper's base, then slide the part into place.","Workers insert a pair of hard plastic balls into the shaper.","These enable the shaper to glide back and forth on the barrel to shape the water stream.","Now it's time to build the sub-baffle, the nozzle component that controls water pressure.","First they insert a pressure-regulation spring into the baffle body, then snap on a knob, which changes between standard water pressure and low pressure.","The whole device slides directly into the barrel.","On the other end of the barrel, they screw on the valve body.","A rotating wheel simplifies this process.","They now affix a pistol-style grip.","Finally, the gasket grabber goes in.","The steel screen keeps out nozzle-clogging debris coming from the hose.","With the nozzle assembly now complete, it's time for what they call a damp run.","Workers check everything to ensure the nozzle performs its task at every twist and turn.","From the old-fashioned nozzle to the modern variety that comes in an assortment of flows, pressures, and sizes, the evolution of the fire-house nozzle is undoubtedly a lifesaver.","When they make baseballs for the pros, they aren't just playing around.","They build these balls precisely to league standards.","And incredibly, those standards date back to 1872.","Each ball is uniform in circumference and weight so the game is an equal contest.","Crowds will go wild for these professional baseballs.","And at the heart of each one is something called the pill.","The pill is smaller than a golf ball.","It's about 4 1/2 inches in circumference.","Inside the pill's rubber casing is a sphere of cork.","They pour latex adhesive over hundreds of pills loaded into a drum.","Rollers spin the drum to evenly coat the pills with the adhesive.","This adhesive never dries out completely, and the pills remain sticky to the touch.","Next, they loop four-ply wool around the pill.","This machine spins the pill to wind the yarn around it.","This winding substantially fattens the pill.","It's the first time a camera has ever been allowed to record this proprietary machine, so we can't show you all of it.","They wind a second layer of wool around the pills.","This yarn is three-ply, and it thickens the ball a little more.","For a third winding, they use another three-play yard, but it's a bit lighter.","The various layers of yarn are what give the baseball resilience, so it springs back into shape despite being hit repeatedly.","For the final winding, they use a much thinner poly/wool blend because its surface is smoother.","This wound pill is called the center.","They weigh it and measure its circumference, which should be about nine inches.","They add adhesive to a spinning drum, then load the centers into it.","As the centers tumble, they absorb the glue, and the wound fibers adhere to each other.","The centers air dry for 48 hours but remain sticky.","Using this hydraulic press, they punch out figure-eight shapes from leather, complete with holes around the periphery, allowing them to be stitched into baseball covers.","But first, they stamp the date and lot number onto them.","Then they wrap them in wet towels.","The moisture will make the leather pliable enough to sew.","They roll the water-based adhesive onto one side of the cutouts, which sticks to the moist leather.","They press two cutouts to the center's sticky surface.","It's an exact fit.","They clamp the leather ball in a vice, and it's time to sew.","Working with two needles, the sewer pulls thread through the ball's center and up through the holes in the leather pieces to cross-stitch them together.","He rubs wax on the thread to stiffen it, because if it slackens, it's more likely to tangle.","When it comes to cross-stitching, these workers are in a league of their own.","They make quick work of the 108 stitches in each ball.","There are 350 sewers in this factory, and they produce 8,000 to 10,000 balls per day.","That's a lot of home runs.","The final stitch goes through the center of the baseball and out the other side.","The sewer then pulls stitches into a \"v\" configuration to give the ball a consistent look and feel.","The balls now roll into a press that smoothes down the seams.","Smoother balls are harder to grip, and they make pitching a bit tougher for the pros.","Finally, a three-headed stamper gives it the trademark, league logo, and the commissioner's signature.","With drying cycles, it takes a week to make a professional baseball.","It will be whacked and slammed out of the playing field.","But that's life in the big leagues."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Recycled Skateboards","Braided Pastry","Construction Trailers","Metalworking Vises"]},"text":["Sixty years ago, surfers in california were looking to ride the streets like they surf the waves.","They came up with an idea to strap roller skate wheels on their surfboards, and the skateboard was born.","Since then, skateboarding has evolved into a sport, a passion and a lifestyle for people all over the world.","In a backyard pool, a skater gauges the feel and response of these recycled skateboards.","Recycled skateboards give new life to unrideable old boards.","The boards on this rack would normally end up in a landfill.","First, the designer heats up the old grip tape and peels it off.","This reveals the board's original graphics.","He grinds off the graphics, leaving bare wood.","He applies epoxy on top of a colored veneer coating and stacks the boards on the table of a bottle jack press.","He glues another board and places it on top of the first one.","He repeats this stack process with different colored boards.","The stacking continues until the designer has about 20 boards on the table.","He puts the bottle jacks in place and cranks them up.","Each jack applies 10 tons of compression, pressing the boards together while the epoxy cures and the excess glue drips out.","The designer makes a cross cut in the stack with a bandsaw.","Each new board he makes comes with a unique color design.","A worker traces a cutting mark on the board and makes a rough cut along it with a jigsaw.","He sands down the rough profile of the board using a table-mounted belt sander.","Before the board goes to silk screening, he uses a custom template to drill holes for the assembly bolts.","A designer pours water-based ink on top of a screen printing mesh.","He takes a squeegee and pulls the ink through the membrane to print the company logo onto the board.","He removes the silk screening frame, and the board continues on to the epoxy phase.","A worker pours epoxy resin on top of a fiberglass cloth.","He spreads out the epoxy with a squeegee in a slow, constant motion.","This keeps air bubbles, runs, or drips from ruining the finish of the board.","The cloth absorbs the resin.","The worker cuts off the excess cloth with a razor blade and applies a finish coat of epoxy, completing the board's covering.","A worker uses a router to smooth out the curve of a different board.","He finishes the board profile with fine sanding paper.","A worker sprinkles recycled crushed glass on the epoxy-covered board.","This will provide grip for the board instead of grip tape.","Before the resin hardens and cures, he presses the glass into the epoxy with a wheel.","He sands the bottom of the board with a sanding block.","He goes through seven different grits of sand paper.","Then the board is washed and polished before starting the final assembly process.","A worker assembles the wheels on a truck and bolts them on with hex nuts.","He tightens the wheels with a wrench until he's reached the desired torque ratio and gives them a test spin.","He inserts bolts through the board and places a urethane riser pad underneath the skate deck.","Then he starts assembling the truck.","He uses a screw gun to secure the wheel trucks in place.","Each skateboard is equipped with polyurethane wheels mounted on metal trucks.","These allow the rider to steer and control the board.","Recycled skateboards are made form a wide variety of shapes, deck sizes, wheels and trucks, suiting each rider's unique tastes and performance needs.","Many years ago, danish bakers got creative with pastry dough.","They began braiding it, putting a whole new twist on deserts.","Braided pastry looks more elaborate than ordinary pastry.","The flakiness of the dough and the scrumptious fillings make braided pastry taste as good as it looks.","Factory-made braided pasty can be kept frozen until you're ready to eat it.","After just a few minutes in the oven, you will have a fresh-baked desert.","The pastry looks as though it takes many hours to prepare, but of course, it is no trouble at all.","To produce braided pastry, this factory uses a number of ingredients, including yeast...","Granulated sugar...","Pastry flour....","Dried eggs and water.","The ingredients go into a large refrigerated mixer.","The cooling keeps the yeast dormant as beaters work the ingredients into dough.","After the dough leaves the mixer, it tumbles into a hopper.","A cutter wheel chops the dough into several pieces.","The pieces of dough travel between conveyors that squeeze them into ribbons of dough that will be fed to an extruder.","The extruder shapes the elongated dough pieces into one continuous sheet.","At the exit of the extruder, an employee dusts the conveyor with flour.","This prevents the dough from sticking to it.","A pump at the extruder exit spreads big blocks of soft butter across the newly formed sheet of dough.","Down the conveyor, plow-like flaps fold the buttered dough over, creating a double layer.","This folding process, called lamination, will build up multiple layers of buttered dough, resulting in a very flaky pastry.","Next, the dough travels into a drum with spinning rolling pins.","These rolling pins flatten the folded dough significantly, compressing the layers into one thin sheet.","Now, a conveyor takes the compressed sheet through a device that will fold the dough again.","Next, rolling pins squeeze the stack of dough into a single piece once again.","Revolving cutters slice the laminated dough as it moves forward.","The cuts create angled strips for braiding.","At the next station, a sweet cherry filling with a jam-like consistency is waiting.","Nozzles deposit precise amounts of cherry filling between the angled cuts.","Next, workers braid the dough over the center filling, creating an attractive-looking pastry.","Sensors determine where the blade will slice the braided pastries.","The braided pastries are transferred to another conveyor with a scale.","The scale confirms that there is a sufficient amount of filling in each pastry.","The braided pastries now head into a freezer set a temperature of 29 degrees below zero.","Inside the freezer, the pastries revolve on carousels for 45 minutes.","This gradual freezing process preserves the yeast.","Next, the pastries wind their way toward the packaging station.","Here, workers place a packet of icing under each braided pastry and send them to an automated packager.","Machines wrap a plastic sleeve around the pasty.","To minimize the amount of time the pastry is out of the freezer, things must move quickly.","The pastries pass over a weigh station to confirm the correct amount has been packaged.","When baked, the pastry rises significantly, allowing the braided profile to expand.","The layers of dough separate and become flaky.","The cherry filling seeps into the pastry.","Endings don't get much sweeter than this.","Pass by any construction site, and you'll probably see a trailer.","Construction trailers provide room for an on-site office or lunch room for the construction workers.","A trailer can also be used as a decontamination room for workers to remove their protective clothing and shower after handling hazardous materials.","Construction trailers are typically 10 to 13 feet wide and up to 59 feet long.","The inside of the trailer can be equipped for whatever function it will serve.","The structure of the trailer is made of spruce, pine, or fir.","Workers start with an underfloor made of wood particle board.","Then they nail floor joists to the boar and frame them.","The insulate the floor with fiberglass wool and nail a plywood subfloor on top.","Then they spread tile glue over the subfloor.","The glue is freeze-proof and mold resistant.","They complete the floor by laying down commercial-grade vinyl tile or linoleum.","To build the walls of the trailer.","They nail pieces of woods called studs every 15 inches along the sole plate.","The sole plate is the bottom section of the trailer's wall.","Then they build rough openings for the windows and doors.","Finally, they nail another horizontal piece along the top of the studs.","This is called the double top plate.","The structure of the wall is complete.","Now, they apply glue to the studs and nail on a sheet of plywood to the lower part of the wall structure.","They repeat this process with the three other walls of the trailer.","Then they raise each wall and nail a sole plate to the floor.","The plywood exterior wall extends below the sole plate, covering the side of the floor frame.","They glue the plywood to the floor frame and reinforce it with nails.","Next, the roof of the trailer-- it is constructed in layers.","First, they lay down the fiber board ceiling, then install a plastic vapor barrier.","Next, the roof joists-- the joists have sloped edges to drain water off the roof and holes for electric cables.","Once the joists are installed, workers frame the roof structure with end plates.","Then they thread in electric cables for the lights, outlets, baseboard heaters, and other electrical components.","Now, they begin their work inside the trailer.","First, fiberglass wool insulation is installed between the studs.","A plastic vapor barrier is added.","Then they install smooth wood panels.","The wood panels are laminated with vinyl for a clean finish.","At the same time, work continues on the outside of the construction trailer.","Under the floor, workers install one to three axles.","The amount depends on the trailer's length.","Each axle can support around two and a half tons.","After workers install all of the exterior plywood, workers begin the finishing process.","At the top and bottom of the trailer, they install starter moldings made of painted sheet steel.","Then they begin installing panels of painted steel.","Windows and doors are installed before adding the painted steel siding.","This is so the ends of the steel siding will beneath the door or window moldings, producing a neater finish.","Trailers longer than 32 feet have both heating and air conditioning via a duct system.","Workers mount the air ducts to the ceiling with brackets.","They also install electrical outlets, light fixtures, interior trims, and electric baseboards for additional heating.","Trailers shorter than 32 feet only have electric baseboard heaters and a window-mounted air conditioner.","However, there is the option to upgrade to the full duct system.","To finish the roof, they staple white fiberboard to the roof joists.","Then a hitch system is installed.","This enables a truck to haul the trailer to and from the construction site.","A metalworking vise holds a piece of metal in place so that a computerized cutter can shape it into a part.","You often see vises on \"how it's made\".","Now it's time to find out how they are made.","Metalworking vises have parallel jaws that close tightly around a piece of metal.","Their firm grip allows a part to be machined with pinpoint accuracy.","To make a metalworking vise, they start with a steel rod.","It spins in a lathe as tools carve threads into it.","The result is a lead screw that will be used to open and close the jaws of the vise.","Next, cutters transform a piece of aluminum into a thumb screw.","The thumb screw is used for turning the lead screw.","The outside of the screw is given a neural texture for better gripping.","The final tool shaves the roughed-edge rim of the screw to make it smoother to the touch.","This completes the thumb screw.","Now, an automated saw cuts the steel bar into smaller pieces.","Each piece will be used to make the base of a vise.","Next, a cutter sculpts the outside of a base piece to the desired profile.","Another tool carves a channel in the center of the base piece.","The cutting machine also creates components for the vise's shuttle system.","Then a machine cuts the reverse side of the vise base flat and smooth.","It also drills holes for mounting the vise to milling equipment.","A constant flow of coolant is applied to protect the tool from wear.","Next, a steel block is locked in a vise.","Yes, they used vises to make new vises.","The vise holds the piece of steel firmly in place as tools shape it into one of the new vise's jaws.","After a heat treatment, they spray small particles of sand onto the newly formed jaw.","The sand blasting removes blemishes.","A worker now submerges all parts of the vise in a hot chemical solution, leaving them there for eight hours.","This chemical solution gives the parts a black oxide finish and protects them from rust.","Here is the vise before and after the oxide treatment.","Next, a laser etches the brand name, part number, and basic dimensions onto the base of the vise.","Then a probe gauges the size of the mounting hole.","It also determines if they've been drilled in the correct location.","Now, it's time to assemble all the parts of the metalworking vise.","The worker threads retainer rings onto the lead screw.","Then he installs the lead screw in the base.","He places shuttle devices onto each end of the lead screw.","He inserts spacing blocks in the channel.","He moves the shuttle devices forward, using the spacing blocks as guides for the correct positioning.","After removing the spacing blocks, he adjusts the retainer rings.","He places steel jaws on the shuttle devices and bolts them in place.","Once the thumb screw has been attached to the lead screw, the assembly is complete.","Now, it's over to a computerized measuring station.","The controller positions the vise in the equipment, then a probe moves in.","The probe compares the coordinates of the vise to a computer model and checks that it measures up to standards.","Metalworking vises take four weeks to make and will hold up for many years."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Yacht Wheels","Braided Rugs","Automobile Thermostats","Chisels"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Yacht wheels...","Braided rugs...","Automobile thermostats...","And chisels.","A wheel is a fairly modern way to steer a boat.","Before the 18th century, captains shifted a stake attached directly to the rudder.","Today ship wheels connect to the rudder through a mechanical or hydraulic system.","Found mostly in yachts up to 200 feet long, they're a luxurious way to echo the glory days of the sea.","This company makes yacht wheels as large as 5 feet in diameter.","It uses two traditional shipbuilding woods-- american holly and burmese teak, species that are as beautiful as they are durable.","Workers use a table saw to cut both types of wood into long, thin strips that will become the wheel's rim.","They measure the strips with digital calipers, then sand them down to a thickness of just 1/8 of an inch.","Using a disk sander now, a worker angles the ends into what are called scarf joints.","He'll join the strips by fitting these angles together.","After coating each strip with epoxy, he attaches it with clamps to a round jig, waxed beforehand to prevent sticking.","The glue is waterproof because the wheels are often exposed to rough weather up on deck.","The worker gradually bends each 6 1/2-foot-long strip all the way around the jig.","And a spring-loaded clamp temporarily holds the end of each strip in place until he aligns the scarf joint with that of the next strip.","It takes up to eight hours of nonstop work to lay all the strips.","He alternates between the blond holly and the darker teak for a total of seven layers.","Then he leaves the rim to set overnight.","To make each spoke--  the wheel has five of them-- a worker temporarily joins strips of holly and teak with double-sided tape.","A computer-guided cutting machine then carves an opening through the middle and shapes the outer edge into a triangular shape.","This reduces the spoke's weight and helps it fit to the rim later on.","Next he removes the tape and glues the wood strips together, along with others made of carbon fiber.","They strengthen the spoke while keeping it lightweight.","He places a waxed jig in the center and clamps in place.","He leaves the spoke to set overnight.","The next day, he sands away the dried glue, then uses a router to round the edges.","Together, the four wood and three carbon-fiber layers are just one inch thick.","He traces a template on a stack of 14 pre-glued, curved strips of holly and teak.","He follows his trace lines with a band saw, cutting out what's called a fairing.","This component will join each spoke to the rim.","Now he drills a hole in each fairing...","And inserts a temporary dowel to position a reinforcing strip of carbon fiber at the top.","It's time to join the spokes to the rim.","Earlier, he glued strong fiberglass dowels to the rim.","Now he inserts them into the fairings and into holes in the spokes, also glued beforehand.","Through the openings, he clamps the spokes to the rim.","Then he positions an aluminum hub in the center, tapping it into place with a mallet.","Now, with a jigsaw, he cuts a sliver off the ends of the fairings so they'll curve into the rim.","He uses a router to round off the vertical edges of the wheel.","He files the fairings by hand to complete the smooth transition to the rim.","Just these finishing touches alone can take up to five hours to complete.","Using a router, it takes him another five hours to gradually round off the horizontal edge.","Now to protect the wheel from the elements-- particularly sun damage.","First, a polyester primer.","Then they sand it and apply two coats of waterproof varnish.","On the yacht, five stainless-steel bolts attach the wheel to a pedestal that connects to the rest of the steering mechanism.","To change how fast the rudder moves, you simply turn a knob at the center of the wheel.","How's that for power steering?","A relatively high-tech way to navigate the open seas.","New england settlers in the 1700s were the first to braid strips of used clothing and then sew them into rugs.","Today high-speed machines create this classic look in a fraction of the time, but with synthetic as well as natural fabric and yarns so the rugs last even longer.","This company's most popular rugs are oval or rectangular, some small enough for your stairs.","The rugs begin as yarn.","They wind the yarn onto bobbins that fit the factory's machines.","The yarn ranges from pure wool to a blend of wool and polypropylene that makes the rug durable even outdoors.","This machine braids yarn from 24 bobbins around a core of synthetic fabric.","The result is a complicated weave called cable lock.","Other rugs have just three braided segments, in what's called a flat braid.","Here a worker uses a powerful sewing machine to join flat braids with sturdy nylon thread.","This makes one enormous piece the length of half a tennis court.","The piece moves along a conveyer to an automated rotary saw that cuts it to size.","The saw passes twice to ensure a clean cut through the one-inch thickness.","Another industrial sewing machine attaches binding tape to seal the edge.","This prevents rectangular and square rugs from unraveling.","Oval and round rugs don't need this because their braids aren't cut.","This machine does what's called serging.","It sews yarn over the binding tape to cover it, a purely aesthetic gesture.","To make fabric rugs, a seamstress joins several pieces of different fabric along one edge.","They're a cotton-and-polyester blend that's durable and easy to wash.","The more patterns, the more complex the rug will look.","After they wind the fabric into a roll, a rotary saw cuts the roll to make strips that are one inch wide.","The fabric strip then unwinds into a machine that folds it over filler.","This forms the core of the fabric tubes they call spaghetti.","The machine wraps the fabric around the filler, then sews the edges into a closed tube.","Rollers guide the spaghetti out of the machine and onto bobbins.","This machine weaves spaghetti from three bobbins into a flat braid.","Fabric rugs are made only as flat braids because the material is too thick to weave into a cable lock.","The braids settle into barrels for storage until they're woven into rugs.","Sometimes mats are assembled from a variety of braids for a different look.","To make an oval or round rug, a worker coils one continuous braid around itself.","At the same time, she sews each braid to the next.","These rugs can have anywhere from 16 to 320 rows.","This factory uses tables with holes that blow pressurized air to float rugs like this one as they grow heavier.","The ovals range in size.","They can be as small as a doormat and as large as a swimming pool.","But when the rugs get really big, some extra help may be required.","It takes her about two hours to sew together one of these huge rugs.","Lastly, the worker staples a tag to the rug that reveals the style and size before the rug heads off to shipping.","Perhaps more than any other floor covering, these rugs don't just lie there.","The variety of styles and shapes means they really tell a story at your feet.","Only about 2 inches in diameter, a car's thermostat sits between the engine and the radiator.","Until the engine warms up, it blocks the flow of coolant to the radiator.","When the engine reaches about 200 degrees fahrenheit, the thermostat opens, letting coolant flow through the radiator and into the engine to prevent overheating.","The key component inside the thermostat is wax.","When the engine heats up, the wax melts and the thermostat opens, triggering the cooling system.","The wax melts quickly because it contains powdered copper, graphite, and/or aluminum.","As the wax transforms from solid to liquid, it expands.","The pressure pushes a pin that opens the valve that enables the flow of coolant to the engine.","After heating and mixing in the powders, workers pour the wax into slab-shaped molds.","It takes about a half-hour to cool and solidify.","Then they extract the slabs and grind them up.","They feed the granulated wax to a pill-making machine, the kind pharmaceutical factories use.","It compress the granules into cylindrical pellets.","Meanwhile, workers feed a copper strip into a machine called a high-speed transfer press.","Its successive stations shape the copper cup that will house the wax pellet.","The first station stamps out a circle.","The others progressively stretch and form the circle into a cup.","The cups go into an automated assembly machine, which drops a pellet into each one.","A pin then bores a hole down the center of each wax pellet.","The machine inserts a rubber sleeve into the pellet hole and caps the sleeve with a brass cover.","Then it crimps the cup over the cover, forming a seal that's leak-resistant.","Now the machine inserts the stainless-steel pin that opens and closes the coolant valve.","The pin goes right into the rubber sleeve in the center of the wax pellet.","How do all these parts work together?","The melting wax expands within the cup, squeezing the rubber sleeve.","That forces the pin upward, opening the coolant valve.","Now they heat the parts to the temperature at which the engine coolant should kick in.","A calibration machine squeezes the cup until the pin rises enough to open the coolant valve.","The components now enter a machine which connects that valve.","The valve is made up of two stainless-steel pieces.","The machine loads one on top of the other, over the thin end of the cup...","Then pushes the valve over the end of the cup, attaching it to the wide end.","On the left is before the valve installation, and here's after.","Meanwhile, a press forms the top part of the thermostat, called the flange.","It's made of stainless steel coated with a lubricant.","As with the cup, a series of dies progressively forms the flange.","Now for the final assembly.","First, the thermostat's stainless-steel frame.","Next, a stainless-steel spring.","Its job is to close the valve when the engine cools.","Now the assembled components go inside the spring.","The flange goes on top.","A tool called an orbital riveter flattens a tab on either side of the flange.","This holds the frame onto the flange.","The assembly machine now crimps two little tabs against the pin, keeping it from falling out of the rubber sleeve.","And with that, the thermostat is finished.","This demonstration shows how, as the engine heats up, the melting wax pushes the pin upward, and when the engine cools, the opposite happens so that even though you might boil over in heavy traffic, your engine doesn't have to.","A chisel is a metal tool with a sharp end for shaping stone, metal, or wood.","You use your hand, a hammer, or a mallet to drive it in and cut.","Although chisels date back to ancient asia, today's factories use heat-treated steel and high-tech machines to make them stay sharper longer.","A wood chisel needs to be very sharp, especially for intricate carving.","Making chisels starts when they insert a 16 1/2-foot-long bar of high-carbon steel in a mechanical press.","The carbon lets them heat-treat the steel to give it a long-lasting edge.","But first the press cuts the bar into 8 1/2-inch-long rods.","The rods then go through an induction heater.","In just six seconds, a magnetic field heats them to about 2,300 degrees fahrenheit, a temperature at which the steel can be forged.","A worker sets each hot rod into a die in a forging press.","The die slams down, applying 700 tons of pressure.","This produces what's called a forging, a rough shaping.","The die can produce as many as 60,000 forgings before it wears out.","Each one goes into what's called a trimming press.","Here a die cuts out the precise shape of the chisel, with the blade on one end and the tang on the other.","The tang later fits into a plastic or wooden handle so you can comfortably grip the tool.","The factory sends the excess metal out for recycling.","After the chisels cool off for several hours, workers run them through another induction-heating machine, this one with two coils.","The first heats them to 1,400 degrees fahrenheit.","Then warm water cools them down.","This rapid reduction in temperature is called quenching.","It's what hardens the chisels enough to be strong and stay sharp.","The next coil heats them to about 700 degrees fahrenheit.","This step is called tempering.","It relieves the stresses that the quenching phase created inside the metal.","Spring-loaded clamps now release the chisels from the machine, and they drop into a container to cool overnight.","The next day, workers can start to polish and sharpen the chisels.","That removes the metal discoloration the heat-treating caused.","To polish the barrels, the round areas joining the blade and the tang, workers load the chisels into devices called chucks.","These clamp the chisels securely by the blade as the barrels spin against a rough-grit sanding wheel.","After about seven seconds of sanding, the blades are ready for polishing.","A powerful magnet locks them in place on a round table.","It rotates, running the blades against an abrasive grinding wheel.","As water cools the metal, it also applies a rust-proofing chemical to the steel.","This polishing cycle takes about 20 seconds.","The highly polished finish is a key selling point.","Now to sharpen the blades.","A worker loads the chisels into another machine.","It moves the chisels back and forth against another grinding wheel.","After about five minutes of this, the blades are razor-sharp.","Only the last 1/2 inch of the chisel, sloping at a 22-degree angle, is the cutting edge.","This factory uses preformed extruded-plastic handles for its chisels.","A hot metal die with raised lettering presses and melts a colored plastic ribbon into each handle.","This imprints the company logo, the model size, and a reminder to wear safety goggles.","The next machine puts a steel cap on top and forces the tang inside the hole.","The cap reinforces the handle against hammer blows.","The tang stays put because it's actually a bit bigger than the hole it goes into-- in industry lingo, an interference fit.","The finished tools come off the line.","Now you can chisel your crafts for years to come."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Custom Running Shoes","Axes","Racing Karts","Animatronics"]},"text":["Poorly fitted shoes can ruin a runner's day.","They can compromise the runner's gait and lead to injuries.","It's why custom-made running shoes have become popular.","Tailored for one specific pair of feet, they give the runner the necessary support to go the distance.","Thanks to the use of synthetic materials, the running shoe is more lightweight and flexible than ever before.","Customizing these shoes takes the concept one step further.","They start by taking a precise 3-d laser scan of each foot.","Then the runner steps onto a device called a pressure plate.","Rubber tipped pins sprout up around the foot.","This technique creates an exact outline of the sole, including the arch.","Next, a high-pressure water jet cuts through synthetic fabric like a knife.","A computer guides the cuts, following the measurements from the scans.","The cutouts will be used to make the upper-- that's the part of the shoe that wraps around the top of the foot.","A seamstress sews together the cutouts, creating the basic shell of the running shoe's upper.","Uppers come in a variety of colors, and when a shoe is custom ordered, the athlete can choose.","After holes for the laces have been punched into the upper part of the running shoe, the seamstress stitches on stripes-- a trademark look for the company.","She sews the tongue and a fabric innersole to the upper, using rounded stitching that will prevent fraying.","The innersole joins the two sides of the upper, and this custom running shoe is starting to come together.","But this shoe needs shape and structure before it's ready to pound pavement.","So, the next worker inserts a plastic replica of the athlete's foot, called a last, into the shoes.","She glues fabric to the heel of each shoe, and then pounds and presses it to ensure the fabric adheres.","Left to sit for five hours, the shoes conform to the shape of the custom-made lasts.","But if the measurements are even slightly off, they'll scrap the shoe and start again.","It's time for the foam midsoles.","The workers cut the foam with dies based on the individual's feet.","The foam is dual density for maximum performance.","He sands each midsole, beveling the tips.","This will make for a smoother landing when the foot hits the ground.","The outsoles are next.","The worker sculpts these treaded rubber soles along the same lines as the midsoles, so they'll fit together perfectly.","He glues the mid and outer soles together.","To make sure this job really sticks, they squeeze the two soles together using a hydraulic press.","In a custom shoe, the athlete can also choose the tread.","A deeper tread is more appropriate for trail running, and a shallower one will grip pavement better.","The worker now glues the bottom of the shoe to the top.","The sole is made a little larger than the fabric upper, which allows her to fold it around the upper for a neat finish.","A machine they call the claw applies pressure to enhance the bonding of the sole to the shoe.","Then they insert a memory foam insole which melds to the shape of the foot.","This insole is also breathable and has been treated with an antibacterial agent.","The athlete's name on the heel is the final personal touch for these custom running shoes.","They've taken about five days to make, but they're ready for a marathon.","Ever since primitive times, humans have been using axes to chop wood.","The first axes were simple, sharpened stones, but when a handle was added about 35,000 years ago, it increased the force that could be applied with each strike, and that gave the ax much greater impact.","Today, the ax hasn't lost its edge.","Despite the proliferation of mechanized tools, it offers a low-tech, hands-on way to get the job done.","A modern ax starts as a cylinder of high-quality steel.","A ram nudges it into an induction furnace.","The intense heat makes the steel white hot and pliable, allowing it to be stretched and shaped.","A powerful press then pounds the steel into a series of dies to further define the ax profile.","A cutter head trims the edges.","Operators now transfer the ax to another ram, which presses it into a die to straighten and level it.","Then it's on to a revolving rack for a half-hour to cool down and harden, just enough so they can be handled.","A worker loads dozens of the axes into a tumbler.","They are tossed about with tiny steel pellets, and the resulting friction rubs scale from the surface of the steel and also smoothes the edges.","Then this worker presses the back of the ax head against a sanding belt to bevel the edges.","He sands the sides of the ax head for a smooth finish.","In just seconds, he sharpens both sides of the cutting edge.","It takes well-honed skills to do this with such quick precision.","He then polishes the neck of the ax against a narrower, finer-grit sanding belt.","And it's time for a dip in a special solution, heated to 1,500 degrees fahrenheit.","They then quench the red-hot steel in warm oil.","The abrupt temperature change hardens the metal so it's tough enough for any wood-chopping job.","At the next station, a worker assembles prepunched leather and plastic rings to build the ax grip.","She places the black-and-white plastic rings at each end of the leather pad, to give the grip a customized look.","The rings get progressively smaller as she tapers the grip to fit the throat of the ax handle.","It takes about 36 of the leather rings and 6 plastic ones to make one grip.","She transfers the grip pack to an assembly press...","And inserts the lower part of the ax, which has been lubricated with bees wax, into the grip's center holes.","A hydraulic ram drives it through.","The lubrication ensures this job doesn't hit any snags.","She now flattens metal prongs at the base of the handle to secure the grip.","The axes rotate as a long, abrasive belt rocks against the leather.","It sands the grip to make the layers flush.","A worker finishes off the job with a particularly aggressive sanding.","His handiwork makes this grip look really smooth.","A dip in clear lacquer brings out the grain of the various pieces of leather, and they appear to merge into one.","Once the lacquer dries, another worker polishes the exposed steel against a belt with a very fine grit.","The result is a glossy sheen that ensures this ax will definitely look good on the job.","It takes about two days to make one of these axes, but they're designed to last a lifetime.","Kart racing is an international motor sport that has a huge following, especially in europe.","The karts look a bit like miniature formula-one racecars but have no suspension system.","Kart racing can be even more exciting than f-1 because of their small size and increased maneuverability.","this italian-made racing kart-- with its one-cylinder, 125cc engine-- reaches speeds of 110 miles per hour.","An aluminum case houses all the engine components.","A computer-guided drill bores various holes for installing them.","First in-- the engine's six steel gears.","Each gear is actually comprised of several gears.","They thread them onto a shaft.","Then everything goes into the gear box.","Behind the gears goes the gear shifter, which the driver operates with a lever.","Next comes the drive shaft.","It turns a chain that rotates the axle on which the rear wheels are mounted.","On the other side of the engine case, they install the drive-shaft gears.","These ensure the shaft rotates at a stable and controlled rate.","The red markings help the technicians align the gears.","The clutch cover closes up the gear box.","The clutch's main housing, called the drum, contains the clutch disks.","These disks transmit crankshaft motion to the gear box, which turns the drive shaft, which moves the chain that rotates the rear wheels.","Thick steel springs grip and release the clutch disks.","This flap component, called the lameli pack, controls how much fuel enters the engine.","Stepping on the acceleration pedal creates a vacuum that opens the flaps and sucks in more fuel.","The cylinder houses the piston that rotates the crank shaft.","This engine head seals the cylinder in which the combustion cycle occurs.","The ignition goes on the left side of the engine.","The engine is now finished and ready for a bench test.","Technicians use special instruments to monitor and calibrate its performance.","The racing kart's chassis is made of steel tubing.","At the back, they mount bearings to hold the rear axle.","Then they mount the axle itself and on it-- brake disks.","They attach brake calipers to the chassis.","Under braking, they squeeze the disks to stop the wheels from turning.","After measuring again, to ensure the rear axle is perfectly centered, they lock it into position in a way that enables it to rotate, of course.","Now for the steering system.","At the front of the chassis, technicians mount a spindle on each side.","The spindles turn the kart's front wheels.","Once technicians fasten the steering column up top, they connect tie rods to the spindles.","Tie rods transmit the rotation of the steering column, via the spindles, to the front wheels.","Next, technicians mount two spring-loaded pedals in front of the chassis.","The brake system is hydraulic, meaning that pressurized fluid activates the calipers to grab or release the brake disks.","Next come the wheel humps on which the tire rims go.","Then the engine...","Followed by the tires...","And a fiberglass driver's seat, which, due to the lack of suspension, lets the driver feel every inch of the track.","Finally-- the steering wheel and a data recording device that tracks everything from speed and lap time to tire and exhaust temperatures.","Animatronics is the construction of robotic puppets that move in a lifelike way.","You often see animatronic characters in science-fiction movies, as well as theme parks and carnivals.","Please be advised that this segment contains images which may not be suitable for younger viewers.","When it comes to the horror genre, the more gruesome the animatronic character, the better.","Meet crazy kristen.","She starts out as a hunk of clay.","Her creator sculpts her form on a vertical table.","Once he finishes her shape, he switches to finer tools to craft her gory features.","He uses water and a sponge to give her skin realistic texture.","Once the clay is hardened, they lay crazy kristen on her back and drown her in gypsum plaster.","In an hour or so, the plaster sets, and they remove the sculpture, creating a mold from which they'll produce multiple crazy kristens.","The mold is quite heavy, so for easier handling, they sever the body in two.","Then they'll fill each mold cavity with liquid latex rubber.","A three-millimeter skin soon hardens against the mold cavity wall.","They suction out the remaining liquid latex.","Meanwhile, they weld together a steel skeleton, a grate for her rib cage, a strip for her spine, chains for her arm bones, ball bearings for her joints, and steel reinforced rubber for her neck.","So far, crazy kristen has skin and bones.","Now she needs flesh.","They fill each mold cavity with expanding polyurethane foam.","To control the expansion, they cover the top with a plastic sheet and guide the foam with their hands.","The lower body doesn't require an inner support structure because it's immobile-- just steel chains in the legs to hold them in place.","Once the foam hardens, it's safe to extract crazy kristen's body from the molds.","They trim off excess latex along the perimeter.","Then sit her upper body on a large swiveling ball bearing mounted on a vertical metal base.","They insert a pair of rods through holes in the base.","Each rod is bolted to a plate sitting on those ball bearing joints in her skeleton.","The other end gets welded to the base.","These cylinders are pneumatic, meaning air pressure opens and closes them, making crazy kristen thrash about.","It's all controlled by this digital device they mount on a guitar amplifier.","It sends electric pulses that control the pneumatic cylinders.","An actress records the accompanying shrieks and moans.","they transfer the soundtrack to the digital control box.","The box triggers the sound effects, along with the movement.","It's time to apply crazy kristen's makeup.","For her skin colors, they use a half-and-half mixture of house paint and liquid latex rubber.","For her eyeballs, they use off-white opaque ink.","Then they airbrush the iris...","And paint in the pupil with the stick end of a small brush...","A few veins with a red pen...","Airbrushed ink on her mouthguard...","And finally clear epoxy over her eyeballs, to make them glassy.","They top her off with a wig, mount her lower body to the base, then complete her look with a straitjacket, because crazy kristen's home is the insane asylum."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Clay","Pitted Prunes","Spurs","Polyurethane Tires"]},"text":["The origin of so many useful things is muddy-- from bricks to tiles to dinnerware.","Even the kitchen sink can be made from clay.","Clay is a component of soil that, when wet, has a certain plasticity that allows it to be shaped into hundreds of things.","There are many shades of clay.","The whitest is the purest and used to manufacture things like dinnerware, sinks, and tiles.","Clay isn't just dirt.","It's one of the most valuable resources on earth.","To find it, they excavate topsoil and gravel at this site in kentucky.","They dig down as far as 80 feet.","The deeper they go, the whiter the clay.","A loader transfers it to a truck for transport.","Fresh from the earth, the moisture content of the clay is between 15% and 22%.","The particles of clay clump together, but the clumps can be easily broken up.","The clay will now be processed to a workable form.","It's a short drive from the clay pit to the factory.","They unload it in a building without walls so it will air dry a bit.","They do a visual inspection of the color and consistency.","Every few loads, they also do a chemical analysis of the mineral content.","This allows them to categorize the clay for specific purposes and for blending in different clay recipes.","Next, they transfer the clay to a revolving tub.","The tub has knives that protrude up into it.","As it spins, the knives hit the lumps of clay to chop them into smaller pieces.","These smaller clay chunks flow out of the chopper and ride a conveyor into a hopper.","The hopper feeds the clay to a mill.","En route to the mill, the clay travels through fire-- a flame generated by a furnace below.","This is called flash drying, and it brings the moisture content down to 1% to 2%-- the right consistency to now grind it into a fine powder.","The grinding mill is a shaft with numerous hammers sandwiched between steel plates.","As the shaft turns, the hammers will swing to grind the clay lumps into a powder.","The mill will also blend different kinds of clay to create specific products.","They put the cover on the mill and set it in motion.","The hammers pulverize the different clays into a powder.","Overhead, a machine sucks up the ground clay, using spinning blades and a vacuum.","The cyclone effect lifts up the clay particles and leaves heavier impurities like sand behind.","The result is a purer clay blend.","Here are various clays now dried, pulverized, and purified.","They run numerous tests on clay.","For this one, the technician presses the clay powder into a cake-like disc, using a hydraulic press.","At the same time, he weighs the clay.","Weight can indicate the clay's pliability and the speed at which it can be cast.","He fires the clay disc in an oven overnight and examines the color to confirm that it's the desired hue.","Over at the packaging station, a worker hangs open bags on spouts, which will fill the bags full of dry powdered clay.","The customer will add water and other ingredients to turn this particular blend into a glaze for things like tiles and sinks.","In powdered form, the clay is lighter and cheaper to ship.","Some customers prefer wet-processed clay, even though it's heavier.","For that, they add water and chemicals to make a slurry.","They pump the slurry through a sieve to screen out impurities.","The clay slurry now flows into big mixing tanks, where it remains in a constant state of agitation.","Continuous mixing keeps it fluid.","Without it, the clay would thicken to the consistency of peanut butter.","On delivery day, they pump it into tanker trucks.","At another factory, this particular batch will be used to make sinks or tubs.","The next trucks will likely be headed somewhere else.","You never know what will be made from this product of the earth.","Among dried fruits, none inspires a gut reaction like prunes.","Eating them is one way to kick-start a lethargic gastrointestinal system.","High in fiber, sweet and chewy, prunes are actually dried plums, and they're a delicacy that's as old as civilization itself.","Prunes have been found in ancient egyptian tombs, placed there to snack on during the journey to the next world.","Fast-forward to today, and people are still snacking on prunes.","They also add them to salads, muffins, and main-course recipes.","It all starts with the growing stock.","Not all varieties of plums are suitable for drying.","At this california orchard, they grow the d'agen plum--  a european variety.","Harvesting machines shake the trees by the trunks, and the fruit rains down onto a conveyor, which delivers it to bins.","They then truck the plums to the receiving plant...","And unload them directly into a washing system.","Tree leaves float to the surface of the water to be removed.","The plums exit onto a table that vibrates to distribute them evenly so they land on trays in fairly equal amounts.","A paddle overhead levels them on the trays.","Machinery stacks the trays of plums on racks.","The plums are now ready to dry.","They're about 80% water when they enter the dryer.","16 hours of heat exposure brings the moisture content down to 19%.","Plums were once sun-dried as a means of preservation, but a modern industrial dryer produces more uniform results.","The dried plums travel under a vacuum that sucks out sticks or stems.","Then the prunes travel to a shaking conveyor with a lot of different-sized holes.","The first holes are the smallest, and they become progressively larger to sort the prunes by size.","They fall into separate bins below.","The smallest fruit will be used for breakfast or diced product.","The largest prunes will end up as snack food.","Preserved by drying and now sorted, they can be stored for months until processing.","At the processing plant, the prunes head into a super-sized steam cooker.","They spend 18 minutes in there.","The steam cooking partially rehydrates them, softening the prunes so the pits can be removed more easily.","They must now remove the pits before the prunes start to lose moisture and become too dry for the job to be done efficiently.","The prunes speed towards the pitting operation and flow into five lanes.","Each one leads to a separate pitting line.","With five different pitting lines, they'll process hundreds of prunes a minute.","Clamps close around the prunes, securing them for knives to push out the pits.","The pits will be ground up and added to animal feed.","The pitted prunes make a soft landing on a rubber conveyor, which takes them into a laser-detection center.","The laser finds pits or pit fragments and relays the information to a computer.","The computer activates air jets that blast out the unwanted material.","It happens so fast, it's all a blur.","On another shaker conveyor now, the prunes bounce towards a big drum.","The drum revolves slowly to gently toss the prunes as they pump in a preservative, flavorings, and oil.","The prunes absorb the ingredients as they tumble around in the drum.","At this point, they sample the moisture content of the prunes every 15 minutes.","The technician grinds and compresses some prunes into a disc.","She drives an electrode into it to gauge the moisture.","It should be between 28% and 32%-- enough to improve the texture, but a lot less than fresh fruit.","It's time to wrap things up.","Sectioning arms open the bags.","Feeders dispense a precise amount of pitted prunes into them.","A heated device then melts the ends of the plastic bags together to seal them.","They produce 120 bags of prunes a minute at this factory, so adding fiber to one's diet shouldn't be a problem.","If you ride horses regularly, chances are you own a pair of spurs.","Spurs strap onto the heels of riding boots.","Each spur has a small wheel, usually spiked, with which the rider prods the horse to get it to start moving or move faster.","The anatomy of a spur is elementary.","The wheel, called the rawl, is mounted in the shank.","The shank is connected to the heel band.","The heel band is held to the boot by a leather strap.","The metal parts are made from a strong, yet flexible, type of steel.","A computer-guided laser cuts the starting shape for the heel bands.","A quick strike of a press stamps them with the company name.","Next, workers smooth and bevel the edges, using a sander outfitted with a special belt for grinding metal.","Next, they hammer the piece around a steel block, cushioning the blows with a piece of wood to avoid marring the surface.","The block is shaped exactly like the heel of the boots for which the spurs have been ordered, ensuring a custom fit.","They heat evenly with a torch.","This relaxes the steel around the block so that the heel band permanently registers this shape.","Then, some final taps to lay the band completely flat against the block.","This perfects the shape.","They submerge the heel band in cool water.","This tempers the flexible steel, rendering it hard and stiff.","Then, with a fine-grit belt, they sand away any surface imperfections.","A pair of spurs is made up of some two dozen steel pieces, all of which go through the same prep as the heel band.","Once all the parts are ready, workers precision weld the shank to the mid-point of the heel band.","Next, to each side of the heel band, they weld a pin, which holds a pivoting arm.","These swingarms, as they're called, hold the leather strap that retains the spur to the boot.","To make the rawls, they trace a template on steel, then cut along the lines with a metal band saw.","If the rawl shape is elaborate, a computer-guided laser cuts them out.","After sanding the rawl thoroughly to smooth sharp edges which could cut the horse, they mount it to the shank with a stainless-steel pin.","Then they weld the back of the pin.","Now the artistry begins.","A craftsman creates decorative overlays in sterling silver.","He cuts their shapes with a jeweler's saw, draws a design, then, using an array of engraving tools, meticulously carves it out.","He cleans the back of the overlays with flux-- an acidic chemical--  then coats them with solder.","The trick is to apply just enough to bond the silver to the steel.","Too much would overflow and ruin the front.","By the time he gently applies each overlay to the spur, the solder has cooled and solidified, so he warms the steel with a torch from underneath.","This reheats and liquefies the solder, which then cools and resolidifies, bonding the silver to the steel.","The heat causes some discoloration, which he easily removes with a bit of flux.","Once all the silver overlays are soldered to the spur, workers polish them on a cloth buffing wheel.","The finishing touch-- they submerge the spurs in a tank containing a chemical solution called gun bluing.","It turns the shiny steel parts black.","To produce an antique brown, rather than black finish, workers heat the spurs in an oven, then apply a chemical which tints the steel.","Now for the leather straps.","An artisan tools the leather entirely by hand, dyes it, attaches a stainless-steel buckle, then sews tabs on both ends that hook to the swingarms on the heel band.","This shiny set of spurs is ready for some horsing around.","Many low-speed vehicles have tires made of polyurethane foam, rather than air-filled rubber tires.","Polyurethane doesn't deteriorate in sunlight, nor does it dry out over time.","And if the tire is made entirely of the closed-cell type of foam, the tire won't go flat.","Polyurethane tires are designed for low-speed vehicles, such as baggage carts and ride-on lawn mowers.","This particular type of polyurethane foam has a closed-cell structure, which prevents a flat, even if the tire gets punctured.","Millions of air bubbles encapsulated within the foam give it the required bounce factor.","The first step is to take an aluminum model of the tire and make a production mold with it.","This one's for a forklift.","The mold will have two halves--  each one lined with a tread ring to prevent the cast tire from getting stuck in the cavity.","To make each half of the mold, they center the model in a base, then fill the space around it with polyurethane elastomer, which is a solid type of polyurethane, as opposed to the foam type they use to cast the tires.","They stir gently to move air bubbles to the top...","Then heat those bubbles with a small propane torch to burst them.","With the help of a heated table to speed things along, the material solidifies in approximately 15 minutes, at which point, they extract the half-mold...","And, with the utility knife, trim its rough edges both inside and out.","Then they mate the two halves, and the production mold is ready.","Whereas most companies buy foam mixtures ready-made, this one blends its own, in order to have strict control over the formulation.","Technicians weigh out the chemical ingredients manually with a high-precision industrial scale that's accurate to within 1 1/2 ounces.","A propeller-shaped blade mixes the ingredients for half an hour, moving everything from top to bottom more than 300 times and drawing it out of the corners of the container.","This ensures the mixture is evenly blended throughout.","Before using this foam to cast the tires, a quality-control test.","They take a sample from the batch and let it rise and set, which takes about a minute.","Then they cut a piece of a specific size, weigh it, and calculate the density.","If the sample meets specifications, the batch is a go.","Just before filling the two halves of the mold with polyurethane foam, they lubricate the cavity with a release agent.","This prevents the tire from sticking to the mold when they extract it.","A press keeps the mold closed and in place on the filling machine.","The machine spins the mold while the foam flows into the cavity through a hole at the top.","The spinning creates centrifugal force that distributes the foam into every nook and cranny.","In less than a minute, the foam, although not yet fully cured, is solid enough to be extracted.","They open the mold, remove the tread ring, then dislodge the cast tire with a short blast of an air gun.","They trim the excess foam from the center.","It can be ground up to make other products, such as floor mats.","Here's what the tire looks like before...","And after trimming.","The polyurethane foam takes 24 more hours to fully cure, then the tires are ready to roll.","This company sells tires with and without painted steel rims.","Rim installation is simple.","They place the rim on a base, followed by a mounting cone, then the tire.","A press snaps the center of the tire over the edge of the rim.","Besides making the tire flat-resistant, the closed-cell structure of this polyurethane foam doesn't absorb water, meaning wet conditions don't hamper performance.","The tire is also u.v. resistant and withstands high abrasion, so it typically lasts two to three times longer than an air-filled tire used on the same vehicle."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Peaked Caps","Custom Water Heaters","Electric Boats","Fencing Foils"]},"text":["Throughout europe in the late 1700s, peaked caps were traditionally worn by industrial workers.","Today, they are worn by professionals such as security personnel, members of the military, and police officials that wear uniforms.","In the united kingdom, some police officers still wear the classic custodian helmet, but now many officers have chosen to wear the lightweight, comfortable, and practical peaked cap.","To make these caps, a hat maker, or a milliner, assembles a number of components using patterns to cut out the required pieces of wool, foam, and plastic.","A milliner bends a strip of polypropylene plastic into a circle.","She sews the joint with a high-strength thread, creating the hat band that will go around the head.","She positions a smaller piece of polypropylene, known as the badge support, and sews it in place.","The support will prevent the weight of a police badge from distorting the shape of the hat.","These crescent-shaped components are pieces of wool glued to thin, flexible foam.","She sews the crescents together, creating a circular piece, which will form the bevel.","She uses a specialized, long-arm sewing machine, which has been customized to make hats.","The seams are carefully ironed flat to prevent any bulging.","If the iron is too hot, the foam will melt.","Too cool, and the wool won't flatten.","She aligns two strips of 100% wool fabric and sews them together at the ends.","This piece will cover the plastic stiffener forming the outer band.","To ensure the sizing is correct, the milliner places the wool cover over the stiffener.","The stiffener is installed at the end of the production process.","Next, the milliner irons the seams of the band covers.","She finishes the band covers on a sewing machine known as a flat bed and creates a fold to hold the plastic stiffener and sews the edges together.","Then the band cover is sewed to the bevel.","While it's difficult to attach two pieces of cloth at different angles, this step creates an even seam that runs 360 degrees.","It takes at least six months of training to learn how to make hats.","The crown is made from three materials-- a combination of wool and foam, a polyester lining, and a protective-grade p.v.c. layer.","Once the three materials have been sewn together, the machinist trims the perimeter of the crown.","She marks the side edges and aligns them with the seams on the bevel.","Then she sews the crown to the bevel.","Having spent a great deal of time perfecting the skills, this milliner makes it look easy.","Finally, the components begin to resemble a hat.","Using a polypropylene template, the machinist positions and marks two spots on the bevel.","She places two small brass rings on a special device and aligns the marks with the device's posts, which cut out two holes through the fabric.","Then she places two cup-shaped rings on the posts, and the machine punches them down, forming eyelets for ventilation.","Next, the polypropylene stiffener is inserted into the hat.","Finally, the hat begins to take on its final shape.","The tag containing the hat's size is sewed on hat band.","She places a checkered-pattern band on the brim of the hat, called dicing or the sillitoe tartan.","The milliner inserts a replica badge through holes in the badge support and secures it with a pin.","This is a replica, since we can't show real police badges on tv.","Next, the milliner sews the peak onto the band.","It took a highly skilled milliner more than half an hour to sew this hat.","They might look straightforward, but peaked caps are surprisingly complex.","A home water heater stores and heats water in a tank.","This is how it works.","When you turn on a faucet, hot water flows out of the tank from the top, while cold water flows into the tank from the bottom.","Conventional water heaters are fueled by natural gas, electricity, propane, or oil.","This company custom-builds several types of water heaters for use with different types of heat sources, such as boilers, heat pumps, and solar panels.","Each work order includes a picture outlining the pipe configuration and the connecting valves, along with a list of the water heater's specifications.","To make a copper tank, a technician cuts a thick sheet of copper to a specified length.","He aligns the end of the sheet to the gradation on the table that corresponds to the tank's circumference.","Then he actives the guillotine blade with a foot pedal.","A computer-guided machine punches holes for the valves.","This water heater requires two valves at each end of the heating coil and one that will connect the water pipe to the tank.","The technician inserts the copper sheet into a mechanical roller.","The rollers apply pressure, forming the sheet into an open cylinder.","One end of the cylinder is clamped into a machine that welds linear seams.","The technician inserts the other end of the cylinder through the machine and joins it against the clamped end.","The machine is programmed to weld a seam to the length of the connected ends.","The technician monitors the welding arm through a u.v. lens to protect his eyes.","The machine stops automatically when it reaches the programmed seam length.","This process closes the cylinder with a strong, pressure-resistant seam, creating the water-heater tank's structural component.","Another technician places the tank's top on a press.","The press punches a hole for a threaded pipe fitting.","The fitting connects the pipe to the hot water.","Using a different press, the technician makes another hole into the cylinder for a threaded fitting.","This fitting connects to an electrical element that heats water in conjunction with a boiler.","Another technician makes the tank's heating coil by running a straight copper tube through three rollers.","The tube is bent under pressure, forming it into a coiled shape.","The heat from the boiler, pump, or solar panel flows through the heating coil, heating the water stored in the tank.","Since the copper-tube wall is too thin to weld, a technician uses a fusing technique known as brazing.","This metal-joining process brazes a flow fitting on one end of the heating coil and a return fitting on the other.","Next, the heating coil is placed in the tank.","The fittings protrude through a hole at the top and bottom.","The technician secures each one with a nut, then tightens the nuts with an impact wrench.","Like the dome top, the bottom component's edges are grooved, allowing the tank to fit perfectly into the cylinder base.","Once the top and bottom components are installed, the tank goes back to the brazing station for final assembly.","A welder brazes the top and bottom components to the cylinder, then he brazes a feed fitting to a hole near the bottom of the tank.","This location is where cold water enters the tank to be heated.","Next, a technician conducts a quality-control test.","He blocks the three fittings, fills the cylinder with air, then submerges the tank in water to check for air bubbles, which would indicate a leak.","A stainless-steel water heater is constructed just like a copper heater, except that they don't require any brazing.","A robot sprays the tanks with expandable polyurethane foam for insulation.","The customer selects the degree of insulation, one to four inches thick.","The foam takes just five minutes to cure.","As the tank stores hot water, the insulation reduces the amount of heat the tank loses over time.","Electrically powered vehicles may seem like a 21st-century phenomenon, but they were actually first invented in the 1880s.","During that time, they were very popular, until combustion-engine vehicles became the new normal.","Today, these electrically powered alternative-fuel vehicles are making a comeback.","This manufacturer produces a wide range of electric boats.","Thanks to powerful batteries, some of these vehicles can travel over 35 miles per hour.","Craftspeople apply a gel-coat skin to a mold, using a product derived from vinyl.","Then they layer on a dry fiberglass fabric and vacuum-bag the entire assembly.","The vacuum suction draws in liquid resin, infusing the material.","A craftsman marks a dry spot as a test point to monitor and ensure complete saturation.","The infusion process takes about two hours.","Once complete, the assembly will cure for four to six hours, depending on the general humidity and temperature levels.","Once cured, the assembly is removed from the mold.","Despite the structure's light weight, this deck is incredibly strong, rigid, and durable.","The fiberglass decks and hulls make up the boat's shells.","A craftswoman applies a high-strength marine glue to a recessed area of the deck.","She installs an anti-skid deck insertion.","This material is a composite designed to resemble wood.","Unlike real wood, this composite material will last the lifetime of the boat and won't require any additional maintenance.","The craftswoman uses a roller to apply pressure evenly across the entire decking surface.","This step will eliminate any unwanted air pockets.","Next, a mirror-image decking section is applied to the other side.","A specialist installs the electrical-wiring harness.","To avoid corrosion, marine-grade wiring is stored in a sealed environment under the deck.","Since the decking is lightweight, it only takes two people to lift and install it on the hull.","The lip of the deck fits snugly into place.","The most powerful boat models require lithium-ion batteries.","These boats are built with military-grade foam.","The density of the foam adds structure, causing the boat to become unsinkable.","Using a hoist, technicians install the deck of a large, powerful electric boat.","The deck lip slides over the top of the hull.","Depending on the boat model, the manufacturer uses either lithium-ion or lead-acid batteries as a power source.","A specialist installs a series of marine-grade dc31 lead-acid batteries.","At 6 volts, 225 amps, they're similar to batteries used in cars.","By contrast, the 7.7-kilowatt lithium-ion batteries pack a charge of 48 volts.","The batteries are installed under the seats.","To create a watertight seal between the deck to the hull, a craftsman installs a rubber bumper around the perimeter of the boat.","Holes have been pre-drilled to avoid cracking when installation is complete.","This manufacturer sources their motors from an outside electric-motor company, which also builds motors for cars.","The fin, made of aluminum encased in marine-grade rubber, is installed on the bottom of the motor.","The propeller attaches to the motor with a zinc nut.","Two circuit boards located on board will send instructions to the motor.","A waterproof cover is placed on top of the circuit boards for added protection.","Locknuts with nylon washers will prevent unnecessary vibrations while the motor is on.","With the steering cables installed, the entire unit pivots right and left, allowing the pilot on deck to steer.","The powerful motor is equivalent to a 10-horsepower combustion engine, and because it sits in the water, it stays cool and quiet.","Finally, a craftswoman places the boat's sun canopy over the framework.","This will allow customers to add solar panels for charging the boat.","Also, a customer can choose the colors for both their canopies and upholstery.","There's no denying that electric boats are the future of fun on the water.","Modern fencing is a sport consisting of three disciplines, one of which is foil fencing.","While in play, a lightweight foil sword is used to score points.","Points can be scored when the tip of a player's sword makes contact onto their opponent's torso.","A fencing foil is a piece of equipment that should only be used by trained professionals.","This sword doesn't have a sharp edge or pointed tip.","It's all about scoring hits.","Fencing foils are made out of thin steel bars.","The steel is a low-carbon, nickel-rich alloy that's strong yet flexible.","An automated saw cuts the bars to a length of 35 inches.","The bar will be stretched and shortened as it's transformed.","A forge heats and hammers the hilt end to a round shape, leaving the rest of the rod rectangular.","Here you can see the difference in the rod's shape.","Another forging machine softens the end of the rod and pushes the blade through a series of hammers.","This tapers the blade and stretches the steel, doubling it in size.","An operator clamps the tapered blade in a jig to hold it straight while the steel cools.","Then the operator slices the hilt end to length.","The excess steel will be recycled into new swords.","Next, the blades are heated in a 932-degree oven.","This step removes stresses and makes the metal less brittle.","After a second heating, the blades soak in oil to cool and harden.","The exposure to intense heat causes a rusty scale to form on the blade, so technicians clean it off.","A sword maker clamps the blades in a disc grinder.","The grinder carves a fine groove from the hilt to the tip.","The groove will house a wire for the electric scoring system.","The blade is cleaned to remove any remaining surface imperfections.","A spinning belt coated with an abrasive grinds all four sides of the blade.","Then the sword is polished using a buffing wheel and polishing compound.","You can see the difference this makes in the blade on the right.","The craftsman hammers the blade against an anvil to straighten out any kinks.","Then he inspects the blade.","If needed, the craftsman will make adjustments to the blade with a hammer.","Now it's time to work on the hilt end of the blade.","Another craftsman locks the end of the blade in a threading die, applies lubricant, and activates the automated system.","The system turns the sword in the die, carving out threads.","Then the threaded hilt is cut to length.","At the next station, a computerized laser engraves the company logo into the steel.","After the sensor barrel is installed on the end of the sword and the electrical scoring wire is placed in the groove, the technician applies glue to keep the wire secure.","The sword blade is placed in a rack that holds it in a bow-like bend.","This step will give the glued wire the flexibility it needs to bend with the rest of the sword while in use.","After the blade has cured, a pressure sensor spring is inserted into the barrel and capped with a sensor button.","The technician uses screws to hold the components together.","To assemble the hilt, the scoring wire is threaded through a hole in the guard so it can easily slide into place.","Then the sensor wire is connected to a socket.","The wiring assembly is covered with a plastic pad that allows the socket to protrude.","Finally, the pistol-grip handle is screwed into the threaded end of the blade.","This fencing foil is now ready for testing.","The technician plugs the fencing foil into testing equipment, then he places a one-pound weight on the sensor button and checks to see if it responds.","And the results are in.","This fencing foil is now ready to stand up to its competition."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Trucks","Adhesive Bandages","Computer Circuit Boards","Liquors"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Trucks-- we'll tell you haul[all] you need to know about them.","Adhesive bandages-- we'll stick to the facts in this report.","Computer circuit boards-- letting the chips fall where they may.","And liquor-- we distill the whole process for you.","Whether your rig of choice rides on 8, 10, or 18 wheels, trucks have got the goods, and they get them to where they have to go.","Trucks not only transport most of today's consumables, they're the undisputed kings of the road.","Fabricating these massive trucks requires many highly complex steps since the parts are usually heavy and tricky to handle.","Assembly begins with the fabrication of the bearing frame, the main part on which the truck's cab, motor, and transmission will rest.","They begin by assembling these tempered-steel stringers, beams varying in length between 25 and 43 feet.","The chassis is made as a huge meccano set.","The stringers are solidly attached together with nuts and bolts and tightened with powerful pneumatic tools.","Once assembled, the main chassis is transported to another stage of construction.","Now they're going to install the mechanical parts.","They start with the differential, the axle, and the springs' leaves.","The brake mounts are then put in place.","The plates installed in the mounts allow the truck to brake.","They install the wheel hub onto which the wheels will be attached.","Then the transmission shaft, which will power the driving wheels, is inserted.","They finish the rear-wheel assembly by mounting the heavy brake drum made of cast iron.","To facilitate the mounting, everything is assembled upside down.","With an overhead crane capable of lifting a 26,000-pound load, they then turn the part right-side up.","Next step, the motor-propulsion elements.","The transmission is bolted to the motor, seen here in yellow.","The motor-propelling elements comprise the clutch and the transmission, installed at the front end of the truck chassis.","A truck has between 6 and 10 wheels 22 inches in diameter.","The tire and wheel together weigh about 120 pounds.","Because of this heavy weight, the wheels are installed with the help of this powerful tool.","This bolt fastener allows tightening of all the wheel nuts at the same time.","The mechanical part is ended, and they now proceed with the cab assembly.","This begins with painting.","The cab is moved toward the front to facilitate the installation of various components.","This worker attaches the support for the horn to the roof of the truck cab.","Now for the cab's interior.","They begin by installing the dashboard, which weighs about 80 pounds.","Following this, they attach all the wires, the turn indicators, the speedometer, and the pedals.","The seats are then installed.","The cab work is now all completed.","It is bolted onto the chassis.","Now for the motor's hood.","They finish off with the lights, the exhaust pipe, and the mudguards.","The truck is now almost ready to hit the road.","They start it up and verify that everything's operating properly.","And it's now ready for delivery to the customer.","It requires 95 to 100 hours of work to assemble a truck like this.","In spite of their 11,000-pound weight, these trucks can move along at a top speed of 75 miles per hour, and they can carry a load of some 30 tons.","Cut your finger?","Well, you've got a couple of first-aid options.","You can wrap it up in bulky gauze or you can apply a flexible adhesive bandage.","If you're like most people, you'll take the bandage and save the gauze for your mummy costume next halloween-- from boo-boo to boo.","Adhesive bandages are made of various materials, among which is the main support called e.t.s.-- a fabric that's elastic in only one direction.","It's a fabric that will become the adhesive portion of the bandage.","This 6,000-foot roll of fabric can make 1.8 million small bandages or 300,000 large bandages.","A thin coating of glue is applied to one surface of the fabric.","Then it's heated to 120 degrees in an oven to puff it up, creating holes in the glue coating.","Then the fabric is newly rolled up into around 1,000-foot lengths.","Bandages are different sizes.","These blades cut the glued rolls into strips of varying widths.","These rolls are taken away and stacked, ready for the next step-- application of the little cushioned protective pads.","The material used for the pads is shown here as a large roll of fabric which will have to be cut.","Here, a machine cuts the fabric pads.","These extremely sharp blades have to be sharpened every six months.","The cushioned fabric is separated into narrow strips which will later be glued to the e.t.s. fabric.","The strips of cushioned fabric are now ready to be applied to the bandages.","This is the machine that fabricates the bandages.","The roll of bandage components is unrolled.","The machine assembles them, then cuts and individually wraps them.","The bandages are wrapped one by one.","This machine applies the unprinted white wrapping paper that protects the bandages.","And now they proceed to packaging.","Packaging speed depends on the product, varying between 300 and 1,500 bandages a minute.","This roller perforates holes that allow the bandages to be easily separated from one another.","Strips of bandages are then placed into boxes.","Here we see other small bandages that are made in a different way.","The cushioned strip is positioned at the center of the e.t.s. fabric strip.","The cushioned pad isn't sterile at this stage.","They will have to be sterilized right at the end of the fabrication process.","Next step, applying two plastic paper protectors over the glue-covered ends of the bandage.","This done, the bandage is drawn by suction with a robotic arm and placed between two wrapping papers.","In slow motion, we see the wrapping action better.","This machine is much faster than the eye.","At full speed, it can wrap 300 bandages a minute.","The bandages exit the machine perfectly wrapped.","Certain types of bandages have to go through a sequential bandage machine to have aeration holes pierced in them.","These holes allow air to circulate and thus help promote healing.","These bandages are now ready.","Sometimes they print instructions on bandage wrappers.","This paper-printing machine is used with bandage machines.","Two polymer plates receive ink from a series of rollers in order to reproduce the desired design.","The bandages pass through at high speed.","Before being packaged, the bandages are finally sterilized 10,000 at a time.","Bandages are automatically counted here, placed in a chute, and fall into the packaging box.","The large role of e.t.s. fabric seen at the beginning will have allowed them to make nearly 2 million bandages.","Each year, this facility produces a staggering 4 billion bandages in 65 different models.","Computer technology changes quicker than just about any other industry on earth, so watch fast.","Electronic circuits have shrunk from miles of wiring to the size of a computer circuit board, and they're still getting smaller.","An electronic circuit board is a computer component that can produce spectacularly realistic scenes.","Animating this particular three-dimensional graphic took four months of work by artists and programmers with the aid of a g400 graphic processor by matrox.","A printed circuit board can be compared to a building composed of fiberglass floors, copper passageways, and stairs that link the floors between them.","Cards are assembled with two technologies-- surface wiring and wiring through the card.","The components are placed into the holes and soldered in place.","A stencil is used to apply soldering paste onto the card.","This paste will solder the surface components.","Here they place the stencil into the printing unit.","It is through these holes that the soldering paste will run.","The machine spreads the soldering paste, which contains, among other elements, a tin-lead alloy.","The printing blades go into action.","They spread the soldering paste onto the stencil.","This paste runs through the stencil holes and covers the metallic surfaces of the printed circuit board, which will establish the electric current.","Here's the difference between an unprinted card and another printed one-- the unprinted card's surface is much more shiny.","Now they're going to install the surface-wiring elements.","They're automatically positioned by this rapid-placement machine.","About 36,000 components are installed per hour.","That's about 10 per second.","This incredibly sophisticated machine is equipped with a viewing camera which verifies the alignment and dimensions of each part before installation, and it unerringly positions the part at the exact spot.","Another machine, slightly less precise than the previous one, installs parts where the space between two placement points is less than 2/100 of an inch.","It can install 8,000 parts in 60 minutes.","The card continues on its way toward the oven, which accomplishes an essential operation.","Once the parts are secured, the card goes into a convection oven, where the heat will solder the parts to the card.","Different circuit connectors through the card are inserted into their respective holes.","This operation requires great dexterity and is entirely done by hand.","The metallic placement points need to be soldered to the card.","The soldering of the circuit components through the card is done with a bath of molten tin-lead alloy at a temperature of 465 degrees.","Now everything is installed.","They have to do an initial electrical test.","The card is placed on a bed of electrified pegs.","These pegs make contact with the card's connecting points, allowing them to check for short circuits or open circuits in the card.","And then a final test-- a computer-aided operating test to see if the card is functioning perfectly.","This company fabricates 200 different circuit board models and produces about 4,000 cards each week.","The secrets behind the world's finest spirits and liquor all boil down to one simple recipe-- mix grain and water, then ferment and distill.","Add a few hundred years of tradition, and you begin to understand why these bottles are worth their weight in gold.","The principle of distillation was known to ancient romans who mastered the process.","However, we still don't know the precise ingredients they used.","In the middle ages, stills produced the first alcohols from wine.","The 7th century saw people making ethyl alcohol, and by the 15th century, the process was further refined, leading to the production of today's brandy, bourbon, cognac, and whiskey.","Dried corn kernels are the main grain used in making spirits.","Every day, 7 truckloads empty out 230 tons of it.","This corn will produce the basic ingredient for spirits such as whiskey, gin, crème d'amande, and amaretto.","The kernels are stored in these 80-foot-high silos, which can hold up to 275 tons.","This is the distillery control room.","They're going to make a recipe that's 95% corn and produces a neutral alcohol to which they will add other grains for color and flavor.","We see here the first step on this screen-- the milling of the grain.","Some 9 tons of corn flour and 5,000 gallons of water are introduced into this autoclave and cooked with live steam for 90 minutes.","Enzymes transform starch into sugar.","Then they add the yeast, which converts sugar into alcohol.","Fermentation lasts 60 hours at 100 degrees.","The bubbling we see is created by the action of the yeasts.","This cone removes the carbon dioxide, a natural by-product of fermentation.","Nearly 80 tons of carbon dioxide are drawn off daily.","Everything is monitored by computer.","Some 24 hours have now passed since the start of fermentation.","When this stage has ended, corn oil will come to the surface and is clearly visible by its reddish color.","The fermented mash has a 13% alcohol content.","They now move on to the next step-- distillation, which condenses the vapors of the mix.","It's in this three-column distillation system, at a temperature of 185 degrees, that the mash ferments and is distilled by live steam to separate the alcohol.","All the distillation columns are continually monitored.","During distillation, they dry the grains used in the recipe in this rotating drum.","The resulting product is called draff, and it will be used to make animal feed.","Distillation is now ended.","To aromatize certain gins, they add dried lemon skins, some cinnamon, or coriander.","Rum and whiskey will be aged in these 350,000 oak barrels.","While aging, these spirits will lose about 3% of their alcohol content annually through evaporation.","Also, the color gradually darkens.","They're now ready to draw out the liquid from the barrels and put it into bottles.","But first they have to verify the quality of the spirits.","They compare the standard product with the new production.","This test is highly important in order to assure the quality of the final product.","Bottling begins.","Here, 140 750-milliliter bottles of rum and spirts are filled every minute.","Clean bottles circulate continually on the conveyor, leading them to the filling machine.","Bottles are then filled automatically by this machine.","It allows an exact quantity to flow into each bottle.","The next step, a capper places caps on the bottles and crimps them onto the necks.","Then the sealed and labeled bottles head for the packaging department.","This other machine fills 120 bottles with 1.14 liters of canadian whiskey every minute.","In this distillery, some 20 different spirits are produced.","With 37,000 tons of corn kernels, they produce 44 million 750-milliliter bottles of spirits annually."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Mini GP Motorcycles","Fig Cookies","Tool Boxes","Pipe Bends"]},"text":["They're called mini g.p.s-- pint-sized motorcycles whose design is identical to that of the full-size motorbikes that race on the grand prix circuit.","Mini g.p.s are designed for kids 9 to 12 years old who aspire to one day race the big bikes.","A mini g.p. can reach speeds of 80 miles per hour.","Its chassis is made of steel tubing, to which they mount the handlebars along with the clutch and brake levers.","At both the front and back of the chassis, they attach a fork.","Then, between each fork and the chassis, they mount a shock absorber.","With a steel pin, they mount a wheel on each fork.","The black circle at the center is a brake disk.","Next, they install a brake caliper on each wheel.","When the rider applies the brakes, the caliper grabs the brake disk, immobilizing the wheel.","Now mechanics begin assembling the engine block.","Using a special tool, they install bearings that enable the gear shafts to turn.","The engine has six gears, each of which is comprised of several steel gears.","These go into the gearbox.","Next comes the gear shifter.","It connects the gears to the gear pedal that the rider operates with his foot.","Next they install the crankshaft.","The combustion cycle rotates the crankshaft, which turns the gears.","They close up that side of the engine and assemble and install the desmodromic spring.","When the rider selects a gear, this spring keeps it locked in position until the rider switches gears.","The engine turns a driveshaft that, via this pinion gear, moves a chain that turns the rear wheel.","On the other side of the engine, they assemble the primary couple and the various components that go into the clutch, such as clutch plates and the springs that stop and start clutch movement.","When combustion drives the piston up and down, it rotates the crankshaft.","The primary couple transmits power to the gearbox and clutch.","This is a one-cylinder engine.","They install the piston that drives the crankshaft, then mount the cylinder over the piston.","They close up the cylinder with a cylinder head, then mount the spark plug that ignites the fuel mixture, driving the piston up and down.","A head cover closes everything up.","Next they install the ignition.","It consists of two magnets called a rotor and a stator.","When the rotor turns, it generates an electrical charge that sets off the spark plug.","Time to install the finished engine.","They mount it to the chassis with support pins, front and back.","Next they install the water pump that prevents the engine from overheating along with the belt that drives the pump.","Then they mount the carburetor.","It mixes the fuel entering the engine with just the right amount of air.","Next they install the air filter.","It keeps out debris that would clog the engine.","Now the exhaust pipe, the fuel tank, the seat, and fairing, a plastic enclosure that shields the driver.","The final component is the chain connecting the driveshaft to the rear wheel.","The engine turns the shaft, which turns this chain, which rotates the rear wheel.","Mini g.p.s come in different sizes.","This particular model has a 50cc, 14-horsepower engine.","Pretty impressive for a kid's motorcycle.","The fig cookie is one of life's sweet mysteries.","Who hasn't wondered how they get the figs in that seamless pastry wrap?","It turns out that the automated system for producing fig cookies actually dates back to 1891, and it's what makes the fig cookie a snacking success.","Fig cookies are a modern way of packaging a fruit which has been consumed for millennia.","Making the fig cookie's pastry wrap begins with bags of sugar, which they empty into a big mixer.","A couple of buckets of corn syrup follow.","Then they add an emulsifier called lecithin and some vanilla flavoring.","The bowl tilts up for a quick mixing.","A worker adds organic bread flour and leavening ingredients to the mix.","They reactivate the mixer, which blends everything into a thick, sticky batter.","Once properly mixed, they transfer the batter into a large holding tank.","Meanwhile, they prepare the fig filling.","A worker loads big blocks of figs into a mixer, then adds a generous amount of crumbled cookies for texture and flavor.","They mix the two ingredients, then pour in corn syrup to add moisture and sweetness.","They add some salt and give the batch another quick mix.","They sweeten the fig mix some more by adding plenty of sugar.","And now the jam for the center of the fig cookie is complete.","The fig jam and the pastry are now positioned for a merger.","It will be a neat trick, and a special piece of equipment makes it possible.","It's essentially a funnel within a funnel.","Rollers press the jam through the inner funnel while pushing the pastry through the outer one, encasing the fig filling in a seamless pastry jacket.","Here's the process in action.","The system generates long rows of fig-filled dough, and that's how they get the fig jam in the pastry.","Next a technician carves through the dough and removes a few uncooked fig cookies.","It's time for a quick weigh-in.","This confirms that this batch of fig cookies will be exactly the right size.","Now it's into an oven that's longer than a bowling alley.","It bakes and browns the fig-filled ribbons of dough.","Here, a roller compresses the baked cookies so they'll fit into packages later.","An ultrasonic frequency makes this blade vibrate for a clean cut as it carves the rows of fig-filled pastry into cookies.","The fig cookies are still a bit warm from baking, so they now chill out on a trip through a freezer.","This cooldown avoids condensation problems after packaging, preventing mold growth.","The trip through the freezer also firms up the fig cookies so they're less likely to crumble during handling.","As she packs them, this worker examines each fig cookie for imperfections, and there's not one reject in the lot.","The next step is packaging, where a machine parcels up the snacks.","It moves trays full of fig cookies into a sleeve of metallic film.","Finally, rotating jaws heat-seal the package at both ends.","It's taken about an hour to make this package of fig bars, and it's about time for a snack break.","If the crowd is hungry, the whole package could be gone in minutes, but that's the way the cookie crumbles.","Thinking inside the box can be a good thing if you want to organize your tools, and of course we're referring to the toolbox.","Proper tool storage keeps any work site running smoothly and efficiently, and today you can really go big on the concept with units designed for mechanics and other pros.","With a professional toolbox, you'll never have to rummage around for the tool you need.","There's a place for practically everything in one of these mega tool chests.","It starts with a coil of heavy-duty steel.","It unwinds into a punch press that cuts the metal into panels and punches holes for later assembly.","Each of these panels will be transformed into a toolbox drawer.","They feed the panels into an automated bending machine.","It folds them on three sides to create the back and sides of the drawer.","It also folds over the rim.","This adds strength to the drawer and gives it a smooth edge.","The assembler slides the front panel onto the drawer, then an automated welding gun reinforces the seams and secures part of the lock mechanism.","To build the toolbox cabinet, a worker arranges stiffeners and lock-bar grids on the back wall.","Then it's over to a lineup of computerized welding guns.","These guns fuse the stiffeners and grids to the panel.","Each part gets numerous welds to ensure the unit really holds up.","The cabinet's side walls are next.","Workers prop them up with supports as they weld the panels to the back wall.","With the toolbox right side up, they install the top.","They turn the cabinet around and, working from the open front, slide the lock bars into their slots.","They then build the front framework and weld ledges for the drawers to the support grid.","They add a panel to the bottom end of the cabinet and weld the entire perimeter.","Now it's into the paint booth, where spray guns coat everything in a layer of powder paint.","The paint is tough and solvent-resistant so it will hold up to oil spills in a garage environment.","They install the rest of the locking mechanisms on the front of the cabinet.","Then, using a guide, press the adhesive-backed logo into place.","They now snap the drawer slides into holes on the cabinet's side walls.","These slides are equipped with roller bearings that will enable the drawers to open and close smoothly.","Here they make use of the holes punched into the drawers earlier.","A quick click, and the drawers are fastened to the sides.","The drawers come in a range of sizes to accommodate tools of different proportions.","The shallow compartments will hold wrenches and screwdrivers, while the larger ones have been made for the big power tools.","Workers now encase this mega tool chest in plastic and cardboard.","But this job is not quite wrapped up.","They tip the unit on its side and send it down the line to get wheels.","The prepackaging prevents dents and scratches along the way.","A worker bolts casters on each corner of the cabinet to allow it to be easily moved around in a garage or any other work site.","Add-ons can be purchased for these tool chests, so the storage possibilities are virtually endless.","That's an organizational approach you can't really mess with.","Natural gas and crude oil travel worldwide through underground and undersea pipelines.","These rugged pipes are manufactured in straight lengths, but of course a pipeline's route never runs in a straight line, so every turn or change in elevation requires a piece of pipe that's bent.","This factory specializes in bending steel pipe, which is manufactured in straight lengths.","A piece of pipe is typically 40 feet long and weighs up to 20 tons, so workers use a crane to move it from one operation to the next.","The first stop is a blasting machine that cleans the pipe.","To heat and bend properly, the surface must be clean and uniform, but pipe usually arrives at the plant dirty and wearing a coat of varnish to prevent rusting during transport and storage.","The blasting machine shoots grains of steel at high pressure for about an hour.","The pipe exits with its surface now clean and smooth.","From the blaster, it's on to the blender, which heats the pipe to about 1,800 degrees fahrenheit, then makes the bend.","A technician installs the induction-heating coil.","Induction heating allows greater temperature control, which is key to preserving the quality of the steel.","The coil doesn't actually touch the pipe, because that would cause a short circuit.","Next they clamp a pivoting arm to one end of the pipe, then power up the coil.","This generates a magnetic field that produces intense heat.","Cold-water jets confine it to the target area.","As a technician monitors and measures, the arm pulls the pipe through the hot coil at a specific speed, curving the softened steel to the same angle.","Water cools the pipe at a controlled rate, a process called quenching.","They must control heating and cooling precisely.","Otherwise, the steel will weaken.","Once the pipe exits the bender, workers verify the angle again.","They also verify the pipe's dimensions to make sure the bending process didn't distort them.","Now they cut off the straight ends, leaving just the curved portion.","Next the pipes go into a furnace for tempering, a 10-hour reheating and cooling cycle.","This relieves stress in the steel that bending created.","After tempering, pipes designed to go underwater go through a second quenching.","This gives the steel the right properties to withstand deep-seawater pressure.","Then, using an ultrasonic gauge, workers measure the thickness of the pipe walls, which changes with bending.","After another trip through the blast cleaner, workers apply a liquid that highlights even the most minute surface cracks that bending can induce.","If they find cracks, they scrap the pipe.","But defects are rare because the factory first performs test bends on sample pieces of pipe, then subjects those samples to a battery of tests.","The lab measures dimensions and wall thickness, then tests how much weight the sample can support before collapsing and how much stretching it can withstand before snapping.","Back on the factory floor, the pipe goes through another blasting.","Then workers heat it and spray on a protective coating that prevents corrosion.","It melds to the hot pipe.","Once the pipe cools, they stencil on technical specifications.","Then these pipe bends go off to join their straight counterparts."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Leather Basketballs","Flood Gates","Wood Panel Canvases","Shoelaces"]},"text":["In the early days of basketball, players used a soccer ball to play the game.","In 1894, a special basketball was designed.","It was laced and larger, with a circumference that was about 4 inches greater than the soccer ball.","For players, the new ball was a game changer.","Basketballs have evolved, but one manufacturer still makes them the old-fashioned way.","These laced brown leather balls honor the beginnings of the game.","To make this traditional basketball, a craftsperson cuts eight panels out of tough american cowhide.","These are rough cuts.","The shape will now be more precisely defined.","He places a sharp steel die on one of the panels.","Using a tool known as a clicker press, he applies pressure to drive the die through the leather and punch out the shape, cookie-cutter style.","He now cuts strips of nylon to a workable size using a utility knife.","The craftsperson then stacks up a dozen of the nylon strips.","Using the clicker press and same die, he cuts out patterns.","Because nylon is softer than leather, he can punch out many more at once.","He places one of the nylon patterns on the underside of a leather one and stitches them together.","The nylon backing stabilizes the leather, preventing stretching.","He now punches lace holes and notches in the nylon-padded leather panel.","Using a template, the craftsperson locates the spot for an air-valve hole and nicks it with a sharp tool.","He places a punch on the nick and strikes it with a hammer to cut out the air-valve hole.","He clamps a stamp of a company logo in a heated press.","As the stamp heats up, he moves it into a downward position and then slides the leather panel under it.","He lowers the hot stamp, and it burns the company logo into the leather.","Next, with the liner side up, he sews the basketball panels together, two at a time at first.","Doing this right takes practice.","The craftsperson then trims the polyester thread and then pounds the thick seam flat with a hammer.","He sews vinyl reinforcements to the two panels that have lace holes.","This will give the laced area of the basketball more structure.","The stitching will also frame the lace holes from the leather side to define and accentuate the lacing.","He adds another strip of vinyl.","This one will protect the inflated bladder inside the basketball.","He assembles the panels four at a time.","He leaves the section around the lace holes open to provide an entry point for the inflatable bladder.","He stitches the two halves together, again working from the inside of the ball.","This completes the basketball's outer casing.","The next craftsperson places the basketball casing on a steel post and pulls and tugs the casing to turn it right side out.","He now inserts the synthetic rubber bladder into the basketball.","He manipulates it so that the bladder's air valve lines up with the corresponding hole in the leather.","Using needle-nose pliers, he grabs the air valve and pulls it through the hole.","The craftsperson then rearranges the inner flap so that it's in a position to protect the bladder from the lacing.","He partially inflates the bladder.","Using a thick brass needle, he pulls a rawhide strip through the holes to neatly lace up the opening.","He then fully pressurizes the basketball, and the pressure from the bladder holds the laces in place.","He simply clips the end of the lace and tucks it in.","A replica of the original, this leather basketball is ready to bounce back.","Floodgates are sliding gates that are engineered to resist rushing floodwaters.","When installed at wastewater or water treatment plants they can be used to control the outflow and inflow of water in order to make operations more efficient.","That's why floodgates aren't just for emergency situations.","Sliding floodgates close to varying degrees to reduce the flow of water or stop it completely.","Making these sliding gates starts with a stainless-steel plate.","A crane lifts it over to a conveyor in front of a chamber that has a laser cutter inside.","The crane releases its suctioning grip, and the conveyor takes it into the chamber.","It's dark inside, but the laser doesn't need overhead lighting to do its work.","Computer software guides the laser as it cuts out parts for the floodgate frame.","It also precisely locates holes for assembly purposes.","Workers stack the laser-cut pieces and number them to categorize them for the next operation, called forming.","A worker inserts a part in a press brake numerous times to make multiple bends.","He shapes this particular piece into the bottom frame of the floodgate.","After forming the side frames the same way, a worker evenly spaces reinforcements along the entire length of them.","He tack-welds the reinforcements to the frame.","Using a carpenter's square, he measures the angle of the reinforcement to the side frame.","Satisfied that each reinforcement is perfectly perpendicular to the frame, he does the full welds.","Then the worker joins the two side frames and the bottom rail and welds the structure together.","He positions a stainless-steel ceiling frame at the midpoint of the structure and welds it in place.","Another worker tucks a polyethylene strip into the frame to seal it.","The strip also has a groove in it to accommodate the gate's sliding door.","He clamps the strip to the frame and then taps it with a hammer to entrench it more firmly into the frame.","He drills through holes in the side frame to make corresponding holes in the polyethylene strip and inserts the bolts in the holes.","He screws nuts onto the ends that protrude from the outside of the frame.","He now inserts a polyethylene strip in the horizontal ceiling frame, and he marks the strip to indicate the location for bolt holes.","He removes the strip and drills tapered holes for countersunk bolts in the locations he's marked.","He inserts a silicone strip in a recess in the seal, and he bolts it all together.","Once the frame is complete, another worker installs the floodgate's sliding door.","It will be raised and lowered using crank-operated gears.","The next worker closes off an opening used for an unneeded drive gear with silicone glue and a plastic stopper.","He slides a washer and bearing on the center shaft opening.","He places the upper housing on the bottom one to enclose the gears.","He secures the gearbox housing with numerous long bolts.","Next, powerful ridged rollers press a thread into a very long stainless steel rod.","This rod will serve as the floodgate's operating stem.","It's ready for installation.","A worker bolts one end of the stem to the slide gate while the other worker threads the gearbox onto the other end.","With the crank not yet installed, he uses a drill to spin the gears and test the operation of the sliding floodgate.","He confirms that the floodgate meets design specifications.","Then workers flood the surface below the floodgate with water and verify that nothing seeps through.","This proves that the floodgate is watertight and ready to hold strong in the event of an emergency.","Before artists put their brush to their blank canvas, they have to choose what type of canvas to use-- rudimentary, economical cotton or finer, more expensive linen, unstretched, or pre-stretched?","If pre-stretched, affixed to a wooden frame or glued to a wooden panel?","This type of artist canvas is made of fine-weave linen.","It's stretched over and affixed to a wood panel.","The hard backing prevents the linen from flexing under the paintbrush.","The face of the panel is made of a quarter-inch-thick baltic birch.","After cutting a piece with the dimensions of the finished canvas, a worker cuts pieces of sturdier basswood for the cradle.","After cutting a long strip in the required width, he measures and marks the lengths of the cradle's five parts, which include four perimeter pieces and a cross brace.","Then he cuts the parts.","He miters the edges of the perimeter pieces.","That means cutting the ends at a 45-degree angle, so the pieces mate when assembled into a rectangle.","To assemble the cradle, a worker spreads wood glue on the mitered edges of the perimeter pieces, then joins them to form a rectangle, clamping two of the corners to a 90-degree block to ensure the angles are perfectly square.","He reinforces the corner joints with v-shaped nails.","He removes the clamps and squares and glues the cross brace across the middle.","Once the worker checks that the cross brace is installed squarely, he nails it to the perimeter.","He applies a line of wood glue on top of the cradle perimeter and cross brace.","Then he places the panel onto the cradle.","The worker sets clamps all around the perimeter, then puts the cradle aside overnight to let the glue dry.","The next day, the worker sands any panel overhang flat, rendering the edge of the panel flush with the cradle.","They burn the manufacturing information into the back of the finished panel.","The linen they're using for this canvas is portrait grade, the finest and smoothest weave.","It's been primed with linseed oil to allow oil paint to penetrate enough to adhere but not absorb into the fabric.","He measures and marks the wood panel's dimensions, adding about 4 inches all around to have extra linen to wrap around the cradle.","Then he cuts along the lines.","The worker centers the cradled panel upside down on the linen and traces a line around it.","He flips the panel right-side up and coats the surface with special ph-neutral archival glue because ordinary adhesives contain acid which degrades the linen over time.","He flips the panel upside down again, carefully positions it within the trace lines and presses the panel firmly against the linen.","He mounts the assembly on a stretching machine.","Canvases must always be stretched to prevent contraction and expansion due to changes in humidity.","Starting with the longest sides first, the machine yanks the linen tight and folds it over the edge of the cradle.","A line of staples secure the stretched linen to the wood.","After stretching and stapling both long sides, the worker folds the corners neatly and staples them as well.","Then he rotates the canvas to stretch the short sides.","Once those are stretched and stapled, the wood-panel canvas is finished, and now it's the ready recipient of artistic inspiration.","The oldest shoe archaeologists have ever found is a 5,500-year-old leather hide moccasin with leather-cord laces.","Today we don't have to go hunt an animal to lace our shoes.","We can buy our shoelaces ready-made in a variety of materials, styles, lengths and colors.","This company produces shoelaces and shoelace-type drawstrings in a wide range of materials, including cotton, rayon and acrylic.","This run is producing polyester shoelaces.","A worker installs cones of fine polyester thread on what's called a creel, which feeds the bobbin-winding machines.","She groups the strands from eight cones and feeds them through one side of one machine and onto a bobbin.","Then she groups the strands from another eight cones and feeds them through the other side of the machine onto a second bobbin.","Each group of eight strands will produce one thicker polyester thread.","She programs the machine to wind a specific length of it.","Each cone holds enough fine thread to wind a 71-mile-long thick thread.","For this particular shoelace, the machine is programmed to wind 8,200 feet of thick thread per bobbin.","Another worker installs 20 of those bobbins on a braiding machine.","For each one, she passes the end of the thread through three eyelets, the second of which regulates the tension of the thread.","She gathers half the threads and ties knots in them so that they'll catch when she feeds them into the machine.","She starts up the braiding machine.","It draws in the knotted threads, which pull in the unknotted ones.","Then the machine begins braiding a continuous round shoelace cord.","These wheels apply tension to pull any loose braids tighter so that the corrected diameter is uniform.","The finished cord, which is about a mile long, collects in a barrel.","Some shoelaces are made of knitted, rather than braided, cord.","The cones of thread feed the knitting machine directly.","The machine's four latch needles can perform two types of knitting stitches to produce round cord.","Once the knitted, or braided, cord is ready, a worker adjusts four metal pegs of a winding device to the shoelace length they're making.","Then she winds the cord around the pegs up to 250 times, depending on the cord diameter.","She cuts the end and ties the cords together so that she can easily transfer them to what's called a tipping machine.","She runs the center of each cord over an acetone-saturated felt pad, then inserts it in the machine's die.","The die wraps a piece of acetate film tightly around the cord, then cuts it in the middle, producing a shoelace with a stiff tip, called an aglet, on each end.","This press applies a nickel-plated steel tip, a kind used on bag drawstrings.","The worker manually positions two tips directly on the cord with a slight gap in between them.","She activates the press to force them on, then cuts the cord in the gap.","This factory also makes rickrack, a flat zigzag trim that's sewn onto clothing.","These rickrack-braiding machines are 120 years old.","Each one holds from 13 to 73 bobbins of thread.","The more bobbins used, the wider the rickrack.","There are two ways to make multicolored rickrack or braided shoelace cord.","Mount different shades of solid color bobbins on the braiding machine or wind multicolored thread on each bobbin.","And for multicolored knitted shoelace cord, mount different shades of solid-color thread cones or multicolored thread on each cone.","To produce different shapes and sizes, this manufacturer uses different types of braiding and knitting machines, varying the number of bobbins or cones from eight to as many as 73.","An even number produces a round shoelace.","An odd number produces a flat one.","With so many possibilities, shoelaces can be fashionable as well as functional."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Metal Nail Files","Birch Bark Canoes","Cruiser Boat Hardtops","High Voltage Circuit Breakers"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Metal nail files.","Birch bark canoes.","Cruiser boat hardtops.","And high-voltage circuit breakers.","Throughout history, people have wanted nice nails.","And they used whatever they could get their hands on to make them look good.","Marie antoinette is said to have used a pumice stone file to shape her fingernails.","By the end of the 19th century, metal nail files became the norm.","Metal nail files can be used to grind and shape fingernails with a few strokes.","Their abrasiveness is the secret to their popularity.","Making metal nail files starts with a thick spool of stainless steel.","The steel unwinds at a steady pace.","A punch press wields 88 tons of hydraulic pressure to cut out nail file blanks.","The blanks spill into a bin and accumulate.","The blanks bounce around with ceramic stones and a mix of water and polishing solution.","This smoothes the rough bits on the blanks and also cleans them.","The nail file blanks then slide down a chute into a dryer.","This dryer doesn't use hot air to do the job.","Instead, a pulsating mass of hot corn grain soaks up the lingering liquid on the blanks.","As the blanks exit, some of the corn falls through a perforated conveyor to be reused.","The blanks continue on and land in a bin, ready for the next phase of production.","It involves the cutting of an abrasive grid on both sides.","It's a three-stage process.","First, a worker places the blank under a sharp tool that's angled at 52 degrees.","The tool pounds the blank repeatedly to cut angled grooves into it.","Here is the blank before and after the first cut.","He switches the cutting tool, and it carves over the first cuts on the opposite angle.","The third cut goes straight across the other two.","The ridges and valleys created by the cross cuts make the surface of the blank sharp.","The grid cutting has bent the still-pliable steel out of shape, so the worker now bends the nail files in the opposite direction, using a round form as a guide.","This restores their linear profile.","The carving process has also caused steel to bulge on the edges of the nail files, so he grinds them against a fine abrasive sanding belt to make the edges smooth again.","Next, he places the metal nail files in perfect alignment in a tray.","He transfers the tray of files to an oven.","The files bake for an hour at a temperature of 1,832 degrees fahrenheit.","The intense heat begins to alter the physical properties of the steel and is the first phase of a hardening process.","When the hour is up, he takes the red-hot tray of nail files out of the oven using tongs and then immerses them in a vat of cold saltwater.","This is called quenching.","The shock of the quench completes the hardening process.","Shielded by an enclosure, he sandblasts each nail file to remove stains left by the hardening process and to make the steel around the triple-cut grid shinier.","He places the handle into the nail file beneath a plastic stencil.","A stamp applies acid to the open areas of the stencil to etch brand information onto it.","Some nail files have plastic handles.","To make the handles, this machine melts plastic and injects it into molds.","The handles are stuck together by hardened flow lines or runners.","A few tumbles in this revolving drum knocks off the runners, separating the handles from them.","The worker places each handle under an automated printing head that soaks up ink from a pad and then stamps brand information onto the plastic.","Another worker heats the end of each metal nail file using copper elements.","She inserts the hot metal into the plastic sleeve, and the plastic melts a little to bond to the metal.","These metal nail files are ready for the grind.","For centuries, the canoe was indispensable to the indigenous people of north america.","Essential for hunting, fishing, transportation, and commerce, indigenous people often crafted their canoes from birch bark, which is lightweight, strong, waterproof, and rot-resistant.","Historically, different indigenous tribes constructed different styles of birch bark canoes.","This one is the type crafted by both the algonquian and eastern ojibwe.","Even today, the canoe builder crafts every component from water- and rot-resistant plant materials found in the forest, such as the exceptionally strong roots of black spruce trees.","After scraping off the bark with a tool crafted from a moose rib, this craftswoman cuts a slit in the top and pulls, splitting the long root into two strips.","She coils up each strip and puts it aside to dry out.","The canoe builder uses spruce root to bind structural components and lace together sections of birch bark.","To build the canoe's cedar structure, the builder connects end frames at the front and back with long strips of cedar called gunwales, then he lashes crossbars called thwarts to the gunwales with spruce root.","To make each end frame, he splits a piece of cedar many times to let it bend, soaks it in boiling water to soften the wood fibers, and binds the shape with spruce root.","Then the builder checks this curved part, called the stem, against the straight part, called the headboard.","If the proportions are right, he notches the bottom of the headboard to fit over the base of the stem, then lashes the parts to each other with spruce root.","He laces together several pieces of birch bark to make a sheet large enough for the canoe.","The builder saturates the bark sheet with boiling water and bends it up around a wooden template.","Then, on each side of the canoe, he sandwiches the top edge of the bark in between the two cedar strips that form the gunwale.","The builder shaves pieces of cedar to make straight, vertically laid planks and u-shaped horizontally laid ribs that line the inside of the canoe.","He uses a gauge to make sure each piece is the required thickness.","He lays each rib piece across the structure and makes a mark on each side in line with the bottom edge of the floor.","That's where he'll bend the piece.","Just as he did to bend the stem portion of the end frame, the builder ladles boiling water onto the wood to soften the fibers.","He positions his knees on the charcoal marks and pulls up the ends.","He bends two ribs at a time, as this reduces the chances of them cracking.","After checking that he cut and bent all the ribs correctly, the builder begins the process of securing the birch bark.","He drills holes in the gunwales at nearly six-inch intervals.","Then he takes pegs carved from hardwood such as ash or maple and hammers one through each hole.","Then he pierces holes through the bark with a traditional awl made from deer antler.","He threads spruce root through the holes to lash the bark to the gunwale.","With an assistant's help, he fully lines the canoe with straight cedar planks and installs the remaining ribs.","The tight fit presses the planks against the bark, stretching it taught, which strengthens it.","The final step is known as pitching the seams.","He melts down dried resin gathered from scars on spruce trees and mixes in two ingredients-- ground charcoal and oil rendered from bear fat.","He applies this hot mixture to all the lacing holes in the birch bark, making the canoe water-tight.","The canoeist carries a small supply of dried pitch and lights a stick to remelt and apply it.","The repair dries quickly, so in about five minutes, the canoeist can be back in the paddle.","A hardtop encloses the cockpit of a cruiser boat.","It provides shelter from water spray, wind, and sun, and a roof on which to mount antenna for marine and satellite radio and gps.","On the inside, it provides walls and a ceiling for recessed lighting and other features.","This cruiser hardtop has windows that wrap around the front and sides.","The tall one in the middle is retractable so you can walk through to the front deck.","Workers use two molds to make the inner and outer parts that form the hardtop.","First, they spray white gelcoat to a thickness of just .","6 millimeters.","Next, workers shoot shredded fiberglass strands into the mold along with a stream of resin which saturates the fibers.","When the fiberglass is about 3/4 of an inch thick, they let the resin cure for an hour or so.","Then workers apply bonding putty to the fiberglass in the outer mold.","They mate the inner and outer molds and let the putty set, which takes about an hour.","Finally, it's time to extract the fiberglass from the molds.","It comes off relatively easily because prior to spraying the gelcoat layer, workers have applied a release agent on the mold's surface.","The inner and outer parts are built in the mold upside-down so the gelcoat gives the coarse fiberglass a smooth and shiny surface finish.","Then they cut openings for the windows and for the various components to be installed into the hardtop.","They install the retractable front window.","Workers then position the window and mark the screw holes, then remove it in order to apply adhesive, which also functions as a sealant to prevent water infiltration.","They reset the window and screw it to the hardtop.","Workers install a non-opening window on each side of the retractable one.","After taping off the area, a worker applies primer.","Once the primer dries, they remove the tape and apply an adhesive-backed foam gasket that's about 1/4-inch high.","A worker applies a 1/4-inch high bead of adhesive sealant next to the gasket and sets the window.","The primer gasket and adhesive sealant are all black to match the window frame.","On the roof of the hardtop, workers install a thin molded fiberglass cover.","The retractable window, when opened, slides under it.","Workers fill the gap between the cover and hardtop with sealant.","This adheres the cover and makes it watertight.","At the rear, workers install the radar arch.","This, too, is made of molded fiberglass but with a black gelcoat finish.","They mount various components on it, such as the horn, navigation light, and antenna.","Inside the hardtop, after passing wires for lighting, workers connect the wiring to the retractable window.","The window comes as a self-contained unit with an incorporated motor and intricate pulley system.","The hardtop is now ready to be mounted to the cruiser's deck.","Workers install a windshield wiper on each non-opening front window.","The last step is to install a large window on both sides of the hardtop.","Its middle section opens.","Like a giant windshield, the hardtop transforms the cruiser boat's otherwise open cockpit into a weather-protected lounge.","Electrical substations play a critical role in the grid as they distribute electricity to entire communities.","The circuit breakers at these stations routinely interrupt short circuits to prevent damage to the system.","They perform the same function as the ones in a home electrical panel, but on a much larger scale.","The size of a car or even a large truck, these circuit breakers troubleshoot high-current situations at electrical substations.","This protects the grid and prevents power outages.","Making one starts with a cast-aluminum tank that has receptacles for bushings.","A worker inspects the tank for dirt or flaws and then places protective covers on the bushing receptacles.","He installs bases for current transformers on these receptacles.","The worker applies adhesive to the outside of these metal bases.","He presses squares of plastic insulation to the glued areas.","With the help of an overhead lift, the worker installs the two current transformers on the insulated bases.","These current transformers will act as sensors, enabling the circuit breaker to detect short circuits in an electrical system in mere milliseconds.","Another worker brushes lubricant on the moving part of the interrupter that will break the electrical current when needed.","He inserts the exhaust tube that helps direct the flow of gas used to break the current.","He sets the interrupter module in an upright position on the floor and returns to the workbench.","The worker dabs thread lock liquid in the mounting holes of the stationary contact assembly and installs a resin ring in the base.","He inserts the stationary part into the moving one, leaving the end protruding.","The worker applies thread lock to the assembly holes of a large tube that will shield the entire interrupter once it's installed in the tank.","It will also direct the flow of interrupting gas.","After assembling it to the interrupter, he inserts a synthetic insulating tube.","Then with the help of a lift, he flips the module over in order to work on the other end.","He installs another insulating tube in this end.","He then sets the module to a stand to steady it as he inserts the contact assembly that opens to interrupt the electrical current.","He caps one end of the interrupter with the unit that houses the bell crank.","He slides the bell crank into the housing.","This crank will convert the rotary motion from the operating mechanism to a linear motion.","He turns the crank to confirm that it rotates freely.","He now clamps leads to test probes inserted in the interrupter and applies 100 amps of current.","The testing device measures the interrupter's resistance to the current to confirm that it's within an acceptable range.","With a lift bearing the load, the other member of the team guides the interrupter module into the cast-aluminum tank.","He bolts the bell crank's housing to the tank opening and places cylindrical electrical shields in each of the bushing receptacles.","He then encases the transformers at the base with aluminum covers.","They'll protect the transformer wiring from rain, snow, or dirt.","Lifts now hoist the silicone-rubber-wrapped bushings into the receptacles.","The worker bolts them in place...","And caps the rear of the tank.","This interrupter is now ready to be mounted to the steel support structure.","Each high-voltage circuit breaker will be equipped with three interrupters.","The team connects the bell cranks to the operating system in the control cabinet.","And workers equip each bell crank with a pressure gauge.","A worker grounds the circuit breaker to the support structure with copper cables.","This will prevent shocks to anyone who touches it.","In one last test, towering transformers apply high voltages to the circuit breakers.","These high-voltage circuit breakers are ready to interrupt situations before they become problems."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Life Casting","Downdraft Cooktops","Compression Hosiery","Electric Motorcycles"]},"text":["Egyptian pharaohs were likely the first to have molds made of their bodies and the images cast.","Today, anyone can have this done.","The experts have it down to a fine art.","It's called life casting, or body molding, and it's in demand because every body is different.","Need a body double?","Life casting creates replicas of body parts that can be used as personal mementos or movie props.","They start by applying cold cream to the body part.","The cream will serve as a release agent, allowing the mold to be removed whole.","This orange goop is the molding material.","It's a seaweed-based substance called alginate.","It's the same stuff the dentist uses to take molds of teeth, but it's formulated to set more slowly.","The life caster spreads the alginate liberally onto this young actor's clenched fist and arm.","Alginate cures in five or six minutes, so there's no time to waste.","He works at a steady pace.","He applies wet plaster bandages to the alginate.","The bandages adhere and form a stiff shell similar to a cast for a broken limb.","The cast-like shell supports the alginate as it cures to the shape of the boy's fist to produce a mold of it.","When cured, the alginate has a firm yet rubbery consistency.","It takes a few tugs to pull off the mold, but the rubbery nature of the alginate means it can be done without cracking or crumpling.","The casting material is durable dental plaster.","He pours it into the mold.","He tips out a bit to get rid of bubbles that have accumulated on the surface.","It's hands off now as the plaster cures because a chemical reaction makes it dangerously hot.","A half-hour later, the plaster is cooled and hardened into the shape of the boy's fist.","The plaster has picked up all the little details, including the tiniest of creases.","He picks out bits of alginate lodged in the creases.","He defines the fingernails and cleans up a few pits and bubbles.","This is the actor's real hand, and this is the replica.","Next, they make a mold of the actor's face.","They apply cream to his hair to prevent it from becoming stuck in the alginate.","The team completely coats his face, ears, and upper chest with blue alginate.","It must be hard not to wince, but he can't budge in order to create a good impression.","They leave the back of his head uncovered for an open mold and create two small holes for breathing.","They layer the plaster bandages over the alginate to give structure to the mold.","It also makes him look mummified.","After several minutes, the mold has solidified.","The team removes it from the subject.","Now that his features have been successfully transferred to the alginate, he can breathe easy.","The life caster trims excess alginate, then wraps fabric around the mold to build a kind of wall to contain spills as he fills it with plaster.","The plaster casting may not be the final one.","Depending on the client's wishes, they may make a mold from this bust and then cast the image in a more flesh-like material like silicone, foam, or rubber.","The plaster is cured and the wait is over.","It's time to peel off the layers and find the face within.","It's a bit like he's removing an intricate mask.","The face behind it is instantly recognizable.","He cleans out the eyes and nose...","And scrubs the entire plaster face.","Here's the actor and his plaster doppelganger.","They'll use it to create a silicone version, and once it's painted and given hair, it will be ready for the movies.","In contrast to a big, traditional hood, which is separate from the stove, a downdraft system vents smoke, steam, and cooking odors without being conspicuous.","The ventilation unit is actually part of the cooktop, and that opens up a lot of kitchen-design possibilities.","Invented in the 1960s, the downdraft cooktop can solve some design dilemmas.","Installed in a center island, it offers a clear line of view where a traditional hood would block it.","Production starts with the burner box.","They'll make three from this steel sheet.","A computer guides tools as they cut holes and notches in the steel.","It also roughs out the shape of the boxes and makes slots for the downdraft ventilation intake.","After the sheets have been cut into individual units, a worker serves them up to a computerized brake press.","The computer controls the stops that position the sheet to be bent at the correct angle.","This transforms the steel sheet into a box.","They're now ready to build the downdraft ventilation system.","The worker inserts the fan blower and motor into an assembly fixture.","He then places a metal part, known as the plenum, over it.","The plenum is the intake duct.","He places a mesh guard over the opening through which steam and cooking fumes will flow.","He secures everything with four nuts and studs.","He caps the nuts with rubber plugs to seal the gaps.","He now transfers the fan and duct assembly to another fixture.","It allows him to correctly position the burner box on the ventilation system.","He plugs the blower motor into a junction box.","He places a metal frame around the plenum and screws it in place to secure the plenum to the burner box.","Next, he assembles the knob switches that turn the burners on and off.","He adds rubber insulators to keep water out of the switches.","He covers them with a metal plate with holes for the knob shafts to protrude.","He installs the lighting system that indicates whether the burners are on or off.","Next, an employee slots the switch system into the ceramic cooktop through the back.","He inserts the radiant heating elements into the holes in the cooktop.","The elements are different sizes to accommodate different pots, and they have different heating capacities.","He wires the switches to the elements, and he ties them to the main power cord.","Another worker screws the elements to a metal bracket that's glued to the underside of the ceramic cooktop, and he completes the wiring work.","The ceramic cooktop is complete and ready to be joined to the downdraft ventilation unit.","He aligns the hole in the center with the intake duct.","He feeds the wires from the cooktop through holes in the burner box to the junction box.","He screws the junction box to the bottom of the burner box.","He pulls the main power harness through a hole in the burner box and secures it to the box with a metal bracket and screws.","He adjusts the ceramic cooktop, which moved out of alignment a bit during the wiring, and then equips the cooktop with knobs which fit snugly to the protruding pins.","And it's over to a test station.","The operator connects a computer to the downdraft cooktop.","She turns the knobs, and the computer measures the power consumed by the elements.","Some elements are the same size but different wattages.","The test confirms that the elements are in the correct slots and that all burners are operational.","It's taken 25 minutes to assemble this downdraft cooktop.","The downdraft ventilation unit will get rid of moisture and odors discreetly.","It's now time to turn up the heat with no worries about the fallout.","If you've got varicose veins, leg fatigue, ankle swelling, or other circulation disorders, your doctor may prescribe compression hosiery, pressured stockings that squeeze your legs primarily at the ankle and, to a lesser extent, in other areas to help the blood in your veins travel back to the heart.","They don't look like ugly old-lady stockings anymore.","Today's compression hosiery comes in a range of colors and pantyhose, thigh-high, and knee-high versions.","The doctor prescribes the compression strength you need.","That's the pressure at the ankle in millimeters mercury, the same measuring unit used in blood-pressure readings.","The hosiery is knitted out of stretchy spandex and nylon yarns.","The computerized knitting machine interlocks yarn strands vertically and horizontally.","This two-direction knit gives the stocking a two-way stretch.","However, it's the horizontal yarn in the knit that provides the doctor's strength prescription.","They program the knitting machine to produce a run of a specific size and prescription.","It automatically varies the stitch and yarn tension to apply 100% of the prescribed pressure at the ankle, 65% at the calf, and 30% at the thigh.","Stronger pressure at the bottom point forces blood upward toward the heart.","The machine outputs stocking-length tubes, which sewers skillfully transform into the final shape.","The first sewer turns the tube inside out and stitches the toe closed.","Then she stretches those stitches to flatten the seam so it'll be comfortable on the foot.","If they're making pantyhose, another sewer slits that tube partway down the inside of the leg so it can be joined to another leg.","The next sewer takes a leg and stitches it to a triangular cotton gusset, which forms the crotch of the pantyhose.","These are maternity hose, so she also sews in a stretchy stomach panel.","Then she sews a big u-shaped seam at the front, joining the second leg to the other parts.","Whether it's a multiple-component pantyhose or a simple single thigh-high or knee-high stocking, the production steps from this point on are the same.","Workers slide each stocking onto a heated aluminum leg form in the size they're producing in this run.","Laser lines show exactly where to align the heel and other parts on the form.","Then, one by one, the forms enter a pressurized steam chamber for about four seconds.","This quick steam treatment is enough to permanently lock the form's shape into the nylon.","The form then enters a dryer, where it stops for about 15 seconds.","The hot forced air evaporates the steam-infused moisture.","When the stocking finally comes off the form, it's dry and leg-shaped.","Workers now group the stockings into 10-pair stacks, put each stack inside a specific color bag to identify its style and size, then load the bags in this high-tech dye machine.","They key in the program which automatically controls every aspect of dyeing the stockings from water levels and temperature to dye injection.","For one hour, the machine washes the stockings.","Then, over the next five hours, it dyes them, adding chemicals to make the water acidic, which draws the dye like a sponge permanently into the yarn fibers.","The compression stockings knit, sewn, shaped, and dyed are now ready to be inspected and packaged.","The factory pulls a set number of random samples per day from the production line and tests them on this extension machine.","It stretches the hose to test the tensile strength, and it measures the compression at the different points of the leg.","Every single pair of stockings undergoes a visual inspection prior to packaging.","Then the packager neatly folds it around a cardboard insert, slips it inside an adhesive-sealed plastic bag, and inserts it into the retail box.","Compression stockings are classified as a medical device.","The sealed bag assures the customer that the stockings are a brand-new, unused pair, and therefore, hygienic.","Looking to drive motorcycle without ever having to stop for a fill-up, change the oil, top off the fluids, or repair a transmission, clutch, and cooling system?","And do you want a quiet motor that doesn't contribute to air pollution?","Then an electric motorcycle may be just the set of wheels you're looking for.","An electric motorcycle lends a whole new meaning to the term \"plug and play\".","You charge the bike's battery by plugging in to a standard 120-volt household electrical outlet.","A full charge takes eight hours, but you can buy an add-on device to cut that charging time in half.","The bike's journey begins on a sketch pad.","An industrial designer draws an artistic conception, creating the aesthetics such as lines and colors as well as the ergonomics, such as seat and mirror positioning.","The designer transforms the sketches into a computer model to which engineers then add the mechanics.","The motorcycle's battery contains four cell boxes.","To link all the cell boxes, they install two interconnect boards.","Then, into each board, they plug the connectors from two cell boxes.","They use lots of grease to waterproof the battery and protect it against corrosion caused by road salt or sea air.","Next, they plug wires coming from the two interconnect boards into a circuit board.","This circuit board is the battery's brain.","It regulates the voltages of the individual cells to prevent overheating.","Then the charging components.","Technicians now close up the fully assembled battery with protective covers and run it through a function test.","The test simulates the discharge of the battery that happens when you ride the bike, then the recharge that occurs when you plug in.","All the cell voltages must balance in the process.","The motorcycle frame is made of high-strength, lightweight, aircraft-grade aluminum.","At the tail end, they install the controller, the link between the battery and the throttle, which controls the electricity flow to the motor.","They mount the suspension system, an aluminum swingarm that attaches to the rear wheel on one end and to the frame on the other via a spring-shaped shock absorber, which expands and contracts to dampen bounce as the wheel moves up and down over bumps in the road.","They mount the motor.","The battery's electrical current rotates the motor via the controller, which turns the drive belt, spinning the bike's rear wheel.","This belt's maintenance-free because it's made of high-strength rubber, further reinforced with the material used to make bulletproof vests.","They install the upper triple clamp, which carries the dash, horn, turn signals, and ignition switch.","Then the handlebars.","There are several components already mounted to them, including the front brake lever, the throttle, and control switches.","Then technicians slide the battery into the frame and connect it to the motor and controller.","This motorcycle has no transmission, no gears, no clutch, no cooling system to maintain or repair.","The motor's fins adequately dissipate heat buildup.","Next, two aluminum forks to hold the front wheel axle.","Workers position them inside the upper triple clamp and a second triple clamp lower down.","But they don't install the front wheel just yet.","They first mount the rear wheel.","It has a rubber tire, hydraulic brakes activated by a foot lever, and a sprocket for the drive belt.","They place the drive belt around the sprocket.","Now, when the motor runs, the rear wheel turns.","After mounting the front wheel, they install the bike's plastic body parts.","There's a storage area where gas motorcycles would have their fuel tank.","There are four chargers located underneath the battery.","Their wiring culminates in a single port in which you plug a cable to recharge.","Every motorcycle this factory produces undergoes an extensive indoor road test on a dynamometer, a driving simulator that assesses the performance of every component.","Although very quiet, the bike's as powerful as a midsize, gasoline-run motorcycle and can reach speeds of up to 100 miles per hour.","When the battery needs a quick recharge, you can pull over at a roadside electric-vehicle charging station and fill her up in less than an hour."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Ceramic Tiles","Nuts","Steel Forgings","Skateboards"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Ceramic tiles...","Nuts...","Steel forgings...","And skateboards.","Ceramic tiles are a popular choice for flooring, kitchen backsplashes, and bathroom walls.","They can withstand humidity and won't absorb liquids or odors.","They're also fireproof, fade-resistant, and stain-resistant.","And no matter how much you walk on them, ceramic tiles never wear out.","This factory specializes in wall tiles.","Floor tiles are made using the same process but with different materials.","The starting material here is talc-- a soft, powdery mineral.","They blend it with four different powdered chemicals, the names of which are a company secret.","The ingredients go into a mixer, where they're hydrated until they're 6% water to 94% powder.","The mixer runs for precisely 12 minutes.","Any longer would heat the mixture and dry it out.","The mixture is now slightly damp and quite lumpy.","A conveyor belt transports it to a grinder that mills it to a fine texture.","This mixture is now ready to be formed into various models of tiles.","The factory uses fully automated machinery to produce its 1.6-square-inch tiles-- a standard wall tile size.","A moving tray first deposits a batch of mixture into a mold.","The mold's cavity is in the shape of six upside-down tiles.","A press descends, applying both heat and pressure.","This compacts the mixture into the cavity, solidifying the shape.","As the press rises, the mold automatically pops out the tiles.","They roll off the machine onto a conveyor belt.","The belt now flips the tiles right side up without breaking them-- which is quite a feat, considering that these yet-to-be-baked tiles aren't fully hardened.","The equipment is precision-adjusted to handle the tiles gently at all production phases.","A revolving brush now sweeps the tiles clean.","Their surface must be free of dust and other contaminants for paint to adhere properly.","The factory uses a water-based paint that's specifically designed for ceramics.","It continually circulates in a vat, keeping the color well-blended.","The painting process resembles an automatic car wash.","The tiles travel through four spray zones, each of which applies a thin coat of paint.","Then they pass under powerful heating elements, which dry the paint in mere seconds.","All that's left is to bake the tiles, which we'll see shortly.","The factory uses the same ceramic mixture to produce these square border tiles.","They look just like the other wall tiles, except that two of the sides are rounded.","When you install a row of these border tiles above the regular tiles, the rounded edges produce a clean, finished look.","While the factory uses the same painting process for border tiles, the molding process, as you just saw, is somewhat different.","Rather than being fully automated, it requires some manual labor due to the tiles' complex shape.","That's why border tiles are often more expensive than regular tiles.","When the tiles come out of the dryer, workers stack them on wooden racks.","They load the racks onto mobile carts and then roll the carts into a gas-powered oven called a kiln.","This factory's kiln is 190 feet long-- longer than an olympic-size swimming pool and large enough to bake 50,000 wall tiles at once.","The firing, as it's called, takes 14 hours.","Any sudden change in temperature could produce thermal shock and crack the tiles, so the kiln starts out at 390 degrees fahrenheit, climbing gradually to a peak of 1,970 degrees, then descends slowly back to the starting temperature.","After a cooling period that lasts roughly an hour, the tiles come out.","They're now fully hardened and ready to have their back to the wall.","Scan the snack-food aisle of your local supermarket, and you'll notice that barbecue, ketchup, and salt-and-vinegar are no longer limited to potato chips.","Nuts come in tantalizing taste choices, too.","But if you're a traditionalist, you can still buy them plain, salted, or unsalted.","The botanical definition of a nut is a dry, one-seed fruit in a hard shell that doesn't open on its own.","Most peanuts have two seeds, so even though we call them nuts, they're technically a legume--  a type of pea.","One way to prepare peanuts for sale is to roast them whole, right in their shells.","This is known as dry-roasting because they cook the peanuts without using any oil in a large convection oven.","The oven temperature is 300 degree fahrenheit.","The roasting process takes about a half-hour.","When the peanuts come out, they're fully cooked and ready to be eaten.","Before the peanuts go off to be packaged, a worker inspects them, removing any shell fragments and foreign matter.","Another way to prepare peanuts or other nuts for sale is to dry-roast only the seeds.","These peanut seeds arrive at the factory with their shells and skins already removed.","A conveyor transports them to a revolving drum called the tumbler.","As the tumbler spins, the nuts are sprayed with a liquid seasoning mixture, one of 10 flavors this company produces-- salted, smoked, ketchup, barbecue, and salt-and-vinegar, just to name a few.","The rotating action ensures the seasoning coats the nuts thoroughly.","Now a conveyor transports the peanuts to a convection oven.","The conveyor turns from side to side, spreading the peanuts in a thin layer so that they'll dry-roast evenly.","They roast for the same length of time and at the same temperature as peanuts in the shell-- about a half-hour at 300 degrees fahrenheit.","As they exit the oven, a worker breaks up any clumps.","When they use the other method of preparing shelled nuts, they tumble on the seasoning after cooking.","Instead of dry-roasting the nuts, as we saw earlier, they fry them in oil.","This process is called oil-roasting.","It gives the nuts a greasier, fried taste.","These cashews are on their way to be oil-roasted.","They go into a huge frying tank containing 580 gallons of canola oil heated to 320 degrees fahrenheit.","The nuts come out fully cooked 15 minutes later, and they're steaming hot.","A powerful ventilation system draws the heat outdoors, cooling the cashews to room temperature.","This process takes about 15 minutes.","By now, the nuts have absorbed any cooking oil that remained on their surface, so they receive a light spray of vegetable oil.","This makes their surface sticky again so that the salt or seasoning mix will adhere.","This factory also produces nut mixes.","Here the mixer is combining various nuts with dried fruit.","From there it's on to a packaging machine, whose eight computer-programmed scales automatically weigh out a specific package portion.","But before each portion goes into a bag, it passes through a metal detector.","This ensures that no shards of metal have worn off the equipment and fallen into the food.","The machinery hermetically seals the plastic packages.","This keeps the contents fresh for at least six months.","When does forging not involve fraud?","When you're talking about metal.","Many industrial machines contain steel parts that have to withstand great stress.","The metalworking method that produces the strongest steel parts is forging-- heating the metal, then forming it to the required size and shape.","Steel forgings are made from scrap iron-- pieces of used iron recovered from demolished buildings and old cars-- as well as bits of new iron left over from the manufacture of iron products.","Forge workers maneuver a gigantic magnet to lift almost 6 tons of scrap at a time until they've filled a 28-ton scrap bucket.","The bucket empties two such loads into a fiery furnace, whose temperature peaks at 3,000 degrees fahrenheit.","This is called an electric arc furnace because the heat is created by a strong electric current running in an arc between three electrodes.","There are about 20 main grades and 100 subgrades of steel.","They're produced by adding specific metals or nonmetallic chemical elements, such as aluminum...","Nickel...","Chromium...","Vanadium...","Manganese...","Carbon...","And molybdenum.","They also add the mineral fluorite to help fuse the metals, some of which are in the form of blocks called ingots.","Throughout the 3 1/2-hour meltdown, they test and adjust the chemical composition.","They try to attain the lowest hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur levels-- the key to producing strong, high-quality steel.","Then they pour the sizzling molten metal into a 50-ton ladle that's lined with heat-resistant brick.","They add aluminum and lime to chemically counteract oxidation-- rusting caused by air exposure.","Now they cast an ingot-- a block of steel that they'll shape into a forging.","The molten metal flows out the bottom of the ladle into a mold below.","This bottom pouring, as it's called, makes for a smoother casting because liquid flowing downward doesn't swill around as much as liquid poured sideways.","This forge can cast ingots weighing up to 46 tons.","After several hours, the ingot solidifies, and they turn the mold upside down to extract it.","Then, over 12 hours, they reheat the ingot to 2,200 degrees fahrenheit.","This makes it soft enough to hammer or press into shape.","To make large forgings, they use a machine called a forging press, mounted inside a forming die or a pair of dies, depending on the technique they're using.","The press applies thousands of tons of pressure, crushing the ingot and forcing it against the die.","The steel is quickly oxidizing with all this air exposure.","They use a high-pressure water gun to remove the scales of rust.","An ingot often passes through a die several times or through a series of dies arranged in sequence.","Each pressing forms the metal bit by bit into the final shape.","Metal is composed of microscopic crystals.","Squeezing it in a press bends these crystals, destabilizing the metal structure.","But reheating the metal creates new crystals to replace the deformed ones.","This restabilizes the structure, and, because the new crystals are smaller, makes the metal stronger than before.","That's why finished forgings require heat treatment in what's called an annealing furnace.","They heat for a day or two, depending on the grade of steel.","Then they soak in a water-and-chemical bath for about five hours.","This strengthens the steel even more.","Finally, workers mount the steel forgings on lathes and milling machines.","They remove the rust scales that formed during heat treatment, then precision-machine the forgings into what the client ordered-- usually industrial parts such as rotors, spindles, and shafts.","Many factories prefer to buy forgings in the shape of blocks or bars and machine the parts themselves.","Skateboarding may have started out as a simple outdoor pastime, but in the last few decades, it's evolved into a popular thrill sport.","Professional skateboarders are known for performing spectacular aerial maneuvers, achieving speeds and heights the early skateboarders could never have imagined.","In the 1930s, thrill-seeking kids began attaching their metal roller-skate wheels to wooden crates.","Little did they know this would one day spawn a worldwide phenomenon.","The boxes evolved to boards in 1958, when some california surfers invented sidewalk surfing-- something to do when bad weather prevented them from riding the waves.","They attached roller-skate wheels to wooden planks, then coasted through the streets.","Pretty soon, the fad caught on in cities throughout the united states.","The deck-- the part of the skateboard you stand on-- is made up of several thin sheets of wood called \"veneers\".","Inexpensive boards use fewer sheets and lesser-quality woods.","These high-end boards use a full seven sheets of top-quality maple.","Only the top and bottom veneer sheets will actually show, so their exposed side is sanded smooth, and the other side gets a coat of glue.","The inside sheets, meanwhile, go through the glue spreader, which saturates both sides.","This adhesive is specially formulated to withstand vibration and shock.","Workers stack 35 sheets of veneer-- the equivalent of five skateboard decks-- and place them in a mold.","Skateboards vary in size and shape, so there's a different mold for each model.","A press applies 44 tons of pressure, compacting the sheets and bending them to the shape of the mold.","Excess glue squeezes out the sides, binding the five decks into one block.","They'll be separated later.","The block comes out after three hours.","Now they drill two sets of holes through the block.","These are for mounting the front and back trucks-- the pivoting, metal axles that enable the skateboard to turn.","Now it's time to give the rectangular block a skateboard contour.","They select a template in the general shape of the model they're making.","It has pins underneath that fit snugly in the truck holes they've just drilled.","This holds the template still while they do what's called the rough cut-- sawing around the template, leaving a 1-inch margin.","Cutting off the excess separates the five decks.","Now they contour each deck individually.","Using a precise template, they run the deck against a cutting blade until they have the final shape.","Now, using a router, they round off the top and bottom edges.","Then they smooth all the surfaces against a drum sander.","Now they switch to a buffer, which uses a combination of brushes and fine-grit sandpaper to remove any rough wood fibers.","The deck is now perfectly smooth.","The next stop is the finishing room, where they first spray the decks with a colorless primer.","This seals the pores in the wood veneer so they won't absorb the coat of lacquer that comes next.","The primer takes two hours to dry.","Next, they spray on a coat of clear or colored lacquer.","It leaves a protective, high-gloss finish.","The lacquer also takes two hours to dry.","The final step of the finishing process is applying the decoration.","The bold graphic designs are printed on plastic sheets.","The skateboard factory either buys them ready-made or produces them in-house, using its own silk-screen printing equipment.","Workers center the design sheet, then feed the deck through a machine that applies heat and slight pressure simultaneously.","The heat--  390 degrees fahrenheit-- induces a chemical reaction that melts the ink and lacquer.","When the plastic comes off, the deck is finished.","Decks of this caliber are sold unassembled in specialty stores.","They're designed for serious riders who want to customize their skateboards.","They pick and choose from different types of trucks, wheels, bearings, even the bolts that hold everything together.","All these factors determine how fast or how fancy their skateboard will move and maneuver."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["CNC Assembly Machines","Lemon Tarts","Miniature War Figures"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Automated machines changed manufacturing forever when they began assembling parts.","Cnc assembly machines have taken automation to the next level.","Cnc is an acronym for computer numerical control.","The machine is automated by a computer rather than by mechanics.","To design a cnc assembly machine, engineers first analyze the sequence of tasks required to assemble the product.","They then match each task to a pre-designed processing engine.","The processing engines are linked together in a custom assembly sequence.","Each engine is programmed to control its computer-guided motors, which perform the precise motions required to execute a task.","The cnc machine's engines are mounted on a sturdy base frame.","To construct it, workers cut steel tubes to the required lengths.","They grind a joint in each piece...","Then weld the pieces together by melting steel welding wire into the joints.","They bolt a steel tabletop onto the base frame.","It has cutouts for each engine.","It's been ground perfectly flat.","So the engines will be level with each other.","Meanwhile, an electrical technician is assembling the machine's main control cabinet.","It contains one industrial computer for each engine.","A cnc machine has engines for performing rotary movements, linear movements, and for picking up and placing parts.","The motors inside each engine have their own computers.","They're programmed to perform movements at specific speeds and forces.","Once the main control cabinet is assembled, workers bolt it to the base frame.","Then they install steel bases for the engines.","Some cnc machines require robotic arms.","A computer-guided milling machine cuts rectangular bars of aluminum, shaping them into robotic arm components.","This precision-measuring device ensures each milled part meets strict specifications.","After the aluminum components receive an anti-corrosion coating, workers assemble them into a robotic arm.","These self-lubricating sleeve bearings give the arm the ability to rotate.","They add a second assembled arm to create a pair that works together to perform an assigned task.","Each arm is controlled by its own motor, which follows the commands of the engine's computer.","This coupling securely connects each robotic arm to the shaft of its motor.","Each engine on the machine can have up to eight motors.","The motors can operate independently or in unison.","This engine has robotic arms that can pick up, hold, and release parts.","To test the completed machine, a high-speed video camera captures images at 1,000 frames per second.","The quality control team slows down the video to analyze and fine-tune the accuracy and efficiency of every motion.","Just a few simple taps on the operator's touch screen can adjust the arm to move a millisecond faster.","Or a millimeter further.","Cnc machines can assemble small products at high speed.","They also provide something traditional assembly equipment can't-- flexibility.","A single machine can be reprogrammed multiple times for assembling different products.","When life gives you lemons, why bother making lemonade when you can indulge in a luscious lemon tart?","Not too sour, not too sweet, a lemon tart is a delectable dessert that you can make yourself.","Or even better, leave it to the baking pros and buy ready-made.","This thaw-and-serve lemon tart has a shortbread shell and creamy lemon filling topped with buttercream.","Each batch of dough produced in this industrial mixer yields 449 tart shells.","The first step is to lightly blend margarine, sugar, and salt for 2 or 3 minutes.","Next, add pasteurized eggs and mix for about 2 minutes at slow speed.","Fast mixing makes the dough too tight, causing it to crack.","They add white flour while continuing to mix slowly until the ingredients are well-blended.","Once the dough is ready, workers put it through what is actually a hamburger forming machine.","It extrudes 1/4-pound dough patties.","Workers place them in the middle of a nonstick aluminum tart pan three at a time.","They mount the pan on a press, covering it with plastic.","A die strikes the pan, flattening and spreading the dough evenly.","The pans go into the oven, where they rotate for 23 to 24 minutes at 350 degrees fahrenheit.","The dough bakes into a shortbread tart shell.","Lemon juice and lemon oil are the key ingredients in the creamy filling.","First, workers melt margarine on a stove...","Then mix in sugar, lemon powder...","And food starch to thicken the mix.","They blend for 2 minutes, then add eggs.","After another 5 to 8 minutes of mixing, they pour in boiled lemon juice and lemon oil.","Boiling these acidic ingredients prevents the fats from curdling.","The filling is ready.","So they move the bowl from the mixer over to the depositing line.","A pump transfers the contents to a hopper feeding a depositor.","The depositor is pre-set to squirt 22 ounces of lemon filling in each tart.","The filled tarts go into the oven for 11 minutes.","The lemon tarts come out of the oven, cool at room temperature for 2 to 3 hours, then go into a freezer overnight.","The next day, workers remove the frozen tarts from the pans.","They gently remove any specks of browning, then spray on a light layer of glaze made from apricots.","This adds a hint of sweetness.","The glaze also prevents the filling from cracking when it's thawed for serving.","Next, they put the tart in an automated cake slicer.","The turntable rotates as the tart is cut into 12 slices with papers in between each one.","This is for restaurants who serve the dessert by the slice.","Workers embellish each slice with a flower made of buttercream, a decadent mixture of butter, egg whites, and sugar.","They complete each flower with a dot of lemon filling in the center.","This lemon tart is finished.","They wrap it in a cardboard cake band printed with the brand name.","They seal the tart in plastic film, insert it into a retail box, and ship it frozen to a store or restaurant.","To serve this tasty dessert, you simply defrost at room temperature for about a half hour.","Toy soldiers aren't just for children.","They're a hobby for grown-ups that dates back over a century.","The science-fiction novelist h.g. wells published the first set of rules for toy solider war games in 1913.","The game is on.","It's time to rally the troops.","These mini soldiers are made of either metal or plastic and hand-painted by the game players.","No detail is overlooked in making these war figures true to the historical period of the game.","Players move the figures around tabletop scenery like chessmen on a chess board.","And like chess, this is a game of strategy.","It's a way to engage in the tactical elements of war without the violence of a real battle.","Making miniature war figurines starts with the construction of a model.","With only one hand and his prosthesis, a modeler expertly bends tin copper wire into a framework for the model.","Each soldier needs to be 1.1 inches in length.","So he shapes and trims the wire accordingly.","Once he completes the wire skeleton, he sticks the leg prongs into a cork.","This enables him to get a firm grip on the skeleton as he builds up the figure with epoxy putty.","He sculpts a base layer using a dental tool that's usually used for scraping plaque.","After the base layer cures, he builds up the chest and calf areas.","After more curing time, he sculpts the soldier's tunic.","Using a tool with a fine point, he pits the surface to simulate medieval chain mail armor.","With skillful artistry, the miniature soldier takes shape.","He inserts a wire into a drilled shoulder socket and applies putty to create a muscular effect.","He builds up the sleeve and pierces it all the way around to continue the chain mail effect.","He carves the rounded rim of the hat.","This small-scale soldier is in fighting form.","He's used to make a mold for tin soldiers that will look just like him.","Meanwhile, another member of the team sculpts epoxy putty models that are three times larger.","These models are used to mass-produce plastic war figures.","Going large first and then scaling down is the only way to transfer all the details.","As he carves hair details into the head of this french cavalry figure, he's careful to not leave any protruding bits.","Otherwise, plastic could snag on molds made from them, jeopardizing the production of the plastic versions.","With curing time between layers, it takes about a week to sculpt this french cavalry model.","They're ready to make molds from the smaller scale models now.","The mold maker arranges the epoxy models on a silicone rubber disk.","He presses each one into the rubber.","The ends leave little dents.","He removes the model and slices it into the rubber with a surgical scalpel, cutting holes where the figures have left the indentations.","He removes the silicone cutouts, then carves a narrow channel to connect the two slots.","He inserts the model into the niche.","He repeats this process with the other soldiers on the disk, then places the disk in a preheated steel vessel.","He puts a lid on the vessel and transfers it to a vulcanizing press.","In the press, heated plates squeeze it using pressure.","This softens the rubber inside, melting around the figures, picking up the contours.","This transfers the disk into a mold.","Coming up next, the miniatures emerge from the mold shell battle-ready.","In the age of video games, tabletop war games still have plenty of fans.","The challenge begins with the acquisition of small armies of miniatures.","Players hand-paint the soldiers and build elaborate backdrops with scenery.","Then the games begin.","As production continues, the mold-maker carves channels into the silicone disk.","He links the channels to the impressions of miniature soldiers and military machinery that have been created by the models.","The channels allow molten metal to flow into the impressions in order to cast copies.","In the storeroom, there are thousands of silicone molds, each depicting different characters and props.","When the order comes in, an apprentice makes the selection.","Next, an operator puts the mold in a casting machine.","As the mold spins in the machine, he adds molten tin through an opening in the lid.","The spinning throws the liquid tin into the mold crevices.","After the casting solidifies and cools, he extracts the little tin soldiers.","These tin war figures are on their way to the gaming front lines.","Making plastic war figures starts with an epoxy resin for a pattern.","They add a hardener and blend the batch to the consistency of pancake batter.","They transfer it to a larger bucket and place it in a vacuum chamber, which pulls out the air.","In the process, the epoxy swells.","Once the epoxy mixture deflates, a team brushes it onto sculpted military models arranged in a steel box.","After filling all the crevices, they dispense more epoxy.","A chute ensures a gentle flow, preventing the buildup of more bubbles.","They repeat this on the other side of the models to create a two-part pattern.","Once the epoxy hardens, they mill the outside of the pattern to pre-determined measurements.","An employee then opens it and discards the models.","He inspects the impressions they've left.","They use this pattern to make a smaller-scale mold from steel.","Using an automated saw, they carve smaller pieces from a block of nickel chrome steel.","An automated milling tool machines the smaller blocks so the two of them will fit together to create one mold set.","A carriage shunts the block back and forth between an abrasive wheel to grind the surface to precise measurements.","A mold-maker follows the impressions in the epoxy pattern with a stylus, which moves a needle-like cutter.","The cutter etches a template into the steel block that's three times smaller than the one in the epoxy pattern.","Using a wand that generates high-frequency vibrations, he polishes the etchings in the steel mold.","It's a gentle polish that doesn't damage any of the etching in the mold block.","They drill channels in the steel to allow plastic to flow to the impressions.","They also insert water-cooling pipes.","They're ready to mass-produce plastic war figures.","The machine melts plastic and injects it under pressure into the mold set.","The plastic hardens, and the machine ejects the little soldiers connected by runners.","This particular production includes miniature rifles and other military paraphernalia.","They pack the plastic soldiers, their horses, and their guns into boxes for retail along with instructions for painting.","After painting, the plastic soldiers and their tin comrades are in tip-top military form and ready for battle.","There will be casualties.","But of course, it's all just for fun.","These miniature war figures are survivors.","They will live on to fight many more battles."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Ceramic Fireplaces","Synthetic Corks","Parking Garage Floor Slabs"]},"text":["The first fireplaces were strictly functional for heating the home, cooking meals, and warming water for bathing.","Over time, fireplaces appeared in other rooms of the house and acquired ascetic features such as wood, stone, or tile work.","This ceramic fireplace is a heritage model inspired by fireplaces of the late 19th and early 20th century.","Certain tiles are exact replicas of originals.","At the ceramic factory they mix water with clay, feldspar, and silica in a pugmill.","Together, these formulate a clay blend.","Once the mix is the right consistency, the operator presses a button, and the mill switches to extrusion mode.","This forces the clay blend through a mantel shaped die and produces a 10- to 15-inch long extruded mantel piece.","They trim the piece with a cutting wire to the precise length required.","They use this extrusion method for making longer pieces.","If they need shorter ones they often cast them individually in a mold.","When casting they add significantly more water to the clay blend to produce a liquid clay called slip.","They pour the slip into a plaster mold.","The porous plaster gradually absorbs most of the water, leaving a layer of clay about 6 millimeters thick on the walls of the mantel-shaped cavity.","After a few hours, they pour out the excess slip and open the mold to extract the cast mantel piece.","Once the clay becomes firm enough to handle they carefully trim off the excess around the opening in the mold.","Then they gently smooth down the seam along the junction between the two halves of the mold.","On the opposite side of the pour hole, they cut out a matching hole.","This will help the clay dry faster by enabling air to flow through the inside of the piece.","To compensate for shrinkage, the molds and extrusion dies are designed 11% larger than the size of the finished piece.","Clay shrinks as it dries.","To make the fireplace's ceramic tiles, they produce a rubber mold of two adjoining tiles and place it inside a metal casing.","They also include a release system to help with extraction.","They fill the casing with an exceptionally strong type of plaster.","It sets in about half an hour, taking on the shape of the rubber mold.","This plaster casting is the die they'll now use to produce the tiles.","They mount the die on what's known as a ram press because it literally rams a block of clay in the die and compresses it with 30 tons of pressure.","The tile die is also 11% larger than the final size to compensate for shrinkage during drying and firing.","They remove excess clay and send it back to the pugmill to be recycled.","Then they position a board under the die and activate the release system, which extracts the clay with a blast of compressed air.","They trim off the excess clay.","Once dry, the tiles and mantel pieces are ready to be glazed.","Glaze is a chemical formula containing finely ground silica combined with different combinations of metallic elements to produce specific colors.","They use a spray gun to apply glaze to the mantels and a tube tip applicator to glaze the tiles.","The tiles design has raised borders between its components.","These are called cuenca lines.","They prevent the different colored glazes from flowing into each other.","The glazed mantel piece and tiles now go into a gas-fired kiln for 12 to 14 hours.","The high temperature, 2,100 degrees fahrenheit, triggers chemical reactions which harden and strengthen the pieces.","The clay's mineral composition transforms into a completely new configuration of crystals and glass.","As for the glaze, its precise formulation of metallic elements produces a specific color, and the silica melts into a glass surface.","The ceramics are now smooth and shiny and ready to transform an otherwise ordinary fireplace into a work of art.","Many winemakers choose to seal their bottles with synthetic closures instead of natural cork from tree bark.","This prevents cork taint, which happens when natural cork gets contaminated by the tca molecule.","Cork taint is completely harmless to humans, but spoils the taste of the wine.","This engineered cork is entirely synthetic and therefore resistant to tca contamination.","It's made of a food-grade polyethylene foam core encased in elasticized polymer skin.","Both materials contract to squeeze inside the bottleneck but then regain their original shape to seal the opening.","To make the foam core, they mix talc with pellets of low density polyethylene, a pliable type of plastic.","Then they add pellets of dark brown and beige colorant to mimic the wood grain look of natural cork.","For each customer's order of corks, a computerized system automatically releases the right amount of each ingredient into an industrial blender.","The blender feeds a specially designed dual extrusion machine.","The machine melts the foam mix to a liquid state then injects carbon dioxide.","This produces bubbles, which create the cellular structure of the foam.","The liquid foam enters the machine's horizontal extruder, while elasticized polymer enters the machine's angled extruder.","Both extruders squeeze their materials through the same shaping die, which outputs a continuous rod of skin-encased foam.","The foam core immediately expands.","The elastic skin stretches with it.","A water bath cools the rod, halting this expansion at a specific diameter.","Then, an underwater ultrasonic gauge measures the thickness of the outer skin to make sure it meets specifications.","The rod exits the water bath and continues cooling and shrinking as it drip dries.","A laser gauge then verifies that the rod is perfectly round and measures a specific diameter by this point.","When any of the measuring gauges detects an area that doesn't meet specifications, that part of the rod is flagged in the system and is discarded at the end of the production line.","The rod now enters the final cooling phase.","It travels in several loops past nozzles spraying cold water.","As the rod cools, it shrinks to its final size, a diameter of between 22 and 23 millimeters.","It's designed to fit snugly inside the standard 18.5-millimeter bottle opening.","They had to calculate exactly how wide to extrude the rod so that after expansion then shrinkage, it would end up at this precise diameter.","The rod now enters a cutter.","The blade is so sharp that a safety cover is mandatory.","It's removed here only for the camera.","The winery placing the order specifies the cork length.","Air jets automatically blow off any corks cut from areas the measuring gauges flagged as being problematic.","The cutter slices about 10 standard-length corks per second.","All the good corks land on the conveyor belt and travel to the end of the line, where computer sensors count them as they drop into a collection bin.","Additional machines print on the winery's name and logo, and lubricate the surface with silicone so the corks will glide in and out of the bottle with ease.","The factory's on-site lab tests samples from every order.","Sensory specialists sniff each cork and compare it to a control sample.","There must be no discernible odor that might affect the aroma or flavor of the wine.","If there is, the entire order of corks fails inspection.","While natural cork is designed by mother nature, a synthetic cork manufacturer can engineer the closure to fit more or less snugly according to the amount of air the particular wine needs to develop correctly.","Multi-tiered parking garages have become an urban phenomenon.","With each floor added to the garage the number of parking spaces increases.","In crowded cities where land is limited, garages like these are a necessity.","They build parking garages one concrete slab at a time.","These slabs are known as double-t's because the two support beams are in a double-t configuration.","Double-t's are often factory made and transported to the construction site later.","They are designed to hold up under very heavy loads.","They make these slabs outdoors.","Wind blows dirt onto the molds, so they sweep it clean.","This mold is about 500 feet long and will be used to make several slabs.","They spray an oil-based release agent onto it.","The release agent will allow the slabs to be easily extracted when complete, preventing cracking.","They spread it more evenly using mops.","This release agent bonds to the metal quickly and won't wash off easily if it happens to rain.","They're now ready to assemble the floor slab's elaborate support structure.","They prop up the ends of each slab with galvanized steel stirrups.","They place l-shaped bearing plates in strategic locations along the mold.","Then they insert wooden blocks in the mold.","These blocks will form notches in the cast concrete that will be used to join the slabs during construction.","Next, workers thread high-strength steel cables called tendons throughout the beam sections of the mold.","They pull the ends through holes to the outside of the mold and clamp them.","A worker tucks another wood block between two tendons to complete the notch part of the mold and hold the tendons in place.","The team threads more tendons throughout the mold, weaving a strategic support structure.","To separate each cast slab, they insert wooden dividers with slots that accommodate the tendons.","They adjust the location of each of the stirrups so that they sit at a specific spot near the dividers.","With the final tendons in place, they bring in a hydraulic jack.","The worker attaches it to one of the protruding steel tendons.","He activates the jack, and it pulls the tendon until it's stretched tight like a rubber band.","He pulls the rest of the tendons with the jack and checks the tension to confirm that it's exactly the same for each one.","Pulled tight and later released, the cables will hold the concrete under compression, adding strength to it.","Without it, the concrete slabs would never be able to support the weight of many vehicles.","The next worker ties a plastic bracket to the stirrups to set them at the right height.","He inserts metal mesh into the mold where each slab will end.","This will help disperse some of the concentrated bearing stresses.","He stabilizes the mesh, and reinforces it with the support structure.","The team places plastic pockets along the tops of the beam sections of the mold.","These pockets will be used to chain the slab to the truck during transport.","They'll also act as entry points for electrical wiring and hold controls for parking space counting equipment.","Coming up next, the deck section gets plenty of extra support, and then it's set in concrete.","The average car weighs well over 2,000 pounds, so each parking garage floor must hold up many times that weight.","Double-t concrete slabs make this possible.","Each slab has two reinforcing beams, and each beam has a tense steel skeleton that compresses the concrete, making it stronger.","With the steel tendons stretched through the beam parts of the mold, workers now lay metal mesh across the deck.","This mesh is known as welded wire fabric, and it will reinforce the surface of the parking slab.","They tie the welded wire together for full coverage across the deck.","They use plastic clips to prop up the wire so that when they pour the concrete, it will envelop both sides.","They insert handles that will protrude from the ends of the completed slab to allow it to be lifted for transport and installation.","There are four double handles in each parking floor slab.","They enmesh the prongs of weld plates in the steel grid.","The plates are strategically positioned for the welding of the slab to other pieces of concrete.","All the prep work is finally done, and they pour the concrete.","The concrete flows into the beam sections of the mold first, and then workers spread the overflow across the deck.","This is a high-performance formula that's known in the industry as self-consolidating concrete.","It flows evenly into tight spaces and compacts better without the need for much vibrating.","This leveler vibrates the surface of the concrete only slightly as it evens it out.","They then rake the surface of the slab to allow another layer of concrete to adhere to it later during construction.","They now insert arced metal bars into slots on the sides of the mold to form a ribbed framework down the length of it.","This serves as a support structure for a tent.","They unroll the tarp from a huge spool and drape it over the ribbing.","They secure the canvas to the sides of the mold with hooks.","The tent will shelter the concrete from the wind and rain as it cures.","Along with an additional plastic layer, it will contain the hot and humid conditions created inside.","The heat accelerates the curing of the concrete, and the humidity prevents cracking.","The cure takes 16 hours, and then they roll up the tarp.","Using a torch, they cut the steel tendons and place the concrete under compression.","The cuts also separate the slabs.","A driver now parks his crane over one of the slabs.","Workers attach the hooks of the crane to the protruding handles at the ends of the slab.","They signal the crane operator, and he activates the lift.","Thanks to the release agent applied earlier, the concrete slab easily dislodges from the mold.","It's a heavy load.","Each slab weighs 40,000 pounds.","The crane sets it down and the team inspects the slab for defects.","Satisfied that the slab is free of flaws, a worker trims the protruding steel tendons flush to the concrete.","Another worker spreads a concrete-like paste on the exposed ends of the severed steel to seal it from the elements.","Then a worker glues rubber pads to the bearing plates.","They'll act as cushions when the slab sits on another concrete beam.","He wraps some tape around them while the adhesive sets.","This parking garage floor slab is now ready to join the rest.","Side-by-side, the slabs will form one large parking surface to create even more spaces."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Sails","Walnuts","Wheel Immobilizers","Honeycomb Structural Panels"]},"text":["A sail is essentially a vertical wing that provides forward thrust and lift to propel a boat over water.","It's impossible to know who came up with the concept because boats with sails have been plying waterways for thousands of years.","But there's no doubt that when it comes to their design and construction, today's sails have come a long way.","For thousands of years, sails were square, but in the 3rd century, triangular sails appeared on the mediterranean.","The shape enabled boats to sail into the wind, as well as with it.","Modern racing sails are made of laminated synthetics.","They start with a plastic membrane.","Rollers apply a hot liquid adhesive to one side in measured amounts, because even a couple of extra grams would weigh down the sail.","They press a scrim onto the hot adhesive.","It's a superstrength synthetic called aramid, which will keep the sail from tearing.","Then it's over to a computerized laser that cuts patterns out of the scrim-reinforced plastic.","A worker rolls up each panel to transport it to the next worktable.","Here, they tape 10 to 20 of the panels together, using heavy-duty p.e.t. plastic with an acrylic adhesive.","Now hundreds of small jacks stretch aluminized plastic around a framework, pulling material into a curved aerodynamic shape.","This mold will be used to shape the sail.","The team stretches clear plastic film over it.","Then they drape the joined panels over top.","They use ropes and clamps to pull it to the contours of the mold.","And now they're ready for some supertough synthetics-- aramid and carbon fiber yarns.","The yarns have been coated with adhesive so they'll stick to the plastic film.","A robot rolls the yarns onto the film, while a worker follows in a harness overhead to keep an eye on the job.","The robot applies the yarns in a pattern plotted by an engineer to anticipate the wind load on this sail.","The robot now switches from a vertical path to a horizontal one, applying yarns in a transverse pattern.","The team installs a long, narrow pocket over that section.","A batten will later be inserted in this pocket to control the sail's shape.","They pull another layer of scrim-enhanced plastic on top.","And now all the layers of this sail cloth are in place.","A worker hovers overhead to inspect the surface for defects.","They now seal the assembled sail in a vacuum bag and attach hoses.","The hoses suck out the air, pressing the layers of the sail together.","Now the robot applies heat to the sail.","It activates the adhesives and the plastics to laminate the layers together.","And it also sets the three-dimensional shape of the sail.","A worker inspects the job with a magnifying glass.","Then it's over to a revolving sewing turret.","As the sewing machine turns, it pulls the sail forward, allowing the operator to stitch hems, grommets, and reinforcements onto it.","They apply the corporate logo.","Next, a worker walks the length of this enormous sail to inspect it.","No imperfections will be tolerated.","After all, this is a big-ticket item.","Large racing sails can retail for hundreds of thousands of dollars.","Sophisticated engineering and high-tech materials have produced a racing sail that's lightweight yet incredibly strong.","There may be rough water ahead, but with technology on their side, this crew should be able to sail right through it.","The walnut has been cultivated for thousands of years, but its actual discovery remains a mystery.","Some of the earliest evidence of the walnut comes from the region of persia in 7th century b.c. back then, royalty had dibs on this nut, and commoners were forbidden to eat it.","Thankfully, that's ancient history.","Today, the walnut is mass-produced to meet a global demand.","It starts in an orchard like this one in california.","Walnuts take five years to grow, and they emerge shrouded in protective husks.","Using mechanical shakers and sweepers, workers harvest the walnuts.","Once the husks have been peeled off, it's over to the receiving pit at the processing plant.","This machine separates out any rocks or sticks, then drops the walnuts into a conveyer.","At the end of the line, the nuts spiral off and land softly in cooling bays below-- 8 bays that hold over 13 tons of walnuts.","The walnuts are funneled into these sealed chambers for fumigation to eliminate insects.","After 28 hours, they're on the move once again.","They fall between rollers.","The gaps between these rollers are tapered to allow the small, medium, and large nuts to fall into separate lanes.","This sorting system will allow them to be cracked by machines geared to specific nut sizes.","These large walnuts head up a conveyer called the cracker belt.","At the top, they enter the cracker.","It's a revolving machine with pistons, one for each walnut.","The technician activates the pistons to press against the nuts.","The pistons apply a precise amount of pressure to crack the shells without damaging the nuts inside.","The nut cracking has been slowed for our camera, but in reality, this is a high-speed operation.","The nuts, shells and all, fall onto a conveyer.","The pistons have cracked between 80% and 90% of the walnuts.","To capture the rest, the whole pile shakes its way toward a second group of sizing rollers.","The smaller pieces drop through the gaps and go for further processing.","The larger ones continue on to a machine called a re-cracker.","There, the nuts travel through slats in a revolving cylinder.","Inside those slats are little knives that break up the whole nuts.","After some of the larger shells have been removed, it's on to a giant sifter.","The nuts and shells bounce on a shaking screen.","The smaller bits fall through, and the larger ones remain on top.","The holes in the screen become progressively larger to sort the pieces into eight sizes which differ by a fraction of an inch.","The bigger, choicest walnuts fall into a separate chute.","The smaller pieces will be used in baking, among other things.","A high-speed belt sends nuts and shells flying through the air to allow a computerized camera to detect shell fragments and activate a system to blast them off the production line, leaving the prized kernel, the walnut half.","An inspector removes any remaining shells or unacceptable nuts.","Then the walnuts enter a vacuum chamber, which suctions away any last crumbs.","They exit on a spiraling slide and land in a box.","This packer portions out bulk product for the food industry.","He removes nuts from the box until it reaches the correct weight.","These walnuts are on their way to adding crunch and flavor to cookies, cakes, and other good stuff.","The walnuts in this box have taken years to grow and a couple hours to process, but in the end, the wait should be more than worth it.","On the street, it's known as \"the boot\".","Accumulate a few unpaid parking tickets, and you may very well find your car wearing one.","Municipalities use wheel immobilizers to clamp down on offenders, while universities use them to deter illegal parking on campus.","The boot's dome goes over the rim.","On the other side, its inner arm hooks in between the rim and brake.","A secure bolt clamps those outer and inner parts together, immobilizing the wheel.","Boots must be strong and tamper-proof, so the main components are made of steel.","This steel tube will become the boot's outer arm.","This steel bar will become the stand that props up the boot during installation.","This flat steel bar will become the inner arm that hooks between the rim and brake.","They bend it lengthwise to give it strength.","Then they bend it into the final shape.","Now back to the tube they cut for the outer arm.","After bending it in two spots, they drill two holes for the tube that will house the secure bolt.","They bend a flat steel bar to make a stiffener that reinforces the inner arm.","Meanwhile, that steel bar they cut to make the stand goes onto a machine called a rod bender.","A welder now fuses the tube to the outer arm...","Then welds that assembly to a part called the body box.","After welding the stiffener to the inner arm, he welds a pin through holes in both the arm and the other end of the body box.","So now the inner arm hinges on the box.","After a coat of baked-on enamel, the boot's body is complete.","The dome measures 12 inches in diameter.","First, they weld a bracket to it.","Next, they fit a sleeve into the bracket and thread a pin through them both.","Then they weld the pin to the bracket.","So now the sleeve pivots.","This, too, receives a baked-on coat of enamel.","Now they glue a rubber trim over the dome's edge so that booting a car doesn't damage the rim.","It's time to assemble all the parts.","First, the mechanism that clamps the boot's inner and outer arms around the tire.","Using a special key, they screw into a stainless-steel nut inside the bolt tube.","This spring holds the inner arm in the correct position.","The stand goes on with a bolt.","The stand elevates the boot off the ground, enabling the installer to turn the secure bolt key.","In this cutaway, you can see how turning the key moves the secure bolt forward, pushing the inner and outer arms together to clamp the tire.","Next, they slide the dome sleeve over the body's outer arm.","They align the hole in the sleeve with the hole in the arm, then bolt the parts together.","The arm has several holes so the boot can accommodate wheels of different sizes.","Every boot gets a metal plate bearing the model and serial number.","The boot manufacturer records who owns the boot and won't issue a new secure bolt key without proper identification.","From the mechanics to the cabin, aircraft are made with the most lightweight, high-strength materials, such as honeycomb structural panels.","These make up the support structure hidden beneath the flooring and behind the walls of, among other areas, the lavatories, galleys, and stow bins.","The cells at the center of the structural panel are hexagonal in those designed to lie flat and rectangular in curved panels.","Producing the core begins with giant printing cylinders.","Etched into their surface is a pattern of lines.","They rotate in heat-activated adhesive, printing the line pattern onto paper that passes between them.","This paper is made of thermoplastic, but depending on the type of panel, it can be another kind of paper or even aluminum foil.","This machine cuts the paper into sheets-- anywhere from 500 to 2,000 sheets, depending on how thick the cores will be.","The machine then stacks the sheets in a specific sequence.","Every other sheet is offset by half a line.","This back-and-forth pattern is what forms the core's honeycomb cells.","The stack now goes into a heated press, which activates and cures the lines of adhesive, bonding the sheets.","After an hour, they remove the stack and attach aluminum-foil loops along its perimeter.","Then they stand the stack on its side and hook those loops onto the steel pins of a device called an expansion frame.","It slowly pulls apart the sheets, opening the honeycomb cells that the special stacking sequence formed.","To ease the expansion process, they soften the paper with water.","This is a time-lapse shot.","The full expansion takes about 15 minutes.","Next, the block goes into an oven, where it bakes for about a half-hour at 527 degrees fahrenheit.","That heats sets the thermoplastic paper, locking in the honeycomb shapes.","Now they repeatedly submerge the block in a vat of resin, baking it after each dip.","Here, an aspirator sucks out the excess resin.","Then, after a final baking, an automated saw slices the block horizontally into several cores.","Then it's over to the assembly table.","They construct a structural panel like a sandwich-- the honeycomb core in the center.","This one's made of aluminum foil.","Then on either side of the panel's outer sheets, in this case, made of carbon fiber.","On the top and bottom, workers position a sheet of release paper to prevent the panel from sticking to the metal sheets that hold everything in position for now.","Workers load the assembly into a press.","The heat and pressure combined bond all the layers.","About an hour later, they take the sandwich out of the press and remove the metal sheets.","Workers slap on labels identifying the product and manufacturer.","Then they shear off the panel's rough edges.","The factory subjects some samples to a series of quality-control checks.","This load test, for example, assesses how much the panel can flex and how much weight it can withstand before snapping.","Whatever the materials, thickness, or density, these structural panels all deliver maximum strength with minimal weight."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Gears","Leather Watchbands","Vitrelle Dishes","Kitchen Shears"]},"text":["If you've ever looked inside a wind-up watch or a car's transmission, you've seen a system of gears.","A gear is a wheel with teeth that meshes with the teeth of another gear to transmit power on a continuous basis.","Combining gears of different diameters affects rotation speed and force.","This factory makes gears that go into transmissions for industrial machines.","Production begins with a large, round bar of high-grade steel, which contains a certain amount of carbon to make it even stronger.","An automated band saw slices off a piece that's the right thickness for the size of gear they're making.","This piece is called a gear blank.","They mount the blank on a computer-controlled blade.","As it spins, a turret carrying a series of carbide tools moves in.","One tool after another takes its turn machining the blank to a specific shape.","A shower of coolant prevents overheating when the jumbo drill has its turn.","It bores a hole right through the middle of the blank.","The last tool carves a groove on the front of the blank.","This final bit of metal removal lessens the gear's weight.","Now the blank goes into a computer-controlled mill.","The mill drills holes through which lubrication will flow when the gear is operating.","These holes also lighten the gear's weight.","When the blank comes off the mill, they stamp it with the company name and part number.","Now for the gear's teeth.","A machine called a gear shaper carves out the inner teeth-- the ones lining the center hole-- with its titanium-coated cutter.","The machine's other components keep the cutter's movement correctly timed.","The number of teeth and tooth size vary from gear to gear, so for each model, the factory has to fit the gear shaper with a specific cutter.","Now for the outside gear teeth.","The computer-controlled machine that cuts them is called a gear hobber.","The gear turns against it as it cuts.","If the hobber would cut the full depth of the teeth in one shot, the cutter would chip, so the gear keeps turning around and around again as the hobber cuts a bit more with each pass, until the teeth are the right depth.","Then the gear undergoes a computerized inspection.","A probe scans the entire surface, including every tooth.","It sends data to a computer which then analyzes the dimensions and ensures they meet the engineering specifications.","Gears that pass this quality-control inspection go into a furnace for heat treatment.","This strengthens the steel.","When the furnace reaches a certain temperature, they inject carbon inside.","The gears absorb it, and the steel strengthens even further.","A soaking in oil afterward hardens the metal.","Heat treatment, however, distorts steel somewhat, so each gear now goes to a computer-controlled grinder.","It restores them to very precise specifications for bearings to fit properly.","This factory manufactures gears in various sizes, and not only in steel.","It also makes gears in material such as nylon, aluminum, brass, and stainless steel.","Some gears have straight teeth, others angled teeth, which makes less noise when turning.","Gears are an essential component in everything from watches to heavy mining equipment, keeping machinery going at every turn.","When it comes to wristwatches, there's nothing quite like a band made of genuine leather.","It has a classic look that's versatile, working with both casual and formal attire.","And a leather watchband is always comfortable against the skin because, unlike synthetics, leather breathes.","These premium watchbands are made of alligator, a leather with an unmistakable texture and shine.","The tannery dyes the croc leathers in classic shades, as well as in the latest high-fashion colors and styles.","Nearly all the production steps are manual, beginning with cutting leather pieces for the band's two straps.","Every watchband model requires a steel cutter for each strap in every size.","Now they coat the back side of each piece with glue.","Later, when it's almost dry, they center a watchband core onto it.","This flexible form is made of synthetic material reinforced with fiberglass.","Using a machine with a fine blade, they make small cuts at the ends to let the leather fold smoothly over the form.","One side of each strap attaches to the watch face with a spring-loaded bar.","They mark exactly where the bar goes, then punch a tiny hole for its tiny base.","Next they apply superstrength glue and fold the leather over to encase the bar.","The glue dries instantly.","They now coat the rest of the form with glue, then lay it in a mold that pushes the leather against the edge tightly so they can neatly fold over the remainder.","Now they run the open end through a machine that cuts a beveled edge.","Next, they run a tiny sander over the leather on the back side.","This roughens the surface, which will help the leather backing adhere.","To make the loops which go on the buckle strap, they bevel the ends of small leather strips.","They glue and fold them into a loop, making sure they're large enough to fit around both straps.","One loop sits directly below the buckle.","A glued-over flap of leather locks it in position.","They press it flat with pliers to ensure a good bond.","They machine-stitch each strap with strong, polyethylene-based thread.","To prevent unraveling, they melt them right into the leather.","On the buckle end, they pierce two holes for stitches that reinforce the locked-in first loop.","Then they punch two holes in the back of the second loop for stitching to reinforce its glued-together ends.","This loop has to be movable, so they don't stitch it to the band.","They heat the edge of each strap.","The iron's rounded tip molds an attractive, rounded edge.","Using a heated tool again, they widen the channel through which the buckle will pass.","Now they insert the buckle end into a stamping press.","It cuts a slot for the buckle's tongue.","A heat press burns the company's name into the leather lining.","That same strap then goes into a press, which punches the sizing holes.","From here, both straps go off to the buckle department.","Random samples are subjected to rigorous quality-control testing.","This machine pulls the ends of the strap in opposite directions, with up to nearly 50 pounds of tension, far more than anyone would ever apply to the watchband when they pull to buckle it.","Vitrelle is a super-durable dinnerware material invented in the united states in the early 1970s.","It's made of three layers of glass, fused together.","Vitrelle dishes are thin and lightweight, yet they're stronger and far more break-resistant than ordinary dinnerware.","In a perfect union of form, function, and food, this company serves up vitrelle dinnerware in several striking designs.","The dishes are made of 65% recycled glass from earlier production runs.","To make the other 35% that's new glass, the factory combines several raw materials-- sand...","Salt...","Limestone...","Feldspar...","And two more types of salt.","The exact proportions are a closely guarded secret.","The ingredients go into a furnace, where a fiery 2,500 degrees fahrenheit melts them into liquid glass.","It exits the furnace.","An extruder shapes it into a three-ply sheet that lands in a mold--  in this case, a plate mold.","A trimmer cuts off the excess, while compressed air blows down from above to cool and solidify the glass.","A vacuum arm then extracts each dish, and the leftovers are recycled.","The dishes now undergo what's called fire polishing.","Each one passes through a gas-oxygen flame, which seals the three layers of glass.","It also melts the outer rim, smoothing and rounding out the rough edge created by the trimming.","Oval dishes go on a different fire polisher, designed for an oval rim rather than a round one.","Now the conveyor system flips each dish over for backstamping.","The bottom of every vitrelle dish has the trade name and other information.","A silk-screen machine applies the lettering.","Then a gas-air flame bakes the ink into the glass.","Once that's done, the conveyor system flips the dishes right side up again.","To decorate the dishes, a machine silk-screens the design onto membranes.","Robotic arms position a membrane above each dish.","Then a press head pushes the membrane down onto the surface, transferring the paint.","Robotic arms then move the dishes back onto a conveyor belt.","Certain dishes have a design on the outside.","An automated silk-screen machine applies the paint directly to the surface.","The decorated dishes now travel through a tunnel oven for 5 1/2 minutes.","The nearly 1,500-degree fahrenheit heat cures the enamel paint.","At the end of the ride, a tempering process that makes the glass stronger.","Then, nozzles spray the dishes in a soy-based silicone.","This wash-off coating prevents scratches during packaging.","The factory subjects a sample from each production run to a 6 1/2-foot-drop test and a rim-impact test.","The sample mustn't break, chip, or crack...","All to ensure this stylish dinnerware will withstand whatever your household can dish out.","Shears are typically larger than scissors for heavier-duty cutting.","And you can insert up to three fingers in the handle's finger ring.","Using more fingers gives you a stronger grasp, which translates into more control and more cutting force.","These high-end shears effortlessly slice through produce, snip fresh herbs, and open packaging.","Outside the kitchen, they easily cut many materials, including thin aluminum and galvanized steel.","The secret to their strength?","Blades made of stainless steel, which contains a minute amount of carbon.","To make them, workers feed a bar of this high-carbon stainless steel into a press.","It stamps out blade shapes called blanks.","Stainless steel can be heat-treated to make it more durable and corrosion-resistant.","But first, a furnace softens the blanks for the forging process that transforms them into blades.","Each blank goes onto a forging dye that has two blade-shaped cavities.","One strike in each, and the blank is a blade.","Once it cools, a trimming press cuts off all the excess metal around the perimeter.","Heating and forging tend to warp steel, so another press makes the blade perfectly flat and straight again.","Trimming the excess metal leaves some rough areas, so the next step is to smooth the surface with a sanding belt.","To make the hole for the bolt on which the blades pivot, they drill a round hole partway through...","Then pierce a rectangular hole through the rest.","You'll see why later on.","Now the blades undergo heat treatment-- first, to harden them, a slow heating and rapid cooling, then, to make them tough and durable, a reheat and slow cooling.","A grinder shapes the round area next to the tang, the term for the metal core of the handle.","With a sanding belt, they smooth out and blend the adjacent corners.","Here, two polishing wheels give the surface an upscale satin finish.","Then an etching machine uses electrically activated chemicals to imprint the company's name into the thumb-operated blade.","Just one final step before the blades are finished.","A computer-operated grinder serrates the inside edge of the thumb-operated blade.","Workers now load six blades at a time into an injection-molding machine.","The machine shoots molten plastic into the cavities, then rapidly cools the material until it solidifies.","Each blade exits the machine with a molded handle firmly encasing the tang.","Now for the final assembly-- first they drive a bolt with a rectangular head into the pivot hole of the finger-operated blade.","Then they add the thumb-operated blade and press the bolt again into its final position.","A self-locking, hexagonal nut secures the bolt from underneath.","An automatic tightener does the initial fastening.","Then workers do the final tension adjustment manually.","The final step is to grind the excess plastic off the handle stops.","This enables the blade to close fully and in perfect alignment.","So, why the rectangular bolt?","Watch closely.","It allows you, with just one simple twist, to separate the blades for cleaning and then reassemble them.","Now, that's cutting-edge design."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fish Decoys","Film Digitization","Cylinder Stoves","Concrete Light Poles"]},"text":["When luring fish to a hole in a frozen lake, it helps to take a crafty approach.","It's a handcrafted piece of folk art, and it's also a cunning piece of work.","Often brightly colored with bold patterns, the decoy attracts the attention of fish-- an attraction that will likely prove fatal.","Native north americans were the first to use decoys to catch fish in the winter.","European settlers followed their example.","And centuries later, decoy artists carry on this tradition of trickery.","At this workshop, the decoy starts with a plank of white cedar.","It's a wood with dense fibers, so it won't expand when wet.","He draws a basic fish shape on the wood freestyle.","This one is to resemble a herring.","He carves out the shape with a band saw, producing the blank, which can now be transformed into a fish decoy.","He cuts a narrow slot for attaching a metal tail fin.","He draws a center line around the decoy blank.","This serves as a reference point as he now tapers the edges with a sharp knife.","If he cuts too deep, he could spoil the carving, so he whittles carefully, removing just a bit of wood with each stroke of the knife.","The goal is to round the sharp edges and soften the profile without cutting too deep and gouging the wood.","He sands the entire surface of the decoy until it's perfectly smooth.","Sanding also opens up the pores of the wood so paint will adhere.","He carves a mouth and then cuts slits for two sets of side fins.","Using a power carver, he now bores into the wood to create fish eye sockets on both sides.","He takes an equal amount of two epoxy clay components and kneads the two together.","This activates the ingredients, turning it into a putty-like adhesive.","He presses some of the adhesive into each of the decoy's eye sockets.","He presses the glass eyes into the epoxy-filled sockets.","Next he cuts six fish fins from a sheet of aluminum, creating one dorsal fin, two sets of side fins, and a large tail fin.","He inserts the fins into slots in the carving.","He then drills holes in the wood on each side.","He presses nails into those holes using pliers.","This secures the tail fin.","The fins on decoys are larger than on live fish to enable them to swim well when weighted.","He now carves a pocket for the lead weight in the decoy belly.","He inserts the front side fins, so that they protrude slightly into the freshly carved pocket.","He scoops up molten lead and pours it into the pocket.","As the lead solidifies, it weights the decoy so it will sink, and it also secures the two side fins.","He applies epoxy to the lead, sealing it so it won't be exposed to the water.","He coats the entire decoy with lacquer.","This seals the wood against water, which would have caused the wood to swell, cracking the final finish.","Once the lacquer dries and the paint has been scraped off the eyes, the decoy is ready to take the plunge.","He tests it to confirm that it sinks and that it sits level underwater and swims.","Sometimes, more lead needs to be added.","But in this case, the decoy performs fine underwater.","He marks a spot for a screw eye for threading fishing line and then twists the screw eye into that spot.","He paints the herring decoy a vibrant red, a color that isn't scientifically accurate, but one that should tantalize real fish.","Decoys are often exact copies of fish.","They're designed to simply pique their curiosity.","Since fish are attracted by colors and shapes they don't normally see, decoy artists can be as creative as they like.","Considered a form of folk art, fish decoys are often entered into competitions.","But of course when it comes to their underwater allure, the real judges are the fish.","Unless you're actually in a movie theater, you're likely watching a digital version of a film.","A movie shot on film has to be digitized to be put on a disc or to be downloaded and viewed on an electronic device.","Digitization also preserves the movie as film physically deteriorates over time.","A movie has to be in a digital format to be viewable from a dvd...","Or as a download to a computer...","A smartphone...","I repeat--  a nuclear war has broken-- ...","Or a tablet.","[ dog growls] [ electricity crackles] aah!","This organization has produced 13,000 films since it was founded in 1939.","And now it's in the process of digitizing the collection, as well as the 80 to 100 new films it produces each year.","Once all the finished films are digitized, the next step will be to digitize stock shots and archival footage.","The film board's archives contain many films which have deteriorated due to age and poor storage conditions such as exposure to cold or to heat, both of which deform film, and excess humidity, which causes fungus growth.","Film's other enemy?","A damaging chemical reaction which occurs over time between the acid in the film plastic and the colored dyes that make up the image.","The first step is to repair any breaks in the film so technicians can view and evaluate its condition.","They do this using a simple device called a splicer.","They lay each broken end into the splicer's track and cut off the severed frame.","A missing frame here or there isn't all that noticeable.","Once the broken frame is removed, they lay both ends in the track, centering the meeting point.","Then they tape the splice on both sides.","This tape is specially designed for film splicing.","Its chemical makeup won't damage the film over time as would ordinary adhesive tape.","The splicer punches sprocket holes in the tape so that the spliced portion, like the rest, will thread onto the sprockets of the projector reel.","Technicians evaluate all existing versions of the film, from the original, to the screening prints produced for movie theaters.","They assess the general condition, note where the splices are and which frames are damaged, then they decided which version is in the best shape overall.","That's the version they digitize.","Later, they'll digitally edit out the damaged portions and replace them with identical but undamaged frames digitized from another copy.","After threading the film through the scanner, they close the gate to hold the film flat and close to the scanning camera.","Then they input the picture quality specifications and start her up.","The scanner gently loops the film around its spools...","And begins rolling it past the camera.","For the picture quality they've selected for this digitization, the camera snaps three pictures of every frame.","The scanner's control station displays what's being scanned in real time, along with all the technical parameters.","This digitization process itemizes every single frame so when they digitally replace a damaged portion with an undamaged one from another copy they can match everything up to the exact frames.","The final step is color correction.","Because the digitized film is often pieced together from more than one film original, there are usually color variations.","For example, the character's blue jacket will be a different shade of blue at different times.","At this station, the technician manipulates the colors to render them uniform throughout the film.","It's essential to resist the temptation to overcorrect the image.","After all, film has a very different color and texture than video, and even though the digitized film will play on video devices, it must remain artistically and historically faithful to the film original.","Do not remain seated.","I repeat-- a nuclear war...","A cylinder stove is designed for campers who like their creature comforts.","Just pitch the tent and set up the stove inside.","It keeps things warm and toasty for most of the night.","It also has a cooking surface and a tank at the side to provide hot water for washing.","No need to huddle around a campfire to stay warm.","A cylinder stove can take the chill out of the wilderness experience.","The cylindrical shape means it can take the heat.","It will expand and contract with the temperature change and still maintain it's original shape.","The cylindrical firebox starts with a flat sheet of steel.","A worker feeds it through a roller repeatedly until it reaches the desired shape.","Then a plasma cutter cuts an opening for the stove door in another sheet of steel, following a pattern overhead.","The plasma cutter works by sending an electric arc through compressed air, and the result is a clean cut.","He now places the stove body on the door framework and clamps the assembly in a special jig to secure it as he welds the two parts together.","He then places the backplate on the workbench and positions the other end of the cylinder on it.","He clamps them there and welds them together.","Using the plasma cutter, he trims the front and back of the stove.","The trimming rounds the ends nicely.","From three flat sheets of steel to a cylindrical firebox, the transformation has taken less than 10 minutes.","The welder now reinforces the underside of the stove top with several braces arranged in a grid pattern.","This extensive bracing will prevent warping to keep the stove top perfectly flat under the intense heat of the wood fire below.","This is the stove top before and after bracing.","After cutting a hole for the stovepipe, he inserts a piece of pipe temporarily so that he can correctly install a stovepipe collar.","Once the collar is solidly attached to the cooktop, he removes the stovepipe.","He then bends the rim of the collar in four places, creating tabs to keep the stovepipe from sliding into the firebox.","He's now ready to join the cylindrical firebox to the stove top.","He locks them in position and welds the entire assembly.","This final welded seam seals the stove for an airtight and long-lasting burn.","Next he positions leg fittings on the belly of the stove using a sawhorse-style tool.","Once he welds the fittings to the stove, he removes the tool.","Then it's over to a computerized plasma cutter.","It cuts damper holes in the stove door.","Damper holes are used to regulate the flow of air to the fire.","They also install a baffle plate on the back of the stove door to keep sparks from flying out into the tent.","The worker attaches the door to the stove with a hinge.","He tests it to confirm that it opens and closes easily.","Another worker now roles pipe for the chimney, using galvanized steel because it doesn't rust.","He interlocks the seam and flattens it.","He crimps the ends to connect the pipe to the other pieces of pipe.","There are five pieces of stovepipe in all, and they can be stacked together for transport.","With the latch now attached to the stove door, he sprays black stove paint onto the cylindrical firebox.","The paint job will prevent rusting.","Finally he rivets a brass manufacturer's tag onto the stove front.","Now it's time to pack it up.","From the grate to the water tank to the stovepipe, everything can be stowed inside the fire box, making it completely portable.","Assembly in the tent should take about five minutes-- a small job for a long-lasting burn.","The biggest cylinder stoves are designed to hold a fire for an entire night.","And with the proper setup, campers should sleep safe and sound.","Installing a piece of heat-resistant rubber protects the tent around the stovepipe.","Then it's time to hunker down for the night and enjoy a little warmth in the wilderness.","Spun concrete light poles tower above our towns and cities, lighting the way.","They're actually hollow structures with wiring or cable snaked through the cores.","The concrete walls are reinforced by steel.","Yet these poles are flexible enough to bend with the wind and snap back.","When it comes to lampposts, the higher the light, the greater the area illuminated.","Some concrete light poles are over three stories high.","They start with a tenon, the part of the pole framework that anchors the light fixture.","They place two in a mold because they're making two light poles at once.","A worker strings four thick, steel strands from one end of the long mold to the other, threading them through the tenons and through spiral wire.","This establishes the basic framework of the concrete poles.","Another worker installs zinc boxes for electrical connections.","He caps it with a block of rigid foam to protect it when the concrete is poured.","The next worker attaches a stress gun to chucks that secure the steel strands.","The gun pulls the strands one by one to a specific tension, and they stretch like rubber bands.","They'll be pulled even tighter later.","Every yard or so, he attaches stay rings for extra rigidity.","He ties them in place with plastic-coated wire.","Another worker stretches the spiral wire around the steel strands and tenons to round out the skeleton of the light poles.","The spiral wire will also stop the pole from twisting too much in high winds.","A crane transfers the long and hefty mold over to the next station and lowers it onto several stands.","A hopper now swings into action, guided by workers.","It's a traveling concrete dispenser.","As it moves on a track, it funnels specially mixed concrete into the mold.","The concrete has been made to order, with the customer specifying its color, strength, and other qualities.","The concrete also has a low moisture content.","This makes it the consistency of clay and therefore formable.","As the concrete is dispensed, workers pack it around the light pole's steel skeleton.","Using trowels, they scoop up overflow and smooth the surface of the wet concrete.","One worker then cleans up the outer flanges and applies a nonstick substance.","A crane moves the top half of the mold into position and lowers it onto the concrete-filled bottom part.","The team bolts the two parts of the mold tightly together using pneumatic impact tools.","They now pull the steel strands to their final tension, stretching them so tightly that they compress the concrete once it hardens.","Concrete is much stronger when it's being compressed.","The mold is now ready for the spinning machine.","It's essentially a series of railway wheels.","A crane lowers the mold's running rings into the grooves of the wheels, and then they crank up the speed.","The wheels turn at 500 rpms, and the centrifugal force causes the concrete to migrate to the wall of the mold.","The result is a hollow pole with dense, concrete walls.","Transferred to a kiln, the concrete steam-cures in the mold for about five hours.","The concrete light poles are ready for the big reveal.","They open the mold and roll them out.","At this point, the two poles are still attached.","They examine them for flaws, and then they'll separate them.","All they need now is some buffing up.","Here, they polish a different octagonal pole to expose the pigments in the concrete.","The different colored aggregates in this particular cement mix give the pole a mottled marble look.","An i.d. tag has also been molded into the cement with the manufacturing date and the pole's height and mass.","They test just how far they can take it to confirm the pole meets industry standards.","They spray a special acrylic finish onto some poles.","Graffiti can be easily scrubbed off of it.","Even though it only takes about 5 1/2 hours to manufacture a concrete light pole, it should shine for many years."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Canvas Wall Tents","Peace Pipes","Shredded Wheat Cereal","Cannons"]},"text":["A wall tent is shaped like a cabin.","It's tall enough and wide enough to stand up in and walk around.","This type of tent is typically used as a base camp on overnight hunting trips.","Unlike a smaller camping tent, you usually need to transport a wall tent by vehicle or by horseback.","These premium wall tents are made of sturdy canvas.","They have a zip-up screen over the doorway and windows to keep out insects.","They also have a vent hole in the roof to accommodate a stove.","They can be made with lightweight canvas for hunters who go out in the woods on horseback.","Depending on the number of tent orders to be filled, the factory's expert fabric cutter layers up to 10 sheets of canvas on the cutting table.","Following a pattern, he draws guidelines...","Then aligns them one at a time on the track along which the cutting knife rides.","He does the smaller cuts with scissors.","Once he's cut all the canvas pieces for one tent, he hands them off to a sewer.","She overlaps adjoining pieces by less than an inch and, using a double-needled sewing machine, binds them with two parallel lines of stitching.","This produces a durable, weather-resistant seam.","Next, the stove ventilation system-- she sews what they call the stovepipe shield to the roof, then cuts away the canvas underneath.","The shield is a fiberglass fabric rectangle with a silicone ring in the center, through which you insert the stove's exhaust pipe.","After neatly finishing the edges...","She attaches a canvas flap that zippers shut to close off the stovepipe shield and rolls up and ties to open it.","She also sews a canvas weather flap that closes over the tent's front door-- extra protection in bad weather.","She sews a row of d-rings to the edge of one flap...","Then hooks to the corresponding door flap.","They're both made of stainless steel, which never rusts, even with repeated exposure to moisture.","These sturdy hooks and rings keep the flap securely closed in windy weather.","The cutter, meanwhile, traces templates on heavy-duty fiberglass screen, then cuts the screens for the tent's triangular rear window and rectangular side window.","The sewer stitches webbing to the window's perimeter.","Webbing is a cotton seal which keeps out rain, snow, and wind.","Meanwhile, a different sewer stitches the zipper to the door screen.","She also sews 3-inch-wide seatbelt material inside the roof hem.","Workers then apply pairs of grommets roughly a yard apart along this reinforced perimeter.","Once you've pitched the tent, you secure it by looping ropes through these grommets and tying them to stakes in the ground.","The tent floor is made of vinyl.","Workers join the floor pieces using a radio-frequency welder.","It emits radio waves that melt the material, fusing the overlapping edges into a seam.","They construct the tent's internal frame out of heavy-duty galvanized steel tubing, then connect the pieces with stainless-steel couplers secured with eyebolts.","As a quality-control check, they assemble the tent before shipping it out.","After laying out the couplers, they insert the frame pieces to form the roof, fit the tent fabric over the roof framework, and insert the legs to prop up the structure.","Then they pull down the walls, the same way you pull a shirt over a hanger.","After tying back the flaps, they lay down the floor, which simply snaps into place.","If you're two people, the entire setup takes about 10 minutes.","Then it's just a matter of installing the wood- or coal-burning stove, cooking up a hearty meal, and getting a good night's sleep.","Long-stemmed with an elaborately carved stone bowl, this is a native north-american pipe.","Historically, it was reserved for special occasions such as the signing of peace treaties.","That's why european settlers called it the peace pipe.","Legend has it that the mystical buffalo calf woman gave native people the first sacred pipe.","It is believed to have spiritual powers.","The wisps of smoke from the stone bowl are seen as prayers rising to the creator.","The pipemaker starts with wood like ash or sumac.","These species are soft at the core, so they can be easily hollowed out with the red-hot tip of a thick coat hanger.","He plunges the smoking hot wire into the soft core of the wood, and it quickly burns through it, creating a passageway through which tobacco smoke can be drawn.","Now, with a planer, he shaves off the tree bark and shapes the outside of the wood to create a smooth, slim stem.","He carves angled swirls into the wood with a rasp, a long tool studded with numerous sharp teeth.","He whittles one end of the stem to transform it into a fitting for attaching the pipe bowl.","He now confirms the diameter is right by inserting the fitting into a template.","Next, sanding between the swirls smoothes away gouges left by the rasp.","He files a notch into the stem just below the swirls.","Then it's over to the beadwork artist.","She wraps fringed leather around the notch and places a brightly colored accent piece on top.","She strings glass beads around the leather-wrapped notch, working with a pattern and color scheme in mind.","Centuries ago, natives obtained beads through trade with european settlers and threaded them onto pieces of animal sinew.","Their needle was a thin piece of bone.","The colors of the beads can really make a statement.","A string of red might signify vibrancy and a long life, while a mix of colors could represent a spiritual burst of energy.","The pipe stem is now complete and ready for the stone bowl.","For that, they mine red clay rock called pipestone.","Natives have used it for sacred pipes for centuries.","Pipestone is soft, and this means it's easy to carve.","It's also smooth and takes a high polish.","He splashes water onto a chunk to make any flaws more apparent as he evaluates it for carving.","His selection made, he now begins to trace, following a basic template of a pipe bowl.","He saws through the stone along the penciled lines using a hacksaw.","The rock is fairly easy to cut.","It's essentially compressed clay.","He rounds the angular edges using a rasp file.","Now nicely contoured, the stone is really starting to look like a pipe bowl.","With a series of finer tools, he flattens one end and then sculpts the shape of an eagle head onto it.","He wields a rotary tool with a fine bit to carve eyes and feathers.","Traditionally, natives use sharp flint or bone to engrave details.","Power tools get the job done faster.","He now drills into the stone to hollow out the shank and the actual tobacco bowl.","For early natives, this job was very laborious.","They gouged out the stone with an arrowhead attached to a stick.","He rinses the eagle pipe bowl and then sands it while wet for a smoother finish than dry sanding.","He aims a torch at it to heat the stone.","Once hot, it readily absorbs beeswax as he rubs it into the pores.","Beeswax gives the pipestone bowl a satin sheen.","After a dip in cool water to solidify the wax, he scratches away some of it along the detail work, including the eyes and feathers.","This adds definition and contrast, and after a bit of fine-tuning, the wooden pipe stem fits snuggly into the stone shank.","He peers down the pipe to confirm that the stem is perfectly aligned with the bowl.","The sacred pipe is now ready for any special occasion.","They've used a combination of traditional techniques and modern power tools to produce this pipe, reconciling old and new in the quest for peace.","Shredded wheat is a breakfast cereal made of 100% whole wheat, shredded into a straw-like consistency, cooked, and shape under to a rectangle.","It was invented by an american entrepreneur in 1893 after he met a man who was eating boiled wheat with cream to alleviate digestive symptoms.","They may look like tiny bales of hay, but they're actually a tasty and nutritious breakfast or snack.","Shredded wheat was the first mass-produced, ready-to-eat cereal, invented at a time when people typically ate a cooked breakfast.","It all begins with whole grain wheat.","The raw kernels are hard as rock, so to soften them up, the factory cooks them simultaneously in water and with steam for about 30 minutes.","As the wheat exits the cooker, its moisture content is about 50%.","Excess water drains away through holes in the conveyer belt.","The wheat then travels through a dryer.","Inside, nozzles blast the soggy kernels with hot air.","By the time the wheat exits about 10 minutes later, the cooked kernels are dried.","They drop onto a conveyer belt which transports them to the operation that puts the shredded in shredded wheat.","The wheat goes into several fill tubes.","Each fill tube drops kernels in between two rollers that apply pressure, shredding the kernels into delicate strands.","The strands drop onto the conveyer belt below, forming a fairly even layer.","Each pair of shredding rollers deposits another layer of strands on top of the previous one, until there's a specific number of stacked layers.","The company won't reveal how many, nor will it let any camera photograph the next machine-- a especially designed cutter that divides the sheet of layered wheat strands into rectangular biscuits.","The sheet of shredded wheat biscuits now travels through a tunnel oven for approximately 10 minutes.","The specifics of what goes on inside this oven are top secret.","All the company will reveal is that there are two cycles, baking and toasting.","As you can see in this before-and-after comparison, the bake cycle makes the biscuits crisp, and the toast cycle lightly browns them.","The next machine compresses the sheets with a belt, which breaks apart the individual biscuits.","Shredded wheat comes in two varieties-- plain and frosted.","At this point, the plain ones would be ready to proceed to packaging.","However, this batch is designated for frosting, so the conveyer moves them along to the coating station.","To make the frosting, they blend and heat sugar, water, and other ingredients.","Overhead nozzles spray it onto the passing biscuits.","The frosting takes about a minute to dry and set.","Here's what the shredded wheat biscuits look like before they're frosted and after.","On the packaging line, an automated machine forms a bag out of a continuous sheet of plastic film, fills it with a weighed-out portion of shredded wheat, then seals the bag and cuts it free.","The next station inserts the bag into a cardboard cereal box, printing the \"best before\" date on the top flap.","The box not only shows consumers a photo of the contents, it also lists the cereal's nutritional benefits-- that it's high in fiber, low in fat and sodium, and contains zero cholesterol and trans fat.","Cannons are back on the battlefield, as history buffs re-enact scenes from the american civil war.","The fighting isn't real, but these replica cannons aren't fake.","They can do everything the originals could do.","The attention to detail adds authenticity to re-enactments.","On the front lines of any civil war re-enactment, you'll find the big guns, the cannons, built to various scales with all the original details, these replicas have real firepower.","For safety reasons, they don't load actual cannonballs into the muzzles, just black powder.","It's traditionally been used to propel cannonballs, but on its own, it still makes firing a cannon a real blast.","Production starts with wooden molding boxes that have a cannon shape inside.","There's a top half and a bottom one.","Together, they're known as the pattern.","They'll fill each box with lake sand that's been laced with bonding chemicals.","The sand is soft and warm at this point.","They pack it down and level it off.","As the sand cools, the bonding agents cause the sand to solidify.","This sand mold will be used for casting the actual cannon.","While they complete the other half, they brush an alcohol-based wash into all the crevices of the sand mold.","But they don't just leave it to dry.","Instead, they ignite it.","The fire burns off the alcohol, leaving a protective skin on the mold, one that will prevent seepage of the casting material into the sand.","A worker then applies glue to the border of the cannon mold.","The other half of the mold has by now taken shape, and they apply the same alcohol-based treatment to it.","Using a crane, the team carefully aligns the two sand molds.","The glue cures, and the mold is ready to receive the casting material-- iron.","They pour flaming, molten iron into a large ladle.","Then, suited up for protection, they transfer the fiery liquid to the sand mold and pour it inside.","The iron cools in the mold for about six hours.","The flames die down, and the liquid metal solidifies.","Then it's into the shot-blast chamber, so named because there's steel shot inside.","Once the door is closed, the tiny pellets bombard the sand mold and break it up.","A vacuum sucks the sand and steel shot out of the chamber, leaving the solid cast iron cannon.","A worker slices off unwanted gating, which was formed as the iron flowed into the mold.","One section served as a reservoir to compensate for shrinkage as the iron solidified.","He removes that, too.","He then grinds the casting seam until smooth.","At the finishing factory, a lubricating mix of water and oil flows from a drill bit as it bores into the center of the solid cannon casting.","The operator switches bits twice for a gradual widening of the cavity, taking it to precise dimensions.","Here's a look down the cannon's newly bored muzzle.","With the nose of the muzzle now protected by plastic, he pours an epoxy adhesive into the barrel.","He then inserts a steel liner.","The liner is a modification to the original design-- a modern safeguard that will enable the cannon to better withstand the pressure of ignition.","The cannon turns on a lathe, and this action drives the steel liner completely down the barrel.","It also spreads the epoxy evenly for a good seal.","A carbide bit moves down the spinning cannon, to taper the exterior.","He grinds the area between the trunnions, which are cylindrical protrusions used for mounting the cannon to the carriage.","He stamps the maker's mark into the metal and then sprays solvent-based primer onto the entire cannon...","Followed by three coats of flat, black paint.","From start to finish, it's taken about eight days to produce this full-scale replica of a revolutionary war cannon.","It's now ready for a little historical re-enacting.","It's sure to be a hit with the troops."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Laminated Wood Beams","Sport Utility Vehicles","Veggie Burgers","Wood Boring Augers"]},"text":["In architectural design, exposed wood beams use the structural components of a building in an aesthetic way.","These beams are often made of glued laminated timbers.","They're constructed by gluing together several layers of lumber and forming them into a particular shape such as a curved arch.","These beams look as though they're a solid piece of wood.","However, they're actually laminated wood-- several boards of lumber glued together to form one piece.","The boards aren't layered haphazardly.","Rather, the top-grade wood goes on the top and bottom, where the beam must be the most resistant, and lower-grade wood in the middle.","The boards are far shorter than the finished beam, therefore the first step is to extend each layer to the required length by connecting several boards end to end.","To do this, a conveyor system transports 10 boards at a time to a mill.","Saw blades trim the edges to make them perfectly square, then revolving knives cut finger joints on both ends.","When it comes time to connect the boards horizontally, the finger joints of one board will fit neatly into those of the next.","The comb-like shape of the finger joints creates a far greater service area to glue compared to leaving the edges flat.","More glue makes for a stronger bond between boards.","The glue is high-strength and waterproof.","It goes on brown but dries translucent.","Workers line up the glued boards in a machine called a crowder.","The machine's pressure rollers slide one board into the other, interlocking the finger joints.","Then two plates clamp down on each joint, rendering the adjoining boards flush should one be sitting slightly higher than the next.","About 15 seconds of heat cures the glue.","The connection is barely visible because the glue dries translucent.","Now that each layer is the required length, it's time to adhere them vertically to make the beam.","First, a glue applicator coats one side.","Then workers turn the layers on their sides and stack them in a steel frame called a jig.","Once they've stacked the required number of layers for the beam, they activate high-strength steel pressure vices.","These apply high pressure for six to eight hours until the glue between the layers has cured.","To make an arched beam, it's the same process, but they stack then clamp the layers in a curved jig.","Once the glue cures, this laminated wood beam is stronger than solid wood.","However, there are still several more steps to go.","A two-sided planer simultaneously finalizes the dimensions, evens out the ends, and removes excess glue that oozed out under pressure.","Next, a computer-guided, multi-tool machine cuts, drills, and notches the beam according to the customer's technical drawing specifications.","Then each beam gets a tag indicating the order number and part number.","In the final finishing department, workers sand away any visual defects and smooth the surface in preparation for staining.","Finishers apply one coat of wood stain with a roller, then work it by hand to ensure uniform absorption throughout.","Once the beam is shipped to the construction site, the customer might apply a flameproof coating, which would significantly slow down the rate at which the beam would burn in the event of a fire.","The customer may also stain it a deeper shade to match existing woodwork.","The four-wheel drive utility vehicle was originally designed for war.","It was world war ii, and the american-made military jeep quickly earned its stripes, plowing through mud and muck on the road to victory.","Today's s.u.v.s are modern versions and proof that the concept has transitioned nicely into civilian life.","When the road ahead is rough or disappears entirely, a four-wheel drive utility vehicle keeps on going.","Production of this custom s.u.v. begins with a mandrel bent frame made of thick steel rails.","A worker welds brackets to it for attaching parts-- this one for its shock absorber's nitrogen tank.","He attaches a link for the sway bar and suspension arms.","He then welds super-thick braces for shocks to the front of the chassis.","He measures the space between them to confirm that there's adequate clearance and then fits heavy-duty calipers over the brake rotors installed at the front.","The front brakes are a six-piston system for extra stopping power.","He now fits the coil-wrapped shock absorbers to the front axle and bolts them to the braces we saw welded to the chassis earlier.","This is a preliminary installation.","The parts will all be tightened more precisely later.","It's time to give this custom s.u.v. some supersized wheels.","He positions the rims on threaded bolts protruding from the axles and then secures the installation with lug nuts.","The tires are eight-ply with deep tread for off-road traction.","This s.u.v. chassis is ready for power.","The team wheels the chassis under the eight-cylinder drivetrain and carefully lowers it into position.","This powerful engine will generate a lot of heat, so it needs a large capacity radiator to keep cool and prevent damage to the engine.","Once the steel chassis has been coated with a protective finish and the fuel system has been installed, production shifts to the next stage-- piecing together the s.u.v. body.","This pre-assembly will ensure all the aluminum parts fit together flawlessly.","After this, the s.u.v. will be completely taken apart for painting and then put back together again.","He hinges the doors to the body with thick steel pins that hold up to wear and make the assembly easy.","He attaches each window frame to the lower door panel and checks the fit.","Any gaps could allow the wind to whistle into the vehicle.","He confirms the parts align and that the door latch works.","He bolts the steel roll bars to the s.u.v. body.","Once he's satisfied that the framework meets all the specifications, he'll take it apart.","The paint is a powder-coat finish.","It's ionically charged, so it gravitates to the negatively charged parts as it's sprayed.","Once baked in an oven, the coating forms a skin that's tougher than conventional paint.","They also coat the underside of the lower parts with a heat-cured finish to reduce wear and to muffle vibration.","They now piece together the lower body of the s.u.v. and assemble the dashboard and the instrument panel to the front.","They bolt the seats to the floor, and once other parts have been welded to it, they lower the assembly onto the chassis.","The chassis has, by now, been completely wired.","The parts mate perfectly.","It takes about 250 person hours to build one of these custom s.u.v.s.","We've shown just the highlights.","When it's complete, they test everything from the sensor-activated step to the windshield wipers.","Once they confirm that all systems are operational, this s.u.v. is ready to hit the back roads.","High off the ground with four-wheel drive, it's equipped for whatever lies ahead, and there's sure to be a few bumps along the way.","Craving a burger but yearning for a change?","The veggie burger is a lower-fat alternative to the beefy favorite.","Just hold the fries.","Developed in the early 1980s in london, england, the veggie burger has gone from fringe food to the mainstream all in short order.","Just add a bit of oil to the grill, and this meatless patty sizzles with burger appeal.","Chock full of grains, nuts, and veggies, it somehow looks kind of beefy, but it tastes distinctly different from an actual meat patty.","This particular burger is a non-soy version, but there are many kinds of veggie burgers available today, and an increasing number of people go meat-free or reduce the amount of meat they eat.","They start with finely-minced frozen veggies.","This recipe calls for carrots, celery, onions, and mushrooms.","And that's safflower oil in the dish on the lower left.","The safflower oil simmers on the bottom of this steam-heated mixer as they gradually add the ingredients.","Blades stir the mix as it sautés.","As the vegetables cook, their natural sugars are released.","This causes the veggies to caramelize.","The flavors deepen and become more complex.","This technique is called mirepoix.","It's a french culinary term for a sautéed mix of aromatic vegetables.","The mirepoix is very substantial to add both texture and flavor to this veggie-burger recipe.","They add the final ingredient, the mushrooms.","And after more mixing and cooking, this veggie-burger mirepoix is complete.","They transfer the mirepoix to a big mixing tub called the gondola.","And now they add the dry ingredients.","They include walnuts, cooked bulgur, oats, potato flakes, and pure gluten flour.","The worker adds pails full of each of these ingredients to the mirepoix.","Then, using a shovel, he folds all the dry ingredients into the mix.","Moistened by the cooked vegetables, the gluten flour becomes sticky.","This causes the ingredients to cling loosely together, taking on a consistency similar to that of cookie dough.","He now loads the sticky mix into a hopper that leads to an automatic patty-making machine.","It's a mold with a plunger-like mechanism that presses and shapes the mixture into perfect patties.","A constant spray of water keeps things from becoming too sticky, allowing the patties to be cleanly ejected from the molds.","Then it's a short conveyor trip to the next station, where workers retrieve the veggie patties and arrange them on baking trays.","In the process, they inspect the patties and confirm that they've been perfectly formed.","They roll stack trays of burgers into a preheated convection oven.","When the oven door closes, the burger-ladened trays rotate inside so they cook evenly.","After baking, they quickly freeze the veggie burgers to lock in nutrients and preserve freshness.","Workers then load the frozen veggie burgers onto a conveyor as they head up into the packaging line.","These burgers can't spend too much time outside the freezer, or they'll start to thaw.","A hot iron seals the cellophane wrap around groups of four burgers and separates them into packets.","Down the line, suctioning devices open cardboard boxes and transfer them to a conveyor.","The boxes are now positioned to receive the burger packets.","As they move forward, workers just slide them inside.","The boxes of veggie burgers then head into a narrow lane to close the pre-glued flaps.","This entire packaging operation takes less than a minute.","In just one hour, this factory can wrap and package more than 9,000 veggie burgers.","At the end of the day, that's a lot of meatless burgers, but it should be enough to feed a growing trend of vegetarianism.","Used for centuries to drill holes for pegs and bolts, augurs have played a bit role in history and were critical to the construction of everything from tall ships to manor homes.","Traditionally rotated by hand, today's power drills give the augur bit a more modern twist.","Attached to a power drill, an augur bit can chew through wood in seconds to produce perfect screw holes.","It spits out shavings through the corkscrew-shaped pathway, preventing it from clogging the freshly-drilled holes.","Operated manually or by drill bit, the augur bit is an efficient gizmo responsible for a lot of projects coming together.","An augur bit starts as a solid steel rod.","They heat it to a blistering 1,600 degrees fahrenheit.","When the rod is white-hot, it's supple enough to be shaped.","He moves one end of the hot steel rod under a long, pulsating hammer.","The anvils below allow the energy of the hammer to be transferred to the rod and flatten it.","He angles the flattened end sideways to shape the edges.","He then tweaks the profile a bit more by moving the rod from anvil to anvil.","The anvils are set at various heights for impacts of different force.","When he's done, the once circular steel rod looks like a long putty knife, but this is just temporary.","Next, it's back into that super-hot furnace to reheat the forged end to a malleable state once again.","He clamps the white-hot rod in a machine that twists the flattened end to a specific configuration.","In this hot and supple state, the steel is as easy to twist as a piece of stiff ribbon.","As the steel cools, it becomes more rigid, so it's back into the furnace to make it pliable once again.","He then places it between the jaws of a toothed vice.","He closes the jaws repeatedly as he pulls the augur along.","This crimps the augur's spirals to a precise configuration.","Each spiral ends up exactly the same.","It's a critical step.","Without it, the augur wouldn't operate smoothly and could even get stuck as it drills through wood.","Now he slams a drop hammer onto the tip of the augur repeatedly, forcing it into a dye.","As the hot steel fills the dye cavity, it takes its shape, giving it the rudimentary profile of the drilling head.","It's now tapered like a cone, but there's a lot of surplus material surrounding it.","This surplus steel is a bit of spillover.","He trims off that hardened spillover with a clip press, and this further defines the drilling head.","He presses the augur tip against a ridged grinding wheel to carve a screw thread into it.","The screw thread will give the augur bit extra bite as it drills through wood.","The focus now turns to the other end of the augur, the shank.","As it spins in a lathe, cutting tools slim the shank and shorten it to precise specifications.","Now they toughen up the steel by first heating it and then dipping it in cool oil.","The shock caused by the abrupt temperature change makes the steel harder.","Then the augur spins between two wheels.","One wheel rolls it.","The other grinds the outer diameter of the twist to specification.","A worker grinds the valleys in the augur twist by hand in order to reach every spot.","This smoothes the surface so wood shavings will flow upward as the augur bores deep into the wood.","He changes the belt to a finer abrasive and preps it with a small stone.","He spins the belt and polishes the augur until it shines.","And the result is a glossy sheen.","It looks good and will further smooth the way for the extraction of wood shavings through the twists.","Now with a different and much smaller grinder, he carves wings and sharp edges below the augur's cutting head.","From a simple steel cylinder to a useful wood-drilling bit, this has truly been a story with many twists and turns.","And with the work of the factory now done, these augurs are ready for any job.","They come in a range of diameters and lengths for tasks of any size.","With so many options, all those projects should come together bit by bit."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Ambulances","Dining Room Tables","Diatonic Accordians","Acrylic Awards"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Ambulances...","Dining room tables...","Diatonic accordions...","And acrylic awards.","Historians believe the notion of ambulance service grew out of the 11th-century crusades, when the knights of st.","John transported wounded soldiers to treatment tents.","Today's ambulance technicians and paramedics carry on that tradition in state-of-the-art ambulances equipped to provide lifesaving care en route to a hospital.","There are three types of vehicles commonly transformed into ambulances-- minivans, trucks with a closed driver's cab, and trucks with an opening between the driver's cab and the back storage area, like this model.","The most important structural addition is a stabilization bar to diminish rocking when the vehicle is racing at high speed.","Otherwise, it's mostly a question of retrofitting a regular vehicle to give it the features an ambulance needs.","Workers begin by cutting a hole in the roof.","This allows them to install a raised, aerodynamic roof.","The angle of the new roof lessens air resistance, enabling the ambulance to run more efficiently with more control.","Inside, meanwhile, they install fiberglass insulation panels with a fireproof metal surface.","This insulation keeps the medical area warm in the winter and cool in the summer.","Workers affix the raised roof with adhesive caulking.","The roof has integrated lights.","Protruding lights would ruin the streamline.","Workers measure carefully to ensure they center the roof perfectly.","Now they spray glue on the back of sheet vinyl.","This highly durable antibacterial flooring goes on top of a plywood subfloor they've installed on top of the truck's aluminum floor.","Now for the electrical system.","They start by replacing the truck's original grill with an ambulance grill that incorporates lights, a siren, and loudspeakers.","The truck comes equipped from the automotive plant with certain options designed for conversion to an ambulance.","For instance, instead of two regular batteries, the truck takes four batteries-- two to power the truck accessories, the other two to power the equipment in the back.","Now they assemble the front console-- an array of buttons and switches that control all the nonmedical equipment, such as the emergency lights, the siren, and the headlights.","There's also a battery-life indicator and other system gauges.","Once assembled, the console goes into the dash, and workers test everything out.","The heating and air-conditioning systems in the original truck aren't strong enough, so the ambulance factory adds an extra system of each to work in tandem with the existing systems.","The frame of the medical cabinet is made of aluminum-- a metal that's lightweight and, therefore, won't weigh down the vehicle.","The cabinet shelving is made of either plastic or fiberglass.","It's molded to the contour of the vehicle, maximizing storage space.","After installing the suction and oxygen systems, electricians run the wires for the cabinet lighting.","Once the main electrical panel is in place, they can mount the cabinet and hook up the oxygen equipment, the suction machine, and the lighting.","A divider between the cab and the back gives the patient privacy.","Vinyl-covered foam padding on the ceiling protects ambulance workers' heads when the vehicle jerks.","This ambulance model has rotating lights.","The red cover, called the lens, is made of virtually unbreakable plastic so that it doesn't crack from the air pressure when the ambulance is speeding.","The medical area has a swivel chair positioned where the patient's head will be.","Within reach of the chair is the suction machine.","The factory thoroughly tests it, along with all other medical equipment.","A safety net by the three-seater squad bench protects the crew should the ambulance come to a sudden stop.","This mechanism holds the stretcher in place while the ambulance is moving.","The stretcher simply locks in, keeping the patient safely immobile until the ambulance reaches the hospital.","There was a time when the dining room was for formal dining only, and the style of dining-room furniture reflected that.","Not anymore.","Today's dining-room sets come in both elegant and casual styles, and there's something to suit every decor, from contemporary to country, from traditional to ultramodern.","This factory makes casual dining-room furniture.","It uses only durable hardwoods, such as birch and beech.","It buys the parts premade from a supplier.","The workers here assemble the pieces and finish the furniture to the customers' specifications.","We're going to see how they make tables.","The parts arrive already sanded, but they still go through a machine that gives them an additional fine sanding.","This prepares the wood for staining.","Workers sand the solid-wood parts for the apron by hand.","The apron will go just under the tabletop.","Workers closely inspect all the components under fluorescent light.","They look for any flaws in the wood that they might have missed during sanding.","It's critical that every imperfection be sanded down.","Otherwise, it will show up as a glaring defect once they stain the wood.","After all the parts pass inspection, assembly can begin.","First, they remove the tabletop's extension piece, called the leaf.","They make sure the two main sections fit together perfectly.","Then, using a template to ensure the exact positioning, they screw on the runners-- the sliding mechanism for extending the table.","Then they mount support pieces called stretchers.","After marking the position of the apron, workers screw in steel braces to level and align the three sections of the table.","This table will have a pedestal base rather than four legs.","After installing a part called the assembly plate, they lay down a series of metal templates.","These ensure that they mount the apron precisely.","Now that they've finished assembling the tabletop, they check its stability and test the mechanics.","If everything is up to par, the tabletop moves on to the finishing department.","The factory buys wood stain from a supplier.","To ensure that the colors are consistent from table to table, the factory tests the stain before using it, comparing it to a color sample.","The staining operation takes place in the part of the factory known as the paint kitchen.","Each tank has a mixer inside to keep the stain well-blended so that the pigments don't settle to the bottom of the tank.","This ensures the color will be consistent.","There is a separate spray gun for each stain color.","After spraying the stain onto the tabletop, a team of workers quickly wipes off the excess.","They have just 30 to 90 seconds.","Otherwise, the shade will be off.","Another inspection under fluorescent light.","Any flaw in the wood they missed before would definitely show up now, thanks to the stain.","Every imperfection will be sanded down.","Now they spray the table with sealant.","This protects against variations in humidity, which would make the wood expand and contract and eventually split.","Then they sand the sealant to prepare for a coat of clear lacquer.","The lacquer plays two roles-- one functional, protecting the wood from scratches, one decorative, giving it a mild sheen.","To cure the lacquer, all the table components go into an oven at 300 degrees fahrenheit.","This also strengthens the finish.","This factory specializes in personalization.","You can choose your stain color or two colors for a two-tone effect.","You can also select the shape of your tabletop, the type of edge and apron, and, of course, the style of table legs.","A diatonic accordion is much smaller than a piano accordion and is structurally different.","It has 10 buttons, each of which produces two notes-- one when you push the bellows in, the other when you pull the bellows out.","The diatonic accordion, also called a squeeze-box, is a staple of cajun music.","the accordion maker crafts the right-hand keyboard from maple-- a hardwood.","He saws 10 slots, then drills 10 holes.","The keyboard has no keys, actually.","It has 10 buttons.","They produce the treble notes.","Now he turns the keyboard over and hollows out the wood with a router.","This creates space for components to move.","Each slot in the keyboard will house a rocker-- a piece that links each button to its corresponding air valve.","Now he builds the wind-chest-- the box that houses the steel reeds that produce the accordion's sound.","Moving the bellows in and out forces air through holes in the wind-chest.","The buttons you push determine which reeds get this air, producing notes.","The longer and thicker the reed, the slower it vibrates, and the lower the pitch of the note.","The shorter and thinner the reed, the faster the vibration, and the higher the note.","There are eight reeds per button.","Pushing the bellows in activates four.","Pulling the bellows out, the other four.","Using a hot iron, the accordion maker seals the reed frames with beeswax.","This prevents air from escaping.","Now back to the keyboard.","The accordion maker installs 10 valves made of maple wood.","Each one has a plastic rocker on the end.","A spring ensures the rocker has just the right tension to open and close the valve properly when the musician presses the button.","After staining and varnishing the wood, he glues a button into each hole onto the rocker inside.","Pressing a button triggers the rocker underneath to lift the valve and uncover the air hole, letting air hit the designated reeds.","The accordion maker now screws the fully assembled keyboard to the wind-chest.","Now he constructs the left-hand keyboard.","He sets the reeds into the left wind-chest, using a hot iron and beeswax, just like before.","The valves in this keyboard are made of pine, a more flexible wood, making them easier to install in this enclosed space.","On the outside, a decorative wood inlay-- a strip of ebony and some rosewood detailing.","The left-hand keyboard has two buttons corresponding to three reeds each.","It produces two bass notes and two chords.","After staining and varnishing the keyboard, he hooks a spring between each valve and the button that operates it.","He adjusts the spring tension and checks the air seal.","Then he stamps the company name inside.","Now he screws the finished keyboard to the finished wind-chest.","Meanwhile, another worker prepares the bellows, which force air through the reeds.","The factory buys pre-folded cardboard, then cuts and assembles it.","These diamond-shaped pieces of leather seal the openings, preventing air from escaping.","Now she glues fabric strips inside the folds of the cardboard.","This is purely for decoration.","These stainless-steel covers reinforce the cardboard corners so that they won't perforate from repeated movement.","Now she glues fabric strips onto the edges of the folds.","This both decorates and strengthens the cardboard.","Now for the final assembly.","The accordion maker nails the bellows to the left-hand keyboard.","Why nails rather than screws?","Tradition.","The left-hand keyboard has a hand strap.","The right-hand keyboard, a thumb strap.","After nailing the right-hand keyboard to the rest, this $2,500 diatonic accordion is ready for a musical test-drive.","there was a time when you'd be presented with a gold watch in recognition of years of loyal service to your employer.","Today, you're more likely to get a personalized memento cast in acrylic.","Companies and organizations often choose to hand out custom-made acrylic awards to recognize milestones or special achievements.","These aren't your run-of-the-mill plaques and trophies, but more like artistic sculptures.","They're custom-designed and cast in high-grade acrylic.","In the casting department, workers make acrylic by mixing monomer, a clear, liquid chemical, with polymer, a resin powder.","Once cured, this thick, white mixture will be crystal clear.","To make colored acrylic, they add colorants.","By creatively combining shades, they can even produce special effects, such as a marble or granite look.","To cast simple shapes with straight lines, they use disposable molds made of thick cardboard.","This design calls for a blue base, so they pour blue acrylic to the first fill line.","In two to three hours, the acrylic hardens to a gelatin-like state.","That's solid enough to bear the weight of the next layer-- a clear one, which they pour to the next fill line.","Now another two- or three-hour wait until the acrylic can support a decorative object-- in this case, a globe.","Once they ensure it's properly centered, they pour acrylic to the next fill line and wait two to three hours again.","Now they apply the client's name and logo printed on acetate and pour the final layer.","Once that hardens, it's off to the curing department.","There, workers load the pieces into a pressurized oven called an autoclave.","It works somewhat like a pressure cooker, forcing out the trapped air bubbles and curing the acrylic until it's rock-hard and transparent.","This takes 12 to 15 hours.","Curved designs are cast and cured in reusable metal molds like this.","The factory always casts a piece slightly larger than its final dimensions to allow for shrinkage during the curing process and some loss through sanding.","Workers sand each piece three times with progressively finer sandpaper to perfect the shape.","Then to remove the marks that sanding leaves behind, they buff the piece on a cloth-covered wheel.","Then they polish the piece with an even softer wheel.","This shines the acrylic to a high-gloss finish.","When it's not viable to make a mold for a particular shape, they cast a starting shape, then machine it to the final shape.","To make a sphere, for example, they first cast a cube.","They transform the cube into a cylinder, then, working one side at a time, into a perfect sphere.","The automated tooling equipment is all computer-guided for ultimate precision.","Some designs call for additional artistic features.","For example, the factory can print artwork on paper, acetate, or a metal plate, then embed it into the acrylic.","Another option is to create an opaque image on the surface.","As we see here, once they finish machining the sphere, they apply tape that's been laser-cut into the shape of a world map.","They sandblast the exposed areas, transforming the sphere into a globe.","They can also engrave the surface of a piece or, using a special laser beam, etch letters or a design right inside the acrylic.","The creative possibilities are endless.","The infinite combinations of shapes, colors, embedded objects, and artistic features make these acrylic awards highly customized and clearly unique."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Oil Lamps","Chocolate Mints","Underfloor Heating","Pillows"]},"text":["Before the invention of electricity, humans relied on fire for light.","Candles dripped and could be messy.","Oil lamps were a cleaner alternative.","Initially, oil lamps were dishes of animal fat with floating wicks.","But they evolved and became a source of both beauty and light.","In the 18th century, a swiss chemist invented an oil lamp with a cylindrical wick and chimney.","The updated design increased air flow to create a flame that was both smokeless and brighter.","In colonial america, pewter versions became popular.","And today, a fifth generation pewtersmith keeps this handcrafted tradition alive.","He starts with the maker's mark and stamps it into the pewter base of the lamp's oil reservoir.","He clamps another pewter disc in a lathe against an aluminum template for the reservoir body.","As the disc spins, he shapes it to the template with a tool called a spinner's finger.","This takes skill.","If he works too fast or applies too much pressure, the pewter will break.","His first spin produces the basic shape.","In the next spin, he trims the edges.","He also rounds the lower half of the reservoir using the spinner's finger.","He works freestyle to match the contours of the lower half to the upper half.","He trims the bottom one more time.","During the third spin, he fine-tunes the shape, and cuts a hole in the top.","Then, he sizes the hole for the burner collar.","This metal is transformed from a basic dome to a well-rounded lid.","The oil lamp reservoir is now ready for the burner.","He presses the collar into the hole.","Then, he brushes a glycerin-based flux onto the collar in the neck of the lamp.","The flux prevents oxidation and helps solder flow easily as he secures the burner collar to the neck.","Next, he tack solders the base to the bottom of the oil lap reservoir.","He applies more flux and solders the seam all the way around.","The tin-bismuth solder melts at a slightly lower temperature than the pewter does.","This is delicate work.","If the torch gets too hot, he'll melt the entire piece.","With the soldering complete, he trims the excess from the base of the lamp.","He files the seam until it's smooth.","Then he sands the rest of the oil lamp reservoir to a satin sheen.","Another member of the team sands the base up to the maker's mark.","Next, the pewtersmith rolls a beaded motif into the metal.","It's a design option that makes the lamp look more elaborate.","Or for a different look, he gently creates a hammered texture around the lamp.","Using an engraving pen, the pewtersmith etches his signature onto the base of the lamp.","With the burner and wick installed, the lamp is ready for packing.","Plenty of tissue paper is needed to protect both the glass chimney and the nickel burner from damage.","She includes operation and maintenance instructions.","Unlike silver, pewter doesn't tarnish, but will develop a richer veneer over time.","A few scratches or handling marks are normal, but they'll only add authenticity to this traditional light source.","Like pewter oil lamps of another time, these replicas are a shining example of handcraftsmanship.","Chocolates and mints are enjoyed by many people.","Then, someone discovered putting the two together makes for a delicious experience.","The cool zestiness of the mint offsets the rich creaminess of the chocolate.","It is one of the sweetest matches in candy history.","Chocolate or mint?","With the chocolate mint, the decision is easy because the two flavors are wrapped into one.","To make chocolate mints, they pump liquid sugar into a heated mixer, and add granular sugar.","The mixer blends it into simmering syrup exiting through strainers.","Then, it's moved into a vacuum-sealed cooker.","It sucks out moisture and the syrup thickens to a jelly-like consistency.","A worker transfers it to a second mixer and adds the mint flavoring.","Thorough mixing thickens it and lightens the color substantially.","He transfers the mint flavored candy to a work table.","Powerful mechanical arms massage the slab to cool and harden the candy.","Next, a hopper funnels the candy into pressurized rollers that squeeze it into a long sheet.","The sheet rides an inclining conveyor.","Once it reaches the top, an employee wraps the end around a long steel tube.","The tube revolves and twists the mint candy around it.","The long candy sheet takes the shape of the tube.","They melt and mix chunks of pure chocolate with cocoa, powdered milk, and icing sugar.","They add coconut oil and lecithin to bind the ingredients.","Once mixed, the employee transfers it to a hopper next to the big mint candy tube.","From here, the chocolate is injected into the hollow of the mint candy tube.","The tube rolls off the forming cylinder and passes by rollers that squeeze the diameter down to a rope size.","A compactor then mashes the candy rope to give the filling a honeycomb texture.","Pullers now stretch a second slab of mint candy until it thickens and turns a lighter color.","The worker cuts it into chunks that fit into the next rolling machine.","It presses the candy into a sheet which then lands on top of the mint chocolate.","The two layers now enter the next forming machine.","This one wraps the outer layer around the chocolate infused one, creating a chocolate filled mint tube.","Rollers reduce the diameter to half an inch in size.","Next, the chocolate mint rope enters a die cutter.","It shapes and cuts the rope into mints.","The mints spill into a spreader which distributes them evenly across a perforated conveyor.","Fans blow air through the holes in the conveyor to cool and solidify the candies.","Once the candies have hardened, they head to the wrapping station.","Here, they ride a rotating circular platform and fall into candy-size slots.","Glossy metalized film wrap unwinds.","Mechanical arms collect the chocolate mints as they fall out of the slots.","They hold the candies for wrapping while devices twist the ends.","It takes only a fraction of a second to wrap a candy.","Then it's on to a weigh station.","Scales release the individually wrapped chocolate mints in increments.","They fall into bags ready for retail.","Approximately 2,400 chocolate mints are made every minute at this factory.","Two flavors in one candy--  they're quite a treat.","Heating a room using a water circulation system under the floor is more efficient than using a radiator.","Radiators can only be at one end of a room, while a circulation system distributes heat evenly throughout.","Warm water pipes are installed under the floor beneath the plaster leveling layer in the grooves of a plastic guide mat laid on the subfloor.","Each pipe begins and ends at a distribution manifold.","The pipes connect to the manifold and each other with various types of brass fittings.","This computer guided equipment makes the simpler straight ones.","It first cuts a piece from a long brass bar, progressively shapes it, bores through it, and cuts threads on it.","This machine makes the nuts that connect the fittings to the manifold.","The machine cuts a piece from a six-sided brass bar and shapes it into a nut.","Curved or t-shaped fittings require forging prior to machining.","The factory cuts the bars into ingots.","A conveyor then feeds the ingot into an oven.","The high temperature softens the brass to a malleable state.","After the ingots exit the oven, they are pressed into a mold by a 400-ton press.","When the press releases, the forged fitting heads to a collection bin.","Workers then place it on a die and trim off the excess brass with a punch press.","The fitting now has its basic shape.","The next step is to sandblast it.","This cleans the surface in preparation for machining.","A vibrating tray now feeds the sandblasted fittings to a robot.","A camera records the orientation of each piece, guiding the robot to load it in the correct position.","Guided by a computer, the transfer machine finalizes the shape of the fitting.","This complex machining process, seen here in super slow motion, takes just a few seconds.","The transfer machine also makes the manifold from a larger brass bar.","This manifold has 10 connections.","So if each room of the home is heated by one circuit, this manifold could control 10 rooms.","The transfer machine can perform up to 20 different operations on a single fitting.","The under floor heating pipes have five layers.","To produce the innermost one, an extruder melts granules of polyethylene-- a strong non-porous type of plastic.","It is pushed through a circular die, and then cooled rapidly to a solid state.","Polyethylene pipe enters a second extruder that applies a layer of glue over the poly.","The glue adheres the third layer-- aluminum.","The pipe moves through a series of forming rollers which gradually wrap an aluminum strip around it.","This aluminum layer makes the polyethylene pipe strong.","Once the pipe is fully encased, a welding machine fuses the strip's overlapping edges.","The pipe now receives another layer of glue.","Then, the outer surface of polyethylene is applied.","The factory makes pipes ranging from 1/2 an inch to 3 1/2 inches in diameter.","A steel sleeve is pressed over the end, connecting the pipe to the fitting.","To set up the heating system, the installers lay a plastic guide mat on the subfloor and snap the pipe into the mat's grooves.","They lay plaster leveling tiles on top of the mat to level the surface then install the flooring.","They connect one end of the pipe to an inlet manifold, and the other to an outlet manifold.","The inlet sends warm water through the pipe.","The outlet receives the returning cold water and sends it to the boiler to be reheated.","You regulate water flow and temperature either manually or with a thermostat.","Hard, soft, puffy or flat, the type of pillow you sleep on is a matter of personal preference.","Your pillow can be stuffed with natural fillings like feathers and wool, or synthetic materials such as foam or polyester fiber.","These pillows come in two styles-- garnet pillows filled with a roll of synthetic fiber, and blown pillows made of loose synthetic fibers.","The fiber arrives at the factory in huge, densely packed bales weighing almost 600 pounds.","This polyester fiber is made from polyethylene and other types of plastics.","The fibers are all stuck together.","They need to be pulled apart and smoothed out.","This process is called \"opening the fibers\".","The first machine--  the preopener-- combs the fibers with a large steel-spiked roller.","This separates them considerably but not completely.","The fibers exit the machine straighter and smoother.","However, several are still crimped.","The preopener's four outputs drop the fibers onto a conveyor belt which takes them to the next opening machine.","Along the way, nozzles spray a special solution to reduce static electricity.","To make garnet pillows, fans push the fibers to another opening machine called the garnet hopper.","It feeds the fibers onto a spiked conveyor belt which combs them out further.","This removes many of the remaining crimps.","After the garnet hopper, the fibers look like the ones on the right-- fluffier, straighter, and smoother.","The fibers now travel to the next machine.","It has several metal rollers with sharp ridges that stretch the fiber straight, removing the remaining crimps.","The fibers then enter another machine, passing over one of two rollers to form a flat, fluffy sheet called a \"web\".","The two webs merge as they exit the machine, forming a thicker web.","Then, the next machine laps the web back and forth over itself.","The width of the lapping determines the width of the pillow.","The machine cuts the continuous web into pieces and rolls each one into what is called a \"bat\".","The length of the piece determines the characteristics of the pillow.","The longer the rolled piece, the higher and firmer the pillow.","An automated machine makes the cotton or cotton-blended pillowcases.","Workers mount two identical rolls of fabric onto the machine's cradles and feed the ends through a series of tension rollers.","The two sheets must be taut as they pass through the machine's different stations.","First, blades trim the fabric to the correct pillow size-- standard, queen, or king.","Then, a slitter runs across each sheet, cutting a series of rectangular pieces.","The machine then stitches two rectangles together on three sides.","Finally, the product information label is sewn on.","The machine uses an extremely strong overlock stitch.","The pillow filling is flattened before it enters the waiting case, which is already covered in retail packaging.","Sewers close the open end of the pillow and trim off the excess fiber.","Then the finished pillow is placed in a shipping box.","For blown pillows, an operator holds the open end of the case over a nozzle.","Then a machine blows in a pre-set quantity of loose fibers.","He weighs the pillow then sends it to the sewing department to be stitched closed.","A blown pillow conforms to your head when you lie down and rebounds when you get up.","A garnet pillow has less rebound.","Not sure what to choose?","Sleep on it."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Electrical Panels","Kites","Eyeglass Frames","Toothbrushes"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" electrical panels...","Kites...","Eyeglass frames...","And toothbrushes.","The technical name for it is a residential load center, but people usually call it an electrical panel or circuit breaker box.","This enclosed metal panel is usually built into an interior wall and contains the circuit breakers that distribute, protect, and control the home's lighting and power.","This load center consists of up to 40 circuits.","Each one has one or two breakers.","Each breaker powers several outlets in the home.","First, a powerful press pounds a sheet of steel into what's called a u-channel.","At nearly 3 feet long, 18 inches wide, and 4 inches deep, it's part of what's called the tub-- the load center's main casing.","A worker then attaches steel components made earlier called tub ends.","A spot welding machine fuses them to close off both ends of the tub.","Workers feed an aluminum strip that's 330 feet long and 6 inches wide into a stamping press.","The press cuts the strip into 20-inch-long segments called bus bars.","It bends each bus bar 10 times, creating two-inch segments called stabs.","The breakers will later snap onto these stabs.","Next, a worker inserts each bus bar into a plastic component called a base pan.","The base pan insulates the bus bar.","This prevents us from getting electrocuted.","Another press then inserts a plastic rivet, securing the bus bar to the base pan.","The worker installs two components, called neutral bars, in the base pan.","The neutral bars conduct electricity between the circuit and the wall socket.","Next comes the main breaker.","Its maximum capacity is 200 amps.","Amps are the units of measurement for electrical current.","If demand exceeds maximum capacity, it'll trip, meaning it'll turn off all power in the home.","She makes sure it's sufficiently tight so that vibrations caused by street traffic won't loosen it.","She also encloses labels to mark the breaker's pathways and an envelope with installation screws.","Next, the worker puts the base pan assembly into the tub and secures the neutral bar with a copper bonding strap to ground it and prevent electrocution.","She adds another component--  one of two grounding bars.","These ground each circuit.","The breakers simply snap onto the stabs, making them easy to remove and replace if needed.","Inside the breaker, several components interact to enable the flow of electricity.","One is the load terminal-- the entry point for the live current.","A circular machine, called robot \"a,\" assembles it and other breaker parts along its 16 workstations.","Another breaker component is the bimetal assembly.","It's an alloy of two metals and a magnet.","It trips the breaker when there's an overload or a short circuit.","Next, robot \"a\" welds a strip of silver, which is conductive, to what's called the contact arm.","Robot \"a\" then positions the arm for welding with two-inch-long segments of braided copper wire-- copper because it's conductive as well as pliable.","The robot fuses the copper wire to the contact arm in the bimetal assembly.","The wire will flex with the arm to touch what's called the line terminal.","This contact permits the electrical current to flow.","Next, robot \"a\" deposits the welded parts into the breaker casings, called bases.","This automated production line functions 24 hours a day, five days a week, and it produces a breaker every three seconds.","Another machine, called robot \"b,\" stamps the number of amps on each breaker handle.","Then it connects a spring to link the contact arm to another part, called the cradle.","When there's an overload, the bimetal assembly causes the cradle to pivot and trip the breaker.","Robot \"b\" deposits the spring and cradle into the base, then closes the base with a cover.","This demonstration shows how moving the breaker handle triggers the mechanism that will enable the flow of electricity.","If power demand exceeds the breaker's maximum capacity by 35%, the bimetal assembly trips the breaker and cuts the power.","They cap off the load center with a metal cover called a trim.","The warning label on it provides safety information and instructions.","The load center is now ready for installation by a certified electrician.","The earliest written record of a kite tells the story of a chinese general in 206 b.c. who flew a kite over a wicked emperor's palace.","He marked the line to measure the distance, then reeled it in.","His small army then dug a tunnel into the palace courtyard, launching a surprise attack that conquered the emperor.","Today's two-line kite, as the name implies, has two lines to pilot it.","It can fly nearly 130 feet high.","This kite is made mainly of a lightweight nylon fabric that is waterproof and fade-resistant.","It's less than a few hundredths of an inch thick, so it's reinforced with nylon mesh to reduce ripping.","The kite's other components include nylon and elastic cords and straps; fittings made of leather, rubber, aluminum, and plastic; and carbon rods.","The kite maker starts with a pattern made out of pressed wood.","She marks out a piece of the fabric and, with a few bricks to hold the fabric in place, cuts diagonally.","In sewing terms, that's called cutting on the bias.","This will stretch the fabric and help it fly.","Next, she cuts more pieces of fabric, this time in a different color.","This kite has eight fabric parts that fit together like a puzzle to create an eight-foot wingspan.","The kite's left and right sides are mirror images, so there are only four different shapes to cut.","They range in length from 9 inches to 4 feet.","From start to finish, it takes one worker about two hours to make this model, called the dragonfly.","First, the kite maker sews the longest part, called the belly, to the other parts.","She double stitches with heavy-duty nylon thread to help the kite withstand winds up to 23 miles per hour.","She makes tiny incisions along the belly's curved edge so she can fold it and sew in what's called the tension line.","Tension line is a type of nylon cord she'll sew into all the seams of the kite's lower sections.","It'll give the kite some structure and help keep it rigid while airborne.","The kite maker secures each line with a knot which can later be loosened or tightened to adjust the kite's overall tension.","The kite maker uses straps made of very durable, yet flexible, plastic to line the middle and the edges of the wings.","The straps strengthen the kite, enabling it to survive crashes into trees and rocks.","After all, what goes up must come down.","Next, the kite maker sews a piece of leather, called a fitting, onto the plastic strap.","It's made of leather to protect the kite's structural joints, such as the nose of the kite.","It gets a leather patch, as well.","The kite maker uses a serrated saw to cut the 10 carbon rods to size.","They're a quarter-inch in diameter and range in length from 7 to 32 inches.","They form the kite's skeleton and, like bones, they're the most likely part of the kite to break in an accident.","But if they do break, it's easy to replace them.","A variety of molded plastic, rubber, and aluminum fittings serve a dual purpose.","They join the rods together and keep them from falling out of their sleeves.","Now the kite maker attaches a nylon cord, called a bridle, to the fitting that joins the rods on the wing's leading edge.","The bridle is the kite's rudder, steering the kite to the left or right.","The bridle comes off easily if you need to replace the rods.","The kite maker now attaches tension lines to two plastic components called arrows.","They're located at the kite's wing tips.","She ties elastic bungee cords through the arrows to hold the tension lines in place.","This makes all the fabric parts taut enough to fly.","Next, she attaches the bridle to the center rod, the spine of the kite.","She inserts the rod into its protective leather pouch at the nose.","She inserts other rods into both sides of the wing.","These give the wing its curved, aerodynamic shape and help the kite stay aloft.","Finally, additional rods under the wing provide more structure and support.","These rods spread the kite and help keep it open.","In the mood for a sky-high experience?","For $250, you can buy a handmade model like this one and go fly a kite.","Eyeglasses don't merely correct vision.","They're also a fashion statement-- so much so that many of today's top clothing designers produce a line of eyeglass frames.","Whether you prefer plastic frames or metal ones, they come in so many different colors, sizes, and shapes that you're guaranteed to find a pair that suits you.","Metal frames comes in a multitude of shapes, from ordinary to extraordinary.","It all starts with a computerized system called a three-axis eye winding machine.","A set of rollers pulls metal wire from a big spool.","Then, with software-driven precision, the machine bends the wire into the shape of the frame, then cuts the end free.","The lenses will fit into precut grooves on the inside.","A small part, called the insert, connects the two ends of the eye frame, holding them closed around the lens.","To attach the insert, they put it in a clamp, then position the eye frame just above it.","They apply a cleaning agent, called flux, then filler wire.","An electric current heats the wire, metal frame, and insert until they all melt and fuse together.","Now they do the same to what's called the screw hinge-- the piece that attaches the arm to the eye frame.","Again, electrically generated heat fuses the hinge to the insert.","This process, similar to soldering, is called brazing.","Now for the bridge-- the piece over the nose that joins the two eye frames.","A small press bends a piece of metal into the shape of the bridge.","Then a worker aligns it with the eye frames in an assembly jig.","This ensures the frames are perfectly straight.","Brazing again melds everything together.","Next comes the piece above the bridge, called the brow bar.","An automated machine cuts metal wire to pieces the right length, then carves grooves on the ends to enable the brow bar to fit snugly onto the top of the frames.","It then bends each piece to the right shape.","The brow bar now goes into position.","A little flux to remove any dust or dirt that might prevent the metal from fusing properly.","Then they braze the brow bar to the frame.","Now come little hooks called pad arms.","They hold small pads under the bridge that cushion your nose.","A worker fuses the pad arms to the frames using the same brazing process as before.","Now for the arms that attach to the eye frames on one end and sit on your ears on the other.","The industry calls these arms temples because they're at the level of your temples when you wear the glasses.","After stamping the size and company name on the inside, they fuse a hinge to each one and press a plastic sleeve on the other end.","They set the arms momentarily aside while they position the lenses in the groove of the eye frame.","A screw keeps everything tight and intact.","Now they screw an arm onto each hinge.","The arms on most models have curled ends that hook over the ears for a more secure and comfortable fit.","A special machine, called a mechanical cam, applies pressure to bend the plastic sleeves to a 45-degree angle.","These metal-frame glasses are functional and fashionable.","The chinese invented the first toothbrush around 1600, but it wasn't till about 1780 in england that it became a mass-produced item.","Like those that followed, its bristles came from the necks and shoulders of pigs.","In the late 1930s, synthetic materials replaced natural swine bristles.","These toothbrushes should make you want to flash your pearly whites in appreciation if you consider that, thousands of years ago, people used twigs to clean their teeth.","Today's toothbrush begins as little plastic pellets.","A vacuum sucks them up into an injection mold machine.","The machine melts the pellets into a kind of plastic dough, then injects it into a stainless-steel mold, forming 10 toothbrush handles at once.","The head of each handle has up to 56 holes for bristles.","This machine generates 10 handles every 35 seconds.","That works out to 27,000 handles in 24 hours.","Now they melt blue rubber pellets.","They pipe the liquid rubber into the mold with the white toothbrush handles, then press the rubber onto the handles to form a grip.","So now you'll have a toothbrush you can really hang on to.","No dropping this one in the sink.","They use a semiclear plastic to produce another type of grip, one that's softer and more pliable.","It's called the gummy brush, because the grip really does feel a bit like one of those gummy candies.","These nylon fibers will form the bristles.","A robotic arm pats them down so that they sit very evenly.","Then, faster than you can blink an eye, the machine feeds the bristles into the holes in the head of the toothbrush handle.","This machine works at a blurring speed, filling 900 holes per minute.","And it operates with incredible precision.","Here's the bristle-selection process in slow motion.","The machine selects between 22 and 24 bristles for each hole in the brush.","With 56 holes per toothbrush, that adds up to over 1,300 bristles for each brush.","This fully automated system works faster than any human ever could.","And here's another advantage-- a human hand rarely has to touch the bristles, so the process is incredibly hygienic.","Wondering what holds the bristles in place?","Wire.","The machine bends the fibers in half, anchoring them to the brush with wire in the middle.","Now it's time for a brush cut.","These blades trim the bristles to about the same length.","Another set of blades sculpts different types of edges, depending on the toothbrush model in production.","These may look like spinning tops, but they're rotating disks coated with diamond dust, a mild abrasive.","They sand the edges of the bristles to produce a particular finish.","For instance, the bristles can be straight or zigzagged.","Different finishes have different tooth-cleaning effects.","You may have noticed that some bristles are white and others are blue or another color.","This is purely aesthetic--  a nifty color combination to make the toothbrush look smarter.","And, of course, the machine knows exactly which color goes where, so you end up with a two-tone brush like this one.","Every so often, the factory pulls a toothbrush off the assembly line for a spot check.","A robot arm tugs at the bristles to make sure they're secure enough.","And if the brush passes the test, the rest of the production run is cleared for sale.","Then a robotic system packages the brushes so that they come right off the line ready for shipping and ready to maintain toothy smiles everywhere."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Stile and Rail Doors","Steam Cleaners","Hand"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"-- ...","Stile and rail doors...","Steam cleaners...","Hand-held pizzas...","And power brushes.","Many doors are made of a single piece of wood.","But stile and rail doors contain a rectangular frame around one or more central panels.","The term stile refers to the frame's vertical pieces.","And rail refers to its horizontal ones.","Stile and rail doors come in many different shapes and sizes.","They have several components.","Some even have sectioned glass panels.","They use poplar wood for paint-grade doors.","If the door will be stained, customers can choose from several different wood options, including oak, cherry, maple, and african mahogany.","They feed the rough lumber through a planer.","The first two stations simultaneously shave the top and bottom of the wood.","The third station has multiple saw blades that cut the piece into several strips.","Workers line up the strips and coat one side with glue.","Then they transfer the wood strips to a clamping machine.","They stack one piece of linear-strand lumber in between the glued sides of two solid-wood strips.","Linear-strand lumber, called lsl for short, is a piece of lumber made from glued wood fibers.","The robot holds the assembly in place for an hour until the glue dries.","Then they put this engineered lumber through a glue spreader.","It coats the top and bottom surfaces with heat-activated glue.","They sandwich the lumber between two thin sheets of wood called veneer.","For a paint-grade door, they use ultra-thin mdf, medium-density fiberboard, instead.","Mdf is a man-made material with a smooth, paint-friendly surface.","They place the pieces into a hot press for two minutes.","The heat activates the glue, while the pressure flattens the veneer against the lumber.","These pieces will become the door's stiles and rails.","The panels inside the stiles and rails are made of mdf.","For a stained door, workers apply the veneer before they contour the pieces.","Workers carve the pieces using a shaper machine.","They change the machine heads in order to cut different designs.","The workers used a different shaper machine to carve the inside edge of the stiles.","They also drilled holes for the dowels of the adjoining rails.","They apply glue, then attach the matching bottom rail to the first stile.","They insert the panel into a groove in the rail and stile.","They are assembling a two-panel door.","So next, they fit a middle rail and another panel.","They install a top rail and then the second stile.","They place the newly-assembled door in a large clamping machine.","It applies pressure on the door for an hour while the glue dries.","The machine transfers the door to a cutting table.","Then a computer-guided saw trims the top and bottom of the door.","The machine switches to a different tool that bevels the edge of the door.","It switches tools again and drills holes for the door's hardware.","The stile and rail door is now ready for finishing.","Workers sand the surface to prepare it for either staining or painting.","Then the stained doors receive a coat of sealer and two coats of clear lacquer.","This protects the wood's surface.","The panels used in stile and rail doors are never glued in place.","They sit inside the frame.","This leaves space for the wood and mdf to naturally expand without warping or cracking the door.","In the 1960s, italian boilermakers figured out how to harness steam to clean.","Steam cleaning is much safer than traditional methods because dirt and bacteria can be eliminated without the use of harmful chemicals.","High-pressure, low-moisture steam is enough to vaporize most germs.","The water in a steam cleaner is heated to over 200 degrees fahrenheit.","It's safe to use on both hard and soft surfaces.","Steam cleaners start out as a computer design.","This is a commercial model that will be used to clean hotels, restaurants, offices, and schools.","They make the components using polycarbonate plastic pellets.","A molding machine heats the plastic, then injects it into molds.","The plastic hardens into the shape of parts.","This one is the cover for the steam cleaner's boiler.","A robot with vacuum-suction grippers extracts the cover from the mold.","They mold other parts, including the base, extension tubes, handles, and hooks the same way.","A worker installs a water-level probe on the steel boiler.","He also screws on a fitting for the fill hose.","He adds two solenoid valves.","They turn the steam on and off and control its intensity.","Then he places the boiler in a test device.","The device verifies that the electrical parts are insulated properly.","He tightens the solenoid valves to complete the installation.","After the hoses are attached to the boiler, they place it in the base of the steam cleaner.","A worker plugs in the electrical contacts.","They will power the steam hose's controls.","Then he connects the steam hose to a fitting next to the contacts.","He tightens a metal clip around it to reinforce the connection.","He links the main electronic board to temperature sensors that have been installed on the boiler.","The worker also wires the steam-pressure sensors.","He covers the top of the boiler with melamine insulation.","Then he slides a heat-resistant plastic cover over the boiler.","He attaches the fill hose to the fitting on the top of the boiler.","He connects the other end to the water tank.","The worker equips the tank with two water-level sensors.","He hooks up a gauge for the steam pressure.","Then he fills the tank with water and tests the steam cleaner.","He uses a small mirror to check for leaks.","Another worker assembles the steam gun.","He attaches a plastic joint to the steam hose, then installs a nozzle on the end.","He slides the joint forward to surround the spray nozzle and screws a plastic wand to the end of the joint.","He tucks the hose on one side of the handle's plastic casing and installs a trigger.","Then he snaps on the cover.","He screws the handle together.","He connects the steam gun to the boiler unit.","He turns it on.","And the sprayer shoots out a hot, pressurized mist known as dry steam.","Its moisture content is only 5%, allowing cleaned surfaces to dry quickly.","The steam cleaner also comes with a vacuum.","It sucks up residual water and dirt after a steam cleaning.","He attaches the vacuum motor to the filter.","He places the motor and filter into the base canister and locks the assembly together with clips at the sides.","The worker transfers the steam cleaner to a cart.","Once the vacuum is on board, this duo is ready to eradicate dirt, grease, and pathogens.","Just aim and pull the trigger.","The steam will do the rest.","A slice of pizza isn't always a portable snack.","The toppings can slide off while you're eating it.","These hand-held, individual pizzas solve that problem.","The toppings are safely encased inside the pizza dough.","Hand-held pizzas are small enough for kids to easily hold.","They're made without preservatives, and all the ingredients are organic, making them the perfect frozen snack for hungry children.","One main ingredient is cauliflower.","It packs a strong nutritional punch without altering the flavor.","Cauliflower is low in calories but high in vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber.","It also helps thicken the filling.","After removing the stems, the cooks boil the cauliflower heads until tender.","They remove them from the pot with a slotted spoon to let the water drain away.","They puree the cauliflower in a food processor.","The cooks also boil and puree butternut squash, which is full of vitamin a, vitamin c, and many other nutrients.","The squash puree slightly sweetens the filling and helps thicken it.","Other ingredients that go into the filling are tomato paste, parmesan and mozzarella cheeses, potato flakes, sea salt, spices, and water.","After measuring out the required amounts, workers pour the ingredients into a large bowl.","They manually blend the ingredients with a large whisk to keep the filling's texture coarse.","The pizza dough is made with wheat flour, unbleached all-purpose flour, and baking soda.","They also add palm fruit shortening and water to make the dough pliable.","They combine all the ingredients in a mixer.","The mixer blends the ingredients thoroughly until the dough reaches the right consistency.","After mixing, they let the dough rest.","Next, they transform the blocks of dough into sheets.","They place an 8-inch block of dough on a machine called the dough sheeter.","The dough moves back and forth beneath a roller until it's flat.","They add flour so the dough won't stick to the roller.","A worker winds the sheet of dough onto a spool and transfers it to the processing line.","Here, four rotary blades trim the sides and divide the sheet into three strips.","Spray nozzles lightly mist the dough with water to keep it pliable.","A machine dispenses the filling at perfectly timed intervals.","It adds one ounce of filling per pizza to one side of each strip.","Then the machine folds the other side over.","A crimping wheel seals the edge to encase the filling.","They add more flour on top so the crimper and rotary cutters can easily trim off the excess dough.","A chopping blade separates the filled dough into individual pizzas.","Then the crimper seals the third edge.","Workers transfer the pizzas by hand onto baking sheets.","They're lined with parchment paper to prevent sticking.","Then they bake the pizzas in an oven.","As soon as they come out, they're flash-frozen.","This rapid deep-freeze locks in the nutrients and makes preservatives unnecessary.","The frozen pizzas go straight to the packaging room.","It's refrigerated so the pizzas won't begin to thaw.","The equipment individually wraps the pizzas in plastic then packages them, two per box.","After 60 seconds in the microwave, these pizzas are ready to eat.","The thick filling doesn't drip, making them the perfect meal on the go.","Wire power brushes rotate at high speeds to clean metal without damaging it.","These industrial tools can scrub off almost anything, including weld splatter, rust, and paint.","They can also smooth away sharp edges and protrusions known as burrs.","Wire power brushes come in many different shapes and sizes.","The bristles are either knotted or crimped.","There's a wire power brush for every metal-cleaning job.","Automated tools work with pinpoint accuracy to create a wire brush with knotted bristles.","A tool inserts 22 wires into each hole of the steel disk.","The wires are made of high-carbon steel.","Another tool twists the wire bundle into a knot.","It makes a special knot designed for maximum strength and durability.","The system installs 48 knotted wire bundles in each brush.","An employee transfers the brush to a machine with circular blades.","The blades trim the wires down and sharpen the ends.","The next worker sandwiches the brush's center disk between two larger disks.","A press welder creates three dimples in the metal.","These dimples tightly hold the brush structure in place.","A press drives a large nut into the center hole.","It will be used to securely attach the wire brush to a power tool.","This completes the knotted wire power brush assembly.","Next, they make the crimped wire brush.","First, a device feeds steel wire to a cutting machine in preset increments.","The machine's cutting wheels slice the wires to the correct length.","It deposits the wire bundles on a rack, and a worker collects them.","Then, another worker threads a long wire between two metal flanges and a winding machine.","She lines up the pins around the flanges.","Then she tucks freshly-cut wire bundles into those slots.","She continues until she's stacked the wire bundles all the way around the flanges.","Then she starts the machine.","It winds the long wire around the shorter wire bundles.","This crimps the short wires at the center and holds them in place between the flanges.","She pulls the end of the wire to the side of the brush segment.","Then it's ready for the next operation.","A 100-ton press bends the flanges over the crimped bristles, encasing the longer wire that holds them together.","Next, a worker spins the ends of the brush between two circular blades.","This is a preliminary trimming.","Then a punch enlarges the diameter of the center hole.","Next, they combine several of the crimped brush segments together.","An employee piles up the segments.","He places a tube in the center and spacers in between the brushes.","Once the brush reaches the right size, he uses a compression tool to curl the tube's top rim against the flange.","This secures the segments, creating one large crimped wire brush.","Then he trims the wire bristles to the correct length.","When attached to a power tool, knotted bristle wire brushes can spin up to 25,000 rotations per minute.","The brush's high speed allows it to efficiently scrub dirt and grease from an oil-well drill pipe.","The crimped wire brush is designed for lighter work, like scrubbing rust off a metal pipe.","These power brushes are bristling with cleaning potential and ready for work."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fireplace Bellows","Calissons","Diving Watercraft"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made\"...","Somewhere back in time, somebody was blowing on a fire to get it started and wondered if there were a way to do it without hyperventilating.","A lot of people must have had this idea because different kinds of bellows can be found across the ancient world from egypt to asia.","In the auvergne region of central france, this manufacturer has been building classic fireplace bellows since 1895 using high-quality beechwood and leather sourced nearby.","An artisan starts by selecting a template from a range of sizes and shapes.","He traces an outline on a piece of wood.","He uses a band saw to cut the rough outline of the shape to prepare for the next step.","A craftsman then places a stack of three rough-cut shapes on top of a master prototype and clamps the stack in place.","A large bearing slides up against the master prototype and, by following it, guides a specialized cutting tool around the perimeter of the stack.","The operation quickly and precisely reduces the three pieces of wood to exactly the required dimensions.","This purpose-built mechanism undertakes a three-step operation.","A drill pierces a hole in the narrow end while a second drill opens three holes underneath.","A circular saw quickly slices partway through the neck of the piece.","A craftsman then uses a rotary tool to easily cut a decorative pattern of concentric circles into one side of the wood.","A cutting blade positioned at precisely the right height allows an artisan to slice a beveled groove partway around the perimeter of the wood to the required depth.","A craftsman uses a powerful band saw to divide the wood in half along the groove line all the way up to the cut across the neck.","The wooden components are now ready for the finished process.","An artisan dunks the components in a tub of stain and places them on a shelf to dry.","She keeps each pair of components together while separating them slightly to ensure they don't stick together.","Once the stain has dried, the artisan buffs the outer surfaces of the components on a buffing wheel to make the wood smooth.","She then carefully positions the components on a table and sprays them thoroughly with a protective layer of varnish.","Once the varnish has cured, a craftsperson can begin assembly by creating the valve that covers the intake hole.","She installs a rounded length of wire, stapling it in such a way as to create enough tension for the wire to act as a spring.","This step completes the interior of the bellows.","An artisan can now bring the two halves of the bellows together.","She starts by wrapping a precut piece of locally sourced sheep's leather around one handle and attaching the leather in place with small nails.","Carefully hammering a series of closely-spaced upholstery tacks at regular intervals secures the leather to the perimeter edge of one half of the bellows.","The artisan can now attach the second half by repeating the operation on the other side of the leather.","Adding a thin strip of leather along the tack line will help prevent any ripping or tearing.","The artisan uses a section of precut leather to form the hinge necessary for the proper functioning of the bellows.","The size, position, and tack pattern must all be precise in order for the tool to open and close smoothly and easily.","The artisan trims off any excess lengths of leather.","Finally, she installs the nozzle.","Making a dent with a tool called a punch prepares the site for a nail which secures the nozzle in place.","The completed bellows function perfectly.","This simple, finely crafted tool is built to help start warm fires for years to come.","Calissons are a traditional french candy made of almonds, candied melon, and orange peel topped with a thin layer of hard, typically white, icing.","Calissons are the specialty of the city of aix-en-provence in the provence region of southern france.","The calisson was created in france in the mid-15th century in honor of the wedding of king rene of anjou and queen jeanne of laval.","The confection became the specialty of provence, the region of southern france known for its almond orchards.","Inside the greenish hull is a hard shell.","Inside that shell is the edible almond seed.","The almonds arrive at the workshop dried for conservation and their brown skin removed.","The first step in the production is to rehydrate the almonds with steam for about 10 minutes so that they can be worked into a paste.","Once the almonds' moisture content is increased by 2 to 4%, the almonds pass over a vibrating screen to drain any water resulting from steam condensation.","Meanwhile, this cauldron heats up liquid beet sugar.","France is one of the world's largest sugar beet producers, so high-quality beet sugar is readily available.","Workers transfer the hydrated almonds to a grinder and add candied fruit--  95% melon and 5% orange peel.","This flavor is the 500-year-old traditional recipe.","Workers grind the ingredients for about 10 minutes until everything is thoroughly blended into a coarse paste.","The paste drops onto a conveyor belt, which transfers it to a kneading machine into which workers add the hot liquid beet sugar and natural almond oil made from bitter almonds.","Kneading blends the ingredients and smoothes the texture of the paste.","A worker boxes the calisson paste and sets it aside for three days to let the sugar mature and stabilize.","Calissons are topped with an ever-so-thin layer of royal icing.","Unlike creamy icings, royal icing is as hard as a rock to make it, a worker combines icing sugar and whipped egg whites passed through a strainer.","A mixer beats the ingredients until the mixture is thick and smooth, which typically takes about 10 minutes.","After 3 days of rest, the paste is ready to be worked.","Shaping and decorating the calissons is a specialized task entrusted to these experienced artisans called \"calissonaires\".","First, they place slices of paste in a press and load a mold underneath.","They cover the mold with a wafer -thin sheet of unleavened bread.","Then, the press piston descends, forcing the paste, with the bread layer underneath, into the mold.","They skim off the excess paste, then fold the stencil over the mold and apply the layer of royal icing.","They lift off the stencil and push the buttons which activate the mold pistons.","Each piston pierces the base of a calisson and lifts it out of the mold.","Finally, they remove the calissons with combs designed to fit around the pistons.","A 10-minute trip through a tunnel oven set at low temperature bakes the royal icing to a hard and shiny state.","Cameras record the position of the calissons as they exit the oven, guiding a robotic arm to pick up 160 per minute and place them in plastic trays.","The next machine seals each tray with plastic film to preserve freshness.","There's also a gift box format for which a worker hand-fills plastic trays designed to fit lozenge-shaped metal boxes.","These traditional calissons contain a candied fruit content of at least 30%, the melon being a variety cultivated in the region of provence.","However, if your taste buds are the type that buck tradition, today, you can enjoy a wide selection of other fashionable flavors such as clementine and cocoa bean or raspberry and matcha green tea.","This new generation of personal watercraft is something entirely different.","It does more than skim the surface.","This watercraft dives underwater and can remain submerged at a depth of three feet or more for up to a minute.","It also leaps into the air and rolls with the waves.","This watercraft is painted to look like a vintage fighter jet, and it rolls and dives like one in the water.","A worker sprays a gel coat into a mold for the main body.","This gel will become the shiny surface of the completed fiberglass part.","Once the gel coat has hardened, a worker brushes a vinyl ester resin onto it.","This resin is known for its water resistance.","He switches from a brush to a roller as he generally applies the resin to the hardened gel coat.","The crew then drapes what's called chopped-strand mat over the mold.","This fabric is made of long strands of fiberglass.","The binder in it dissolves on contact with the resin, causing the fabric to soften to the contours of the mold.","After trimming the excess material, the crew completely saturates the strand mat with more resin.","Rolling it on firmly gets rid of air bubbles.","The top half of the main body mold has been lined the same way.","They now bolt a dorsal fin mold to the back on the top half of the mold.","The crew now joins the two halves of the mold.","As a crane lowers the top to the bottom, workers ensure they line up perfectly.","And they lock these two main molds together with bolts.","A worker enters through the cockpit opening to roll on more resin.","Meanwhile, another member of the crew pulls two sheets of fiberglass fabric onto a cutting machine.","The top fabric is a strong, tightly woven fiberglass, and the bottom one is the chopped-strand mat.","Automated blades cut the fiberglass to various shapes and dimensions, each one designed for a different part of the diving vessel mold.","These large rectangles will be used to mold the sides of the watercraft.","After folding up the pieces, the worker hands them over to the fiberglass technician.","The technician has just an hour to apply the fiberglass before the recently applied resin starts to harden.","He builds up eight layers and completely saturates each one with more resin.","While the thicker fiberglass material provides strength, the thinner chopped-strand mat aids adhesion and helps the fabrics conform to the mold.","After a 3-hour cure, workers have a solid, seamless fuselage.","The crane lifts the fuselage out of the mold and moves it onto a dolly where it will stay while the team works on the other parts of the watercraft.","The cone-shaped front bumper is next.","The worker uses only three layers of fiberglass to make it because this bumper is meant to collapse in the event of a collision.","For that reason, the part is also known as the vessel's sacrificial nose.","At another station, crew members line fin-shaped molds with fiberglass and then pour liquefied plastic into the cavity.","Once cured, the plastic will anchor the top of a steel wing shaft in the fin.","A worker presses the shaft into the liquefied plastic with the end protruding from the fin.","A second mold, also lined with fiberglass and filled with a plastic core, goes on top.","The team bolts it together and leaves the part to cure.","The fins will ultimately be supported by a triangular scaffold made of aluminum square tubing.","The worker clamps the scaffold framework to a worktable to stabilize the framework as he welds it together.","He then welds the scaffold tower to the base.","The worker drills holes for the bushings that will be used to attach the fins to the scaffold.","Stay tuned for more as the team prepares this personal diving watercraft for its maiden voyage.","This personal watercraft leaps, dives, and barrel-rolls with the waves.","But it doesn't capsize.","It's been engineered to return to an upright position in the water.","And when it comes to the fun factor, this diving watercraft leaves other recreational boats in its wake.","To make the diving watercraft's passenger cabin, a worker sprays a gel coat onto a form and covers it with fiberglass.","A computer-driven router then carves into marine-grade plywood to produce structural backing for the sides of the cockpit.","A worker slathers adhesive putty onto the plywood part and applies more adhesive to the fiberglass cockpit.","He presses the plywood to the glued areas of the cockpit and brushes resin onto the front of the plywood.","After cutting the cockpit section in two, the crew glues the parts to the inside of the fuselage.","The fabricating team applies adhesive putty to the cone-shaped bumper known as the sacrificial nose.","They slide it onto the front of the fuselage and the screw the bumper in place temporarily while the adhesive sets.","Another worker sands all the fiberglass parts of the watercraft to remove bumps and blemishes.","This piece is the engine hatch.","The team bolts the aluminum scaffold to the floor of the fuselage.","This is a test fit to confirm that the dimensions are exactly right.","As they installed the scaffold, the used dummy wing shafts to correctly position it within the vessel.","They confirm that the dimensions are right and that the scaffold sits plumb to the base of the watercraft.","The next team inserts the hatch frame and the rim around the cockpit.","They'll bond the frame in place later with a liquid plastic and adhesive putty.","After priming the sanded surface of the watercraft, team members lower the 300-horsepower engine into the hatch.","This is a dry fit to confirm everything lines up correctly.","They'll eventually remove the engine for the final paint and artwork.","As the dry fit continues, they connect the air tubes to the snorkel fins that deliver air to the engine.","The engine hatch has, by now, also been primed, and they fit it to the diving watercraft's main body.","The crew verifies that the hatch sits flush with the rest of the fuselage.","A worker installs the exhaust outlet into the hole at the rear of the watercraft.","Crew members slide elevator fins into bushings at the back.","These fins will control the pitch axis of the watercraft.","Next, they install the jet propulsion system.","Back to the cockpit, the crew bolts the control pedals to the floor and run cables to the jet propulsion unit, the elevator fins, and the steering system.","They reinstall the dive fin scaffold, which has been powder coated in a yellow color.","The crew connects the dive fins to the scaffold.","They situate the control panel just above the control pedals.","They run a metal linkage from the dive fins to a control stick.","They then test the control stick and confirm it moves the dive planes easily and correctly.","Bucket seats made of lightweight carbon fiber minimize the load for added speed.","They tuck a rubber gasket into the framework for the clear canopy that will surround the occupants.","They add a bead of sealant where the gasket mates to the window frame.","The vessel canopy is made of thick aircraft-grade acrylic.","It's been tinted to repel the sun's rays and keep the temperature cooler in the cockpit.","The back canopy serves as a hatch for accessing the cockpit.","Finally, an artist does a custom paint job and makes the fuselage look fierce.","With the mechanical components reinstalled, this diving watercraft is ready to hit the water.","Fasten your seatbelt.","It should be quite a ride."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Thermoplastic Fire Helmets","Basketry Sculptures","Coffee Roasters"]},"text":["Thermoplastic fire helmets are lightweight, but that doesn't mean they aren't tough.","Because of their chemical composition, these plastic helmets remain sturdy, even when exposed to temperatures of over 500 degrees fahrenheit.","Developed in the 1970s, the helmets have become standard issue at many fire stations.","There are few situations more dangerous than entering a burning building.","Thermoplastic fire helmets weigh substantially less than other alternatives.","These helmets are one piece of equipment that won't slow down the rescue mission.","Production starts with a special blend of thermoplastic pellets.","A vacuum pulls the pellets into a hopper.","The pellets then flow into an injection-molding machine.","It melts and molds the pellets into the shape of a fire helmet.","A robot retrieves the helmet and transfers it to a cooling station.","A worker then clips off plastic that solidified as it flowed through a channel and into the mold.","This unwanted bit is called sprue.","She wipes off fingerprints and inspects the condition of the helmet shell.","The next worker trims the brim to remove excess plastic that formed when the mold closed.","For this process, he uses a blade with a curved edge.","Next, he applies reflective strips that will allow the firefighter to be seen in the dark.","He drills holes for attaching either goggles or face shields.","And the worker adds a last reflective strip.","He screws a support plate for the i.d. shield to the front of the helmet shell.","He uses plastic screws rather than metal because metal is electrically conductive and would put the firefighter at risk in the event of electrical sparking during a fire.","Another worker now applies labels to the inside of the helmet shell.","The labels indicate that this model of fire helmet is in compliance with the safety requirements.","The worker inserts high-density foam padding in the helmet shell.","The padded cap will cushion the wearer from the force of an impact.","This web of straps will serve as a suspension liner and will also support the helmet on the wearer's head.","Another worker installs a ratchet system for adjusting the fit of the liner to the firefighter's head.","Positioned at the nape of the neck, the firefighter can turn the knob to pull the suspension web tighter.","Attachments on the suspension liner fit into sockets on the helmet to lock it in place.","He fastens the chin strap to the helmet by wrapping the ends around molded struts on both sides of the shell.","The chin strap has a quick-release button in the event that the firefighter has to remove the helmet fast.","Another worker now folds up flame-resistant earflaps.","The flaps are equipped with hooked and looped fastening strips that fit to the helmet.","He sets the earflaps aside while he inserts snaps for goggles into brackets on the helmet.","He screws the snaps snugly to the helmet.","The worker then wraps the fire-and-fog-resistant goggles around the helmet and snaps them to it.","He tucks the maintenance instructions into the helmet, followed by the folded earflaps.","This thermoplastic fire helmet is now complete, but there's still one last bit of official business.","The worker screws the large leather i.d. shield to the support plate.","The shield bears the name of the fire department and a symbol that denotes rank.","This fire helmet is now ready for duty.","It will be one of the first things the firefighter reaches for when he or she gets an emergency call.","Contemporary artists are challenging our perception of basketry.","Focusing on form rather than function, artisans are weaving grasses and other fibers into sculptural art.","These basketry sculptures usually aren't meant to contain anything.","Instead, they're meant to capture and hold our attention.","Is it art, or is it a basket?","A basketry sculpture is both.","It celebrates the tradition of the craft while elevating basketry to an art form.","Materials for a basketry sculpture can include a mix of thing, from natural fibers, to metallic pieces, wire, and beads.","Soaking fibers like palm-tree strands in hot water will soften them and make the fibers flexible enough for weaving, but they won't lose their interesting crinkly texture.","About two hours in, the artist checks the suppleness of the fibers.","They can now be bent without breaking, but they need a bit more softening up.","So she covers the fibers with plastic and leaves them to soak a little longer.","She turns her attention to the sculpture's centerpiece, which will be made of copper.","She draws a design onto the copper's protective plastic liner.","Using metal shears, she cuts out the shape.","The artist peels off the plastic liner that has protected the copper, revealing the glossy, untarnished surface.","She now places the copper above a bag full of small pellets and pounds it using a nylon mallet.","This process gives the copper an aged, hammered texture.","She gives some areas on the other side the same treatment.","The hammering also bowls out the profile of the piece.","Using a marker, the artist draws a line about 1/3 of an inch in from the edge.","She marks dots onto this newly defined border, spacing them evenly apart.","She then punches holes through all the dots, using a lever-operated drill press.","She cuts out the space between the holes, and this process creates separate tabs for each hole.","The artisan now bends back the tabs, following the marked line.","The application of a clear powder coat prevents tarnishing.","After a few hours, the palm strands are now sufficiently softened.","She retrieves the strands from the hot-water soak and sets them aside.","The artist returns to the copper centerpiece and begins to weave, starting with rattan reeds that have also soaked to make them more pliable.","She pulls the reeds through the tabs and intercrosses them so that they fan out in two directions.","She then braids cotton string against the centerpiece.","This creates a neat and sturdy border all the way around.","She clips clothespins to the rattan to hold the braided border in place against the centerpiece.","She then trims the ends of the strings.","Next, the artist weaves rattan reeds parallel to the cotton braid, entwining them with the reeds that extend outward.","She creates one row of these rigid fibers for structure.","She's now ready for the palm strands.","After the soaking, the strands remain soft and pliable for many hours, so she doesn't have to rush the work.","As she continues, she alternates rows of palm and rattan fibers.","The different textures add visual interest to the basketry sculpture.","It will take two months to complete this work.","When the basketry work is done, the artist takes the piece outside and airbrushes them with acrylic paint.","She sometimes relies on a metal template to more evenly define the paint border.","It's the finishing touch to the basketry sculpture, and now it's up to the public to understand the story that the artist has woven.","The earliest tools for roasting coffee beans were pans you would hold over hot coals or an open fire, but, today, coffee roasting is a far more sophisticated process, using large, often fully automated machines with built-in gas burners that heat air to roast the beans.","This coffee roaster is both programmable and manually adjustable by touch panel.","The roast master can tailor the temperature and roasting time to influence flavor, acidity, and other characteristics of coffee.","To shape the roast chamber, workers feed a sheet of stainless steel through a sheet-metal roll.","The roast chamber is the drum in which the beans roast by convection heat.","The next step is to weld the rolled sheet into a cylinder.","Then workers grind and polish the welds until they're flat, smooth, and shiny.","Another worker makes the cooling tray in a similar way, but with a support band welded to the top.","The cooling tray is the drum into which the hot beans drop when they exit the roast chamber.","Stirring arms circulate the beans as a fan draws air through the tray to cool the hot beans.","Certain parts of the roaster are cut from a stainless-steel sheet.","Stainless steel is the ideal material not only because it's stylish, but also because it's durable and corrosion-resistant.","This computer-guided laser cutter is slicing out a safety component called the heat shield, which prevents the roast master from accidentally touching a hot surface.","The heat shield, like many other parts cut from stainless-steel sheets, has to be formed to a very precise shape.","A worker bends angles and curves into the metal with a press brake.","Another component, the trier, lets you draw a sample of beans during roasting.","A craftsman constructs the trier by welding various smaller parts to a piece of stainless-steel tube, then meticulously grinding and polishing the welds until they're smooth.","This high-pressure water-jet cutter also cuts parts from stainless-steel sheets.","This component is one of six flights, which is part of the paddle that lifts and mixes the beans inside the roast chamber so that they roast evenly.","To form the flights to the required shape, a worker curves them one at a time in a press.","Next, the welder places all the paddle components into a specialized fixture, which positions them correctly.","First, he aligns the spokes to the paddle shaft.","Then he welds the parts in place.","He positions the flights, clamps them securely, and welds them on.","The combination of inner and outer flights lifts the beans into the airflow, ensuring the beans roast evenly.","A custom-designed grinding machine hones the flights to produce a small clearance of around 1/10 of an inch between the edge of the paddle and the wall of the roast chamber.","This design ensures the paddle is wide enough to pick up every last coffee bean without touching the wall while rotating.","Once they install the paddle, a worker closes up the roast chamber with a faceplate.","Alignment pins ensure the faceplate is properly positioned.","The paddle shaft protrudes through a bearing in the faceplate.","The assembly team uses a hoist to lift the heavy chamber and position it on top of the coffee roaster's stainless-steel support frame.","They install the heat shield that was cut by the laser cutter and bent to shape in the press brake.","On top, the assembly team mounts the machine's funnel-shaped hopper.","The hopper feeds the unroasted coffee beans to the roast chamber below.","The hopper's lid has a tube, which connects to a vacuum system that draws the coffee beans up through a plastic hose.","On the front of the roasting chamber, an assembler hangs a hinged discharge door that has a viewing window.","He plugs in a sensor that measures the temperature of the beans in the roasting chamber and sends that information to the machine's computer.","More to come after this coffee break.","This coffee-roasting machine has three additional temperature sensors that send data to the computer.","These sensors measure the temperature of the air entering and exiting the roast chamber and the temperature of the clean air exhausting from the machine after the burner incinerates the smoke generated by the roasting process.","Workers continue assembly by installing the cooling tray beneath the discharge door of the roasting chamber.","The cooling tray sits on a support frame, which contains a motor that turns the stirring arms inside the tray.","At the back of the machine, a worker installs the tray's cooling fan and the motor that drives it.","This gauge measures the pressure of the air that mixes with the gas going into the machine's burner.","Next, they install the circulation fan.","The fan is designed to withstand high heat and move air efficiently throughout the coffee roaster.","The bottom end of this stainless-steel tube connects to a vacuum motor.","The top end connects to the tube protruding from the feed hopper's lid.","To fill the roasting chamber, the vacuum motor sucks the raw green coffee beans up into the hopper, which drops the beans into the chamber, where, as they roast, their papery skin, called the chaff, breaks off.","This separating device, known as a cyclone, connects to the circulation fan.","The fan blows hot air returning from the roasting chamber into the cyclone at high velocity.","The air circulates in a downward spiral past the burner at the base of the cyclone, incinerating the smoke.","This also draws the chaff out of the air into a barrel.","Nozzles spray water on the chaff to prevent it from catching fire, which is a common hazard with traditional coffee roasters.","The circulation fan then forces the clean, hot air up and out the top of the cyclone, through this \"s\"-shaped, insulated air duct, back into the roasting chamber.","A technician in the factory's electrical department assembles the machine's control panel.","Among other components, the circuitry runs control systems and the machine's six electric motors, which operate moving parts, such as the bean-drawing vacuum motor, the circulation fan, the cooling-tray fan, the roasting-chamber paddle, and cooling-tray stirring arms.","Workers then install the control panel in a cabinet on the side of the machine.","They connect all the wires.","They mount the machine's computer adjacent to the control-panel cabinet.","Next, a worker assembles the cooling-tray system.","A motor under the tray drives the stirring arms.","The hot roasted coffee beans sit on top of the stainless-steel screen.","The cooling fan pulls ambient air through the beans, down through the openings of the screen, then out an exhaust pipe to the outdoors.","The stirring arms move the beans around so that they cool quickly and evenly, which prevents the beans from continuing to roast.","The factory runs every finished coffee roaster through multiple test roasts.","After heating the roast chamber to a specific temperature, the operator uses the touch screen to release the beans into the chamber.","The hot air travels from the cyclone to the roast chamber, then through a return pipe back to the cyclone, where it's cleaned and sent back to the chamber.","To know when to manually end the roast cycle, the operator views, smells, and listens to the beans.","That's because coffee beans make crackling noises as they expand and shed their chaff.","The machine can also be set to end the roast cycle automatically when the beans reach their target temperature.","A trapdoor opens to draw in ambient air.","This cooler air pushes smoke in the roasting chamber up to the cyclone for incineration.","The computer can automatically open the roast chamber's discharge door, or the operator can do so manually.","As soon as the roasted coffee beans drop into the cooling tray, the stirring arms and cooling fan automatically start up.","If the beans are perfectly roasted, the machine is ready to be shipped to a coffee-roasting business."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Swords","Pontoons","Grandfather Clocks","Fuses"]},"text":["Swords.","Pontoons.","Grandfather clocks.","And fuses.","For thousands of years, wars were won and lost by the sword.","Swords helped shape history.","Today, modern artisans craft historical replicas of these age-old weapons, and they go to the hilt to make sure the details are just right.","This reproduction of a medieval sword hearkens back to the days of knights in shining armor.","The first step to making a sword is to place a piece of high-carbon steel in a fixture.","Computer-guided blades carve out the basic shape of the sword with all the specifications of the original.","Centuries ago, a blacksmith would have done this painstaking job by hand, but this machine is much faster and creates a much more consistent cut.","After about an hour of carving, a nicely tapered sword blank emerges.","The blank is submerged in hot liquid salt-- a critical step that softens the steel to eliminate stresses created by the carving.","Next, the blade is plunged into cool liquid in a process called quenching.","It immediately hardens the edges of the sword, but the center cools more slowly.","This allows the sword to retain flexibility, giving the blade a springy quality.","Using a belt grinder, sword makers fine-tune the blade's shape and hone its edges.","The blade is now incredibly sharp.","To test its strength, they strike a metal barrel with it.","Incredibly, the sword doesn't chip.","Next, wax is pumped into molds to make historically accurate copies of the hilt parts like the pommel-- which is the counterweight at the end of the hilt-- and the guard that separates the blade from the handle.","These wax copies are used to cast the parts in metal.","Then the cast-metal pieces are smoothed and polished.","They smooth away the rough edges on this sword guard and hone its profile.","Grinding the pommel is a challenge, because it has so many curves and angles.","One mistake, and the pommel could end up lopsided, which means it wouldn't be very effective as a counterweight.","With the blade in a padded vise, the guard slides onto the tang, where it's cushioned with a piece of plastic and a metal pipe.","Then a sledgehammer pounds it into position.","Next, the pommel is hammered into place.","And finally, a small piece of steel called a peen block is slipped on.","Heat from a torch softens the peen so it spreads as it's hammered down.","The epoxy gets a quick stir.","Then it's applied to two wooden grips as well as to the handle of the sword.","Then the grips are clamped into place.","Next, black dye is brushed onto a thin piece of leather.","The other side is coated with glue.","This glue-and-dye-drenched leather is then wrapped around the wooden handle.","It's bound with cord to compress the leather wrap while it dries.","Now it's time to brand the blade with the maker's insignia.","Chemicals etch the mark into the steel .","4 of an inch deep.","And now you have a replica that's true to the medieval original-- a piece of art that takes you back in time at swordpoint.","Coming up, putting together the pieces of a pontoon boat.","Party barge, floating bridge, luxury raft-- just some of the many functions of pontoon boats.","While their basic design hasn't changed much over the years, new materials have made pontoons bigger, sleeker, sturdier, and faster.","And what better way to enjoy an afternoon than on the lake.","In the old days, pontoons floated atop 45-gallon steel drums.","Today, they ride on custom-built floating chambers made of special aluminum alloy.","These floating chambers start off as sheets of aluminum.","This rolling machine forms them into tubes, applying pressure equivalent to the weight of 26 elephants.","A worker slides each cylinder onto a track to stabilize it for welding.","A pacing machine regulates the speed of the welding torch so that it connects the tube's edges evenly, producing a solid, watertight seal.","Meanwhile, this rolling machine shapes aluminum sheets into tapered cylinders called nose cones.","By varying the hydraulic pressure, the operator is able to mold the aluminum into the shape of a large cone.","They use a special aluminum alloy to make the chambers shockproof.","Next step, making this pontoon leakproof.","First, the welder clamps the nose cone seams together to prepare for welding.","Because of its unique shape, the nose cone has to be welded completely by hand.","This type of welding, called tig welding, generates temperatures that can reach 9,000 degrees fahrenheit.","The nose cones will sit at the bow of the boat, in front of the other floating chambers.","The waffled component at the end of each chamber is called the baffle.","It adds extra protection against leaks.","This hydraulic press squeezes the sections together for an extra-snug fit.","Chambers are welded together to form floats.","The number of chambers per float varies depending on the pontoon's length.","These risers will hold the pontoon's floor in place.","Each chamber floats on its own, so even with several punctures, the boat would stay afloat.","A worker shoots compressed air into each chamber to check for leaks.","He coats the welds with a soapy solution, which will bubble up in the case of an air leak.","This demonstration shows that if air can get out through this tiny hole, then water can get in through it.","Workers install aluminum cross members to support all the weight that will be added on top.","A pneumatic torque wrench is used to bolt the cross members into the risers with rustproof nuts.","Next, the boat's floor is constructed from sheets of pressure-treated plywood.","Pop rivets anchor it securely to the cross members.","Workers custom-cut and glue down a marine carpet.","It's made of plastic, so even with a lot of water exposure, it still won't rot.","Now for some fade-resistant decals.","Rollers crimp the boat's aluminum side panels to make them stronger.","Corrugated panels don't warp or wobble as much as flat ones.","Using a pop-rivet gun, a worker fastens the panels onto the railing.","This shaping machine curves the railing in all the right places, bending the malleable metal with varying pressure.","Next, workers bring the assembled pieces to the platform.","Screws and bolts secure everything to the boat's floor, including the furniture.","The pontoon's captain will command the craft using this console.","The buttons for the horn, lights, and music sit at the top of the console for easy access.","Extra touches bring some of the comforts of home to this craft.","Wires and control cables connect the captain's console to this 50-horsepower motor.","It's by no means a high-speed engine, but it gives a pontoon boat all the power it needs for a leisurely spin on the lake.","When we return, clocking in at a factory where time is money.","Invented centuries ago, grandfather clocks run on gravity.","When you wind the clock, weights inside are drawn upwards.","Gravity then pulls the weights down gradually, unwinding the cables and turning the hands of the clock.","The proper term for this type of timepiece is a long-case clock.","the nickname \"grandfather clock\" came from a popular song from the 1800s.","This long-established company makes its clock cases out of quality hardwoods, such as maple and oak.","To construct frames for the four sides and door, workers fit dowels into holes, then secure the pieces together with screws and glue.","They lay each frame in this curing machine that uses high-frequency radio waves to generate heat, drying the glue in seconds.","Workers connect the four frames with screws and glue.","They'll later attach the doorframe with hinges.","The next step is to assemble a base-- again, with dowels, glue, and screws.","Once the glue is dry, the assembled frame goes into the base.","Now for some embellishment.","Computer-guided routers carve elegant wood moldings that give this particular model a traditional feel.","Today's grandfather clocks come in styles to suit any decor.","Workers carefully sand every single piece of wood in the clock case.","The surface must be flawlessly smooth for it to absorb color evenly.","The moldings are attached with a combination of glue and nails.","These long pieces of wood become curved, fluted moldings.","They adorn the side of the doorframe.","This model also features a pair of stately columns above and below the flutes.","A worker first positions them with glue, then screws them securely into the frame from behind.","The next step is to stain the wood, hand-rubbing it to bring out the grain.","A coat of lacquer protects the wood and gives it a degree of sheen, from matte to glossy, depending on the model.","After installing the glass and door, it's time to install the clock's components.","Workers start with long, metal bars called chime rods, 8 to 12 of them, depending on the model.","Each chime rod produces a certain different musical note when struck.","Next comes a mechanism called the movement.","It contains timekeeping components that trigger the chime hammers to hit the chime rods on the hour, half-hour, or quarter-hour.","This company uses only top-quality, all-brass movements imported from germany.","The chime hammers are also made of brass, but they have plastic tips, so you only hear the musical note, not the sound of metal striking metal.","These brass pulleys hang from cables connected to the movement.","The pulleys will support the clock's three weights.","After connecting the movement to the clock dial, a worker inserts a decorative detail-- a wood panel to frame the dial.","Then she installs the clock's second hand into the center of a miniature dial.","On the main dial, the hour and the minute hands are attached.","Depending on the model, these aluminum hands are painted either black or gold.","A decorative nut secures them.","Finally, the all-important weights and pendulum.","The weights are brass canisters filled with lead.","Each one weighs almost 9 pounds.","The pendulum sways from side to side at an even pace.","This ensures that the clock keeps accurate time.","It also drives the clock to chime on the hour or fraction of the hour.","All you have to do to keep this clock ticking is wind it up about once a week.","Up next, behind the scenes at a fuse factory.","Invented in the 19th century, fuses are designed to blow whenever there's a power overload.","This stops the flow of electricity and prevents a wiring fire.","We may never see fuses in action, but they're constantly working to protect us wherever electrical current flows.","Choosing the right fuse depends on the amount of current.","To make a high-voltage fuse for use in electrical substations, this machine cuts notches into a long, silver strip, which will serve as the fuse's element.","The notches will help control the way the fuse blows.","Bits of soft metal are melted onto the strip.","These will be the points where the fuse blows.","One end of the silver element is welded to the top of a ceramic core...","And the element is wound around it.","Workers slide the element core into the fuse casing and bend back metal tabs.","Then, using a soldering technique called brazing, they seal everything together.","They take a brass washer and wind ignition wire around it.","They're assembling the striker pin-- the device that indicates a blown fuse and shuts down the power.","The striker pin is fitted to the washer, and with the wire protruding, it's placed into a holding device.","Explosive powder is added to each striker pin.","Then the bottom of the pin is plugged with a rubber stopper.","Next, the striker pin is pressed into a brass capsule.","This will contain the mini-explosion that pushes out the pin when the fuse is blown.","This test run shows how it all happens.","The pin's ignition wire is wrapped around an electrical post.","Workers clamp down the pin and position the pendulum that swings to indicate the amount of force with which the pin fires.","A jolt of power detonates the explosive.","This causes the pin to protrude, signifying a blown fuse.","Now, a metal eyelet slides onto the striker pin's ignition wire, and then a wire coil is attached to it, completing the striker pin's ignition system.","A snare pulls the whole assembly into the fuse.","The end of the coil is tied to the fuse's cap.","And an outer cap is press-fitted over the inner one.","Next, the fuse is filled with sand.","This sand will absorb energy from the element when the fuse blows.","Automated rods tap the fuses to compact the sand inside.","Next, an outer cap is lubricated...","And it's pressed onto the other end of the fuse.","This machine spins grooves onto the cap, pinching it tightly to the fuse casing.","A current is run through each one of these fuses, checking the voltage to confirm that they're in good working order.","Sealant is then pumped around the cap's rims to make them completely airtight.","Finally, the safety information is affixed to the fuse.","And some electrical specifications are stamped onto the caps.","Now these fuses are ready to go with the electrical flow and blow at the first sign of trouble."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Saunas","Wheelchair Lifts","Dioramas"]},"text":["The sauna is a centuries-old finnish tradition.","99% of finns sit in a sauna at least once a week.","Most homes, apartment buildings, and even offices have one.","Don't live in finland but want to enjoy the benefits of a home sauna?","No sweat.","This outdoor sauna is made of premium canadian red cedar, which is aromatic and resistant to mold.","First, they measure the wood with a hydrometer to ensure the humidity level is below 12%.","If the wood is too moist, it will shrink after assembly, leaving gaps between the planks.","Once they've determined that the wood is stable, they put the planks through a molder.","The machine's seven different toolheads smooth the top and bottom surfaces.","The machine also carves tongue and groove edges that will tightly lock one plank to the next.","The assemblers build the barrel-shaped sauna in sections.","For the bottom, they start with a central plank that has a tongue on both sides.","The tongues and grooves fit together to render the joints watertight.","The assemblers continue adding planks until there are eight on each side of the central one.","They construct the sauna's back wall using the same technique.","Once they've joined together the required number of planks, they lay down a circular template and secure it with clamps.","Then they cut around the template with a router.","To further secure the planks to each other, they drill angled holes through adjacent ones...","And drive in screws.","They also screw in three horizontal reinforcement planks.","Using a pattern as a guide, they cut out a window with the router.","They screw window moldings around the opening.","They apply an adhesive-backed rubber insulation strip along the perimeter.","This will prevent heat and water from leaking out between the walls of the sauna.","They mount the front and back walls onto the bottom section.","They add planks to both sides of the bottom section to gradually build up the curved side walls.","The side walls meet at the top on either side of a central plank that's pre-wired with the sauna's l.e.d. ceiling lights.","Workers strap three galvanized-steel cables around the sides...","And pull them to a specific tension.","These cables further bind the planks to each other.","The structural assembly is now complete.","They begin installing the interior components, starting with a thermometer and hydrometer.","Next, they mount a pivoting cover over the fresh-air-vent holes.","This allows users to block outside air or allow it in.","Then they add an hourglass that counts down 15 minutes-- the recommended time to spend in a sauna.","Next comes the electric stove.","It contains volcanic rocks that absorb and store the heat.","You have the option of pouring water onto the hot rocks to create steam.","After installing benches and a water-absorbent rubber floor, they hang the door.","The glass in both the door and rear window is tinted for privacy.","The sauna reaches a temperature of 185 degrees.","The barrel shape of the sauna optimizes the circulation of the heat and steam.","A wheelchair lift is an elevator designed to carry wheelchair users up and down a multistory building.","It can be installed both inside and outside.","A lift makes a building accessible to anyone for whom stairs are a barrier.","A wheelchair lift can be installed in virtually any building or private home.","All that's needed is sufficient vertical space and compliance with local elevator and building codes.","A hydraulic lift moves the passenger cab on a rail system.","The motor and mechanisms are concealed in an attached metal tower.","The structure of the walls surrounding the lift are made of aluminum, which arrive from the supplier in long pieces.","Workers here at the factory cut them to the required length.","They shape the corners and cut the slots required for assembly.","To make each section of the wall, they join four pieces to construct a frame.","Once the frames for all the wall sections are ready, workers assemble them to make sure the pieces fit together correctly.","They make any necessary adjustments, then take the wall sections apart to insert the panels.","The wall panels are made of aluminum, acrylic, or tempered glass.","Workers first lay down a foam spacer strip to prevent the panel from rattling.","Then they secure the panel to the frame with snap-in aluminum molding.","From here, the wall sections go to the packing department.","Now it's time for the lift's mechanical system.","In between the steel side rails, workers mount three u-shaped supports and a cylinder.","These will hold the hydraulic piston, which expands and retracts to move the passenger cab up and down.","Workers verify the position of the support brackets and secure them in place.","Then they install the piston into the cylinder and onto the three supports.","The piston is locked in place with thick steel brackets.","They install the controller, the wheelchair lift's brain center.","The controller regulates everything, from the passenger cab's movement to the safety sensors and door locks.","Workers install the pump.","It pushes hydraulic fluid into the piston to move the cab.","They take the power cord from both the pump and controller and hook them up to their respective terminals.","Then they connect the hose for the hydraulic fluid.","It runs from pump to the piston via this manifold.","The manifold has a shutoff valve so maintenance technicians can safely disable the wheelchair lift for servicing.","Workers test then connect the landing switches.","The lift installers will use these switches to set the travel distance between stories.","This ensures the passenger cab will stop level with the floor at each landing.","The cab sits on a steel platform called a sling.","A worker now screws the sling's left side to the left skate-- a four-wheel trolley that runs on the lift's left rail.","He does the same with the right side.","The skates connect to this heavy-duty drive chain that turns on a roller at the top of the piston.","For the cab to ascend, the pump pushes hydraulic fluid into the piston.","The piston expands and pushes on the drive chain, moving the skates up the rails.","When you push the \"descend\" button, a valve opens, allowing hydraulic fluid to exit the piston.","Aided by gravity, the cab gradually descends.","They test the operation panel they'll later install in the cab.","They make sure all the buttons work and move the sling up and down correctly.","Workers also test the safety brakes installed in the skates.","If the drive chain ever loses tension, the brakes automatically block the rails to prevent the cab from falling.","Installers assemble the cab on-site and mount it on the sling that will move it from floor to floor.","A diorama is a 3-d scene that offers a glimpse of another place or time.","It is believed to have been invented by a french theatrical designer in 1822.","Despite modern digital technology, the diorama continues to be a great way to create an illusion.","This is an art exhibit created by one diorama artist.","This particular series depicts an apocalyptic scenario.","The images are powerful and authentic.","It all starts with some background research.","The artist and assistant decide on a chinese-takeout-restaurant scene and take pictures for reference.","Back in the studio, the artist checks the scale of components to be featured in the diorama scene, like a fox.","To make the scene look real, the size of the fox must be in proportion to everything else.","She decides that it will work.","But the toy scooter is too small, so she produces a template that's to scale.","Her assistant then pencils an outline of the template onto a piece of rigid foam to make a version of the scooter that's the correct size.","She carves out the shape using a hot wire.","It melts the foam for a cleaner cut than could be achieved with a knife.","The piece of foam now has scooter-like curves, but it's far too chunky.","She whittles it down using a utility knife.","She sands the foam to refine the carving.","A paint job and a set of wheels complete the transformation.","Next, she copies newspaper pages and shrinks them down to the correct scale.","She cuts the borders and gathers them in a pile.","She brushes thinned latex paint on the pages.","This gives them the yellowed appearance of old newspapers.","She crumples and un-crumples the pages for an effect that also makes them look old.","She cuts out images of many chinese-food takeout cartons.","They've been printed onto paperboard and include crease lines for folding.","Folding a carton is a kind of origami-- the japanese art of folding-- and it's a bit more challenging on such a miniature scale, but practice makes perfect.","She applies glue to the folded flaps and presses them together.","Clamps hold the seams in place until the glue dries.","To create a post-apocalyptic atmosphere, they'll scatter leaves throughout the diorama.","The assistant now selects leaves that have been pressed for about a week and can still be handled without breaking.","She punches out mini leaf shapes with a handy crafting tool and accumulates piles in various colors.","Because it's punched from actual leaves, the miniature foliage looks very authentic.","Next, she works a lump of polymer clay until it's soft and narrow.","She inserts the clay into an extruder and presses it through perforations at the end.","This creates strands of clay that look like tiny lo mein noodles.","She arranges the clay on a tiny paper plate.","She then brushes brown paint onto the noodles to imitate sauce.","She rolls green clay into long strands and chops it up to mimic the look of green onions.","These small touches make a difference.","The creation of the diorama continues after this break.","A diorama is an art form that is all about thinking inside the box.","An artist builds a 3-d scene within a boxy structure.","It has one side open for viewing.","The scene can be true to life or inspired by a place or event, and sometimes, a diorama can change the way we look at the world.","The clay mini meals are now complete, and the artist uses them to create a fake menu sign.","She snaps pictures of each of the chinese-food selections.","The choices include sesame chicken...","Fried and steamed dumplings, and a new york favorite, chicken wings with fries.","Printed onto translucent plastic, the clay imitations look quite mouthwatering.","She brushes thinned white paint onto the photographs to create a cloudy residue...","And adds streaks of thinned brown paint to the menu sign to mimic dust particles.","Now she builds the diorama walls using foam sheets.","She glues mirrored plastic panels to one wall.","The reflections will make this diorama seem more spacious.","She hot-glues a sign to the mirror.","It outlines the correct procedure in a choking emergency.","She tapes the corners with little strips of masking tape.","She then rubs ground-up volcanic ash onto the mirror.","The ash clings to the surface and emulates grease buildup.","It will also make the mirror's reflections hazy.","After careful measuring, she cuts out a door from polystyrene and spray-paints it silver.","She assembles the door to the back wall, but first installs lighting above the doorway and tests it.","With the lights installed, she glues the translucent menu sign to the framework.","Switched on, these backlights illuminate the menu choices.","The artist and her assistant attach the walls of the diorama to a tile-patterned foam floor.","They tape the walls together from the back.","They scatter grass and dirt throughout the scene.","This represents nature taking over after an apocalypse.","An overturned trash can and yellowed newspapers on the floor imply the sudden departure of humans.","They decide the scene needs more grass and dirt, so they distribute more across the floor.","They now place the motorbike into the scene.","Empty takeout containers and a plastic fox in the open doorway add to the illusion of an urban landscape returning to nature.","They add the third wall and the ceiling with its fluorescent lighting.","The scene has been set, and now the artist focuses an 8x10 film camera on it.","This large-format camera will produce a high-resolution image.","She adjusts the lighting and, when satisfied, takes three shots.","This is a carefully crafted scene viewed through the camera's eye.","The team has even built and shot a diorama of their studio.","Ordinary spaces become extraordinary when recreated in a diorama and photographed.","Many scenes, when printed large, appear true to life."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Channel Signs","Wetsuits","Aluminum Aircraft"]},"text":["A channel sign is made of individual letters that are fixed to a building or backdrop.","The letters have internal channels that house either neon or led lights.","At night, the channel letters light up and make a bold statement.","Channel letters are three-dimensional and really stand out from the rest.","The illuminated signs grab people's attention and convert them into potential customers.","Channel letters are made from acrylic.","The factory uses colored vinyl to tint them.","An employee peels the liner from the vinyl, exposing the adhesive backing.","He uses a roller to apply the vinyl to one side of the clear acrylic.","The other side of the acrylic sheet is covered with a paper liner.","A computerized router cuts the letters out on that side.","The font style and size are custom-made for the client.","After the letters are cut out, they remove the paper backing.","The employees use nails to hold the letters in place as they work.","The worker unrolls plastic trim cap and cuts it to fit around the letter.","He lines the letter with trim and hammers in more nails, to keep everything in place.","He makes cuts to the trim to form neat corners.","The trim cap gives the letter a finished look.","It also creates a surface for attaching the back letter enclosure, called the letter can.","He seals the trim around the entire length with high-strength glue.","Once it dries, he removes the nails.","Now, it's ready for the letter can.","To make the sides of the letter can, they feed a wide strip of aluminum into a computerized machine.","It bends the aluminum to match the face of the letter.","It also forms a lip at the bottom, to attach the can to the back wall.","The side of each channel letter is called the return.","It attaches the letter face to the back wall.","The return also creates the channel which holds the lighting and directs the illumination.","These are the dies that cut and shape the aluminum.","Using a computerized machine, it takes the worker a few minutes to create the channel letter return.","It would take four times longer to make the letter return by hand.","Here is a completed channel letter return with the ends welded together.","An employee slides the side structure over the back wall to form the letter can.","He checks the fit, then clinches the back to the return.","This completes the channel letter can.","They run led lights throughout the can.","In recent years, led lights have replaced neon tubes because they are more energy-efficient.","An employee paints the aluminum can to match the vinyl on the letter's acrylic front.","They test the lights.","If they work, the technicians mount the letter can to the sign backdrop.","The installer attaches the translucent acrylic face to the can.","It takes about an hour to make one channel letter and a couple of days to make an entire channel sign.","The final product is sure to be noticed.","The wetsuit was invented in the mid-20th century.","However, it wasn't an immediate hit.","Made of a synthetic rubber called neoprene, the early wetsuits were hard to put on and irritated the skin.","But recent neoprene improvements have made the wetsuit a popular choice for protection against the elements.","When the surf is up, but the water temperature is down, a neoprene wetsuit is a practical swimwear choice.","Even when wet, it keeps the body warm.","Wetsuits fit like a second skin, so many surfers and divers have theirs custom-made.","The tailor measures the client from the neck to the ankles.","The suit allows a small amount of water to seep between it and the skin.","Body heat warms the water, insulating the swimmer.","Using the measurements, a team cuts out cardboard patterns.","Then, a worker uses the patters to cut the neoprene pieces.","They use neoprene because its cellular structure is a good insulator.","The number of pieces in each suit varies, according to the style and size.","Each suit has at least 15 pieces and can have as much as 30.","Fabric for the wetsuits comes in a variety of colors.","Some fabric will be used for accent panels, while others create the structural elements.","The pieces fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.","A worker heats one of the panels with a hot press.","This slightly expands the neoprene.","He places a decal of the company logo on the panel.","He lowers the press again to fuse the logo to the panel.","As the neoprene cools, it shrinks to its original size, making the lettering less likely to crack.","Next, a worker applies waterproof rubberized glue to the edges of the neoprene panels.","This is one of the most important parts of the wetsuit's construction.","Too little glue could affect both the adhesion of the panels and the waterproofing of the seams.","But if he applies too much glue, it could bleed into the colored panels.","He pushes the glued panels together at the seams.","The panels adhere instantly, and the wetsuit comes together quickly.","It takes him about 45 minutes to put a wetsuit together.","He inserts paper in the bottom half of the wetsuit.","This prevents the front of the suit from sticking to the back as he joins the top assembly to the bottom.","He lets the glue dry for a few minutes.","Then, a seamstress turns the suit inside out and stitches the seams.","She uses a curved needle, so it doesn't go all the way through the fabric.","This is called blind stitching.","It doesn't puncture the fabric.","It also creates flat seams.","Using a hot roller, she applies nylon tape to the back of the seams for extra waterproofing.","A nozzle blows hot air to melt the adhesive onto the fabric.","She sews a plastic zipper onto the back of the wetsuit and attaches a hook-and-loop stopper, to prevent unzipping.","Another team member brushes rubberized glue around the zipper.","He presses the edges of a neoprene panel to the glued area, creating a waterproof barrier around the zipper.","He trims the end of the panel.","This custom neoprene wetsuit is complete.","From start to finish, the process takes 5 to 6 hours.","He tests the zipper and closely scrutinizes the workmanship.","After passing an initial inspection, this wetsuit is ready for a fitting.","A good fit is crucial to its performance.","If the wetsuit doesn't fit properly, cold water will pass through it and the suit will fail to keep the surfer warm.","It meets expectations, so she's ready to test the water with this custom neoprene wetsuit.","Airplanes need to be durable, to withstand the wear and tear of frequent flying and the dangers of landing on rugged airstrips.","Most small airplanes are made with aluminum because it's both sturdy and lightweight.","Some aluminum aircraft are twin engines, meaning they have a propeller on each wing.","Single-engine models, like this one, have one propeller, typically on the nose.","This airplane also has a pressurized cabin, so it can reach an altitude of about 30,000 feet.","It also has a deicing system for the wings, tail, and propeller blades, so it can fly safely in cold, wet conditions.","The aluminum is delivered to the factory in long rolls.","They unwind each roll and feed the aluminum through a series of heavy rollers, to press out the curl.","A blade at the end of the machine automatically slices the flat aluminum into smaller pieces.","The thickness of the aluminum varies, depending on the part they're making.","They use a 3-millimeter sheet of aluminum to make the cockpit instrument panel.","A computer-guided mill cuts the profile, drills screw holes for installation, and cuts all the openings for the instrumentation.","The sheet goes from this to this.","A computer-guided router cuts out most of the wing components.","Workers feed it between machine rollers that slowly bend it to a specific angle.","Once the bend is complete, they use templates to check both sides and make sure it meets specifications.","During production, residue from the factory machines contaminate the aluminum pieces, so, once all the parts are created, they are thoroughly cleaned.","The machine washes them in soapy water twice and then rinses them off.","Once the parts are clean, the machine submerges them in an acid bath.","This preps the surface for a coat of protective primer.","Once it's primed, workers clean the surface with solvent.","Then, they lay the part on a sheet of epoxy adhesive and cut along the perimeter, to create an adhesive backing.","Later, they'll activate the adhesive with heat and pressure.","Once all the parts have their custom-cut adhesive, workers assemble them on a bonding fixture.","Metal clamps hold the parts in position.","This assembly is the internal structure of the wing's leading edge.","The long pieces are called stringers.","They're clamped to oval access panels that enable maintenance technicians to get inside the wing.","Next, workers position and clamp the skin of the leading edge on top of the internal wing structure.","They heat the entire assembly in an oven for 2 hours at 275° fahrenheit.","This activates the adhesive and bonds all the assembled parts together.","Meanwhile, another team assembles the aluminum frame of the airplane's fuselage section.","They load the parts onto an assembly fixture and rivet them together.","When we return, they'll apply an aluminum cover to the frame.","The aluminum skin of an airplane consists of numerous panels, so the body is easier to repair.","Technicians simply remove the damaged panel, instead of replacing the entire section.","Workers start by applying an airtight sealant to close any gaps between the skin and the frame.","The fuselage must be sealed, so the cabin can be pressurized.","A pressurized cabin allows passengers to breathe comfortably at higher altitudes.","Once the sealing is complete, they attach the corresponding aluminum skin panel.","It has already been primed for paint.","They apply cleko fasteners, to properly align the panel until it's riveted to the frame.","Then, they select the rivets.","They'll need rivets of various sizes and strengths for the different parts of the plane.","They begin riveting the holes that don't have cleko fasteners in them.","Then, they remove the clekos and rivet those holes as well.","The fuselage is built in six sections.","The front section houses the engine compartment.","All the sections have attachment panels that fit in between the frame and skin of the adjacent part.","Workers rivet the sections together.","Once the back sections are installed, they rivet the completed fuselage to the main spar that connects the wings.","They install the retractable landing gear, the tail-section rudder, and stabilizers.","They also install the moving flaps and ailerons.","Workers weld together steel tubes to create the engine mount.","The mount will be installed in the engine compartment in the front of the fuselage.","This section also houses the nose landing gear.","They prime and paint the steel engine mount, to prevent corrosion.","This plane has a 500-horsepower turbine engine.","Workers bolt it to the engine mount.","Then, they bolt the engine mount to the airplane's engine compartment.","The engine rotates a shaft which spins the propeller.","Meanwhile, all the airplane's electrical wiring is mapped out on an assembly board.","Each wire has a number.","The wires are arranged in a specific configuration.","Then, workers group the wires by their location in the airplane and tie them in a wiring harness.","These wires are for the back of the instrument panel.","The circuit breakers are located on either side of the flight display panel.","With the push of a button, the pilot can customize the information displayed on the center screen.","Technicians thoroughly test all the electronic functions, as well as the autopilot system.","One pilot can operate this plane, but it comes with an extra yoke, to accommodate a copilot.","Workers install the interior and the windows.","Then, mechanics verify the flight control surfaces, the moving parts on the wings and tail that change altitude or direction.","Here, they're checking the ailerons.","A mechanic in the cockpit turns the yoke while another uses a rigging board to measure how the aileron responds.","If the angle's off, he makes an adjustment.","They check the landing gear, to make sure it drops down from the wing and engine compartment.","Then, they mask the windows and apply a second coat of primer, for extra protection against corrosion.","When the primer dries, they paint the plane to the customer's specifications.","Then, they paint the plane's registration number on both sides, as required by law.","The airplane's deicing system heats the propeller blades to melt ice buildup.","It also uses inflatable rubber bladders attached to the wing and tail.","The pilot throws a switch to inflate the bladders and break any ice, ensuring a smooth, safe ride, even in poor weather conditions."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Countertop Laminate","Frozen Treats","Children's Building Blocks","Detergents"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Laminate...","Frozen treats...","Children's building blocks...","And detergents.","Laminate is a thin, decorative surface layer that's usually glued onto a particleboard base to create a countertop.","Laminate is, by far, the most affordable countertop material on the market.","It comes in an endless choice of colors and patterns, from solids to simulated wood or granite.","They also use laminate for kitchen cabinets, furniture, and laboratory surfaces.","And they manufacture fast-food restaurant seating, among other things, out of a thicker, solid form of the material called compact laminate.","The back of a laminate sheet is made of a type of kraft paper that can be saturated without becoming soggy and tearing.","A treater drenches it with resin containing phenol, a compound derived from benzene.","The resin doesn't just coat the paper.","It absorbs right through.","The paper then enters a drying oven.","The hot air cures the resin in a matter of seconds.","Now they can wind the paper into a roll.","The top of the laminate is called the decorative layer.","It's a sheet of paper in either a printed design or a solid color.","Solid-color papers go through a treater that impregnates them with the more durable melamine resin.","Durability is essential because the decorative layer must withstand wear and tear.","Two big rollers ring out the excess resin.","Then the saturated paper goes through a drying oven.","With the resin now cured, a cutter slices the paper into sheets.","Before resin treatment, the paper was flexible and easy to tear.","Now it's stiff and brittle.","Bend it, and it snaps like a potato chip.","While the rolls of saturated kraft paper get cut into sheets, workers prepare the other style of decorative layers-- those with printed design, such as simulated wood grains and granite.","The treatment process for these papers is quite different than that for the solid-color papers.","Workers start by cutting them into sheets the same length as the kraft-paper sheets.","These papers don't go into a treater to be saturated with resin.","Instead workers stack them, placing an overlay on each one.","An overlay is a transparent sheet of paper that's saturated with melanin resin.","Workers stack the solid-color sheets in the same pile, but those don't need overlays because they've already been resin-saturated.","Now the stack goes to the press room.","There, workers put saturated kraft paper under each decorative layer.","On top of each decorative layer, they lay a textured plate.","This will prevent the finished laminate from sticking together.","Everything now goes into a press.","The intense heat and pressure compress the layers.","The overlays bond to the printed papers, and the saturated kraft paper bonds to each decorative layer, creating laminate sheets.","The textured plates between each set imprint their pattern onto the heat-softened resin, texturing the laminate surface.","The laminates come out of the press fully cured.","On the finishing line, machines trim off any excess paper on the edges and sand the back of the sheets.","This helps the laminate adhere better when glued to particleboard or another type of substrate.","To produce compact laminates, workers compile a thick stack of black saturated kraft papers and sandwich it between two decorative layers.","The press melts and bonds all the sheets into a solid unit.","Alternating colors produce a striped edge.","Compact laminates are so thick, they're entirely self-supporting.","Unlike laminate sheets, they don't need to be applied to a substrate.","On a sweltering summer day, a frozen treat sure hits the spot.","Eating a fruit bar, fudge bar, or ice-cream bar, though, requires a certain strategy.","You have to hold the treat by the stick, lean slightly forward to dodge the drips, then lick like crazy before it melts and lands at your feet.","The outer shell of these cream pops starts with a transparent base made of water, liquid sugar, corn syrup, citric acid, and a stabilizer.","It travels to three separate compartment vats, each of which mixes in a different coloring and flavoring.","This company produces three flavors of cream pops-- strawberry, orange, and blue raspberry.","Each compartment vat pumps its flavor to a machine called the filling hopper.","The hopper injects the liquid into row upon row of half-ounce pop-shaped molds.","This production line has 340 molds in continuous motion.","The molds descend into a tank of brine, water chilled to negative 30 degrees fahrenheit mixed with calcium.","Calcium works like antifreeze, keeping the water liquid despite the below-freezing temperature.","As the molds travel through the ice-cold brine, the liquid freezes from the outside inward, creating a shell that will encase the pops' ice-cream filling.","Once the shell is 1/10 of an inch thick, a machine called a suction evacuator removes the unfrozen liquid and feeds it back to the filling hopper, to be re-injected at the start of the line.","The shells are empty now and ready for filling.","The ice-cream filling is made of various milk products blended with liquid cane sugar, corn syrup, stabilizers, and emulsifiers to puff up the consistency.","The factory pasteurizes the mixture, heating it for 35 seconds at 180 degrees fahrenheit, then freezing it.","It homogenizes the filling, skimming off the milk fat that rises to the surface.","The shells are still floating in brine as they reach the filling station.","The machine shoots in the ice cream, overfilling the shell a bit to create a cap 4/10 of an inch wide.","The ice cream begins to harden in the cold brine.","Once it reaches a semi-frozen state, a machine appropriately called the stick inserter pops a wooden stick in each mold.","Now the molds leave the brine and enter a tank of warm water-- 75 degrees fahrenheit, hot enough to detach the cream pops from the mold without melting them in the process.","From initial injection to final extraction, it's been seven minutes.","The machine dips the cream pops in cold water to produce a protective coating of ice.","This will keep the surface from sticking to the wrapper.","It will also lengthen the product's shelf life.","The machine deposits the cream pops into a continuous stream of paper wrapping.","Heating elements seal the wrapper on top and between pops, then a slicer cuts them apart.","The empty molds go through an automatic wash-and-rinse cycle on their way back to the start of the line.","These molds are for making chocolate-fudge bars.","The production process is the same, except that the shell is fudge-flavored, made from milk solids and chocolate powder.","And instead of ice cream in the center, there's chewy chocolate syrup.","The factory stamps the packaging for all its frozen treats with the production date and other information.","These frozen treats have a one-year shelf life in the freezer, provided you maintain the temperature at an ideal negative 13 degrees fahrenheit.","Few toys are as timeless as interlocking building blocks.","Children can stick them together, pull them apart, and rearrange them endlessly.","From large-sized blocks for babies to intricate kits for older kids, building blocks stimulate creativity and improve manual dexterity.","This company makes plastic building blocks.","Depending on the type of block, it uses either polypropylene, high-density polyethylene, or high-impact polystyrene.","These plastics arrive at the factory in pellets.","Because they're naturally transparent, the first step is to color them.","The pellets go into a mixer along with pigment beads made of powdered pigment and a type of plastic that's compatible with the pellets.","The pigment beads make up just 2% of the weight, but that's enough to color the plastic a deep hue.","The mixer feeds a plastic injection machine.","It heats the pellets to 400 degrees fahrenheit, melting them in a matter of seconds.","The machine then injects the molten plastic into molds.","A system of hoses cools the molds with cold water, instantly hardening the plastic.","When the machine opens, ejectors thrust the blocks to a conveyor belt below.","For these blocks, the entire cycle, from start to finish, takes just 14 seconds.","The length of the cycle varies with the size of the block.","This large school bus, for example, requires more plastic, so injection molding takes 22 seconds.","The wheels for the bus take 20 seconds.","At packaging time, each type of block is loaded into a separate vibrating bowl.","The shaking separates the pieces, enabling them to pass by an optical counter one by one.","This automated counting equipment can tally up to 16 different types of blocks at a time.","It can be programmed to assemble a kit consisting of specific quantities of certain blocks.","Once each kit is counted, it drops into a bucket.","The factory also makes the buckets by plastic injection molding.","And it even incorporates the labeling right into that process.","Here's how it all works.","A robot takes two labels, one for the front of the bucket and one for the back.","It passes a static generator that charges them with static electricity.","Then it loads the two labels into the mold.","The static cling holds them in a flat position while the machine injects the plastic and molds the bucket.","The hot plastic melts the labels on contact, bonding them into the finished bucket.","The result-- labels that can't be peeled off.","The factory produces large blocks from polypropylene or high-density polyethylene, which are flexible plastics.","This makes the blocks easier for young children to use.","Small blocks are made of high-impact polystyrene, a plastic that can be molded with great precision into tight-fitting blocks designed for older children.","Just walk down the aisle of your local supermarket, and you'll see shelf upon shelves of soaps and detergents.","With so many versions of each product to choose from, from extra-strength to antibacterial to lemon-fresh scent, consumers aren't the only ones cleaning up.","The craft of soapmaking began in europe around 700 a.d., but soap remained a luxury item for another thousand years.","That's when a french scientist discovered how to make inexpensive lye using table salt.","People also made soap at home, by boiling wood ashes with animal fats.","By the 1900s, the growing soap industry found ways to make mild and fragranced products.","And in 1916, a german scientist invented the first synthetic detergent.","This company produces mostly industrial-use detergents, liquid and powdered.","It uses salt as filler in the powdered ones.","Fillers add volume, making a product less concentrated.","This will be a powdered detergent for cleaning and degreasing cement floors.","They add colorant, then surfactant, a substance that creates foam, the vehicle for lifting away dirt.","Now they pour in pine oil, a disinfecting agent that also adds fragrance.","Now the cleaning agent--  sodium tripolyphosphate.","It's essential to mix all the ingredients thoroughly.","This ensures the chemicals are evenly distributed throughout the cleaner.","The last ingredient is a chemical called sodium metasilicate.","It boosts the mixture's alkaline level.","This particular cleaner needs high alkalinity to be effective.","The factory packages its powdered cleaners, such as this laundry soap, in large plastic buckets.","Automated equipment weighs, then pours in the appropriate amount, capping the container tightly to prevent leaks.","The filler in liquid cleaning products is water.","To produce liquid hand soap, they first add citric acid.","This creates the mild acidity needed to get the most out of the surfactants.","This soap contains three different types of surfactants.","It's a specific formulation designed by the company chemist to optimize the soap's cleaning power.","To give the soap a pearl luster, the company uses this secret recipe of chemicals.","The factory makes most of its liquid soap from this same base mixture.","The colors and fragrances vary.","For coloring, it uses powdered pigments.","It dissolves them in hot water, then pours them in.","This batch of soap will be pink.","They pour in a rose-scented fragrance...","Then add a preservative to prevent the proliferation of bacteria should the soap be exposed to a substandard environment.","Finally, they adjust the viscosity by adding a powdered thickener.","If liquid soap is runny, it'll leak out of the dispenser.","After 15 minutes of mixing, the soap is ready.","And the lab analyzes a sample, assessing its physical and chemical properties.","When the batch gets the \"okay,\" it proceeds to the packaging machine.","This soap is going into dispenser bags made of plastic film.","The machine first inserts a valve.","It heat-seals the film, forming the bottom of the bag.","Then it injects 27 ounces of soap.","Next, it simultaneously heat-seals the top of the bag and the bottom of the next one.","It cuts them apart, releasing the finished bag to a conveyor belt below.","After checking for leaks, workers insert a spout that controls output from the valve.","This ensures the dispenser will release a measured amount of soap per push.","Elsewhere in the factory, an automated machine called the pressure filler pumps dishwashing liquid into plastic bottles.","An overflow and weight-control device ensures the right fill level.","The next machine applies a twist cap with pull-out spout.","Then it's off to labeling.","Those bags of liquid hand soap went into special boxes that are designed to slip right into the soap dispenser."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Needles & Pins","Architectural Mouldings","Locomotives","Clothespins"]},"text":["Throughout history, sewing needles have kept things from falling apart at the seams.","From primitive times, when needles were made of bone, to today's thin steel versions, sewing needles have played an important role in our lives.","For many years, this simple tool made it possible to clothe an entire family.","Today, when most clothing is factory-made, a sewing kit remains a household essential.","When things start to unravel, a needle and thread offer a quick fix.","Sewing needles begin with thin steel wire.","Machinery uncoils two spools simultaneously and pulls the wires across guide wheels and into narrow passageways to remove kinks and straighten the wires.","And then cutters slice them to the length of two needles.","The wires exit into shaking chutes and fall into bins in neat piles.","Each one will be used to make two needles.","This grinding wheel turns, and, at the same time, an overhead wheel revolves in a different direction, to bear down on the ends of the wires and grind them to a point.","Sparks fly from the friction.","It takes up to six grindings to make the tips sharp enough.","Then the wires head down the line to a series of stamping machines.","The first one flattens each wire at midpoint to form two needle heads.","The next stamping device punch-cuts two eyes, one in each head.","The third machine cuts the wire in two and trims excess material from around the needle heads.","The needles fall into a bin.","In three quick steps, this steel wire has been transformed into two sewing needles.","Next they toughen the metal by first baking the needles in an oven and then quickly bringing down their temperature.","The temperature shock hardens the needles.","They cover the needles with glycerin oil and a polishing powder.","They wrap them in a bundle of plastic and cloth and stitch it up.","They roll a layer of leather around the bundle of needles.","The package then goes into a special rolling mill.","It spins in this machine for two days.","Inside, the needles agitate with the polishing ingredients, and they emerge looking much smoother.","Then it's into a washing machine for a scrub with soap and water.","This removes the polishing residue to prepare them for electroplating.","Electroplating gives the needles an outer skin of corrosion-resistant nickel.","The needles now move forward into a sorting system that ensures the needles are pointing in one direction.","An inspector examines the needles for flaws and sorts out the defective ones.","They dip the eyes of some needles in a gold bath and apply an electrical charge so the gold gravitates to the nickel and adheres.","A little gold around the eyes makes them stand out, so these needles should be easier to thread.","Meanwhile, the production of pins is well underway.","Gas jets melt glass into tiny dollops, which stick on to the tops of the pins as they roll by.","The glass hardens in seconds, going from transparent to opaque.","These glass-headed pins are now ready for hemming and other sewing jobs.","The pins fall between two revolving cylinders.","The space between the cylinders gradually narrows.","This sorts the pins by size as they drop into various bins below.","Now all that's left is the packaging.","The packaging line is entirely automated.","Robots drop sewing needles into grooves in plastic packages, and the packages move forward.","The timing is flawless.","Finally, a transparent cover showcases this product's many selling points.","Exterior moldings can transform an ordinary structure into something grand.","The ancient greeks were the first to demonstrate this, with elaborate carved moldings on temples.","Today there's no need to spend long hours carving moldings.","Fabricated synthetic versions are now available to give a structure instant curb appeal.","Architectural foam moldings trick the eye.","They look like stone or wood, and it's all a carefully crafted illusion to impress the neighbors or passersby.","They start with a big block of foam.","It's expanded polystyrene, or e.p.s. they activate a hot-wire foam cutter.","Controlled by computer software, it melts its way through the thick foam block to make very precise and intricate cuts.","This computerized hot wire is cutting out pieces of architectural trim for windows or doors.","It carves in an economical way to minimize waste.","Its work done, the hot wire rises, leaving a trail of smoke from the burning process.","A worker then pushes out the moldings.","Each piece of architectural trim is 8 feet in length.","The hot wire now carves an elaborate fluted column, one half at a time.","This is a roman-style column.","Once carved in stone, it's now being replicated in foam.","And this old-world look can now be achieved with minimal physical effort.","To make an arch, they use a hot-wire shape instead of a computerized straight wire.","They position it in front of a curved piece of foam.","Rubber drive wheels push the foam through the hot wire.","These wheels have been preset to accurately steer the cut.","The result is an arch that will be a perfect match for the linear trim produced earlier, so they'll fit together seamlessly.","They use a carved foam wedge to emulate the keystone, a piece used in stone arches to lock parts together at midpoint.","A worker now wraps the cut foam moldings in fiberglass mesh.","Pre-infused with glue, the mesh instantly adheres to the foam.","This mesh adds strength to the molding, and it also makes it crack-resistant.","Next, cement flows into a hopper and onto the moldings below.","The moldings are driven through a template with the same contours, to apply the cement evenly on the surface and the sides.","This is no ordinary cement.","It's a pre-engineered mix, fortified with a special resin to create a durable coating for the mesh-covered moldings.","A worker then transfers the moldings to a rack to cure for a minimum of 24 hours before getting another coating of cement, this one with a much finer texture.","It's much trickier to apply cement to an arch-shaped piece of molding, so they take a more hands-on approach.","The employee scoops the cement onto the meshed-foam semicircle.","He then moves the custom-made template over the molding, instead of pushing the molding through it.","It's a better way to evenly distribute the cement on a curved surface.","After carving, meshing, and two layers of cement, this arch is now ready.","For smaller orders, they also apply the cement manually.","There's no need for a machine setup when there are only one or two columns to be coated.","Guided by a track on the side of a table, the worker slowly draws the template down the roman-style column to apply the cement to the foam and make it look like stone.","The second layer gets extra attention.","He rubs the cement into the grooves for complete coverage and then pulls the template across once again, this time lightly skimming the surface to produce a finer texture.","And now these moldings are ready to add detail and definition to a structure.","A locomotive is the powerful vehicle at the front of a train that pulls the cars along the track.","Sometimes there's a second one pushing from behind, as well.","Passenger-train locomotives are smaller and designed primarily for speed.","Freight locomotives pulling railcars are significantly larger and stronger.","Heavy hauls are mammoth freight locomotives designed for north america, where tracks are wider and stronger than in most other parts of the world.","Those smaller yellow locomotives are for the european market.","The larger gray ones to the right are heavy hauls.","Workers weld together massive pieces of steel to construct the locomotive's structural underframe.","At each end, they insert a giant steel pin through a hole in the underframe's floor.","For now, they weld the pins partially to tack them in position.","Next, lifting and maneuvering it with giant trunnions, they flip the underframe so that the protruding side of the pins is facing upward.","Then a crane system transfers the underframe to another area to complete the welding.","The pins require exceptional bonding because they connect the underframe to the wheel frames.","An automated welder circles each pin repeatedly, progressively building up an inch-thick weld.","They make the same size weld on the other side of the pin.","All the welded steel parts are exceptionally thick, rendering the underframe strong enough to pull 500 tons.","Next, they install the air reservoir and pipes for the pneumatic brake system and a 5,300-gallon fuel tank.","Then they assemble the locomotive's six traction motors.","Each one generates 750 horsepower-- 3 times more than a typical car-- giving the locomotive 4,500-horsepower strength.","To build each traction motor, they bolt coils of wound copper into a cylinder called a stator.","Then they lower another cylinder, called an armature, into the stator.","Powered by an alternator, the coils produce an electric field that rotates the armature, turning components which propel the locomotive.","Workers lubricate the wheels then, using a strong press, fit two on each of the vehicle's six axles.","Each wheel is a yard in diameter and weighs about a half a ton.","The axle has a large gear that turns both wheels.","This finished unit is called a wheel-axle-gear assembly-- \"w.a.g.\" for short.","Workers install a w.a.g. onto each of the six traction motors.","The w.a.g.'s gear engages with the traction motor's gear, so when the motor runs, that gear turns, which then rotates the w.a.g. gear, which turns the wheels.","So now there are six w.a.g. and traction motor combinations.","Workers divide them into two groups of three then bolt each trio into a frame called a bogie.","So, now the locomotive has two bogies, each with an air-driven brake system built into it.","Until this point, the bogies have been upside down.","Now a crane flips them right side up to prepare for the final assembly of the locomotive.","They position the two bogies next to the underframe at opposite ends.","Cranes then lift the underframe and slowly lower it onto the bogies.","The pivot pins protruding from beneath the upper frame drop into receiving holes in the bogies.","Next, they lower a giant alternator onto the deck of the underframe.","It powers the traction motors as well as the control systems and other auxiliary equipment.","This 16-cylinder, 4,500-horsepower engine drives the alternator.","Next, the operator's cab-- it's insulated for sound and sits on a shock-absorber system.","Then the various electrical hookups, including these thick cables.","Each one contains more than 1,000 wires, carrying nearly 10,000 amps.","Now a hood goes over the engine and alternator to protect them from the elements.","From here, the locomotive goes to another department for paint and decals.","The finished locomotive is 75 feet long.","Fueled up, it weighs 225 tons and, depending on the terrain, can haul a train up to 6/10 of a mile long.","The first clothespin was invented in the early 1800s by the shakers.","It was a cylindrical piece of wood with a vertical notch cut into the bottom.","In 1853, an american inventor patented a spring-loaded, two-piece lever clothespin.","That's the type still produced today in both plastic and wood.","This czech company makes clothespins out of beech wood.","Beech is ideal because it's hard and durable.","When the logs arrive at the factory, an automated band saw slices each one laterally into 2.8-inch-thick planks.","Wood is naturally damp, so it's critical to dry the planks.","Otherwise, clothespins made from them would repeatedly expand and contract with temperature changes and eventually crack.","First, the planks air-dry outdoors for about 7 months, until their moisture level drops to 20%.","Then the planks go into a kiln for 3 or 4 weeks to bring the moisture level down to between 8% and 10%.","The wood, now stable, workers cut the planks into shorter, more manageable lengths...","Then into 2 1/2\" x 2 1/2\" blocks.","Next they feed the blocks into a cutting machine.","Its four circular blades simultaneously saw through each block, cutting it into five pieces.","Each piece is 4/10 of an inch thick.","As these thin pieces exit the machine, workers inspect them.","Any pieces with knots or other flaws are removed and sold to a factory that makes mousetraps.","The pieces which pass inspection go into an automated milling machine.","It cuts each piece into four smaller pieces then, in each smaller piece, carves the shape of a clothespin clip on the front and a notch in the back.","So, each thin piece of wood has gone from this...","To this...","To this.","The notch on the back will hold the spring that mates two clips and produces the tension they need to grip.","The next machine saws four lines down each piece, cutting it into five identical clips.","Before...","And after.","All that cutting leaves rough, splintered edges, so workers now load the clips into a sanding barrel.","As the barrel revolves, the clips rub against each other, the abrasion gradually smoothing the rough wood.","Workers also place a piece of wax amid the clips.","As the barrel turns, particles rub off and coat the wood, making it even smoother.","Meanwhile, another automated machine makes the springs out of 5/100\"-thick iron wire.","The wire has has a zinc coating on it to prevent rust.","Watch in slow motion how the machine twists the wire seven times to make the coil portion of the spring then bends the ends to make the part that fits into the notch.","With all the parts ready to go, it's assembly time.","Workers load clips and springs into separate chutes of the assembly machine.","As each spring drops down, a mechanical finger pushes the end aside to clear the way for a pair of clips to encase the coil.","Then it releases the end of the spring into the clip notches.","The machine does all this at a rate of 8,000 clothespins per hour.","The finished clothespins drop onto a conveyor belt that transports them to the next machine, which groups them by the dozen.","From there, it's off to the packaging machine, which is preset to assemble a specific retail format.","This is a 36-count package, so they've set the machine to stack three dozen clothespins.","After placing a paper label on top, the machine shrink-wraps the package.","Clothespins may be rather ordinary products, but their reputation is always on the line."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Bumpers","Lighting Gels and Camera Filters","Steam"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Bumpers...","Lighting gels and camera filters...","Steam-powered models...","And candy canes.","With all the attention we pay to our car's high-tech parts, it's easy to overlook the importance of a vehicle's bumpers.","About 80% of car accidents are front or rear collisions.","The bumper is designed to absorb the force of the impact, minimizing damage in low-speed collisions.","Bumpers can be made of plastic, fiberglass, aluminum, or steel.","This company makes steel bumpers.","They start out as blanks, steel sheets just 8/100 of an inch thick.","These are en route to becoming truck bumpers.","A robot feeds each blank through a series of seven to nine dies, depending on the bumper model.","Each die stamps the blank into a particular shape, using some 2,000 tons of force.","This progressively forms the blank into the final bumper shape.","Both the front and rear bumpers go through the same process, only with different dies.","The bumpers now travel to the next production area, where a worker clamps each one onto a specially designed cart.","At this point, the factory paints certain models.","These bumpers will get chrome plating.","But first they travel through a series of buffing wheels.","The bumper surface must be impeccably smooth because the chrome finish magnifies even the tiniest flaws.","A computer-guided crane stacks the bumpers and maneuvers them through the chrome-plating process.","First it submerges the bumpers in several cleaning tanks to remove any residue left on the surface from previous operations.","The company won't divulge what chemicals it uses to clean the steel because this surface preparation is the secret to first-rate metal plating.","The first plating tank applies a coat of nickel to protect the steel from corrosion.","The next tank applies the chrome layer.","The factory uses the standard electroplating process.","In a water-and-chemical-filled tank, the plating metal particles get a positive charge while a negative charge runs through the bumpers.","This magnetically draws the particles onto the bumpers in an even layer.","After a thorough rinse, the bumpers are inspected.","Workers scrutinize the chrome-mirror finish under high-intensity light.","Meanwhile, this machine pressure injects molten plastic into various molds.","A built-in cooling system hardens the plastic within seconds.","Then out comes the plastic components that attach to the bumpers.","One of those plastic parts is this step pad that covers the top of the rear bumper.","Once the pad's in place, a worker attaches a built-in trailer hitch.","Steel mounting brackets help structurally reinforce the bumper.","The front bumper goes down a different assembly line.","A worker attaches a plastic trim that hangs down just below the bumper.","Its aerodynamic shape helps direct air flow to the engine compartment.","Next, four steel reinforcing brackets that will attach the bumper to the truck's frame.","And, finally, the license-plate holder...","And fog lamps.","Workers tighten all the bolts to a specified tightness.","This ensures that the bumper and its mounting brackets will adequately absorb the force of the collision.","Whenever a new model goes into production, the first few bumpers off the line go through a battery of tests to prove they can withstand stress, vibration, and a certain degree of what engineers call crash energy.","Other types of bumper systems use a combination of springs and energy-absorbing material, such as plastic foam.","With either method, the goal is for the bumper to absorb the impact.","In a low-impact crash, this should ideally confine the damage to the bumper itself, leaving the headlights, the engine, and the driver unscathed.","Up next, some colorful products that set the stage in a whole new light.","Gels and filters can turn a bad scene into a beautiful one.","They're used in theater productions to enhance the mood on stage.","They're also used in film and photography to adjust color temperatures from different light sources.","These lighting gels can make any scene take on a different mood.","They're called gels because they used to be made of gelatin film, but today they are made out of transparent polyester.","The process begins with a mix of solvent, dye, and flame-retardant chemicals.","This produces a colored lacquer.","A worker tests the lacquer's thickness by pouring it into a brass cup with a hole in the bottom.","As the lacquer drains out of the hole, it's timed.","If it flows too quickly, the lacquer is too thin, and if it drains too slowly, it's too thick.","A steady flow means the lacquer mix is the perfect consistency-- about as thick as engine oil.","A sample of every batch undergoes this test because the lacquer's consistency is critical.","If the factory doesn't get it right, it won't bond to the clear polyester.","With the lacquer prepared, workers load the polyester film into the coating machine.","A big roller soaks up lacquer from a tray below and spreads it on the film.","A thin bar on the roller evens the spread and scrapes off the excess.","The lacquer dries in seconds.","Every production run of the same color has to precisely match the last, so inspectors regularly test the lacquer's hue on swatches of clear polyester.","If gel colors are even slightly mismatched, using them together will make for a patchy-looking job.","Differently colored gels create different effects.","This orangey red one will warm up daylight to look more like indoor lighting.","Now, in a test, a gel swatch is held over a flame.","The gel burns but never catches fire-- proving that this batch is ready for the hot lights of a movie set.","Over at another station, they're working on a different sort of color-changer-- a filter that goes on a camera lens.","A special sheet of optical plastic is dipped in hot water and dye.","The hot water opens the plastic's pores, allowing the dye to penetrate.","When the plastic cools, the color will be trapped inside.","The longer the plastic stays in the dye bath, the deeper the color.","Some sheets only get partially dyed.","They'll be turned into filters that affect only half an image's exposure.","Filters made from a range of colors will help the camera's eye do what the human eye does effortlessly-- adjust to different lighting conditions.","The colored sheets are sheathed in thin plastic.","This prevents scratching as they're cut to size.","These camera filters are nearly done.","All that's left is for the ink-jet printer to brand them.","A similar type of printer gives the lighting gels their trademark stamp.","And now it's time to wrap things up.","A cardboard core slides into a machine that winds the finished gel sheets onto it.","Then a pneumatic ram pushes the roll of lighting gel into a plastic bag.","Now these filters and gels are ready to show life in the best light possible.","When we return, making tiny models that are a blast from the past.","When factories build live steam models, they're reconstructing history.","These working steam models take us on a nostalgic journey, and they're fun for hobbyists of all ages.","Add a little water...","Light some fuel for the boiler...","And it's full steam ahead for this mini replica of a 19th-century road locomotive.","Production starts with the boiler.","A hydraulic press repeatedly punches a piece of brass, stretching the brass cap into a cylinder.","It's a process called drawing, and it also strengthens the metal.","A flat piece of brass is transformed into a cylinder in only a few minutes.","Next the ends of the cylinder are trimmed.","Solder paste is brushed onto a brass cap and slotted into a holding device.","Paste goes onto attachments inside the cylindrical boiler.","Then the boiler and cap are press-fitted together.","The cap boilers travel through a furnace, which melts the solder paste, fusing the caps to the cylinder.","Workers polish the brass to give it a nice sheen.","Then they solder copper pipes to the boiler.","These pipes will expel the steam as it powers this little locomotive.","Next up--  trimming the flywheel, which has been precast.","The flywheel will smooth out the engine's firing impulses so that it runs more evenly.","The flywheel is tightly screwed to the crank shaft.","Workers check the sliding action of the piston and its cylinder.","Then they attach the assembly to the engine frame and the crank shaft.","Lubricating the piston assembly enhances its sliding action.","Using compressed air, workers make sure the engine functions and has no leaks.","Once the model passes the test, it gets its front steering mechanism.","This will control the model's front wheels while the back wheels power it forward.","Steam machines are usually rear-wheel drive.","A wire called the drive band transfers the energy from the flywheel to the rear wheel.","The steam model is hooked up to the compressed air tank once again for a final test run.","And it looks like this model is ready for some action.","All it needs is a canopy to provide a little shade.","A ribbed design is punched into a little steel roof.","After it gets a nice paint job, it's attached to the model.","Production on this tiny treasure is now complete.","This model will also take you back in time, but in high style.","It's a luxury touring car.","Workers install the piston cylinder assembly a little lower on this roadster and fire it up.","Each of these mini steam models is a tribute to the original and give us all a glimpse into the colorful history of transportation.","Coming up...","Turning sugar into one of our favorite holiday treats.","In the 17th century, a german choirmaster had some sugar sticks bent into shepherd's crooks as a special treat for his choir.","And that's how the candy cane is believed to have been invented.","But it wasn't until more than a century later that they earned their stripes.","Today candy canes come in all different colors and sizes.","Candymakers start by cooking up a big batch of sugar, water, and corn syrup.","Next, they prepare a mix of starch and flavoring, like peppermint or strawberry.","As they blend together, the flavoring binds to the starch.","The flavoring mix is emptied into the middle of a syrupy slab.","Then the whole thing is fed into a machine that folds the batch repeatedly using shovels and a plunger.","This distributes the flavoring evenly.","Cold water is piped into the shovels and the kneading table to cool the candy-cane mix so it takes on the stiffer consistency that's necessary for the next step.","Now it's over to the automated pullers.","These pullers stretch the mixture around a metal post.","This action aerates the candy, turning it white.","This batch will make 3,200 candy canes, but there's still a lot more work to be done.","The candy is rolled into a fat log, while heaters warm it until its pliable enough to shape.","Next, strips of red-colored candy are rolled out.","A worker stretches and folds it to widen the strip.","Two of the red strips are arranged on either side of the white candy.","It weighs 100 pounds, so it takes two workers to transfer it to the next machine.","It's called a batch roller, and its cylinders roll the candy thinner and thinner, dramatically reducing the log's diameter until it reaches candy-cane dimensions.","A torch moves across the candy to keep it pliable.","Then the sugary batch travels between wheels that slim it down even more.","The rope of candy moves forward in a wave-like fashion.","This gives it some slack so it doesn't stretch as it moves through the next set of wheels.","The candy rope moves through two angled belts that twist it, and a chain of knives cut the twisted rope to candy-cane size.","This production has been perfectly choreographed.","One misstep, and the job would hit a snarl.","Here, a roll of cellophane unwinds, and a device wraps it around the candy sticks.","A blast of hot air shrinks the cellophane on the ends of the canes.","Now it's time for these candy sticks to get their signature crooks.","This machine, called a crooker deck, bends the ends.","An overhead bracket brush gently secures the canes because though they're pliable enough to bend, they're still fragile.","There's a camera inside this robotic arm, which allows it to spot the candy canes on the conveyer belt and pick them up two at a time.","It places them in cardboard packages by the dozen.","It takes about half an hour to make a box of candy canes.","And they're sure to come to a very sticky end in even less time."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Time"]},"text":["Many banks and businesses have time-delay locks on their safes to keep their valuables and documents secure.","This helps deter theft because robbers may not want to wait around for the safe to open.","If they do, the time delay may keep them around long enough for police to make an arrest.","This lock lets you select delays ranging from 1 to 30 minutes.","The timer starts after you insert the key.","Most of the lock's components are made of zinc.","This semi-automated casting machine heats zinc bars to about 800 degrees.","The molten metal is then fed into an injection system, which shoots the zinc into a part-shaped mold.","The machine automatically refills the zinc bars as the metal is used.","As soon as the machine injects molten zinc into the mold, surrounding tubes spray cold water to quickly cool and solidify the metal.","Then the mold opens and ejects the part.","The parts have rough edges, so they go into a vibrating tub.","Inside, they run against ceramic stones and an abrasive compound to smooth the edges and polish the surface.","The parts are cleaned and painted on one side.","Then they go into an oven to bake on the paint.","The lock's main cam sets the time delay and the open window-- the amount of time before the safe automatically relocks.","Here, they're drilling holes for screws, which will regulate the lengths of the time delay and the open window.","Once the lock's components are prepared, assembly begins.","Workers insert the lock cylinder into its shell and remove the key.","Then they screw on a steel cylinder cam.","When you turn the key in the cylinder, a cam winds and starts the timer.","After the set time delay, the cam pulls a lever that releases the lock's latch.","To build the lock's timing assembly, they first attach a spring to the timer plate.","They hold the spring in place with a plastic retainer.","Then they install a brass timer cam.","The spring holds it in the locked position.","A pin on the cylinder cam's lever sits on the timer cam.","When the time delay is over, the pin releases the timer spring, and the timer cam moves to the unlocked position.","This allows the cylinder cam to retract the latch and open the lock.","They screw the plate with the spring and timer cam to the timer, which is gear-driven like a mechanical clock.","They let the timer run down all the way.","Then they turn the spring four times.","They mount the main cam, which sets the time delay and open window on top of the timer cam.","Now they begin calibrating the timer.","First they install an aluminum weight assembly that controls the timer speed.","They run the timer on a testing machine, comparing it to the delay set on the main cam.","If the timer runs too fast, they take some tension off the timer spring.","If the timer runs too slowly, they trim down the weight assembly until they get the right speed.","Once the timer is accurate, they screw it into the timer cover.","The lock body contains the lever that retracts the lock's latch.","It also has a brass electrical plug to connect a time-delay indicator light.","After securing the latch and lever in position with a cover plate, they install the timer assembly.","The visible side is painted black, just like the visible side of the cover plate.","Then they insert the cylinder assembly.","They mount the lock on the door of the safe and hook up the indicator lights, which run on double-\"a\" batteries.","To open the safe, you insert, turn, then remove the key.","The red light indicates the timer is counting down.","When the time delay is over, the green light comes on.","Then you reinsert the key, and the safe opens.","Chocolate brownies are irresistible.","Their origins are uncertain, but they were definitely developed in the united states over a century ago.","One story is that a homemaker from bangor, maine, made the first brownies accidentally while trying to make a cake.","Another story states that they were deliberately invented by the chef at a chicago hotel.","Neither cake nor cookie, a brownie is something in between, a moist, dense, and chewy square.","There's no doubt it brings something special to the table.","To mass-produce brownies, this factory starts with canola oil.","They add xanthan gum, a natural preservative that increases moisture retention during baking.","They blend these two ingredients in an industrial mixer.","Then they add sugar, cocoa, and canola and palm oil shortening.","They reactivate the mixer, and it blends the ingredients into a chocolate batter.","The next ingredients are whole eggs...","And corn syrup.","The massive mixing arm descends back into the bowl and whips these ingredients into the batter.","A worker wheels the bowl to a hopper, which releases a precise amount of flour.","The flour thickens the mix.","It will give the baked brownies structure.","After 25 minutes of mixing, the batter is complete.","There's enough batter here to make 6,000 brownies.","They transfer the smooth chocolaty mixture to a machine called a depositor.","A sprayer mists the pans with oil to keep the brownies from sticking to them during baking.","Then the pans arrive at the depositor.","This computerized machine releases the batter into each pan.","It has perfect aim every time.","Next, the pans enter an 11-1/2-foot oven.","The brownies rotate through 13 tiers to bake them evenly.","After about 20 minutes, the brownies are cooked.","They exit the oven and head into a cooling chamber.","Like the oven, it's multi-tiered.","The pans move through it as fans cool the brownies.","The cooling helps solidify the brownies.","Then a robot arm with needle-like claws lifts them out of the pans and transfers them to the next conveyer.","The robots are gentle, so the cool brownies stay intact during the process.","The brownies round a corner and transfer to another conveyer.","At the end of the line, a worker places the brownies in a narrow conveyer system that takes them to the wrapping station.","A computer sensor detects their approach and alerts the plastic wrapping system ahead.","The plastic unwinds into the wrapping machine as the brownies enter it.","Metal wheels with grooves pull the wrapper under the brownies, and then heated wheels melt the seam to close it.","A hot jaw then seals and severs the plastic film between the brownies, creating individual packets.","A robot opens a box and sets it on a conveyer next to the brownie line.","An employee then places eight packets of brownies in each carton.","They ride by a rotary device, which automatically folds the ends of the cartons.","Then the boxes are glued shut.","Finally, they travel through a metal detector.","It uses a high-frequency electromagnetic signal to detect any metal fragments in the brownies.","It takes about an hour to make and package brownies at this factory, but only a fraction of that time to enjoy them.","Pallets are used to easily move large quantities of goods.","They were invented in the early 20th century and have been a warehouse staple ever since.","Multiple unused pallets can cause clutter and even be a safety hazard.","That's where pallet dispensers come in.","Before pallet dispensers, pallets were kept in loose stacks.","Retrieving one was potentially dangerous.","The pallet dispenser solves this problem.","It helps keep the workplace safe and organized.","A high-speed cnc machine cuts out the steel parts of the pallet dispenser.","An employee uses a press brake to bend the components to the required shapes.","A preset backstop ensures that the metal piece goes into the precise depth.","Next, a worker uses a mig welder to quickly bond the new parts together.","The parts hang from chains, which are charged with a negative current.","Painters then spray positively charged paint on them.","The parts are baked in an oven for 20 minutes to dry the paint.","The traveler frame moves up and down with the pallets inside the dispenser.","A worker installs 12 cam followers.","A team positions the linear track assembly.","Its vertical bars guide the cam followers, keeping the traveler frame on track.","Once this sub-assembly is complete, workers install it inside the main side frames.","Together, these components form the main base assembly.","The dispenser's self-contained hydraulic system doesn't require power to control the traveler frame.","This is one of two hydraulic cylinders.","They're designed to easily hold a heavy stack of pallets.","The worker installs four brake arms.","They hold a set of spring-loaded latches in place to keep the pallets suspended in position.","Next, he positions the sprockets.","The pallet dispenser requires four sprockets to support two chains.","These chains connect the traveler frame to a massive steel counterweight.","As it gets fuller, the traveler frame lowers to the ground.","After the pallets touch the floor, the counterweight lifts the frame.","The pallets are stored in a tall column called a pallet magazine.","Two employees work together to install it.","The magazines come in two standard heights-- 4 feet and 8 feet.","Not all pallet magazines are red.","Customers can select from a wide variety of colors.","The interior panels protect the dispenser's mechanism from being damaged.","They're also the access panels to the product's precision engineering.","A trained professional should always handle the machine's maintenance and repair.","Making the panels relatively inaccessible decreases the chances of tampering, injury, or accidents by an amateur.","Next, a worker runs a quality-control test.","He uses a walkie rider to raise a stack of pallets and remove the bottom one.","When he's done, the hydraulic system lowers the stack back into position.","Here, one worker uses a forklift to raise the top section of the pallet magazine into position while the other worker guides the magazine into place.","Graphics and decals have already been added, so all that's left is for the worker to securely bolt the two sections together.","With about 2 billion pallets in the u.s. alone, things can really start to pile up.","Pallet stackers make life easier for manufacturers and shippers all over the world.","Some refer to these devices as giant pez dispensers.","In a way, that's exactly what they are, and they're just as safe.","Once reserved for palaces and castles, today's chandeliers can be found in even the most modest homes.","They function as more than just a light source.","Chandeliers can be the illuminating centerpieces of traditional rooms or give modern rooms an eclectic twists.","Either way, a crystal chandelier is always elegant and timeless.","This chandelier is quite a showstopper.","It stretches more than 3 feet high and wide with 24 elegant arms.","It's decorated with clear and red crystal and a gilded hurricane shade over each light.","To make the crystal, they melt silica sand in a furnace, along with lead, hot ash, and several other ingredients.","The materials combine to make crystal heavier and more sparkling than glass.","To make each chandelier arm, a crystal blower gathers some molten crystal on the end of his blowpipe, then shapes the arm with a series of blocks and molds.","He makes a channel down the middle for the arm's electrical wiring.","Next, two master crystal blowers work together to pull and twist the crystal into the arm's rope-like design.","This maneuver requires tremendous expertise.","To achieve the correct diameter, these craftsmen must stretch the crystal exactly right.","Next, they put it in a chandelier arm mold and snip off the excess on both ends.","They blow cold air to solidify the crystal.","Another craftsman inspects the chandelier arm, checking the shape, measurements, and channel for the electrical wiring.","Next, a pair of craftsmen make the bowl-shaped bottom of the chandelier.","Using traditional techniques, they place molten crystal in a mold, then place the mold in a press.","The crystal chandelier parts are cooled down in an oven.","The gradual decrease in temperature slowly releases tension in the crystal.","This prevents cracking.","Straight out of the furnace, the crystal is 2,280 degrees.","It continues to be pliable until it reaches about 1,202 degrees.","It cools rapidly, so as the craftsmen work, they must regularly reheat the crystal in a smaller furnace.","The freshly molded crystal tends to have a rough surface, so they use heat from a blowtorch to smooth it out.","These holders support the hurricane shades on the arms.","This company produces its signature shade of red crystal by adding 24-karat gold powder to the raw materials in the furnace.","The color emerges after the molded piece is reheated in an oven to just over 1,000 degrees.","A crystal blower makes the hurricane shades.","First, he rolls a starting shape at the end of his blowpipe.","Then, with pliers, he narrows and stretches one end to form a neck.","By now, the crystal has cooled, so he reheats it before continuing.","Next, he inserts the crystal into a foot-pedal-operated mold installed in the floor.","He then turns the pipe and blows through it to expand the crystal to the mold shape.","Once the hurricane shade has cooled, artisans apply an elaborate 24-karat gold decal.","With a paintbrush, they also apply raised gilding and 24-karat gold paste.","They heat the shade to fuse the gold to the crystal, then polish the gold with an agate stone.","Every part of the crystal chandelier is handmade, and the entire chandelier is manually assembled.","However, some of the crystal parts require prep work before assembly.","The arms have a light socket at one end wired to a connector at the other.","All 24 arms mount to a round tray.","Beneath it, the connectors link to the main wires running down the center of the chandelier.","The chandelier's ornate bottom hides it all.","The electrical sockets that hold the light bulbs are hidden inside metal sleeves painted white to look like candles.","The gilded hurricane shades go over the candles and sit snugly in the holders.","This stunning crystal chandelier casts sparkling light, easily making it the focal point of the room.","Weighing in at over 150 pounds, this grand chandelier makes a big, bold design statement."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Inflatable Watercraft","Couscous","Modelling Dough","Wicker Products"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Inflatable watercraft...","Couscous...","Modeling dough...","And wicker products.","Today's inflatable watercraft range from rafts and dinghies to canoes and kayaks.","They're less expensive than conventional boats and easier to store and transport.","You don't need a trailer-- just throw your boat in the trunk, then unfold and inflate it when you get to your aquatic destination.","Whether it's a raft shooting the rapids or a motorized boat gliding across a calm lake, an inflatable watercraft begins with sturdy, waterproof material.","This company uses pvc fabric .","04 of an inch thick that has a nylon or polyester fiber core.","After workers trace and cut out the pieces that will form the boat, they connect them with a strip of the same material, fusing them together using a machine with a propane flame.","The intense heat melts the surface of the pvc until the pieces bond.","Here's that bonding action in slow motion.","Next, they fuse a strip of pure pvc to the underside of the joint.","This assures that air won't leak out of the boat where the pieces connect.","Inflating the boat will pull on the material surrounding the air valve, so they reinforce that area with a round piece of pvc called a doubler.","This high-frequency welding machine applies 280 pounds of pressure and heat-generating f.m. waves to fuse the doubler in place.","Then they cut a hole in the middle of the doubler for the air valve.","Next come the cones.","Cones support the weight of the motor and enable the boat to plane, to rise above the water when traveling at high speed.","Using the propane-flame machine, workers seal together the ends of the boat...","Then insert the inside cone piece just before they close it up completely.","They finish off the seal using the high-frequency welding machine, then pull the cone piece through.","They inflate the boat until the pressure forces the cone piece into place.","They seal all around it with heavy-duty caulking...","Stick on the outside cone piece...","Then screw it securely in place.","They fully inflate the boat to perfect the seal and expel the excess caulking.","Now they install what's called the transom, a plank of wood that supports the motor at the rear of the boat.","They cover it in boat fabric, using a plastic resin-based glue that's resistant to the fiery heat of the sun.","They apply the same glue to the piece of material that will become the underside of the boat, then position it in place.","After gluing on a bumper made of hard pvc, they coat the boat's underside in a liquid plastic resin.","This protects the bottom when the boat runs aground over rocks and sand.","They test-inflate the keel, a stabilizer that runs the length of the boat.","Then they deflate it and begin installing the floor.","The floor is made up of five connected pieces, three made of aluminum and two made of fiberglass, plastic, or wood.","The hole in the floor is for the keel's air valve.","After inflating the boat...","They inflate the keel.","Now they take measurements to determine where to position the oars.","First, they glue on the oarlocks, the pieces that hold the oars in place.","The oars are made of aluminum, so they're lightweight and they won't rust.","The motor is 6 horsepower to 50 horsepower, depending on the size of the boat.","Couscous is a traditional staple of north african cuisine.","It looks like a grain, but it's actually pasta.","These days, few people make couscous from scratch.","Even in north africa, they usually buy their couscous ready-made and just steam-cook it.","Couscous is the product of culinary simplicity.","It's made from one ingredient and one ingredient alone-- wheat, most often, the durum species of wheat.","When you remove the grains, grind them, and sift out the finer flour, you're left with a coarser wheat flour called \"semolina\".","That's the flour from which they make couscous.","The first step is known as \"hydration\".","An automated food processor measures about 1/3 water to 2/3 semolina, then mixes them for 3 minutes.","The flour particles absorb the liquid and bloat into a raw dough.","The dough particles then go into a rotating drum, where they spin for seven minutes.","This rounds them into balls of varying sizes.","A screen inside the drum sifts out the big clumps.","The raw doughballs go into a giant steam-cooker for 15 minutes.","The intense heat, over 210 degrees fahrenheit, cooks the dough by gelatinizing the starch in the wheat.","As the couscous balls exit the steam-cooker stuck together, giant revolving blades break them up.","The soggy couscous now enters a rotating dryer, where it spins for 18 minutes.","This removes 22% of the water.","The remaining moisture is necessary to prevent the couscous from drying out in the package.","Now the couscous pours out of the dryer and onto the conveyor belt that funnels it to the next station.","You can see that the balls are much drier and relatively uniform in size, but they're still steaming hot, so they go off to a refrigeration chamber for two minutes to cool.","As the couscous exits the chamber, it runs through a screening machine that separates the balls, called \"grains,\" by size.","Medium and fine couscous go off to their respective storage silos, while grains that are too big or too small go back to be reprocessed.","The couscous-making process, from wheat semolina to the finished product, has taken just 45 minutes.","As we've seen, most of the cooking's been done by the factory, so all the consumer will have to do is steam this ready-made couscous for five minutes on the stove or in the microwave.","This factory packages its couscous in bulk quantities, as well as in smaller, meal-sized portions.","Today, ready-made couscous comes in many different flavors.","And depending on the dish you're making or your personal preference, you can choose medium grain...","Or fine grain.","Plain or flavored couscous is becoming an increasingly popular side dish, an alternative to rice, potatoes, or noodles.","You can even buy main-course couscous kits that come with a can of vegetables and a packet of sauce.","There's nothing little kids love more than digging their hands into a mound of squishy modeling dough, then rolling and shaping it.","It's a hands-on experience in creativity, made all the more fun by modeling doughs that come in bright colors and yummy scents.","Just in case little billy decides to snack on his artistic creation, this scented modeling dough is made entirely of food ingredients-- flavorings and colorings, salt, flour, hot water, and some secret ingredients the company won't divulge.","The key to achieving just the right consistency is meticulous measurement.","They use electronic scales to precision-weigh each ingredient.","Bit by bit, they pour the dry ingredients and flavorings into the mixer.","The amount of hot water they add varies according to the color and scent they're producing.","The proportions are about 30% water to 70% dry ingredients.","The last ingredient is food coloring-- in this case, cherry red.","For the modeling dough to come out just right, the mixing time has to be precisely 3 minutes and 20 seconds.","When the dough comes out, it's roughly the consistency of pie dough.","It's quite hot from all that churning, almost 160 degrees fahrenheit, but there's no need to cool it before packaging.","It goes right into a machine called the stuffer, which cuts it in container-sized portions.","The finished product is soft and malleable, enough for endless hours of playing.","Besides smelling delightful, this modeling dough doesn't crumble, doesn't stick to things, and won't stain clothes or upholstery.","A machine called the container distributor lines up the plastic containers.","Then the stuffer drops a wad of hot dough into each one.","As the containers move down the line, on goes a cover stamped with the production date.","A compression roller then runs over the cover to create an airtight seal.","Last but not least, a colorful sticker to boldly identify the scent.","The containers pass through a metal detector, a precautionary measure in case some metal shards wore off the machinery and landed unnoticed in the dough.","The company lab is continually developing new scents.","This brand comes in 36 different scents so far...","From a variety of fruits...","To kid-friendly foods.","The lab is also constantly experimenting with new colors, though some, such as purples, are quite difficult to produce.","Children, of course, can make their own colors simply by combining existing ones.","If you leave the modeling dough out of the sealed container for too long, it'll dry out.","But because this brand is water-based, not oil-based like some others, you can revive it.","All you have to do is add a few drops of water, knead it a bit, then put it back in the sealed container.","After a few hours, your scented modeling dough will be as good as new.","Wicker is thin branches or vines flexible enough to be woven.","Many plants can be used for wicker, such as willow and rattan.","Quality wicker is very durable.","You can find antique wicker furniture that's as sturdy today as it was in its heyday.","The oldest piece of wicker on record dates back to 1400 b.c. archeologists discovered it in egypt, where, in ancient times, people used wicker chairs.","Handwoven wicker furniture was the rage in europe and north america in the 1800s.","To meet this demand, trade schools churned out master wicker weavers.","But by the 1930s, manufacturers developed a paper fiber to mimic the look of wicker and large mechanized looms to do the weaving.","Today's genuine wicker items are usually made of rattan core, rattan palm-tree branches stripped of their bark then processed into different diameters and profiles.","At this workshop, they use a manual loom to weave wicker hampers.","Taking what's known as \"flat oval rattan core\"-- flat on one side, rounded on the other-- they run horizontal strands through vertical strands in an under-and-over pattern, working between the hamper's wooden frame and its fiberboard lining.","They keep the vertical strands taut by tying them to weighted ropes.","It's important to keep moistening the rattan with hot water to keep it supple enough to manipulate.","They weave one thin round strand after every 5-inch-high section of flat oval.","There's no structural reason for this pattern-- it's purely aesthetic.","A wicker wastebasket begins with a base that dictates the shape.","They insert vertical stakes of round rattan core along its perimeter, then below the base, bend each stake over the next, then under the one after that.","This forms what's called the foot border, a bottom rim that holds the base securely in place.","Now they insert a wooden form and begin weaving.","First, a small section of round rows, then a large section of flat oval ones.","Slowly and patiently, they work their way to the top, never resorting to glue or staples to hold the strands together, only a hook to compress the rows for a neat and tight weave.","Every so often, they use pliers to tear off a stray fiber.","Now for the finishing touch.","They braid what's left of the vertical stakes into a decorative top rim.","This particular braiding technique is very complex, requiring all 10 fingers and a special tool to pry stubborn strands apart.","They snip off the excess with a cutter.","When they're finished, they remove the modular wooden form.","Its components are numbered, so they'll know how to reassemble them for the next basket.","Another more decorative way to finish the top of the basket is this arch technique.","They trim each vertical stake, bend it into an arch, then tuck it into the basket three stakes over.","This measuring tool ensures the arches are of equal height, while this metal device creates a space into which to tuck each stake.","Wicker weavers create magnificent designs by combining various shapes and sizes of rattan.","A strand can be as thick as a pencil or as thin as a needle.","While this doesn't quite fall under the category of wicker, it's not uncommon to see wicker workshops use other natural materials.","Here, they're weaving a chair seat out of cord made from sea grass.","There's also wicker seating material.","This prewoven sheet is called \"cane seating,\" or \"rattan peel\".","It's made from the bark stripped off the rattan branch.","First, they force it into a groove in the chair's wooden frame, then they glue in what's called \"spline,\" a strip of rattan core with a pointed edge.","They wedge that edge into the groove and bring it down to the hold the rattan peel in place.","Then they trim off the excess.","Because wicker is wood, it can be stained or painted or left its natural color.","Whatever the finish, they give it two or three coats of varnish for protection."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Customized Knee Replacements","Leaf Springs","Lavender","Rivets and Rivet Tools"]},"text":["The typical candidate for a knee replacement has osteoarthritis, where the cartilage in the knee has worn away.","Knee replacement surgery restores the worn areas with an implant.","To help place the implant properly, the surgeon can use an instrument custom-designed for the patient's damaged anatomy.","A successful knee replacement depends on its alignment with the femur and tibia, the upper and lower leg bones that connect at the knee.","That's a challenge because knee implants are standard, while every patient's bones are unique.","So starting with an mri scan of the patient's knee, this medical device company produces custom-made surgical templates, plastic devices the surgeon uses to sculpt the surface the patient's bones to align the knee implant accurately.","The surgeon no longer has to visually calculate the bone cuts on the spot in the operating room, which takes more time and is more invasive.","An engineer uses the mri scan to create 3-d models of the patient's femur and tibia.","The patient's cartilage has worn out in between these bones, causing painful rubbing that erodes the bone surface.","The implant effectively replaces the damaged bone and cartilage.","Once each bone model is ready, another engineer applies a 3-d model of the correct-size implant, then, following directions the surgeon has provided, performs virtual surgery on the bone model.","This will properly align the implant to the patient's specific anatomy and fit it to the angle at which that particular knee moves.","During the surgery simulation, the computer records every bone cut.","The surgeon reviews and approves this surgical plan only once before manufacturing begins.","The computer, which recorded the bone cuts, guides a 3-d printer to produce plastic templates for both the femur and tibia.","The surgeon will use these to repeat the same exact cuts in real life.","The 3-d printer applies a layer of powdered plastic, then following the computer model, solidifies select areas with a laser.","This process keeps repeating, building up the shape of these surgical templates layer by layer.","One printer run produces personalized templates for up to 50 patients at a time, so the laser inscribes the patient's name and identification code on each part.","Once the printing's done, it's just a matter of breaking up the unsolidified powdered plastic...","And fishing out the templates.","They brush off the bulk of the remaining powder.","The posts on the bottom are the points at which pins affix the template to the bone during surgery.","Next, the templates go into a tumbler containing plastic balls and air jets.","As the drum rotates for 20 minutes, the balls knock off and the air jets blows off most of the remaining powder.","The templates exit the tumbler 90% clean.","They go through two wash cycles to remove the last remnants of powder.","Before packaging, they'll be sterilized.","But first, every template must pass a quality-control inspection.","Using a laser, a technician scans it to make sure the manufacturing process produced an exact match to the patient's bone.","This model shows how the femur and tibia form the knee joint and how the surgeon secures the customized template onto each of these bones.","Thanks to these devices, the surgeon doesn't have to figure out the bone cuts on the fly in the operating room.","They're all pre-calculated by the computer model.","This method eliminates several steps required in standard surgery.","The operation takes less time and requires half as many instruments to set up and clean up.","And because the surgeon no longer has to drill a hole in the bone to check the knee implant's alignment, the patient experiences less pain and bleeding and a smaller chance of developing complications.","The earliest version of leaf springs were likely flexible wooden poles used in carriages in ancient rome.","In the early 19th century, metal leaf springs were developed.","Today the journey continues, and it's fairly smooth thanks to these suspension springs.","A leaf spring is a stack of curved plates or leaves, or sometimes even just one.","This spring has the flex to absorb bumps and dips in the road, but it's strong enough to provide serious support.","Today these super-strong suspension springs are generally used for trucks and other heavy vehicles more than cars.","Production starts with spring steel.","It's an alloy that has elasticity.","Big shears cut the steel to various lengths for a multi-leaf spring.","It's one of the two kinds of leaf springs.","Using a band saw, they cut steel for the other kind of leaf spring, known as a full taper spring.","It's made of one to four leaves that are approximately the same length but various thicknesses.","After cutting, they rapidly heat the ends.","Computerized machinery rolls and stretches the piece to a tapered profile.","This achieves the same flex effect as the progressively shorter leaves on the multi-leaf spring, but the end product will be lighter and not as stiff.","Next, it's into a press that trims the stretched ends and punches holes for various components.","It takes about an hour for the steel to cool down for the next operation.","Meanwhile, other members of the team are hard at work on the multi-leaf spring.","They feed the heated tip of the main leaf to a machine that wraps it around a die form.","This creates an eye mount for attaching the spring to the vehicle.","They create an eye mount on the other end, as well.","Next they curl the ends of a slightly longer steel bar into a loose \"c\" shape.","This piece will serve as an outer protective wrap for the main leaf and protect the eye mounts.","Back to the taper spring, hydraulic machinery bends it to the final \"z\" shape so it will fit around a vehicle axle.","They soak both the taper and multi-leaf springs in oil and temper them in a furnace to strengthen the steel.","Then it's time for a process known as peening.","Machinery clamps the steel leaf onto a carriage, which takes it through a chamber for blasting with tiny steel pellets.","The blasting changes the surface tension, further strengthening the metal.","A worker now assembles the multi-leaf spring.","He inserts a pin through the center of the main leaf and wrap to align them.","Each of the next leaves is shorter than the last.","They're known as graduated leaves.","It's a design that will make the spring more flexible.","He transfers the stack to a hydraulic station...","And inserts a different pin for more precise alignment.","He activates the hydraulic mechanism, and it squeezes the leaves together.","The mechanism maintains the leaves under tension as he removes the pin and now bolts them together.","He pounds clips installed at specific locations on the spring to close them around the leaves.","The clips tighten the stack all the way across and will stop the leaves from twisting or turning.","Next, another hydraulic device applies pressure, this time to simulate the load the spring will carry.","This sets the spring to a specific height and compresses it to stiffen the overall performance.","The worker measures the spring to confirm that it meets the specifications.","The assembled leaf springs now take a quick dip in a tank of black paint.","The paint coats the leaves, clips, and fasteners to give these suspension springs a uniform finish.","Painted black, they should blend in with all the other components on the vehicle's undercarriage.","Now complete, these leaf springs can be depended on for support when the going gets rough.","Lavandula angustifolia might sound like a name of an ancient roman emperor, but it's actually the scientific name for the lavender plant.","The leaves and striking blue petals of this aromatic flowering shrub are used to make lavender essential oil, an ingredient in many health and beauty products.","Lavender essential oil has antiviral, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties.","No wonder it's long been a natural remedy for many ailments.","And with its flowery fragrance and relaxing effects, it's a common ingredient in lotions, soaps, and bath oils.","Lavender is a perennial plant that begins flowering in its second year.","Harvest time at this canadian farm is in july, at the peak of the first bloom.","There's a second bloom afterward, but not significant enough to warrant another harvest.","Weeds like to grow at the base of lavender plants, siphoning off water and important soil nutrients.","So between may and september, killing those weeds is a vital daily ritual.","The weeding machine lifts the lavender stems out of the way, then blasts the weeds around the base with hot steam.","To determine the right time to harvest, the producer looks at the quantity of blooms and the color of the flowers.","They should be purple-blue, on the verge of turning grayish-brown.","The producer also crushes a few petals to see how much oil comes out.","The harvester is specially designed for cutting lavender.","Like a stylist cutting hair, it pulls the stem straight up, then snips near the base.","The cut stems, about 15 inches long, fall onto a conveyer belt, which moves them into a tray.","From there, workers manually transfer the lavender to the harvester's trailer.","When the trailer is full, the harvester delivers its load to the on-site distillery.","Workers load the lavender into a still, a large stainless-steel vessel typically used to produce alcoholic spirits.","They compact as much lavender as possible into the still to prevent the formation of air pockets.","The less air, the greater the oil yield.","Once the still is stuffed to compacted capacity, they close it tightly and start up an oil-fired boiler.","The boiler heats water into steam, which they then inject into the bottom of the still at very low pressure.","Over the course of about 15 minutes, the steam slowly rises to the top of the still, heating the lavender along the way.","They continue the steam for another half-hour or so.","This bursts the glands located primarily in the petals, releasing the oil.","To collect that extracted oil, they feed cold water into a coiled pipe running through the still.","When the hot steam hits that cold pipe, it condenses, transforming back into water.","Only now, the water contains lavender oil.","They open the still's tap and let the water flow into a holding tank.","On average, the proportions are one part lavender oil to 40 parts water.","In the holding tank over the next hour or so, the oil naturally separates and rises to the surface.","At that point, they begin pumping the water to another container, stopping at the first sign of oil.","What remains in the tank is the final product-- pure lavender essential oil.","The pumped-out water is a secondary product called lavender flower water.","The producer sends both products to a laboratory to be filtered.","Producers primarily sell lavender oil and floral water as ingredients to manufacturers of health and beauty products, but they also often design their own lines of lavender creations for pampering the body and soul.","Rivets hold a lot of things together.","Product fabricated with rivets include aircraft, cars, computers, and household appliances.","Installed with a rivet tool, these fasteners create strong and permanent joints.","Without rivets, a lot of things might fall apart.","Whether the job is large or small, chances are there's a rivet for it.","And using a special rivet tool, it's possible to form strong attachments quickly and easily.","The two together make a perfect match.","The rivet tool starts with a precast aluminum handle.","A technician inserts a steel sleeve.","It will serve as a chamber for hydraulic fluid.","The spring for the tool's trigger is next.","She screws an aluminum plate to the base to enclose the two parts and the handle.","This is the pulling-head assembly.","It has tiny jaws to grab the rivet stem.","She lubricates it and presses it into the main bore of the rivet tool.","She installs a fill screw in the top of the handle casting for top-offs of hydraulic fluid during servicing.","But the initial supply of hydraulic fluid is added through the steel sleeve at the bottom.","She inserts an air-piston assembly into the fluid-filled chamber.","She threads a screw into the nose of the rivet tool.","This keeps the internal workings in the correct position for the next step.","She places the base of the tool into an air chamber, then hooks up an air hose and secures it with steel clamps.","She plugs the tool into an air supply and pulls the trigger.","The air puts pressure on the hydraulic fluid inside to activate the riveting mechanism.","And now the test-- she places a rivet in the nose of the tool, then inserts the other end of the rivet into a hole on the test plate and presses the trigger.","The tool efficiently installs the rivet in the hole.","It's time to stock up on rivets.","They make them from round wire.","A machine cuts the wire to length and then punches it into a die twice to form a rivet stem blank.","Here's the cutting and forming action in slow motion.","The machine operates in a blur, producing 200 rivet stem blanks a minute.","The stem blanks move between serrated rolling dies.","The dies form grooves to allow the stem to be gripped by a rivet tool.","They also make ridges that will serve as a breaking point during rivet installation.","This is a slow-motion close-up of the serrated rolling dies in action.","Here's the rivet stem before and after forming.","The next machine creates the rivet body.","It cuts wire to the correct length and forces it into dies.","It takes five punches to transform the solid wire into a hollow rivet body.","These machines can produce up to 300 parts a minute.","Next, the rivet bodies go for a tumble in a cleaning solution to remove oily residue left by the forming.","The rivet stems also undergo this thorough washing.","The rivet bodies then travel through a furnace.","The intense heat followed by a gradual cooling hardens the metal to free it from internal stresses.","After zinc-plating, the rivet bodies head towards the next station.","The rivet stems are also on the move.","They travel through a channel that gradually widens to sort out stems that are too big or small.","The undersized stems fall through at the beginning, and oversized ones fall off the end.","A magnet loader collects the correctly sized stems, and rejects are discarded.","The rivet stems cling to the loader, which is stopped at the moment.","The rivet bodies now ride a carrousel.","It pauses briefly to allow a stem to be inserted into a body.","These are slow-motion shots, and back in real time.","These machines work fast.","They pump out millions of rivets a day.","The rivets are now ready to leave this factory for another, where they could be used to make almost anything."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Replica Clay Pipes","Drinking Fountains","Orange Liqueur","Compound Bows"]},"text":["Clay tobacco pipes may have been the first disposable product.","For centuries, smokers in north america and europe used them until they broke, which happened often.","Clay pipes fell out of widespread use at the end of the 19th century, but they're still made today by clay artists with a reverence for history.","Nostalgia is a new niche market for clay pipes, popular at historical reenactments and coveted by collectors because history buffs like an authentic puff.","At this studio in the midwest, the craftsman starts with a small wad of clay.","He rolls it long and thin and flares the shape at the end.","This establishes the basic shape of a native-american-style clay pipe.","He drives a tapered stick into it to hollow the long stem and stops just short of the flared end.","He rolls it with the stick inside as he continues to shape the clay.","He trims the flared end and now transforms it into the pipe bowl.","He presses a handmade stone tool into it to make it hollow and then flares the bowl some more.","To better define the shape of the bowl, he kneads the clay from the outside.","He removes the stone implement.","He now works the pipe bowl entirely by hand to make the thickness of the wall a little more uniform.","One more roll, and then he punctures the bowl cavity to link it to the air passage.","He bends the bowl upward and then sculpts the clay a little more.","He sets it aside to dry a bit.","The clay hardens but is still soft enough to carve into with the edge of a wood tool.","To create notches and other trim marks, he gently presses the tool into the bowl.","He tweaks the shape a little more and leaves the pipe to dry much longer now.","The moisture evaporates, and the clay solidifies.","Using another stone tool, he grinds off bumps and other surface flaws.","The grinding leaves little scratches on the pipe.","He rubs those away with water.","The clay quickly absorbs the small amounts of water, and the surface of the pipe dries in a very short time.","After that, this replica native pipe looks pretty smooth.","Other native pipes are more elaborate.","The bowls are decorated with effigies of an animal or human.","Here, the artist sculpts a man's face onto the bowl.","He uses a blunt stick to raise a couple of eyebrows and add nostrils.","He rolls eyeballs and plants some ears on the side.","The pipe bowl will serve as the mouth.","Native people believe that smoke carries their prayers to the gods.","To make an english tavern pipe, he shapes the clay in a mold with a metal wire inside to create an air channel.","He trims the excess clay.","He stamps the maker's mark onto the base of the pipe.","After his removes the wire used to make the air channel, there's drying time, and then he fires it in a kiln at approximately 2,012 degrees fahrenheit.","After 17 hours, each pipe is a solid piece of white ceramic.","He fires the native pipes outside in the open air.","He builds a fire around them using bark, leaves, and twigs.","This is the traditional way natives have hardened their ceramic items.","As the fire burns, the clay hardens and takes on a smoky, black finish.","The fire dies down, and he removes the now-hardened clay pipes.","Still hot, he removes them with tongs and sets them aside to cool.","Later, in the studio, he dampens a cloth with mineral oil and rubs it into the clay.","This seals it and gives the sooty finish a nice patina.","It takes the craftsman about three days to make one of these replica clay pipes.","They're sure to provide a whiff of nostalgia.","There's nothing quite as thirst-quenching as a sip at a water fountain after playing in the park.","The modern drinking fountain was invented in the early 1900s as a result of health and sanitation concerns.","Today, it's a safe source of water.","It waits to serve, no matter what the weather.","And at the touch of a button, you can drink your fill of refreshing water.","Essentially unchanged for decades, it is the ever-dependable drinking fountain.","A worker begins by coating the concrete molds with a release agent.","The molds are made of fiber glass and metal.","He makes sure the coating is thorough so that the molds will be easier to pull apart later on.","With a cloth, he also coats the rubberized cap of the mold.","The cap will eventually become the top of the fountain.","After he applies the coating, the worker assembles the inset portion of the mold.","He then puts the fountain frame, made of galvanized steel rods, into place.","He assembles the two sides of the mold with the fountain frame enclosed within.","Using nuts and bolts, he ensures the mold is nice and tight to avoid seam lines in the concrete.","He now inverts the assembled mold on top of the cap, again making sure all the pieces of the mold are as snug as possible.","Using wooden spacers, the worker makes sure the frame inside is precisely centered.","He slips in the core of the mold, which will create the void needed for mounting hardware.","This wooden cover will keep the concrete out.","A mixing machine prepares the concrete-aggregate mix.","A computer controls the portions of sand, rocks, pebbles, and water used in this recipe.","Once the employee is satisfied with the consistency of the mixture, he directs it into a wheelbarrow.","As the worker pours concrete into the mold, the mixture oozes evenly into the available space.","He completely fills it in a matter of minutes.","He uses a trowel to smooth the edges.","Two to three hours later, workers carefully pull the core from the mold.","Once the cement has cured overnight, workers lift the top of the mold off and peel away its cap, revealing the top of a brand-new drinking fountain.","With a rubber mallet, the worker separates the sides of the mold from the concrete fountain.","The fountain pedestal is still a little rough around the edges, so he gives it a high-pressure water wash.","The spray gradually removes the superficial layer of concrete, revealing the textured concrete- aggregate mix underneath.","The concrete aggregate becomes a sturdy material, with sand, rocks, and pebbles not just on its surface, but all the way through.","The aggregate mix is durable, with no rust or peeling paint.","It's aesthetically versatile and comes in a variety of colors.","A worker now assembles the plumbing.","He places two washers on this lead-free brass fitting and applies a thread sealant.","He holds the bubbler in place on the stainless steel bowl and attaches a fitting underneath.","He applies more thread sealant to the elbow fitting and, after putting it in place, makes sure it's carefully aligned.","He then inserts a stainless steel drain, followed by a washer and nut to hold it in place.","He attaches a mounting bracket to hold the bowl assembly to the frame inside the concrete fountain.","A worker now fits the bowl assembly into the top of the fountain pedestal.","The mounting bracket holds firmly to ridges in the concrete frame.","A worker attaches the button assembly, which holds both the button and the valve controlling water flow.","He attaches the elbow fitting to polypropylene tubing and attaches the button plate to the fountain pedestal.","A slide on the pedestal prevents the bubbler from being twisted or turned.","All that's needed now is a thirsty customer.","Tradition dictates that orange liqueur be served as a digestif, but nowadays it's also used as an ingredient in popular cocktails-- for instance, mixed with tequila to make a margarita, with gin to make a white lady, or with vodka to make a cosmopolitan.","Orange liqueur is also known as triple sec, triple referring to the fact it's distilled three times.","\"sec\" is french for \"dry\".","However, this liqueur isn't dry at all.","It's actually very sweet, even though it's made with mostly bitter oranges.","Triple sec was invented in 1834 by this distillery in france.","The liqueur is made from a combination of sweet orange rinds and bitter orange rinds, which are green, imported from haiti.","The rinds arrive sun-dried, so the first step is to rehydrate them by soaking in cold water for about 12 hours.","The next step is running each and every rind through a revolving razor to remove the white lining.","Left on, this lining would make the liqueur taste bitter.","Rind with its lining removed is referred to as zest.","While the distillery will divulge that its liqueur recipe calls for significantly more bitter orange zest than sweet orange zest, the precise ratio is top secret.","The next step is what's known as maceration.","They soak the zest in sugar beet alcohol for about five days, during which time the rinds soften and the alcohol turns slightly orange.","At the end of the maceration phase, they pump the alcohol and transfer the zest into a long-necked copper vessel called a still.","Once all the alcohol and zest are inside, they close up the still.","Then they release hot steam, which heats the still, bringing the alcohol to a boil.","The alcohol evaporates, rising up the still's long neck, until it reaches a condensation system which cools it to liquid form again but now with a more concentrated flavor.","This entire distillation cycle takes about a half hour.","The result is a spirit of bitter and sweet oranges that has an alcohol level of between 86% and 88%.","The first flow out of the still, called head phlegm, is white, due to the orange oil which has risen to the top.","Once that oil flows off, the spirit is clear and ready for another distillation the next day, then another the day after--  three distillations in all.","The final spirit, called heart, now has an alcohol level of 81% to 83%.","They pour a precise amount into a stainless steel mixing vat.","In a different mixer, they combine water and sugar, heating until the ingredients concentrate into syrup.","Then they add the syrup to the spirit.","The proportions are top secret and mix for at least an hour.","The syrup gives the liqueur additional sweetness and dilutes the 80% alcohol level in half to 40%.","In the distillery's quality-control laboratory, technicians test samples regularly to ensure that the liqueur's alcohol level is always consistent.","On the bottling line, the first station is a rinsing machine.","It disinfects the interior of the frosted-glass bottles with alcohol.","Next, the bottles proceed to the filling station.","These are 1 1/2-pint bottles.","However, the liqueur is bottled in several different sizes.","The next station places a metallic twist cap onto the neck of each filled bottle, then twists it until the bottle is tightly sealed.","The final station simultaneously applies front and back adhesive labels.","Triple sec is a completely colorless liqueur-- not what some might expect, given its unmistakably orange flavor.","The bow and arrow have come a long way since the stone age.","In the 1960s, an american engineer added cams and cables to produce what is now known as the compound bow.","Concept-wise, he hit the bull's-eye.","With this new bow, archery entered a whole new era.","The compound bow puts greater energy behind the arrow so it flies faster and straighter.","This means it's more likely to hit the mark.","It starts with this computerized tool.","It carves a latticework of holes in the riser, which is the aluminum framework.","The holes lighten the bow substantially.","Next, a printing cylinder applies an activator to release ink graphics from a starch-based film.","The film rolls into a tub of water.","The film dissolves, and the camouflage-style graphics are now afloat.","Machinery dips the bow risers into the floating artwork, and the graphics adhere to them.","A camouflage design now covers the entire surface, including all the crevices.","After a wash and dry, the risers are sprayed with a clear acrylic coating.","In the meantime, a technician prepares 10 bowstrings at once.","Each string will be made of 20 synthetic strands.","He ties the fibers to the prongs of a wheel, and as it turns, it winds the 20 fibers into one bundle.","The result is a bowstring that's so strong, it won't stretch under tension.","Next, the string builder wraps one of the bowstrings around the posts of a jig.","He winds a thin, braided string around a strategic section to reinforce it.","This is called serving.","He closes the jig to loop the string at the reinforced juncture.","This loop will be used to tightly attach the string to the pulley wheel known as the cam.","He loops the other end now and spins the synthetic string wrap further to provide extra protection.","He stops at the point where the arrow will sit prior to shooting.","He pulls the string apart and inserts the end of more serving string.","He winds it around this site to bolster the bowstring at this location.","He burns off the end to seal it.","He ties a loop around the reinforced section.","This is known as the shooter's loop.","It will be used to nock or hold the arrow.","To keep the string from oscillating when drawn and ensure a quiet, steady shot, they install two rubber dampeners.","A machine pulls both ends of the string through the dampeners to slide them into position.","The riser is now finished, so they add the handle, string stop for more dampening, and the arrow rest.","It's time to give the compound bow that all-important leverage.","He screws a limb and cam to each end of the riser.","A device presses the bow to load tension.","He slips the end loop around the cam post and winds the string around the cam track.","He pulls the string to the other cam and winds it.","He then turns the cams to tighten the string.","Finally, he runs two cables to the cams, completing the mechanics of the compound bow.","He splits the bowstring at a predetermined location and inserts an aperture through which the archer can view the target.","He now frees the bow from the press and locates the shooter's loop more precisely with a special measuring stick.","Satisfied with the placement, he tightens the loop to the string.","He winds more synthetic string around the aperture to secure it.","He burns the end of the string down to the knot to prevent unraveling.","At this factory, they produce one compound bow every three minutes.","With production targets now met, it's time to aim for success at the shooting range."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Gas Barbecues","Mattress Pads","Ear Prostheses"]},"text":["Gas barbecues were invented in the 1960s by an arkansas gas company.","They redesigned a charcoal grill to run on bottled propane.","People were drawn to the instant flame, and the gas barbecue became a hot commodity.","Gas barbecues run from basic to extremely high-end.","There's no fussing with charcoal briquettes.","You just press the starter button and adjust the flame to the desired intensity.","Then close the lid, and you're cooking with gas.","Making a gas barbecue begins with a laser.","It cuts holes for screws, knobs, and piping into a sheet of high-gauge steel.","It will take approximately 50 steel sheets to make the entire gas barbecue.","This sheet will be used for the grill's front hood.","Computerized tools punch out various holes in the next steel sheet.","It will be used to make the barbecue's cart.","The holes are strategically placed for vents and other features.","Once holes are punched, the team transfers the sheet to a press brake.","They place it between the jaws repeatedly to make numerous bends.","The first set of bends create a ledge for the grill to sit on.","Other bends transform the flat sheet into a three-wall box that will serve as the back and sides of the barbecue's cart.","The next employee places a sheet within the walls of the box.","This will serve as the base of the barbecue's cart.","He clamps cross braces to the cart and welds the parts together.","The barbecue cart has taken shape.","They return to the front hood piece.","It's been rounded since we last saw it.","A worker assembles two steel side panels to the hood.","The side panels are made of thicker steel than the rest of the barbecue because they will need to support hinges and springs.","An employee presses a belt sander against the welded seams to clean them up.","Then he sands the entire surface of the hood so that the seams disappear.","He inserts the temperature gauge and secures it to the hood from the inside.","Down the line, another team member joins the rear part of the hood with the barbecue's firebox.","He installs the gas manifold system, complete with valves that control the burners.","He hooks up the gas line that will fuel the barbecue's rotisserie.","He covers the manifold with a plate that has holes for the valves.","He places infrared ceramic burners inside the firebox.","He connects the ignitor system for lighting the gas barbecue...","And fastens all the cables together.","Now he fires up the barbecue and inspects it for leaks or any other operational problems.","Once the barbecue passes inspection, the employee mounts a glossy steel panel to the front.","He attaches a knob to the end of the ignitor.","He installs stainless-steel grates above the burners.","He hinges the front hood to the back one.","Once the hinges have been secured, he lowers the lid to confirm that it closes tightly over the firebox.","The team transfers the barbecue to the cart.","The cart has been equipped with doors and drawers.","After they weld the firebox to the cart, this gas barbecue is on its way to a patio near you.","15 hours in the making, it will provide years of grilling pleasure.","No need to slave over a hot stove in the kitchen.","Just turn on the grill and enjoy the great outdoors.","A mattress pad protects and preserves a mattress, ensuring that it lasts longer.","Quilted with plush filling, a mattress pad can also provide an extra layer of comfort for those who prefer a softer mattress.","Purchasing a comfortable mattress is an investment in a good night's sleep.","A mattress pad can protect that investment.","To manufacture a mattress pad, a crew first cuts straps to keep the fibers compressed.","Then they feed the clumps of fibers into a revolving drum with steel spikes.","The spikes fluff up the fibers.","This starts the process of opening and separating the strands.","Fans propel the fibers through ductwork in the ceiling and into a chamber where they tumble around.","This process introduces more air, further separating the fibers.","It also helps mix the new and recycled fibers together with a polyester binder.","Next, rollers with small metal teeth align the fibers.","Two streams of combined fibers merge and enter a machine called a crosslapper.","Here carriages lay the fibers perpendicular to each other.","Multiple layers of crisscrossed fibers accumulate, creating a thick pile of polyester.","Rollers compress the layers of polyester, then the padding travels through a long oven that's heated to just under 400 degrees.","The heat activates the binder and unites the polyester fibers.","The polyester exits the oven and is taken up by a big spool.","In the next stage, the polyester wadding unrolls and travels between sheets of embossed fabric.","At the same time, thread unwinds from 22 bobbins.","The thread and polyester wadding head into a quilting machine.","Here 22 needles chain-stitch a design into the fabric and polyester wadding.","The stitching creates pockets that hold the filling in place.","Without it, the stuffing would slide around between the sheets of fabric.","A circular blade slices the quilted fabric to a width of 60 inches, the standard for a queen-size mattress.","The edges of the quilted layers are left open for inspection.","At the next station, fabric for the skirt unwinds into a large, automated sewing machine.","It pulls elastic threads tight as it sews them into the nylon material, creating a ribbed pattern.","This turns the fabric into a stretchy material.","A seamstress stitches the stretchy material to the quilted rectangles.","She uses an industrial sewing machine that trims excess fabric as it sews.","She also sews a label into the seam.","It contains manufacturing information and washing instructions.","These overlock stitches will encapsulate the seam so that the fabric will not unravel.","She trims the bottom of the skirt by hand and hems it.","The mattress pad is complete and ready for the quality control department.","Here an employee does random checks of the workmanship.","He examines the fit of the pad to a mattress and looks for missing stitches or defects.","With his approval, the mattress pad is ready to leave the factory.","It takes about 30 minutes to make one of these mattress pads.","With the job complete, it's nap time.","A prosthesis can help restore the physical appearance of a person who has lost a part of their face to an accident or illness.","Everyone's face is unique, so the prosthesis must be custom-designed for the patient by an anaplastologist.","Anaplastologists combine anatomical knowledge, technical skill, and artistic talent.","They can create an artificial ear, nose, or eye that looks remarkably realistic.","Entirely custom-made, the prosthesis blends seamlessly with the patient's skin coloring.","The prosthesis is durable, easy for the patient to apply, and comfortable to wear.","To securely attach an ear prosthesis to a patient, surgeons implant titanium fixtures into the bone around the ear area.","Once bone has grown over the implant, the anaplastologist attaches metal markers called impression copings to the titanium implants' abutments.","These markers register the abutment locations in the impression the surgeon will now take of the ear area.","The material she is using for the impression is the same material dentists use to make models of teeth.","She then attaches abutment replicas to the copings with guide pins.","After taking photos of the patient's other ear, the surgeon sends the patient home and begins the process of making a plaster model of the missing ear area.","She mixes the plaster and vacuums out any air pockets.","This is to prevent holes from appearing in the plaster once it sets.","Next, she gently presses the ear-area impression that she took from the patient into the plaster.","Once the plaster hardens, she unscrews the guide pins that connect the implant abutment replicas to the impression copings.","Then she removes the impression.","She now has a plaster model of the patient's ear area.","She sends this model to an outside laboratory.","The lab produces a solid gold bar that is custom-fitted to the abutment replicas.","She screws the gold bar into the abutment replicas, then fills in the gap between the gold bar in the plaster model with heated wax.","This will create an air space in the prosthesis so the patient's skin can breathe.","She traces the impression on the plaster with a pencil and bends a strip of wax along the pencil line.","Then she fills the wax-enclosed shape with flesh-colored acrylic.","It takes an hour for the acrylic to solidify.","She removes the wax strip and shaves off any excess acrylic, then cleans the newly formed acrylic plate.","It will form the rigid internal structure of the prosthesis.","She drills holes for attaching the prosthetic ear and installs tiny clips.","These clips allow the acrylic plate to snap onto the gold bar that is on the patient's ear.","Now comes the artistic part-- designing a wax prototype of the prosthetic ear.","The anaplastologist places the acrylic plate and bar onto the plaster model of the patient's ear area.","With fine sculpting tools and her fingers, she begins sculpting a wax ear.","She refers to photographs of the patient's existing ear to try to sculpt a perfect match.","Sculpting the wax prototype can take an entire day.","When she's done, she carefully removes the wax ear from the plaster model.","The acrylic plate is now lodged inside.","The patient returns for his next appointment.","Here the anaplastologist snaps on the wax prototype and compares it to the patient's existing ear.","She makes whatever modifications are required to perfect the fit and appearance.","This sculpting process can take two or three hours to complete, and the patient must be present.","Once the anaplastologist is satisfied with the prototype, she conducts a comprehensive final inspection from every angle.","Then she moves on to the last phase using the wax prototype to make a silicone prosthetic ear.","A prosthetic ear is made of medical-grade silicone.","The material can be molded into any shape and colored to match any skin tone.","It does not react to temperature change or irritate the skin, allowing for a natural-looking prosthesis that's comfortable to wear.","To cast a silicone prosthetic ear, the anaplastologist makes a three-part mold.","She reattaches the wax prototype ear to the plaster model of the patient's ear area.","Then she tops the combination with colored dental plaster.","Once the plaster sets, she transfers everything into a taller container and pours in more dental plaster.","Once that sets, she pours boiling water over the mold to melt the wax prototype that is inside.","This leaves an ear-shaped cavity in what is now a three-part plaster mold.","Next, she mixes one to two ounces of medical-grade silicone with a catalyst.","She removes a small quantity and mixes it with opaque powder in a separate cup to make it less transparent.","Then she mixes this opaque mixture with the rest of the silicone.","At the patient's next appointment, the anaplastologist colors the silicone to match his skin tone.","She works with an array of pigment powders diluted in silicone fluid.","The first step is to produce a base color that's a perfect match to the patient's complexion.","There's no exact formula for doing this.","It requires an artist's eye.","She needs the patient right beside her so she can check samples against his skin.","Once she has the overall base color, she transfers a small amount to a separate cup, adds a drop of thickener, and mixes.","Then she chooses from her color palette to produce a few deeper shades.","Every ear has natural color variations.","So for the prosthesis to look real, it has to have variations, as well.","She uses the patient's other ear to match these more pronounced skin tones.","Once all the colors are ready, she applies the deeper tones in specific areas of the ear.","Next, to simulate veins, she applies a few fine, red rayon fibers.","She repeats this coloring process for the back of the silicone ear.","Then she puts that part, along with the acrylic plate, on the plaster model of the ear area.","She fills a syringe with a base color and injects it into the mold cavity.","She completely fills the cavity, getting every nook and cranny...","Then closes the mold firmly.","She wipes away any excess silicone...","Clamps the mold tightly in a press...","And puts the press in an oven.","The oven cures the silicone for 2 hours at about 200 degrees.","Once the mold cools to room temperature, she opens it and extracts the finished prosthetic ear.","It's identical in shape to the wax prototype and looks remarkably realistic.","The patient returns for his final visit.","She snaps on the prosthesis...","And checks that the edges adhere well to the surrounding skin.","The life-span of a prosthetic ear depends on how it's handled.","Sun exposure can wear out the silicone or fade its coloring.","A patient typically returns for a new prosthesis every two to four years."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Three"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Three-wheeled vehicles...","Baseball bats...","Artificial bonsais...","And trombones.","Three-wheeled vehicles were introduced in the 1990s as exotic concept vehicles.","This one is like a motorcycle on steroids.","It has what's called a reverse trike design-- two wheels in front and one in the back.","It hugs the road like a race car yet is legal to drive through city streets.","This vehicle goes from 0 to 60 miles per hour in just 4.1 seconds.","It's no faster than a motorcycle, but it definitely turns heads.","Production begins with 34 steel-tube components that will form the vehicle's chassis.","A worker places them in an assembly jig.","This positions the tubes for welding.","After clamping the components in place, it takes the worker about 4 hours to weld 68 different areas together.","For efficiency, 13 of the larger, more complex structures are pre-assembled.","The steel tubes measure 1.5 inches in diameter, but the metal itself is only 1/16 of an inch thick.","They're like those used in the aviation industry-- strong, yet lightweight.","This company uses a visual reference method to assemble smaller parts of the vehicle.","Before starting, a worker places 80 components on a board with labels that identify them.","This way, he's certain he won't forget any nuts, bolts, bearings, brackets, or horns.","Using an electric crane, a worker hoists the vehicle's 4-cylinder, 152-horsepower, 1,200cc motorcycle engine into the chassis, now tinted black.","Using a pneumatic wrench, he attaches it with six bolts and six nuts.","Here, a worker assembles the 50 parts that make up what's called the foot box.","This includes aluminum clutch, brake, and gas pedals.","The brake pedal is thicker to withstand more aggressive use.","The vehicle decelerates from 60 miles an hour to 0 in just less than 95 feet.","He coats part of the brake pedal with a liquid sealant so vibrations won't loosen it.","Another worker then mounts two output hoses and two plastic reservoirs for brake fluid.","The brake fluid must withstand heat of 650 degrees fahrenheit, 86 degrees hotter than what's required for most cars.","This enables better engine performance.","He installs the foot box onto the front of the chassis using three bolts.","Controlling the speed with the foot box is crucial since top speed for the vehicle is 143 miles an hour.","Next, he installs part of the suspension system-- a cylindrical gas shock absorber.","This attaches to the brake system, which is a zinc-plated rotor and an aluminum caliper.","Then they attach what's called the 4-into-1 exhaust manifold.","The four pipes merge into one to vent the exhaust fumes from the engine.","They install the electric fan and radiator assembly.","Next, a worker attaches a removable leather-covered aluminum driving wheel to the steering column.","The driving wheel locks into place with a spring-loaded latch system.","Just like a race car, you attach the steering wheel after you sit in the driver's seat so that you can get inside the vehicle.","The collapsible steering column is part of the instrument cluster.","This includes dials showing the vehicle's speed, mileage, and fuel.","There are also switches for turn signals, hazard flashers, high- and low-beam lights, and to start and kill the engine.","Next, workers install the rear wheel to another part of the suspension called a swing arm.","They attach it with one bolt that's a foot and a half long and two smaller bolts.","Workers then install a chain on the rear-wheel assembly.","When the vehicle's running, the chain's 94 links revolve on two sprockets to make the wheel turn.","Rubber \"o\" rings on each link prevent dust from damaging the chain.","Finally, workers attach 19 molded fiberglass body parts.","This factory offers 6 standard colors and several custom colors.","When assembled, the vehicle is nearly 11 1/2 feet long, 6 1/2 feet wide, and just over 3 feet high.","If you have a motorcycle license and a spare $50,000, you too can burn the pavement on this mean set of wheels.","If you think a baseball bat is a pretty simple thing, well, you're out in left field.","Making a bat means balancing things like weight and thickness.","The material it's made from can make a difference.","Metal bats hit the ball farther.","However, the pros use wood bats because of league regulations, and even the type of wood might impact the score.","Barry bonds cracked a home-run record in 2001 with a wood bat like this-- one made of maple instead of the usual white ash.","They can never tell just by looking at it that a chunk of maple has what it takes to make a good bat, so they weigh it to make sure the wood is really as thick and heavy as it appears.","Next, pointed prongs grip the wood and spin it while a carbide cutter rounds it.","This is a very modern lathe called an xy machine.","The rounded blank goes into a room called the library, joining others on the shelf that are waiting for their chance at the big leagues.","A worker selects one of the blanks to fill an order that specifies a certain model and size.","He weighs it again to make sure it measures up to what the player has ordered.","The blank goes onto the xy machine and spins.","A computer guides the cutter as it moves on rails and carves into the blank.","It whittles one inch of wood from the blank in order to form a handle.","It takes a total of three passes on this cutter to make the rough shape of a baseball bat.","But it's quick work--  completed in just 3 minutes.","Now it's time for another weighing-in.","The bat is substantially lighter, which is what they want.","Next, he measures the end of a completed bat with a caliper.","Using a square-edged scraper, he rounds the knob as the bat spins on a more traditional lathe.","He measures as he cuts.","With another caliper, he checks the thickness of a completed bat and compares it to the one he's just carved.","Now he takes a turning tool called a skew chisel.","With its pointed tip, he cuts into the bat's handle, just above the knob, to narrow the shoulder.","Again, he measures as he cuts to make sure the diameter is just right.","Using the skew chisel, he shapes the slope of the bat, repeatedly checking with the caliper to make sure it meets specifications.","He slims down the handle a little more.","Then, he angles the top of the knob with the chisel.","He shapes the rest of it with a square-end chisel.","Next, he curves the bat's barrel using the same tool.","This gets rid of sharp edges that would cause a ball's impact to ripple down and jar the player.","Then he goes back to the knob and completes the shaping with the skew-end chisel.","Because the tool is extremely sharp, he can carve very precisely.","The bat is now within a half ounce of its final weight.","Using an electric sander, he smoothes down some of the rough edges.","He switches to a finer grit to finish off the job.","As he sands, he measures because this isn't just about getting the surface smooth.","The bat has to be exactly the right size and weight for the player it's being made for.","Now he places the bat's knob in an end mill.","A spinning carbide disc cuts around the holes made by the pointed grippers on the lathes, producing a gentle scoop.","Next, a bigger disc carves into the barrel, cupping it.","Some players prefer a cupped bat because it balances differently.","Now he places the bat on the scale for the final weighing, and it is exactly what the player ordered.","He brushes paint on the barrel and rubs stain into the lower half of the bat.","He presses decals onto the bat so it sports both the brand name and distributor.","Then, he stamps the model number in gold ink.","And tops everything off with a light coat of varnish.","Now this maple bat is ready for the big leagues and some heavy hitting.","Bonsai is a japanese word that means plant in a pot.","Growing trees in pots is a revered art that actually began in china more than 2,000 years ago.","During the past century, creating artificial trees known as bonsai zokei has evolved into a hobby with global appeal.","Whether it's rustic pine, flowering cherry, or chinese elm, bonsai zokei can be made to resemble a variety of trees.","Some include stones and small statues, a chinese tradition known as penjing.","A craftsman starts by wrapping 13 strands of wire with stretchy, sticky tape used by florists.","He uses 13 partly out of respect for a traditional asian preference for odd numbers.","Later, these wires will form parts of the trunk and branches.","Next, he wraps the wires with strips of paper towel for thickness and flexibility.","To hold the paper towel in place, he wraps the ends of the wires with more floral tape.","He then separates clumps of plastic pine needles from their branches.","Ironically, this fake vegetation is imported from china.","Next, he snips off the ends of the branches, creating segments about one inch long.","To reinforce and support these segments, he wraps them with tiny wire that's 2/100 of an inch in diameter.","Next, he wraps the segments with floral tape to give them a more natural, branch-like appearance.","Then he inserts these segments into the pine-needle clumps.","The thicker end becomes the bud and holds the clump on the segment.","The craftsman now places three of these leafy segments together and attaches them with wire.","He bends them sideways in the same direction.","This mimics the tendency of natural branches to lean toward the sun.","For more mature-looking buds, he uses different, 3-headed artificial segments.","For integrity, two different types of buds are never used on the same tree.","To add character, the craftsman uses a piece of weathered driftwood as the base of the trunk.","He anchors the long wrapped wires into styrofoam around the bottom of the base.","He staples the wires to the driftwood, and wraps floral tape around the wires surrounding the base.","Then he twists the wires to form a sinuous shape, what the japanese call moyogi.","He covers the trunk with soft gray modelling clay, adhering closely to the shape of the driftwood underneath.","This will later be covered by artificial bark and moss.","This process can take several hours-- just part of the 4 to 6 days it takes one worker to make a bonsai zokei.","The craftsman then applies slow-drying glue to one side of strips of rice paper.","The strips are two inches long and one inch wide.","He uses about 50 to cover the trunk like bark on a tree.","He dabs them with a wet rag so that the creases will remain when the glue dries.","The creases make the bark look realistically aged, one of the hallmarks of a good bonsai zokei.","Craftsmen are careful to place the branches in the traditional triangle shape.","The lower branches must droop as if weighed down by the elements.","They add the leafy segments to the ends of the wire branches, attaching them with wire and floral tape.","Using a knife, the craftsmen trim away the excess styrofoam around the tree trunk.","He then places the tree into an argyle pot that's 8 1/2 inches in diameter and 2 inches high.","Using a sculpting tool, he covers the styrofoam in the pot with brown modelling clay.","Using slow-drying glue, he now covers the clay in several shades of fake moss.","They range in color from dark brown to light green.","He doesn't let the glue dry between each layer because the blending of moss and glue ensures a more natural-looking ground cover.","He gently blows on the moss to scatter it across the base.","He also applies glue further up the trunk, adhering moss that's thicker and lighter in color to resemble lichen.","The finished bonsai zokei is 17 1/2 inches high.","It needs none of the constant care required by its natural twin.","Depending on their size and complexity, artificial bonsais range in price from $50 to $800.","The adage \"it's hard to improve on a good thing\" certainly applies to the trombone.","The modern trombone isn't really much different from its medieval predecessor, known as the sackbut, with its distinctive \"s\" shape, hand slide, and bell section.","It's a blast from the past, and a pretty loud one, but it can also sound smooth and mellow.","the trombone literally slides down to the low notes.","It's the only instrument with a hand slide to lengthen it in order to change pitch.","To make a trombone, they cut sheet brass in the pattern of a bell stem.","They shape it by wrapping it around a steel rod.","Using a nylon-headed mallet, the worker hammers the brass to shape it further.","It takes just a few minutes for him to hammer out a rough bell stem form.","He spreads open the stem slightly so he can make small notches on one edge with snippers.","Then, with a brass-headed hammer, he taps down the notches so they hold the edges together.","With an acetylene torch, he joins the notched seam, melting in a brass alloy wire to bond it securely.","But the seam overlaps and it's too thick, so he runs it through a seam roller.","Two tons of pressure thins it, but now the bell stem is too flat.","To round it out, he shoves it onto a bell-shaped rod and hammers it back into shape.","Then he irons out the hammer marks with rollers.","The bell stem, fitting loosely on a steel mandrel, goes through a draw bench.","A hydraulic cylinder pushes it through a thick lead washer, pressing it tightly around the mandrel to its shape.","To make the bell flare to attach to the stem, he puts a brass disc on a spinning lathe.","Using pliers, he turns the edges of the disc to prevent it from flapping while spinning.","With a lever, he manipulates a scissors spinning tool, pressing it against the turning brass disc.","This shapes the disc into a flare.","Making a trombone flare is a delicate business and is the work of a skilled craftsman.","Getting it right is critical because the shape will affect the tone of the trombone.","Next, with a torch, he brazes the flare to the bell stem.","The bell stem and flare now turn on a mandrel while he presses against the seam with a wooden tool.","This flattens the seam and gives the bell its final shape.","Now it's time to make the tubing.","A hydraulic cylinder pulls it on a mandrel through a die, stretching it considerably.","In this way, both the diameter and thickness of the tubing are precisely controlled.","Then, they become ice tubes after they're filled with water and put in the freezer.","The ice will keep the thin tubing from buckling in the next process.","With a lever, he bends the tube around a u-shaped block.","As he works it into a \"u\" shape, the tubing hardens.","After the ice melts, he places the \"u\" bend in a balling out die.","He lubricates the tubing with oil and places a steel ball at the top of the tube and presses it down.","He drops in smaller balls and they push the first, larger ball through the \"u\" tube.","This stretches the inside of the tube, rounding it to the correct diameter.","And then the balls exit at the other end.","Now he pieces the tubes together and solders them the same way a plumber joins copper tubing.","He adds a loop for the valve section.","In total, a bass trombone has nine feet of tubing.","Straightened, that's enough to reach from the floor to the ceiling.","But, of course, trombone makers are more interested in musical highs and lows.","Finally, he solders a brace into place to add structural strength to one of the loops.","A diamond-tipped tool engraves the company logo onto the trombone's bell stem.","And a cloth buffing wheel spins against the trombone flare to polish it.","this custom trombone has been built in approximately 50 hours-- something worth blowing a horn about."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wall Beds","Sundae Cups","Digital Paintings","Badminton Rackets"]},"text":["In the late 19th century, it was considered immoral for unmarried women to enter a man's bedroom.","William murphy couldn't bring his date back to his one-room apartment, so he invented a bed that folded up into the wall, converting his bedroom into a parlor to host his love interest.","A wall of cupboards and closets suddenly opens up to reveal sleek comfortable sleeping quarters.","The wall bed is a great way to economize on space without sacrificing comfort or style.","To build the mechanism casing, a worker begins by placing the steel plate in a powerful bending machine, which is capable of exerting 55 tons of force.","Using the square and calipers, the worker verifies that the bend is a perfectly uniform right angle and the flange depth does not exceed the specified parameters.","Once the bending machine has folded all four sides of the plate, the worker then mounts it onto a locator pin in a second press, which descends and creates a small depression around the central opening.","This depression will facilitate the welding process.","Using another locator pin, a welder clamps the plate into a purpose-built jig.","He then begins welding all of the necessary components in place.","He uses a bolt to correctly locate an internal reinforcement plate and also welds in the crucial pivot pin on which the mechanism will hinge.","The casing plates are mounted on spacers to help speed the drying process.","Then a worker spray-paints them black.","Once dry, he removes a protective cap from the pivot.","It's now time to manufacture the wall-mounted spring mechanism.","A worker uses a drill press outfitted with a countersink to create a beveled recess around the openings.","A worker then uses a specially-designed press to install a brass bearing in one of the openings.","The mechanism is nearly complete.","However, there are still several steps to go in the process.","Next, a worker brushes grease onto the interior of two mechanism casings.","He then flips them over in order to apply a specially-formulated grease to the pivot pin.","He slides the bushing over it and applies a c-shaped locking washer.","An s-shaped stop will lock the mechanism in place until the bed is installed.","The spring-unit assemblage will provide the resistance required to help smoothly raise and lower the bed.","A locking pin secures one end of the spring unit in place.","The worker adds the bottom plate of the unit, which includes a threaded bolt.","A nut threaded onto it can be tightened or loosened to adjust the mechanism's tension.","The wall-mounted spring mechanism is ready to be installed.","It's designed to connect to this bed-mounted component.","Once mounted to the bed, the two components work together, allowing the user to easily raise and lower the bed.","A worker quickly installs the bed-mounted component using pre-drilled holes, bolts, and locking nuts.","He installs the wall bed's legs in the same way, following a pre-drilled hole pattern to locate the component and attach it with bolts, locking nuts, and screws.","The legs fold down when the bed is being used and tuck out of the way when the bed folds up.","The manufacturers can now package the fully-assembled wall beds for transport to their destinations.","Installing the wall bed requires some muscle, but once the two components of the spring mechanism are connected, lowering the bed onto its fold-away legs is a piece of cake.","This s-shaped stop ensures the mechanism won't accidentally flip up.","Once it's removed, the bed easily rises.","The legs tuck into position, and the bed neatly folds away into its hiding spot, as though it were never there.","Several american towns claim to be the birthplace of the sundae.","Sundaes first appeared in the 1880s, when the sale of ice cream sodas was banned on sundays.","Instead, soda-fountain operators poured soda syrup on ice cream, added toppings, and called this new treat the sundae.","Today, ice cream sundaes come pre-made and frozen in individual servings.","There's no need to wait.","This decadent dessert can be served up in an instant.","At the sundae factory, productions starts with something called the white base mix.","It's a pasteurized blend of fresh cream, milk, and a variety of sweeteners.","A worker adds a blend of yellow coloring to the white base mix, and this takes it from bright white to an off-white.","A generous helping of pure vanilla extract lends a distinctive flavor and adds extra color to the cream base.","After a final stir, the mix is ready for a freezing process, during which, air will be added to turn the mix into soft ice cream.","It's time to cue the containers.","Two at a time, individual-sized sundae cups move forward on the production line.","They meet up with the ice cream dispenser.","It automatically pumps precise amounts of the soft vanilla ice cream into the cups.","It fills the cups to the 3/4 mark, leaving plenty of room for toppings.","It's now time to prepare the next layer of deliciousness-- the chocolate fudge sauce.","A worker mixes skim milk and sweeteners to a frothy consistency, and then adds several large bags of dark rich cocoa.","The mixer paddle agitates the ingredients to distribute the cocoa evenly throughout.","The chocolate fudge is pumped into a plastic tote to cool overnight.","During cooling, the sauce thickens up substantially.","It's now a rich chocolate fudge syrup.","Velvety smooth, the chocolate syrup flows out of the tote and into a big tank.","From there, nozzles dispense the chocolate fudge syrup onto the vanilla ice cream in the cups.","Next, a worker pours a liquid-topping blend into a high-speed mixer system that beats it to a whipped consistency.","Nozzles deposit the whipped topping onto the syrup-covered ice cream.","Now it's time to add some chocolate crunch to the smooth, sweet sundae.","The system sprinkles semi-sweet chocolate chunks onto the whipped topping.","It's the final touch.","These single-serve chocolate sundaes have been prepared almost entirely by machines.","A conveyor now sends them through an icy blast of air for a quick freeze.","Exiting the freezer, the frozen sundaes travel forward, shielded by overhead guards for food-safety reasons.","The sundaes funnel into a single-file lane.","This positions them to receive lids.","The lids slide down a chute and land on top of the ice cream sundae cups.","Rollers press the lids down on the rims.","A revolving apparatus deposits plastic collars around the lids.","Moving forward, the machinery sorts the sundae cups in row of two.","This allows a robot with suctioning arms to pick up six at a time and pack them into a cardboard box.","The boxes travel under and over packing tape to seal the tops and bottoms.","Incredibly, this factory produces 1,440 ice cream sundae cups every 15 minutes.","And it's all thanks to the magic of mechanization.","This company also produces tubs of flavored ice cream, so there are many mouth-watering choices to be made at dessert time.","Digital painting is a relatively new medium.","It's an artistic hybrid that marries modern computer technology with traditional painting by hand on canvas.","Today, some photography studios offer digital painting as a way to transform photographic portraits into painted portraits.","This specialized photographer offers digital painting to enhance original portraits and cherished snapshots.","His studio also specializes in creating life-story collages.","The in-house artist assembles photos and illustrations, depicting elements of the subject's lifetime.","She scans and digitizes photos which are not already digital.","She manually retouches every image with a digital pen and tablet to maximize the quality.","Then she begins working on the layout of the collage.","Once she has finalized the layout, she blends the edges of each image so that the elements flow seamlessly into each other.","Now the artist begins digitally painting.","She chooses from a selection of brush shapes and sizes, and from a myriad of colors.","She applies digital paint to blur the hard lines of the photographs to make them look more like painted images.","This painting process takes several hours of painstaking work.","She sends the digital painting to the lab technician who prepares to print the work onto a canvas.","First, he tweaks the entire painting, balancing the brightness and the colors.","He prints a small test sample on canvas.","Both the technician and the artist meticulously examine the sample under magnification, looking for any painting or printing errors.","If everything is perfect, the technician installs a large canvas roll on the printer.","The machine prints, not with regular inks, but with archival pigments, which last for centuries.","After each pass, the head waits six seconds to let the pigments dry.","This prevents them from smearing on the next pass.","A digital painting this size takes five hours to print.","The pigments must dry for 72 hours to ensure they're embedded into the canvas.","Then the technician applies a coat of stabilizing lacquer to protect the surface from damage caused by ultraviolet rays or handling.","The lacquer takes about an hour to dry.","Then they can safely mount the canvas on a stretcher frame.","The workers pull it tight with special pliers and then staple it down.","They cut the corners to facilitate framing.","The artist applies a white gel with thicker brush strokes in some areas and thinner ones in others.","This gives the print the texture of a painting.","The gel turns clear as it dries for 24 hours.","Then the artist paints the entire printed canvas with acrylic paints.","As she applies shading and creates depth, the painting gradually comes alive.","When she finishes, she signs her work.","In about an hour, the paint is dry and the digital painting is ready for framing.","She inserts a personalized certificate of authenticity, stating that this is a one-of-a-kind work, and applies the photography studio's label on the back of the canvas.","Whether it's a creatively-crafted collage or produced from a simple photograph, a digital painting immortalizes precious moments captured by the camera lens.","At some point in 19th-century england, a new game evolved that took its name from the duke of beaufort's badminton house.","Badminton soon became all the rage among british officers in india.","Today, fans believe the game is faster and harder than tennis, its long-time rival.","To create the carbon-fiber shafts of the badminton racquets, the manufacturer follows a series of meticulously-defined production steps.","The process begins by tightly wrapping a carbon-fiber fabric, called prepreg, multiple times around a metal cylinder.","A worker encases the fabric in plastic to hold the prepreg in place.","Then he suspends the cylinders from a rack and rolls them into an oven.","The heating process transforms the wrapped prepreg into solid lightweight and super-strong carbon-fiber material.","This specialized device removes the cylinder from the carbon fiber, leaving a hollow shaft.","Here, we can see the stages of production required to create the hollow carbon-fiber shaft.","In the next stage of production, a worker begins the process of manufacturing the racquet frame.","She starts with a different formulation of prepreg material, which she folds into thin strips.","The key is to make sure each strip is identical.","In the next phase, a worker wraps the strip around a purpose-built mold to create the shape of a racquet frame.","She introduces the carbon-fiber shaft into the mold.","The racquet is taking shape.","Another piece of carbon fiber forms the joint between them.","The frame-shaped prepreg carbon fiber then goes into a shaping machine, and the lid closes.","The shaping machine heats and then cools the prepreg over the course of about 30 minutes.","A worker lifts the lid and removes the fully-formed racquet frame, which has excess resin.","Resin holds the carbon fibers together before the curing process.","Heating expels the resin, which must then be removed.","A narrow bit drills the first sequence of holes in an offset pattern to make the racquet easier to string.","A larger-gauge bit drills holes large enough to permit two strings to pass through.","Quality-control inspectors choose a racquet frame at random to test how much pressure it can bear before it reaches the breaking point.","It's finally time to add the wooden handle and cap to the shaft and put everything together.","The racquets head for the painting department, where they receive a base coat.","Then workers meticulously apply a series of decals.","The decals soak in water to make it easier to remove the backing.","A worker slides each hole over a pin at the base of a nailing machine.","The machine nails specially-designed grommets into the holes.","The grommets are slightly too long to ensure they can be cut perfectly flush to the frame by this machine.","In a two-part process, this pressing machine heats and then presses the cut side of the grommets to smooth them out.","A worker carefully clamps the racquet into a winding machine and brushes glue onto the handle.","She then secures one end of the handle wrap at the base, and uses a foot pedal to begin turning the racquet.","Maintaining the steady tension at the correct angle, she winds the wrapping all the way up to the beginning of the shaft.","She secures the top end of the wrapping with tape.","A laser quickly and accurately burns the product i.d. number into the shaft.","A quality-control inspector clamps the completed racquet into a precision- engineered device, designed to measure its weight, swing weight, and balance point with incredible accuracy.","The racquets made by this manufacturer come in different sizes, suited to every level of badminton player."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fencing Masks","Books","Ocean Drone Transformers","3D Puzzles"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Fencing masks...","Books...","Ocean drone transformers...","And 3-d puzzles.","Fencing is one of the oldest forms of armed combat.","In the late 18th century, fencing evolved into a sport.","As fencing gained popularity, a steel mesh mask was invented to protect the eyes and face from injury.","Before fencers say \"en garde,\" they don a face guard.","Today, fencing is recognized as an olympic sport, so special mesh masks are required to compete.","Regulation fencing masks are made from rectangular pieces of tight steel mesh.","A machinist uses a guillotine blade to cut the corners of the mesh piece on an angle.","Then he transfers the mesh to a press with a large mold that's shaped like a face.","The hydraulically powered mold press bears down on the steel mesh and forces it into a rounded shape.","Using a special tool, the machinist bends steel wire to a form.","He brings the ends of the wire together to close the loop.","An automated welder fuses the ends.","The machinist transfers the hoop to the next fixture and places the rounded steel mesh on top of the hoop.","A frame descends, affixing the mesh to the hoop.","Then multiple welding guns spot-weld the mesh to the hoop.","A large welding gun closes the gaps between the spot-welds.","Once fused, the hoop will prevent the mesh from fraying and add structural rigidity.","Using a nibbler tool, the machinist trims the mesh, revealing a clean edge.","Next, the technician works on the mask's side piece by bending steel wire into a rectangle.","He places the rectangular frame in a fixture and sets a piece of mesh over the frame.","He spot-welds the mesh to the frame.","This step provides a more consistent weld around the entire mask.","Copper welding wheels fuse and seal the mesh to the frame.","Then the machinist uses a grinding wheel to remove any sharp bits or protrusions.","This is the result.","A bending device rounds the part so that it will fit to the sides and top of the head.","He welds the rounded part to the back of the fencing mask.","A large welding gun spot-welds the assembly together in preparation for a final weld.","Once complete, the machinist makes a full seam weld, closing all gaps.","This will prevent a sword from piercing through the mask, potentially wounding the wearer.","Next, the technician pounds out any remaining dents with a hammer, restoring the mask to the desired contours.","He places the fencing mask on a rounded post and uses a plastic mallet to hammer the mask against the post.","This step will improve the overall shape of the mask.","They big is made out of high molecular polyethylene, which is strong and extremely light weight.","The bib includes a thick rubber band that attaches to the mesh mask.","Once the mesh is coated with plastic, another technician installs rubber trim along the perimeter of the mask.","The plastic coating on the mesh insulates the mask, preventing electrical interference from the scoring system's wiring.","The technician pipes epoxy glue around the mask just above the rubber trim.","He pulls the bib's rubber band over the mask and down to the bead of glue at the bottom.","He tucks the pieces of material under the band for a neater look.","As the glue cures, the bib's rubber band adheres to the fencing mask.","Another machinist drills rivet holes through the bib and mesh along the sides of the mask.","Then he inserts and flattens the rivets to pull the bib flush to the mesh.","Each fencing discipline requires its own uniquely designed mask.","Regardless of the design, each mask will allow the athlete to safely enjoy the sport.","Book-making has evolved over time, from scrolls to writing on sheets of paper bound together, to the invention of the printing press.","People continue to develop new ways of recording history.","Today, thanks to digital technology, the possibilities of recording the spoken word are endless.","A fine book-making specialist makes just a few limited edition books per year, using traditional printing and binding techniques.","Production begins with a case of tiny brass molds.","One mold, called a matrix, contains letters, numbers, and punctuation marks.","A typecasting specialist inserts the matrix case into a machine called a monotype composition caster.","And melts lead alloy ingots in the machine's gas heated pot.","Guided by a computer, the machine casts one character at a time for every word of the book.","The computer program assigns a location code to every matrix.","To cast a character, the program communicates a specific code through plastic tubes, while puffs of air align that character's matrix with the injection nozzle.","The nozzle dispenses molten lead into the matrix while the machine ejects the cast character onto a tray called the galley.","As the lines of text exit the machine, the typecast specialist inserts a strip of lead to create spacing, called leading, between each line.","He transfers the galley to the press room, where a proofing press spreads ink on the type.","He places a sheet of newsprint over the galley and releases an impression roller.","The roller prints the characters on to the paper, generating a proof.","Meanwhile, a typesetter assembles the larger display copy manually by placing individual letters into a composition stick.","This method was used for all copy prior to the invention of the automatic typecasting machines in the 1890s.","Books printed in large sizes of type must be made entirely by manual typeset.","Once complete, multiple galleys that make up several pages of the book are placed in a steel frame called a chase and loaded into the printing press.","This cylinder press feeds one sheet of paper at a time to grippers that pull the paper around a cylindrical roller.","As the roller rotates, the paper drops onto the inked type, printing the characters into the sheet.","One press sheet typically contains eight pages per side.","Another machine folds the sheets, then bookbinders manually collate groups of 16 consecutive pages to form sections of the book called signatures.","Next, a bookbinder sews the signatures together one at a time until the book is fully assembled.","This method of bookbinding, called smyth sewn binding, after its 19th century inventor, is of the highest quality because pages can't fall out or be removed.","Like the binding, the book cover is meticulously handcrafted.","A book binder hot glues a piece of cloth to the back of the cover.","The cover is made of flexible paper and thick cardboard.","Then she flattens the cloth on all sides.","Using a razor blade, the book binder makes a slit for the cloth, where she'll place a recessed label later.","This enables the cloth to spread out and form to the spine's rounded shape.","The cloth is pressed firmly against the structural components with a plastic tool called a bone.","Another book binder attaches the cover to the bound pages, called the book block.","First, she applies glue to both components.","Then she positions the book block on the cover...","And presses them together.","She places the book in a nipping press.","That puts pressure around the spine, fusing the book block and cover together.","Then the front and back of the cover are glued to the first and last pages of the book.","The book then sits in another press overnight, bringing this book-making story to a close.","There's a new class of autonomous vehicles that can travel the ocean.","Some dive and some sail, but very few can do both.","An ocean drone transformer shifts from sailboat to submarine by rearranging its shape and altering its mode of operation.","This is an autonomous underwater and surface vehicle.","It's an information-gathering machine capable of propelling itself over and under waves, using nothing but wind and solar power.","To create the vehicle's hull, technicians unroll sheets of fiberglass over a mold, which has been machined from a block of styrofoam.","They fiberglass fabric is cut to fit the interior of the hull.","Thanks to its extraordinary durability, the fiberglass will allow the watercraft to spend months at a time at sea.","And it won't interfere with the vessel's electronic signals.","Technicians carefully tape the material to the mold.","This yellow material will allow liquid resin to flow easily.","Then technicians unroll a strip of gray ribbon which will help direct the flow of resin.","Next, an incision is made in the middle of the ribbon for the nozzle, which will be the entry point for the resin.","A layer of plastic is taped onto the hull, which will help to vacuum seal the assembly together.","A shut-off valve is added to control the flow of resin.","The resin is poured into a container.","And as the resin infuses the flow media, it displaces the vacuum until it has completely saturated the fiberglass material.","The resin is cured for 12 hours.","The mold splits open at the bottom so technicians can easily release the hull assembly.","A technician paints the vehicle's keel, which is made of marine-grade aluminum.","The torpedo-shaped keel bulb is made of lead.","Electric cables run through a hole drilled length-wise down the center of the keel.","The interior structure of the vehicle starts as a flat material made from a combination of fiberglass and epoxy which they form into large sheets using intense heat and pressure.","Then water jet technology precision cuts the sheets into the required shapes and sizes.","Technicians assemble the shapes into a structure that supports the hull while housing the vehicle's equipment.","In-house technicians build the multiple circuit boards that make up the central processing unit, or cpu.","Each board controls a separate element of the vehicle, such as the sensors, the wing, or the communications system.","Electronics and water are not a compatible combination, so the manufacturer designed a water-tight acrylic tube to hold all 10 of the circuit boards that make up the cpu.","Specialized cable connectors are installed so water doesn't leak through the cover plate.","Once the enclosure is sealed, technicians vacuum out flammable oxygen and pump in non-flammable gases to protect the cpu.","A technician prepares the battery, which is an off-the-shelf lithium ion unit.","A battery housing is 3-d printed out of a.b.s. and infused with epoxy to ensure that it's completely water tight.","Next, a technician installs the battery in its designated spot.","Solar panels on the vehicle's surface will recharge the batteries.","A hose will allow the cpu to transfer water from one ballast tank to another to control the boat's up and down motion or pitch.","The vehicle's tails serve as housings for the backup communications antenna system.","In stealth mode, the vehicle can sit below the water surface with only its tails above the waves.","Designed to fold down and tuck into the body of the vehicle, the rigid wing multi-tasks as the primary antenna and the sail, which propels the vehicle when it's above water.","Due to its user-friendly technology, an operator can program a mission at any time from any location via satellite or wi-fi.","The first jigsaw puzzle was invented in europe in 1760.","Nearly two centuries later, a canadian inventor reshaped the popular pastime.","His puzzle pieces, made of thick foam rather than cardboard, could stand upright, turning the puzzle into a three-dimension model.","Constructing a 3-d puzzle yields impressive results.","To do so, two 800-piece puzzle sets are used to create this spectacular castle replica.","An industrial designer creates the puzzle's three-dimensional structure.","An illustrator uses techniques, such as visual textures and shading, to transform flat graphics into a three-dimensional rendering.","The industrial designer prepares the printing and cutting layout, fitting up to three puzzles per sheet.","The puzzle pieces are made from rigid foam.","The foam is specifically engineered to be chemically compatible with the paper graphics and proprietary adhesive.","A technician feeds one sheet at a time into a custom designed lamination machine.","The first station spreads hot glue over the top of the foam sheet.","An automated arm with vacuum suction cups lifts a single sheet of printed paper and places it on the glue-coated foam sheet.","As soon as the paper adheres to the foam, the she is released from the suction cups.","Then the foam moves under a roller that presses down the paper.","As the laminated foam exits the machine, a technician rolls a tube over the foam, pressing out any remaining air bubbles to ensure the paper adheres fully.","In the development phase, the industrial designer assembled a blueprint for how the puzzle pieces would be shaped and laid out.","That design went to a toolmaker who produced a corresponding cutting die out of steel knives.","The die is mounted inside the cutting machine.","A technician feeds the machine one laminated foam sheet at a time, paper side down.","Grippers grab the edge of the paper, pulling the sheet into the machine.","The cutting die slices the puzzle pieces into the foam.","Even though the cutting pressure compresses the foam, it immediately bounces back, keeping the sheet intact.","Thanks to a high-quality rubber sheet inserted between the blades, the pieces don't get stuck in the die.","The stiff rubber provides counter-pressure to help remove the foam sheet.","If the sheet has two or three puzzles printed on it, the cutting die separates them.","Then a technician places the puzzle on a semi-automatic conveyor belt that moves it to the dismantling machine.","The machine infuses the die-cut puzzle sheet with steam.","The steam prevents static electricity, which causes pieces to cling together or to the inside of the machine.","The machine separates the pieces.","And dispenses them into a puzzle box.","A technician adds the standard instructions sheet, and seals the box.","The instructions are in black and white, but can be viewed in color online.","The first step is to sort the pieces by color and design and set aside the ones marked with a red dot which is part of the manufacturing process, not the puzzle itself.","The next step is to assemble the puzzle, section by section.","All the sections are flat, so the final step is to attach the flat sections to make the puzzle three-dimensional.","For an additional challenge, you can forgo the step-by-step instructions and refer only to the photos on the box.","If you happen to lose a puzzle piece, you can go to the company's website to trace the number of your missing piece, then order a new piece online.","The company will mail it to you so that you can complete your puzzle.","Unlike a traditional flat puzzle, you can move your 3-d puzzle without it falling apart.","It takes four to six months to develop and design this incredible 3-d puzzle.","Now it's time to spend even longer piecing this puzzle together."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Putty Knives","Garage Doors","Electric Motors","Wool"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made\"...","Putty knives...","Garage doors...","Electric motors...","And wool.","Rummage through a do-it-yourselfer's toolbox, and chances are, you'll come across a putty knife or two.","They come in several widths.","So whether you're scraping off paint, old wallpaper, or installing drywall, there's a putty knife that's the right size and shape for the job.","These putty-knife blades are made of steel that's flexible and durable, due in part to its high carbon content.","Production begins with workers feeding steel sheets into a press one by one.","The press's cutting guy punches out a blade for the type of putty knife they're producing.","The next press punches three rivet holes in the handle portion of the blade.","These are for attaching a hard plastic handle.","For models that'll have a handle made of a softer, rubberlike plastic, they fishbone the handle portion of the blade, so that it'll grip the plastic.","Steel has to be heat-treated to gain its full flexibility and strength.","First, they submerge the blades in a bath of molten salt.","The heat is intense--  1,400 degrees fahrenheit.","The blades soak for about a minute-- the time it takes for the metal temperature to rise to that of the tank.","As it does, the steel's molecular structure begins to change.","From here, they transfer the blades to two successively cooler salt baths.","That quenching, as it's called, further hardens the steel.","The blades are then tempered in an oven for eight hours at 400 degrees fahrenheit.","This gives the steel memory, meaning the blade will revert to its original shape when bent.","After heat treatment, lukewarm water jets rinse off the salt residue and cool the metal to room temperature.","Now that the metal has the required properties, the blades need the right profile.","A worker lays them on a magnetic plate that angles them downward.","The plate spins, running the blades against a grinding wheel.","It takes about 30 seconds of grinding to profile each blade and form the flex point-- the thinnest and most flexible part that's 1 1/2 inches from the end of the blade.","Blade profiles vary, because some jobs require a more flexible tool than others.","Now they clean the blades in a revolving drum filled with absorbent sand.","This removes oil and other residues left by the production process, and it preps the surface for the protective layer of lacquer that's applied next.","After coating the blades in lacquer, they dry them in an oven.","This seals the metal, preventing rust.","Assembly is completely automated.","The first machine slips on the plastic handle.","The next machine rivets it on.","The following machine slaps on a label, which identifies the size and type of putty knife.","Professional-quality putty knives have a thicker, stiffer blade.","The handle is made up of two halves.","The machine positions them onto the handle portion of the blade, then attaches them with a hollow ribbon.","This enables the knife to be hung up.","This factory also produces retractable utility knives.","It puts the cast aluminum handles through a machine that uses polishing stones to remove any shards of metal.","Workers assemble the utility knives manually, first installing the push button that moves the blade in and out.","After putting in a spare blade, they close up the handle with one screw.","This factory produces 150 different paint-preparation tools for a wide range of uses, from scraping to filling to smoothing out tape on wall joints.","Garage doors come in many styles, colors, and materials.","They can be made of steel, aluminum, wood, or vinyl.","Whether you choose a style that's plain, paneled, smooth, or textured, quality garage doors are lightweight, well-insulated, and airtight.","The typical residential garage door is made up of four panels.","Each one begins as a sheet of either aluminum or steel-- two metals that can tolerate harsh climates.","The side that will show has a baked-on coat of polyester paint.","Depending on the model, the sheet passes through rollers that imprint a texture, such as a simulated wood grain.","Then it goes through a press that imprints a design.","This model will have raised rectangles.","Others have horizontal stripes or no design at all.","After an automated machine cuts the continuous sheet to garage-door widths, another machine folds over the edges.","This creates half-inch joints for attaching the panels.","The polyester paint is elastic, so it simply stretches with the bending.","Now on the back side of the sheets, they hot-glue metal plates to reinforce the various components they'll later screw into the garage door, parts such as the lift handles, the hinge, and the bracket for the electric opener mechanism.","They also drill a hole through which they'll later inject insulation.","Now they slide two sheets together to form a panel.","They close off the ends with blocks of pine.","This will prevent cold air from penetrating inside.","They apply various stickers with installation, maintenance, and safety information.","Orange stick-on dots mark the location of the metal plates into which the installer will screw the hinges and lift handles.","They attach an aluminum bar to the long ends of each panel.","This holds the panel steady during the injection process.","After injection, the bars come off.","They load the panels onto a carousel and begin the process of filling the hollow interior cavity with insulation.","Through the hole they drilled earlier, they inject polyurethane foam, an expanding, plastic insulation material that's specially designed to penetrate hard-to-access spaces.","As we see in this demonstration, the polyurethane expands and becomes rigid.","This creates a solid core inside the garage door.","Polyurethane is one of the lightest types of insulation, so it doesn't make the garage door heavy.","Here's what the inside of a panel looks like once the foam hardens.","Now workers install various components, such as the rubber weather seal on the bottom panel.","This seal prevents cold air and water from entering the garage under the door.","Some garage-door models have windows to allow in natural light.","Workers first use a high-speed router to remove the rectangles where these windows will be installed.","Then they insert one of several window styles available.","These are double-sealed windows-- two thermal panes with an aluminum spacer in between.","The framing around the glass comes in different colors.","It's made of pvc-- a synthetic resin that doesn't discolor.","The frame prevents water and cold air from penetrating through the window.","Workers pack the installation hardware.","Then they weigh the box to ensure no part was left out.","At installation time, they attach the door panels at the joints with hinges.","A system of springs ensures the garage door is perfectly balanced and moves smoothly.","If properly installed, you should be able to lift or lower the garage door using two fingers.","Electric motors are made of two main components-- one stationary, called the stator, the other a rotor that moves inside the stator.","The stator has multiple wire coils.","Running electricity through them creates a concentrated magnetic field that turns the rotor, creating mechanical power.","The stator is lined with slots, each of which holds a copper coil.","The more powerful the motor, the bigger the stator and the larger the slots.","The first step is to line the slots with insulation.","This insulation will keep the voltage confined to the coils.","The coils are made from several copper wires wound together by programmable machines.","The bigger the motor, the more wires per coil.","In this motor, each coil consists of 13 strands of copper wire.","Now workers tie the coils.","This prevents the wires from unraveling while being inserted into the stator slots.","Workers cap each coil with fiberglass insulation.","Then they insulate the portion of the coil left outside the slots with fiberglass sheets.","Fiberglass wedges are inserted, locking the coils inside the slots.","Once all the coils are inserted and insulated, workers begin preparing the connection.","They slip an acrylic insulation sleeve over both ends of each coil--  13 coils, 26 ends.","Then they group these insulated wires into large power cables.","The number of wires per cable varies according to the speed and voltage of the motor.","They solder the grouped wires together, then insulate the cables.","They tuck some inside the stator and leave others accessible to be attached to a power source when the motor is installed.","Now, using a cord made of heat- and chemical-resistant polyester, they bind the coils tightly to ensure they won't move when the motor spins.","This unit of bound coils is known as the stator coil.","They now submerge the stator in a polyester-based varnish and vacuum it right through.","This thorough penetration makes the stator coil moisture-resistant.","The stator is put into an oven for six hours at 280 degrees fahrenheit.","The varnish hardens, making the stator coil rigid.","Now they have to balance the rotor.","If it's off-kilter, the motor will vibrate, hampering performance.","They balance it the same way a mechanic balances car tires, only with 100 times greater precision.","Now they slowly slide the rotor into the stator, careful not to damage the stator coil.","The rotor will turn on steel bearings.","They heat these bearings to expand them, so they'll install easily.","Then they blow on cold air to shrink them to a tight fit.","It's the same process with the motor's back cover.","Now they heat the fan and install it over the back cover.","The fan's job is to cool the running motor so that it doesn't overheat and break down.","They cover the fan with a safety guard, then install a cover on the front of the motor as well.","They run the finished motor through various tests to assess, among other things, insulation strength and performance.","These industrial motors are designed for use in factories, for running machinery, such as conveyer belts, pumps, fans, and compressors.","What do wool and hand cream have in common?","Well, a sheep's fleece has an oily protective coating which contains a substance called wool grease.","When factories make yarn, they first clean the wool with detergents.","The grease is processed into lanolin-- a common ingredient in hand creams.","Historians believe that people began raising sheep for food and clothing about 10,000 years ago.","And around 4,000 b.c., they started spinning the wool into yarn for weaving fabric.","The romans brought wool production to england in about 50 a.d. woolen fabrics would become the country's chief export for centuries.","In 1797, britain shipped 13 sheep to australia, starting what would become the largest wool industry in the world today.","Wool fabric is durable, wrinkle-proof, and holds its shape well.","It absorbs moisture and insulates against heat and cold.","That's why wool is ideal for clothing like sweaters and coats.","Sheep shearers use power shears, removing the fleece in one piece.","They discard any stained or inferior wool and then sort the rest according to the quality of the fibers.","This grading is based on length, color, waviness, and fineness.","The wool is cleaned with detergents before processing.","The wool arrives at the factory in compressed bales.","Workers untie them and feed the wool into the opening equipment, whose metal tooth rollers comb out and separate the fibers.","From there, the fibers go into the blending room, where air currents mix different grades of wool to get the desired texture.","If they'll be weaving a wool blend, they mix the wool fibers with other material, such as polyester fibers.","A thorough blending takes about an hour.","An air pipe transports the blended fibers to the next station.","On the way, sprayers lubricate them with a mineral-oil mixture to make processing easier.","The fibers arrive at the carding machine, where they pass through a series of rollers with thin wire teeth.","This untangles the fibers and lines them up parallel to each other.","This process also removes any pieces of debris caught in the fibers.","The carding process produces a smooth, flat sheet called a web.","The equipment divides this web into thin, flat strips.","These strips go through rub aprons-- two rollers that twirl them into thinner, rounded strips, called rovings.","The rovings wind onto a spool.","Rovings look like yarn.","But if you pull on them, they simply tear.","They haven't been spun, so they have no strength.","Each roving goes into a device called a spinning frame.","It stretches the roving and spins it tightly, producing wool yarn.","The yarn winds onto a bobbin.","Spinning gives the yarn strength.","Now they can weave it into wool fabric.","A fully automated loom does it all.","Watch in slow motion as it inserts one strand at a time crosswise through stationary lengthwise strands.","It's computer-programmed to thread in a specific under/over configuration, according to the type of weave.","The loom inserts 400 strands per minute.","After weaving, they burn off vegetal matter, such as straw fragments, then they dye and dry the fabric.","All wool fabrics undergo finishing to give them a particular appearance and feel.","These spiked rollers created a plush finish.","Wool fabrics can also have a sheered or flat finish."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Carved Wood Sculptures","Flatware","Cow Bells","Fountain Pens"]},"text":["Val gardena, a valley in the italian alps, is renowned for woodcarving.","This craft began there in the 17th century as a way to pass the time during the long mountain winters.","At first, woodcarvers made practical items, but before long, their masterful hands were creating works of art.","From pastoral scenes to religious themes, these magnificently carved wood sculptures seem almost lifelike.","After sketching the figure on paper, the carver sculpts a three-dimensional model from a block of plasticine.","Using his hands and an array of tools, he meticulously fashions all the intricate details he'll later re-create in wood.","For this flute-playing angel, he positions a replica of the instrument to get the angle of her arms and opening of her hands just right.","Next, using the plasticine model as a reference, he draws the figure onto a block of wood roughly the size and shape of the sculpture.","Using a mallet and chisels, he begins chipping away at the block of wood.","This is stone pine wood, a rare species that grows in the higher mountain valleys of the alps.","Pine is a soft wood, so it's ideal for carving.","When it comes time for the finer work-- carving the details and smoothing out the surface-- he switches to a fine paring chisel.","From the finished wood model, the factory casts a bronze copy to use for producing the final sculptures out of maple wood.","When the maple planks arrive at the factory, their moisture level, as this hydrometer reading shows, is typically between 70% and 80%.","If they carve the wood while it's still wet, the sculpture would eventually crack, so they load the wood into a giant dryer for about a week to bring the moisture down to an ideal 6%.","When the wood comes out of the dryer, they trim off the bark with a circular saw then cut off all but the best part in the middle.","They trim those middle pieces into uniform blocks just slightly larger than the size of the sculpture.","20 blocks at a time go onto a machine called a pantograph, a sharp carving head over each block.","Those 20 carving heads are linked to a blunt master head.","A technician slowly moves this master head over every inch of the bronze model.","This simultaneously manipulates the 20 carving heads to shape their respective blocks into fairly unrefined copies of the model in half the size.","The machine can't reproduce the fine details, so the original carver returns to personally carve each and every sculpture to completion.","By the time he's done, what once was an ordinary block of wood is forever transformed.","Now the sculpture truly comes alive in the talented hands of an artist.","With her palette of oil pants, she dresses the bare wood, alternating between different brushes to create varying textures.","Technique is everything here.","She must apply enough paint to cover the bare wood and enhance the craftsmanship, yet not apply too much paint.","Otherwise, this exquisitely carved sculpture could look like cheap plastic.","Once the paint dries, they glue a metal disk with the company name into a hole under the base.","Then they package the piece with protective wrapping and a certificate of authenticity that guarantees this is a genuine carved-wood sculpture from val gardena, italy.","Throughout the centuries, man fashioned eating utensils out of various metals.","The 1840s saw the invention of silver plating over inexpensive base metals.","Sterling silver and silver plate remained the norm until the early 1950s, when stainless-steel flatware made its debut.","Stainless steel flatware is durable and, unlike silver plate, doesn't dull, tarnish, or wear off.","This flatware starts out as thick wire called coil.","To make knives, the coil goes into a heading machine that cuts pieces to blade length, then forms them into blank shapes with a head at one end.","This bolster, as it's called, will connect the blade to the knife handle.","A furnace softens the metal for the final shaping in a forging press.","Three dies progressively forge the shape and trim off the excess metal.","After grinding the end of the bolster flat, the next machine welds on the tang, which fits inside the knife handle.","Now an automated grinding wheel tapers the blade thinner at the front.","A second grinding wheel scallops the front edge.","This is the knife's serration.","The thicker back end gives the blade strength to withstand the pressure you apply when cutting food.","For the knife handles, the factory uses stainless steel with a higher nickel content.","It has greater corrosion resistance and is easier to form, which is critical, given that handles often feature very intricate designs.","Handles, too, start out as coil that goes through a series of dies.","Each finished piece is half a handle.","A spot-welding machine tacks the two halves together, forming a handle shell.","To fuse the halves completely, this machine cuts a piece of copper-based wire and drops it inside the hollow handle.","A furnace melts the wire so that it flows into the crevice between the two halves, soldering the seam thoroughly.","An etching machine grinds the solder line until it blends in with the surrounding stainless steel.","Workers pour liquid cement into the center of a carousel on which they mount 50 handles at a time.","As the carousel spins, the centrifugal force shoots the cement outward, filling the handle cavities.","Then workers insert a blade into each one.","A 10-minute soak in hot water cures the cement.","Workers scrub off any excess cement that oozed out.","On the spoon line, a press cuts standard steel into paintbrush-shaped pieces.","Then heavy rollers stretch those pieces out, thinning the end that'll become the spoon's bowl.","A trim press then cuts the spoon's profile.","Next, a machine called a coining press punches the pattern into the handle then forms the bowl to its rounded shape.","Forks go through the same steps as spoons then through a press that cuts the tines in two stages.","A support bar keeps the tines from moving, while a coining press puts a slight bend in them.","The next machine slices off that bar and stacks the finished forks.","The last stop for all the flatware is the buffing equipment.","Cloth wheels polish the surface with liquid buffing compound until the steel shines.","The casual patterns are now ready for packaging.","The more formal ones get dressed up with full or partial plating in silver or gold.","In the swiss countryside, the cowbell is a traditional sight and sound.","At roundup, as the cows start walking, their bells clang and wake up the sleeping cows, telling them it's time to move.","At pasture, if a cow wanders off from the herd, its bell alerts the farmer.","swiss cowbells also play a ceremonial roll.","Farmers adorn their prize livestock with them.","The larger and more ornate the bell, the greater the farmer's pride in the animal.","Finer cowbells are made by artisans, like this one in switzerland.","He starts by laying a template on a sheet of steel that's 2 to 3 millimeters thick, depending on the type of bell.","With the plasma cutter, he cuts two pieces.","Each will form half the bell.","While each piece is still flat, he engraves a design using a hammer and burins of various sizes.","A burin is handled blade with a beveled tip.","Next, he heats a spot then stamps his logo and the bell size, according to a swiss numbering system.","Next stop, a gas-fired furnace.","The 1,800-degree-fahrenheit heat softens the metal, which he then lays in a forging press.","The press closes, shaping the piece into half a cowbell.","He repeats this process with a second piece to make the other half.","Then he refines the shape and thickness using a variety of hammers.","Forging each flat sheet into a half-bell made lines on the sides.","He now welds and then grinds those seams flat.","He hammers every centimeter of each bell half to refine and purify the sound.","It's time to weld the two halves together.","He tacks them in place then welds the entire seam.","Later, he'll grind the weld line flush with the bell's surface.","Next, he welds a steel handle to the top of the bell.","This will hold the leather strap from which the cowbell will hang.","Beneath the handle, on the inside, he welds on a v-shaped rod to hold the battle, the swinging hammer that strikes the bell's inner walls.","On each side, he pierces two holes for rivets where the bell halves cross over each other.","With a torch and a forging tool, he shapes each top rivet until it's nice and round.","Then he hammers each bottom rivet flat to make them unnoticeable.","Here he melts a brass bullet casing riveted area.","That white powder is borax, a mineral that helps the soldering process.","Adding this little bit of brass solidifies the fold and improves the bell's sound quality.","The cowbell's construction is now complete.","However, all that forging and welding has left dark spots on the steel.","So, the bell now goes for a 15-hour bath in hydrochloric acid.","This cleaning makes the bell even-toned and shiny.","A thorough washing removes the acid residue.","Then it's into a basin of sawdust to dry.","Sawdust absorbs water faster than cloths do.","The engraved decorations don't show up well on the shiny surface, so the artisan brushes acid on strategic spots to oxidize the steel and create the illusion of relief.","It takes tremendous skill to milk a beautiful cowbell out of an ordinary sheet of steel.","But there's still the decorative leather strap, which is the job of a saddlemaker.","some bells are simple, others elaborately decorated with baked-on enamel colors.","Either way, a fine, handcrafted cowbell will last for generations.","The fountain pen was invented in 1884.","Until then, people wrote with quills or steel pens, which required repeated dipping in a bottle of ink.","The fountain pen was revolutionary because it held its own ink in a built-in reservoir.","Discriminating writers still consider the fountain pen the ultimate writing instrument.","These high-end, italian-made fountain pens have a tubular middle called the barrel, which houses the ink reservoir.","There are various types of mechanisms for filling the barrel.","This one is called the filler pump.","It works just like a syringe.","You unscrew the end, which draws a piston upward, creating a vacuum that sucks up the ink.","When you write, the ink flows through a speed-regulating feeder to the nib of the pen.","Nibs are made of stainless steel or, in luxury pens like these, solid gold.","To make the nib, rollers flatten a piece of gold.","Then a press cuts out a starting shape, with a stress-relief hole to keep the nib from cracking when it flexes.","Another press stamps the caret marking and company name then bends the piece to its final shape.","A worker cuts the ink pathway using a diamond cutting wheel thinner than a human hair.","To fortify the nib's tip, this machine welds on a tiny glob of iridium, a durable metal in the platinum family.","Workers grind the iridium tip to a precise size and shape.","This is what dictates the thickness of the pen's line, from fine to broad, and the line's style, such as italic or oblique.","Polishing is the final stop on the journey from plain piece of gold to ornate nib.","The feeder that transfers ink from the reservoir to the nib is made from a cylindrical piece of ebonite, which they cut to a point.","These blades carve grooves down the sides.","When you write, these grooves fill with ink, regulating the rate of the ink flow.","One end of the feeder goes into a holder.","The other end slips behind the nib.","This machine pushes the nib into its final position, which technicians verify under a magnifier.","Elsewhere in the factory, they produce the pen's external parts.","Here, presses and metal drawing machinery shape sterling-silver disks into pen caps.","The cap protects the nib, of course, but it also provides decorative flare, often having guilloche, an intricate, diamond-cut engraving.","The factory's computer-guided engraving equipment decorates this model with subtle stripes.","A rolling engraver then applies the company's name.","Every cap has a clip made of beryllium copper, a strong yet flexible metal which they plate in gold.","The barrel and other parts for many models are made from plastic resin.","An injection-molding machine melts resin pellets into liquid then shoots it into molds.","When the resin solidifies, the machine ejects the molded parts ready for polishing.","The pieces join to each other with metal connecting rings.","The pen assembler carefully measures the placement of the resin piston within the barrel.","Once the piston's inserted, the edge of the barrel gets a thin coat of sealant to prevent ink leaks.","Then the assembler screws on the endpiece, the same one you unscrew to draw up the piston and fill the pen.","The finishing touch is to mount the nib.","Finally, every pen goes through a specific set of writing tests to ensure its performance measures up to its stylish good looks."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Noise Barrier Walls","Front"]},"text":["To contain the sounds of traffic, it's often necessary to put up a wall of silence.","Noise-barrier walls both absorb traffic noise and shield neighborhoods from it.","With stone or brick-like textures on both sides, they even look good on the street.","In the 1970s, noise-barrier walls were mainly drab concrete.","Fast forward to today, and the walls come in a range of textures and designs for curb appeal.","But of course, it's their noise-absorbing qualities that really improve the neighborhood.","They're made from a wood shaving and cement material that's very porous, which allows the walls to absorb sound and entrap it.","Production starts with the raw shavings.","A conveyor delivers them to a hammer mill.","Inside, rotating hammers force the wood shavings through a cutting screen.","This carves them into smaller particles of various sizes.","It's this combination of sizes that will create the noise-absorbing pores in the completed wall.","They test a proprietary chemical solution, that will be used to treat the wood particles, and confirm it's the right concentration.","An auger then mixes it into the wood particles until they're damp and thoroughly coated.","Without this treatment, the wood particles wouldn't bind with cement.","It will also protect the wood from decay.","In another mixer, they add water and a second chemical solution to further enhance the binding process.","The wood particles are now primed and ready to be mixed with a powdered mix of limestone clay called portland cement.","The machine works the ingredients until they form a cohesive material that can be shaped.","The next worker sprays a release agent onto the stone-pattern liner.","Each mold will form one noise barrier panel.","The team transfers the wood-and-cement blend into the mold.","They work at a steady pace to fill it before the mixture begins to dry.","Once they've filled it partway, they level the wood-cement material...","Then compact it with a tamping tool.","Next, they add a steel mesh.","This mesh will serve as a skeleton, allowing the wall to stand strong.","They pour freshly mixed concrete onto the steel mesh.","It flows through the mesh and onto the sound-absorbing mixture below, binding the two layers together.","The worker spreads the concrete throughout the mold.","He pierces the surface with a vibrating tool.","The vibrations consolidate the concrete and eliminate air pockets.","The two-person team levels the concrete layer using a wood screed.","They apply a second layer of the noise-absorbing material and level it.","They lower the stone-pattern press lid, which will mold the pattern onto the top side of the panel.","They set a 10-ton concrete block on the mold, and pressure forces the mold patterns onto both sides of the casting.","After a few minutes, they remove the lid, and the imprint is revealed.","They quickly cover the panel surface with a plastic sheet to prevent any evaporation of moisture as the cure continues.","If the blend cures too quickly, it could crack.","After another day, they remove the tarp and they're ready to extract the panel from the mold.","A crane lifts the panel and sets it aside to cure for about a month.","Built panel by panel, these noise-barrier walls can become a substantial fortress, providing a solid defense against noise pollution.","Front-loading washing machines use far less water than standard washers.","They're gentler on clothes because there's no agitator in the middle of the drum.","The spin speed is usually about 20 percent faster than the standard top-load machine, so the clothes come out of the wash drier.","With gravity helping tumble the laundry, a front-load washer is gentler on the clothes while using less water.","Its design can also accommodate a larger-capacity drum, so you can do bigger loads.","The washer's cabinet is made of steel.","A washing machine is routinely exposed to moisture, so they use galvanized steel, which doesn't rust.","The cabinet base is comprised of four pieces, which, together, provide more structural strength than a single piece would.","At the corners, workers install four screw-in rubber feet which are height-adjustable.","This allows the washer to level on an uneven floor.","Next are the two side panels.","They are already stamped to the required shape in a press and coated with baked-on paint.","This automated machine installs brackets on the inner side for mounting components later on.","The next automated machine attaches the side panels to the cabinet.","Rather than welding the edges, which would ruin the paint finish, the machine's punch tools mechanically lock them to the base.","A robot then transfers the cabinet to the assembly line.","Here, workers connect the side panels with a structural support bracket and power cord, already installed on it.","Workers prepare the rear portion of the machine's two-piece plastic tub.","First, a robot mounts a steel bearing on a press.","The press then forces the bearing into a hole at the bottom of the inside of the tub.","Then the process is repeated but on the outside of the tub.","This pair of bearings seals the hole to prevent leaks, and enables the stainless-steel wash drum to spin.","To counterbalance the spinning load, they weight the front of the drum with a plastic ring, containing heavy steel balls suspended in fluid.","Then, they insert the shaft at the base of the drum into the tub's bearings and cover the top of the drum with the front section of the tub.","It has a rubber gasket called a bellow.","The bellow forms a leak-proof seal around the drum.","After welding the tub sections together, they mount the washer's motor to the rear.","In this stator-rotor motor, the electric current travels through the coiled copper wires of the motor's stator, generating pulses of electricity.","Those pulses push on magnets lining the motor's rotor, positioned on top.","The magnets repel the pulses, and this repeated pulse repelling drives the drum in the direction and speed required.","Next, they install a drain hose on the side of the tub and attach it with a retainer clip.","They bolt a piece of concrete to either side of the drum opening to counterbalance the weight of the motor on the back.","Then, they turn the now-complete wash unit on its side and install it in the cabinet.","Next, they mount the drain pump in the cabinet base and connect its wiring.","The pump's job is to remove dirty water from the tub.","Four shock absorbers are installed between the bottom of the wash unit and the base.","These large pistons dampen much of the vibration during the wash and spin cycles.","Next, the front panel.","Like the sides, it's made of a stamped sheet of galvanized steel with a baked-on paint finish.","They install and connect the console, which houses the machine's central control module.","They pull the bellow on the drum all around the front opening to seal the perimeter.","They secure it in place with a wire retainer clip.","The hinged door has a see-through plastic window.","Like the rest of the machine's metal parts, the door panel and hardware attaching it are also made of galvanized steel.","The back panel is left unpainted.","After feeding the power cord through its hole, workers screw the panel to the rest of the cabinet.","Then, they complete the cabinet with the top panel, which has the baked-on paint finish.","The front-load washing machine is now all set and ready for its first load.","Bourbon whiskey is uniquely american.","The u.s. congress officially recognized it as a product distinct to the nation.","This amber-hued brew was first cooked up by scottish and irish settlers in late 18th century kentucky.","Today, production continues there with the approval of congress.","The american government regulates the making of bourbon to keep this native spirit true to tradition.","By law, it must be made from a grain mix that's at least 51% corn.","Distillers often use more for flavor.","Shakers sift out cobs or other foreign material, and the kernels head into a grinder.","Inside, rollers crush the kernels to release the flavor of the starch.","The process leaves larger chunks of the corn germ and husks.","Once distilled, these bits will settle out.","In separate batches, the machine also grinds malted barley and soft red winter wheat.","They cook the corn and blend it with limestone-rich, iron-free kentucky water.","They add the barley, winter wheat, and a bit of mash from a previous batch.","Along with a special yeast formulation, the grain mash flows into fermentation tanks made of cypress wood.","After 8 to 10 hours, the yeast works its magic and the mash becomes a bubbling brew.","The bubbling is caused by the release of carbon-dioxide gas as the grain sugars ferment and become alcohol.","After three days, it has fermented into a thick liquid they call 'distiller's beer\".","They pump it into a column still which boils off the alcohol, leaving water and other substances behind.","The alcoholic vapor rises up to be condensed into liquid.","After distilling it a second time, the alcohol concentration rises to a strong 130 proof.","It's clear, with no noticeable color.","At this stage, they call it \"white dog\".","Once water has been added to dilute the whiskey to 110 proof, an employee takes a sample and sends it to the lab.","There, a technician places a test tube of the alcohol into a gas chromatograph tester.","It vaporizes the alcohol and then analyzes the flavor compounds and alcohol strength.","With approval from the lab, they're ready to barrel the batch.","They pump it out of storage tanks and into new oak barrels that have been purposely charred on the inside.","Charring caramelizes naturally occurring wood sugars to add sweetness to the alcohol as it ages.","It will also turn the clear alcohol an amber color.","Once corked with a walnut stopper, the employee rolls the barrel into a multi-tiered warehouse.","Here, the bourbon will age for many years.","Partway through, they'll move the barrel to another level of the building due to temperature variations.","This will make the product more consistent.","After six to seven years, they uncork the stopper and insert steel tubes to draw in ambient air.","This causes the bourbon to flow freely when tipped, and it gushes into a trough.","The alcohol has ripened to a sweet caramel-colored brew.","After they add more water to make it 90 proof, it's ready for bottling.","Nozzles fill the bottles with bourbon right to the neck.","The bottles then circle over to the cap applicators.","The applicators spin metal caps, screwing them onto the bottles.","The bottles then ride a carousel and a device picks up and applies the labels.","A brush smoothes them to the bottles.","Down the line, a two-person team retrieves the bottles and dips the caps in hot wax.","The wax quickly dries and solidifies to give the bourbon a better seal.","After several years in the distillery, this kentucky bourbon has come of age, and that calls for a toast.","The circuit board is where the electronic components are located, along with the electrical connections which power them.","In a larger device, such as a computer, the circuit board is typically rigid.","When the device is compact, like a small camera, the circuit board must be flexible.","It needs to fold to fit inside.","Flexible circuit boards are so thin and pliable, they're nicknamed origami circuitry, after the japanese art of paper folding.","At the core of the boards is a hair-thin polymer film that's both bendable and heat resistant.","The manufacturer produces this material for several industries.","In this case, they cut rolls of it to the width required for making flexible circuit boards.","With a rigid sheet of paper lending support from underneath, the film enters a machine which sandwiches it between two thin sheets of copper.","A cutter then slices the sandwich into rectangular sheets.","A cushion of air pumped through the conveyor belt literally floats sheet after sheet off the machine and into a stack.","Each three-layer sheet is separated from the next by the support paper called a laminate.","The film at the center has a heat-activated adhesive coating, while the adjoining copper surfaces have been chemically roughened to enhance adhesion.","After drawing the layers tightly together with a vacuum, workers place the laminates in a high-temperature, high-pressure chamber for several hours.","This activates the adhesive, bonding the layers.","To test the bond strength, they burn some adhesive off a sample of finished laminate to pry apart the layered edge.","Then, they grab the top copper layer with this pulling device and measure the strength required to peel it off the film.","The laminate's now shipped to a circuit board factory.","Here, computer-guided machines cut them into specific-sized panels and drill tiny holes for mounting the electronic components.","Then a coating machine uses a combination of heat and pressure to apply a light-sensitive fluid to the panel's surface.","Technicians load the panel into an exposure machine, in which a computer-guided laser scans the circuitry pattern onto the coded surface.","A laser is a beam of focused light, so wherever it hits, the fluid reacts and hardens.","The dark areas of unexposed fluid remain soft.","The next machine acid-washes the soft areas, removing both the fluid and the copper layer underneath it.","Now the only copper remaining on top of the polymer film is in the circuitry pattern.","This inspection device meticulously checks every single copper circuit.","Next, they remove surface dust with a sticky roller.","The panel must be pristine before receiving the sheet of electrical insulation, a mere .","25 of a millimeter thick.","Technicians use a magnifier to carefully match up alignment holes on the film with corresponding alignment holes on the panel.","By activating the film's built-in adhesive with a soldering iron, they tack the insulation to the panel at key spots.","The next step is to fully laminate the insulation to the panel.","Technicians sandwich two panels at a time between sheets of protective plastic.","This protects the surfaces from the heat and weight of the lamination press.","As it forces the insulation film deep down onto the panel, it encapsulates the circuitry.","They load the panels into the lamination press, apply a vacuum to remove the air between the layers and start her up.","For the next hour and a half, the press simultaneously applies high pressure while heating the panels to 400 degrees fahrenheit.","When the panels cool and come out of the press, technicians place one at a time on a circuit board-shaped dye.","Then they release a press which forces the panel onto the sharp dye, slicing away the excess material.","The flexible circuit board is now ready for the company that installs the electronic components.","There are two ways to mount components-- solder them directly onto the board's surface or solder tiny prongs underneath the components, known as leads, into the board's mounting holes.","A flexible circuit board can have as few as a dozen components or as many as 500.","Technicians can solder larger ones magnified under a microscope, but only robots can solder smaller ones because they're so tiny and barely visible to the human eye."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Farmed Caviar","Intake Manifolds","Motorcycle Jackets","Shovels & Spades"]},"text":["Caviar is a term for the salted eggs of the sturgeon fish.","A pearly delicacy, they've long been the snack food of the privileged, enjoyed for centuries by roman emperors, saudi sheikhs, russian czars, and english kings.","A few nibbles still offer a taste of the high life.","Caviar is sometimes called \"black gold\".","No wonder.","A teaspoon of fish eggs costs more than a meal at some family restaurants.","For most of us, a little caviar is a big splurge.","Overfishing has depleted wild siberian sturgeon stocks.","So at this hatchery in the southern united states, they farm the species for their eggs and flesh.","They feed the young fish high-protein pellets.","The juvenile sturgeon fish needs constant nourishment to develop.","A computerized system dispenses feed every four minutes.","As the fish grow larger, the feeding schedule ratchets down a bit.","The fish produce tiny metabolites that are toxic to them.","Those are filtered out by bacteria introduced for this purpose.","Staff routinely test the tank water to ensure the bacteria are doing their job adequately.","After a few months of growth, they transfer the fish to larger tanks.","Here, mesh drums filter the solid waste they produce.","Pumps constantly circulate the water to move it through plastic nuggets that house the all-important filtering bacteria.","Circulating the water also disperses carbon dioxide gas emitted by the fish and introduces oxygen, which they need to survive and thrive.","Ordinary molasses injected into the tanks is consumed by the beneficial bacteria, helping them to process the harmful metabolites produced by the fish.","After five to seven years of growth, the fish are at least a yard in length, and they should be full of eggs.","Workers transfer them to tubs and mix in a gas to put the fish to sleep.","Now sedated, the fish can be more easily handled and are taken to the ultrasound station.","Using high-frequency sound waves, they probe the sturgeon's ovaries.","This gives them a clear picture of her egg production.","She should contain tens of thousands of eggs.","If not, she'll go back into the tank to mature some more.","But if she's ready, they'll harvest the ovaries.","They clean the egg-laden ovaries and transfer them by the bagful to a chilled room with filtered air.","This is just one of the siberian sturgeon's two ovaries, and it's a mass of roe-- fish eggs that are about to become pure caviar.","They're extremely fragile and need careful handling to separate them from the membrane.","This worker gently rubs the eggs against a mesh screen.","She sets the tissue aside for composting and lifts the screen, revealing the thousands of delicate sturgeon eggs.","But this caviar isn't quite ready yet.","She now rinses the eggs repeatedly with cold water to wash away impurities, like bits of broken eggs and tissue residue.","Using tweezers, she picks out remaining specks of membrane and crushed egg remnants until what's left is pure and perfect.","She pours the eggs into a fine mesh colander.","The volume decreases as the water drains off.","She weighs the drained caviar and seasons it with salt, measuring an amount that's about 3.5% of the caviar's weight.","This precise salting maximizes the caviar's flavor and substantially improves shelf life.","She puts the eggs on ice for about six minutes to absorb the salt.","The salt draws out more moisture, so she drains it one more time.","She then blots up remaining moisture with a highly absorbent paper towel.","She pulls away the towel gently, leaving the pearls of caviar intact.","She packs it into a lacquer-lined tin and presses down the clusters of eggs to eliminate any air pockets, which would cause oxidation and spoilage.","She seals the tin with a thick band of rubber.","This caviar has been many years in the making...","Farm-produced.","No wild fish were destroyed to get these eggs to market, and that means they should appeal to a growing appetite for something a little more sustainable.","The intake manifold distributes the air-and-fuel mixture to the engine cylinders.","Inside, a spark plug ignites the mix, setting off a combustion cycle which ultimately propels the vehicle.","For optimal performance and efficiency, the manifold must distribute to all the cylinders evenly.","Whether in an engine with a carburetor like this one or in a newer-technology fuel-injected engine, the manifold's tubes, called intake runners, feed the fuel-and-air mixture to the engine's cylinder heads.","The manifold is made from long blocks of extruded aluminum.","First, a computer-guided saw cuts each block to the required length.","Metal cutting metal produces a lot of friction-generated heat.","A steady stream of water-based coolant and lubricant prevents the saw blade from overheating and breaking down.","A computer-guided machine shapes the block from multiple angles, transforming it into the rough form of one of the manifold's two sides, called banks.","Later, this bank, which has four ports for runners, will be mated with the opposing bank, which has another four ports for runners.","The machine now shapes the inside of the runner ports, which are curved and tapered in a very specific way.","The banks come off the machine with some rough edges.","A machinist smoothes them out with a handheld grinder, a process called deburring.","Once the banks are finished, they go onto a flow-testing machine.","It measures the airflow in cubic feet per minute in each port.","To achieve maximum efficiency, each port must have the same amount of air moving through it at the same speed.","The runners have been machined separately.","A quality-control technician runs a file over the runners and the banks to check for any imperfections.","He then cleans all the surfaces with solvent.","The aluminum must be free of any oils or other contaminates prior to welding.","It's finally time to mate the two banks.","Workers mount them on a mock-up engine in order to get the fit exact, then temporarily bolt them down to hold their position.","Now a welder takes over.","Using a high-precision welding machine, he first tacks the banks to each other in a few spots to secure the positioning.","Then he fully welds them together.","Next, he attaches the intake runners to the ports.","A light tap to make the tongue-and-groove connection, followed by welding along their perimeter.","A manifold has one intake runner for each cylinder of the engine.","This one's designed for a fuel-injected v-8 engine.","Therefore, it has eight runners.","Once all the runners are welded on, he closes up the manifold with front, back, and top panels.","He welds these parts, as well.","Next, workers mount the fuel rails, which send fuel to the injectors.","The injectors go on afterward.","This is a high-performance manifold with a built-in nitrous oxide system.","These are the stainless-steel feed lines for it.","Nitrous oxide is a compressed gas that's high in oxygen.","It allows more fuel to be injected, which increases combustion pressure, giving the engine up to an additional 500 horsepower.","They mount the throttle body through which air enters the engine.","The pivoting brass blade in the center is an air-metering device.","The deeper the driver pushes the gas pedal, the more it opens, letting in more air.","The injectors simultaneously shoot in more fuel.","The result-- more power.","This sophisticated testing machine checks for leaks and measures several factors, such as the nitrous oxide flow.","While the function is the same, the shape and configuration of intake manifolds vary according to the type of engine in order to optimize performance and fuel efficiency.","First conceived in 1920s america, the motorcycle jacket is designed for the open road.","Made of tough leather with an off-center zipper that creates a seal, this jacket is the ultimate windbreaker.","It also protects the biker from scrapes and cuts in the event of a high-speed fall.","The motorcycle jacket evolved from other wind-resistant garments, like world war i aviator jackets and duster coats.","Styles come and go, but the classic biker jacket has ruled the road for decades.","They make it from heavy steer hide.","A worker inspects the skins for flaws and selects the best.","He also pairs up skins of similar hues and textures so all the sections of the jacket will match up.","He wipes oils from the hides with a piece of sheepskin, then stacks the hides in bundles of 6 to 10.","It's now time to select a pattern.","In this case, it's a men's medium.","There are about 50 pieces in one motorcycle-jacket pattern.","Cutting the leather takes an experienced hand and a keen eye.","The cutter works around any imperfections and chooses the stronger sections of the hide for the parts of the jacket that will be subject to the greatest wear.","It's a skill that takes about two years to master.","They punch out small components like pocket flaps and trim with a die, producing stacks of parts in one swoop.","They call it clicking out the parts.","These parts of the jacket don't vary in size, so different-sized patterns aren't needed.","The next worker lowers a hydraulic blade to cut pocket slits in several jacket front panels.","This is called the pocket chop.","Working from the reverse side of the panel, workers fold back the edges of the pocket slits and glue them down with strong industrial adhesive.","They gently hammer the glued border to improve the adhesion.","A few taps to both the back and the front of the pocket slit seals this job.","A seamstress sews a zipper onto a pocket.","Then she stitches the pocket into the panel slit.","This is the right panel, and this side of the jacket gets three pockets.","Biker jackets usually have lots of pockets because motorcycles don't have much storage capacity.","She pieces together the rest of the leather shell.","In the meantime, another crew rolls out quilted fabric for the liners.","They align it with other piece of the material that have been cut to length.","They place a weight on one end and move to the other to cut the material to precisely the same length as the pieces underneath.","Once they've accumulated numerous layers, they're ready for the pattern.","This time, it's a big sheet of paper printed with the pattern markers.","The pattern designs have been precisely configured on a computer to minimize fabric waste.","Using sharp vertical blades, they cut along the pattern lines, slicing through the quilted stack.","In a matter of minutes, they produce liner components for a couple dozen motorcycle jackets.","In the sewing department, the seamstress pieces together the quilted lining and stitches on the label.","She mates it to the now-completed leather shell, sewing from the inside so the stitches won't be visible.","With the job done and the off-center front zipper installed, the next worker turns the motorcycle jacket right-side out.","She pulls the seams of the jacket over a pointed metal rod.","This gets rid of any puckers and rounds out the seams.","Using a hydraulic device, another worker installs button-down snaps on the collar.","This will keep it from flapping around and distracting the biker.","A worker drives the prongs of a metal star into a piece of shoulder trim and bends them back.","This and other metallic touches adds a bit of flash to the jacket.","Made famous on the big screen by hollywood tough guys like marlon brando and james dean decades ago, the motorcycle jacket is still riding a wave of popularity.","Shovels and spades are indispensable tools when it comes to digging into the ground or transferring materials such as soil, sand, or gravel.","Lower-quality shovels' and spades' heads are stamped out of steel, whereas the best-quality ones are constructed from one piece of forged steel.","The head of a shovel or spade consists of a blade and a socket.","The socket fits over the shaft-- the part you hold.","These heads are forged from a single piece of steel, far stronger than those made of a welded-together socket and blade.","It all begins in the factory's foundry, where workers heat planks of steel about 8/10 of an inch thick to 2,000 degrees fahrenheit.","A massive press then cuts the planks into t-shaped pieces.","Each piece will become a head.","The vertical part of the \"t\" will form the socket...","The horizontal part, the blade.","The next press, with a couple of strikes, forms a neck-- the starting point for the socket.","Next, they spread out the neck between giant rollers, flattening and thinning the steel in the process.","Then they lay the neck in a stamping press that chops off the excess metal.","Next, they finalize the socket shape.","The first strike simultaneously curves it into a \"u\" shape and punches a rivet hole.","The next turns the ends around to form a rudimentary circle.","Then repeated strikes round out the circle, perfecting it.","Work begins on the other end of the \"t\" piece.","Rollers spread and flatten it, forming the rough shape of the blade.","A press stamps the precise contour.","Another then forms the required angles, finalizing the blade shape.","The repeated heating, reheating, and forming renders the steel brittle and weak.","That's why the next step, heat treatment, is critical.","First, they heat the head to 2,000 degrees fahrenheit at a very specific rate over a period of 90 seconds.","Then they submerge it in cool water for about 30 seconds.","This heating and quenching, as it's called, rearranges the molecular composition, strengthening the steel.","Next step, a coat of paint-- either clear, allowing the natural color to show through, or traditional green or gray.","They bake the paint for about five minutes to make it ultra-durable.","The shovel shaft is made of ash, a particularly strong type of wood.","They take a cylindrical piece and saw an 8-inch slot down one end, then widen the slot a bit.","They sit that slotted end in boiling water for three minutes to soften up the wood just enough to make it pliable.","Then they line it up with a horseshoe-shaped clamp.","A hydraulic ram then pushes the shaft forward, spreading each side of the slot around the clamp.","They move the shaft in this clamp state to a slightly heated chamber for a couple of days to dry out, after which, the wood assumes this shape permanently.","After putting a rivet through the bottom of the split to prevent further splitting down the length of the shaft, they sand the wood to smooth it out, taper the end that will go into the socket, mount a riveted handle grip, then do a final overall sanding.","The shaft now goes to the assembly shop, where they put it in a press and mate it with the head.","Then they secure it with a rivet through the rivet hole in the socket.","The next operation is called linishing.","Using a coarse sanding belt, they wear down the wood where it meets the metal, making a smooth transition between the two materials.","At the same time, they smooth down the edge of the rivet.","Next, they dip the shaft in wood stain.","This brings out the beautiful grain.","Once the stain dries, they apply a protective coat of varnish.","Other models have a metal handle on a wooden shaft or a nylon handle on a fiberglass shaft.","Different designs with the same purpose-- to get the job done."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Eyeglass Lenses","Granite","Potato Chips","Microprocessors"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Eyeglass lenses...","Granite...","Potato chips...","And computer microprocessors.","Remember when wearing coke-bottle eyeglasses was your one-way ticket to being the class nerd?","Well, today, even if you need a heavy-duty prescription, you can wear fashionable eyeglasses with thin and lightweight plastic lenses.","Eyeglass lenses start out as large plastic disks.","The first step is to place a protective film over the convex side so it won't get damaged while the lab works on the concave side.","With a scanner, they retrieve the customer's prescription from the central computer.","Then they program those measurements into the tray holding the disks.","Next, they heat up a mixture of seven metals to 122 degrees.","Any hotter would melt the disk on contact.","Out of that molten metal, they mold an attachment.","This allows the disk to be mounted on a machine for tooling.","At this point, robots take over.","When the tray with the disks arrives, the milling machine reads the prescription information, then reshapes the plastic accordingly.","First, it thins the disk and shaves it down to a smaller diameter.","Then it creates the required curvature.","The disk is now a lens.","But you can still see the concentric circles left by the tooling, and the surface of the lens is rough, so they polish it using abrasive paper under water heated precisely to 66 degrees.","The water temperature must be constant, or else the lens will become deformed.","Now that the lens is perfectly shaped, they remove the metal attachment...","Then peel off the protective film on the other side.","Using a machine called a lensometer, they make sure the prescription is accurate.","Next, the lenses go through an automated 15-stage chemical cleaning then are coated with varnish to make them scratch-resistant.","They go into an oven for three hours until the varnish cures.","Next comes the antireflection treatment.","This will increase the lenses' transparency, allowing in more light.","The lenses go into a chamber.","They add different powdered chemicals, such as silicium oxide, titanium oxide, and zirconium oxide.","They close the door, then pump all the air out of the chamber.","Using a high-powered electron beam, they heat the chemicals to the boiling point.","The powders transform from solid to gas, coating the lenses in the process.","It's finally time to fit the lenses to the frame.","They position a suction cup on the lenses to hold them in place during the fitting.","An automated machine traces the shape of the frame...","Then cuts the lenses to that shape.","With regular frames, the lenses simply pop in.","To attach ultralight metal frames, they drill holes right through the lenses.","From plastic disk to the latest in eyewear in just three days.","What do you get when you cross a spider with a goat?","A silk fiber stronger than steel, yet more elastic than nylon.","Researchers implanted a spider's web-spinning genes into a goat's mammary glands.","The result-- goat's milk with silk proteins, the raw material for a fabric strong enough to be bulletproof.","Granite is one of the strongest stones on earth, and it's the darling of decor these days.","As an indoor/outdoor building material, it's timeless, elegant, and resistant to acid rain.","Nature's granite factory lies many miles beneath the earth's surface.","Boiling molten rock called \"magma\" builds up pressure from the intense heat and rises through cracks and crevices in the earth's crust.","As it rises, it slowly cools and solidifies into granite.","Most granite is buried under sedimentary rock, which makes up most of the earth's surface.","The challenge is to extract as much granite from the quarry as possible while losing as little as possible to damage from the extraction process.","They start by outlining a section of rock wall up to 99 feet long by 23 feet wide.","They use a gas flame to burn long, narrow channels to free up the sides.","Then they drill holes 23 feet deep along the back and bottom.","They feed explosive cables into the holes.","Then they set it off.","The explosion detaches the section.","Then they use a combination of drills, steel pegs, plates, and wedges to cut it down and cut it down further until they have rough blocks measuring 10 feet long by 5 feet wide and 5 feet deep, a size the granite factory can handle.","The blocks may be small, but each one weighs more than 45,000 pounds.","At the factory, the first cut is called \"slabbing\".","They use this type of saw to cut slabs more than 2 inches thick.","The blade's metal segments contain synthetic diamond particles, which create the friction needed to make the cut.","Water keeps the saw from overheating.","It's a slow process.","The saw cuts less than 22 square feet of granite per hour.","They use a gang saw to cut slabs thinner than 5 centimeters to make kitchen countertops, for example.","This saw has steel blades-- tense enough not to bend under the pressure of cutting and calibrated to cut as straight as possible.","The gang saw cuts at a rate of about 86 square feet per hour.","It takes three entire days to cut through the rough block.","Once a slab is cut, it goes for polishing.","This is what will bring out the beauty of the stone.","The polishing line has 19 heads, each of which has six bricks that polish by abrasion, like sandpaper.","The brick grains get progressively finer as you go down the line.","The polishing line processes about a 10 square feet of granite per minute.","For a high-gloss finish, a slab goes through all 19 heads.","For a semigloss finish, it goes through just the first 10 heads.","For a rough finish, slabs skip the polishing line altogether and instead go through a process called \"flaming\".","With a stream of water to keep the slab from cracking under the heat, they run a propane flame at 2,000 degrees fahrenheit across the surface.","This intense heat makes the quartz inside the granite explode, creating a rough surface.","They often use this technique for nonslip flooring.","After the finish, the last step is to cut the slabs to specifications.","Granite is composed of various minerals.","They're interlocked like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle, giving the stone its trademark speckles and its remarkable strength.","They say chips were invented when someone sent back his fried potatoes, complaining the slices were too thick.","The insulted chef cut them paper-thin and fried them to a crisp.","So pride, not necessity, was the mother of this invention.","Potato chips have since become the consummate snack food.","They have to be made with fresh potatoes, no more than 24 hours old, otherwise the chips will have black spots.","After a brushing machine removes the dirt, the potatoes travel along a water canal to the peeler.","They tumble around and around against the peeler's abrasive rollers until the skins come off.","This machine can peel 12,000 pounds of potatoes per hour.","Next stop-- a machine that separates the potatoes by size.","The small ones fall below to be rinsed.","The larger ones stay on top to be cut.","Then they fall down to the rinser, too.","Next, the potatoes go through slicers.","The slicers' blades are adjustable.","They can be set to different thicknesses or to different shapes, to slice ripple chips, for example.","The centrifugal force created by the spinning throws the potatoes against the sharp blades.","To make regular chips, they cut slices 6/100 of an inch thick.","An average potato will yield about 36 chips.","Finally, it's time to wash the potato slices.","They spin inside a giant barrel of cold, fresh water for about a minute.","Then, like at the car wash, the slices pass under an air blower to dry up the excess water.","The fryer contains canola oil boiling at 375 degrees fahrenheit.","It takes just 3 minutes to fry the potato slices into potato chips.","As the chips exit the fryer on the conveyor belt, the excess oil drips off.","Next, a shower of salt.","The chips then move on to the sorter.","An electronic camera identifies any chips that have brown spots or other defects.","The camera then triggers the thin pipe directly above that bum chip to blow it off the conveyor belt with air pressure.","Elsewhere in the factory, they're making another popular snack food, cheese puffs.","They take corn flour and mix it with water.","An extrusion machine forces the mixture through round holes.","When the snakelike streams come out the other end, a knife cuts them into pieces.","The heat in the machine then causes the flour in those pieces to explode, creating slightly curled puffs.","They spray those puffs with a mixture of canola oil, powdered cheese, and natural colorings.","A revolving drum mixes it all together.","Back in the chips department, they spray the potato chips with powdered seasonings, which simulate flavors such as barbecue or salt and vinegar.","The next machine separates and weighs the portions to be packaged.","The chips drop into bags that are then heat-sealed.","It's taken about 15 minutes to go from raw potato to potato chips-- a lot longer than it takes to eat them.","A microprocessor is the brain inside a computer.","Its made up of a microchip on an electronic card.","Preparing the chip to be installed on the card is a delicate and precise operation.","Scientists built the first computer in 1937, but it could only do algebra.","The first general-purpose computer, in 1946, was the size of 20 refrigerators.","During the 1950s, transistors replaced bulky vacuum tubes, then integrated circuits replaced transistors.","But the biggest breakthrough came in 1971 with the microprocessor-- all the components on one miniscule chip.","That's what made the personal computer possible.","They start with a ceramic square called a substrate.","This will carry the microchip.","A machine coats the substrate surface with flux, a chemical that makes it sticky.","This will hold the microchip in place until it's soldered.","The factory receives the microchips ready-made, with all the circuits in place.","They place a microchip on each substrate.","An infrared light guides the machine to place the chip in precisely the right spot.","They pull a sample from the production line to further verify the positioning with a microscope.","Next stop-- a soldering oven at 689 degrees.","The heat melts tiny beads of tin positioned on the chip, binding it to the substrate.","Next, they prepare to solder an aluminum cap over each microchip.","The cap will have two functions-- to protect the chip and to dissipate the heat that the chip generates.","A robotic arm picks up four caps at a time and positions them over the microchips.","They go into a soldering oven at 302 degrees for about an hour.","The next step is to create the electrical connections that will later link the microprocessor to the computer's electronic card.","They start with tiny cylindrical pieces of tin, called \"columns\".","Tin conducts electricity.","A giant suctioning sieve vibrates the columns until they fall through the holes.","This lines them up vertically so that they can be attached to the substrate.","A machine spreads a thick adhesive paste, then attaches the vertical columns in it from underneath.","A robotic arm positions the chip-carrying substrate onto the pasted columns.","The result is a microchip with 1,000 connections.","For even more connections, they use tin balls instead of columns because balls are sturdier and more reliable.","They, too, go through a suctioning sieve, only instead of paste, they're stuck on with flux, that sticky chemical used earlier to position the microchip onto the substrate.","The finished microchip unit goes into a bath of water and solvents to remove any excess flux or other residues.","Last stop--  quality control testing, up to 12 hours in an oven heated to 284 degrees.","From here, the microprocessor unit goes to another factory where it's soldered onto an electronic card, which then goes into a computer."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Garden Forks","English Toffee","Paint Chip Cards","Bundt Pans"]},"text":["The garden fork was once a very prized possession-- so coveted, it was often the object of theft.","That was centuries ago, when a family's very survival depended on the crops they grew.","Today, of course, food is mass produced and sold in supermarkets.","But the garden fork still rules in the backyard garden.","There are many versions of the trusty garden fork.","Use one to work the garden, and you'll reap the benefits.","At this factory, they've been forging garden forks from a solid-steel slab for over two centuries.","Using a 660-ton punch press, they cut two basic fork shapes from this hot and malleable slab.","The tines or prongs for this particular kind of fork are shorter than most because these are border forks used for turning soil rather than digging deep.","With the basic shape now established, it's back into the furnace to re-soften the stem.","A worker repeatedly feeds it to rollers to thin and widen it substantially.","He strikes the stem with another punch press.","This one hit trims it while cutting holes for attaching the wood shaft.","The trimmings will be remelted and recycled into new forks.","The next press slams the steel stem into a cylindrical die to force it into the basic shape of a socket.","He slides the socket onto a coned form and strikes it repeatedly to refine the socket shape.","This sizes it for a wooden shaft.","They take an entirely different approach when making digging forks because of their longer curved tines.","After forging a kind of spider shape, a worker bends a prong around a post to orient it for shaping.","This two-person team works in tandem.","One fires the spider and bends the prongs.","The other worker inserts the prong in the grooves of two revolving dies.","This rolls the tine within the confines of the grooves to stretch it long and thin.","With two tines now shaped, his partner bends them out of the way so he can work on the third tine.","Rolling takes 18 months of training to perfect.","If the tine isn't precisely aligned with the grooves, the equipment could seize and throw the worker backwards.","Not only could he be injured, but the fork and the dies would most certainly be wrecked.","With a fourth tine now stretched long and thin like the rest, the other member of the team twists all four tines around the post again, this time to bend them all in the same general direction.","After about 10 minutes of work, they have the rough shape of a digging fork.","They then form the socket and crop the tines.","Fired to a supple state again, a worker drives tooling between the tines to straighten them and even the gaps between them.","He rests the fork socket against a steel slope and lowers a ram.","It slams into the tines to push the socket against the slope and bend it upward-- a more effective angle for digging.","He inserts the tines in a press one at a time.","The press closes around each tine to taper the corners.","A ram now pounds the base of the tines against a swooped anvil to give it a gentle curve.","He plunges the hot fork into cool water, and the shock hardens the steel.","The next worker grinds off any rough bits from the sides and sharpens the edges.","He narrows the tips to a point, and this will enable the fork to pierce solid earth.","A worker repairs any irregularities with his hammer.","Here you can see the difference this makes.","The prongs on the left are out of alignment.","The ones on the right have been fixed.","They apply an electrostatic charge onto the forks to attract a green powder spray.","Once cured, it forms a colorful skin that resists corrosion.","Now out of the curing oven, a worker clamps the ends to lock the fork in place while he inserts the ash wood shaft into the socket.","He secures it with rivets.","Using a belt sander, he blends the wood to the metal in a process known as linishing.","He also sands the rivets to make them flush to the surface of the metal.","The bottom fork is the one that has been linished.","He dips the wood shaft and handle in varnish, giving it a glossy stain that enhances the grain.","This garden fork is now done.","It won't look shiny and new for long, because things are sure to get dirty very soon.","Toffee is a type of candy traditionally made of caramelized sugar or molasses and butter.","There are many different varieties-- soft and chewy or hard and brittle.","English toffee, which is actually an american style of toffee, is very buttery and typically has a topping of chopped nuts.","This english toffee is completely free of dairy ingredients and is kosher certified, making it ideal for toffee lovers with certain dietary restrictions.","The workers at this small american confectioner make this special recipe entirely by hand one small batch at a time.","They start by combining water and sugar.","They heat the mixture until the sugar dissolves.","Then they add a formula so top-secret they won't let us see it.","All they'll reveal is that it contains a combination of vegetable oils and shortening which are non-dairy substitutes for butter and beta carotene to give the toffee that familiar golden color.","They add an emulsifier called lecithin to stabilize all these ingredients.","As soon as the mixture reaches the boiling point, they add salt.","This enhances the flavor and helps produce a rapid boil that continues for several hours until the mixture hits a top-secret target temperature.","By that point, most of the water has evaporated, producing sweet, thick, liquid toffee.","Now they open a hot-water valve that heats up a table, then carefully pour the toffee onto the surface.","The heat keeps the toffee pliable while they spread it out.","They spread it wider and wider until the toffee sheet is evenly thick.","They don't actually measure.","They just eyeball it, so the thickness varies somewhat.","But that lack of uniformity is part of the charm of handmade sweets.","They take a tool with multiple cutting wheels spaced about two inches apart.","They run it over the toffee sheet in one direction, then in the other.","Then they shut off the hot-water valve and open the cold-water one to cool the table surface and harden what are now toffee squares.","Within minutes, the squares are hard enough to be broken apart.","Next, the first of two ingredients that will turn this into english toffee-- molten semi-sweet chocolate.","Once this tempering machine heats it to the right consistency, a pump feeds it to the enrobing machine that coats the toffee squares in two stages, starting on the bottom.","The underside now coated, the squares move on to a refrigerated belt.","The cold quickly hardens the chocolate.","Then they move into the next station which covers the top with chocolate.","As the now fully-coated squares exit the enrobing machine, the belt vibrates, shaking off the excess chocolate.","The squares move on to another refrigerated belt and a worker manually sprinkles them with the second ingredient that makes this english toffee-- chopped pecans.","The squares travel through a cooling tunnel for several minutes to set.","As they reach the end of the line, excess nuts drop off and collect in a pan below, ready for sprinkling onto new squares.","Some english toffee recipes call for almonds rather than pecans.","Whichever variety of nut, every recipe follows the same structure.","Layering sweet and crunchy toffee, smooth and creamy chocolate, and coarsely chopped nuts-- three different textures, tastes, and sensations brought together in a single confection.","And just like other decadently delicious desserts, english toffee is heaven to anyone with a serious sweet tooth.","Trying to decide on a paint color?","Each card is a small sample of related shades, allowing you to view the actual hues without prying off the lids of paint cans.","With thousands of shades to choose from, how do they get it all down on paper?","Whether you're looking for a brilliant blue or a marvelous mauve, careful scrutiny of paint chip cards can help you get it right before the paint hits the wall.","Highly concentrated colorants stored in tanks will be used to reproduce paint colors in lacquer similar to the kind used in nail polish.","Lacquer produces better results on paper than actual paint.","They pipe the colorants to a dispenser.","At the same time, a bucket containing lacquer heads toward it.","The dispenser has many tentacles with nozzles at the end of each one and each tentacle is connected to one of the colorant tanks.","A computerized mechanism grabs the nozzles to dispense different colorants following a specific paint-color formula.","The bucket sits on a scale and the weight is constantly monitored by the computer to confirm that exact amounts are being added.","A blender mixes the colorants in the lacquer.","The mixing speed and time have been preset to avoid over or under mixing.","And now for the color test.","A technician pulls a bit of the lacquer-based paint on a sheet of paper just under a steel bar.","Using that bar, he spreads the color evenly across the paper.","Then it's into a kind of moving convection oven to dry the color.","The technician compares the color and gloss to that of the standard.","He also does a computer analysis and sends the formula back for tweaking when necessary.","Once they perfect the hue and gloss, production is ready to roll.","A worker pours the approved lacquer-based paints into cylindrical tanks above the coating machine.","There are over two dozen of these tanks because they'll be putting that many colors on paper in one production run.","He connects plastic tubing to the tanks to narrow the flow and aim it at the die block below.","He activates the machine and adjusts the tension of the paper as it moves forward.","Lacquer flows into a die, coating the paper with an endless rainbow of color.","A bar overhead spreads the lacquer evenly without actually touching the paper.","The striped paper then travels through an oven.","The solvents evaporate, leaving a dried lacquer skin on the paper.","If regular paint had been used, the paper would have absorbed it and ended up wavy.","But with the lacquer paint, it remains flat.","Rotary blades cut the coated paper into sheets sized to fit printing machinery down the line.","They land in a neat stack.","Using a transparent template, the next worker measures the width of each stripe.","He then confirms that the colors are in the correct order by checking each stripe against the approved proofs.","He checks the gloss with a glossmeter.","It aims light on an angle and registers the reflection to confirm that the gloss is consistent.","With the okay from the tester, the entire production run receives the go-ahead.","The press operator stacks them facedown for loading into the printer.","A feeder serves up the striped sheets to the printing line one at a time.","It's a 4-station printing press.","Each cylinder is equipped with an ink of a different color to stand out against the various paint-card stripes.","They print the paint color names and numbers on both sides.","They also apply varnish to the back of the sheets so the paint chip cards won't stick to one another when stacked.","Named and numbered, the color stripes are now identifiable.","The sheets go under a guillotine blade which slices them into paint chip cards.","Powered by hydraulics and super sharp, the blade cuts through hundreds of paper sheets like butter.","They produce 3 1/2 million paint chip cards a day at this factory.","With so many options, the cards are stacked against a quick decision.","A bundt pan is for baking a dense, ring-shaped cake called a bundt.","It typically has a fluted or a swirl design.","It originated in europe hundreds of years ago and quite possibly gets its name from the german bundkuchen-- \"kuchen\" meaning \"cake\" and \"bund\" meaning \"a gathering of people\".","Bundt pans were originally ceramic, which is fragile, or cast iron, which is heavy.","Today's version is typically made of cast aluminum-- unbreakable and infinitely lighter.","It also has a nonstick coating.","At the factory, they begin the production process by melting ingots of recycled aluminum.","The furnace heats the ingots to 1,300-degrees fahrenheit, at which point, they liquify in about a minute.","From the melting furnace, workers transfer the molten aluminum to a holding furnace which keeps it in a liquid state until casting.","The casting process is entirely automated.","A ladle descends into the holding furnace and scoops up just over two pounds of aluminum, enough to make one bundt pan.","The ladle then pours the molten metal into a sleeve which a high-speed ram immediately pushes into a steel bundt-pan mold.","The pressure and speed combined shoot the molten aluminum into every nook and cranny of the mold cavity.","As the hot aluminum hits the cooler mold, it solidifies in about 10 seconds, then the two halves of the mold automatically separate and a robotic arm extracts the cast pan.","Between castings, a robot cleans the mold with a blast of air, water, and lubricant.","This removes any aluminum residue, leaving the mold surface pristine.","This is critical, because even a tiny speck of dust left behind would mar the next casting.","As each pan comes off the machine, workers inspect it for any casting flaws.","When it comes time to produce a different style bundt pan, like this one with six mini-cake forms, they simply mount the corresponding mold onto the casting machine.","As the machine fills the mold under pressure, some aluminum oozes out between the two halves of the mold.","Now a worker cuts off that excess with a single strike of a trim press.","The scrap pieces go back into the furnace to be remelted.","Next, a computer-guided router working two pans at a time, smoothes the rough edges.","Then it refines the handle slots, finalizing the shape.","The aluminum surface must be pristine for the nonstick coating to adhere properly, so the pans now go through an industrial washing machine-- one wash and three rinse cycles, and then, before exiting, a drying cycle.","Workers put the pans upside down on fixtures which travel down the exterior coasting line.","As the pan spins by, spray guns apply a silicone-based decorative coating to the outside surface.","The pans then travel through an oven for 15 minutes to cure the coating.","Then the workers flip the pans right-side up and place them on fixtures, which spin them through another spray line.","This time, to coat the inside.","The interior coating is a food-safe silicone-polyester material designed to release the cake easily from the pan.","It's similar to a nonstick coating on a fry pan, the difference being that the chemical composition is designed to prevent sugar, rather than protein, from sticking.","Again, the pans go through an oven for 15 minutes to cure the coating.","Once the finished pans exit the oven, workers inspect them thoroughly, checking for any flaws in the coatings.","From a practical perspective, a bundt pan's ringed shape has definite advantages over an ordinary baking pan.","The tube in the middle funnels heat to the center of the cake batter, helping it bake quicker and more thoroughly.","From a decorative perspective, when you compare an ordinary pan to an elegant bundt, the latter certainly takes the cake."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Tequila","Waterbeds","Flip Flops","Silver"]},"text":["The story of tequila begins many centuries ago, when mexico's aztecs fermented the juice of the agave plant to produce a low-alcohol drink called pulque.","When the spanish conquistadors arrived, they added distillation to the process for a much stronger drink, and tequila was born.","Tequila is to mexico as champagne is to france.","Tequila is only made in this part of the world, and mexico has claimed exclusive rights to the word \"tequila\".","For centuries, workers called jimadores have grown and harvested the agave plant for tequila.","It takes seven years, on average, for a species called weber blue agave to mature.","And even today, it's harvested entirely by hand.","Using a lethally sharp hoelike tool, the jimadores chop away the greenery until all that's left is the huge core, called the piña.","Filing the round blade frequently keeps it razor-sharp, allowing them to remove most of the bitter-tasting leaves from the piña.","The tequila distilled from this crop will be a premium grade made from 100% agave juice.","The jimadores routinely remove a small piece and measure the starch content of the crop.","Only if it's deemed to be sufficient is the agave piña sent to the distillery.","Workers wield special hatchets to carve the huge piñas into quarters.","They're a more manageable size for baking.","They transfer the chopped piña to a brick oven, where it's steam-baked for 79 hours.","This thorough cooking converts the agave starch to sugar.","In the process, the flesh softens and the color turns from white to reddish brown.","The baked agave piña now spills into a shredder that rotates to tear the fruit into long, thin fibers.","The fibers exit onto a conveyor.","The shredded piña lands in a pit, where a worker forks it up and moves it into the path of a huge stone wheel called a tahona.","Operated mechanically, the tahona wheel turns to crush the fibers and squeeze out the precious agave nectar.","It takes two hours of crushing to extract all the juices.","They pipe the juicy mash into wooden tanks and add yeast.","The yeast causes fermentation, a process by which sugar is transformed into alcohol.","After 72 hours of fermentation, the alcohol content reaches 5%.","The fermented pulp and juices have an earthy, acidic bouquet, and the aroma fills the air.","They transfer the fermented mash to small copper stills.","Inside the stills, the alcohol is boiled off and the vapor condensed into a more potent liquid.","This is called distillation.","After two distillation cycles, they have tequila.","A technician measures the alcohol content, and it's 55%.","After straining out the pulp, they transfer the tequila to steel tanks.","They add purified well water to dilute the alcohol content and bring it down to 40%.","This tequila is now ready to drink, so it's over to the bottling line.","With the bottles upside down on a revolving carousel, they spray the inside with real tequila for a quick rinse.","The grippers flip them right-side up so they can be filled with 100% agave tequila.","This automated system keeps the fill level precise.","An employee corks the bottles and then sends them down the line.","The next worker presses adhesive-backed transparent labels onto them.","The see-through labels showcase the clarity of this fresh, premium tequila.","For a drink with a little more complexity, they age the tequila in oak casks for two months or more, depending on the grade.","During aging, the tequila takes on a woody flavor and turns a warm shade of amber.","The master distiller personally approves each batch.","He checks the color, inhales the aroma, and puts his observations down on paper.","He also takes a little sip.","No longer a rough swill for banditos, tequila has gone uptown and evolved into a more sophisticated drink.","Waterbeds have come a long way since the ancient persians slept on water-filled goat skins.","Hitting the market in the late 1960s, early models were pretty wavy and made some people seasick.","But innovative changes in design make today's waterbeds as stable as a traditional mattress.","Water doesn't compress, it displaces.","That's why a waterbed mattress shapes to your body, giving you equal support everywhere with no pressure points.","A washable quilted cover sits on top of the mattress to provide extra cushioning and absorb perspiration.","The mattress is made of high-durability vinyl.","It arrives at the waterbed factory in giant rolls which workers feed into a conditioning machine.","At a speed of one yard per minute, the machine heats the vinyl to 100 degrees fahrenheit.","This preshrinks the material, ensuring the mattress won't contract over time.","Next, computer-guided machines cut out the mattress's top and bottom pieces.","Die cutters stamp out the smaller and simpler corner and valve-related pieces.","Then, workers lay the top piece on a wooden pattern mold.","Applying this pattern makes the vinyl more flexible, enabling the mattress to better follow the form of the body.","The company won't reveal exactly how this caged device molds the pattern into the vinyl.","Now, with a die, workers cut a hole in the top piece for the fill valve.","After fitting the valve and cap to a piece of vinyl printed with product information, they lay on the top piece, then fuse the vinyl with a high-frequency welder.","It emits high-frequency electromagnetic waves that heat and cause the molecules to interact, blending the two pieces seamlessly into one.","Next, the corners of the mattress.","This is the most complex part of the process because it requires making a very particular angle.","After fusing the folds with the high-frequency welder, they slip each corner onto a rounded form, then close off the tip by welding on a circle of vinyl.","This makes a rounded corner, which is far more durable than a pointed one.","Whereas regular mattresses are foam-filled, waterbed mattresses contain fiber which makes the bed waveless.","Mattresses come in various degrees of stability.","The more layers of fiber inside, the less the mattress moves.","Once they've inserted the fiber, workers perform a final round of high-frequency welding to close up the mattress.","First, they position an aluminum stick under the area they have to weld.","A static laser line shows workers where to position the mattress in the automatic welder.","Once the mattress is welded all around, they remove the stick through the valve hole, then flatten the mattress, distributing the fiber evenly within it.","The final operation is quality-control check.","They put the mattress in a press and, with a vacuum hose, extract all the air.","Then, they set the mattress aside for six hours to ensure no air seeps back in, which would indicate a leak.","Elsewhere in the factory, they construct the frame in which the mattress sits.","The lower part is made of pvc plastic extruded into a stylish shape.","Workers fuse the frame parts with regular welding, melting, then pressing together the edges to bond them.","This factory doesn't mass-produce.","Every single waterbed is made to order from a range of decor choices.","The customer who ordered this one requested a frame upholstered in black faux leather.","The mattress sits on a thick melamine base.","They slide it into the frame, then secure it with screws.","The upper sides of the frame are made of upholstered foam, designed to be soft against the back of your legs when you sit on the side of the bed.","Waterbed mattresses are shipped empty.","The installer fills it with water at the customer's home, leaving enough space inside for the water to displace under pressure, so even if the valve is open, water doesn't spill out, even when someone's lying on the bed.","They may not be the fanciest of footwear, but flip-flops, also called thongs, are inexpensive and comfortable.","It's believed these flat sandals with the y-shaped strap are modeled after traditional japanese sandals that have a wooden sole and a \"y\" strap woven from plant fibers.","The anatomy of a flip-flop is pretty basic-- a sole and y-shaped straps called uppers.","The sole is constructed from the top and bottom.","They make the bottom out of either heat-moldable plastic or rubber.","An injection-molding machine shoots the molten material into passing molds.","Two fans positioned over the injector kick-start the cooling process.","Then, a continuous water-cooling system takes over.","3 1/2 minutes after injection, the material is solid.","They make the top soles from 3/10 inch-thick rubber sheets.","A hydraulic press forces a sole-shaped die through the sheet, like a cookie cutter slicing through dough.","The die also cuts a hole and two slits for attaching the uppers.","Some flip-flops have decorations on the top soles.","The design is applied on each pair manually using a standard screen-printing process.","The factory prepares a screen for each color of the design.","The screen is kind of like a stencil-- open mesh in the shape of the design, and the rest of the mesh is blocked.","Workers load a pair of soles in each station of a rotary-screen printing machine.","Then, they mount the screens.","They close the first screen over the pair of soles, then, with a squeegee, spread ink across the screen surface.","The ink passes through the open mesh, applying the design.","They move the soles to the next screen and do the same with the second color of ink, and so on.","Now for the uppers.","For this flip-flop style, they glue ribbon onto cotton tape.","Once they've correctly positioned the ribbon, they stitch it in place.","Then, they connect the left-side and right-side straps with masking tape...","Add a toe piece...","Then stitch everything together.","For aesthetics, they sew a cover piece over the toe piece.","Uppers give flip-flops their look through different materials, colors, thicknesses, and embellishments.","The design possibilities are endless.","Now to connect the uppers to the top sole, workers insert the toe piece into the toe hole and a strap end into each slit.","They apply glue...","Trim the ends...","Then insert a last-- a foot form in the required shoe size.","They pull the straps tightly against it.","Next, they coat the bottom of the top sole and the top of the bottom sole with glue.","Then, a quick trip through an oven activates the adhesive.","Workers then place the bottom sole on a positioning guide and stick the top sole onto it, locking the strap ends in between.","This is instant-contact glue, so they have just one chance to get the alignment right.","A 4-second bonding experience in a press, and they're \"sole\" mates.","However, the former bottom sole is slightly larger than the former top sole.","So, with a high speed sander, workers trim off the excess, leaving the edge even and smooth.","After a manual sanding touch-up, if necessary, and thorough quality-control inspection, the flip-flops are ready for packaging.","Workers stuff a pad of paper under the uppers to prop them up should the bag get squashed during transport.","Once considered strictly beachwear, flip-flops have stepped it up in style to become fashionable everyday footwear.","Not only used for jewelry or silverware, 80% of the world's silver is mined for industrial purposes.","Silver is the most conductive and reflective metal on the planet.","For example, it's used in electronic components and in construction as an insulation coating on glass.","The mining company produces silver bars, the composition of which is 93% to 97% pure silver.","It sells the bars to a refinery, which further purifies them for sale to industries.","The action begins down in the mine, where geologists point a niton gun at various spots in the rock face.","The device detects the levels of 40 different elements, including silver.","Silver in its natural state isn't silver-colored at all.","It's charcoal gray.","Those silver-looking deposits are actually zinc and lead.","Miners drill holes in the silver-rich areas the geologists pinpointed, then insert sticks of dynamite.","After the blast, carts hall the chunks of rock, called ore, to the surface.","Geologists then test ore piles and blend them as required to achieve a consistent amount of silver content per kilogram of ore.","The ore first goes into the primary crusher.","The machine's huge steel teeth break up the big chunks into smaller pieces.","Those pieces then drop through grates below, into the secondary crusher, which breaks them down into even smaller pieces.","Those go into vibrating cone crushers, which pulverize them into tiny pieces.","A conveyor transports the crushed ore to the ball mill.","At this point, the ore pieces are roughly 2/10 of an inch big.","As the mill's large cylinder rotates, steel balls bounce around inside, grinding the ore into powder.","A water-circulation system flushes the silver-rich powder out of the cylinder and into large tanks which keep the water moving.","To separate and dissolve the metals the powder contains, workers pour in acid.","72 hours later, the rock waste now settles at the bottom.","The solution containing dissolved silver is pumped through filter presses.","The filter plates are treated with a zinc-based chemical which attracts silver molecules.","As the solution passes through, the plates trap particles containing silver, forming a layer of black powder called silver precipitate.","This precipitate is composed of approximately 50% silver and 50% waste-- the waste being a jumble of various metals, dirt, and other impurities.","To separate the silver from the waste, they first dry the precipitate in a gas furnace for a couple of hours.","In the mining company's lab, technicians continuously test ore samples to determine the grade, determined by the quantity of silver per kilogram of ore.","They heat the samples to 2,000 degrees fahrenheit for about an hour to burn off the impurities.","What's left after the burn-off are the silver and other metals, such as lead, zinc, copper, selenium, and cadmium.","Lab technicians then treat the samples with a chemical that prevents silver from burning off and put them back in the oven.","When the samples come out, about an hour later, all the other metals have burnt off, and only silver is left.","They weigh the silver and compare it to the weight of the original sample in order to calculate the grade.","The key to running a profitable mine is to ensure that the grade is consistently within certain parameters.","Back at the mill, workers put the now dried silver precipitate into an oven, along with chemicals which prevent silver from burning off.","Approximately four hours later, the silver and waste have separated and melted.","Workers pour them into bar-shaped molds.","The silver, being heavier, settles at the bottom.","Workers skim off the waste floating on top.","In less than five minutes, the molten silver cools and hardens, enabling workers to extract what is now a silver bar.","The mining company sells the bars to a refinery for processing into industrial-grade silver."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Chains","Bagels","Vinyl Records"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Windshields...","English saddles...","Butter...","And post clocks.","Drivers of the earliest cars had only goggles to shield them.","So, to protect people from the elements, the glass windshield was invented in 1904.","But there was a danger-- they would shatter on impact, injuring people.","Glass lamination solved the problem.","It was shatterproof--  a real scientific breakthrough.","To make a windshield, they start with a plain sheet of glass.","An automated plotter moves a cutting wheel over it, and the wheel scores the glass.","Now a robotic arm brandishes a torch.","It moves along the score line, and the thermal shock completes the cut.","This is the best way to cleanly cut through glass.","Next, a robot suctions up the cut piece of glass and transfers it to the next station, where it pushes the glass against a series of sanding belts.","This takes off the sharp edges.","It's called seaming.","Now a conveyor belt takes the glass through some soapy water to clean it up.","Then nozzles spray the glass with a mix of talcum powder and water.","This will prevent the glass from sticking to a second sheet of glass.","A robot now sets that second piece of glass on top of the freshly sprayed one.","This is a temporary arrangement.","The two sheets of glass are layered for processing but will be pulled apart later.","Next, they silk-screen black paint around the border of the glass that will eventually be the inner part of the windshield.","Then automated arms carry the glass to a station where samples are inspected visually.","After that, rollers transfer the glass to automatic squaring pucks, which position them.","And then a robot lifts the sheets of glass and carries them to four metal pins.","The pins recede, and the glass falls onto a bending iron.","The iron is shaped like a specific windshield.","The conveyor takes the bending iron with the two glass sheets into an oven called a bending lehr.","The lehr heats the glass sheets to almost 1,400 degrees fahrenheit, causing the glass to sink into the shape of the bending iron.","Then the glass goes through a slow cooling cycle to anneal, or toughen, the new shape.","Next, a robot picks up a sheet of vinyl cut in the shape of a windshield.","It takes the vinyl sheet to one of the newly shaped pieces of glass, just separated from the other piece.","Then another robot lowers the other identical piece of glass onto the vinyl.","And that's the formula for glass lamination-- two layers of glass with a piece of vinyl between them.","In the event of an accident, the windshield will fracture but not totally shatter because the vinyl will hold most of the broken glass together.","But, at this point, there's no clear view through that milky-white vinyl.","That's why the windshield is headed to a machine called a nipper.","The nipper presses the windshield between a series of rubber rollers, squeezing out air pockets in it.","As the air is removed, the view through the vinyl gets a bit clearer.","Now squaring pucks position the windshield, and a robot sticks brackets for the rearview mirror onto it.","This big blue chamber is an autoclave.","It's like a pressure cooker.","After about an hour in there, any remaining air pockets in the windshield are removed.","A rail system transports the tubful of windshields to the inspection station.","Here, each windshield undergoes a close-up inspection by a human.","He searches for scratches, chips, or any contamination between the glass and vinyl layers.","Now they place a 5-pound steel ball into a pulley system that raises it 13 feet high.","Yes, this is a crash test for a sample windshield.","The ball represents a driver's head.","The ball hits the glass but doesn't go through, which means the windshield has passed the safety test.","Now they view the windshield through polarized light, which reveals stress defects.","But only a trained eye can spot them.","Once it's decided that everything looks good, the shatterproof windshield is ready to be installed in today's automobiles.","Saddle-making goes back thousands of years.","But in modern times, saddle makers have realized that a bad-fitting saddle can irritate the horse.","An experienced rider will undoubtedly feel a difference in the animal's attitude and performance.","So now saddles are often custom-made to fit both the horse and the rider.","To make an english saddle, they attach both rigid and flexible steel strips to a frame made of polyurethane, which is called a tree.","Then they rivet a stirrup bar through the tree to the steel that's just been fastened to the underside.","With a jigsaw, a worker cuts a hole in the tree and then glues foam for cushioning.","Now he coats the back of the cantle, or seat, with glue and sticks a piece of leather onto it.","He crimps the leather around the edges of the tree.","And, using a special tool for cutting leather, called a clicker knife, he carves away the extra material.","Then he sprays glue onto the top of the tree and presses a layer of foam onto it.","Using an ordinary kitchen knife, he slices away excess foam at the sides and carves out more foam to shape the seat.","Then he shaves the edges with a rasp.","Next, he layers two more foam pieces over it and sculpts and shaves those layers.","He runs a measuring stick along the seat to make sure it's even, and then pastes a piece of black foam on top to add even more cushioning.","Now, with a half-moon blade, another worker slices a piece of leather to make a saddle flap.","She follows a trace-out of the rider's leg.","She feeds the flap piece into a skiving machine.","Its circular blade shaves the edges of the leather as a wheel pulls it through.","The thinned-out edges will be easier to sew later on.","Next, she heat-stamps the saddle logo onto the flap.","She also stamps the model, serial number, tree, and seat size onto the saddle.","Now she glues foam to a hard piece of leather to make a kneepad and sticks softer leather on the top, where the rider's knee will rest.","Then, using a piece of whale bone, she draws the leather tight around the edges so that it's smooth on top.","Whale bone is used because it doesn't scar or scratch leather.","Next, she seals the front edges and then crimps them together, the way a baker crimps the edges of a pie.","She pulls the leather tight from the back side and paints glue onto the fatter rim.","Then she brushes glue onto the flap and presses the kneepad and flap together so the glue sticks.","She hammers them to strengthen the bond, then stitches them together, along that glue line, using a big industrial sewing machine.","With a steel prod, she stuffs a wool-and-synthetic mixture into the panel which will be on the horse's back.","It's being stuffed with a certain horse in mind.","The amount of stuffing used depends on the shape of the horse the saddle is being made for.","She hammers it flat with a rubber mallet and then stitches the panel to the top of the saddle.","To sew through the leather layers, she makes a hole with an awl and then pulls the needle and thread through it, spraying water to keep the leather soft.","She hammers the seam to get rid of any gaps between the layers.","But sewing the back of the panel to the bottom of the seat is a bit trickier.","She uses a curved awl and needle to work with the contours.","It's taken about 25 hours to piece together this customized english saddle.","This is the saddletech device, and they use it to make sure the saddle measures up.","It measures it in four sections.","Now it's on to the tree machine.","It adjusts the gullet plate, the piece of rigid steel that sits above the horse's withers.","Plastic panels support the saddle while a hydraulic press bends the plate to fit the measurement.","Now it's time to saddle up and check the fit of this custom-made seat.","Butter has a rich history.","The ancient romans used it as a beauty cream and to treat burns.","Even the old testament mentions butter.","Abraham served it to angels.","Back then, people made butter by shaking milk in bags of animal skin or in hollow logs.","Today it's a product of modern technology.","Butter-making begins with a tanker-truck delivery to the dairy-- almost 8,000 gallons of raw cow's milk.","Workers test it for consistent color and odor before unloading it through vacuum-pumped hoses.","They pump the raw milk into a machine called a separator.","The separator spins, dividing the raw milk's fat from the rest of the liquid.","The fat is called buttercream, and the rest is skim milk.","The essential ingredient in butter is the buttercream.","It's thick, off-white, and approximately 38% fat.","Some of it goes to make 2% milk.","A worker adjusts a valve to re-insert some into the skim milk.","The resulting 2% milk is more watery than buttercream and is white.","The less the fat content, the thinner and runnier the milk is.","Back to the butter-making.","They put the buttercream in what's called a bulk tank, where mixers stir it to maintain the consistency.","After pasteurizing and then aging the buttercream for 24 hours, workers prepare to transfer it to another machine, called the churner.","First they clean the inside by filling it with water mixed with iodine.","This removes any germs left behind by the previous batch.","They spin the churner for about five minutes before rinsing it out.","Next, they pour in just under 400 gallons of buttercream, filling the churner about halfway.","It's important to leave some room so that air released in the churning process can escape through two vents in the churner.","The churner spins at 28 rotations per minute-- about the speed of a clothes dryer.","This causes the buttercream's fat molecules to bunch together, releasing water and air.","Every five minutes, a worker stops the churner and regulates the air vent on top.","When he feels there's no more air escaping, he closes the valve and re-starts the machine.","After 30 minutes of churning, the fat molecules in the buttercream are creamy clumps known as popcorn butter.","These clumps stay trapped in the churner, while the remaining liquid--  called buttermilk-- flows out a drain at the bottom.","A vacuum-pump system sends it through hoses to a nearby container.","This draining process takes about 10 minutes and produces about 210 gallons of buttermilk.","This dairy uses the buttermilk to make ice cream.","The popcorn butter--  all 1,500 pounds of it-- has the same consistency as a regular butter at room temperature.","A worker now flavors it with 30 pounds of salt.","This dairy also makes unsalted butter.","The worker closes the churner by sealing the glass window with a rubber ring and a metal collar.","This keeps the internal air pressure roughly equal to what's outside the churner.","Doing this ensures the churner works efficiently.","Another 30 minutes of churning, and the fat molecules thicken even more and blend with the salt.","What results is butter, which is yellow because of its natural vitamin a. next, a worker scoops about 66 pounds of butter into a milling machine.","The mill moves the butter into the final production phase, where it'll be shaped and put into packages.","This machine squeezes butter into an injector that's shaped like a block.","The injector then deposits blocks of butter into open packages.","The packaging paper has an aluminum outer coating.","This prevents light from penetrating.","Light can make the butter rancid.","Each sheet is 10 1/2 inches long and 7 1/2 inches wide.","Before the butter is inserted, a plastic former bends the paper into shape.","This mill operates four days a week, making up to 33 blocks per minute.","That's a fairly small quantity compared to some dairies, but this relatively slow pace allows greater quality control.","To monitor the mill's precision, workers check every 15th block to ensure it weighs exactly one pound.","The dairy then ships the butter to stores in refrigerated trucks.","Clocks on posts became popular fixtures in town squares during the 1800s.","Railways were spreading fast, and these public clocks helped people to get to their trains on time.","Today, post clocks are often designed to look like they're from the past.","But the technology that goes into making them is actually very up-to-date.","It all starts with what's called a transfer sheet.","A worker positions it over an aluminum disc that'll become the clock's dial.","She removes the sheet, sprays on a chemical, and repositions it.","The chemical will act as a release agent, detaching the vinyl numbers from the sheet so that they transfer and stick to the dial.","She then peels the sheet off.","This worker prepares a more elaborate model, with numerals in 23-karat gold leaf.","After coating them in glue, she applies a hair-thin sheet of gold.","Then she gently brushes the gold onto the numeral.","Using a computer-guided cutter, workers cut a 1/5-inch-thick sheet of aluminum into a clock's hand that's more than 3 feet long.","To boost the hand's rigidity, they crease it in a press.","This structurally reinforces the metal, helping retain the hand's shape over time.","A 1 1/2-ounce counterweight will balance the hand when it rotates.","Here, a welder builds the post by fusing a base and a column made of cast aluminum.","On another model, workers attach the housing for the clock head.","This clock will have four dials.","Other models have two.","In the paint shop, workers give the base, column, and head four coats of paint.","After applying some lubricant on a steel shaft, called a stud, a worker installs one of the clock's eight brass gears-- brass, because it's strong and durable.","A steel loop called a snap ring holds each gear in place.","One gear has what's called a vane to regulate the pulsing of the gears.","Next, a worker attaches the shaft and gear that'll control the minute hand.","Altogether, the gears form what's called the clock movement.","He screws on a brass panel called a backplate to hold the clock movement in place.","Then he attaches an electronic circuit board that'll later connect the clock movement to another component.","He installs a 115-volt motor to supply the clock's electric power.","Finally, he connects power wires and turns on the clock movement.","Here, he's checking to see that everything's properly linked and that the gears are moving well.","This company makes clock movements for clocks ranging in diameter from just 8 1/2 inches to more than 70 feet.","The gears in the largest clock are nearly 3 1/2 feet wide.","Here, you can see how the shaft that'll hold the minute hand revolves inside what's called the sleeve of the hour hand.","A worker attaches the clock movement to the back of the dial.","Then he ties wires through what's called glass standoffs.","These standoffs will cradle the clock's neon light.","The neon tube encircles the clock's perimeter.","It attaches through holes to a transformer hidden behind the dial.","He fastens the tube with rust-resistant copper wires.","Next come the hour and minute hands, now painted black.","He uses an allen wrench to attach them to what's called the hand hub.","This hub holds the hands on the shaft that's part of the clock movement.","The assembled dial now goes into its casing.","The casing has two parts-- an aluminum ring, called a bezel, around a glass cover known as a crystal.","He connects a wire to link the dials so that they'll move in sync.","The worker then inserts this casing into what will be a two-dial post clock.","Workers then turn on the neon clock light to test it.","Once the post clock's installed, a built-in sensor turns the light on at dusk and off at dawn.","Inside every clock is a controller that sets the time.","It's linked to a satellite through a global positioning system.","The gps tells the satellite where the clock's located to set the correct local time.","After starting up, the controller takes six minutes to adjust the hands to the exact time, which is determined by an international observatory in greenwich, england.","Certainly not your average pocket watch, this company's post clocks can stand more than 19 feet high and cost up to $35,000."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Headphones","Diving Regulators","Reflector Light Bulbs"]},"text":["In the early part of the 20th century, headphones were used mainly by telephone operators and radio technicians.","But in the 1930s, they were redesigned and marketed to the public, so music lovers everywhere plugged in and turned on to the concept.","Everyone is a music critic, but headphones allow people to crank up the volume without negative feedback from neighbors.","To make high-end headphones, an injection-molding machine first makes plastic back covers.","The mesh area will allow sound waves to pass through instead of reflecting back into the headphone.","Down the line, equipment stamps trademark and other information onto two more casing components-- a decorative metal disk, and a plastic housing.","The next machine winds copper wire that's as thin as human hair around a cylinder hundreds of times.","The winding is computer controlled to produce a critical component-- the headphone's voice coil.","When magnetized by an incoming signal, the voice coil vibrates a diaphragm, causing it to emit sound.","That diaphragm now takes shape as a press applies heat and pressure to a plastic membrane.","These tools mold the plastic to the desired shape.","The press molds the plastic thicker in the center and thinner around the outer zone for a wide and flat audio-frequency range.","A technician punches out the molded shape.","She applies a bead of glue to the diaphragm, then positions the copper voice coil in an assembly device.","She aligns the glued section of the diaphragm with the coil.","Ultraviolet light activates the glue to seal the coil to the diaphragm.","The plastic housings each contain a magnet.","The next technician installs the diaphragm and voice-coil assembly on that housing.","This takes skill because the coil must be positioned precisely for the best sound quality.","And this headphone speaker is now ready for an audio check.","A technician tests the audio-frequency range, distortion, and other factors.","Here, a technician joins the ends of curved wires in a plastic clip.","These wires serve a dual function.","They hold the headphones snugly over the ears and deliver audio signals from the left side of the headphones the right.","The next technician installs a connector for the headphone's audio cable and a plastic strain relief.","An adjustable band will allow the headphones to fit on heads of all shapes and sizes.","The operator presses the parts together with a hydraulic tool.","Moving down the line, a technician now joins the two halves of the speaker housing.","She forces the two parts together with a pneumatic tool...","And finishes it off with a decorative metal ring.","She inserts the speaker mechanism in the center of the housing, then places plastic brackets over it for protection.","She then secures the entire assembly to the housing.","Next, she solders two wires to each headphone speaker.","A plastic ring and cover protect it while still allowing the wires to protrude.","She attaches the end of the headband to the speakers...","Then solders the wires from the speaker to those protruding from the headband.","She presses a plastic grille into place over each speaker very carefully, to prevent scratching.","The headphones are now wired and ready for audio.","And whether it's rock or classical, the choice of music will be silent to all but one individual.","The diving regulator is a lifeline when you're underwater.","Invented in 1937, this device converts compressed air from diving tanks into a breathable form and delivers it to the diver via a mouthpiece.","And that means, once you've taken the plunge, you can breathe easy.","The two main parts of a diving regulator are called stages.","Computerized tools transform a piece of brass into the first-stage housing.","They carve a cavity and holes for attaching hoses and other components.","A blade cuts the part to size.","Then, a drill creates a space for the pressure-reduction valve.","This end also gets holes for more attachments.","Another tool sculpts the side to reduce the weight of the part.","Sliced in two, this is how the first-stage housing looks inside.","After it's been chrome-plated, they insert plugs for the holes that will later be used for attaching gauges, hoses, and other parts.","The fitting that connects the regulator to the scuba tank goes into a holding device, while the technician assembles a special valve for keeping salt water out.","He fits a piston onto the end of a spring, and then slips the assembly through a hole to confirm it's the right size.","He installs a filter on the other end of the spring.","Now he inserts the valve in the fitting.","He secures it with this rubber ring, pressing it into a groove in the fitting.","The valve appears to be firmly entrenched.","He presses it to confirm it operates correctly.","And he pumps water into a bunch of these fittings to confirm the valves inside are, indeed, watertight.","He attaches a rubber cover and a chrome-plated yoke to the fitting, then installs this assembly in the housing, using a long-handled socket wrench to get the right torque.","This yoke swivels to give the diver some flexibility in attaching it to the diving tank.","He now assembles a crucial component-- the high-pressure reduction valve.","Installed inside the first-stage housing, it converts high pressure to medium pressure.","He caps the yoke with a knob, then inserts a pressure-sensing mechanism at one end of the first-stage housing.","He covers it with a rubber membrane.","As the diver inhales, this membrane will trigger the valve to release more air.","The diving regulator's first stage is now complete.","He just needs to calibrate the pressure-reduction valve inside.","He hooks it up to compressed air and adjusts the valve so it reduces air pressure to a precise level.","He immerses it in water to test for air leaks.","There are a few bubbles from plunging it underwater, but nothing that would indicate a problem.","They now move on to the diving regulator's second stage, which will convert the medium-pressure air from the first stage to a breathable level.","The diver's breathing will trigger this diaphragm to open the air valve.","He attached a protective cover, and he's ready to install the second-stage valve.","After he inserts it in the second-stage housing, the technician makes an initial adjustment.","Then, using a special tool, he precisely calibrates the valve.","He removed the diaphragm for the last steps, so he reinstalls it.","Then, it's over to a guy with an ear for the job.","As air is pumped into the second stage, he listens for hisses that would indicate a leak.","Satisfied there are none, he hooks the regulator up to a device that simulates breathing and measures the effort required to inhale.","If it checks out, they link the two stages with a hose, and this diving regulator is now equipped to handle the pressure.","Good lighting is often a matter of reflection, and that's why, early on, lamps often came with reflectors.","But, in 1935, a company figured out how to make light bulbs with built-in reflectors.","Sealing the reflectors inside the bulb kept them clean and maintenance-free.","As track lights or in recessed fixtures, reflector bulbs can light up a room at the flick of a switch.","The creation of these bulbs begins with the bulb shell, known as the glass envelope.","It's comprised of numerous raw ingredients and recycled glass.","Production is almost entirely automated.","An operator activates equipment that weighs the ingredients and releases them into a huge hopper, where they're mixed thoroughly.","This concoction then flows into a furnace heated to 2,700 degrees fahrenheit.","It takes up to 24 hours for the mix to melt into a taffylike glass.","It flows between rollers that shape it into a ribbon.","One roller has little pockets on the surface, which form the ribbon into segments.","These devices, called blow heads, inflate the glass segments through holes in the conveyor chain.","This stretches the glass into oblong bubbles called blanks.","Iron molds encase the warm and pliable glass blanks.","The molds spin as the glass hardens into the desired shape.","The glass blanks now look like upside-down martini glasses.","This is the reflector bulb's glass envelope.","It takes just seconds for a glass blank to be transformed inside one of these molds.","The envelopes are still linked by a ribbon of glass at the top, so an automated hammer now gently knocks them free.","The glass envelopes cool down slowly.","This stage, called annealing, toughens the glass to reduce brittleness.","They measure the thickness and diameter of one of the envelopes.","If it's not up to standards, the entire production run will be crushed, and the glass recycled into new ones.","But the envelope is good, and so, production continues.","They lower the envelopes over nozzles that inject hydrofluoric acid.","It coats the inner surface of the glass with a frosty finish that will smooth the light emitted by the bulb and widen the beam.","The envelopes now head down a chute, into a padded channel that cushions their fall.","Guides gently position them.","Then, other devices thrust them into holders which move them down the line.","Next, a robot inserts aluminum wire in a heating coil and places a protective metal dome over top.","Suction cups pick up the glass envelopes and slide them onto the wire-and-dome assemblies.","A pump pulls air out of the bulb as an electrical current energizes the heating coil to melt the aluminum wire.","The aluminum adheres to the walls of the light bulb's shell, giving it a reflective finish.","The glass envelopes then move on to be stamped with the company trademark and other information.","Meanwhile, on another production line, they're preparing the glass mounts for the filament and wire contacts.","A cutting wheel slices them to size.","The tubes then travel past a flame, which melts the ends just a bit to make the edges smooth.","Once they've cooled, grippers deliver the tubes to a more intense flame, which flares them at one end.","Coming up next, we'll show you the inner workings of the reflector light bulb.","A reflector light bulb can cast one's surroundings in a whole new light-- one that's more intense and focused.","The source of this light is an electrified filament of wire.","And assembling that filament in the bulb is a very delicate task that's performed entirely by machines.","Production now focuses on the glass tube that will serve as the mount for the filament and its electrical contacts.","Machinery inserts two copper wires into each tube.","These are the lead wires that will eventually connect the base of the bulb to the filament and deliver the electric current.","These long glass tubes will be used to suck air out of the light bulb, preventing oxygen from reaching the filament and destroying it.","They protrude from the glass mount, but that's just temporary.","They will later be cut shorter.","Torches now melt the glass mount, lead wires, and exhaust tube together.","Mechanized fingers then pinch the layers together, and the wires are now encased in glass but protrude from the glass base.","Grippers transfer the closed mounts to a carousel.","It revolves to allow the mounts to receive a coil made of tungsten metal.","This coil is the filament of the reflector light bulb.","Mechanized fingers attach the small coil to hooks on the two lead wires.","The coiled filament is wobbly, so next it gets some support.","First, machinery bends the lead wires to move them and the filament out of the way.","Then, a robot presses the tip of the glass exhaust tube onto a burner.","The tip melts, allowing a metal support wire to be embedded into it.","Another robot bends the lead wires to position the filament adjacent to the support wire.","The next station loops the wire around the filament.","This gives the filament the necessary support, and it stops wobbling.","This 2-pronged device then straightens out the lead wires.","The mount is now upright and riding another carousel.","Flippers set it straight so a metal disk can be installed on the pinched section of the mount.","This disk is reflective.","It will bounce light downward to the shiny coating inside the light bulb, to create just the right effect.","With the disk wrapped around it, the assembly is now positioned on the next turntable.","Suction cups deposit the glass envelope on the assembly, to encase the filament and reflective disk inside.","The holder twirls the bulb as it travels past a row of torches.","The flames melt the neck of the glass envelope, and it closes around the glass mount.","This secures the filament, contacts, and reflective disk inside the bulb.","Another set of torches, heated to a much higher temperature, trims the base of the bulb.","Molding devices now move in to shape the bottom of the bulb so a metal base can be fitted to it.","A gripper then puts that metal base on a track to meet up with the reflector light bulb.","By now, the bulb has been flushed of oxygen and filled with argon gas so it will last longer.","The metal base finishes it off and will allow the bulb to be screwed into a light fixture.","Another flame heats the metal base to cure adhesive that was preapplied for a strong bond to the bulb.","Then, robots cut off protruding wire and form a contact on the base.","It has taken just 12 minutes to assemble this reflector light bulb, but it will provide about 2,000 hours of light."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Patterned Glass Panels","Road Cases","Stop"]},"text":["Used for windows, doors, and partitions, patterned glass panels add beauty and light to a room.","But their purpose is more than decorative.","The designs in the glass also obscure the view, making patterned glass an effective privacy screen.","They let light in and keep prying eyes out.","With patterned glass, windows become something to look atrather than through.","There are a variety of designs and textures to choose from, offering different degrees of privacy.","At the heart of the process are engraved metal rollers that transfer designs onto glass.","Before production can even begin, this roller rotates through a chamber where grit blasts off grease and dirt.","If the designs on the roller are damaged, they shave off the outer skin, exposing a smooth surface for re-engraving.","But that isn't always necessary.","Small problems can be fixed, so they circle those for repair.","Some need no refurbishment whatsoever, so they move on to the next step.","A worker brushes a polishing compound onto the printing roller.","A buffing wheel rubs the compound into the roller's chrome surface, taking it from dull to a high shine.","Meanwhile, at another part of the factory, craftsmen repair trouble spots on other rollers.","The work has to blend in perfectly.","The craftsmen do their jobs with a finesse that comes from natural skill and years of practice.","One false move, and the entire pattern could be ruined.","But the touch-ups are perfect, and these rollers are now ready for the production line.","The raw ingredients for the glass panels are stored in huge silos.","These ingredients all come from the earth-- sand, limestone, dolomite, soda ash, and salt cake.","Here's a sampling in a jar.","Conveyor belts feed a mixed batch of ingredients to a roaring furnace.","They add waste glass and recycle it into the process to reduce the effect on the environment.","Fired at 2,900 degrees fahrenheit, the ingredients melt quickly.","Now a molten mass, it circulates in a looped pathway.","An inspector checks the melting status of the glass ingredients, as well as the flow of gas fuel to fire the furnace.","This furnace is burning 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and is monitored constantly.","The hot, liquid glass now flows between two rollers, one of them engraved.","The rollers imprint designs onto the glass and squeeze it to its final thickness.","The glass rapidly solidifies, fixing the pattern in the ribbon of glass.","It then travels through a 65-foot-long temperature-control zone.","The glass ribbon is exposed to flames to relieve stresses caused by the manufacturing process.","This is called annealing.","The glass slowly cools as it leaves the zone.","This seals in strength and durability so it can now be cut cleanly without fracturing.","This cutter scores the glass lengthwise but doesn't cut it all the way through.","The scored line maps out the desired width of the glass.","Another cutter moves to and fro to create horizontal score lines.","These score lines establish the length of the patterned glass panels.","Then a roller pops up and breaks the glass along the horizontal score lines.","The sides of the glass now collide with little wheels known as bonkers, which snap the glass along the lateral score lines.","The waste glass falls down a chute to rollers that bust it to bits.","These bits are called cullet, and they'll be recycled into new glass.","A worker now backlights glass panels and examines their finish for flaws.","This solar glass panel has a matte finish.","Compared to the small sample of standard, clear glass, it's less reflective, allowing more of the sun's energy to be captured.","Minerals high in iron produce greenish glass that's light-absorbent.","For solar glass, they go easy on the iron to produce white glass that transmits light.","A carrier with suction cups stacks the glass for shipping.","Now all that's left is the window shopping.","Road cases are designed for the job of transporting sensitive equipment, like musical instruments and audio systems.","These wheeled trunks are tough on the outside, with cushy foam on the inside.","With road cases, the gear arrives intact and ready to rock 'n' roll.","Behind every superstar, there is plenty of this custom luggage.","Each case is designed for a particular piece of equipment, like an audio-mixing console.","The case is being made to measure.","They load the dimensions of the audio console into a computer and then design a virtual case around it using three-dimensional software.","Once a customer approves the computer blueprint, they're ready to build.","Workers roll adhesive onto thick birch plywood.","They coat the entire sheet.","The plywood is now ready to receive a thermoplastic outer skin.","They align the thermoplastic with the adhesive-coated plywood and lower it into place.","They feed the thermoplastic and plywood layers to rollers that squeeze out any bubbles for an airtight bond.","Then the heat from this hot press activates the adhesive, and it cures for an even better bond to the plywood.","The result is a laminated thermoplastic plywood sheet.","Next, a computer-guided router carves through the laminated sheet, following the design drawn up in cyberspace.","This produces the exterior panels, each one precisely sized for the audio-console case.","The router also cuts out holes for latches and other fittings.","A worker pieces together the panels to form the basic carcass of the case.","He tacks them together temporarily with a staple gun.","He'll join them permanently with extruded aluminum trim.","He preps the aluminum edging by punching rivet holes in it at strategic locations.","He also cuts notches for bending it around corners.","He's now ready to install the aluminum trim.","He can actually bend the corners by hand for a perfect fit.","The edging gives the case a tailored look, and once riveted to the panels, it will hold it together.","He drills through the holes in the trim to make corresponding holes in the laminated plywood.","He inserts rivets into the holes.","These rivets have mandrels attached to them.","He drives those mandrels through the rivets, causing them to expand around the drilled holes and secure the trim to the trunk.","With the job done, the mandrel breaks off and is disposed of.","With the case now held together by the metal trim, he rivets the latch to it, and then it's on to the inner framework.","The plywood parts have also been cut with computerized precision designed to hold the audio console.","He reinforces a piece called a cheek with a thick block of wood.","This cheek is one of the two that will cradle the audio console.","He bulks up the wide end with plywood copies of the cheek's contoured profile, gluing them and nailing them to the main part so this reinforcement job holds.","He spray-paints the cheek substructure black, giving it a durable, textured finish.","He fits the cheeks in the case, one on each side, and bolts them into position.","Another worker hot-glues blocks of foam, each specifically cut to fit together like pieces of a puzzle as he installs them in the case.","All this padding will cushion the impact of any bumps on the road or backstage jostling.","He even covers the top of a plywood drawer made for a keyboard.","They slide the audio-mixing console into the case to try it for size.","From start to finish, it's taken about three hours to make this road case.","It should last for as long as the audio equipment does, but it all depends on how rough it gets on the road.","Many animated films and tv shows use stop-frame animation.","The characters are three-dimensional puppets with movable facial and body parts.","The animator moves the puppet ever so slightly for each frame of film or video.","When you view the frames at regular speed, the puppet appears to be moving.","Timmy  it's timmy  he's the little lamb...","Bringing a make-believe world to life through stop-frame animation takes a large and talented team, which includes writers, directors, animators, set and prop makers, camera crews, and, of course, puppet makers, who create, maintain, and repair the puppets.","To see how stop-frame animation works, let's rewind this scene, which stars timmy and features a red balloon.","The director takes the writer's script and breaks down each scene of the episode into a series of shots.","This shooting script then goes to the storyboard artist, who draws each shot of the scene on a digital storyboard tablet.","For each scene, the director prepares a set plan detailing the background elements, the puppet placement, and the camera angles.","The storyboard artist sends his drawings to the editor, who works with the director to edit them into an animatic, a still-drawing version of the episode.","actors, meanwhile, have recorded the dialogue in a sound studio.","Now the editor cuts that dialogue into the animatic.","The visuals in this soundtrack must be perfectly synchronized, because the animators will use the animatic as a frame-by-frame guide for moving the puppets' bodies and lips.","Baa!","Ooh!","[ squealing] baa!","Baa!","The show's animators refer to a large schedule board to see which scenes they've been assigned to animate.","A printout of the animatic shows all the episode shots at a glance.","In the art department, construction of the episode's costumes and props is well underway.","To make a few red balloons, for example, the prop makers sculpt one out of molding material and use it to produce a hard, silicone mold.","Then they pour a thick-setting resin into the mold cavity.","After the resin has hardened overnight, they open up the mold and extract the casting.","They drill a hole in the bottom...","Dab some glue inside...","Then insert a small, triangular peg, also made of quick-setting resin.","This forms the tied balloon end of the balloon.","Now a coat of gray primer.","Then, once it dries, red paint.","When the paint dries, they drill another tiny hole at the base of the balloon and insert a strand of flexible copper wire wrapped in cotton thread.","This is the balloon string.","The team of animators shoot several scenes concurrently.","Therefore, in the puppet department, model makers produce multiple puppets for each character, plus lots of extra body parts.","Certain puppet body parts, such as hands and wings, are made of silicone with a wire skeleton within.","After forming the wire to shape and applying a base coat of silicone, the puppet maker lays it in a two-part mold, then fills both cavities with silicone.","She closes the mold...","Clamps it tightly shut, and leaves the silicone to set overnight.","The flexible, wire skeleton at the core enables the animator to position a hand or wing various ways.","In stop-frame animation, the more movable the puppet and its facial features, the more lifelike the animated character appears.","The animator moves the puppet incrementally for each frame they shoot, and 25 such frames produce just one second of animation.","Timmy's torso is a polyurethane-foam core dressed in a wool coat.","It has channels for interchangeable wires that support his head and arms.","His head is made of resin, his arm silicone over a wire skeleton.","Timmy and his friends' faces can express a wide range of emotions thanks to interchangeable mouths, flexible ears and blinks, an assortment of exchangeable eyelids conveying expressions from wide-eyed to cockeyed.","These facial features attach either magnetically or with tacky wax--  a flexible, quick-release glue.","The puppet-maintenance team packs each character and its parts in a travel box, then sends it to the animator on the studio floor.","During shooting, the animator changes the facial expressions as required.","While their work does indeed require great technical skill, the animators are actors who, under the director's guidance, perform through the puppets they bring to life.","The puppet's legs must be sturdy enough to support the weight of the upper body when the puppet is standing, so the leg skeleton is made of metal rods connected with ball-and-socket joints.","The feet are metal plates hinged to allow movement.","Just like the flexible, wire skeletons, this metal skeleton also goes into a mold to be encased in silicone.","The arms attach with square-section brass tubes so they can be easily interchanged with a few turns of an allen key.","Certain puppet movements require rigging.","A rig is a device that enables animators to raise the puppet off the floor of the set to perform jumping and skipping.","The animator can incrementally lift or lower the rig to any height and lock it there.","There are many preparations before shooting begins, such as lighting, puppet positioning...","And set dressing.","Using the animatic playing on a monitor as a reference, the director and camera operator frame the shot.","Meanwhile, the set dressers prepare the next set, gathering whatever scenic objects they need from the set-dressing kit.","To create these objects, artists first sculpt the shapes out of modeling material.","They create a mold from which they produce copies in fiberglass or quick-setting resin.","Then they paint the copies.","With the set dressed and approved, the animator can begin.","With great care referring to the animatic, he positions the rigged puppet.","Then, with the push of a button, he shoots a frame, or, in animation lingo, grabs the frame.","Next, he moves the puppet incrementally and makes slight changes to body positioning...","And grabs another frame.","25 consecutive frames equal one second of animation.","The animator's art is knowing how and by how much to move the puppet to create lifelike movement.","To get special close-up facial shots that they'll later intercut with the full-body sequence, they sometimes set the puppet on a rig positioned directly in front of the camera.","Once they've shot the animation, they take what's called a plate-- a shot of the set with puppets, props, and rigs removed.","They send the plate digitally to the editing suite, where the editor uses the visuals to cover up the rig, essentially erasing it from view.","This process is called compositing-- a little bit of behind-the-scenes artistry to create a whole lot of onscreen magic.","baa!","Ooh!"]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Handcuffs","Caulking Compound","Propane Tanks","Forensics"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Handcuffs...","Caulking and joint compound...","Propane tanks...","And forensic facial reconstruction.","When a crime is committed, a slap on the wrist usually isn't enough.","It's time to handcuff them.","The need for some restraint goes back centuries, but the handcuff's design was really improved in 1862 when adjustable ratchets were added.","They allow the cuffs to snugly grip the suspect's wrist.","When they put the handcuffs on you, you know you may be in trouble.","Handcuffs start with a roll of steel.","A machine pulls it through a straightener and then through a die that punches out a handcuff frame part.","A revolving barrel cage sifts out the waste and kicks the frames into a bin.","Here, a worker stacks \"u\"-shaped steel parts on a fixture, which he then clamps onto a machine.","A cutter makes ratchet teeth in the parts.","Coolant keeps the tool from heating up and getting too soft to do the job.","Each set of handcuffs will have two of these ratchets.","Next, they load steel rods into a slowly revolving device.","It moves the rods through a series of cutters.","This is how they make swivels for the handcuffs.","They round the tips of the rods and then carve necks below.","This tool slices the swivel to the proper length.","And then the partially finished swivel falls into a basket.","Next, a drill works on the rounded tip, scooping out the center.","And now you have a finished swivel.","They take two chain links and two swivels.","They make a small chain-- two links with swivels on the ends.","They lock the links and the swivels together.","And now the swivel-link assembly is complete.","The swivels will provide some rotational freedom between the cuffs.","But if they don't weld the links together, the prisoner could have total freedom.","It's time to assemble the handcuffs.","They install studs in the outer framework and attach the ratchets to them.","The swivel link fits into the little grooves in the framework.","They hammer the inner frame on and then lift the top and bottom assemblies together.","A tap with a hammer holds them loosely together.","Then a press bears down to make a tight seal.","These cuffs look complete, but they aren't quite ready for a life of crime.","They need to be toughened up.","So they spend 25 minutes in a furnace, and the searing heat hardens the seal.","This is the pawl, a spring-loaded bar that will engage the teeth of the ratchet.","They lock the pawl and spring in place.","A press pushes pins into the assembly to hold everything in position.","Then they stamp serial numbers onto each set of handcuffs so that the police can keep track of them.","Now the handcuffs shake in a vibrating bin full of stones.","This polishes the rough edges.","It's time for the ultimate test.","They activate a 500-pound pull, and the handcuffs remain strong.","They also tap each set to make sure the ratchets drop freely.","Handcuffs are temporary restraints, and most can be opened with the universal key.","They pack two with each set, along with the instructions.","There's no doubt they'll have a captive market because there's always someone who needs to be locked up.","But then again, there are also those who deserve their freedom.","The need to seal windows and cracks in walls and floors has been around since antiquity.","Lucky for us, we no longer have to stuff rags or smelly fish glue into these crevices.","Today's caulking and drywall compounds form durable synthetic seals that also blend into the decor.","This company's caulking comes in two types, latex and acrylic, both good for indoor and outdoor use.","To make acrylic caulking, they blend water with chemicals that prevent mold and help the caulking withstand cold weather.","Everything blends for about one minute.","The batch then goes into another mixer containing 1,500 pounds of synthetic resin.","They add a plasticizer that keeps the caulking flexible over time.","A combination of colorants tints the caulking-- in this case, a shade of brown called sandalwood.","After 15 minutes of blending, the caulking is ready.","To test the batch, they cure a sample at 77 degrees fahrenheit for one week...","Then check its flexibility.","If the batch gets the okay, it goes into this machine, which lines up plastic caulking tubes.","Piston pumps lift four tubes at a time, and the nozzles fill each tube with 10 ounces of caulking.","The machine can fill up to 1,000 tubes per hour.","The machine then seals the bottom end of the tubes with plastic covers.","The top ends have closed nozzles with replaceable caps.","Thanks to the resins and plasticizers, this company's products last up to 30 years.","That's the tough side of caulking, but there's also a gentler, craftier side.","Start by drawing a pattern on a piece of paper.","Then lay glass on top and run caulking along the pattern.","After 48 hours, the caulking hardens into a delicate lattice.","Then fill in the spaces with clear silicone for a frosted look.","Use a small steel brush and rubber gloves to spread it and create texture.","Perfect for a door or a bathroom window.","This factory also makes joint compound.","Use this product to cover cracks, holes, and seams in drywall.","To make it, they mix 185 gallons of water with chemicals that prevent mold and a type of clay that makes the compound more spreadable.","Now for the main ingredient--  440 pounds of chalk.","It's what remains on the wall when the compound dries.","Next, they add mica, a mineral whose tiny plates slide over each other to make the compound flexible and help prevent cracking.","They test the thickness with a device that gauges how much pressure it takes to stir the compound.","Next, they take a sample from every batch and measure the ph level.","It should have a reading of 8.8, quite high because of the chalk.","This is what's called a sandability test.","Technicians first let a precise amount of compound harden on a piece of drywall.","This machine then sands it down, applying 100 strokes in 2 minutes.","Technicians then remeasure the combined weight of the compound and drywall, registering how much has been lost.","Maximum weight loss should be 4%.","If the batch passes the test, they feed it into this machine.","It pumps compound into either small-size, 6.6-pound or large-size, 15.5-pound plastic buckets.","Then using a hydraulic press, a worker seals the containers with plastic covers.","To open the bucket, you break a small plastic tab and lift off the cover.","Joint compound also has its crafty uses.","With a stencil, you can apply small amounts in intricate patterns to decorate a picture frame or a mirror.","Now, that is some fancy filler.","Compressing propane allows you to sell it by the bottle.","When you compress it, propane gas turns into a liquid, and as a liquid, it's much more compact, which means you can pack a lot of energy into a small container.","Opening the valve converts it back to gas, giving you energy that you can put to good use.","Bottling energy means you can always have fuel on hand.","To make these tanks, they start with this big coil of steel.","A press punches out 3 disks 19 inches in diameter with each swoop.","A second press clamps the disk as a cylinder-shaped die thrusts upward, transforming it into a shell.","Each shell is 1/2 of a barbecue tank.","Next, suctioning devices carry the tank shells over to a trimmer, where a blade gives it a neat edge.","Workers then insert flanges into prepunched holes in the top shells.","The top and bottom halves of the barbecue tanks now move in separate directions.","The tops head into an automated welding station where the flanges are fused to them.","The weld has to be perfect so it can take the pressure of compressed fuel without exploding.","This die simultaneously bends steel strips into rings and punches holes in them.","These rings will be used as pedestals, and the holes can be used to mount the tank to a barbecue.","Next, a machine welds the rings to the bottoms of the tank shells.","The top and bottom tank shells converge.","And a pusher device nudges the tops onto the bottoms.","They load each freshly assembled tank onto a welding lathe.","The lathe turns as an automated welding gun follows the seam precisely, melting and bonding the two pieces together.","But this processing has hardened the steel...","Not a good thing because these tanks will need to expand and contract to accommodate pressurized fuel.","So they temper the tanks in a furnace.","They do random tests of the welded seam.","They cut out a piece of the tank and grind it on both sides to expose the weld.","Then they use a jack to bend the sample right at the seam.","It doesn't split and passes the test.","In another test, they lower a tank into a water-filled drum.","They pump water into the tank, causing pressure inside the drum to rise, proving the tank will indeed expand with pressure changes.","The tanks then travel down a row of paint guns, which spray them with electrostatically charged powder paint.","The tanks journey about a half mile to an inspection station.","Here, workers check for contaminants.","Then they drop valves into the flanged openings and place the barbecue cylinder in a special machine that screws the valve on very tightly.","In one final test, they submerge air-filled tanks in water.","If the water doesn't bubble up, it means the valve isn't leaking.","And after all that, these barbecue tanks should be able to take plenty of grilling.","When the usual ways of identifying human remains fail and the investigation stalls, police sometimes need a little image building, as in facial reconstruction.","Using the skull, they re-create the face of the deceased in hopes that it will jog someone's memory.","It's a high-tech way to solve a mystery.","To reconstruct a face, the specialist uses resin to make an exact replica of the unidentified man's cranium.","He attaches it to the rest of the skull cast.","And now he has an exact copy of the man's skull.","Next he measures rubber pegs to different lengths that are equivalent to the various thicknesses of facial skin.","The short one is placed on the forehead where the skin is thin.","Then he installs actual prosthetic eyes made of plastic.","Those are suction cups protruding from them now.","They help him to align the eyes.","He shines a light into them to confirm that they're looking straight ahead.","Next he cuts out muscle shapes from rolled clay.","This piece simulates the area around the mouth.","The man's muscles have left tension marks on his skull.","Those marks combined with the knowledge of facial anatomy help him decide where to build up muscle.","He makes the face expressionless because expressions are unique and impossible to extrapolate from a skull.","Next he sculpts muscle around the prosthetic eyes.","There are no clues about the actual shape of this man's eyes, so he gives them a generic look.","The skull does divulge the length and width of the nose as well as the location of the nostrils.","Now he builds up smiling muscles followed by fat and a salivary gland.","He uses different-colored clay so he can see them more clearly.","He maps out a location for the ears but doesn't yet attach them.","He shapes muscles in the neck, working from measurements and photos from the crime scene.","Next he gives the model skin.","As he applies this layer of clay, he uses the protruding pegs as thickness guides.","And after much sculpting, the model has come to life.","But he needs one more clay ear.","The skull offers some hints about the ears' size but not their shape, so he keeps that generic.","Now he sponges the clay to give it some texture so it looks more like real skin.","The artist snaps his picture with a digital camera and then downloads the image onto a computer.","Using photo-editing software, he transfers some hair to the shot of the clay model.","He knows from evidence on the scene that the man's hair was styled in dreadlocks and that he had a beard.","He borrows brows from another photo.","He paints in the brows with a stylus, which is a kind of computer mouse.","Using the same technique, he gives the image facial hair.","This digital artistry takes a couple of days, and the skull mold and clay model take 12 days to complete...","Time well spent because once the pictures and information are posted on police sites like this one, it may finally help them put a name to this face."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Stagecoaches","Road Reflectors","Fire Baked Pottery","Custom Motorcycle Tanks"]},"text":["Long before trains and buses, the stagecoach transported passengers and goods.","The coach would travel an established route in stages.","But over time, the word \"stage\" was used to describe the coach itself.","Drawn by two or four animals, it relied quite literally on horsepower.","Like a classic movie scene come alive, seeing a stagecoach in action is a throwback to a bygone era.","Even today, building a stagecoach, horse-drawn carriage, or covered wagon borrows techniques from a time when engineering and design were done by hand.","The creation of the stagecoach begins with drawings detailing both the look of the final product and its exact dimensions.","They start with construction of the stagecoach body.","A worker puts framing rails for the back wall into place using a mortise and a tenon joint.","The final panel slides into place, and another framing rail holds the end wall together.","The end wall is added to other pieces of the stagecoach body that have already been assembled.","The end wall has ribbing for added strength.","Although the floor is partially curved, passengers will sit or stand on the part that is flat.","The coach maker inserts the door pillars into the mortise with a few taps of a hammer.","He lowers the roof beam onto the top part of the door pillars and fastens it firmly into place.","Forging of stagecoach suspension components is done by hand.","The blacksmith begins stretching the heated bar of steel into a component called a jack.","He repeatedly heats and hammers the steel bar until it reaches the desired shape.","He hammers the tapered steel bar over an anvil to shape it into a curved hook.","Once the hook becomes an eye, he hammers a pin into it.","The blacksmith wraps the heated steel around the pin to form a snug joint.","The transformation is done without the help of presses or dies.","It's the blacksmith who essentially sculpts the metal bar into a piece that has both function and form.","The blacksmith positions the finished and cooled jack onto the undercarriage and attaches it firmly into place.","The assembly has to withstand the stresses of the leather suspension used to make the stagecoach ride more comfortable for passengers.","Using a clip, the blacksmith attaches the step used to climb into the stagecoach to the jack assembly.","He attaches a clevis to the jack assembly.","With four jacks in opposing corners, the leather suspension will rest in the clevises.","Now on to the stagecoach interior.","The trimmer inspects the hide of leather.","He positions patterns carefully, choosing leather cuts that match.","Then he'll cut the leather pieces with each pattern designated for a specific part of the stagecoach.","He places the newly upholstered cushion on the seat bench and buckles the retaining straps that hold it securely in place.","In the paint booth, this particular undercarriage is given coats of yellow and black stripes.","A worker coats the running gear and wheels with sealer to weatherproof the undercarriage.","Workers gently lower the newly painted and upholstered wagon onto the undercarriage.","They connect the two using mounting bolts.","They fix the name plate to the center of the rear axle.","To help protect passengers from the elements, this particular model comes with a roof.","Workers lower the roof posts into receiver eyes and make sure they're securely attached.","Next, a worker positions a brake pad against one of the rear wagon wheels.","He then tests the brake assembly.","The face of the brake pad can be wood, steel, or rubber, depending on the vocation of the wagon.","Now for a suspension test.","The process that began with raw lumber and steel ends up about 1,200 hours later with a stagecoach that's ready to hit the dusty trail.","Road reflectors originated in britain in the 1930s.","A cat's eyes reflected in headlights on a foggy night, alerting a driver to the fact that he was about to veer off the road, provided the flash of inspiration.","The driver went on to invent a mechanical version of the cat's eyes-- reflective road studs.","Today's reflective road studs are shining examples of innovation.","These versions are computerized and solar-powered, so they're energy efficient and they'll function in a power blackout.","It takes more than 20 parts to make one road reflector.","The assembler first solders two wires to the back of a solar circuitry board, establishing a connection.","She flips the solar circuitry board around and applies double-sided tape.","She places two strips of copper on conductive pads in the corners above the tape.","She removes the backing from the double-sided tape.","Using a vacuum tool, she transfers the solar cell to the tape.","Once in place, she turns off the vacuum and smoothes the cell to the tape.","She solders the copper strips to the conductive pads, creating the circuitry.","She connects the solar panel to the board with short, little wires called jumpers.","She slides rubber protectors onto the board.","Each road reflector will have two of these solar units.","Next, she assembles the flashing l.e.d. lights.","She solders wires to the back panels to link the lights to the main computer board.","She then applies adhesive to the panel and presses the framework for the l.e.d. lens to it.","She inserts the polycarbonate lens into the framework, and it clicks in.","There are two l.e.d. lights per road reflector.","She now assembles the reflector.","She angles shiny aluminum flaps to bounce light.","She tucks the lights into the reflector, and they adhere to the double-sided tape applied to the base.","She powers up the flashing lights and checks the intensity and the effect of the reflective flaps.","Things are looking good, so now she inserts foam in a slot at the center of the aluminum casing.","She places the reflective light unit on it.","She installs a foam-wrapped rechargeable battery in a compartment on one side of the lights.","She places the main computer board and solar cells in the compartment on the other side.","And then a computer technician programs the road reflector to interface with a control system on the street pole.","The reflector is now ready to stop traffic or at least slow it down.","A crew carves a slot in the road sized precisely for the reflector.","To keep the pavement clean during installation, one of them tapes the perimeter of the hole.","He then pumps industrial-strength epoxy into it.","He inserts a cast-iron framework into the epoxy-filled hole.","He wipes up the epoxy overflow and removes the tape.","Entrenched in the pavement, this cast-iron framework will encase the road reflector, allowing it to hold up to heavy traffic.","He screws a protective crossbar over the lights and then secures the road reflector to the support structure.","They install the wireless communication system atop a pole.","This positions it to activate the road reflectors when the curbside crosswalk button has been pressed.","Modern communications technology has improved on this 1930s invention.","Today's road reflector systems are flashier than ever, designed to attract a driver's attention and keep it on the road.","In tribal communities in the american southwest, pottery takes shape much as it has for 2,000 years.","In the hands of native artisans, mud becomes a cooking pot or a storage vessel.","No pottery wheel necessary, no kiln required-- just a roaring campfire.","Times may change, but in the southwest, tribal culture is true to its roots, creating pots that look like ancient artifacts, except they're new.","Crafted from local clay, the pots are both lightweight and durable, and their appeal is truly timeless.","The potter gathers her own clay.","This is micaceous clay from volcanic deposits in new mexico.","She also mines minerals like iron oxide to paint the pottery.","In its raw form, micaceous clay sparkles in the sunlight.","Its natural glitter will make the finished pottery shimmer.","She picks out leaves and tree roots because anything organic will outgas and cause the pottery to crack.","She transfers the clay to a bucket of water.","After three or four days, it dissolves, and she filters it to remove smaller contaminants.","Once the clay thickens to a gravy-like consistency, she transfers it to a fabric-lined mold.","She leaves it to set and coagulate to a dough-like consistency.","She kneads a chunk of it to remove air bubbles.","She then shapes it into a bowl.","It will serve as the base of a traditional storage pot.","She scrapes the pot base inside and out to thin it as it dries.","The thinning process also works the clay into a harder state.","She moistens the tip of the bowl to make it malleable and flattens the edge, creating a foundation to build up the pot.","She now rolls another piece of clay into a long, thin strand and coils it around the pot.","She blends the strand into the pot base and then shapes it to extend the pot upward.","The process is called coiling.","She continues to build up the coils, blending them until they become completely enmeshed and seamless to the rest of the pot.","As she coils and blends, she turns the pot inward, creating a shoulder near the top.","She smoothes the lip and thins the extensions to ensure the thickness is consistent.","This will prevent structural weakness.","In the hands a skilled artisan, a lump of clay has become a pot, but there's more work to be done.","She narrows the opening.","She cuts the lip in six symbolic orientations, representing north, south, east, and west, the sky, and the earth.","She scallops the edge in the direction of the cuts to accentuate them.","She smoothes the pot with a wet sponge.","Before dawn, when the wind is low, she lights a fire and places the pots directly into it.","She stacks wood around the pots, and flames engulf them.","This changes the clay's molecular structure so that it can never turn back into sticky mud.","She covers the fire with a metal tub.","The flames subside, and the pots cool.","Curing clay over an open fire isn't an exact science.","Heat is uneven, and this causes fracturing.","20% of these clay pots will be damaged.","She examines them carefully and rejects anything that is not intact.","In addition to the micaceous clay pots, she also fires some red clay ones.","She paints geometric motifs onto those, using the mineral paints she's prepared herself.","Each pot is one of a kind.","Quality varies depending on the nature of the clay and smoke patterns created during firing.","She leaves the pots made of micaceous clay unpainted for traditional reasons.","She signs the vase and includes the name of her tribe.","She tucks her biographical information into it.","She's been making pottery since childhood.","From a handful of mud to a storage vessel or cooking pot, southwest native pottery continues to be a triumph of ingenuity.","As a group, motorcycle riders aren't big on convention.","So when it comes to the look of their ride, they often go their own way.","The gas tank presents the greatest opportunity when customizing the facade of the bike.","Prominent and up-front, the tank both fuels the ride and defines it.","On a car or truck, the gas tank is tucked away out of sight.","But on a motorbike, there's no place to hide it, so you may as well just show it off.","To make a custom gas tank, the metalworker starts with a sheet of sturdy cold-rolled steel.","He traces around paper patterns to transfer their outline to the steel.","There are seven pattern pieces.","The design is a tapered classic one.","He follows the lines with an electric metal shear.","With it, he can produce a rough cut quickly.","He switches to a lever-operated shear to trim the parts cleanly and precisely.","He physically bends one piece around a tube to create the tunnel.","The tunnel is the lower section of the tank that fits around the backbone portion of the bike frame.","He cuts the tunnel to size along marked lines.","He drills holes in the tunnel for the mounting tubes.","Using threaded bolts as guides now, he positions the two mounting tubes on the holes and welds them to the tunnel, creating leak-proof seams.","With rods attached as a mockup of the rest of the tank, he tests the fit to the bike.","He confirms the handlebars move freely and that there's no interference with the engine.","Next, he uses an english wheel on the two top panels.","He rolls each panel between two wheels to take the profile from flat to curved.","He tests the curvature against the mockup rods.","It needs tweaking.","He continues to shape it until the custom gas-tank part matches the mockup perfectly.","Using another machine now, he forms a stylish curl onto the edges.","This will also allow the two parts to be joined neatly at the peak.","After marking the location of the fuel cap, he punches small holes for mounting screws.","He cuts out the hole for the gas cap.","He joins the two top sections of the custom gas tank with tack welds.","A more permanent weld will come later.","He drills holes for mounting the top panel assembly to the tunnel, spacing them to correspond with the mounting tubes.","With the mockup rods removed from the tunnel, he joins the top panel assembly to it.","He then tack-welds the sides to this custom gas-tank assembly.","He hammers the tank's front cap against a form to give the outer edges a rounded profile.","He sands the part around the edges to fine-tune the contours and ensure a perfect fit.","He tack-welds the front cap to the rest of the motorcycle tank.","And with the tank structure complete, it's time to make it leak-proof.","He does a full penetration weld on every seam.","Using a pneumatic tool, he sands the seam smooth and flat.","He then sands the rest of the tank by hand to make the entire surface uniform.","He positions the tank on the bike.","After equipping the gas cap with a gasket, he screws it tightly to the custom tank.","Using mounting screws and wing nuts, he secures the tank to the bike frame.","This custom gas tank now becomes a canvas.","He paints it and applies silver borders and graphics requested by the customer.","He connects the tank to the carburetor, and this bike is ready to show off its new custom look."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Manhole Covers","Range Hoods","Artificial Logs","Snowmobiles"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Manhole covers....","Range hoods...","Artificial logs...","And snowmobiles.","Manhole covers are those metal lids on maintenance holes and roadways.","Workers lift them to enter and repair sewers and other underground utilities.","Foundries make the covers out of heavy-duty cast iron so they last for decades and don't budge under passing traffic.","This company makes hundreds of models of manhole covers and collars, the rims upon which the covers sit.","They come in two types of cast-iron alloy-- either ductile iron, which has magnesium to reinforce it, or gray iron, which is heavier but just as strong.","To make a cover, they first have to make a mold.","This one's got the design of the cover's top side carved into it.","Workers pour in about 650 pounds of sand mixed with glue and a hardener.","For the underset of the cover, they repeat the step in another mold.","A worker creates a channel in the sand mold through which they'll pour the molten metal.","He plugs the hole with a wooden block to preserve the cavity beneath.","He removes the block and briefly reinserts the pipe to ensure the cavity hasn't caved in.","It takes about 15 minutes for the sand mix to harden.","A machine then inverts each box and vibrates to shake out the mold.","To make one manhole cover, workers will join molds of the top and bottom sections.","Alignment lugs and glue between the sections help them align properly and form an airtight seal so molten metal won't leak out.","Next, the machine flips the bottom mold, moves the top mold into position below, then mates the pair.","The factory buys scrap metal from demolition sites and also recycles its own.","It'll melt these metals with certain minerals to enhance the mix.","Graphite to make it malleable, silicon to make it stronger, and magnesium to make this batch of ductile iron lightweight yet strong.","Here, a giant magnet picks up chunks of recycled iron and steel.","The metal is preheated to 780 degrees fahrenheit then transferred to a furnace.","There, at 2,700 degrees fahrenheit, it takes about a half hour to melt enough metal to make 35 covers.","Workers then transfer the molten metal to a cauldron and add more silicon.","This evens out the consistency so it's easier to pour.","Besides the channel for pouring in the metal, some larger molds have vent holes to evacuate burning gasses.","It takes about an hour and a half for the metal to harden.","A conveyor then drops the molds into a container and breaks them open.","Using a hook, they pick up the casting.","This one's a collar weighing about 220 pounds.","They knock off the remaining bits of sand and excess bits of metal that formed during the casting.","These scraps get recycled into a new batch of iron.","Manhole covers vary in size according to the specifications ordered.","Most are roughly the diameter of a car tire.","The average weight is about 140 pounds.","A worker now smoothes out the edges of the collar, and then the perimeter of the cover.","This way, it will sit flush on the collar.","This machine tests the strength of the cover by applying pressure.","It must withstand the weight of a car on every one-inch area.","They paint the covers and collars by dipping them in a bath of black tar.","Once dry, the pieces have a rust-resistant finish that lasts for decades.","And the buyers expect them to last, because a manhole cover and collar cost up to $1,400.","People have cooked on stovetops for centuries, but it wasn't until about 1800 that metal stoves with flues vented steam and smoke outdoors.","Today, factories make encased fans that powerfully ventilate and also light the stovetop.","A stovetop is often called a \"range,\" hence the name \"range hoods\".","No matter how well you cook, steam and smoke are inevitable.","Fortunately, the range hood's fan, called the blower, clears the air in seconds.","Production begins with this computer-guided machine.","It cuts out a sheet of galvanized steel to make part of the hood's housing.","A 300-ton press then perforates the sheet and cuts out up to 50 openings for screws, wiring, and exhaust outlets.","A worker inserts another panel for the housing in a 25-ton press.","The machine bends the steel in two places.","They'll use this component to make a circular channel that evacuates smoke and steam that often contain grease particles.","To curl the panel, the worker uses another machine with three rollers.","It forms the circular channel that fits around the blower to direct air through the exhaust.","Here a spot-welding machine joins two corners of the hood's housing.","This is mainly for aesthetics.","A weld looks better than a screw or bolt.","This 80-ton press bends the hood's shell, making one of 80 folds that give the component its final shape.","Now a worker removes the plastic coating that protected the steel during the cutting.","He applies a sticker with a product i.d. code.","Then a pad printing machine marks the brand name, 1 of 12 this factory produces.","This is the first of eight stops on an assembly line.","A worker installs a transformer to power the blower's motor and two halogen lights.","This circuit board regulates several functions, including three light intensities and the blower's four-speed motor.","She attaches the board to the housing with three screws.","This panel has lights that indicate what functions are on.","Next, the worker installs the blower's 165-watt electric motor.","The motor attaches with three screws into rubber bushings that reduce noise...","Then, light sockets made of heat-resistant plastic.","The blower's housing snaps into place around the motor.","A little silicone on the housing ensures an airtight seal around the blower.","Then she installs the blower wheel.","Next, she plugs the lights in to test them.","You press this button three times to make the lights increasingly bright.","There's one button for each of the motor's speeds.","After snapping a panel on to enclose the hood assembly, a worker attaches a plastic ring to direct air through the blower.","A computer system tracks each model's assembly.","When workers complete a step, they input it into the system.","An optical scanner also senses when they remove a part from 1 of 25 cubbies, like these removable air filters made of mesh aluminum.","The tracking system's called \"polka yoke,\" a japanese-inspired method that insures thorough assembly.","It follows each model until workers place it in a box for shipping.","The system's final task is to ensure that they put in the mail-in guarantee card and the installation manual.","If workers forget anything, the system reminds them with a loud buzzer.","Once they staple the box closed, a machine with suction cups picks it up and stacks it 10 boxes per pallet.","All this work so you can stay in the kitchen even if you can't stand the heat.","In the mood to light a cozy fire in your wood stove or fireplace?","No need to put on your coat and boots and trudge through the snow to the outdoor wood pile.","Nowadays you can buy a box of manmade logs.","A lot less hassle for you, fewer trees die, and the environmentally friendly brands pollute less and are safer for your chimney.","These artificial logs are made entirely of compressed sawdust.","Their moisture content is less than 9%, compared to 30% in real firewood.","The compression and dryness combine to make these manmade logs easier to light than real ones.","They don't throw sparks while burning, and they produce 300% more heat than real firewood.","The high temperature burns up the gasses better, so the logs emit up to 50% fewer pollutants, and they produce fewer ashes and far less creosote, a highly flammable tar that's a natural byproduct of wood burning.","Creosote buildup in a flu can cause a chimney fire.","The sawdust comes from pure, natural hardwood, mostly oak and maple.","The log company buys it from factories that make hardwood flooring.","So from the start, these logs are ecological because they're made of recycled waste.","The sawdust is clean, and the log factory doesn't add chemicals, so it's safe to cook over the fire.","The sawdust moisture content is so low because the wood it came from was already dried in huge ovens to make the flooring.","The sawdust arrives in different consistencies, so the first step is to put it through a grinder to make the particles uniform in size.","The next step is the key one--  compression.","At a rate of 5,500 pounds per hour, an air-blowing system moves the sawdust from the grinder directly into a compression machine.","The machine is a giant cylinder with a piston that moves inside.","The piston compresses the sawdust using extreme high pressure--  6,000 pounds per square inch.","The result is a 40-foot-long compressed sawdust log.","Unlike some other brands of artificial logs, this one contains no binding agents which can pollute the air.","So how does the sawdust stick together, then?","The secret is the high compression.","The intense heat it creates bonds the natural resins in the sawdust.","As the log exits the compression machine, a cutter shapes a flat edge.","This is a safety feature.","With a flat edge on the bottom, the logs are easier to stack in the recommended three-log configuration, and they don't roll out of position.","Now, a guillotine chops the 40-foot log into 40 smaller logs, each 1 foot long.","A separator pulls them apart.","The company also produces a 10-inch log.","The logs drop onto a conveyor belt that leads to the packaging area.","The factory boxes its logs with instructions and two fire starters.","The starters are made of sawdust and candle wax, more effective than using newspaper to get the fire going.","This competitor's artificial log breaks easily because it isn't as dense.","This company's log, on the other hand, is more solid because it's so tightly compressed.","That high density translates into more burning time.","Three logs will keep your fireplace alight for about three hours.","For centuries, inventors tackled this challenge with determination and frustration.","The first snow machines trudged through winters awkwardly and slowly.","But by the late 1950s, new technologies and materials emerged to make snowmobiles that could blaze through the snow with increasing ease and comfort.","Snowmobilers often face rugged terrain.","Snowmobiles need a rock-solid build to keep the rider safe and comfortable.","It all begins with an aluminum-alloy frame.","The pieces arrive partly assembled to the radiator.","The robot spins and positions the frame.","A computer-guided frame-rivet machine punches holes and inserts rivets directly into the frame with great precision.","This process bonds the parts tightly so they can't vibrate.","Next comes the rear suspension, aimed at making the ride as smooth as possible.","Inserting this plastic slide onto the runner minimizes friction between the track and the suspension.","A conveyor belt carries the suspension system through several stations.","Wheels and sprockets will turn the track that grips the snow.","The suspension kit with springs and coils goes directly into the runners.","Along with these shock absorbers, the suspension will fit snugly into the snowmobile's frame.","Workers tighten everything manually for now.","Later, a machine will tighten things even more.","Assembling the transmission system starts with this countershaft.","First, they install a high-performance brake disc made of forged steel.","The chain case fits snugly on top thanks to the ridges on this ring.","This die-cast aluminum casing will house two gears and a chain.","This bolt connects to a spring that keeps the gears and chain tight as they turn.","The chain-tightener must slide smoothly back and forth in its groove to keep the chain's tension even.","This test checks that the spring expands and compresses properly.","Now comes the oil gauge.","It's essential that oil lubricate the parts thoroughly because the motor will generate a lot of friction.","The transmission fits on top of the frame.","These coils, springs, runners, and wheels fit easily into the rubber track.","The rear suspension system connects to the track system while this white plastic sprocket connects the track to the transmission.","The speed sensor attaches directly to the sprocket.","Four high-grade steel bolts anchor the rear suspension system to the frame.","They're so strong that the suspension can withstand the vibrations that come with high speeds.","Now for the engine assembly.","Bolts attach the electric starter directly to the engine.","The fuel-injected engine generates a lot of heat-- up to 1,300 degrees fahrenheit.","This shield has layers of insulating wool that act as a heat barrier to protect the driver from scorching-hot exhaust.","The engine's made of cast aluminum so it's relatively light--  just 100 pounds-- and it propels the snowmobile up to 120 miles an hour.","Now for the front of the snowmobile.","This front suspension system requires a different assembly from the rear one.","A hoist brings it all together.","The gas tank is made of lightweight molded plastic rather than metal.","The throttle controls the speed just like a gas pedal in a car.","They install the throttle assembly, and a few more functional details.","These lightweight, aerodynamic plastic side panels give this snowmobile a sleek look.","And now, the final step.","The zero-gravity hoist lifts it all onto a skid.","Polystyrene sheets protect the snowmobile during transport to the retailer.","From start to finish, it's taken three hours to assemble this showroom-ready, snow-travelling machine."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["DeLorean Restoration","Bison Fibre","Shuffleboard Tables","Friction Forged Knives"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","The delorean sports car was manufactured in northern ireland in the early 1980s.","With gull-wing doors and brushed stainless steel panels, the delorean was known for its flashy style.","Today, many of these cars are in rough shape, but a restoration can make a delorean look like new.","This delorean is a rare relic from the '80s.","Only 9,080 of these iconic cars were manufactured.","No longer operational, this delorean might have been destined for the junk yard.","But with professional restoration, this company has the spare parts to get it up and running.","The process starts with the diagnostics.","The technician examines the suspension, the steering rack, and brakes.","He finds significant deterioration and documents his findings.","He scrutinizes every part of the old delorean and produces an 11-page report on its condition.","Once all the problems have been identified, the mechanic gets to work, removing plugs to drain some of the coolant.","He disassembles many pipes and hoses that run coolant from the radiator to the rear engine.","Many of the coolant pipes will need to be cleaned in order to be re-used.","The rubber hoses can't be salvaged and will need replacement.","The mechanic disassembles the brakes.","The calipers are in bad shape but can be rebuilt.","The rusty rotors are still thick enough that they can be resurfaced.","After mounting new tires and refinishing the cast alloy wheels, another technician bolts them to the hubs.","He lowers the hoist and sets the car on the floor.","He tightens the lug nuts to the final torque setting.","A technician begins disassembling the rear drive engine.","In order to know what needs to be replaced, the technician must take the engine apart.","He removes the air filter box in order to access the intake manifold.","Then he unbolts the \"w\"-shaped manifold pipe that splits the air flow to the engine.","Once it's off, he removes the air-mixture control unit, which needs restored to work.","With the unit out of the way, he can easily get to other parts that need replacing or fixing.","Those include spark plugs, wires, vacuum lines, the distributor cap, and rotor.","Under the front hood, the mechanic pulls the fuel pump out of the gas tank to check for deterioration.","It's beyond repair.","He drains any fuel the remains in the tank.","After the gas tank has been emptied and cleaned, he inserts a new, modern-style pump module.","Another technician holds the top of the pump down as the module is clamped into place.","Next, the technician removes the interior door panels and uses a central tester to operate the power windows.","He confirms the power windows are functional.","He also checks the power locks and mirrors to verify that they're working properly.","He pulls off exterior rubber trim.","He shaves off any remaining rubber bits.","This allows room to repair a dent in the stainless steel body.","He files the area around the dent to remove some scratches.","He places a special tool over the dent.","It has a rod with a fine steel tip that welds to the body, providing a solid grip, as he manually pulls out the dent.","Meanwhile, another mechanic applies tape to various sections of the car to establish borders for the refinishing of the steel body panels.","He sands out any imperfections or tool marks from the repairs and restores the brushed finish bumper to bumper.","Since no paint can be used to cover up repairs on bare stainless steel, the body work must be done perfectly.","Inside, technicians reupholster the seats and treat any discoloration in the vinyl panels and dashboard.","Finally, the entire car gets an extensive exterior cleaning.","It's taken months to restore this delorean, but the question remains, will it run like a new car?","Once tested in various driving conditions, mechanics confirm that this 1980s throwback is ready for its comeback.","The bison is blessed with the perfect winter coat, and now bison fibers are helping people to endure the cold, too.","Processed with polyester strands, the fibers are made into insulation for winter coats, allowing people to hunker down in frigid winter temperatures.","These winter coats have been insulated with bison fiber fill.","It's a by-product of bison ranching and a garment insulation that's no longer going to waste.","Bison fiber fill is a combination of the animal's coarse guard hairs, bison down, recycled and low-melt polyester.","Technicians load the four fibers separately into spiked conveyors.","The fibers were compressed for shipping.","So as they're loaded, the fibers are loosened by hand.","Once loading is complete, an operator turns on the conveyors.","The conveyors' protruding pins snag the bison-and-polyester strands and transport them upward.","The strands travel under rotating spiked cylinders.","The cylinders comb the fibers to open them up and detangle them.","The four different fibers flow into scales, which weigh equal portions and are released.","The fibers drop onto a conveyor and move into a blender for mixing.","Another vertical conveyor with pins picks up the fibers and takes them upward, past revolving bars that knock off the excess.","This ensures an even mass, as the bison-and-polyester fibers move between a series of different wire-covered rollers.","This process arranges the fibers in a parallel orientation and gets rid of any clumps.","A comb further aligns the bison-and-polyester fibers.","The fibers cling together in a web.","The web transfers to a wooden slat conveyor.","A vacuum suctions up loose fibers to be recycled back into production.","An oscillating conveyor layers the fibers in a zigzag pattern called \"cross lapping\".","Cross lapping produces a substantial mat, and it also mixes the fibers.","Next, the web lands on another conveyor, passing between a series of rollers that compress it.","This process gives the mixed fibers the appropriate mass and height to produce a uniform batt.","A sprayer applies an adhesive to the bison-and-polyester insulation.","The adhesive doesn't take right away.","It will need to be heat-activated.","The insulation moves into a 300-degree oven, which triggers the activation.","The heat also activates the low-melt polyester strands in the insulation.","This bonds the interlaced fibers to prevent them from migrating through fabric when used as fill.","Next, the insulation heads downward into a shearing.","Like a pizza cutter, circular blades cut through the center of the insulation mat and trim along the edges.","Rollers wind the strips of bison fiber and polyester insulation together.","Using a paper cutter, an inspector cuts a sample to a specific size.","He weighs the sample and confirms that it's adequate for the size, verifying the density of the fiber mass.","Next, he measures the sample's thickness.","At about .","13 inches, the fiber fill will provide warmth without a lot of bulk.","The team slices the bison fiber fabric fill to its specified length using a hot wire.","Once the roll is complete, they start rolling the next one.","The bison fiber rolls are put in plastic bags for protection during transport to outside clothing factories.","Technicians weigh each bag separately.","After several hours, bison fibers and polyester strands have been transformed into moisture wicking insulation.","Stuffed inside a jacket liner, this bison fiber insulation won't be seen.","But on a winter day, its presence will definitely be felt.","Shuffleboard originated in british taverns in the 15th century.","Players would slide coins, called groats, down the bar, aiming for them to stop as close to the edge as possible without falling off.","It was so popular that king henry viii banned the game, saying it was too much of a distraction from work.","Centuries after shuffleboard was invented, this easy and entertaining game is making a comeback.","To make a shuffleboard table, a technician trims maple strips.","The strips vary in length, but they all have the same width and thickness.","Using a rolling wheel fused with glue, the technician applies adhesive to the strips.","These strips have grooves on one side and protrusions on the other so that they can interlock.","The glue will ensure the interlocked strips stay together.","After he assembles the strips, he counts them to confirm that he has the correct number for the playfield size.","He lowers a curing press, then clamps the strips together.","The press applies applies high-temperature heat to rapidly cure the glue joints.","The slabs are stored in racks for 30 days so that they acclimate to each other.","Once the process is complete, the slabs go into a planer.","The planer removes dried glue, smooths and levels the surface.","On the left is a slab before it went through the planer, and on the right is the one that's had the work done.","A technician applies adhesive-backed strips to mark the score zones and tapes the ends to prevent peeling.","He smooths down the number decals that will designate the scoring zones.","The company logo goes in the center.","Next, a coat of polymer varnish is applied to the board.","The varnish encases the decals, making them resistant to wear.","The parts of the cradle base are built with plywood.","A router cuts slots in the base for the playfield adjustment parts.","A technician joins two sections of the base and builds the cradle skirting.","He adds a piece in the center for extra support, links sideboards to the ends, and staples the corners together.","He turns the cradle over and screws the skirt to the base from the top, beginning at the corners and continuing along the entire border.","He uses rounded maple corners for the end frames to eliminate sharp angles.","He sprays a generous amount of glue on the outside of the frame.","This prepares it to receive a laminated composite material.","He coats the back of the laminate with glue...","And wraps the laminate around the end frame, which adds a different aesthetic.","Then he sands the rims so that it sits evenly on the base of the cradle.","He glues the end frame to the cradle...","Reinforces the glued seams with staples...","And joins the sides of the cradle to the end piece, which fit together perfectly.","Another technician sands the wood until it's silky smooth.","Then a stain is sprayed on the sides of the cradle and the skirting.","The stain enhances the grain of the maple and adds a depth of color.","He sprays on lacquer, which seals the stain and gives the wood a glossy finish.","He adds wooden inlays for visual interest.","Next, the cradle is sprayed with glue.","A technician applies the carpet to the glued areas.","The carpet will absorb the impact of pucks that fall off the board.","With the second end plate installed and the legs attached, the cradle is ready for the playfield to be mounted.","The playfield is so heavy, it takes two people to lower it into the cradle.","This shuffleboard table is now complete.","Even though it's taken three days to build, this shuffleboard is worth every bit of hard work.","The hallmark of a quality knife is a cutting edge that remains sharp despite repeated use over time.","One of the most advanced knife-making methods is friction forging-- a technique applied specifically to the knife's cutting edge to produce sharpness and durability.","Friction-forged blades are used primarily in hunting and fishing but also work just as well in the kitchen.","The blades are made of high-carbon steel.","A laser cutter slices out rectangular bars, each of which will yield two to five blades.","The bars are wrapped in foil and put in an oven at 1,850 degrees fahrenheit for several hours.","The heat hardens the steel.","The bars are removed from the oven and cooled.","Then they're put back in the oven and heated to 700 degrees fahrenheit for several more hours.","This second round of heat treating tempers the steel, drawing down its hardness to between 38 and 42 on the rockwell scale.","The bars are placed on a large electromagnet.","The magnet holds them securely, while the bars rotate under a grinding stone.","A steady flow of coolant prevents the heat the friction generates from changing the hardness of the steel.","The grinder removes carbon deposits caused by the heat treatment, along with any surface imperfections.","A craftsman uses a rockwell hardness tester to measure the bar's hardness.","The machine's needle bears down until it indents the steel.","A measurement of 41 is right on target and within the range of ultra-tough spring steel.","The bar is now ready to be friction forged.","The forging machine's specialized tool applies immense pressure, combined with rotational movement called \"stirring,\" to a specific area of the bar.","The stirring action creates friction, which plasticizes the steel, reducing its microscopic grain structures to levels no other forging or heat-treating method can achieve, 50 to 75 times smaller than that of the steel typically used in a high-quality knife.","The finer the grain size, the stronger the steel, the sharper and less brittle the blades the unforged zone becomes the blade's main body.","This area is the tough spring steel, with a rockwell hardness between 38 and 42.","The friction-forged zone becomes the blade's cutting edge-- 65 to 70 on the rockwell scale.","A computer-guided grinding machine shapes the blade.","This is what the blade looks like before grinding...","And after.","The blade is shotblasted with fine ceramic beads to remove all surface imperfections.","The forged zone is now clearly distinguishable.","A craftswoman assembles the knife's handle.","She places a stainless steel bolster over the blade and inserts two pins made of nickel silver.","She trims the pins, then flattens them with a hammer to lock in the bolster.","Here is the blade before...","And after this assembly.","A laser engraves the model and brand name in the unforged area.","The craftsman applies glue on both halves of the handles, then presses them together.","This model is made of desert ironwood held together with glue and brass nickel pins.","Once the glue dries, a craftswoman runs the handle against a sanding belt to shape the wood to the steel.","She polishes the wood to bring out the beauty of the grain.","Then the blade is hand-sharpened on a belt grinder.","First, the main cut.","Then the edge.","Which stays sharp 10 to 50 times longer than a traditionally heat-treated blade.","Finally, the knife is run through a test for edge sharpness.","If the reading indicates the sharpness of a razor blade, the friction-forged knife passes the test."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Gel Caps","Playground Spring Riders","Frozen Pancakes","Natural Rubber"]},"text":["Liquid medication used to always come in a bottle, and you had to pour your dose with a steady hand into a spoon.","Today, many medications and supplements come inside small food-safe casings that are easy to swallow and portable-- soft gel capsules.","Many types of products come in gel capsules, from prescription drugs to health supplements such as fish oils.","Many of these medicine fills go bad if exposed to oxygen, so the gel cap, besides being convenient, also serves as a protective barrier.","Every ingredient in both the gel cap and the medicine fill inside undergoes extensive testing for purity.","The first test phase checks for bacterial contamination.","Lab technicians dissolve the ingredients in solution, apply it to a food source in a petri dish, then incubate the dish for 72 hours to encourage any existing bacteria to grow.","Then they draw samples and examine them under a microscope.","If those samples are bacteria-free, the ingredient moves on to the second phase of testing, which checks for contaminants such as lead, arsenic, mercury, and cadmium.","This machine, called a spectrometer, injects the ingredient solution into a plasma flame, then, by reading the changes in light wavelengths, analyzes the chemical composition.","If the ingredient is contaminant-free, it gets the go-ahead.","The gel cap is made entirely of natural ingredients-- gelatin derived from beef bones, palm oil glycerin, and purified water.","The proportions are top-secret.","An industrial blender combines the three ingredients to a uniform consistency, then heats the mixture to 175 degrees fahrenheit.","A vacuum sucks out the air bubbles as this now-ready gel material flows into a holding tank.","Simultaneously, they prepare the medicine fill-- in this case, vitamin d. they combine it with soybean oil to adjust the potency to the specified strength.","Meanwhile, they maintain the gel-cap material in the holding tank at 140 degrees fahrenheit to prevent it from prematurely solidifying.","Even the hose leaving that tank is wrapped in heater tape to keep the gel liquid.","A separate hose feeds the vitamin d solution from another holding tank down to the production floor, as well.","This hose doesn't require heating because vitamin d and soybean oil don't solidify when cool.","On the production line, two stations simultaneously spread a thin layer of molten gel across a cooling drum.","The gel hardens into a solid, yet malleable, sheet about the thickness of cardboard.","Each sheet passes over a rotating die with capsule-shaped cavities.","Just before the two gel sheets come together, pumps inject the required quantity of vitamin d solution into each cavity, the pressure pushing the gelatin into the cavity.","At the same time, the machine heats the gel sheets so that when they meet, they adhere to each other, forming full capsules with the vitamin d solution sealed inside.","In the final second, the die's sharp edges slice the gel caps free, and they fall to a conveyer belt below.","At this point, the filled gel caps contain a fair bit of moisture, so they're quite soft.","If they lay on a surface too long, they'd flatten, so the conveyer belt whisks them very quickly into a rotating drum, where they tumble in slightly cold, dry air for about three hours.","This removes enough moisture to make the gel caps hard enough to lie on a surface without flattening.","After exiting, the gel caps move into a second dryer, where, spread out on trays this time, they dry for about 36 hours.","After that, the gel caps are hard enough to be safely packaged.","The gel caps-- the ones being packaged here contain flax oil-- travel down a series of vibrating plates, which progressively line them up in single file.","As they pass by, electronic eyes count out the number of capsules per bottle, triggering the filling mechanism to collect that quantity and release it into an empty bottle.","The next station applies a plastic twist cap, then the bottles move onward, each one plowing directly into the center of an adhesive-backed label, which rollers then apply around he sides.","Before shipping, the quality-control lab tests random samples from the production batch to verify that the gel caps meet all specifications.","It's a playground staple-- a stationary ride-on cartoon animal that bounces up and down and rocks back and forth, courtesy of a huge spring underneath secured into the ground.","The bouncy coil base is what gives this type of playground equipment its name-- a spring rider.","The spring rider is a playground favorite.","To withstand years of rambunctious riders, it has to be solid and durable, yet for a toddler to be able to rock back and forth, it can't be too heavy.","That's why the spring is made of thick steel, and the animal of lightweight aluminum.","That sand core is comprised of two halves, each made with an aluminum mold-- duck-shaped in this case.","Workers fill it with sand and adhesive mix that sets into a solid block.","They insert several steel support rods, fill to the top, and even out the surface, then expose two hooks they'll later grab to extract the core half once the sand hardens in about 20 minutes.","Meanwhile, other workers use an aluminum pattern to make each half of the duck casting mold.","After applying a powder release agent to prevent sticking, they cover the pattern with a sieved mixture of sand and clay.","They mount a frame around the pattern to contain the sand, as they add more and more, repeatedly packing it down in all areas with a pneumatic ramming tool.","Then they remove the frame and cover the sand with a wooden board.","This provides a hard surface for the press, which now applies the weight of about four mid-sized s.u.v.s.","Then they flip over the mold and remove the pattern which formed the mold cavity.","The sand is now so firmly compacted that it holds the shape.","One half of the sand mold has channels through which the molten metal will flow into the cavity.","Workers now position several quarter-inch-thick foam spacers in the cavity and place half of the core on top of them.","The spacers elevate the core, creating a quarter-inch cavity between core and mold.","The other half of the core goes on top.","After placing spacers on top of that to create a quarter-inch gap on this side, as well, they carefully lower the other half of the sand mold.","Now they're ready to cast the duck.","The melting point of aluminum is just over 1,090 degrees fahrenheit.","However, they heat much higher, to 1,400 degrees, so it'll flow faster and fill the entire cavity before beginning to solidify.","They pour the metal through holes on top.","It flows through the runners into the mold cavity, which is that quarter-inch gap surrounding the duck-shaped core.","About 20 minutes later, the metal has cooled and solidified.","They break the mold apart on a vibrating sieve, releasing the aluminum duck and shaking out the core sand through a hole at the bottom of the duck.","After cutting off excess aluminum that hardened in the runners, they grind down the seam, which formed in between the two halves of the mold.","Next, they weld on aluminum handles for the child to grip when riding.","These handles are cast in sand molds just like the duck.","Workers grind down the weld and any sharp edges, making the entire surface nice and smooth.","Next--  a coat of polyester powder in bright rubber-ducky yellow.","Then-- a 20-minute trip through an oven to bake the coating, making it ultra-durable.","Now, delicately airbrushed with the urethane enamel paint, the details that bring mr.","Duck to life-- his feet, wings, bill, and eyes.","The thick coil that makes this a spring rider is made of a flexible type of steel.","They bolt a steel spacer plate to it...","Then hide the bolts under an aluminum cover.","After attaching a foot rest--  steel, again-- they bolt the duck to the plate.","All these parts, like the duck, are painted with baked-on polyester coating.","The spring bolts to a concrete block buried underground.","Ducky and friends are designed to withstand even the harshest winters, letting children enjoy a little spring all year round.","Early versions of pancakes were thin like crepes.","By the 1780s, american cooks were adding a leavening agent for a fluffier, more filling pancake.","That's when pancakes transitioned from side dish to main course for the first meal of the day.","Call them hot cakes, griddle cakes, flapjacks, or pancakes, there's nothing like a heaping helping of them splashed with syrup.","And with frozen pancakes, whipping up some for breakfast has never been easier.","Pancake production starts off with a leavening agent-- the baking powder.","They combine salt, whey, and various flavorings in a big blender to create a dry-ingredient premix.","Since these will be buttermilk pancakes, they add powdered buttermilk for flavor.","They now pump liquid ingredients from storage tanks into a huge blender.","These include water and eggs, sweet cream, liquefied sugar, and soybean oil.","They add the dry premix and flour until the batter reaches the desired consistency.","An employee tests the batter's viscosity by pouring some in a device with a little gate.","He opens the gate and measures the flow down a ramp.","If it runs too thick or too thin, it won't produce pancakes that are the desired diameter and uniformity.","The pancake batter passes the viscosity test.","They release the batter from the holding tank, and it flows into a depositor system.","The depositor has nine nozzles.","Each nozzle shoots an exact amount of the pancake batter onto a hot moving griddle.","Because of the perfect viscosity, each deposit of batter radiates out to form a neat, round shape, each one the same size as the next-- about four inches in diameter.","They run three depositors and moving griddles simultaneously to produce 750 pancakes a minute.","That's an incredible 45,000 pancakes an hour.","After several seconds on the griddle, one side is cooked, so automated stainless-steel spatulas flip the pancakes over.","There are two sets of flippers.","After flipping, the first set repositions, and the second set flips the next row of pancakes.","It's mechanized synchronization.","The flippers are spaced apart exactly as the depositors are so the pancakes arrive at the flippers in the correct order to be picked up and turned over.","Once flipped, the pancakes continue along the cooking conveyer, and the other side is cooked.","It's a short ride for these pancakes to be completely cooked.","From dollops of batter to uniformly rounded and cooked pancakes, this process has taken just 90 seconds.","The pancakes somersault off the cooking griddle and over a roller to land on the next conveyer.","The somersault exit has a purpose.","It keeps the pancakes from folding over so they land flat.","Hot off the griddles, the pancakes cool down on the ride, as all three production lines merge and head into a freezer.","Inside the freezer, it's a very frigid minus-18 degrees, and the pancakes freeze fast.","Now it's over to the packaging line.","This is where the uniformity of these pancakes pays off.","Their similar diameter means they can be neatly packed in groups of six.","Machinery seals two stacks of six frozen pancakes in one wrapping.","It has taken less than five minutes to prepare, freeze, and package these pancakes.","At home, prep time in the microwave should be mere seconds.","Just add syrup, and this story has a sweet ending.","Natural rubber comes from the milky sap of a tropical tree.","Thousands of years ago, the native people of central and south america discovered that the hardened sap was elastic and bounced.","They played games with the balls of sap.","When european explorers came along, it was soon a whole new ball game.","Today, we make thousands of useful things from the fluid that circulates through rubber trees-- everything from tires to balloons to boots.","The seeds are sewn on plantations like this one in thailand.","It takes several years for the rubber trees to mature, then the sap is ready to tap.","In the coolness of the morning, when the sap flows freely, the farm worker slashes the bark with a hook blade.","The sap oozes from the abrasion.","It spills onto a metal spout inserted below the slashed section.","The spout funnels the sap into a ceramic cup below.","It flows for about five or six hours, partially filling the cup.","They wait a couple of days for the tree to recover and then tap another section of the tree.","After straining impurities, they pour the rubber sap into a plastic tub.","They add formic acid and swish it around.","The acid causes the sap to coagulate.","After 15 to 30 minutes, it thickens to the consistency of tofu.","This tofu-like sap has a sticky structure that allows it to now be rolled out like dough.","The rolling squeezes out excess water and leaves a ribbed pattern on the sheets that increases the surface area to hasten drying.","Then they rinse off the formic acid.","They hang the rubber sheets to dry for about five hours.","As they dry, the rubber thickens and becomes stronger, and the color darkens.","The coagulated rubber sap has been transformed.","In a few short steps, it's gone from a liquid to a solid.","Workers pile the rubber sheets onto pallets and weigh the load.","There's a little over a ton and a half of rubber in this stack.","They store the stacks in a warehouse until the next stage of processing.","When they're ready to move on, workers peel each sheet from the stack and soak them in water for about 20 minutes.","This washes away some of the surface contaminants, but not all.","The rubber sheets then go into a machine with many brushes that scrub off more of the dirt.","After one more rinse, the rubber sheets are squeaky-clean.","As you can see, the color of the rubber sheets vary somewhat depending on the tree they came from, their thickness, and other factors.","They hang the sheets on racks to drip dry.","Next, they build a fire in a brick oven and smoke the rubber sheets in a chamber overhead for five days.","It's a slow, low-temperature smoking that preserves the sheets to prevent the growth of mold.","After smoking, they clip out contaminants like bark or insects that have become imbedded in the rubber.","In many cases, they can't get it all.","They grade the rubber sheets by examining them against a bright light.","Sheets with fewer remaining contaminants receive a higher rating and will command a better price.","They stack the sheets according to the grade, and then it's into a hydraulic bailer.","It presses the stack of rubber sheets into cube form.","The dimensions of the cubes conform to international packaging regulations so they'll fit neatly into containers for shipping.","They spray the rubber cubes with a mix of calcium carbonate and solvent.","The mixture forms a film on the cubes that prevents mold and keeps them from sticking together during transport.","This rubber is now ready for the next factory and the next transformation.","It could become almost anything."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Ball Bearings","Electrical Wires","Lost Wax Process Casting","Automated Machines"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Ball bearings...","Electrical wires...","Lost wax casting...","And automated machines.","With all the high-tech hoopla these days, the lowly ball bearing gets forgotten.","But many machine parts need ball bearings to rotate.","They're in household appliances, industrial machines, and car engine parts such as alternators and fans.","This is what's called a deep groove radial ball bearing.","It has steel balls that move inside tracks called raceways.","The raceways are carved into a set of heavy-duty steel rings.","The balls are made of the same type of steel.","They first prepare to shape the rings to the right thickness.","They insert the inner ring into the outer ring.","The set then passes through a grinder that alters the width to the correct thickness.","A gauge checks the width of each ring as it exits.","Now they separate the inner and outer rings in order to grind their outer circumference on separate machines.","The outer ring enters the grinder, which shapes its outer surface to a precise roundness and diameter.","A water-based liquid keeps the ring from overheating, which would cause warping.","The ring exits the grinder through a gauge that checks the diameter.","Next, the outer ring's raceway goes for grinding.","Abrasive stone wheels with an oil coolant shape the surface to precisely the correct roundness and size.","The inner ring and raceway go through a similar machine.","Now the rings go for polishing.","An abrasive stone lubricated with oil polishes the steel surface until you can see a reflection.","Here's the before and after.","Next stop-- washing.","They coat the rings with thick oil and a fine stone grit.","They clean the raceways with kerosene.","Elsewhere in the plant, they classify the steel balls according to size.","These balls started out as steel wire.","A machine cut them into pieces and a die punched them into rough balls.","Those rough balls go into a grinder, which removes the bumps.","Then other machines round them out and give them a mirror finish.","This entire process takes a few days.","The balls go through a furnace to harden.","Then they get a bath in cleaning solvent.","After several quality checks, the finished balls go into hoppers.","The hoppers load onto the automatic assembly machine.","The ball feeder sends the balls through tubes to a ball pusher that feeds the correct quantity of balls into the raceways of the now-reassembled inner and outer rings.","A ball divider positions the balls evenly around the raceways.","Next comes the ball cage, a metal cage that retains the balls in position around the raceways.","The first machine installs half of the cage, the half with rivet holes.","The next machine carefully positions the other half of the cage, the half with rivets.","The machine test-spins the bearing, then rivets the two halves of the ball cage together.","The bearing is now fully assembled.","Now it goes into a solvent bath, then to a series of automated quality-control tests.","This noise-vibration tester makes sure the ball bearing operates quietly.","Some types of bearings are lubricated with grease.","A machine squirts grease evenly into the bearings' raceways, then inserts a rubber seal to contain the grease.","A final quality-control test-- an automated scale tosses out any bum bearings that aren't the required weight.","The good ones move on to the laser, which marks them with information such as the part number and the trademark.","What is genetically modified food?","Scientists manipulate the genes in crop seeds to increase yield or to make the crop more resistant to disease or insects.","There's a worldwide debate over whether this manipulation of nature poses a risk to our health or to the environment.","We're so used to them that we barely notice that electrical wires are all around us.","They're in aerial and underground cables running along our streets and to our homes.","They're behind our walls and inside our electrical appliances.","To make color-coded electrical wires, they use what's called rod, made of either solid copper or solid aluminum.","They feed the rod into a machine that draws it out through a series of lubricated pulleys and dies-- stretching, lengthening, and thinning it out...","And eventually winding it onto a large bobbin.","What was once a rod 4/10 of an inch in diameter is now just 8/100 of an inch, the width of about a dozen human hairs.","They load the bobbin onto what's called a stranding machine.","They cold-weld the end of one bobbin to another, guaranteeing an uninterrupted flow once they start up the machine.","At high speed, the stranding machine twists seven wires together, forming an electrical conductor, also called a bear conductor.","This is a low-voltage conductor-- under 1,000 volts-- the kind you find in the cables that run electricity to your home.","Bear conductors need to be insulated so the people handling them won't get an electric shock.","A plastic extrusion machine coats the conductor with polyethylene or pvc.","This insulates the conductor.","This is what the polyethylene looks like in its raw form.","As the conductor exits the machine with its new insulation, a precision laser gauges the diameter to make sure the insulation is uniform and the right dimension.","The extrusion process has heated up the conductor, so it has to be cooled down with water.","Sometimes two or more conductors are twisted together.","When that's the case, a printing machine applies a white stripe to identify which is which.","The client who's ordered the conductors specifies the colors of insulation.","It chooses them based on how it wants to color-code its electrical wiring.","Several conductors are often grouped together to form a cable.","The plant performs a voltage test, immersing the cables in water to make sure they don't short-circuit.","These medium-voltage cables can carry from 1,000 to 46,000 volts of electricity.","They're the type used for underground power lines.","They're insulated the same way low-voltage cables are.","The plant prints the date of manufacture, the voltage, and any other information the client has requested.","The cable goes onto a reel to be tested before it's shipped out to its destination.","In the middle of the cable, surrounded by copper grounding wires and a host of other components is the heart of the electrical cable-- the bear conductor.","Many machine parts are simply stamped or machined out of solid metal, but parts with complex shapes or thin walls can't be made that way.","They have to be cast using a technique called \"lost wax process casting\".","It takes anywhere from a week to a month to manufacture a cast-metal part, depending on its complexity.","The first step is to inject wax into an aluminum die, which is essentially a mold whose cavity is in the shape of the part.","This creates a wax model slightly larger than the finished part will be.","They'll use this wax model to make a mold out of a ceramic material.","The mold has to be larger than the finished part because metal shrinks as it cools.","Once the wax model is ready, they stamp on a code to tell the foundry workers what type of metal to use when they cast the part.","Next, using a hot iron, they attach wax components to create what's called a metal delivery system-- channels that will funnel the molten metal into the mold's cavity.","Next, they dip this wax assembly into a ceramic solution called \"slurry\".","They do this by hand to prevent imperfections that would cause defects in the casting.","To strengthen the slurry, they coat it in a fine zirconium sand, then let it dry.","A robot then keeps repeating the process with coarser sand until the ceramic shell surrounding the wax assembly is about 3/10 of an inch thick.","This takes five days.","Now the ceramic-covered wax assembly is ready for what they call the dewax.","Workers place it in a hot-steam chamber called an autoclave for 5 to 10 minutes.","This melts the wax right out of the shell, creating a ceramic mold whose cavity is in the shape of the part.","Once the mold has dried out, workers can begin to cast the part.","First they put the cold mold into an oven and heat it up for two to three hours.","This prevents the mold from cracking from shock when it comes into contact with molten metal that's close to 2,200 degrees fahrenheit.","They pour the metal into the mold's cavity, then let it cool and harden at room temperature.","It takes two hours for aluminum, four to five hours for steel.","Once the metal has cooled and solidified, they break off the ceramic mold using a vibrating hammer.","This takes about five minutes.","They saw off the metal delivery system...","Then grind the surface smooth.","The final step is to make sure the part came to the exact dimensions specified in the technical drawing.","This is called \"sizing\".","Steel parts have to be heated up in an oven for sizing.","Aluminum parts are sized cold.","Technicians use a series of tools and presses to measure the part.","If it doesn't meet specifications, it's either reworked or simply discarded.","They use sophisticated equipment such as this optical comparator to check the angles and radiuses and this coordinate measuring machine to verify dimensions.","Lost wax process casting is used to make metal parts for all types of machines and equipment, everything from military weapons to snowmobiles.","Since the industrial revolution, manufacturing has become increasingly automated.","It's about time \"how it's made\" paid tribute to that marvelous feat of engineering, the automated machine.","Until the 1780s, goods were made one by one in a home or workshop.","Then came the industrial revolution, the mass production of products in huge factories.","Industry's next revolution was automation, made possible by computer technology.","By the 1970s, two centuries after the start of the industrial revolution, robots began replacing humans on the production lines."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Mountain Bike Tires","Leaf and Debris Vacuums","Canned Meat","Fillet Knives"]},"text":["Mountain bike tires are true trailblazers, specifically designed for off-road riding.","Wider than regular road tires, mountain bike tires have raised knobs or lugs that add stability on uneven terrain.","Built to withstand the trail, these tires can handle it all.","When the rubber hits the dirt, it's all about control.","Mountain bike tires are designed to grip the ground and provide traction off-road.","First, designers use a computer model of a tire to simulate the effects of different rubber compounds.","Construction begins with rubber compounds being mixed together to create parts of the tire.","Ingredients include synthetic and natural rubbers, sulfur, and other chemicals.","Rotating spiral blades break down the materials.","Friction from the mixing heats and softens them.","This transforms the ingredients into a dough-like rubber compound.","Powerful rollers squeeze the compound into thick long sheets and blades cut the rolled rubber into narrow strips.","Then the rubber travels through more rollers that squeeze it down to the desired thickness.","The rubber sheets land on a cart, ready for use.","Technicians incase steel bead wire with one of these compounds.","The bead wire is the part of the tire that connects to the wheel's rim.","As steel wire travels through an aperture, the rubber is extruded to form the casing.","The machine delivers the bead wire to a spinning disk.","The disk winds the bead wire, shaping it into rings which fit to a wheel rim.","To maintain the diameter of the wire, the technician tapes the ends together, holding the shape until the next stage of production.","Next, rubber sheets with varying characteristics enter an extruder.","Using heat and pressure, the extruder forces the rubber through dies.","This process merges their characteristics into a single sheet.","The sheet will be used to make the bicycle's tread.","The tread rubber travels through a channel of cool water.","Meanwhile, rollers coat fabric with rubber to make plies for the tire casing.","A moving blade cuts it into strips.","This rubber is naturally tacky, so the pieces can be easily spliced.","The system feeds the strips to tire-building machine.","A skilled assembler wraps the strips to the machine drum to form the tire casing and splices the rubber where the ends meet.","Next, robots slide two wire beads around the casing.","The ends of the drum fold the sides of the casing over the bead wires.","The technician applies rubber-coated fabric to the bead wires, strengthening the area.","The tread rubber is placed in the center.","A roller applies pressure as the drum spins to wind the tread around the casing.","Then the ends are pressed together manually.","And one more turn of the drum secures the tread rubber to the casing.","Once vent holes have been cut in the rubber, it's over to an expanding mold, where the tire takes shape.","The technician inserts a rubber curing bladder to maintain the shape of the tire.","Then he places the mountain bike tires in curing molds.","These individual molds will steam-cook the tires under pressure to further shape them.","This process forms knobs and other protrusions on the tire surface that are designed to grip a rugged terrain.","Like a big waffle iron, this mold has cooked and formed the mountain bike tire.","The tire is then placed on a rack to cool.","Next, the bike tire undergoes a durability test while a computer measures rolling resistance.","That's the energy lost when the tire rotates and an indication of how easily the tire will roll.","This mountain bike tire is now cleared to travel off the beaten path.","A leaf and debris vacuum automatically collects all types of fallen debris.","Instead of spending hours raking, this device quickly does it all, making yard work easier than ever.","A leaf and debris vacuum is powered by a gas or diesel engine.","The engine spins an impeller, which creates the suction and also shreds the leaves.","The machine is comprised of about 100 different parts, all cut from 0.11-inch-thick sheets of steel using this computer-guided punch press.","This part is the rear flange for the impeller housing.","To make the side wall of the housing, called the wrap, a technician bends this steel strip with a pinch roller.","Another technician positions the wrap on the rear flange and tack welds them together.","The craftsman places the housing's front flange on top of the wrap, aligns its notches with the wrap's tabs, and tack welds the parts together.","He completes the housing with this rectangular piece.","The shredded leaves exit the housing through this opening.","Next, the parts are placed on a rotary welding table, and the tacked joints are welded together.","The fused seams ensure the housing is airtight.","A computer guides this fiber-optic laser cutter, slicing out the impeller blades from a sheet of abrasion-resistance steel.","This steel is four times thicker than the steel used for the body parts.","Each impeller has four blades with sharp edges that help shred the leaves.","The welder mounts the impeller components onto a fixture.","Each blade has alignment tabs which fit into notches on a backing plate.","After clamping each blade in position, he fuses them to the backing plate.","Next, he welds steel reinforcement straps between each of the four blades.","The straps add strength and stability, thereby increasing the life-span of the impeller.","The technician completes the assembly by bolting a compression hub to the center.","The hub holds the engine crankshaft together, which rotates the impeller.","Then he inserts a simulated crankshaft and tightens the compression hub.","He places the impeller on this machine to balance it.","Since the impeller can spin at a speed of more than 3,000 revolutions per minute, this step is critical for the machine to run smoothly.","To maintain stability, the welder adds beads of weld to the lighter side until the impeller balances.","Then he removes the simulated crankshaft.","Meanwhile an assembler mounts the 29-horsepower gas engine to the engine deck of the trailer frame.","The crankshaft pokes through a hole in the frame's faceplate.","He bolts the impeller housing, which has been painted, to the faceplate.","The technician installs the impeller on the crankshaft with a shear key.","Then he bolts a protective steel cover plate and attaches everything with a central bolt.","Next, he applies a brand decal on the housing's front cover...","And bolts the cover to the housing.","When ready for use, the debris chute, the hose, and the intake hose are attached to the front end.","As this demonstration shows, the impeller can shred leaves into particles small enough to be used as compost.","With so much on their plates, busy people rely on shortcuts to help prepare meals.","Nowadays, you can stock your pantry with cans of precooked meat so there's always something on hand to use in sandwiches, stews, stir-fries, and other tasty dishes.","This canned meat is meticulously hand produced by a craft cannery and made in small batches.","It contains no artificial ingredients or preservatives, just meat and sea salt.","When a shipment of meat arrives at the cannery, the quality control manager records its lot code for tracking purposes.","As a food-safety precaution, he confirms the temperature of the meat, which must come in between 0 to 39 degrees fahrenheit.","A skilled butcher then inspects the meat and trims off the excess fat.","If it's a large piece, the butcher slices it into smaller pieces so that it can pass through the dicing machine.","The dicer cuts the meat into one-inch cubes.","At the filling station, aluminum cans circulate around a rotating table.","As one worker shovels cubed meat onto the center of the table, others manually fill cans while simultaneously performing a quality inspection.","Workers will discard any cubes that are discolored or too fatty.","Next, technicians place a single cube of sea salt in each can filled with meat.","This is the only added ingredient.","At the next station, workers weigh each can individually and either add or remove meat to reach the required weight.","The filled cans now travel on a conveyer belt to the cook room.","There, they enter the pre-heater, which blasts them with steam for 20 seconds.","This expels air that's trapped between the cubes of meat.","Next, the cans move into the closing machine.","The machine compresses the meat to provide sufficient clearance at the top of the can.","This head space creates a vacuum on the can to draw out the remaining air.","Then a device attaches the lid by a process known as double seaming.","The process rolls the edges of the lid and can together, forming a rim that provides an airtight seal.","It's time to get cooking.","A worker lowers the cans into a commercial-sized pressure cooker.","Cooking under steam pressure produces the tenderizing effects of slow cooking in a fraction of the time.","The meat cooks in its own juices.","The cooking temperature varies depending on the type of meat and the can size.","When the meat is ready, the technician removes the cans and sets them aside for about an hour to cool and dry.","The cans are then moved to the packaging area.","As a worker loads the labeling machine, he inspects each can for dents or damaged seals.","One by one, the cans roll over a glue applicator, then a stack of labels, wrapping themselves and the top seal.","At the same time, the machine counts the number of cans.","After rolling off the labeling machine, the cans pass through an ink-jet printer which applies the best-used-by date.","That date is next to the lot code, which the closing machine printed while attaching the lid.","This can of meat has a five-year shelf life due to two crucial factors-- it is cooked properly, and the can's seal is airtight.","Have fish to fry?","If it's fresh and whole, a fillet knife will come in handy.","This is no ordinary kitchen knife, equipped with a thin, flexible blade and a sharp tip.","This design allows the user to move easily along the backbone and under the skin of the meat.","A fillet knife is a precision cutting tool.","It makes the work of removing bones and skin from fish possible.","Making a fillet knife starts with a sheet of thin and pliable stainless steel.","A computer-guided laser cuts the steel into blade blanks.","A craftsman clamps the blank in a fixture.","The fixture moves the blank across a grinding wheel, beveling it from the spine to the cutting edge on both sides.","Then sanding belts are used to shape the blade blank.","A craftsman rounds the spine of the blank using a rough-grit sanding belt, eventually graduating to a finer one.","With a rounder spine, the blade will be safer to handle.","At the next station, a craftsman drills a hole into a solid block of composite material that contains resin.","The material is cut into smaller chunks.","Each one will be formed into a handle end cap or pommel.","The center hole will house the tang.","He slices other pieces of the material almost wafer thin.","They'll become spacers for the handle's other end.","These compound parts will support the center material for the cork handle.","The craftsman stacks the parts of the handle on a stand.","He brushes waterproof glue onto the spacer and slides eight pieces of cork onto the prong.","He applies glue between each one.","He places the pommel piece on the end.","Since cork is buoyant, if the knife is dropped in water, it will float and can be easily retrieved.","Once the glue dries, the handles are transferred, two at a time, to a fixture.","The fixture moves back and forth as a rotor rounds the spacer, carving the cork and the pommel.","At the next station, a worker places one of the fillet knife blades in a rubber holder.","He clamps the holder in a fixture, stabilizing the blade for the installation of the bolster.","The bolster is the steel ring that acts as a transition piece between the blade and handle.","Then the craftsman applies glue to the composite spacer on the handle.","He slides the handle onto the tang of the knife.","He inserts a hexagonal nut into the hole and the pommel as well as some epoxy.","He screws the nut onto the tang, securing the blade to the handle.","The epoxy provides reinforcement.","The craftsman unclamps the knife and works on shaping the handle.","He sculpts it with rough-grit sandpaper.","He angles the outside of the pommel, making it smoother and more attractive.","Switching to a finer abrasive, he sands the cork to blend the layers together so they appear to be one uniform piece.","Next, a worker drills into the pommel to widen and slope the opening.","He pipes more epoxy into the recess.","He inserts a snap that will be used to retain the knife in a sheath and drives it further into the recess using a press.","Once the epoxy cures, he submerges the knives into water.","This step is a test to confirm the knives can float.","After the handle dries, the knife undergoes a final sanding for the user's gripping comfort.","You can see the difference the sanding makes in the knife on the right.","Next, the craftsman works on the fillet knife's cutting edge, sharpening it against a sanding belt.","The blade slices a sheet of paper cleanly without snagging, proving that it's been well-honed.","Finally, another worker cleans and lubricates the fillet knife.","She slides it into a leather sheath and snaps the tab of the sheath to the end of the pommel.","With all the work that's gone into this fillet knife, the customer will be in for one tasty, well-cut meal."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Innerspring Mattresses","Stand"]},"text":["An innerspring mattress is made with steel-wire springs to support a person's body weight.","The quality of the mattress is usually determined by the thickness of the steel wire, the number of springs, and how the springs are configured and linked to form the inner support system.","Most of this innerspring mattress is crafted by hand.","The material in between the springs contains multiple layers of batting made from a blend of polyester fiber and organic cotton fiber.","Cotton allows the batting to be breathable, so the mattress won't trap body heat.","Polyester prevents the cotton from matting, so the batting doesn't flatten over time.","This machine feeds both materials to a carding machine.","At the first station, rollers and cylinders with metal teeth open and comb out the fibers.","Next, the blended poly cotton is formed into a thin, fluffy sheet.","The next station layers the sheet.","Rollers compress the layers to form a thicker sheet about 2 3/4 inches high.","The machine cuts the sheet to the width and length of the specified mattress.","A technician places the finished bat on a scale to ensure it hits the target weight.","He piles 18 bats on a cart, which is how many are required for just one mattress.","Meanwhile, another technician builds the mattress's support structure, known as the innerspring unit.","A coiling machine pulls spring-steel wire off a spool, then winds and cuts it into coils.","The top and the bottom of each coil are crimped, creating inter-connection areas.","A technician inserts spring-steel wire into a lacing machine and places a row of coils on a table.","As the machine advances, the helical wire catches the coils at the points where they're crimped, lacing them together.","The process is repeated until the spring structure is the size of the mattress.","The perimeter of the mattress is framed with more helical wire.","He fabric surface of a mattress is known as the ticking.","A seamstress marks the required dimensions on a stack of cotton fabric.","Using a rotary cutting blade, she cuts the ticking fabric along the marked dimensions.","A sewer hems the edges of all three panels.","This step will strengthen the connected seams.","He also sews on the labels listing the product and safety information.","The side wall consists of four layers-- the ticking, two types of bats, and a backing fabric.","A seamstress pulls the layers through a stamping machine, which fastens the layers together with a pair of brass eyelets every 2 3/4 inches.","Using another stamping machine, she attaches cord handles with large brass grommets.","The handles make it easier to flip and rotate the mattress to ensure even wear.","Another technician covers the innerspring unit with a lightweight fabric and pads the corners with batting to prevent indentation.","He attaches the fabric backing of the side wall to the wire perimeter of the innerspring unit with hog-ring staples.","He tops this side of the mattress with nine bats, equivalent to 27.5 inches of padding.","He trims each bat by hand, gradually narrowing the layers as he works his way downward, creating a tapered shape.","Then a polyester fabric layer is added for comfort, and a non-woven flame-resistant barrier fabric layer on top.","The ticking is put into position, and the excess filling is trimmed.","The technician pulls the ticking and pins it to the top of the side wall.","He flips the mattress and repeats the process on the other side.","Using an industrial sewing machine, he sews the top and bottom tickings to the side wall with edge tape.","Woven cotton ticking is more durable than knitted cotton.","Finally, the automated machine tufts the mattress and inserts a woven band through the middle, locking each tuft in place with a pom-pom on both sides.","This prevents the materials inside from shifting and sets the level of firmness.","Stand-up paddling has become a popular sport, but paddleboards have been around for over 3,000 years.","Contemporary boards rely on modern materials to make light and reliable paddleboards suited for leisure as well as for competition.","This paddleboard is made with vinyl-ester resin and laminated fiberglass.","It's equipped with an onboard lighting system, an anchor, and a neoprene rubber non-slip pad.","In the gel-coating room, a technician wipes a release agent on the paddleboard mold to make the surface smooth and clean.","Another technician positions the fin channel on the mold using a thin fiberglass template as a guide.","He uses an airless pumping system to spray the mold with a vinyl-ester gel coating mixed with hardener.","He takes a mil gauge to make sure the hull thickness is even.","A technician prepares to make the first structural layer of the hull, using a 3/4-ounce bi-directional fiberglass mat.","First, he pulls out a panel of fiberglass and covers the gel-coated surface.","Using fabric scissors, he cuts the mat and makes the fiberglass skin as tight as possible.","He tears the mat to conform it to the rounded shape of the gel coat and fits the mat to the edge of the hull.","He applies vinyl-ester resin with a paint roller.","The resin saturates the fiberglass, which merges with the gel coating.","Extra material is placed over the fin channel to strength the structural bond between the channel and the hull.","Then the technician uses a bubble roller to push out air bubbles.","He applies a second coat of fiberglass to reinforce the structural integrity of the board.","In the assembly room, another technician fits a template on the board deck and traces the contours of the hand-grab mount with a pencil.","He uses an air saw to cut out a slot in the fiberglass laminate to fit the hand-grab mount.","He binds the hand-grab mount to the hull with a coat of vinyl-ester resin.","Within about 20 minutes, the laminate hardens.","Next, plastic tubing for the internal anchoring system is installed.","A technician applies a bonding adhesive to the tube, securing it in place.","He attaches the tube with tie wraps so it doesn't get tangled inside the hull.","He installs a jam cleat for the rope that will allow the paddler to manually control the anchor from the deck.","The hull's cured vinyl-ester resin is now firmly bonded to the structural laminate.","The assembler applies expanding adhesive and positions an expanded polypropylene foam stringer inside the hull.","The foam stringers are the backbone of the board.","They support the weight of the paddler on the deck while keeping the board as light as possible.","Using a nylon wedge and a rubber mallet, the assembler removes the mold from the hull.","Since the hull is so lightweight, two assemblers can lift and flip it on to a cart.","An assembler trims off the excess laminate using an air cutter fitted with a diamond cutting blade.","He levels the foam stringers with a file blade, ensuring the tightest possible fit between the hull and deck.","He applies expanding foam adhesive on the stringers before he places the deck on the foam with the help of a co-worker.","The adhesive quickly binds the parts together.","The vinyl rub rail designed as a side protection masks the joint between the deck and the hull.","The hull contains a dry storage hatch where the onboard battery is housed.","The 8 amp hour battery can activate the power pull, a microanchor designed for shallow waters.","In deeper waters, a paddler can manually activate the internal anchor system with a 16-foot nylon cord.","Finally, this board is ready to hit the water.","Invented in 1901 by a british engineer, the vacuum cleaner was considered a game changer.","The original versions were made substantially heavier than the vacuums built today.","In fact, they were so large, they had to be pulled by horses to get from building to building.","Through the magic of suctioning power, a vacuum cleaner can make dirt disappear almost instantly, really improving personal space.","Production starts with the electric motor that powers the suctioning fan.","A machine picks up a rotor and transfers it to an imaging system.","Using a camera and laser, the machine measures the part and confirms that it's to specification.","Next, an automated system attaches plastic discs on to both sides of the part.","These plastic discs will serve as electrical insulators.","A computerized camera confirms the discs have been correctly placed.","A carrier transfers the rotor to the next station.","Here, a rotary copper switch is placed on to the shaft.","The switch is called a commutator.","Its role is to periodically reverse the electrical current as it flows through the motor, allowing the motor to operate more efficiently.","The next robot places the rotor in a device that winds thin copper wire around the part hundreds of times.","These windings will be used to create a rotating magnetic field in the motor.","A welder joins the commutator to the copper windings using small hooks.","This step establishes a connection.","A machine slides a slatted plastic cover over the rotor.","The slats fit in the rotor grooves.","The cover reduces the noise the rotor makes as it revolves at high speeds.","Spouts drip synthetic resin on to the copper windings.","As it hardens, the resin stabilizes the windings, ensuring there are no loose wires.","A computerized cutting tool shaves off a small amount of the commutator, making it round and smooth.","A robot then deposits the rotor on looped belts.","The belts spin the rotor, and sensors detect vibrations that indicate any imbalance.","If an imbalance is found, the system sends the rotor over to a tool that removes material until the part is balanced.","Then it's over to another testing machine.","This one probes the copper windings to detect failures using a complex measuring system.","A mechanized system installs a substantial bearing on one end of the shaft.","A robot retrieves it, flips it, and the system attaches a bearing to the other end.","The motor housing with the stator moves into position.","A machine places the rotor in the center of the stator.","All the work on this vacuum cleaner motor has been done by machines.","Now a technician installs a carbon brush that will make electrical contact with the rotor.","A diffuser shield is placed on the housing.","Meanwhile, the computer system screws the diffuser to the motor assembly.","A small metal spacer is deposited on the protruding rotor shaft.","A robotic arm places the lower fan impeller plate over the shaft.","The mechanized system screws the assembly together, and then the upper part is installed with the suctioning fan blades.","A machine spins the fan to test it for any imbalances.","Then a cutting tool removes material to calibrate the fan assembly.","A steel cover is flipped into position by a platform which elevates the fan and motor assembly.","Stay tuned.","There's more dirt on how the rest of the vacuum cleaner comes together.","While the vacuum cleaner may alarm your pet, to an enthusiastic cleaner, this is an awesome machine.","Not only does it remove the dirt you can see, it suctions up fine particles that aren't visible, leaving your home even cleaner than it looks.","Inside every vacuum cleaner, there's a high-speed suctioning fan.","Machines test the fan for quality control.","A conveyor delivers the fan to a completely mechanized system that evaluates the interaction between the carbon brush and the rotor.","This final inspection ensures the vacuum fan is balanced and fully operational.","A technician applies a rubber seal to the rim of the vacuum's lower housing.","He inserts the power-supply reel in a hollowed-out compartment.","The fan is installed and connected to the power-supply reel.","He snaps the back panel to the lower housing.","The power-supply cable is plugged in for a later check.","The next component assembled is the control panel.","A technician screws the control panel to a mounting plate.","A rubber bumper is placed along the edge of the cover frame.","The cover frame is then transferred to the vacuum.","A dust bag is attached to a bracket that straddles the frame.","At the next station, a robotic system stabilizes the assembly and attaches the frame to the housing.","Then the vacuum cleaner is released from the machine, and the carrier takes it forward for an inspection.","An inspector installs foot switches for the power cord and for machine activation.","He tucks a filter into its slot.","The cover panel now arrives via conveyor.","The technician snaps it into place on the cover frame.","He installs a hinged access panel, which houses the suction tools until needed.","This is the final step to complete the assembly of this vacuum cleaner.","Another kind of vacuum cleaner uses easy-to-empty plastic canisters for dirt collection.","It uses a substantial filter to separate dirt from the air.","Suctioned air and dirt spin within this canister.","Larger dirt particles fall to the bottom, while finer particles become embedded in the filter.","A technician installs the filter canister in the vacuum-cleaner housing and inserts a nozzle accessory in a slot.","Down the line, another worker installs a top plate.","Next, a clear plastic interceptor is installed, which collects the majority of the dirt.","The technician apples a plastic bumper to the back of the vacuum.","With the assembly complete, this bagless vacuum cleaner heads towards the inspection station.","Both kinds of vacuum cleaners undergo final testing.","A robot plugs the opening for the hose, turns the power on, and tests every function while a computer measures its performance.","Cleared for retail, the robot removes the hose.","The vacuum cleaner heads toward the packaging line.","A robot lifts and carries the vacuum cleaner, stopping above a vacuum cleaner that's already on the conveyor.","The vacuum on the conveyor moves forward, and sensors signal the robot to set the second vacuum down.","The vacuum cleaner moves along the conveyor belt into a sheet of plastic wrap, which envelops the product.","Heated knives cut and seal the ends in one action.","This protects it from superficial scratches during transport.","A technician uses molded pieces of foam to slide the vacuum into a cardboard box.","The foam pieces remain in the box to stabilize the vacuum during transport.","Equipped with either a bag or a plastic receptacle, the technology is all up to the consumer's preference.","Regardless of the model, each type of vacuum can make dust bunnies stuck in the corners of rooms and under beds vanish before your eyes."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Graphite Pencil Leads","Clarinets","Special Effects"]},"text":["Despite the name \"lead,\" the core of a pencil isn't actually made of lead.","It's made primarily of graphite, a form of carbon that's very abundant in the earth's crust.","To produce pencil leads, they combine graphite powder with water and clay.","The higher the ratio of clay, the harder the lead.","Quality graphite pencil leads don't break easily and glide smoothly on the page.","Graphite is mined from both open-pit mines and shaft mines, like this one in germany.","Miners use hammer drills to bore holes for explosives.","The chunks of ore must contain at least 30% graphite to make the area financially viable for mining.","At the surface, a crusher breaks the ore into small pieces.","Then, adding water and oil, they pulverize it in a rotating mill.","This ore soup then flows into a system that separates the graphite from the impurities.","The graphite particles cling to the air bubbles and float to the surface.","Skimmers send this layer of graphite foam back into the mill.","5 cycles later, the graphite concentration is 96%.","However, it's soaking wet, so it has to go into a dryer.","After spinning around at 572 degrees fahrenheit for about 30 seconds, the graphite becomes a completely dry, fine powder.","Mined and processed, it's ready to be shipped to the pencil factory.","To make pencil leads, the factory combines graphite powder with clay and water.","During the 35-minute mixing cycle, it's critical to control the blending speed, pressure, temperature, and moisture level.","This produces homogenous granules-- the key to ensuring that all the leads will be uniform in quality.","The granules go into a hydraulic press, which shapes them into a cylindrical block.","Workers then wrap the block in film to prevent drying out and set it aside for a week to cure.","They load each cured block into a hydraulic press, which pushes it through a forming die, producing one long, continuous lead.","Different dies give different-sized leads.","The next machine then cuts the continuous lead into pencil lengths.","The leads are the right thickness and length, but they're soft and pliable because they still contain water from the mixing process.","Workers load the leads into a rotary dryer at 320 degrees fahrenheit.","12 hours later, the leads exit the dryer straight, but not quite strong enough, so next they go into a kiln for 10 hours at more than 1,800 degrees fahrenheit.","This firing transforms the clay that's mixed with the graphite, strengthening the leads to their final hardness.","Finally, a 12-hour bath in a mixture of high-quality waxes.","The waxes fill the pores in the leads, leaving them with a surface that glides smoothly across paper.","Throughout the production process, the factory puts samples through quality-control testing to check hardness, break resistance, diameter, and, of course, writing quality.","This company produces three different qualities of graphite leads in 16 different hardness levels, plus a full array of colored leads made similarly, but with pigment powders and waxes rather than graphite.","When the clarinetist blows into the instrument, a reed in the mouthpiece vibrates, creating sound.","To turn that basic sound into different notes, the player manipulates the length of the air column inside the instrument by opening and closing different tone holes.","The standard clarinet has 24 tone holes.","The musician covers some with his fingers, the rest by pressing keys.","Those keys are made of nickel silver or, sometimes, brass.","They inject hot wax into a plaster mold of a specific key.","Then, using hot wax, they attach several models of the same key onto a stem.","They put this tree, as it's called, into a cylinder, then into a mold-making machine, which fills the space around the tree with a silica-based ceramic material.","When the ceramic hardens, they melt out the way through an exit hole at the bottom, leaving behind a tree-shaped cavity.","Now they transfer the mold to a casting machine and load nickel silver into a miniature furnace.","The metal melts and fills the entire cavity.","To cool and solidify the casting, they submerge the mold in lukewarm water.","The metal contracts as its temperature drops, loosening from the mold.","They extract the tree and remove the keys.","Then they grind off the little stub left on each key.","Next the keys go into a tumbler filled with synthetic stones.","The stones polish the keys, preparing their surface for silver plating.","Silver doesn't adhere directly to nickel silver, so they plate the keys in copper first.","For each layer, they submerge the keys in a chemical solution, then apply a negative electric charge while running a positive charge to pieces of the plating metal.","Like a magnet, this draws particles of the plating metal onto the keys, forming a thin overall coat.","A clarinet's two-part body is typically made of wood or, like these, plastic resin.","A computer-guided drill bores 24 tone holes and 40 smaller holes for the posts, which support the key mechanisms.","A sonic welding machine presses each post into its respective hole while zapping it with a high-frequency sound wave to melt the plastic around the base.","This anchors the post securely.","The next machine reams a hole through the head of each post for the rods that operate the keys.","They wrap natural cork around the connecting ends of the body, then illuminate the interior for a quality-control inspection.","It's time for the final assembly.","They lubricate all the moving parts, then install the 17 keys onto their mechanisms.","Each key has a foam pad to prevent air from leaking out when the hole's covered.","They use a strip of foil to test whether the seal is tight enough.","With both body sections of the instrument finished, a musician assembles them and checks that each and every key moves fluidly.","Then, after attaching the bell and the mouthpiece, she conducts a sound-quality test, performing a set of musical exercises.","The clarinet now goes to the packing department where the packager gently removes fingerprints, lint, and lubricant residue, then lays the instrument parts in a velvet-lined case.","It's a fitting finale to the making of an instrument that looks as good as it sounds.","Special effects in animated films breathe life into characters and scenes that are completely imaginary.","It usually takes a mix of different effects to give the fantasy a realistic texture.","From miniature-scale models to computer-generated imagery, it's all about the big picture.","3-d animation and photographic tricks make this miniature village loom large on the big screen.","It all starts at the drawing board.","An artist sketches the various components of the fantasy village.","Once he gets it down on paper, the rest of the crew can build it.","Using one of the sketches as a reference, a sculptor carves foam into sections of a roof, and he glues the pieces together.","This foam roof will then be used to make a mold.","The mold maker builds a box around the roof, which is now gray-colored due to the application of a nonstick substance.","He pours liquid silicon rubber onto the foam roof in the box.","After 12 hours, they pull apart the box and remove the foam to reveal the mold.","This mold will be used to cast multiple roof parts for the mini film set.","They mix a two-part urethane solution and pour it into the mold.","A chemical reaction causes the urethane to solidify, and as it does, it takes the shape of the mold with all the details.","After half an hour, he extracts the cured urethane from the mold.","It's a perfect copy of the original roof carving.","They mold various roofs for visual interest.","The crew then paints all the molded parts of the mini village set in colors that are true to life.","The palette has been selected beforehand, but if it doesn't look right to the eye, adjustments can be made.","For larger-scale structures, a technician arranges reflective dots in a grid pattern.","These dots serve as reference points to laser-scan the image of the house into a computer.","The technician transfers the image a section at a time.","Once the image has been loaded into the computer, animators can really play around with it.","They can insert digital characters or impose a digital image over a filmed one to cast a shadow.","Meanwhile, another member of the crew plants molded trees onto hills of plastic and shapes the landscape of the set.","The trees and vegetation are very small-scale because the landscape will be in the background.","In the world of digital animation, clumps of moss can mimic shrubs, and a hot-glue gun is an indispensable tool.","Once buildings have been inserted in the set, the crew brings up the lights and checks the effect.","They add props, and, sometimes, take others away to improve the look of each scene.","Technicians tweak the lighting, which can add visual depth and credibility to any scene, but it's even more critical with a small-scale vista.","Little rectangular mirrors attached to the lights allow for minute adjustments.","The director of photography operates the camera remotely.","Adjustments to the shot's frame or depth of field can trick the eye and make miniatures seem much larger.","The computer records the camera movements so they can be repeated at any time.","Later, water will be digitally added to this riverbed.","Coming up next, animated characters enter the scene with the help of computer-generated tricks.","Today, virtual beings are a hollywood phenomenon.","Computer effects have rocketed 3-d animated characters into superstardom, but even for digital creatures, fame doesn't come easy.","It takes years of work and a large crew of skilled professionals to make them look good on the big screen.","It all starts with a good, old-fashioned sketch pad.","Once the character is defined on paper, the artist sculpts him with clay.","Then the high-tech wizardry begins as they laser-scan the 3-d character from all angles and load the image into the computer.","Once he's been captured, the computer artist wraps the character in a digital wire frame.","He manipulates the wire mesh to make the character move and breathe.","After he creates a dozen or more facial expressions, this machine makes hard copies of those many faces.","It repeatedly deposits layers of plastic to build up a physical version of the image.","They insert eyes in the sockets, then give these washed-out plastic faces some color.","An artist paints each one of the faces along the same lines.","Continuity is critical because the faces will be filmed and the images edited together to create the illusion of movement.","It's a traditional animation technique called stop-motion, and these plastic models are called puppets.","Next a seamstress builds a suit of clothes for one of the puppets.","He has to look great because he'll be used to promote the character to merchandisers who might market him as a toy.","They scan the fabric and wrap it around the digital character to give him the same outfit, then add creases for a more realistic texture.","The crew lights the mini set for one of the character's big scenes and plans the camera moves.","It's a kind of dress rehearsal.","One of the puppets acts as a stand-in for the animated character.","They move him around in a process called rough placement.","It's a critical step which ensures that everyone is in sync-- cinematographers, lighting artists, and animators.","Seeing the puppet in the room will help animators place his digital counterpart in the various visuals.","They literally cover all the angles and leave nothing to chance.","Now the physical merges with the virtual in a special-effects trick called human motion capture.","A man walks around in a special suit covered with reflective dots.","The computer recognizes the dots to transfer the man's movements to a version of the digital character instantaneously.","The computer artist uses those captured movements to manipulate the character and insert him into the scene.","The effect is one of a digital character who moves just like a human being.","They layer digitized images of the set and blend them seamlessly into a single image.","This digital layering is called compositing.","It allows animators to accurately place the character in the scene.","The blend of high-tech special effects with traditional animation techniques gives the best of both worlds.","Combined, all these special-effects tricks can generate 3-d characters with star quality.","They are virtual puppets, and the animators are the puppeteers.","And on the big screen, the fantasy has never looked so real."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Cine Cameras","Glass Christmas Ornaments","Giant Tires"]},"text":["A cinecamera is the type of camera they use for making motion pictures.","It captures what it shoots on 16- or 35-millimeter film.","Running like a well-oiled machine, its intricate components work with ultimate precision, all inside a powerful marvel of technology and craftsmanship.","The internal mechanics and electronics of a cinecamera perform an impressive choreography to capture images.","To make the main housing, a computer-controlled milling machine cuts precise spaces in a block of aluminum.","Then a probe scans it so a computer can verify the shape meets engineering specifications.","Next, a variety of computer-guided drills and cutters shape the film gate-- the component that holds the film for exposure.","A grinding wheel completes this highly precise task.","They buff the film gate on a rotating drum, infused with diamond powder and a polishing compound.","Next, workers apply glue to the film guide, which pushes the film into the film gate.","Then they put glue on the film movement, mate the guide and movement, then drive in screws to secure the bond.","These two registration pins hold the film in place.","Now for the pulldown claws.","Workers mount these aluminum devices inside the film movement--  one on each side.","They move forward and downward as the registration pins retract, dragging the film along the guide.","As the claws pull the film down, the pins enter.","This exposure repeats at a rate of 150 frames per second.","Next, workers screw on a cover to protect the movement's fragile parts.","Another cover fits on the other side.","Workers then test each of the buttons.","Now they attach the camera's drive shaft.","The motor drives the movement using a toothed belt.","A mechanics test comes next to ensure the claws and pins perform with precision.","This part of the camera is the shutter.","It sits between the film and lens.","Workers mount a mirror over half the shutter.","The mirror reflects the image into the viewfinder when it rotates in behind the lens.","A dab of special cleaning fluid yields a pristine surface.","Any dirt on the mirror would create a fuzzy image.","The protective cover plates will shield existing openings.","Here the shutter and mirror spin in unison.","In this model, the shutter is electronic, so it requires a tiny microchip and electrical wires with plugs on the ends.","Technicians scrutinize the parts and connections.","Then they test the electronics again to ensure everything is working, starting with the shutter.","With all the internal components complete, it's time to install them in the camera's housing.","The film gate we saw earlier snaps into position.","Next, technicians carefully mount the film guide behind the film, then fasten it tightly.","Last but not least, the shutter gently slides into position.","They close up one side of the housing with the cover to protect the circuit board inside.","Workers then lay an accessory controller gently into the camera's side cover.","It takes tweezers and a steady hand to insert this focusing screen through the lens mount at the front of the housing.","Finally, the lens takes its place front and center.","With the camera structure now complete, workers attach a magazine containing the film.","A little nudge here and there leads the film down the right path.","The movement swings forward to allow the film to run its course.","With the touch of a button, the film successfully races through a mechanical maze.","This camera excels at high-speed and special effects.","All it needs now is some action.","It's hard to beat the glitter and glow of glass christmas ornaments.","For many people, the christmas tree just wouldn't be the same without them.","They were invented in the 19th century by a german glassmaker who decided to improvise because he couldn't afford to decorate his tree with the usual nuts and candy.","They're christmas eye candy.","Today's glass ornaments are a visual treat.","To make some of the ornaments, they start with a sketch and make a plaster model of it.","They use it to create a two-part metal mold.","They take a glass cylinder and fire its wider end so it softens.","The glassmaker blows into the pipe end to stretch the supple glass into the basic shape of a bauble ornament.","Other glass tubes are more bulbous at the center, and that's the section that's fired as the glassmaker blows it into a more elongated bubble.","He places that bubble in the mold and blows extra hard.","The glass expands into its crevices and takes its shape--  a snowman.","He burns off one of the blowpipe ends and then aims the torch at the snowman's nose to pull it out.","A quick cooldown could shatter this ornament, so he gradually lowers its temperature with a less-intense flame.","Blowing and molding glass figurines is quick work.","The glassmaker has just a few seconds to complete the job before the glass becomes too cool and stiff to shape.","The ornaments now head down the line to get some shine.","This will be an inside job.","The glassmaker pours silvering solution into the baubles through the stem.","She then dips the bauble in warm water.","This activates the silvering chemicals, and shaking the ornament accelerates this process.","She swirls the silvering liquid around to completely coat the inside of the ornament.","A final dip gives this bauble a mirror finish from the inside out.","She empties the silvering solution into another tank for recycling.","They also use this technique on the figurines, like the snowman.","A quick shake gives this guy an inner beauty.","Next, they submerge the glass ornament in lacquer to give it some color.","The mirror finish inside shines through the lacquer.","Now the snowman ornament gets an artist's touch.","She airbrushes white lacquer onto the figurine for a frosty finish.","It makes the snowman look more like old frosty.","The artist paints some of the details by hand, like the trim on the hat and robe of this santa ornament.","This gives it more visual depth.","Once the paint dries, she brushes glue onto sections where she wants glitter dust to stick.","The glue dries quickly, so the artist applies more.","When it comes to christmas sparkle, you just can't get enough.","Next, she makes an incision in the stem and snaps it off.","A metal cap fits on the ornament stub.","Time to pack up these fragile beauties very carefully.","They put them in boxes that cradle each one individually to ensure they arrive safely.","Now these glass ornaments are ready to go \"out on a limb\" to add beauty to the holidays.","Tires for construction and mining equipment are truly giant-sized.","They can be twice the height of a human being and weigh thousands of pounds.","These giant tires also come with a hefty price tag.","Just one can cost more than an average family sedan.","Giant tires are made to carry heavy loads in conditions that are seriously off-road, like mining and construction sites.","To make giant tires, they feed rubber into a powerful mixer.","They add sulfur and antioxidants to boost the rubber's durability, as well as recycle pieces of used tires.","At the top of the mixer, they add carbon black in measured amounts.","It's an oil by-product that helps bind everything together.","The mixing generates heat, which softens the rubber, making it doughy.","The rubber dough then falls between rollers that squeeze it into a sheet.","The process is called milling.","They slice the sheeted rubber and feed it back into the machine several times.","This repeated milling essentially kneads the rubber to give it the right consistency.","Once the rubber has been sufficiently processed, they feed it to a conveyor.","A wheel rolls over the rubber to impress the date and identification number onto it.","The rubber then winds through a tank of soapy water.","As it exits, it falls over hangers that move it through a dryer.","A soapy residue remains, keeping the layers from sticking together as they await more processing.","They write the i.d. number on a sample of the rubber and tag the production run with the same number.","This signifies that testing is under way.","They tuck the test sample in a canister and send it up a chute to the lab.","Once it's confirmed the rubber has the right characteristics, it's ready to be made into the various components of a giant tire.","At the next station, dozens of steel cords unwind into a machine.","Each cord is made of numerous steel threads, and each thread is brass-plated.","These steel cords will be used to fortify the processed rubber.","The cords enter a machine called an extruder.","It grinds and heats some of the processed rubber and then forces it around the steel cords to encase them.","The result is what's known as steel-belted rubber.","They cut several of the steel-belted strips on an angle and fuse them together.","This exposes steel cord around the edges, so hot rollers seal them with rubber.","The steel-belted rubber will make the tires more resistant to punctures.","But they make the tires' basic structure from rubber-coated nylon cord.","They cut the nylon-rubber ply to a specific length.","Workers then piece several of these sheets together to form a loop.","The pieces adhere because uncured rubber is naturally tacky.","And a machine rolls the loop to the correct size.","They layer more of the nylon-rubber ply in a crisscross fashion to add strength.","The machine that helps size the loop also applies a thin layer of ordinary rubber between each crisscrossed layer.","This thickens the rubber loop.","The finished loop is called the band.","It's the skeleton of the giant tire.","They hoist it onto a cart and move it to the next station.","Stay tuned, as they shape and inflate this band of rubber to turn it into a giant tire.","When it comes to tires, it takes time to supersize.","Making a giant tire can take 24 hours or more, mainly because the rubber needs a lot of curing.","It's not mass production.","It's massiveproduction.","As a result, factories only produce a few of the largest ones a day.","This machine is about to stretch the big band of rubber like an elastic.","The machine pivots, and its many rollers expand and turn to transfer the band to a spinning drum.","The machine pumps air around the protruding rollers to make the transfer easier, while the drum turns at a constant speed to aid the process.","Once the transfer is complete, the rollers retract, and the air escapes.","This causes the rubber to shrink to the drum and take its shape.","They fold the overlap into the center of the drum.","The giant rubber band now has the basic contour of a tire.","Next, another machine coats numerous steel wires with rubber, creating strips of rubberized steel.","This will be used to make the bead-- the part of the tire that sits on the wheel rim.","They wind the rubberized steel around a metal wheel up to 20 times to form the bead.","They remove the bead and inspect it.","Then they pack a thick layer of rubber onto it so it will be easier to shape to the tire.","Using a special applicator wheel, they push the bead against the lip of the rubber tire shape.","The bead adheres, but it needs to be more solidly attached.","A spinning disk forces the bead more firmly to the rubber tire shape.","Then the tire assembler folds back the extra rubber from the tire and wraps it around the bead, using sheer physical strength.","They install two or three beads on each side of the tire.","The multiroller device takes over from the assembler and folds back extra rubber to lock the beads in place.","Next, the tire turns as they wind steel-belted rubber around it, followed by a continuous strip of ordinary rubber.","That strip builds up contours for tread.","The assembler then wraps a thick piece of ordinary rubber around the outer edge.","This is the tire's sidewall.","The spinning-disc device presses the sidewall to the tire.","This tire is now ready to move on.","Here, a huge rubber bladder inflates and deflates as they spray it with a nonstick coating.","This bladder will act as the inner part of a mold.","They lift the tire onto the deflated bladder.","They then pump steam into it, expanding the tire.","A metal mold with a tread pattern engraved in it closes around the swelling tire.","The tire cooks in this mold for up to 18 hours, causing the rubber to cure.","The giant tire pops out of the mold with tread.","The brand name and identification numbers have all been molded into the rubber.","After cooling, an inspection team examines the giant tire inside and out.","And once it gets the okay, it's ready to roll.","And with all that deep tread, each giant tire is guaranteed to make a big impression on the jobsite."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Hockey Gloves","Snack Cakes","Remolded Tires","Wastewater Treatment"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Hockey gloves...","Snack cakes...","Remolded tires...","And wastewater treatment.","Ice hockey can get pretty rough, so wearing the proper equipment is a must.","Hockey gloves protect the forearm, wrist, and hand.","A good glove has padding in all the right places, but is still lightweight and comfortable.","It also has to be flexible, so the player can hold and maneuver the hockey stick.","The covering material of a hockey glove is called the outer shell.","It can be made of genuine leather or synthetic leather.","There's even a new synthetic material called carbon that's tearproof, even if a sharp skate blade slashes it.","What it's made of is a closely guarded trade secret.","One hockey glove is made up of about 30 different parts, depending on the model.","Workers lay a die in the shape of each part on the outer-shell material.","A hydraulic press forces it down like a cookie cutter.","Workers then cut foam pieces to line the glove.","This low-density foam is stiff enough to provide protection, but flexible enough to enable the player to grip the stick properly.","A seamstress now lockstitches the outer-shell and foam-lining parts together, assembling each section of the glove separately.","After finishing the back of the hand, called the back roll, she pieces together the thumb.","She sews three sides closed.","One end stays open so they'll be able to insert more protective foam afterward.","These are the finger pieces.","The seamstress uses a tacking machine to sew up the sides and tack the corners for added strength, again leaving one end, the top, open.","Now they assemble the fingers to the base of the glove.","They use what's called a cylinder arm machine.","It has a narrow sewing surface that protrudes, making it easy to access the fingertips.","Next come the parts that make up the palm and the gusset, the piece that goes between the fingers and the palm.","Like before, workers cut the parts using a die.","The palm and gusset can be made of high-end synthetic suede or leather or even genuine leather.","The advantage of real leather is that it can be treated with an antibacterial product that combats odor caused by the hand sweating inside the glove.","Again, the seamstress uses the cylinder arm machine to sew the palm to the glove base, which already has the fingers attached.","Next, the glove goes onto a machine that's custom-made for the hockey-glove industry.","Using air pressure to power a piston, it injects pieces of high-density foam padding into the open end of the fingers.","High-density foam is rock-hard, so it provides maximum protection.","But high-density foam is too stiff to go into the thumb, which needs some flexibility.","So instead, they make what's called an armored thumb plate, which is essentially a plastic thumb shield.","A hot forge presses a flat piece of hard plastic onto an aluminum mold in the shape of the plate.","Then they wrap the plate in low-density foam and, with another machine custom-made for this purpose, inject it into the glove thumb.","The lower part of the glove is now complete.","A seamstress finishes off the edge with cotton tape.","All that's left is to do is assemble and attach the cuff.","The standard cuff is a little over 2 inches wide.","You can buy the gloves this company produces for retail stores, or order customized gloves with your name embroidered on the cuffs.","Professional hockey players have the factory build gloves to their own specifications with extra protection in key areas or certain adjustments that they feel give them an advantage on the ice.","The most important part of the glove is the palm.","That's the area that endures the most wear and tear.","The sturdier the palm material, the longer the glove will last.","But at the same time, the palm padding can't be too thick.","That would make the glove uncomfortable to wear and take away the player's feel for the hockey stick.","When marie antoinette said, \"let them eat cake,\" she probably didn't mean those mini jelly logs.","Still, in the realm of treats for the sweet tooth, snack cakes have been revolutionary.","They're just the right size for a quick snack and individually wrapped to stay fresh.","Veteran snackers will recognize this as a jelly log, a sponge cake rolled up with jam and a creamy filling.","First the factory bakes the sponge cake.","It comes out of the oven in continuous strips.","Those moving arms align the strips to receive the fillings.","One machine then does it all.","First it deposits an even layer of cream filling...","Then blobs of strawberry jam.","Now the rolling begins.","One side of the cake strip runs against a metal guide.","This lifts and folds over the edge.","Then the cake strips run against a second guide which rolls it over some more.","Now the machine cuts the continuous strip into separate cakes.","Then an automated roller completes the logs.","The jelly logs go onto a conveyor belt that positions them closer together, aligning them for the next phases of production.","They travel through a waterfall of strawberry-flavored syrup.","This sticky coating acts as a tasty glue to adhere the shredded coconut that showers them next.","The conveyor belt shakes off the excess which, like the excess strawberry syrup before, gets fed through the machine again.","Now, if all this doesn't have your sweet tooth tingling yet, the next snack cake will.","It's a chocolate cream cake covered in a chocolate coating.","Production begins in the mixer, where they combine eggs, a vegetable-oil mixture...","Flour...","Sugar...","Water...","Glucose, a liquid sweetener...","And cocoa powder.","The mixer blends the ingredients at high speed for one minute.","Then it pumps the batter into a machine called the automated depositor, which squirts the batter into cake molds.","The conveyor belt transports the mold pans to the oven.","The batter bakes for 7 minutes.","To achieve just the right texture, there's a very specific heating pattern.","Once the pans exit the oven, a robot flips the cakes upside down onto a conveyor belt.","It stacks the empty mold pans onto another conveyor that sends them back for more batter.","Now the cakes flip right side up onto a wire conveyor belt.","Air circulating between the wires cools the cakes.","The next machine aligns the cakes in position for the next phases of production.","First thin blades saw the cakes in half.","Then suction tubes remove the tops and place them next to the bottoms.","Next the machine drops a portion of cream filling on each bottom.","The cream is about the consistency of margarine.","As the feeder tube above each cake delivers it, a wire cutter slices off a piece about 1/4 of an inch thick.","Then the suction tubes put the tops back on.","Now the cakes pass through a shower of hot, chocolate-flavored liquid.","This coats the top and sides.","At the same time, the cakes travel through a bath of the liquid.","This coats the underside.","Air jets blow off the excess.","The cakes pass through a cooling tunnel.","This hardens the chocolate-flavored coating.","Then it's off to the packaging department.","The cakes file into a sheet of polypropylene film.","The machine seals, then cuts the film between each cake.","This keeps each one fresh until snack time.","If you need new tires for your car or truck and are looking to save money, you might consider buying retreaded or remolded tires.","Retreads are worn-out tires onto which the factory glues new rubber treads.","Remolds, on the other hand, are actually rebuilt.","This company specializes in remolding commercial truck tires.","The worn-out tire is called a casing.","This is a cross section.","That steel reinforcement rod, called the bead, won't be replaced.","But most of the rubber around it will be, along with most of the tread area.","The steel belts underneath the treads-- those dots-- will remain.","They begin the remolding process by thoroughly inspecting the casing to determine whether it's indeed salvageable.","They consider its age, whether it's had repairs.","They examine the steel components to make sure they haven't rusted.","If the casing passes inspection, it moves on to the buffing machine.","There, sharp blades spinning at high speed shear off most of the worn-out rubber tread.","Buffing prepares the surface so that the new rubber will adhere well and stand up to road friction.","Buffing takes about 6 minutes per tire.","It leaves just over 1/16 of an inch of tread on the casing.","Now they use a tool called a skiver to shave off any imperfections.","A rubber tire is like a car windshield-- even the smallest crack can spread outward, so it has to be stemmed.","After excising problem spots, they smooth them with a grinding stone.","Then they repeat the buffing-skiving-grinding procedure on the sides of the casing, but they use a less abrasive grinding stone because the sides don't need such aggressive treatment.","Unlike the tread area, they won't be subjected to road abrasion.","Now, using a drill, workers remove dirt and rust from each spot.","Then they work the area some more with a grinding wheel, so that the rubber they'll use to patch it will adhere properly.","Now they glue the patch from the inside with rubber cement, pressing out any air bubbles with a roller to ensure full contact.","Workers can now start rebuilding the tire.","They feed a rubber strip into a machine called an extruder.","First it heats up the strip, making it malleable.","Then it wraps it onto the casing, building up anywhere from two to four layers depending on how thick the customer wants the tire to be.","That depends on several factors-- for instance, how much traction the tire needs to have and whether the truck will be doing mostly local or long-distance driving.","Now they apply a wider rubber strip to the sides, building up one to three layers, the choice again depending on the customer's thickness needs.","Using a perforating roller, they release the trapped air.","This enables the layers to adhere well.","Now they sprinkle the tire with rubber powder, residue from the buffing.","This will prevent the tire from sticking to the mold.","The mold consists of sections which allows it to open wide enough to receive the tire.","The backward lettering inside will imprint the remolding company's brand name on the tire.","The mold applies about 220 pounds of pressure as well as heat--  320 degrees fahrenheit.","This fuses the molecules in the old and the new rubber-- a chemical reaction called polymerization.","Once the mold closes to begin this process, a tube inflates with air and fills the void.","This provides counterpressure, so that the tire doesn't get crushed.","Molding time is anywhere from an hour to an hour and 15 minutes per tire, depending on the thickness.","After extracting the tire, workers remove the seams of excess rubber with a special comb.","This remolded tire is now ready to hit the road at considerable cost savings.","Depending on the size and type, a remold is 30% to 60% cheaper than a new tire.","Have you ever wondered where all the rainwater goes, or the snow once it melts, or the water in your sink, tub, and toilet after you've used it?","This wastewater flows through the underground sewer system to a treatment plant.","The plant removes most of the pollutants, then releases the water into a lake or river.","The underground sewer network feeds into a regional interceptor, which is a kind of sewer highway that runs to the treatment plant.","The action begins at the plant's pumping station.","It doesn't look like much from above, but the building extends some 15 stories belowground, right through solid rock.","The wastewater collects in huge underground wells.","It's not a pretty sight.","It's full of dirt, garbage, and fecal matter.","It also contains high levels of phosphorus, a poisonous element in the nitrogen family harmful to waterways because it promotes the overgrowth of algae.","The water flows from the wells to giant pumps that force it to the surface.","The plant has backup generators to keep the pumps working in case of a blackout and devices to prevent water from backing up should a pump have to be shut down for servicing.","Once the wastewater reaches the surface, it flows through the pumping station down discharge channels leading to the treatment building.","Along the way, it's sprayed with either aluminum sulfate or ferric chloride, two chemical coagulants.","They gradually transform phosphorus in the water from liquid to solid so it can be removed later on.","Once the water reaches the treatment building, it flows through screens.","This preliminary filtration removes any solids larger than one inch in diameter-- such things as stones, paper, and plastic.","Giant presses compact this garbage, squeezing out the excess water.","Trucks then haul the stuff to a landfill, where it's buried.","The wastewater, meanwhile, flows into large tanks called grit chambers.","Grit refers to particles in the water such as gravel that are inorganic, meaning they don't decompose or burn.","These particles, some as tiny as a grain of sand, gradually settle to the bottom.","Then they're pumped out and trucked to the landfill.","To remove organic particles, mainly phosphorus, they add a polymer, a type of chemical compound.","This demonstration shows what happens.","Remember, as the wastewater left the pumping station, it was sprayed with coagulant.","That transformed the phosphorus in the water into solid particles.","The polymer solution completes the process.","It binds those particles, forming what are called \"flocs,\" masses of phosphorus that look like snowflakes.","They're heavier than water, so they sink to the bottom.","And that's exactly what occurs in the plant's clarifier tanks.","It takes about two hours for the flocs to settle at the bottom, forming a layer of sediment called \"sludge\".","A system of rakes and pumps collects the sludge and transfers it to the sludge treatment building.","Unless testing shows a need for additional treatment, the clarified, fully treated wastewater now flows to what's called the outfall, a series of channels that discharge into the river.","In the sludge-treatment building, they spray the wet sludge with another type of polymer.","This further solidifies it, so that filter presses can more easily squeeze out the water.","Most of the sludge goes into giant incinerators to be burned.","The ashes go to a landfill.","The gas that the incinerators emit powers several machines that dry and transform the remaining sludge into pellets.","These pellets are sold as organic fertilizer.","When it arrived at the plant, the wastewater was full of contaminants that harm aquatic life.","Now, after treatment, it contains 80% fewer suspended solids such as fecal matter and 75% less phosphorus."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["High"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","High-precision cutting tools...","Stained glass...","Semi-trailers...","And recorders.","Industrial cutting tools are the metalworking components of factory machinery.","They're designed to form metal into product parts or into devices for making product parts.","High-tech industries use high-precision cutting tools.","These are the end mills-- tools specifically designed for cutting and shaping metal.","They're made from a very durable grade of steel or from tungsten carbide-- a metal even stronger than steel.","Steel bars in their raw state are actually soft enough to be cut and shaped.","But it takes loads of lubrication to cool the intense heat that metal-on-metal friction generates.","Using a giant band saw, they cut the bars into end-mill-size pieces, called blanks.","Workers turn each blank individually on a computer-guided metal lathe.","First, they form a point on one end.","Then they flatten the opposite end and drill a center hole.","Then they trim the diameter to the required size.","Next stop-- a computer-guided milling machine.","It works on three blanks at a time, carving helix-shaped ridges called flutes.","The flutes run almost the full length of the blank.","Once again, lubrication is essential to prevent overheating.","This milling process transforms each blank into a tool.","From this point on, the shorter, smooth portion is called the shank, the longer, fluted portion, the cutting end.","Here's the same milling process again but for a different model.","Here are both models before and after.","Now they cure the steel using a two-step heat-treatment process.","The first stage hardens the metal, using molten salt-- salt that's been heated until it liquefies.","They soak the tools in five progressively hotter salt baths, whose temperatures range from 1,200 to 2,200 degrees fahrenheit.","The second phase of heat treatment is a process called induction.","They set each tool into a large metal coil.","The coil's internal magnetic field generates intense heat, which softens the shank, making it more flexible.","Now the finishing process.","They run the shank against a grinding wheel, whose grit is made of diamond particles.","This gives it the strength to erode steel with a high degree of precision.","They verify the final diameter using a digital micrometer.","Then a robotic arm runs the tools-- one at a time-- through a high-precision automated grinding machine, this time to finish the cutting end.","The machine uses diamond grinding wheels to grind the precise cutting angles and finalize the diameter.","More complex tools go into this even more sophisticated grinding machine.","It, too, uses diamond wheels and runs robotically.","The end mills are now completed.","This factory makes high-precision cutting tools, primarily for the aerospace and automotive industries, where precision is everything.","So at each stage of the production process, the factory verifies measurements using various optical and digital instruments.","This sensing probe conducts the final quality-control test.","It scans each and every finished end mill to ensure that the surface is as smooth as silk.","These high-precision cutting tools are now ready to be put to work machining aluminum, titanium, and different types of steel.","Around 1,000 a.d., craftsmen began making intricate window designs using lead--  rather than wood or plaster-- between pieces of colored glass.","Before long, the church began commissioning stained-glass windows depicting religious scenes to adorn the great cathedrals of europe.","You can make stained glass two ways-- using copper foil, a technique developed about 100 years ago by the american artist louis comfort tiffany, or you can use the centuries-old european lead technique, which we're about to see.","First, the artist lays a plate of glass over a pattern and traces the parts of the design that she'll cut from that plate.","Then she scores her trace line using a glass cutter.","A quick snap, and the glass separates neatly.","She follows the same procedure with different colors and textures of glass, making all the pieces of the design.","By running the cutter slightly inside the trace line, she leaves room for the strip of lead that will later hold the pieces of glass together.","Once she finishes cutting all the pieces, she checks them against the pattern, making sure they'll fit together properly.","Now it's time to assemble the pieces, using the pattern as a guide.","This zinc molding will frame the panel, its inner groove fitting over the edge of the glass.","The artist positions this molding along the perimeter of the pattern.","Then she drills an l-shaped wood frame into the worktable to hold everything in place during assembly.","A few nails keep the molding in place.","She'll join the pieces of glass using strips of lead, called came.","Lead is used because it's soft enough to bend to the shape of the pieces.","After straightening out a long strip of came, she cuts the various lengths she needs to border each piece of glass.","The came is shaped in such a way that the glass on each side just slides right under.","The cutting pliers, called nippers, are specially designed to slice through the came without deforming it.","Once the artist finishes assembling the glass pieces, she pushes everything gently against the wood frame.","This squares the panel and ensures the pieces fit together snugly.","Now she brushes on flux, a type of acid.","This cleans the lead came so that the solder will adhere well.","Using a soldering iron, she applies a bead of lead-and-tin solder wherever two strips of lead meet.","Then she uses a short-bristled brush to coat the lead in black putty.","This makes the seams watertight and gives the lead a darker, aged look.","Finally, she sprinkles on calcium chloride powder, called whiting.","This sets the putty and polishes the glass and lead to a shine.","After four painstaking hours, the panel is finished.","More elaborate stained-glass works feature hand-painted detailing.","The artist first prepares the design on paper, then cuts the pieces of glass accordingly.","He paints the design outline on the pieces in black, then fires them in a kiln to set the paint.","To create shading, he applies a coat of brown paint called grisaille.","Using a dry brush, he removes it from the parts he wants to highlight.","Then he fires the glass again.","Now he paints in the fine details and fires the glass for one last time.","The paint contains powdered glass, so the intense heat of the kiln bonds it to the glass pieces.","The result is nothing short of spectacular.","For those of you who flunked truck anatomy 101, here's a quick review.","The front of the truck, where the driver sits, is called the cab.","The back that carries the cargo is the trailer.","A semi-trailer is a type of trailer whose front end goes on the same wheels as the rear end of the cab.","This type of semi-trailer is called a van.","It has a closed-in compartment for transporting cargo that needs protection from the elements.","To make the coupler plate-- the part that attaches the van to the truck cab-- they submerge steel plates in water to quell the smoke that metal-cutting generates.","They use a computer-guided plasma cutter.","This powerful torch ejects hot gas at high pressure, slicing through the metal with detailed precision.","Elsewhere in the factory, they take prepainted aluminum panels and rivet them onto aluminum or steel support posts...","The same way drywall goes onto 2x4s in house construction.","These thin, lightweight panels will be the van's exterior walls.","Plywood on the reverse side makes up the interior walls.","A computerized sensor guides the robotic drills to drive screws through the plywood, into the support posts underneath.","For heated or refrigerated vans, there's a layer of insulation in the walls.","The floor is made of either laminated hardwood or aluminum screwed onto narrow steel beams.","After assembling the walls, the steel door frame, and doors, workers install a steel floor plate at the doorway.","This protects the floor from damage when truckers load and unload their cargo by forklift.","Workers fold aluminum flashing over the roof's perimeter to prevent water infiltration.","Fiberglass roofing like this allows daylight into the van.","Aluminum roofing doesn't, so those vans sometimes have electric lighting.","Another type of semi-trailer is the flatbed-- an open trailer used mostly for hauling raw materials, such as logs and pipes.","Heavier flatbed models are made of thick, higher-grade steel.","Workers cut the bulkier parts using what's called an automatic oxy cutter.","It combines two gases to create a flame intense enough to slice right through metal.","Once cut, the parts have to be formed to the required shape.","To do that, workers use what's called a press brake-- a machine that applies up to 330 tons of pressure-- to bend the steel.","They measure the result to ensure it meets design specifications.","The chassis will have two main beams running the length of the flatbed.","A semiautomatic robot welds together the various sections that make up each beam.","A worker follows behind, inspecting the joints and removing welding residue.","Now they position two main beams side by side, inserting steel cross members through them to support the floor.","They install the coupler plate and other components, then weld everything together.","Flatbeds come in extendable versions designed to accommodate loads of various lengths.","They extend and retract on steel rollers operated by controls located inside the truck cab.","With the chassis complete, they can now work on the axle assembly.","Semi-trailers have an air-brake system.","When the driver applies the brakes, there's a release of air pressure into the brake chambers, triggering the brake shoes to bear down on the brake drums and stop the vehicle.","Once the wheels and suspension system are in place, workers install the axle assembly under the trailer.","The average semi-trailer weighs between five and seven tons and can haul up to five times its weight.","The recorder is a type of flute that's played vertically.","It consists of a mouthpiece that works like a whistle, connected to a tube with finger holes.","Mass-produced plastic recorders are a staple of elementary school music programs.","Real musicians, though, play finer wooden recorders.","The recorder dates back to medieval europe, though it was likely modeled after flutes from asia.","Back then, recorders were called flutes.","And, by 1500, they were among the most popular musical instruments.","Around 1750, though, the new transverse flute banished the recorder to musical oblivion.","It took a 20th-century revival of music from the renaissance and baroque periods to bring the long-forgotten recorder some noteworthy attention.","A recorder is composed of three hollow sections made of a lightweight hardwood, such as boxwood.","Crafting one section at a time, they find a portion free of cracks, knots, and other faults, then cut away the surrounding wood using a band saw.","They measure the block's diameter to ensure it's large enough.","Then they carefully mark and drill through the midpoint in order to mount the block on a lathe.","Precision is critical.","The block must be perfectly centered as they round it into a cylinder.","Next, they use a large drill to widen the inside hole, known as the bore.","They enlarge it enough to insert a tool called a reamer.","Then they ream the bore to the final diameter, which varies according to the size of the recorder.","The bore tapers slightly toward the bottom of the instrument.","The cylinder, now a tube, goes back on a lathe.","The smooth pencil line means the bore is straight and the tube is centered.","They trim the outside to reduce it to the right diameter, checking the measurement with the help of calipers.","Then it's back onto a lathe for the final profiling.","This is where the maker gets to flaunt his artistry, embellishing the tube with ornamentation typical of the baroque period.","It takes about an hour and a half to cut and shape the recorder's three sections-- the head joint, the middle joint, and the foot joint.","Now they smooth the surface of each joint with fine sandpaper.","Then it's back to the technical tasks.","Locking the middle and foot joints in a vise, they drill the finger holes-- seven holes down the front and one in the back for the thumb.","For the recorder to play in tune, they must follow the precise measurements specified in the technical drawing.","In the head joint, they cut a flat canal called the windway.","It directs the air that's blown into the instrument.","Next, they carve out a rectangular window with a sloped opening, called the labium.","The labium is what regulates the recorder's tone-- the sound quality-- so its size and angle are critical.","The air the musician blows into the mouthpiece travels down the windway and hits the sharp edge of the labium.","This creates a whistle effect, thanks to a block of wood closing off the top of the instrument.","They use cedar because it never rots, despite years of hot air and saliva blowing on it.","They complete the head joint by beveling the top.","This forms the mouthpiece.","Now they glue a thin layer of cork around all the joint ends.","This creates a snug fit when the instrument's assembled.","They test the recorder's tone and tuning, making adjustments to the workings if necessary.","Next, they stain the wood, then wax and buff it to a shine.","Recorders have a 2-octave--  or 16-note-- range, and they come in about 15 different sizes.","The longer and wider the instrument is, the lower its register.","The shorter and thinner it is, the higher the sound it produces."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Gingerbread Houses","Livestock Trailers","Bottom Rolling Hangar Doors","Toy Figurines"]},"text":["Gingerbread houses are a holiday tradition.","It used to take a fair amount of time and baking expertise to make one.","But today, there are kits and even pre-assembled gingerbread houses that make the process a breeze.","There's something about this edible edifice that makes the holidays seem more special.","With a kit, you can let the factory handle the tricky part and just have fun with the trimmings.","To make a gingerbread house kit, the factory starts with baking soda.","Then a worker adds a scoop of salt, measuring the ingredients by weight.","He transfers the baking soda and salt to a mixer.","He measures the spices-- cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, and allspice.","There's actually a lot more cinnamon than ginger in gingerbread.","But the flavor of the ginger is more pronounced.","He closes the mixer, and the system adds water, molasses, and sugar.","At the top of the mixer, he tosses in a block of vegetable shortening.","The mixer combines all the ingredients and blends in the flour.","The result is a putty-like dough.","A spiraling machine helps move the dough onto a conveyor.","A roller flattens the chunks so they won't fall off during the steep climb.","The conveyor delivers the chunks of dough to a machine called a sheeter.","It gets this name because it rolls the pieces into a seemingly endless sheet.","A large cookie cutter comes down.","It punches out the various shapes needed to form the gingerbread house.","The cookie cutouts land on moving rubber-coated wires.","Separators between the wires trim the excess gingerbread dough, which is captured and mixed into the next batch.","Then the cookies transfer to a mesh conveyor, which takes them up to a baking sheet belt.","The cookies travel slowly through a long convection oven that's heated to just over 160 degrees.","Here's an inside look.","At any time, there are parts for 150 gingerbread kits in this oven.","The baked gingerbread exits the oven and transfers to a spiral conveyor.","After a 30-minute ride, the dough is cool and firm.","Workers stack the pieces for one gingerbread house onto a piece of cardboard.","They're ready to be packaged with the rest of the kit.","Factory workers assemble the houses for certain retailers.","They glue the gingerbread structure together with royal icing made of confectioner's sugar and egg whites.","It dries fast, giving this gingerbread house instant structural integrity.","For the customer, all that's left is the decorating.","Elsewhere in the factory, they make the icing for the kits.","Plastic packaging moves toward hot jaws that seal the bottom.","Then a robot grabs a package and opens the top.","A fill nozzle pumps icing into it.","Another robot applies an applicator tip and heat-seals the plastic around it.","The tubes of sugary icing fall on to a conveyor.","A worker places them in a box for transfer to the kit-assembly station.","These gingerbread houses are ready for retail.","Decorated with icing and candy, they look good enough to eat.","Livestock should be transported in a vehicle that keeps them comfortable and protects them from injury and stress.","The best way to haul cattle and horses humanely is in a livestock trailer.","They're designed to be easy to load, unload, and clean out.","A proper livestock trailer keeps its passengers as comfortable as possible.","It's built to reduce rattling and other stress-inducing noises.","It lets in natural light, which has a calming effect, and it has openings along the sides to circulate air.","A designer builds a 3-d model on a computer then breaks it down into units for assembly.","The factory orders long pieces of extruded aluminum designed for the trailer model then cuts them to specific lengths.","To construct the floor, workers slide planks into end rails.","They pull the planks tightly together using ratchet straps then weld them to the rails.","They weld two flat aluminum bars across the planks as floor supports.","The floor is upside down during this part of the assembly.","Once they flip it over, these supporters will be under the floor planks.","Next, they install the axles, two or three depending on the size and style of the trailer.","These steel axles are mounted to a steel frame that provides structural support for the trailer.","To attach the frame, they drill holes for lock bolts and lock collars.","They use a special tool to squeeze the collar down into the bolt.","This ensures the bolt won't loosen with vibration.","Now they flip the floor over.","They weld the reverse side of the rails to the floor planks using a track welder.","To construct the trailer walls, they weld together horizontal slants, uprights, and a top rail.","They connect the wall to the floor then weld it in place.","This trailer is designed for a warm climate, so the side walls have openings at the top to improve air flow.","Several parts of the trailer are cut from sheets of textured aluminum called tread plate.","After welding on a large piece of tread plate for the trailer's front wall, they attach the gooseneck nose.","This nose connects the trailer to the back of a pickup truck.","It can also transport tools, feed, and baby animals.","Trailers that don't have a gooseneck are called bumper hitches.","They connect to the back of a tow vehicle.","Workers attach the gooseneck using welds and lock bolts.","They build the trailer's access gates the same way as the walls-- cutting aluminum extrusions to specific lengths, assembling them, then welding the parts together.","They mount the gates by welding the hinge plates to the wall structure.","The roof can either be a sheet of aluminum or a sheet of translucent woven glass fiber.","They pull the sheet taut then rivet it to the top rail of the walls.","They add an aluminum strip to secure the roof in high winds.","Workers install reflective tape and l.e.d. lights where transport regulations require them.","A rubber grommet around each light reduces vibration and prevents water infiltration.","Workers complete the assembly by mounting the wheels and tires onto the axles.","They add a spare tire under the gooseneck and a vinyl graphic decal on the side wall.","After a thorough inspection, they give the trailer a mild acid wash to remove any grease and handprints.","The factory can customize any trailer design.","This includes higher windows for horses or installing troughs so the driver can give the animals food and water.","Every trailer is designed for easy cleaning, which includes unloading the livestock, removing the bedding material and manure, as well as pressure-washing the floor.","A hangar is a closed building structure designed for storing aircraft or spacecraft.","They provide protection from direct sun exposure and bad weather.","As aircrafts grew bigger, so did their hangars.","Many hangars today use giant bottom-rolling doors.","The bottom-rolling hangar door moves along rails embedded in the floor and top guide beams built into the ceiling.","They use several smaller panels to construct the 184-foot-wide hangar door.","An oxy fuel cutter carves door parts out of a carbon-steel plate.","The torches heat up the metal, then blast it with oxygen.","This creates iron oxide, which melts and flows out of the cut.","The operator uses an iron rod to lift the machined parts off of the burn table.","He cleans up the edges with an electric grinder and removes any iron oxide left over from the cutting process.","The machined parts go to a cnc mill, which turns each round blank into a wheel.","A carbide insert carves the rail's tread profile into the steel.","The machine sprays coolant to prevent overheating, which would warp the finished wheel.","Next, a machinist uses a smaller blank to make an upper-guide roller.","The mill runs at a speed of approximately 200 rotations per minute.","It quickly turns the round blank into a finished roller ready for assembly.","A worker starts fitting rollers inside the upper guide head.","He inserts them into machined holes in the steel housing and tack-welds them in place.","He positions the larger rollers outside the upper guide head housing.","These rollers will bear the load of the door.","Using a metal sheet as a gauge, he sets the clearance between the roller and the housing then welds the parts together.","A cnc drilling machine prepares to make the outside frame of the door panels.","A pressure sensor on the drill moves its carbide insert back automatically as soon as it pierces the surface.","Meanwhile, two welders assemble the bottom door truck on a welding jig.","They weld a spacer to the main beam using an electric mig welder.","They tack-weld the tube in place then bring in the side channel of the door truck assembly.","They clamp the side channel tightly against the spacer tube.","Then weld the spacers to the beam, making a clean, continuous weld.","A worker sand-blasts the door truck assembly.","He blows compressed air and sand to prepare the metal surface for painting.","Using a spray gun, a worker applies corrosion-resistant metal primer on the door truck and leaves it to dry.","Workers assemble the panels before the door leaves the shop.","They use high-strength structural bolts to assemble the parts.","Workers install the unitized operator assembly.","It contains the engine powering the bottom roller wheels.","A worker bolts the electrical control panel to the operator assembly frame.","He puts the cabinet door in place and secures the hinge.","Tightened brace cables keep the door square and prevent racking.","They mount the upper guide on a telescoping assembly.","They add the door's corrugated exterior panels, and it's ready to ship.","At the push of a button, the assembled door slowly opens.","Each panel rolls on the bottom rail and hangs from the top guide rail.","The door opens wide enough to let the aircraft through.","Playing make-believe is a common pastime for children.","Research shows that playing with dolls and toy figurines can improve a child's creativity, communication, and social skills.","This includes problem solving and empathizing.","Whether it's an animal, person, or fictional creature, a toy figurine can be a passport to a fantasy world where imagination rules and the story plays out in the child's hands.","The toy company designers study photographs or drawings of the creature they plan to create.","Then they prepare a sketch of the figurine showing the physical characteristics, such as size, colors, and textures.","Once the sketch is finalized, they use specialized software to transform it into a 3-dimensional model.","Then a 3-d printer creates a plastic model.","The company also employs traditional wax modelers.","It may look like a slow process, but an experienced wax modeler can often sculpt a model faster than a computer.","The company's engineers determine whether the toy should be produced in one piece or multiple parts.","Then the modeler makes a wax or plastic model accordingly.","This particular dino is divided into four parts-- head, body, jaw, and tongue.","For each part, workers create a silicone mold, which will be used to make several copies in hard plastic.","Workers place the model of the dino's head in a box then fill the box with silicone.","It takes about 12 hours for the silicone to cure.","Then they cut it open and extract the model.","They use the vacated cavity to cast several hard-plastic copies of the part.","The art department uses most of them to sample paint colors.","One copy, however, goes to the company's tool makers, who use it to make the production mold.","They bury the copy in putty up to the midpoint.","They leave the top half of the copy exposed.","Next, they set the half-buried copy in a metal form and fill it with plaster.","Once the plaster hardens, they cure it in an oven for about an hour then they extract the copy.","What's left in the plaster is a cavity in the shape of half the dinosaur.","They fill the cavity with molten zinc, alloyed with copper, aluminum, and magnesium.","Once the metal cools and solidifies, they break the plaster, revealing one half of the two-part metal production mold.","They repeat the entire process to make the other half.","Workers mount the two-part dino mold in an injection molding machine.","The machine shoots hot, molten plastic into the metal mold cavity.","The machine immediately cools the plastic then releases the figurine.","The plastic is solid but still soft, so they dip it in cold water.","This hardens it further.","Next, artists hand-paint the figurines using both traditional and airbrushes.","The paint is nontoxic and very durable.","It's designed to flex with the plastic to prevent cracking.","It also withstands abrasion because children often drag these toys along the ground.","Once the paint dries, they assemble the toy.","A worker glues the dino's tongue into the hinged jaw, snaps the jaw into the head, then glues the head to the body.","The company performs safety testing on every new figurine designed.","This tensile test makes sure a child can't pull or bite off a piece of the toy.","Chemical analysis confirmed both the plastic and the paint are completely nontoxic.","So this dino may look dangerous, but in reality, he's perfectly harmless.","This ferocious beast is ready to hit the playground."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Foosball Tables","Marseille Soap","Laguiole Pocket Knives"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Table football was first patented by a british inventor in 1923.","It became popular throughout europe with leagues forming by the 1950s.","A decade later, an american working in west germany brought the game to the u.s., trademarking the german word for it, foosball.","In france, the game of foosball is known as baby foot.","This company produces ready-made, as well as custom-made tables like this one featuring biker players.","Production begins at a foundry, where workers melt down bars of aluminum.","An injection-molding machine shoots the molten aluminum into molds in the shape of players.","A robot removes the casting from the injection machine.","The mold yields four players, each one sporting the manufacturer's name on the front of his jersey.","A worker places each casting on a press then, with one strike, separates the four players and cuts off excess metal.","A computer-guided machine drills a hole in the center of each player, through which the rod will pass.","Then the machine threads a hole through the player's back for the screw that secures the player to the rod.","Another machine saws a 2-millimeter gap in the back to allow clearance for a screwdriver to tighten the player onto the rod.","Once ready, the players move to the foosball table factory, where a worker sprays on a base coat of white paint.","Once that dries, workers continue painting the players but, now, using an airbrush.","They mask the player's body to paint only his head.","The company offers a selection of skin tones.","Then they mask the player with another stencil, covering the skin and exposing the shirt and socks.","Next, they mask everything except the player's head and feet.","A player can be brunette, blonde or redhead.","They paint the shoes black then the player's eyes and mouth.","Manufacturers construct the table out of solid beech.","A computer-guided milling machine profiles the wood components, drills the required holes, and engraves the company name.","Workers then assemble the parts, starting with the four sides, which connect with bolted steel rods and glue.","After closing up the ends with wood panels, workers install wood support bars which will reinforce the table and, after a goal, direct the ball to the ball return tray.","The table now goes to the paint shop where workers either stain the wood or leave it natural.","For this model, they also spray red stain into the recessed stripes and logo.","All tables receive a finishing coat of transparent varnish to protect the wood.","They install the sloped ball-return panel.","When a player scores, the ball rolls down the panel to an aluminum ball-return tray.","After sliding the plywood table bottom into place, workers turn the table right-side up, mount the aluminum goal nets, and the scoring units right behind them.","Then they lay the playing surface, made of green vinyl on pressed wood, on top of the wooden support bars.","Wood trim around the perimeter holds the surface in place.","A worker mounts the players for each line onto a hollow stainless-steel rod.","Using a template to space them correctly, he bolts each player to the rod then attaches a rubber bumper to the players at each end to prevent them from slamming against the side walls.","He inserts a narrower stainless-steel rod into the hollow bar to make it telescopic.","After preparing eight rods of players, a worker installs them in the table.","The telescoping handle end of the rod has spring-loaded bearing that fits in a hole in the table.","He secures it from the outside.","After bolting the opposite end, workers protect the top edge of the table with a plastic trim.","After threading plastic handles to the telescopic end of the rods and mounting the tables on four sturdy, solid-wood legs, this foosball table is ready for kickoff.","Marseille soap is a vegetable oil-based soap first handcrafted in the port city of marseille, france, in the middle ages.","This gentle hypoallergenic all-purpose block soap became prized across europe for washing clothes, dishes, floors, and cleansing oneself.","Marseille soap is crafted from just four traditional ingredients with no animal fats, colorants, perfumes or preservatives.","It's still produced today as it has been for more than 600 years.","The four ingredients are sea salt, water, on the right, caustic soda and either coconut oil, palm oil or, most often, olive pomace oil, the second oil extracted from olives after they've been pressed to extract virgin olive oil for consumption.","A worker releases the required quantities of oil and caustic soda into a cooking cauldron, then brings the mixture to a boil while stirring for 1 to 2 days.","The fatty acids in the oil react to the alkaline caustic soda, producing a thick soap paste containing glycerin, a natural compound.","This transformation is known as saponification.","Workers add more caustic soda and cook to 248 degrees fahrenheit for another day.","They wash the paste with saltwater two or three times, each washing lasting half a day.","This removes impurities and glycerin.","Without glycerin, the soap has better detergent power to remove grease stains on fabric.","Next, over the course of a day, the workers repeatedly rinse the boiling soap paste with freshwater.","Then they let it set for 2 days.","They reheat the paste for about 10 minutes at 158 degrees fahrenheit, just to resoften it enough to be pumped to a series of super heaters.","The super heaters heat the paste to 230 degrees fahrenheit, liquefying it.","As the liquid soap leaves the last super heater, it passes through a nozzle, which sprays it onto the walls of an atomizer.","The atomizer cools the soap under a vacuum, solidifying it into a dry moldable consistency.","Motorized blades then scrape the dried soap from the atomizer walls.","The soap falls directly into an extrusion machine, which works much like a pasta maker.","The machine forces the soap through small round dies as revolving blades chop it into noodles.","As the soap noodles fall into the conveyer belt, the soap workshop chief inspects the quality by assessing the color, the aroma, and the texture.","At the company's in-house lab, a technician conducts quality-control tests on samples drawn from each production run.","In this test, he measures the percentage of pure soap.","He weighs the sample, then heats it in a microwave oven for 10 minutes to evaporate all the moisture.","This leaves only pure soap without water.","He reweighs the sample to calculate the percentage of pure soap as well as the oil content, which must be 72%.","The factory sells a portion of its marseille soap noodles to companies who mold their own soap bars.","It also molds a house brand right here, compressing the noodles into a homogeneous paste that extruding the long continuous bar.","An automated guillotine slices the bar into the selected shape.","The conveyer belt ferries the cubes to the stamping machine, which stamps all six sides.","Each cube bears the company's name and logo, the soap's oil content, and the savon de marseille designation, attesting that this is indeed authentic, traditionally made marseille soap.","For centuries, people have migrated back and forth across the french-spanish border.","The traditional laguiole pocketknife is a result of the mixing of these cultures.","It's a blend of an arab-hispanic knife, called the navaja, with a southern french knife, known as the capuchadou.","These are not pocketknives for camping trips.","They're high end cutlery, perfect for slicing through delicious french cheeses.","They feature the unmistakable wavy pattern of damascus steel.","To recreate the legendary metal known as damascus steel, a cutler, who is an artisan who specializes in knifemaking, stacks alternating layers of nickel and carbon steel.","He then uses a grinder to even the edges for the next step.","He welds the nine layers of carbon steel and eight layers of nickel steel together.","He begins the forging process by placing the layers in a coal-fired forge where they heat up to 1,472 degrees fahrenheit.","Step-by-step, the layers will be forged into a single piece of damascus steel.","An automated hammer pounds the layers, forcing them to bind to each other at the molecular level.","As the powerful hammering process forces the layers together into a unified piece of steel, it also flattens out and lengthens the metal.","The cutler can then break the piece in three places and layer them all together.","This triples the number of layers from 17 to 51.","The cutler will repeat this process again and again until the steel has around 300 layers.","Here, a cutler prepares a specialized model of laguiole pocketknife, which will have a distinctive shape.","He continues the forging process of heating and hammering.","The carbon steel will give the knife its sharp edge, while the nickel will provide flexibility.","This manufacturer uses the forged steel to create several different types of blades for its pocketknives.","A cutler places the formed blades in an oven where the intense heat will help flatten them.","Once a blade has cooled, a cutler cuts it to size, drills a hinge hole, and uses a belt sander to reduce its width to about a tenth of an inch.","Next, a worker will heat and rapidly cool the blades to temper them before sharpening them.","He then dips then into a solution of ferric chloride to reveal the unique wave patterns in the damascus steel.","There's more to a pocketknife than just the blade.","This manufacturer hand crafts each component of its knives.","To create the bolster component, a cutler starts by heating a third-of-an-inch stainless-steel rod.","Once the steel reaches 1,562 degrees fahrenheit, he then stamps it into a mold.","The production process can stamp out 20 bolsters in just 12 seconds.","Once they've cooled, a cutler spot-welds them to a blade.","To shape the spring plate, which forms part of the folding mechanism, a cutler heats one end up to 1,562 degrees fahrenheit.","He uses a specialized tool to stamp the top portion flat.","This flat surface will be the starting point for cutlers to create the bee figure, an emblematic feature of laguiole knives.","Workers start by reducing the surface to a triangular shape.","Using a series of different files, the cutler carefully sculpts the bee's eyes, body, and wings.","It seems that pierre-jean calmels, the inventor of the laguiole knife, used a bee symbol in 1829, and the cutlers have been using ever since to set the knife apart from other types.","Cutlers shape the entire spring plate, and it takes more than skilled work with a few files to complete.","Stay tuned to see how high-tech instruments refine the images before workers assemble the rest of the knife.","Even the simplest one-piece knife requires 109 production steps to complete.","In the 1820s, cutlers began crafting laguiole pocketknives in aubrac, france.","The tradition came to an end after world war i but was revived in the late 1980s.","Today, the artisans of aubrac blend time-honored craftsmanship with advanced technology.","To carve each unique spring plate, a cutler starts by placing one in a vice.","With the metal stabilized, the cutler can focus on carving with the aid of powerful magnifiers.","The tungsten carbide drill bits he uses are no larger than four-tenths of a millimeter.","No wonder the details on each spring are so precise.","To temper the steel, the cutler heats it to 1,886 degrees fahrenheit for several minutes.","Next, he cools it suddenly in a bath of oil.","He will then heat it to 446 degrees fahrenheit for 1 hour to complete the process.","This manufacturer makes the knife-handles from different materials, including antlers, wood and bone.","When making a handle from bone, a cutler starts by slicing it into sections with a specialized blade.","He then cuts the slices into smaller sections that approximate the sides of a knife-handle.","Cutlers can use the bone with its natural color or immerse it in a stain for several hours.","All of the components for this laguiole pocketknife are complete.","The cutler uses a belt sander to give the spring a light sanding.","Next, using the same tool, he begins working the bone handle components.","With the framework of the knife as a template, he carefully reduces both of the components to their required dimensions, achieving a perfect fit.","With the metal as a guide, he uses a drill press to pierce holes in the bone.","With the practiced hand of a skilled artisan, the cutler drills the famed shepherd's cross pattern by eye.","The shepherd's cross is another signature of laguiole knives.","The cutler connects the spring to the components known as scales, which form the internal structure of the knife.","To join the parts, he inserts stainless-steel pins and hammers them flat on either side to hold them firmly in place.","He inserts short lengths of thin steel wire into the holes drilled to form the shepard's cross.","He now begins adding the bone side covers, which will form the knife-handle.","He carefully screws the bone covers securely to the scales from the inside with three stainless-steel screws per side.","He then snips off the ends of the screws that protrude.","Now, he can install the damascus steel blade.","He does this by inserting a stainless-steel pin through the hinge hole.","Teflon washers will keep the opening and folding operation smooth and functional.","The cutler uses a specialized clamp to grip the knife as he installs the pin at the back of the spring.","This pin, together with the one that holds the blade, are the two essential elements of the laguiole knife mechanism.","With the belt sander, the cutler now refines the handle, smoothing the pins, and rounding the edges of the bone covers.","A final polish gives the bone a shiny finish that highlights the iconic shepherd's cross, an innovation introduced to allow shepherds to celebrate mass, even when far from a church.","A cutler puts an extra fine edge on the finished knife with the help of a belt sander that has a fine-grit sandpaper.","The cutler makes several passes on a piece of leather with a practiced hand to give the knife its final edge.","This knife is now ready to join the legendary company of other laguiole pocketknives and peel a ripe apple or slice some aged cheese.","Bon appétit."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Speed Skates","Synthetic Rubber","Cocoa Beans","Bulk Chocolate"]},"text":["The first ice skates were invented in northern europe about a thousand years ago when people began lacing animal bones to the soles of their boots to cross frozen water.","In 1592, a scotsman invented an iron skate blade, and before long, the sport of speed skating took off.","These elite-level racing skates are produced by a small company cofounded by a canadian speed skater, a three-time olympic medalist in short track.","Every single pair is custom-made.","After measuring a skater's feet, a technician applies layers of wet plaster bandages, the same way one makes a cast for a broken limb, only here, each foot cast is comprised of two parts.","Each cast serves as the first-stage mold for a skate boot.","The plaster bandages take 5 to 10 minutes to harden and dry, at which point the technician carefully removes the mold one part at a time, then reassembles it with elastic bands.","He surrounds the mold, called a negative, with sand.","He then pours liquid plaster into the negative to produce a positive mold.","The sand provides counterpressure so that the plaster can't push the walls outward and distort their shape.","The plaster fully cures in an hour or two, at which point the negative mold can come off.","Then the technician mixes up some thicker plaster pigmented to make it easily visible against the dried, white plaster.","He applies it in select areas, touching up imperfections and tweaking the shape of the mold.","He files the toes and the rest of the contours smooth, producing the final shape of the boot.","He labels the finished mold with the skater's name and puts it in the storeroom until it's time to begin constructing the skate boots.","Construction begins with boot lining.","They staple a piece of genuine leather to the mold, pulling taut because any wrinkles in the lining would irritate the skater's foot.","Next, they glue on the various structural pieces, such as this ankle padding.","It's made of memory foam so it gradually forms to the skater's ankle and holds the shape.","The next step is the most technically critical because it determines the angle of the skate blade.","They apply a epoxy-resin putty to the front and back of the sole and adhere two aluminum blade holders...","Then prop up the boot as the putty dries over the next four hours or so.","Once the putty's hard, they sand off the excess to lighten the skate and round out the remainder.","Then they begin constructing the outside of the boot.","First, they layer pieces of carbon fiber, a strong fabric commonly used in high-performance sports products.","They tie the bottom piece around the blade holders with strong thread and bind the layers with spray adhesive.","Next, they slip a plastic bag over the boot...","Tie off the ends...","And vacuum out the air.","This tightly compresses the layers of carbon fiber.","Now they inject resin, a type of liquid plastic, and distribute it evenly throughout the bag.","The resin impregnates the carbon fiber.","After a couple of hours, the resin dries and hardens, leaving the carbon-fiber boot stiff and durable.","Next, they glue on the outside of the boot, made of vinyl.","Once the glue dries, they remove the plaster mold and stitch the vinyl in place.","They also take a vinyl lace cover, sew one side of it to the boot, and attach the other side with a hook and loop fastener.","That way it hinges open and closed for lacing and unlacing the skate.","The final step is to attach the inline wheels, or steel blades, to the blade holders.","Synthetic rubber was invented in 1909, but the technology languished for a couple of decades.","A shortage of natural rubber during world war ii spurred its development.","A kind of elastic plastic, it was actually more resistant to temperature extremes than natural rubber.","Synthetic rubber reinvented the wheel.","We're talking about the rubber tire.","Tires for all kinds of vehicles are now made from it.","This manmade material is also used to make everything from garden hoses to golf balls.","Manufacturing synthetic rubber is now a computerized process, one that takes place under the watchful eye of a control-room operator.","He monitors numerous computer screens and live camera images.","The plant itself is 437 yards long.","There are a dozen or more enormous storage tanks for the raw materials, as well as several reactor units.","The raw materials include a petroleum-based liquid called butadiene and solvent called hexane.","They pipe these ingredients through columns to boil off any residual water, essentially purifying them.","This is a laboratory demonstration of what happens next.","They combine the purified butadiene and hexane and add a catalyst.","The catalyst triggers a reaction that changes the chemistry.","The mix becomes polybutadiene, a kind of synthetic rubber used to make tires.","Adding another catalyst stops the reaction at just the right moment.","The white, milky liquid that exits the tank is synthetic rubber.","They now pump in chemicals to tailor the rubber for a specific use, in this case tires.","The additives will increase traction and improve wear.","A mechanized whisk stirs the additives into the liquid rubber.","They pipe the synthetic concoction into insulated storage tanks.","Inside, pumps mix it constantly so the additives don't settle on the bottom.","Here's a close-up look at the liquid synthetic rubber in a laboratory beaker.","It looks like a big vanilla milkshake, and it's about to be coagulated into crumbs.","Here's where it all happens.","This coagulation unit is like a big kettle.","They pipe in the liquid rubber, a solvent mixture, and water.","As they boil off the solvent, the rubber coagulates into crumbs the size of beans.","The water remains because it has a higher boiling point.","The mix of water and rubber crumbs bounces about in what's known as the crumb tank until it's time for more processing.","They then pump the mix into a rotary sieve.","As it spins, it drains off the water.","They add more water to cool the rubber crumbs.","The rubber and water mix gushes onto a conveyor which is a vibrating sieve.","As the crumbs bounce along, the water drains off through the perforations in the conveyor.","The synthetic rubber is now a lot like wet snow.","Next, it's into the lab, where they aim a beam of infrared light through a sample to analyze the microstructure.","If it's acceptable, production continues.","A screw-like mechanism presses the wet rubber crumbs against a metal plate to squeeze out more moisture.","Another trip on the next vibrating conveyor drains off droplets.","Then it's into a quivering, spiral conveyor.","As the synthetic rubber travels upwards on the spiral, hot air is piped in from the side to dry it.","Now mostly devoid of moisture, but still sticky, the synthetic rubber crumbs head down a chute and into a baler machine.","This machine uses pressure to compress the crumbs into big bales.","The bales of synthetic rubber head down a conveyor towards a quality-control inspector.","This inspector examines them for imperfections.","Once he gives them the okay, they head to the packaging station.","As they travel through a curtain of plastic film, machinery heat-seals it around them.","These bales of synthetic rubber have taken about six hours to manufacture.","And this purely chemical creation isn't much different from the real thing.","Like natural rubber, it can be melted and shaped into many different things.","Soon, this batch will be turned into tires, and that's when the synthetic rubber will really hit the road.","Cocoa beans are the primary raw material for making chocolate.","They come from the fruit of the cocoa tree, native to central and south america.","The ancient mayans would grind them up to make a special beverage for marriage ceremonies and other rituals.","Today, cocoa is cultivated in the rainforest areas of many countries in the tropics.","These cocoa beans from costa rica were cultivated without the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, or fungicides.","Farming cocoa organically requires meticulous care and maintenance of the crop, along with grafting techniques to help establish disease-tolerant tree varieties.","The farmer cuts a budwood, a young branch about to bud, from a healthy, productive tree and grafts it onto a sucker growing from the base of a tree which is either diseased or old and unproductive.","She cuts a slot at the top of the sucker, then wraps a plastic strip around the budwood to hold in moisture until the graft takes.","Next, she cuts a pointed end on the budwood and inserts it into the slot she made in the sucker.","Then she binds the union and covers it with a plastic bag.","Bagging protects the graft against two potential extremes, dehydration and excessive rain, which causes rot or fungus.","If the graft takes, the union seals itself in a month or even sooner.","Strategic pruning strengthens the tree and keeps it growing low and in a shape that's easy to maintain and harvest.","Before long, flowers begin to bud and bloom.","Tiny beetles pollinate the flowers, after which tiny pods--  the tree's fruit-- begin to emerge.","The pods grow and grow...","And gradually change color.","When the color transformation is complete, they're ripe for harvest.","There are many varieties of cocoa trees, with pods of different colors.","It generally takes about five months from first blooms to pod maturity.","Come harvest time, they collect only the pods which are undoubtedly ready.","If a pod isn't fully ripened, the cocoa beans inside will be acidic and bitter.","They carefully cut the pod stem off the branch without damaging the tree in the process.","The pod's rind is a little over an inch thick.","It's rough and bumpy.","They hack it open with a machete to remove the fruit inside.","The fruit is made of a sweet, edible pulp encasing 30 to 50 large, white seeds.","These are the cocoa beans.","The beans and pulp go to the fermentation area, where workers lay them in boxes, or heaps, and cover them for four to six days.","As heat under the cover builds up, fermentation kicks in.","The natural sugars interact with oxygen, the pulp slowly breaks down, liquefies, and drains away.","The color and chemical composition of the beans change, and they become less acidic and develop a chocolaty taste.","The next step is to dry the beans.","Workers spread them out on big trays and lay them out in the sun for about a week.","Here's what a cocoa bean is like wet...","Versus dried.","The dried beans now go through a selection process.","Workers examine them, removing pod remnants and any beans with mold or other imperfections.","Beans which fail inspection are sold locally at a lower price or go to the compost heap.","Beans that pass are weighed, bagged for export, and sold to chocolate makers.","Depending on the size of the beans, which varies according to the cocoa-tree variety, it takes about 300 to 600 cocoa beans to produce one kilogram of chocolate.","Chocolate owes its existence to the cocoa bean.","The ancient civilizations of mexico and central and south america cultivated this seed to make a drink.","The spanish conquest brought this chocolate drink to europe, but it wasn't until 1847 that a british company invented solid chocolate.","This factory makes chocolate in various forms and sells it to companies which manufacture chocolate products for retail sale.","It also supplies chocolate components, such as cocoa powder and cocoa butter.","Most of the cocoa beans arriving here come from west africa, which grows 70% of the world's crop.","A conveyor belt moves them through a cleaning system, a series of sieves that screen out twigs, stones, and other debris.","Next stop is a micronizer, a revolving drum that heats the cocoa beans to loosen their shells.","Then they enter a shell-removing machine called a winnower.","Inside, successive rakes drag the beans across screens, pulling off large pieces of shell.","Then a vacuum sucks away the remaining smaller pieces.","Removing the shell exposes the inside of the cocoa bean, which is called the nib.","The factory will roast the nibs to develop their flavor.","50%-plus of the nib is fat, which is cocoa butter.","To make chocolate, they'll combine processed nibs, cocoa butter, and sugar, along with milk powder if they're making milk chocolate.","First, the factory processes the nibs by grinding them.","The heat and friction activate the cocoa butter, producing pure liquid chocolate called chocolate liquor.","The factory extracts some of the cocoa butter to sell it separately as chocolate-making ingredient and to use for in-house chocolate production along with other ingredients in various proportions.","The dark-chocolate recipe, for example, calls for more chocolate liquor, sugar, and cocoa butter, but no milk powder.","The recipe for unsweetened chocolate contains no sugar.","The mixer blends the ingredients to the consistency of a very thick cake batter.","The flavor is fine by this point, but the coarse texture needs to be smoothed out, so the chocolate moves to a refining machine, passing between a set of five rollers that reduce the particle size, so much so that within just minutes, the chocolate leaves the refiner as a fine, dry powder.","But now it needs to be reliquefied, so the next stop is a machine called a conch.","The friction and heat once again activate the cocoa butter, returning the powder to a liquid state.","At this point, they add more cocoa butter, enough to reduce the viscosity to the exact thickness they need--  just a bit, for example, if they're making chocolate chips or much more if they're making a thin chocolate coating.","For chocolate chips, the conch feeds a machine called a drop depositor.","As the name implies, it deposits drops of chocolate onto a conveyor belt.","The nozzle trays are interchangeable, so the machine can be set up to produce various sizes of chips, disks, or other shapes.","The chocolate chips, still warm and soft, enter a cooling tunnel...","Traveling for about five minutes through several temperature zones, which vary between 30 and 50 degrees fahrenheit.","By the time the chips exit the tunnel, they're hard.","A conveyor belt then takes them through a metal detector, a standard food-safety precaution.","The factory also produces 10-pound, bulk-format chocolate bars.","A depositor fills bar-shaped plastic molds.","The conveyor transfers them to an elevator system, which moves through a cold room for about two hours.","This constant motion ensures optimal air circulation, helping the cooling process.","Chocolate shrinks slightly as it cools, so the bars pop out of the molds easily.","To make the chocolate look as good as it tastes, the factory cools, then reheats the liquid chocolate before depositing it.","This process, called tempering, promotes the growth of the most stable cocoa-butter crystals, making the surface of the chocolate smooth and shiny."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Nuno Felt","Drum Crushers","Kimchi","Traditional Parquet Floors"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Nuno felt is an artisan-crafted non-woven fabric.","Nuno is the japanese word for cloth.","The technique bonds layers of wool and other types of loose fibers into a lightweight gauzy felt with contrasting textures.","Each piece is a unique creation.","Nuno felt is often made into striking featherlight pieces of clothing.","Unlike fabrics which are made by weaving thread or yarn, nuno felt is made by interlocking and compressing fibers.","The greater the contrast in the texture and luster of those different types of fibers, the more interesting the design.","For this project, this artisan constructs the base of the felt out of merino wool roving, which is wool that's been cleaned, processed and dyed.","She tears off short lengths of fibers and lays them down side-by-side, forming a layer.","She lays another layer on top perpendicular to it.","She builds up three to five layers this way, a technique called cross-hatching.","This process interlaces the fibers, strengthening the base of the felt.","Next, she takes pattern silk chiffon fabric that color coordinates with all the fibers she's using, cuts out squares and rectangles and lays them onto the wool base.","It's critical to create the right balance of wool and non-wool fibers so that the wool will be able to grab and hold the layers together to form the nuno felt.","She adds some mica.","Mica is a shiny natural mineral which, in thin flakes like this, is practically weightless.","Sprinkling a bit of mica onto the surface produces a sequin-like effect.","The artisan adds some wisps of angelina, a shiny, hair-like polyester fiber which wool roving easily grabs and holds.","Then she includes some variegated wool yarn, which is the term for yarn with a variation of color.","It adheres to wool roving, silk and angelina.","And for subtle texture, she lays in wool bouclé.","Bouclé is yarn with continuous tiny loops.","Once the layout is finished, the artisan sprays the materials with soapy water.","Absorbing water makes the fibers more flexible.","It also changes the ph level of the wool, making it more alkaline, which triggers the wool fibers to grab the adjacent fibers.","Next, she wraps her design in bubble wrap and begins the process of felting the fibers with a combination of pressure, agitation and heat.","First, she presses out trapped air with a palm washboard.","The bubble wrap acts as a cushion, preventing the design from distorting.","The artisan takes a foam cylinder and gently rolls up the piece, working out any wrinkles as she goes.","She ties the roll with nylon laces, then rocks it back and forth from her elbows to her wrists.","She does this a total of 1,000 times.","At each stop, she unwinds the roll to smooth out the wrinkles.","Once this process is finished, the artisan unwinds the roll to add what's called open work or lacework.","She cuts small slits in the piece and gently pulls them to form oval openings.","The wool is wet, so it stretches easily.","Next, she amps up the agitation by rolling on a series of textured surfaces.","Each change of texture hits the piece at different points, pushing out the air between the fibers.","While the wet fibers continue to interlock and compress with rolling, the wool and silk elements of the design shrink at different rates, producing contrast in the surface texture.","By the end, the piece, which started out being almost a 1/3 inch think, is now just 1/10 inch thick.","After reshaping some openings, she applies the palm washboard one last time.","Then, through the bubble wrap, the artisan agitates the fibers with an orbital sander.","This friction generates heat, which further bonds the fibers.","After a final touch-up of the openings, she gathers up the felt and gently rinses it in water with a bit of vinegar.","This removes the soap which would damage the wool over time.","The wash also returns the ph to normal, which closes the fibers and stabilizes the felt.","After removing as much moisture as possible by rolling up the felt in a towel, she lays it on a counter to air-dry.","Now, this handcrafted nuno felt shawl is poised to make a one-of-a-kind fashion statement.","Drum crushers are machines that flatten bulky steel drums, the world's most popular shipping container.","At a certain point, they can no longer be reused and need to be recycled.","Drum crushers compress them into disks so that they can be economically transported to recycling facilities.","This drum crusher wields 26 times more force than the average household trash compactor and can flatten steel drums in seconds.","To make the drum crusher, a computerized plasma cutter carves out many of the parts from thick steel.","The machine both cuts out the profile and makes holes for components.","This particular part is a locator plate for the drums.","At another station, a worker traces around a template, transferring the outline to partially machined parts below.","These parts are the crusher's top and bottom panels.","He grinds off flaky areas of the surface to prep the steel for welding.","This process is time-consuming, so he works only within the outline.","Next, workers saw steel tubes to specific lengths.","The tubes will serve as forklift pockets for loading the crusher onto a truck or simply moving it around in a recycling plant.","Another worker now sets up a fixturing system to hold the crusher housing panels in position for welding.","He clamps the parts to the fixturing table.","This first part is the bottom of the crusher chamber.","He assembles the side supports and the top of the unit within the fixturing device.","He clamps the supports at the corners.","And with the structure now held together with clamps, he tack welds it and follows up with permanent welds.","Next up is the back of the crusher chamber.","It's been rounded to accommodate the cylindrical steel containers.","Again, the worker tack welds it to the crusher structure.","He then does full thick welds both from the inside and the outside.","And after that, he'll add the locator plate to the base.","He then welds structural supports to the crusher door.","Turning the door to the other side, he installs horizontal reinforcements.","This braces the door to withstand the substantial crushing force.","After hinging the door to the chamber, the worker inserts the large latch into a support bracket and tack welds it.","A powder coat paint job completes the housing.","Workers now assemble the crusher's hydraulic power unit.","After bolting a pump motor to the lid, the team flips it over.","They insert a hydraulic pump into its housing on the lid's underside.","They plumb the pump and attach a suction strainer to filter contaminants from the hydraulic oil.","They flip the lid back to the top side.","One of the workers screws a pressure relief valve to a fitting that connects to the pump on the other side of the lid.","This valve will regulate the flow of hydraulic oil to ensure there's adequate pressure for the crusher's operation.","If there's too much pressure, the valve will shut the crusher down.","To attach the hydraulic power unit, a crane does the heavy lifting as a worker guides it into place at the back of the crusher chamber.","Moving to the top, a member of the team installs the crusher cylinder.","He bolts the retaining plate to the chamber.","The substantial and hefty crusher head is next.","Using a forklift, workers maneuver it into position on the shaft and then secure it with a thick steel pin.","The head isn't complete without this pierce point.","Fixed to the end of the crusher head, it will puncture the drum to drain residual fluids and release air for better compaction.","Now complete, it's time to put this crusher to the test.","And it easily flattens the steel drum.","This flattened drum will be recycled into new steel that can be used to make many things, including more drum crushers.","Kimchi is korean comfort food.","This zesty blend of fermented vegetables has been part of the korean diet for at least 2,000 years.","It's so valued by koreans that some even have special refrigerators for it in their homes.","Like fine wine, kimchi must be kept at a specific temperature to be at its best.","Full of stomach-friendly probiotics, kimchi is believed to be good for one's health, which is why demand is on the rise beyond korean borders.","Making kimchi starts with a preparation of organically grown vegetables.","There are many different recipes for kimchi.","This one is vegan and less spicy than some other versions.","The kitchen staff trims unwanted bits from carrots and scallions.","They then peel wilted leaves off of napa cabbage, which is the main ingredient in kimchi.","Its taste is sweeter and softer than regular cabbage.","Over at the scrub station, a worker cleans the trimmed vegetables under cold running water.","If he misses even a speck of dirt, it could interfere with chemical reactions during the fermentation process.","This could sour the flavor of the kimchi and spoil the batch.","Each vegetable must be pristine.","The next member of the team shreds the carrots using an industrial food processor.","Shredded bits of carrot will ferment quicker than big chunks.","Scallions can't easily be shredded, so he dices them by hand.","The kitchen staff carves the cabbage into fairly large strips.","Because cabbage is thin, bigger strips will ferment at the same pace as the shredded carrots and diced scallions.","The next ingredient is ginger, a spice that will add flavor and soothe the digestive system.","Another worker transfers the shredded ginger to a porous cotton bag.","She folds the bag a few times to create a packet and then places the packet under a press.","The press squeezes juice from the ginger and extracts the ginger essence while leaving the stringy pulp behind.","The worker weighs the ingredients, beginning with the shredded carrot.","This is the largest ingredient after napa cabbage.","She then measures the portion of scallions that the recipe calls for.","She adds a scoop of celtic sea salt and checks the scale.","Other ingredients include crushed garlic, chili flakes, and the ginger juice.","She stirs the seasonings into the vegetables, and the ginger juice begins to saturate the scallion and carrot pieces.","All the ingredients now come together in this mixer with a big dough hook.","The worker adds the carrot and scallion blend to the napa cabbage in the base of the mixing bowl.","She activates the mixer, and the dough hook folds all the elements together.","Fermentation begins, triggered by the evenly distributed salt.","Workers then transfer the mixture to special fermentation crocks and pack it down.","Two half-circle ceramic weights add pressure to the salted ingredients.","Juices flow and immerse the kimchi vegetables, creating an oxygen-free environment.","The salt suppresses the growth of bad bacteria, allowing the good bacteria to flourish.","Another worker pours water into a moat around the lid, creating a ring of water that acts as a kind of seal, one that will keep air out of the crock but will allow fermentation gases to escape.","One week later, the kimchi is sufficiently fermented.","It is now a living food full of good bacteria.","A worker packs the kimchi into jars and weighs each container to confirm that the amount is correct.","The jars must be completely full with no air space between the kimchi and the lids that could compromise its shelf life.","She labels the jars and shrinkwraps a plastic collar around the lids.","Once refrigerated, kimchi can last for up to 14 months.","Well-preserved, it's practically always ready to be served.","Parquet floors are a mosaic of geometric-shaped pieces of wood that form a repetitive block pattern.","They date back to the palaces and grand homes of 17th century france, where they were welcomed as an easier to maintain yet still decorative alternative to the marble floors of the day.","Traditional parquet floor patterns range from a simple paving-stone style to parquet de versailles, the complex pattern of large diagonal squares that debuted at france's versailles palace in 1864.","To produce it, manufacturers begin with long planks of oak just over an inch thick.","This particular company produces only custom orders and sizes the motif in proportion to the room.","A worker first measures and marks the dimensions of the pattern pieces that will be cut from each plank.","Then, with a circular saw, another worker cuts the required length and width.","This yields several pieces which, together, will form the pattern's crisscrossing rectangles.","A worker now runs each piece through a machine called a molder.","Just one pass does four things.","It thins the piece to just under an inch, squares all the sides, smooths all the surfaces, and it makes a groove on each side.","This next machine removes an equal amount of wood from the top and bottom of one end of the piece to form a centered 1/4-inch thick projection called a tenon.","When assembling the pattern, the workers will ultimately insert tenons into slots in adjoining pieces.","These slots are called mortises.","This machine cuts the mortises.","The floor is an assembly of square panels, each one containing a set number of crisscrossing rectangles and diagonal squares within the frame.","The frame pieces also have tenons and mortises.","The squares, however, are different.","Workers use a router to form a tongue on all four sides.","The tongue fits into the groove on the rectangular pieces.","Once the tongues are in the grooves and the mortises are in the tenons, not a single nail or drop of glue will secure those joints.","They'll be held together the traditional way, with oak pegs.","Each panel assembles like a puzzle.","The 43 components fit together with a few taps of the hammer.","A pencil mark indicates the nicer side of each piece of wood so that it can be placed face up.","The tongues of the squares slide into the grooves of the crisscrossing rectangles, which join by mortise and tenon.","The frame pieces attach to each other and to the perimeter of the interior assembly, also by mortise and tenon.","A worker now transfers the assembled panel to a press which clamps it tightly together.","Next, he drills two holes through each tenon...","And then hammers a wooden peg through each hole to lock the tenon in the mortise.","No one wants their antique-style parquet floor to look brand-new.","So the next step is to lightly sandblast the panel's surface to make the wood look worn with time.","Another worker goes over the panel with an electric sander to soften the surface for the next step, which is to randomly scatter some sand and work it in with the wood block attachment on the sander.","This process creates and antique appearance and worn-in look.","After brushing off the sand, the worker scratches up the surface with a rotating wire brush.","The panel now looks like it could be from a centuries-old french chateau.","The last step is to finish the wood.","First, a coat of stain for color.","Then a coat of oil to protect the wood from moisture.","And finally, a coat of hot wax which gives the surface a rich luster.","These steps also highlight the contrasting grains of the wood due to certain pieces having been cut from the tree horizontally and others vertically.","This intricacy enhances the timeless beautiful of classic parquet flooring."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wooden Matches","Tillage Machines","Telescopic Gangways","Mabe Pearls"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Controlled use of fire by humans dates back several hundred thousand years, but the invention of matches is fairly recent.","The first known use of matches dates back to the 5th century in northern china.","And commercial safety matches were only invented in the early 19th century.","You just need to rub a match head against the striking strip on the matchbox to start a fire.","Matches come in a variety of matchbox formats.","A linerboard paper roll feeds into a machine, passing under a hot iron to reduce the moisture level to 5% or 6%.","An automatic paper roll match inner box machine like this one can produce up to 55,000 liners per hour through high-speed die cutting, folding, gluing, and forming.","The speed of the process depends on the inner box's size and on the paper's density.","The machine shoots out formed inner boxes on a conveyor at a dazzling rate of nearly 1,000 liners per minute.","The conveyor then drops the formed liners into storage bins.","An automatic sorting machine files the boxes in single rows and arranges them upright on the conveyors, feeding the filling machine.","In the meantime, a worker feeds precut inserts to the outer box machine.","High-speed die creasing and cutting tools automatically fold the inserts.","As the folded liners run through the rollers, the machine forms and glues the box skillets.","Each insert has two striking strips.","In an industrial mixer, a worker pours gelatin capsules over potassium chlorate.","Gelatin serves as a binder for the match head compound.","The worker adds hot water before he starts the mixer to dissolve the gelatin, which combines itself with the potassium powder.","The worker then adds silica granules, which act as a combustion-controlling agent.","He rinses the sides of the mixer with water as the compound mixture reduces.","After about 40 minutes, when the mixture is liquid, the worker adds red coloring as well as other compounds that make the match head burn more vigorously.","On the splint production line, a worker inspects a batch of splintered aspen wood impregnated with ammonium phosphate to prevent afterglow.","The splints run over perforated plates to shake off any residue or waste.","Then, they go through a machine which automatically discards broken or undersized splints.","The splints now reach the match-dipping line, where the perforated steel match bar runs down an endless chain.","The automatic feeder inserts over 2 million splints per hour into the sockets of the match bar.","The splints first get a paraffin coating.","While a mixer keeps the match head compound liquid, the loaded match bar lowers the splints to dip their heads in.","After 5 seconds, the match bar moves back up.","And the head compound mixture flows down into the mixing pan to be renewed before another section of the match bar moves in.","After dipping, the splints keep rolling down the match bar chain for drying.","The chain loops up and down for about 1 hour, leaving the match head compound time to dry slowly and thoroughly.","Once the heads are dry, the finished matches are ready for packaging.","But first, the filling machine routes the outer and inner matchbox liners onto parallel conveyors.","On a high-speed line, the machine can process at least 500 boxes per minute.","The finished matches finally come off the match bar.","And the filling machine places them into the inside liner.","At this point, the machine processes about 200 matches per second.","The filling machine pushes the inner liner to the outer skillet.","The machine is calibrated to fill each box with a set amount of matches and reject the extra ones.","Filled boxes come out on a packaging conveyor.","You can find them in small cartons, medium-sized packages, or heavy duty crates.","But it takes just a single match to light your fire.","A tillage machine is a large tractor-pulled implement which tills the soil.","Tillage can refer to deeply plowing the soil after a harvest to break up clumps and remove plant remains.","Or it can refer to a shallow turning of soil to prepare the field for planting.","This tillage machine is an agricultural multitasker.","Its rotary disk blades turn the soil and chop up crop remnants.","The harrow behind the blades rakes the soil.","Then, the rolling baskets at the rear smooth and level it.","The machine can be fitted with various blades designed for different soil conditions and crops.","The first machine flattens the curve out of a just-unwound sheet of steel.","Then, a press stamps the sheet with a die, cutting out circular blades each 4 1/2 feet in diameter.","The steel is a proprietary formula engineered to withstand high abrasion and to be flexible enough not to chip when the blades hit rocks in the soil.","After machining a sharp edge, they heat the blades and form them in a die, simultaneously quenching with water.","This tempers the steel so that it holds the shape.","After cleaning, the blades go through a vat of water-based paint, then a furnace to cure the paint.","The paint coat is simply to make the blades look snazzy in the showroom.","Once they actually hit the soil, it wears off, which is intended, as bare steel moves through the ground more effectively.","Agricultural equipment plants like this one purchase the blades to install on the tillage machines they manufacture.","This computer-guided plasma torch cuts the flat components of the machine's frame out of a thick steel sheet.","Other parts are cut from steel tubes.","Here, workers use a brake press to punch holes for assembly bolts.","Once all the frame parts are ready, workers weld them together into frame sections.","This is the main section.","Here, they're welding a cut-tube part to a pair of plasma-cut parts.","Once each frame section is welded, it goes to the paint room, where workers first sandblast the steel to clean off lubricating oil and other residues.","They spray on primer and paint and put the frame section in an oven to simultaneously bake on both coats.","Given that tillage machine's work outdoors, the paint is designed to protect the steel from sunlight and corrosion.","Next, they install hydraulic cylinders on the main frame, attaching them with large bolts secured by washer-and-cotter-pin locking mechanisms.","The cylinders, made of a steel that has anticorrosion chemicals baked into it, lift and fold the tillage machine before and after use.","Workers pump hydraulic fluid through the cylinders to test them.","They bolt the other frame section, called the subframe, to the front of the main frame.","Then, to the front of the subframe, they install a hitch.","This is what connects the tillage machine to the tractor.","Not only does the hitch have to be exceptionally strong to withstand the pull of the tractor, it must also be flexible because the tillage machine runs over bumpy terrain.","For the same reason, the main frame has two pivoting axles.","Workers install two wheels with tires on each one.","These tires are 3 feet in diameter.","Tires can be larger or smaller depending on the overall size of the machine and where they're positioned on it.","Workers now mount the bracket to which they'll attach the harrow.","Then, they install the harrow and the rolling baskets behind it.","These and many other components are mounted with sturdy steel u-bolts, plated with zinc for corrosion resistance.","One last time, workers hook up the tillage machine to a hydraulic fluid pump for testing.","There are two hydraulic circuits, each activated by a lever.","One folds or unfolds the machine.","The other raises or lowers it.","This tillage machine is an agricultural triple threat-- blades to churn up the ground, harrow tines to rake it and heavy steel rolling baskets to level the farming field.","Gangways bridge the gap between ship and shore to allow passengers or cargo to be loaded or unloaded.","They're also known as gangplanks, hearkening back to the days when these bridges were simple wood planks.","Today, telescopic gangways extend and retract automatically.","Telescopic gangways can extend their reach or shorten it and change the angle, too.","They'll also fold up for compact storage on the ship.","These are gangways that can adjust to different circumstances.","Each model starts with a computer design, one that takes an engineer up to 800 hours to devise.","Once all the details have been worked out, production begins.","Using a crane with air clamps, they transfer an aluminum plate to a laser cutting station.","The gangway design has been loaded into a computer that guides the tooling to cut out parts according to the plan.","In this case, it cuts out a panel that will be made into a framework for one of the gangway planks.","Workers then serve up the panel to a computerized brake press.","The press bears down on the part to make 90-degree-angle bends.","This transforms the flat panel into the plank framework.","Next, tools carve thicker aluminum into hinges for raising and lowering the gangway.","A drill bores a hole in each hinge for the pin.","With another bit, the machine sculpts a countersink profile around the hole.","They're now ready to assemble the hinges and other components to the plank framework.","A worker positions a reinforcing bracket on the framework.","He clamps the bracket to a hollow metal cube to keep it correctly aligned to the framework.","He welds the bracket to the framework from the inside and then assembles another bracket to the other side.","He slides a metal subfloor into the top grooves of the gangway plank structure.","This subfloor will support teakwood decking.","He inserts flat bars between the framework and the subfloor to create a space for the installation of the teak.","He welds the rails to the plank structure and then adds supports for wheels.","The thick welds look a bit unsightly.","So a worker grinds the seams smooth.","He also abrades the entire metal structure to give it a brushed texture that paint will adhere to.","Painting is an intensive process.","They prime each gangway plank body three times with sandings in between.","They also give the planks three coats of paint.","This particular gangway is being custom-made for a luxury yacht.","After assembling the teak decking to the planks, a detail person sands the surface.","This ensures that the synthetic rubber caulking between the planks is flush to the wood.","He caulks the space between the decking and the metal plank structure using more synthetic rubber.","With a putty knife, he scrapes off the excess and forms a neat, concave profile.","After a 24-hour cure, he removes the tape that's protected the metal frame and wood decking during the caulking process.","They're now ready to assemble the planks into a gangway.","They move the upside-down planks into position and then drive thick pins into the hinges to attach one plank to the next.","He then installs the hydraulic cylinder that powers the folding mechanism.","He links it to the hinges with a long, thick pin.","He equips one section of the gangway with telescoping hydraulics that allow the gangway to extend and retract.","He runs the hoses for the hydraulic fluids through the gangway into the cylinder.","And he installs locking valves to ensure the cylinder stays in position when a load is applied.","The gangway is now completely assembled.","They secure one end in a thick concrete fixture to simulate the weight of the yacht it's been made for.","This allows them to fully test the telescoping action and the load-bearing capacity.","Seven months in the making, this gangway is now ready to go to any length to link ship to shore.","A pearl forms when a foreign object enters the shell of a living mollusk.","To protect its soft body from irritation, the animal coats the intruder with layers of iridescent nacre.","Most pearls today are cultured pearls.","They can be round, oval or, like mabe pearls, semispherical.","Pearl cultivation started in 13th century china when people realized they could put foreign objects inside mollusks to encourage nacre growth.","It's the mollusk's species and its home waters that determine the pearl's shape and color.","Fake pearls have an unnaturally smooth surface.","Natural pearls are slightly gritty and very delicate.","Even gentle rubbing can remove the precious nacre layer.","Mabe pearls are flat-bottomed, semispherical cultured pearls.","They grow attached to the inner shell of a pearl oyster when a foreign object is implanted in a shell.","In the nursery, oysters start their lives as tiny larvae.","When the larvae are big enough, they can be released outside in the pearl culturing farm.","The farm is actually a big raft structure that floats on the sea.","Oyster larvae naturally attach themselves to natural or man-made structures, at which point they start growing their shell.","This net acts as a trap for the developing oysters.","Juveniles are moved to underwater cages, where they will grow for several months.","The oyster on the right is about 6 months old.","In another 6 months, it will be large enough to start growing a pearl, suspended on ropes underwater.","To grow a pearl, each oyster must first receive a plastic nucleus.","Workers use wedges and speculums to keep the shells open as they work.","They gently move the animal to the side, looking for a suitable position for the nucleus implantation.","The nucleus size depends on the size of the oyster.","Following implantation, the oyster will start secreting nacre over the surface of the nucleus.","Workers drill a hole in the oyster's hinge.","This does not hurt the animal.","They fasten each shell to a rope using stainless steel wire.","Each rope holds between three and five oysters.","They fasten those ropes to the raft structure.","Oysters will spend at least another year underwater, feeding on plankton and growing the pearl.","Every 2 or 3 months, they remove the oysters from the water to clean them.","Tropical waters are rich in food and teeming with life.","So each oyster becomes a microhabitat for smaller plants and animals.","These organisms could prevent the oyster shell from opening and closing freely, hampering its feeding.","Using a cleaver knife, they eliminate the thick crust of sea moss, barnacles, and other marine organisms.","Once the oysters have grown to a suitable size, it's time to harvest the pearls.","Using a thin paring knife, she opens the oysters and removes the animals from their shells.","Mabe pearls are most often used in certain rings or earrings, where their dome shape is desirable.","Using a diamond saw, they cut the shell around the pearl.","After cutting, the nucleus will be removed and replaced with a mixture of resin to improve strength and luster.","They use a grinding machine to shape the pearl.","Then, they polish it to enhance its natural beauty.","Jewelers working with pearls arrange them according to size and quality.","This artisan is creating a tiara for an international beauty pageant.","She uses a magnifying glass to control the quality of the various gemstones and pearls.","For other jewelry pieces, they use spherical pearls, such as this south sea pearl.","They insert a miniature screw in the hole.","That screw is endowed with a proprietary double-lock system which secures the pearl in its setting.","The pearl farmers have been growing pearls for three generations.","Today, they farm three species of oysters and produce a total of about 25,000 pearls every year.","Even though cultured pearls require human intervention, they are all real pearls.","Their color, luster and shape may vary slightly.","But each pearl is unique and naturally beautiful."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fishing Reels","Miniature Houses","Kitchen Mixers"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Fishing reels...","Miniature houses...","And kitchen mixers.","The chinese in the 12th century were first to wind excess fishing line on their rods before unreeling it back into the water.","Today's reels have gears to quickly deploy and retrieve the line.","They're made with lightweight, high-strength materials so you can catch bigger, stronger fish-- or at least try to.","Antique reels are heavy and have just one speed.","Modern reels have two speeds and fewer parts.","To make a reel's frame, a computer-guided router cuts four openings in a cylinder made of aluminum.","They let the angler--  the person fishing-- access the spool inside the frame to undo any knots in the line.","Another cutting machine shapes a stainless-steel blank into a spindle, the inner part of the reel around which the fishing line winds.","It also carves two pinion gears into the piece.","The high gear retrieves line faster.","The low gear gives more power to fight big fish.","The machine's cutters are made of carbide, an extremely durable material.","Even so, workers change them weekly.","Another cutter carves the reel's main gears-- a high-speed and a low-speed.","These main gears interact with the pinion gears to make the spool revolve.","This lets the angler wind line back onto the reel.","This cutter drills small indentations, part of the reel's drag system, which lets the angler adjust line tension to fight large fish.","The next cutter engraves the company name into one of the reel's two side plates.","Yet another cutter engraves the drag settings-- \"1\" through \"4\" and then \"strike\".","Strike lets the angler fight fish weighing up to 2,000 pounds.","Next, a process called anodizing.","The side plates are dipped in a series of chemical baths that bind a gold-colored dye to their surface.","Now time to assemble the fishing reel.","First, they apply waterproof grease and lubricant to two safety catches that prevent an angler from applying too little or too much line tension.","A worker then adds a bearing to support the spindle in the spool.","He also installs what's called a click plate that makes clicking sounds when a fish takes the line.","He adds a stainless-steel spindle sleeve and drag plate...","And a sturdy synthetic washer.","He then adds the spindle and pinion gears to the spool.","The spool is now ready to go into the frame.","Using a rotating clamp to steady the reel, another worker installs a stainless-steel fixture that attaches the reel to the rod...","And installs the left-side plate with six screws.","This metal spring and plunger enable the angler to change speeds from high to low with just the push of a button.","A metal clip locks the mechanism in place.","A little grease to the gearing, then a plastic cover, and the spool is fully assembled.","He inserts it in the frame and installs a harness lug, used to attach the reel to what's called a fighting harness, worn to prevent a fish from yanking the rod out of your hands.","Now the worker mounts the right-side plate.","He adds a lever and a knob to adjust the drag settings.","You turn the knob clockwise for more tension, counterclockwise for less.","Next, he installs the stainless-steel-and-plastic knob you use to reel in the line.","And finally, the button for switching speeds.","He tests the drag lever and gears to check if they engage properly.","He puts it into high speed to see if the safety catch prevents what's called free spooling, a glitch that could send a 1/2 mile of line flying wildly out of control and leave you \"reeling\".","For hundreds of years, dollhouses have been hot property.","At first, they were built to entertain the children of the wealthy, but eventually, mass production made these mini mansions widely available.","And today, they continue to be great places for childhood fantasies to reside.","Any home-building project is all about the details, but the details don't get much smaller than this.","These dollhouses are miniature versions of actual homes, made to scale.","They take a big sheet of plywood and slice it into smaller pieces.","For a consistently accurate job, they use a saw guide, which positions the wood for a specific cut.","There's a different guide for each dollhouse part.","Using a hot iron, they brand the company name onto a foundation part.","This dollhouse will be sold as a kit, and here, they demonstrate how to put it together.","Back on the production line, they're milling the siding.","This machine cuts furrows in wood panels to mimic a clapboard finish.","Next, using a router, they cut window and door holes.","And now the walls go up.","Because this is a kit, each piece has to be a perfect fit, because, unlike a real construction project, they can't do recuts on-site.","They install the second floor and tape it with ordinary masking tape while the glue dries.","And now for the second story.","It can take up to 100 hours to paint and assemble all the parts in a dollhouse kit, depending on how elaborate the design is.","Next, they raise the roof.","This victorian design has a two-part roof with a tower in the middle.","They add weight to apply pressure while the glue dries.","This machine's protective cover has been temporarily removed to show its inner workings.","They carefully feed in a piece of pine.","It cuts the board into little shingles, which fall into a bin below.","Once the shingles are stained, they hot-glue them to the roof, following a grid that was penciled on in advance.","They wrap the roof with tape to stabilize it while the glue dries.","Back in the factory, four cutting wheels shape a piece of pine into moldings that will be used for trim on various models.","The door now goes on.","It's been trimmed with some of the molding we just saw being made.","The windows also have some molding details.","All this trim has been made on the same machine, using different cutters for the different profiles.","This railing is a nice touch and will also provide support for the structure.","All that's left is the interior decorating.","Some people spend a small fortune on this stuff-- tiny toilets...","Chairs...","Even full kitchens in miniature.","And in this model of president lincoln's home, the details are historically accurate.","Now they carefully pack up all the pieces.","Soon, they'll make some child's dream of home ownership come true, but first, somebody had better read the instructions.","Whipping up a dessert used to take a fair bit of muscle power, until they invented a mixer with a motor in the early part of the 20th century.","The first ones were very industrial-looking and not much like today's sleek models.","But with this invention, the job of pastry-making has become a piece of cake.","Today's mixers can whisk you into a world of the culinary arts.","To make one, a machine straightens wire between a row of wheels.","Computer-programmed forming tools make a total of a dozen bends to produce arc shapes, which will be used to build a whip attachment for the mixer.","To assemble a whip, a technician fits the wire arcs into an aluminum hub, starting with the largest one and graduating down to the smallest.","Underneath, a punch mechanism dimples the hub to fasten each wire to it.","Here, they drop some dough hooks and beaters into a vibrating bowl full of metal nuggets.","The friction polishes these zinc mixer attachments and gets rid of the sharp edges.","Next, they thread a band of aluminum into a machine that bends it to the contour of the mixer.","It's a piece of trim that carries the brand name.","A bowl feeder now funnels hollow iron weights toward a system that threads wire through each of them.","Mechanical arms pinch and bend the wire, making little hooks on the ends.","Two of these weights will be used in each speed governor, a device that keeps the mixer's speed constant, despite changes in the load.","To assemble the speed governor, they arrange a brass hub, spring, and a washer in a holding device...","And then press-fit them together.","They attach the two weights to the spring assembly, using the protruding wires.","The speed-governor system is now complete.","Here's how the governor weights fly out to regulate the mixer's speed.","And now it's time to prepare the motor shaft.","They lower this spinning steel cylinder to a revolving cutter.","Lubricant keeps the cutter cool as it carves spirals into the end of the shaft.","The spiraling grooves will allow the shaft to drive the mixer's internal gears.","They install the shaft, with motor windings and bearings attached, into the mixer body.","Next, they rivet electrical contacts to plastic control boards.","These contacts will convey electricity to drive the motor.","They deliver an electrical charge to the contacts to make sure they're working.","Then they attach screws, nuts, and springs to complete the control-board assembly.","The control board will work in concert with the governor weights to control the mixer's speed.","For these mixers to really shine, they'll need a good paint job.","To prepare the mixer parts for painting, they polish them on an abrasive belt.","Then it's into the paint booth.","This is a highly charged process.","The paint has a positive electrical charge and is attracted to the zinc mixer parts, which are negatively charged.","Now all the parts are in the mix.","Coming up next...","We'll show you how they all come together.","Behind many a successful cook is a well-oiled machine that's made for speed, and that's the electric mixer.","It produces the best results when the blades turn rapidly.","If they turn too slowly, they won't mix the batter thoroughly, and that means your pastry could be a flop.","To assemble this tilt-head mixer, they install a gear to drive the attachments.","Next comes the stator, which creates the electrical field for the motor.","A dab of oil, and then they mount the shaft and motor windings inside the unit.","They slide two motor brushes into predrilled holes.","The motor brush will supply electricity to the internal components.","This bearing bracket holds the motor in place.","They lubricate the front of it before installing the electrical control board.","They wrap a trim band with the brand name on it around the outside.","Next, they pour gobs of grease into the section of the mixer that will hold the gears.","The gear section will be sealed so the grease can't leak out.","They attach the other half of the unit that has some gears already fixed to it.","They insert a drive pin in the shaft that moves the whisk and other attachments and screw the two halves together.","They apply more grease to this section and then install the planetary gear.","This gear will rotate the mixer attachments around the bowl.","With a mallet, the worker hammers a pin to attach the planetary gear.","He taps a decorative ring onto the outside.","He mounts the motor unit to the base...","And marks an identification number onto the bottom.","Now they take the tilt-head mixer for a spin.","And the next step is to adjust the speed.","The technician installs a speed-setting tool in the hub of the mixer.","While the gears turn, he checks the readout and tunes it up.","Each mixer has to be able to make a dizzying 200 rotations per minute.","They cap the hub.","The final step is testing the beater.","They check that it's correctly positioned above the bowl.","One last polish, and it's ready.","Over at another station, they're making a more commercial type of mixer, one with a bowl that lifts to the beater instead of a tilt-head that lowers to the bowl.","They screw a base to a bowl-support piece.","Then they attach the lower housing for the beater motor.","As the mixer moves on a conveyor, they install the motor and gears.","They add a generous squirt of grease to lubricate the transmission and then encase the top of the motor with more housing.","Continuing down the line, they install the electrical speed controls, topping it off with more housing.","They wrap the signature piece of trim around it.","Using a probe, they check the wattage and speed.","It passes inspection, and it's ready for packing.","It's taken approximately 10 minutes to assemble this bowl-lift mixer, but it's been made to last a lifetime.","And with such a range of attachments for these mixers, you can really go \"stir\" crazy."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Turf Grass","Beef Jerky","Wood Chippers","Bowling Pins"]},"text":["With commercially cultivated grass, you could have the perfect lawn in minutes.","It comes in pre-grown sheets, fresh from the turf farm, ready to transplant.","First produced in the middle of the last century, commercially grown grass continues to change the landscape and make the neighbors green with envy.","Don't feel like sitting around, watching the grass grow?","With commercially cultivated turf, there's no need.","Upon delivery, workers simply unroll it and trim it.","It's like installing carpeting, and this is, in fact, a living carpet.","With regular watering, it will start to put down roots.","It should take about three weeks to become established, and then it's time to rev up the lawn mower.","It starts with a seed variety appropriate to the climate.","This farm is in the american midwest, and that calls for a cool-season species, kentucky bluegrass.","They compost grass clippings and leftover turf in a big pile and use it to enrich the farm's soil.","Next, using an aerator, they punch holes in the soil.","This loosens it, allowing nutrients and oxygen to infiltrate.","Aerating also breaks up the rootstock left from the previous crop.","Since grass is a perennial, a new crop will grow from these leftovers, and they'll only need to plant seed every three or four crops.","After about five weeks, the grass has begun to sprout.","A sprinkler system helps spur the growth.","It's a central-pivot irrigation system, a wheeled tower that is 1,200 feet long, with numerous sprayers.","It slowly circles the turfgrass field to give it a thorough soaking.","Next up is the fertilizer.","It will give the grass the energy it needs to flourish.","The big three ingredients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.","But the mix also contains micronutrients, like iron, zinc, and magnesium, for an extra boost.","They fertilize the field four to five times a year, using a supersized version of a home rotary spreader.","Pulled by a tractor, it flings fertilizer out the back to cover a lot of terrain very fast.","An application of herbicide keeps the weeds at bay as the grass grows and the blades become denser.","Once it's thick enough, it should resist weed invasion.","They mow it three to four times a week, never cutting more than a third of the total leaf.","Anything more would cause the grass to focus on repairing top growth at the expense of establishing a substantial root system.","When an ordinary lawn tractor can't keep up, they bring out a mega version.","It has three mower decks, each with three blades.","It can mow an area the size of 10 american football fields in one hour.","They leave the clippings behind for added fertilizer.","It takes about 18 months for the roots to fully develop and form a thick mass.","That means the turfgrass can now be harvested without falling apart.","As the harvester moves forward, rollers at the front compress the grass.","Behind the rollers, a wide blade cuts the turf at the roots, removing just 2/10 inch of topsoil.","At the sides, spatula-like mechanisms lift the turf onto a conveyor.","Once there, another blade cuts it into strips.","The strips head up to a device that rolls them up like one would roll a sleeping bag.","The conveyor transfers the rolls to a platform where a robotic arm with spears retrieves them and stacks them on a pallet, five at a time.","When the stack is big enough, the harvester lowers the pallet of grass rolls onto the field.","It moves on to continue harvesting.","A forklift collects the rolled turf for shipment.","This turf has been cut to order for same-day delivery.","They'll install it fresh from the farm so it doesn't have time to dry out and turn yellow.","This grass has been a year and a half in the making.","It's now ready to transform a dusty yard into a lush, green one for instant curb appeal.","If you're craving a snack that's portable and packs a good dose of protein, then some beef jerky might just hit the spot.","Eating dried, cured strips of meat dates back to the ancient cultures of south america.","Jerky may be an english mispronunciation of a native word for burnt meat.","Beef jerky is no longer a means of sustenance but rather a popular snack food that comes in a variety of flavors.","This premium brand is hand-crafted in small batches.","The process starts with bee rounds-- a lean cut from the muscular hindquarter of the cow.","There's just a bit of fat-- enough to give the meat good flavor.","Workers put the beef rounds through a slicer, which cuts them into thin strips of identical width so that the jerky pieces come out as uniform as possible.","The direction in which the slicer cuts, as well as the thickness of the slices-- 2/10 inch-- are calculated to maximize flavor and tenderness.","The next step, marinating, will further tenderize the meat.","Many large producers inject the marinade prior to slicing.","This company marinates after slicing so that the marinade is sure to tenderize and flavor every single slice of beef.","After loading a small batch of meat into a rotating drum, workers add the marinade ingredients-- a secret recipe consisting of both dry and liquid seasonings.","The meat and marinade spin together for more than an hour.","By the time the strips come out of the drum, they're drenched in marinade.","After marinating for another 24 hours, they're ready to go into the smokehouse.","Workers lay the marinated beef strips on stainless-steel rods.","They space them well apart to enable the hot air to penetrate each and every one from all angles.","Once they fill a rod, they hang it on a rolling rack.","A rack holds 100 rods-- roughly 240 pounds of beef strips.","Each rack goes into its own individual smokehouse, inside which two simultaneous processes occur.","Water-soaked hardwood chips burn, slow-smoking the meat.","The jerky also cooks slowly at low heat, no higher than 180 degrees fahrenheit, to maximize the flavor.","The variety of beef jerky dictates the type of hardwood they use.","For sweeter flavors, such as honey barbecue or teriyaki, they smoke with hickory or applewood, whereas for more savory or spicy flavors, they use mesquite wood.","Over the course of 5 to 7 hours in the smokehouse, the circulated warm air gradually dries out and cures the meat, and the smoke from the wood infuses it.","Quality-control technicians take samples from each fully-smoked batch and measure to make sure it's the required thickness of just over 1/10 inch.","After workers cut the strips to between 2 and 3 inches long, the jerky enters an automated scale, which weighs out the quantity per package.","Meanwhile, an automated packaging machine heat-seals the bottom and sides of printed plastic film, forming a pouch, then inserts a resealable zipper and prints on the lot number and best-by date.","The machine then cuts apart each individual pouch and flushes the inside with nitrogen.","This forces out fresh food's worst enemy, oxygen.","Then, the machine drops in additional ammunition-- a tiny oxygen-absorbing packet.","Now the pouch is ready to receive its allotment of beef jerky.","In the smokehouse, the raw beef loses about three-quarters of its weight as the moisture inside evaporates and the fat cooks off.","So one pound of raw beef yields only about 3 1/2 ounces of beef jerky.","A conveyor belt transports the now-sealed pouches to the boxing and shipping area.","Every 5 minutes, quality-control technicians take a sealed pouch off the line to measure the nitrogen and oxygen levels inside.","Earlier on, they tested samples from every single batch coming out of the smokehouse to make sure the slow-cooking process killed off all the bacteria in the beef and dried it sufficiently to ensure this meaty treat has a minimum shelf life of 14 months.","The wood chipper was invented in germany in 1884.","Today's commercial-size chippers devour wood debris and even entire trees in mere seconds, spitting out chips that can be used as garden mulch.","That's why the wood chipper is one fierce recycler.","Whether it's a fallen tree or just a few broken limbs, a wood chipper will sink its teeth into the problem and transform it into something useful.","There are different kinds of chippers.","This one is drum-style.","It has a feed wheel with serrated edges that pushes wood into the revolving drum.","Inside, knives tear into the wood to chop it into little pieces.","It's the forestry equivalent of a paper shredder.","To make the chipping drum, rollers curl a rectangular sheet of steel to transform it into a cylinder.","The gap between the rollers determine the cylinder's diameter.","It takes a few passes through the rollers before one end of the rectangle meets the other and it becomes round.","At the next station, a worker cuts four large rectangular holes into the cylinder, using a plasma torch.","He staggers the location of the holes.","Each hole will be equipped with a blade and a deep pocket for catching the wood chips.","He now inserts those pockets into the slots and welds them to the drum.","The staggered location of the blade pockets means that no matter where the tree branch ends up in the drum, it will come into contact with the chipper blades.","Those blades will be installed later.","Next, he welds the ends to the chipper drum.","The ends have holes for a shaft and for accessing the inside of the drum.","Then, the drum spins, and sensors pick up vibrations, which would indicate an imbalance.","A computer analyzes the data and determines how much weight needs to be added to the drum and where.","The technician locates the spot on the drum, using this gauge.","Once he finds it, he marks it with a piece of soapstone.","He then places a metal weight on the mark and welds it there.","Like the tires on a vehicle, a wood-chipper drum needs to be balanced in order to run smoothly.","Four super-sharp blades are installed horizontally above the blade pockets.","He bolts them down tightly to withstand a spinning speed of 1,200 rotations per minute.","Once the drum has been equipped with a shaft and a fan for moving the wood chips out, they lower the drum onto the base.","A crane does the heavy lifting as a worker guides the shaft bearings into the mounts.","He adds some upper housing to protect the bearings from debris.","These bearings will need to be replaced after extensive use.","The hood is next.","It's equipped with a chute for ejecting the wood chips.","They attach the hood to the base, and this encapsulates the wood-chipper drum to keep the chipping action under wraps.","Moving to the other side now, they install the feed rollers and another chute.","They activate the feed rollers manually and check the distance between them and the chipper drum to confirm that there's adequate clearance.","With a crane again bearing the load, workers now steer the diesel engine towards the chipper and lower it into position.","They thread a drive belt around the engine pulley and link it to one that's been attached to the drum's side bearings.","They complete that installation and install the tires.","They mask the tires with plastic to protect them as they now prime and paint the entire wood chipper.","They use a polyurethane paint developed for american military vehicles.","This tough finish will resist scratching as tree trunks and branches are dragged through it.","They paint the wood chipper a brilliant orange so it will stand out on the work site.","Once the paint is cured, they shield the drive belt with a metal cover, painted to match the rest of the machine.","They transfer a vinyl decal onto the side.","It conveys the make and model of the wood chipper.","After nine days of work, the wood chipper is ready for action.","Ripping big trees to shreds should be no trouble at all.","Here's a somewhat striking statistic.","An estimated 95 million people worldwide partake in the sport of bowling.","One of the most popular variations is 10-pin bowling, in which you roll a big, heavy ball down a lane, aiming to knock down 10 large pins.","The sport's international governing body dictates very strict and precise specifications for pin manufacturing to ensure pins worldwide react uniformly to the ball.","As required, this bowling-pin factory uses hard maplewood with a moisture level within regulation range.","Workers weigh the slabs and calculate which ones they'll group together to produce a regulation-weight pin.","They glue together three slabs to form a starting block for a single pin.","Then, they stack several blocks in a vise and clamp them tightly until the glue dries-- about 15 minutes.","A few light taps with a rubber mallet separates any stuck-together blocks.","Next, a custom-designed machine drills three holes in each block, hollowing out what will be the center of the bowling pin.","This removes some weight and leaves space for the wood to expand and contract with humidity levels.","One hole is at the bottom of the block for the base ring they'll later attach underneath the pin.","They lay the block in a carousel vise and glue a small slab of wood to each side.","After 12 to 15 minutes under pressure, the glue sets and the now-wider block comes off the vise.","They transfer to another carousel, which runs it through a planer.","This removes gobs of dried, excess glue and levels the top and bottom surfaces.","Now on to another carousel, to receive wood slabs on the two remaining sides.","After the glue fully cures for 24 hours, those sides also go through the planer.","The block is now ready to acquire the bowling-pin shape.","Workers mount the block on a lathe, via the hole on the bottom for the base ring.","As the lathe spins, cutters gradually shave away wood, forming the pin shape.","This whole operation takes about 45 seconds.","The next machine saws off excess wood from the top and bottom, then drills and cuts those surfaces smooth.","The machine inserts a nylon ring into the hole in the pin's base.","Next stop, an injection-molding machine.","It coats the entire pin surface in liquefied nylon, then quickly cools the nylon solid.","This protects the wooden pin with a hard, durable covering.","Now a weigh-in to make sure it falls within regulation range-- between 53 and 56 ounces.","In the final operation, a printing machine spins the pin under an inkpad to apply decorative stripes.","Then, another pad prints the manufacturer's logo.","The ink dries to the touch in just 5 minutes and fully cures in 24 hours.","Crafted from wood slabs in about 40 minutes, plus ink-curing time, these bowling pins are alley-ready."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Mountain Bikes","Rice","Lever Action Rifles"]},"text":["In the late 1800s, the american military tried modifying bicycles to help infantrymen cross rough terrain.","Cyclists continued experimenting, and the first mountain bike was created in 1978.","The popularity of mountain biking has grown ever since.","Mountain bikes are specially designed to perform on rough terrain.","They have a suspension to help keep the wheels in contact with the ground, deep-treaded tires for added traction, and powerful disc brakes for safety.","At the core of a mountain bike is the small, robust frame.","It needs to be lightweight yet highly durable.","The factory uses a test bench to simulate the effects of repeated impacts and vibration on the bike frame.","Three days of testing can simulate 10 years of intensive use.","The frame is made from tubes of aluminum alloy.","Aluminum is lighter than steel and cheaper than carbon fiber, and it won't burst like carbon in case of a large impact.","They cut each tube to the required length.","They use jigs to get consistent dimensions and precise cutting angles.","This will be extremely important when they assemble the frame.","Each model and size of frame has its own welding jig.","They start tack-welding the tubes in place.","Then they proceed with the final welding.","It's a delicate step because the tubes are very thin.","After welding, the aluminum frame will undergo a heat treatment.","First, the frames will be heated intensely, then quickly quenched in a cool bath.","This makes the metal easier to work with.","This next step is necessary because slight deformations are created in the frame during welding.","Using precise measuring instruments and a rubber mallet to avoid denting the metal, a technician ensures the frame is perfectly parallel to the alignment table.","It's not easy to align the shorter tubes, so he uses a longer rod for this task.","After alignment, the frame will be heated one last time to harden the aluminum.","Once the aluminum exhibits the right mechanical properties, it's ready for boring.","This crucial procedure makes the inside of the hole perfectly straight and aligned with the frame's geometric design.","In the painting department, they spray auto-grade paint, which then dries in an oven for 20 minutes.","Next they use ink transfer tape to apply the logo on the bicycle frame.","After that logo dries in the oven, they will finish with a clear coat of varnish.","Everything must be perfect.","When buying a new bicycle, most mountain bikers pay very close attention to the quality of the paint job.","The bicycle is ready for the final assembly.","The assembler starts with the rear shock absorber, which contains oil to dampen the suspension movement.","This way, the suspension doesn't bounce up and down uncontrollably after an impact.","The stiffness of that dampening is adjustable by the rider.","The assembler links the shock absorber to the seat stay.","He installs the handlebar and the stem on the steering column.","Next he installs the rear brake caliper.","This is a hydraulic brake, actioned by brake fluid that travels through a hydraulic hose.","It's positioned on the frame in such a way that anchoring clips don't restrict its movement.","Now it's time to install the crankset and the derailleurs.","These are useful on technical terrain, where quick gear changes are key to successfully maneuvering trail obstacles.","He installs the rear wheel.","It's equipped with 10 cogs and a disc brake.","Its deep-treaded tire will grip the ground of treacherous mountain paths.","Now he screws in the front brake caliper.","It takes about an hour to fully assemble the mountain bike.","The fork provides the front suspension...","While the rear suspension is connected to the rear wheel through a system of pivots at the back.","As the wheel and pivots move back and forth, their movement is dampened by the shock absorber, helping to keep the wheel in contact with the ground.","Mountain bikes are engineered to withstand the demands of off-road riding.","Precise manufacturing and testing also ensure that the mountain bike will survive years of use and abuse.","In many parts of the world, rice is the main grain.","In fact, it is a food staple for nearly half of the planet's population.","Native to asia, it has been grown and consumed for thousands of years.","But today, machines do much of the harvesting and processing in order to feed the enormous demand.","These perfectly formed kernels of rice are essentially a crop that has been allowed to go to seed.","After about 150 days of growth, the rice seed is ready for harvest.","Machinery strips it from the stalks and also suctions out some of the empty husks.","Trucks transport the rice to storage facilities.","They empty it into a grated opening at the receiving pit.","The grates filter out some of the larger stalks and debris.","From the pit, a chain conveyor moves the rice up to storage silos and into warehouses.","Inside the storage facilities, fans blow air through the mountain of rice to lower the moisture content substantially.","With the rice sufficiently dried, it's on to the processing plant.","Here, a probe vacuums up samples from both the front and the back of the massive truckload.","The probe delivers the samples to a lab.","A technician first tests the moisture content to confirm that it's on target.","He then transfers batches to a sifting bin to screen for bugs.","He switches on a heat lamp to wake them up.","He shakes the rice and scrutinizes.","He also examines the tray underneath for tiny bugs that may have fallen through the holes.","If he finds just one moth or beetle, the entire 5,500-pound truckload of rice will be rejected.","Next the rice falls through perforations in rolling cylinders, screening out the straw which spills over the side.","The next machine sifts out the remaining straw bits and any weed seed.","It also suctions out empty rice husks.","They're lightweight and pulled out with a weak vacuum.","Finally, they remove mud balls.","Free of contaminants, the rice now spills between two rubber rollers, one moving faster than the other.","This shears off the husks.","The rice and empty husks then cascade into another machine.","This is a demo version of the actual production one.","Weak suctioning pulls out the husks to separate them from the heavier rice.","The dehusking process misses a few kernels, so next giant sifting machines screen out that rice.","Still in husks, it's bigger and doesn't pass through the holes in the shaking trays.","They dehusk that rice and mix it with the rest.","Grinding machines now mill the rice to remove the bran.","The bran spills out of perforations and is recovered for use in cattle feed.","With the bran removed, the rice goes from brown to white.","The final grinding polishes the rice to give it a pearly sheen.","This is the unmilled brown rice.","And here it is with the bran removed.","During milling, some rice kernels are damaged.","This spinning, dimpled cylinder now separates the broken kernels from the whole ones.","The broken rice kernels fall into the dimples of the cylinder, and from there, into an internal catch pan.","They'll be used to make cereal or beer.","The whole rice now moves through a color sorter.","Computerized cameras analyze it for dark imperfections and signal air nozzles to blast them out of the mix.","Of course, there's also a market for unmilled brown rice.","Now ready for packaging, a scraper moves it across a table and into plastic tubes below.","Hot jaws seal the tubes at both ends, and this rice is in the bag.","Brown or white, short or medium grain, there are plenty of options.","Different types of rifles load the gun in different ways.","A lever-action rifle has, as the name implies, a lever, which you move downwards to load the ammunition cartridge into the gun's chamber.","When you pull the lever back up, it cocks the hammer and the gun is ready to fire.","This italian company makes exact reproductions of the renowned winchesters produced in the u.s. starting in 1866.","These lever-actions were a game-changer in that era, because you no longer had to reload your rifle one cartridge at a time.","To make the barrel, the long tube through which the ammunition shoots, the factory starts with a bar of solid steel that's one inch in diameter.","A computer-guided circular saw slices it into barrel-length pieces.","Next a computer-guided drill bores through the center of each barrel-length bar.","The drill is fluted, which provides a channel for a continuous high-pressure flow of cutting oil.","This breaks down the metal shavings as the drill advances from one end of the bar to the other over the course of five minutes.","A reamer gradually widens the bore to the required diameter.","This takes 15 minutes.","The diameter of the barrel is what determines a firearm's caliber.","A rifle gets its name from the next operation.","This specialized tool rifles the barrel, meaning it carves spiraled grooves into the barrel bore's smooth walls.","This process takes twice as long as drilling and reaming combined.","The grooves in the barrel put a spin on the cartridge's bullet as it exits the gun.","Like the perfect pass of a football, this spin stabilizes the bullet, rendering it more aerodynamic.","That makes the shot more accurate over a long distance.","The next machine mills the outside of the barrel.","This particular model has an octagonal barrel, so the machine mills eight sides.","Another machine then makes threads on the back end so the barrel can later screw into the adjacent part of the rifle.","A local foundry, meanwhile, forges the rifle's lever.","Workers feed solid steel bars into a small furnace.","The furnace temperature, a blazing 2,200 degrees fahrenheit, softens the steel in a matter of seconds.","While the bar is still red-hot, they place it in a die and stamp it with a press to bend it.","Then two more pressings in a different die form the bent bar into the basic shape of the lever.","A fourth pressing, against a razor-sharp die this time, trims the perimeter.","The roughly shaped lever is now ready for machining in the rifle factory.","There, a computer-guided mill works at it for eight minutes.","It meticulously shaves off bits of steel until the lever's shape is perfected.","The mechanical section of the rifle is called the action.","Like the lever, it's forged out of a steel bar.","Then, over the course of an hour, it's machined to specifications by 100 different computer-guided tools.","This operation not only finalizes the action's external shape, it also hollows out areas for the internal components, namely the rifle's lever-activated loading and firing mechanism.","But before that assembly happens, the action takes a side trip to a metal treatment plant where it undergoes a two-step process.","First it's submerged for three minutes in a hot-water bath with special salts which harden the steel.","Then a quick dip in a second bath, where a coloring chemical gives the steel an antique finish.","The action now returns to the gun factory to rejoin the rifle's other components.","The action is the middle section of the rifle.","The barrel screws onto the front of it, while the gun's wooden handle attaches to the back of it.","When you pull the trigger, the hammer hits the firing pin.","This strikes the cartridge, igniting the explosive primer inside.","The blast propels the bullet out of the barrel of the gun.","To assemble the rifle's firing mechanism, workers first attach the trigger and the hammer spring to a larger component called the trigger guard.","Then they connect the hammer itself with a tight-fitting pin.","The hammer spring provides resistance, allowing the hammer to hit the firing pin hard enough to fire the cartridge after it's cocked.","Taking the action, they insert the bolt containing the firing pin, then the firing pin extension.","This wedge piece links those two components.","They insert the trigger guard into the action, coaxing it into the correct position with a few taps of a mallet.","They attach the lever underneath the trigger guard.","They mount a spring on each side of the lever to put tension on it.","Then finally, they connect the lever to the firing mechanism with two sets of links.","To cock the hammer and prepare to pull the trigger to fire, you pull down the lever, then pull it back up.","After firing, you move the lever up and down again to eject the spent cartridge and reload and cock for the next shot.","They finish assembling the action by attaching side plates, one of which has a side-loading gate for inserting the cartridges.","The action has two threaded holes-- one for attaching the magazine to that holds the cartridges and the other for attaching the barrel.","Its threaded end requires some top filing in order to meet the various strict specifications set out by the proofhouse.","The proofhouse is responsible for ensuring that firearms conform to all manufacturing regulations.","To attach the barrel to the action, they lock the barrel in a vise, then screw the action on to the threaded end.","They use various tools and gauges to ensure the two parts are perfectly aligned and that the lever closes completely when pulled up.","Next they insert what's called a check cartridge of the appropriate caliber into the chamber.","This checks the internal spacing to ensure the ammunition feeds correctly and fires safely.","Then they mount a temporary stock on the other end of the action and send the rifle to the proofhouse for performance and safety testing.","There, technicians place it in an enclosed chamber, load ammunition, and fire twice.","The proofhouse hand-punches markings onto the bottom of the rifle.","These markings, recognized by the european economic community, officially certify that the firearm functions properly and safely.","The gun factory contracts a woodworking company to produce the rifle's stock.","It's made from a block of walnut.","First workers trace a template that's in the basic shape of the stock.","They saw along the trace line.","This gives them a starting form, which computer-guided machines then refine.","A mill progressively carves the detailed profile with a series of different tools.","Then they mount the stock on a lathe, which rotates it against a sander to smooth the surface and perfect the shape.","The stock has two holes in the back to which they attach an endpiece.","The woodshop stains and varnishes the finished stock and sends it to the gun factory, where workers attach it to the action.","After that, they mount the magazine tube to the action.","When you feed cartridges into the side-loading gate, they drop into the magazine tube.","Upon levering the rifle, a carrier pushes up one cartridge, which the bolt then pushes into the chamber, preparing the rifle to fire."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wind Generators","PVC Gloves","Thermo"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Wind generators.","Pvc gloves.","Thermoformed glass.","And fire trucks.","Wind generators harness the power of the wind to produce electricity.","As the turbine's blades revolve, they drive a rotor that generates power.","This can charge a set of batteries or even feed a transmission grid.","Wind power is a renewable energy source that doesn't pollute.","This type of wind generator is a recreational model designed to power a boat or a cottage with up to 500 watts of electricity.","To make the propeller, they lay a template on a plank of western cedar, a rot-resistant wood that's flexible and durable, yet lightweight enough for the slightest breeze to set it spinning.","After tracing, they drill a hole at each end and in the middle, then remove the template and do a rough cut using a band saw.","They put the template back in place, using those holes they drilled to align and secure it in place.","Using a router this time, they do a precision cut.","The plank of wood now has the contour of a propeller.","The next step is to form the profile.","To do that, they bolt the wood onto the right side of a specially designed device called a propeller-carving machine.","On the left side is a model propeller.","After adjusting the model to the proper angle, they start to cut.","As the machine's roller runs over the model, it guides a shaver to carve the wood exactly like the model.","It takes about eight passes to get the propeller's profile just right.","You can see the profile well, once they've marked and cut off the excess on the ends.","One side is flat, while the other is curved like an airplane's wing.","Now they widen the hole in the middle of the propeller and sand off the ridges left by the carving using a low-pressure inflatable drum sander.","It's the only type flexible enough to really get into the curves.","Next they check the balancing.","Watch how a mere penny can throw off this perfect equilibrium.","Finally, a coat of waterproof epoxy paint-- the kind used on the hulls of boats.","Now they assemble the alternator, the component that generates electricity when the propeller spins.","They wrap insulation around what's called the \"proportional electronic regulator\" and then install it, along with wiring, into the alternator's casing.","This regulator controls the electrical charge and current.","The propeller spins this rotor shaft, creating an electrical charge that sends a current from the alternator to the batteries.","Once the casing's bolted shut, they mount a cooling fan on the shaft's protruding axle.","This fan will expel the heat all that spinning generates.","Next they assemble the parts that make up what's called the \"lolly shaft\"-- the axis on which the propeller sits.","This axis enables the propeller to pivot toward the direction of the wind without twisting the wires that run to the batteries.","Finally, they connect the wires from the lolly shaft to the alternator.","This rubber cover protects the connection from the elements.","Now they assemble what's called the propeller governor-- a key component that prevents the propeller from overspinning and breaking down in high winds.","When the propeller spins too fast, the centrifugal force pulls on these springs.","This activates the braking flaps, generating drag to slow the propeller down.","Again, precision balancing is critical.","Otherwise, you'll have a damaging vibration.","After applying the manufacturer's decal, they mount the propeller's rudder onto the back end of the wing generator's frame.","On the other end, they install the alternator, followed by the propeller and propeller governor, both painted black to protect the waterproof coating underneath from the sun's damaging u.v. rays.","Polyvinyl chloride, commonly known as \"pvc,\" is a durable material similar to plastic.","Pvc gloves are waterproof--  even chemical-proof.","All kinds of laborers wear them, from commercial fishermen to oil-refinery workers.","Pvc gloves are comfortably flexible, yet sturdy.","Production begins at the cutting station with stacked sheets of cotton flannel.","Using a hydraulic cutting machine and a series of dies, workers slice through some 20 layers in one fell swoop, cutting out the pieces required to make cotton gloves.","Those gloves will either be sold as is or used as linings for pvc gloves.","The next step is to sew the pieces together.","It takes a speedy seamstress just 30 seconds per hand.","Next they sew on a wrist made of a stretchy, cotton-and-lycra knit.","This seamstress works the wristing machine so quickly, we had to ask her to slow down so that we could actually see what she's doing.","Throughout the sewing process, these cotton gloves have been inside out.","This next machine turns them right-side in, transferring them onto a heated hand form.","The machine then presses each glove onto the form.","The gloves drop down to a conveyor belt below.","It transports them to a worker, who inspects them and pairs them up-- left and right.","Elsewhere in the factory, workers prepare the pvc solution.","The recipe varies according to the glove model, but generally consists of coloring and five to eight different chemicals.","They add in antibacterial, antifungal solution to combat odor from hand perspiration.","To apply the pvc, workers slip a metal form into the thumb of each lining, then put the lining onto a thumbless hand form.","If the hand and thumb forms were in one piece, it would be difficult to remove the stiff pvc glove without tearing.","The linings go through what's called the singer-- a propane flame that burns off any dust or loose threads.","Then it's into the pvc bath.","The basin of liquid pvc moves upward, coating the liners.","As the basin descends, the excess drips off.","Then the gloves go for a spin under infrared lamps for 45 seconds.","The spinning spreads the pvc uniformly so that it doesn't accumulate on the tips of the fingers, forming clumps.","After a second coat, the gloves pass through a propane-fired furnace for about 20 minutes at 370 degrees fahrenheit, then through a cooling chamber for five minutes.","For glove models with extra-strong grip, they blow pvc chips onto the first coat of pvc while it's still wet.","When the gloves go through the furnace, the heat embeds the chips.","After cooling, the gloves are dried and cured and ready to handle a hard day's work.","Decorative glass objects can be blown or thermoformed-- two very different glassmaking techniques.","In glass blowing, the artisan shapes hot glass by rolling it and blowing air into it.","Thermoforming is more of a molding process, better suited for making flat objects.","When you look at these magnificent pieces, it's hard to believe they begin as run-of-the-mill window glass.","It comes in ready-made panels in thicknesses ranging from 1/10 to 4/10 of an inch.","The first step is to measure the overall dimensions of the glass panel, then divide it into pieces, each slightly larger than the object it will become.","They'll turn this panel into large decorative plates, so they divide it into three squares, each about 14 inches in diameter.","They place each square over a paper pattern.","Using a glass cutter, they score the shape of the plate.","Then they apply pressure with a rubber mallet to separate the glass along the score line.","They cut away the excess, breaking it off with a few gentle taps.","Now they position the plate-shaped glass over a drawing and begin the artwork.","First they trace the outline.","Now they embellish the design and fill in the details.","They use enamel paints specifically designed for painting on glass.","Once the brushwork's done, they use a paint gun to apply the background colors and shading.","The glass has been cut and decorated, but it's still perfectly flat, so the final step is to mold it using extreme heat, hence the term \"thermoformed\".","The mold they use is made of fireproof materials designed to withstand high temperatures inside the oven, known as a kiln.","They carefully lay the glass over the mold.","They mold several different pieces at the same time.","In the intense heat of the kiln, the glass will melt and take on the exact shape of the mold right down to the most intricate textural detail.","These small pieces of glass will become the paint pots on this glass replica of an artist's palette.","It takes an hour and a half for the kiln temperature to climb to a scorching 1,550 degrees fahrenheit.","At peak temperature, they briefly open the kiln to make sure that everything is progressing well.","The glass at this phase should be the consistency of taffy and glowing bright red.","If it is, they can close the kiln and begin the cooling phase.","Six hours later, the glass pieces have hardened into the shape and texture of the respective molds.","These plates, spoon rests, and other pieces are cool enough to come out of the kiln.","The beauty of thermoformed glass lies in the striking combination of transparency and vibrant color.","Add to that the endless shape possibilities, and you've got truly functional art.","There are different types of fire trucks.","Pumpers hook up to fire hydrants, boost the pressure, then shoot water out through hoses.","Ladder trucks elevate firefighters on either a ladder or platform.","Rescue trucks have tools to cut through metal and clear obstructions.","Early firefighters couldn't do much more than pass buckets of water from man to man.","The 1720s saw the arrival of wagons carrying water tanks and hand pumps.","Those newfangled pumps could spew out an impressive 60 gallons of water per minute-- about what you'd get from two garden hoses.","The first horse-drawn fire trucks with steam-powered pumps went into service in 1852.","Gas-powered trucks replaced them in the early 1900s.","This pumper truck can deliver almost 1,600 gallons of water per minute.","Mechanical engineers usually custom-design fire trucks to suit the particular needs of the fire department placing the order.","The truck's body is made from sheets of marine-grade aluminum 2/10-inch thick.","Following the technical drawings, workers cut the aluminum panels to the sizes required, notching certain corners at a 90-degree angle.","Workers weld the pieces together to form what's known as the crew cab.","The crew cab not only carries the firefighters, it also houses the control panel for the water system.","Meanwhile, other workers measure and then cut pieces of aluminum to build the subframe that will support the crew cab from underneath.","They weld the parts together.","Installing the steps, workers leave a gap of about half an inch to enable water to drain down.","They line the storage compartments with aluminum sheets, using a sander to make textured circles on the smooth surface.","This pattern will camouflage the scratches that moving equipment in and out will inevitably create.","They use a machine called a press brake to bend the sheets to the required shape.","Then, using what's known as a punch press, they cut holes for the built-in lights, the door handles, and the various control knobs.","Workers now assemble the pieces and make any necessary adjustments before painting, rather than after, to avoid damaging the finish.","After this fine-tuning, they'll disassemble everything and send the parts to the paint department.","After that, they'll put it all carefully back together.","The full-scale assembly can now begin, starting with the water pump.","It arrives here ready-made from the supplier.","Next comes the crew cab.","This one isn't for the pumper, but rather for a yellow rescue vehicle.","The pipes that lead to and from the water pump go into a threading machine.","The pipes are part galvanized steel, part stainless steel.","Once they're threaded, they're ready to be screwed into the pump's water outlets.","The drive shaft-- that long piece coming from the transmission-- performs its usual job of turning the rear axle when the truck is in motion.","It also powers the water pump when the truck is parked, fighting a fire.","This control box runs the fire truck's electrical system, including the flashing emergency lights.","Each wire is color-coded, number-coded, and function-coded.","Workers run the wires from the box to the control panel in the crew cab.","Then they hook up the odometer, speedometer, and other dashboard indicators.","They install water-pressure gauges, adapters for connecting the hoses to the water system, and pressure-release valves for adjusting water pressure.","Lo and behold, a shiny, new fire truck built to a department's exact specifications.","Only there's one thing the client didn't have to specify-- that it be painted fire-engine red."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Leather Wallets","French Horns","Soy Sauce","Children's Ride"]},"text":["The pocket wallet was invented in the 17th century.","Europe had switched to paper money, and the gents of the day needed a handy way to pocket their cash.","There's a slot for everything-- credit cards, i.d., and, of course, cash.","And yet these wallets remain slim enough to fit into a trouser pocket.","These fine handcrafted pocketbooks are made from high-grade vegetable-tanned leather.","An employee selects a hide and arranges it on a work table.","Then he chooses a die shaped like one of the wallet's inside pockets.","Using this hydraulic press, he punches out the part.","He cuts 11 different components for the wallet's interior, using a custom die for each one.","He chooses tougher leather in a contrasting color for the wallet's exterior.","He now measures the thickness of the interior components.","Using what's called a skiving machine, he shaves them down to .","7 of a millimeter.","Another worker preheats an embossing machine.","It hot-stamps a pocket part with the company name and the royal warrant logo, which signifies that the prince of wales purchases this company's leather goods.","Using a different skiving machine, they shave down the edges of the exterior wallet parts.","This thinner border will make the parts easier to assemble later.","The next worker applies a water-based adhesive to a leather strip.","It will reinforce the top of a fabric square.","With this manual device, she turns the top edge to fold it in a straight line.","This leather-trimmed fabric square will be used to create a credit-card pocket.","She stamps a thin groove onto the leather trim to give it some definition.","Next, she builds a credit-card slot with two of the squares.","Using an awl, she scores a line in the fabric.","The line serves as a guide as she stitches the squares together to complete the slot.","She layers a third leather-trimmed block of fabric to create a second slot, then adds a leather panel that forms the third credit-card slot.","She glues and tucks the excess leather over the back of the fabric pocket.","Then she checks the alignment of the slots with a tool called a bone folder.","The next worker sews the credit-card compartment together.","There are two of these per wallet.","They glue both compartments to the wallet's spine made of fabric and leather.","This spine is called the bend section, because it bends to fold the wallet in two.","She attaches the bend section to a divider for the money pocket.","This divider is a bit longer than the assembled interior components, to facilitate the bending action.","She glues a lining to the wallet's leather exterior.","Here, she uses a special hammer to ensure the interior and exterior components of this wallet adhere well.","Then she trims the corner of the rim to make it look neat.","She rounds the corners of the wallet to give them a gentler profile.","Now she stitches the assembly together, leaving the bill pocket open at the top.","The next worker tucks a metal wedge under the rim to protect the rest of the wallet as she trims the rim close to the stitch.","Removing these few slivers will make the wallet more flexible.","She slides the bone folder into each credit-card slot to remove excess glue.","Finally, a few dabs of leather preservative, and this luxury wallet is ready for retail with a price tag to match.","The only question is, will that be cash or credit?","The french horn has a four-octave range and distinctive mellow sound.","As with other brass instruments, the musician plays certain valve combinations and alters lip tension to produce the right notes.","However, on a french horn, the mouthpiece is relatively small, making this instrument one of the most challenging to play.","The french horn is made up of 13 feet of coiled tubing, a set of valves, and a flared bell.","To make the tail end, they shape a sheet of brass around a steel mandrel, then braze the edges together to form a tube.","With a burnishing tool, an artisan rounds out the shape.","Next, they lubricate a brass disk as it spins on a lathe.","Using a variety of tools, they shape it into a bell.","This plasma-weld machine fuses the bell and tail together.","Back on the lathe, they trim the diameter of the bell...","Then roll the edge into a rim called a bead.","This reinforces the bell.","Next, they fill the bell with a hot, tar-like liquid called pitch.","Once the pitch cools, they put the tail into a forming block and carefully bend it.","The hardened pitch provides support, preventing the tail from collapsing.","They verify the bend against a template.","Using the same technique, they shape the pieces that form the horn's tubing.","Of all the brass instruments, the french horn has the most complex bends.","These valve knuckles connect the tubes to the cases that will house the valves.","Some french horns have three valves.","This double french horn has four.","Each valve case goes onto this alignment device, which pushes in the knuckles to the correct depth.","After brazing the knuckles to the cases, they hollow out the case interiors with a cutter.","Then they solder the valve cases to each other with connecting rings.","They insert the tubing parts into the valve knuckles.","These curved tubes are the horn's slides.","The musician tunes the instrument by adjusting them in and out of the straight tubes.","After soldering the straight tubes to the knuckles, they remove the slides for now to make other areas accessible.","Then they solder this partially assembled valve section to the tail and bell.","Now they apply buffing compound and polish the horn's interior surfaces.","They polish the more accessible surfaces with a cloth buffing wheel.","Then they wash off the compound and coat the entire surface in a protective lacquer.","Now final assembly of the valve section can begin.","They install rotors in the valve cases and levers to activate them.","Unlike piston valves on a trumpet that move up and down, these valves rotate to direct air flow through specific tubing combinations.","A lever connects to each valve via a rod and nylon cord.","With the valve section now complete, they reinstall the slides, then do a final wipe-down to remove grease residue and fingerprints.","This pristine finish complements the superb sound quality.","soy sauce is a staple of asian cuisine, used as both a condiment and cooking ingredient.","Its roots are in the seasonings of ancient china.","Today, you can buy artificial or chemically enhanced versions, but authentic soy sauce is all-natural and made the traditional way, by brewing soybeans and wheat.","At this small soy-sauce company, they use the centuries-old slow-fermentation method and just five ingredients--  soybeans...","Water...","Wheat...","Sea salt...","And yeast.","They begin by pouring soybeans into a cooking device called a steam kettle.","After thoroughly rinsing the soybeans twice, they fill the kettle with water...","Then close the lid and boil the beans for four hours.","Meanwhile, they pan-roast wheat in a skillet for about 25 minutes.","Then they put the roasted wheat through a mill.","The mill's steel rollers crack each grain into several pieces.","This will enable the yeast to better penetrate the wheat during the fermentation process.","When the soybeans are ready, they take them out of the kettle and spread them out in large trays to cool.","When the beans cool to 91 degrees fahrenheit, it's time to add the wheat.","After mixing everything thoroughly, they sprinkle on yeast and mix again.","The ingredient proportions are key and therefore a company secret.","To activate the yeast, they transfer the mix to shallow boxes and stack them for about 48 hours in a controlled incubation room.","This process generates heat, which rises, so they have to gradually move boxes to lower racks to prevent overheating, which would kill the yeast.","For the next stage, they make a brine by mixing fine sea salt with spring water.","To give its soy sauce a distinctive taste, this company repurposes bourbon barrels from local distilleries to use as fermentation vessels.","Traces of bourbon in the wood permeate the mix as it ferments, imbuing the sauce with a subtle smoky and sweet flavor.","After dissolving the sea salt in the spring water, they add the soybean mix, creating a moromi, the japanese word for soybean mash.","They blend for a few minutes then seal the barrel and leave it to ferment.","For the first six weeks, once daily, they open the barrel and mix the moromi to aerate the gases that build up.","This keeps the yeast active and helps develop the flavor.","Then, after that, they open and mix just once a week.","After 12 long months of fermentation, it's finally ready.","They open the barrel and mix one last time.","Then they empty the barrel onto a sheet of muslin lining the tub of a stainless-steel press.","They fold over the sheet to enclose the moromi...","Then lay down planks of wood to form a solid surface.","The press applies six tons of pressure, forcing the planks downward against the moromi.","This squeezes out all the liquid, which is the soy sauce.","It exits through a hose at the base of the tub and moves on to be filtered and heat-pasteurized.","The pressed moromi gets a new life as high-protein animal feed.","While many soy sauces are mass-produced, this factory brews small batches at a time.","A batch yields about 600 bottles, each of which workers here fill manually.","They top each bottle with a plastic diffuser, which dispenses just a dash of sauce at a time.","Then they twist on a plastic cap and slip a shrinkable plastic band over it.","Using a heat gun, they seal the band tightly around the cap and bottle.","Then the label, on which they write the batch code and bottle number by hand, a fitting finale for this signature soy sauce.","Children's ride-on cars are, quite simply, fun to drive.","These molded plastic cars come in hot colors and often have a friendly face on the front.","These cars have character, and that's why it's often bumper-to-bumper at the neighborhood playground.","There's nothing like that new-car feeling, especially when it's your first set of wheels.","Like many toys, the appeal of the ride-on car lies with children's desire to emulate adults.","And behind the wheel of their own little vehicles, a child can feel all grown up.","Today's child-size coupes are synthetic creations.","They start with plastic resin pellets.","They mix in chemical additives and recycled plastic and grind it all into a powder.","The powder funnels into a shaking sifter, which screens out large pieces the grinder missed.","It then flows into a big blender.","The plastic powder looks a lot like pastry flour, but not for long.","The next ingredient is the colorant.","There are various vivid hues to choose from.","They pour a measured amount of red colorant into the blender, and a spiraling beater evenly distributes it, turning the white powder to red.","They portion it into jugs, which then shuttle down a conveyor.","They arrive at a carousel of molds of car shapes.","A worker empties the jugs of colored plastic granules into them.","These little grains of plastic are about to be transformed into car parts.","They lower the lid, which contains the top halves of the molds.","The mold cage then spins as it travels through an oven.","The plastic inside melts, and the spinning action ensures it completely coats the inside of the molds to create solid parts with a hollow interior.","The cage then rolls into a station, where a spray of water cools everything down and causes the plastic inside to solidify.","The mold cage stops spinning, and a worker hooks it up to a crane, which lifts the lid.","The powdered colored plastic has been transformed into ride-on-car parts, and it's taken just 35 minutes.","Some parts fall out, and others have to be pulled out.","But it's easy work, thanks to the mold's nonstick surface.","Seepage during molding creates unwanted bits and nubs on the main car body that they trim off by hand.","They also shave areas that appear uneven.","Vents were formed in the molding process to release air in the core of the part.","They now cap the vents to keep little fingers from getting stuck inside.","They trim the car roof to improve its contours.","This also gets rid of any rough edges, making it child-friendly.","They fit company medallions into slots in the roof pillars.","And they do a bit more trimming to improve the profile of the parts.","Drills now work in concert to bore assembly holes into the main part of this coupe.","An employee then blasts out the plastic shavings with an air nozzle.","He applies a sticker with production information on it...","And then does a final inspection.","If he's satisfied with the quality, he applies another company logo.","Now flames lick the plastic roofs and doors as they briefly torch them.","They melt the surface just enough to give it a shiny veneer.","At the end of the production line, they pack up all the parts of this children's ride-on car, from the roof pillars...","To the tires...","To the steering wheel.","Everything fits neatly into one package.","Then it will be up to mom or dad to assemble all the pieces of this ride-on car.","It's a job that should take about 15 minutes or so.","Then zoom away--  no driver's license required."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Sharpening Steels","Bladder Pumps","Ironing Boards","Kayak Paddles"]},"text":["A well-made knife is an essential tool in any kitchen.","Having a sharp blade can be the difference between a perfect meal and a culinary nightmare.","No matter how expensive the knife is, it will dull with use.","A high-quality sharpening steel can restore any knife to its former glory.","Professional-grade sharpening steels have an oval shape.","The shape provides more surface area for efficient sharpening and allows pro chefs to hone their blades frequently as they work.","The manufacturing process begins with a machine that quickly cuts rods of oval steel.","From handle to tip, the finished sharpening steel will be 12.5 inches.","A custom-made lathe grips the rods and guides them inside a cutting area.","The lathe rounds off one end to fit inside the handle.","It sprays the steel with cooling liquid to prevent overheating during the cutting process.","Next, they use a device called a drawing machine.","Ultra-fine teeth scrape the steel to create an abrasive sharpening surface.","The grain of the abrasions runs parallel to the length of the steel.","The steel is still soft enough for a stamping machine to punch in the company logo.","In an oven, they heat the steel rods to 1,500° fahrenheit.","Then, a machine dips the rods in a pool of saltwater, to harden them.","The sharpening steel is now 20% harder than the average kitchen knife.","A worker dips the components in a series of baths to clean them.","Next, a machine with multiple nozzles blasts sand onto the sharpening steels.","The sand cleans off the residue left over from the production process and prepares the steel for chrome plating.","The chrome plating protects the surface from rust.","An enormous industrial- strength dishwasher cleans the sharpening steels.","Then, workers conduct a quality-control inspection of the abrasive sharpening surfaces.","The sharpening steels have been changed from their original oval shape.","Using a set of high-speed, specially calibrated sanding belts, a preprogrammed robot smooths and shapes the steel.","The final piece has a polished and rounded look.","A grinding machine carefully tapers the metal to give the steel its sword-like shape.","It takes more than 50 steps to create a sharpening steel.","A machining tool drills and taps the rounded end of the sharpening steel.","This creates a threaded hole for attaching a handle.","The handle includes a section that folds down, allowing it to double as a hook.","A worker applies glue and installs two rivets to hold the wood section of the handle in place.","The wood handle is carved out of a 100-year-old oak wine barrel.","A worker carefully sands the edges of the handle, ensuring a smooth grip.","Another worker applies a protective coating of wax to the wood handle.","A worker installs the third and final rivet.","It bears the company's logo.","They install this rivet last so it's not damaged during the finishing process.","After a final cleaning, the sharpening steels are ready to be packed up and shipped out.","It takes a lot of slicing, chopping, and dicing to make a great meal, but, with a good sharpening steel, cutting is never dull.","Environmental laws require many industries to monitor groundwater for contamination.","An engineering firm is usually hired to collect the groundwater samples for testing.","Some firms collect samples using a bladder pump.","It's a small device that pumps water using pressured air.","It's called a bladder pump because the flexible tube inside works like a human bladder connected to a catheter.","When compressed, it forces the groundwater out of the pump and into the sample collection container.","The pump is made from polyethylene because it's flexible and inert.","The plastic is immune to chemical or biological reactions that could contaminate the water sample.","The extruder melts the polyethylene pellets and forces the liquid through a tube-shaped eye.","Then, it uses cold water to cool and solidify the poly.","This produces a 1-inch tube.","A razor cutter slices the tube into either 15- or 32-inch-long pieces, depending on the pump size.","They use a different eye to produce a wider pvc plastic tube for the pump's housing.","This tube goes on a computer-guided lathe, which cuts threads on the ends.","The same lathe works with a computer-guided mill to shape the pump's top cap.","It's also made from pvc plastic.","They make the pump's bottom cap and bladder cap the same way.","The lathe also carves a solid rod of stainless steel into a small disc-shaped weight.","The weight helps the pump sink in the water and collect the samples.","A technician preps the weights for engraving.","He sprays them to hide their shiny surface.","Without this masking, the laser would bounce off the surface, instead of penetrating it.","He loads the weights into the computer-guided engraving machine, then starts it up.","The laser engraves the name of the manufacturer, the pump's model number, serial number, and other product information.","When the engraving is complete, he separates the weights and washes off the coating with water.","Next, they make the air supply line.","They mix 2% concentrated blue polyethylene pellets with 98% colorless ones.","They use the same extruder as before to create a narrow tube; as well as an opaque polyethylene tube, for the pump's discharge line.","Then, they combine the air supply and water discharge tubes with a heat-bonding machine.","It bonds them in 6-inch intervals.","This lets engineers in the field cut the tubes to the length they need.","Now, it's time to assemble the bladder pump.","They fit the top of the bladder into a cap that has a hollow center rod.","They place an o-ring seal around another cap and attach that cap to the bottom of the bladder.","The o-ring will prevent water from leaking out of the pump and air from seeping in.","They insert a ball-shaped valve in the top cap.","Then, they attach a hose bar for connecting the discharge line.","They insert the bladder into the pump's housing.","They connect an air supply hose barb next to the discharge hose barb.","They place the weight on the bottom cap of the pump and insert another ball-shaped valve.","They complete the pump by attaching the bottom cap to the bottom of the bladder.","When engineers submerge the pump in a well, water enters through the bottom and slowly fills the bladder.","They drive compressed air into the pump housing via the air supply tube.","The pressurized air surrounds the bladder, squeezing it.","This forces the lower ball to close off the bottom of the pump, trapping the water sample inside the bladder.","The trapped water moves the ball at the top of the pump, which clears the exit route.","Then, they send bursts of air to the pump in timed intervals.","Each burst squeezes the bladder.","This gradually forces the water sample to the top of the pump.","It's then collected in a container on the surface.","It helps to have a flat surface when you're ironing wrinkled clothing.","The first ironing boards were simple wooden panels held up at ends by chairs.","Folding legs were added in the 1860s, creating a standalone structure that could be collapsed for easy storage.","This professional ironing board is equipped for every pressing need.","Its heated surface ensures that every garment is expertly steamed or ironed.","Each board starts with a hand-drawn design that includes detailed measurements.","They upload the information to a computer.","Computer-guided tools cut the ironing board surface out of steel.","Then, they drill 300 vent holes.","A machine melts and molds plastic under pressure.","It creates 20 different parts, including this control panel.","The plastic is a strong polycarbonate that won't deteriorate when exposed to the heat of an iron.","The molded components include the ironing board's base structure and numerous body parts and attachments.","A worker assembles the fan's motor.","The fan will blow the fabric for easy steaming or suction the fabric to keep it on the board.","He secures the fan shaft to the base plate and motor.","He flips the structure over and installs a small fan for cooling the motor.","He fastens the cooling fan to the shaft with a clip.","Next, he inserts a metal base plate in the ironing board's molded plastic housing.","He places an electric coil underneath the ironing surface.","He bends the tabs on the plate around the element to secure it in place.","He then makes the makes the electrical connections.","He installs the perforated steel plate on top.","Then, he screws the plate to the rest of the unit.","He flips the ironing board over and tucks the fan into a molded plastic slot in the back.","He screws the fan to the rim of the plastic compartment.","He transfers the ironing table to a rack until the next step.","When the worker's ready, he places the central body part over the fan and electronics.","He attaches the wired control panel to the end of the ironing board.","He drives large pins into it to secure it to the molded casing.","He connects the the control panel to the fan, the heating element, the thermostat, and the temperature sensors.","He tucks the wiring into the central body part.","He attaches a latch for accessing the mechanics of the ironing board.","Then, he screws a molded plastic side plate to the central body part.","He closes the control panel, encasing the mechanics of the ironing board.","He secures the legs to the central body part using a pivot mechanism.","In this professional ironing board, the work surface folds and unfolds.","The legs will remain stable at all times.","He secures the legs with the molded plastic structure.","He turns the knob on the pivot mechanism to set the board's height.","He peels the protective plastic off of the perforated steel structure.","He fits an elastic cover snugly over the ironing board.","It's made of breathable, synthetic fabric and foam padding.","The worker tests the ironing board.","He sets plastic-covered pods on the ironing board.","He activates the blow function and the plastic expands.","Then, he activates the suction option and the plastic collapses.","The tests confirm that the ironing board works properly, ensuring that these ironing jobs will go more smoothly.","Kayaking with a proper paddle can make the experience more comfortable and more efficient for a longer period of time.","Paddle designs are different for flatwater kayaking, versus whitewater kayaking.","Within both those categories, there are many different blade shapes and shaft designs.","This is a premium touring kayak paddle.","It's designed to be stiff, strong, and very lightweight.","The angle of the blades is called the feather angle.","Kayakers can adjust the feather angle for wrist comfort and aerodynamics.","The first step is to make the mold for the blade.","It's comprised of many complex parts.","Each one is shaped out of a block of copper or steel.","This is a high-precision process.","Producing a mold for just one blade style costs about $100,000.","Once all the components are ready, workers assemble the mold.","The corners have long alignment pins.","The pins guide the mold as it opens and closes on the injection press.","Workers mount the mold on the press, then load transparent nylon pellets into the hopper.","They position a black reinforcement rib inside the blade mold.","The press closes and injects hot, melted nylon into the mold cavity.","Then, the press cools the mold and solidifies the nylon.","The mold opens and ejects the kayak blade, which is now reinforced with the newly incorporated rib.","This entire molding process takes 3 minutes.","The press only molds a preliminary shape.","Next, they clamp the blade to a template and start up a computer-guided router.","The computer contours the blade to its final shape.","Here's the blade before and after this step.","The shaft is made of molded carbon fiber.","Each paddle is comprised of two connecting sections.","Workers prepare a right and left shaft piece for each paddle.","They saw each one to the required length and cut orientation slots in the end.","The orientation slots correctly position the piece, relative to the feather angle adjustment mechanism.","They roughen the surface area with a belt sander to optimize adhesion.","They apply a fifth layer of epoxy glue...","Then insert the shaft into the blade.","They wipe away the excess, then let the glue dry for 24 hours.","Next, they assemble the feather angle adjustment mechanism.","They place a nylon retaining cap on a spring and insert the spring into a nylon housing.","They flip the assembly over and put it into an ultrasonic welder.","Then, they place another retaining cap on the other end of the spring.","The welder uses high frequencies to generate heat.","The heat melts the nylon and quickly fuses the second retaining cap to the housing.","They attach the part to the rest of the paddle.","Then, they glue it into the right shaft piece.","They wipe away the excess glue and attach the final section of the adjustment mechanism.","They wrap tape around the mechanism to contain the glue.","After the glue has dried, they connect the right and left sides of the paddle with the feather angle adjustment.","They put it in the lock position, which is indicated by a white line.","They apply a decal denoting the feather angles; then, a second decal, illustrating how to select them.","A third decal with the brand name goes on the blade.","Adjusting the feather angle is simple.","First, you push the left and right shafts toward the middle and rotate them to the desired angle.","Then, you pull them apart, to lock it in the new blade position.","Some paddle models do not have feather angle adjustments, however, every kayak paddle this company produces separates into two pieces, to make transporting easier."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Kayaks","Safety Boots","Electronic Signs","Cereals"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Kayaks-- we'll tip you off to how they're made.","Safety boots-- we'll walk you through the manufacturing process.","Electronic signs--  a sign of the times.","And cereal--  we're milking this one big time.","In days gone by, kayaks were made of wood and animal skin and used by people who hunted to survive.","Fast-forward to today, and you'll see that kayaks have updated their image.","Now they're marvels of molded plastic coveted by sports enthusiasts far and wide.","A kayak is formed by the melting of plastic on a mold of nickel.","This mold is made in two parts-- an upper and a lower section.","The surface of the mold is perfectly smooth and has a mirror finish that guarantees an excellent luster.","The graphics are laid on the mold before molding begins.","This way, they're well-impregnated in the plastic.","It's an operation that requires quite a bit of dexterity because, contrary to self-adhering stickers, these graphics can't be lifted off if they haven't been well-positioned.","This is the yellow powder they're going to melt-- linear polyethylene.","It comes in several colors.","The amount of powder to be melted is determined by the kayak model to be made.","At the same time, in other molds, they're going to fabricate other parts of the kayak, such as the baggage compartment cover, the central support, and the seats.","The polyethylene is poured into the mold, which is then closed.","All the other molds are closed, as well.","Before entering the oven, the molds are securely closed with clamps to avoid any loss of polyethylene.","The kayak mold is put onto a transporter and placed facing the oven.","Because of the large dimensions of the craft, the oven had to be custom-made.","The whole kayak goes in.","The oven is 23 feet long and has a diameter of about 6 feet.","The polyethylene melts at 550 degrees.","To completely distribute the powder throughout the mold, it pivots on several axes.","It turns on itself while the oven oscillates 30 degrees towards the front and rear.","This procedure is termed \"rock 'n' roll\" and lasts 19 minutes.","Cooking is now over, and the mold exits the oven.","But the plastic has to cool in order to solidify.","To do this, they place the mold in this cooling chamber.","It must not be cooled too quickly or it deforms.","A 16-foot kayak can lose up to 6 inches of its length.","Now the cover of the mold is lifted off.","Then they unmold the cover and the other small parts.","The kayak is finally unmolded.","Now they can proceed to machining it.","While inspecting the kayak, they remove any plastic ridges left by the joint between the two halves of the mold.","They now move to finishing.","This begins with the screwing on of carrying handles.","Here, they cut the opening for the baggage compartment.","And then they install the trimming.","The central support is positioned.","It plays an important role because it links the bottom and top portions of the craft.","All that remains now is to finish the baggage compartment.","They attach fasteners, then put the cover in place and hold it down with a retaining strap.","Finally, the kayak is packaged, ready for delivery.","This company makes 12 kayak models of various dimensions.","Here's a lesson we hope you won't have to learn the hard way.","Drop a hammer on the job, and you might have a few broken toes to show for it.","Enter the sturdy work boot.","Lace on a pair, and chances are, your feet will survive even your klutziest moments.","Work boots are made from cowhide that has undergone both mineral and finishing tanning.","A waterproofing treatment completes the preparation.","Let's follow the process.","This machine is a shaver.","It evens up the hide and opens its pores before it receives other appropriate treatments.","They treat the hides in this retanning drum.","Water, coloring products, and retanning products are at temperatures varying from 90 to 180 degrees.","Hides are removed from the retanning drum.","The leather will then be vacuum-dried for 2 minutes at a temperature of 160 degrees.","Then, the hide will be hung for 24 to 48 hours.","Here, the hide is stretched on a vacuum-drying plate.","It's evened out to get rid of any creases.","A hide measures almost 22 square feet.","They'll need about 4 square feet of leather to make a boot.","They begin cutting the boot parts.","This punch, with the help of a press, cuts the different pieces of leather.","They also cut brown fabric pieces-- the interior lining of the boot, made from a foam base and woven polyester fibers.","This paring machine thins the edges before they're sewn.","During the cutting, each piece of leather is identified by its size.","They now begin assembly of the boot.","The two sides of the boot are sewn together on this machine.","Now the front part of the boot is assembled.","Excess leather is progressively cut away.","The eyelets-- made of steel, brass, or aluminum-- are then positioned.","Here, they attach a foot mount on a form with tiny nails called tacks.","The last is placed in the boot to facilitate the assembly of the front part.","This carding machine removes any unevenness at the level of the lining before proceeding to the next step.","They now install the tempered-steel toe cap.","The lining is pulled.","They insert the cap and fix it well in place.","The leather is folded beneath the boot, the bottom secured with a tack, and the sides fastened with hot glue on this seat and side lasting machine.","The boot front is now finished.","We get a good view of the application of the hot glue.","At this stage, they remove the last installed at the beginning.","It's no longer needed.","Now the sole will be installed.","The heel core is of pine.","It's put onto the sole, which will soon be secured into place.","Here, they proceed with machining and welding of the rubber sole to the boot tip.","It's called vulcanization, done at a temperature of 330 degrees.","And the sole is solidly installed.","This machine sands the edges of the sole to eliminate any vulcanization residue.","They also apply a sealant.","They now place an insole inside the boot.","Here, they install the laces and stitch on the labels.","The boots now leave for the packaging area.","Building a pair of boots required no less than 123 different fabrication steps, including packaging.","Each pair needs 330 feet of nylon, cotton, and polyester threads and over 10 square feet of thick and rugged leather.","Take a stroll down tokyo's downtown drag, and you'll get the distinct impression that neon is passé.","Today, electronic signs are all the buzz-- futuristic miracles of light, color, and animation that make the world their matinee screen.","Digital electronic signboards are sometimes used as giant television screens or to post written messages.","They come in different sizes--  from a few feet all the way up to many thousands of square feet.","The creation of a sign starts with plans drawn by engineers and architects.","Hundreds of plans are created by computer, among other methods, and require between two days or even a month of work.","Millions of tiny lights, or light-emitting diodes called elements, make up the screen's surface.","These elements are made of germanium, gallium nitrate, and silicon semiconductors covered with plastic.","These elements have to be placed so as to form a matrix.","Each of the 20 machines at this plant can install and solder 1,500 elements an hour.","Lighting up an element requires only 10 to 20 milliamps, and they last for about 150,000 hours.","All the wires are placed behind the matrix in the different electrical connections.","This conceals everything behind the sign and shelters it from the weather.","Depending upon the distance from which the sign will be seen, spaces between the elements vary from 1/10 of an inch to several inches.","A workman now makes the electrical connections.","The wires have to be solidly connected to resist shaking caused by movement of the signboard.","The matrices must operate together and require controllers, which send information from one to the other.","Thus, each group controls its own image.","Each matrix has to be electrically powered and integrated to its own 5-volt element-illuminating connector.","Sometimes the matrices are made up in two pieces-- one supporting the elements and the other having the components.","In this case, it simply requires two cards to establish the contact.","Now they connect the information cable that lights up and extinguishes the elements.","Each matrix has two connectors-- one that supplies the electric current and the other that carries the sign's information.","Here, they verify the functioning of each matrix.","Then, they can begin to join matrices together to construct the signboard.","We see here all the colors assembled as they will be on the screen.","The boards are sometimes installed outside and are thus vulnerable to the weather.","That's why they put on this rubber strip, which waterproofs it.","The matrices are now assembled together.","Then, 10 matrices are joined to make up a module.","At this stage, they insert the signboard conductor.","Then the wires are connected.","These wires transmit electric current and all the information relating to the sign.","The elements require a very low-voltage current-- about 5 volts.","Each module is then provided with its own converter to maintain a steady voltage.","Then all the modules are assembled in the signboard support.","And the many electrical connections linking the different modules are made.","This gigantic signboard is a composition of 35 modules and 12 matrices.","The signboard is almost finished.","They now check the color, the luminosity, and the resolution of the screen.","The signboard is made of 120,000 electrical light diodes and took nearly 3 months of work.","Each year, this company constructs hundreds of digital signboards requiring about 100 million lighting elements.","If you aren't the type to rise at the crack of dawn and wolf down a hearty breakfast, chances are you eat a bowl of cereal or a granola bar on the fly.","One of the best ways to beat the early-morning blahs, the goodness of cereal now comes in as many forms as our fast-paced lifestyles demand.","Our breakfast cereals were born out of the religious beliefs of the seventh-day adventists.","The seventh-day adventists are vegetarians who, in 1860, founded a sanatorium where patients were fed only cereals-- wheat flakes invented by dr.","John harvey kellogg.","His brother, william keith, saw a promising future and built the first flakes factory to market the product.","His success would later be imitated by the famous charles william post of post cereals.","The making of frosted corn flakes starts in this cooker.","The corn kernels are cooked here for 2 hours and 20 minutes.","Then the corn kernels are ground up.","They're ground up by this endless worm screw.","It also determines the number of pounds of kernels needed to make up a cereal recipe.","The ground corn is next dried in a dryer unit, an important step before they're cooked.","To give them their nice, flat shape, the corn kernels are crushed in the flake roller.","Two rollers turn opposite to each other, and the kernels fall into the constricted space between them.","The flakes fall onto this conveyor, and the next step will be cooking.","The flakes arrive at the cooking oven.","They're shaken to make sure they will be uniformly browned.","The flakes exit the oven well-browned.","They then fall into this chute and head in the direction of the next step.","This vibrating conveyor sorts the flakes and retains only the right-sized ones.","This drum mixes the flakes and sprays them with a sweet solution boiling at 445 degrees.","The sweet solution is dried, and a rake uniformly spreads out the frosted flakes on the canvas.","Now they add in vitamins.","The cereals are placed into this rotating drum.","The vitamins are sprayed onto the flakes by a series of jets.","The cereals are now finished, and they head toward the packaging site.","This packager fills the bags with cereal.","It handles between 40 and 45 bags a minute before they head off for final packaging.","This plant doesn't only make cereals.","It also makes soft cereal bars.","This kneader mixes the ingredients-- oat flakes, rice, and syrup.","The preparation is mixed twice a minute.","When well-mixed, the preparation is poured into a large container.","They will now proceed with the molding of the bars.","The contents of the bin are emptied onto a conveyor.","And the mixture is spread out.","Here, they add chocolate chips to the mixture.","The mix is compressed to the desired bar thickness by this roller.","The bar separator then divides the mix into 35 equal strips.","And then a guillotine cuts the bars to their proper length.","The bars continue circulating.","This equipment is used to line up the bars and make the packaging process easier.","Side by side, the bars are turned here so that they run one behind the other.","This roller applies a delicious caramel fondant to the bars.","This caramel fondant then cools and sets.","They're now at the final stage of production-- coating with chocolate.","About 400 pounds of chocolate are needed for the bar recipe.","Now finished, the bars are ready for packaging.","This machine individually bags the bars.","Finally, they proceed with the packaging.","These tasty bars will be enjoyed by children, as well as adults."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Steel","Apple Juice","Aircraft Landing Gear","Cosmetics"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Steel--  the original heavy metal...","Apple juice--  from the tree to the glass...","Aircraft landing gear-- what you really need to score a touchdown, and cosmetics-- we'll tour a factory where they make it up as they go along.","They call superman \"the man of steel\" because, flying and x-ray vision aside, he could bend solid steel with his bare hands.","Thanks to its legendary strength, steel is used for everything from bridges and skyscrapers to household appliances.","Steelmaking usually begins with a pile of scrap metal.","Using this 11-ton electromagnet, scrap iron--  composed of crushed car bodies, electric appliances, cans, and other steel scraps-- is gathered up.","This powerful magnet is able to lift 5 1/2 tons of metal.","About 83% of this scrap will be transformed into bars of steel.","This metal is then dumped into a basket which, by itself, weighs 35 tons.","The basket can hold up to 65 tons of metal.","And now they're going to melt the metal.","This furnace reaches a temperature of 3,000 degrees, hot enough to liquefy the metal.","It is heated by three electrodes and by four natural-gas burners.","The contents of the basket are dumped into the furnace.","Here, the pieces of metal come into contact with liquefied steel, which always remains at the bottom of the furnace.","There's a reaction, and an aeration system draws out the smoke that's produced.","At this high heat, the 66 tons of metal will melt in about 60 minutes.","Then the cover is placed on the furnace.","This liquid is composed of impurities that rise to the surface when the metal becomes molten.","At this stage, a workman draws a sample of steel to determine its chemical makeup.","And now they make use of a supersonic oxygen lance.","This lance blows oxygen into the molten steel.","This reduces its carbon content, homogenizes the mix, and speeds up the melting process.","A ladle is positioned beneath the furnace.","The molten steel will be transferred from the furnace into this ladle.","The molten steel easily pours into the ladle.","The ladle weighs 60 tons and holds 127 tons of molten steel.","An overhead crane capable of lifting 200 tons carries the ladle filled with steel.","Additives are introduced in order to obtain the correct steel tone.","Here, the electrodes are taken out of the furnace ladle.","A workman now opens the pouring nozzles of the distributor.","It is equipped with four pouring holes.","The molten steel runs into molds.","It cools very quickly and begins to harden.","Steel billets are produced in lengths varying from 15 to 35 feet.","The billets are then cut to the desired length with a natural-gas torch.","A pouring identification number is marked on them with a wax crayon.","The difference between a steel billet and the nearly finished flattened product is clear.","Flattening of the billets remains to be done.","Before flattening begins, billets are placed in the furnace to be reheated for 2 hours at 2,000 degrees.","Water jets cool the billet ejector.","The billets are placed on the flattener, where powerful rollers compress them.","This operation gives the billets the required shape and size.","Water-cooled rollers crush the billets.","Some billets go from a thickness of 5 inches down to 1/2 an inch, while other reduce from 6 inches down to 3/4 of an inch.","At the end of production, bars move along at a speed reaching 22 miles per hour.","Once they reach their required dimensions, the bars must be cooled.","This cooling bed allows the steel bars to cool uniformly.","A total of 440,000 tons of steel bars are made at this plant each year.","Dump thousands of apples into a giant press, apply several tons of pressure, and what do you get?","Apple juice, of course.","And good thing it's made on such an enormous scale, when you consider how many people drink gallons of this popular juice every year.","Here at rougemeau, they make apple juice mainly from mcintosh apples.","Some 90% of juice production is done at harvesttime in october.","A conveyor transports apples to an inspection location.","Apples tumble in the reverse direction of the conveyor belt so that wet leaves and undesirable materials adhere to the belt.","The apples are stored in silos for several hours.","So the apples don't get too bruised in their descent, they're slowed down in this stepped chute.","Juice making can now begin.","Now they wash the apples.","Since they use some apples that have already fallen to the ground, this first water bath must eliminate pebbles.","A shower of cool water completes the washing process.","The apples are cut into little pieces in this grinder and produce gratings.","Enzymes are added, which break down the cellular structure of the fruit, allowing for maximum juice extraction.","Next, the gratings are transferred into maceration reservoirs, where they'll stay for 60 to 90 minutes.","Then they extract the juice.","The gratings are pumped into a powerful hydraulic press.","Inside the press, filter sleeves hold back the skins, seeds, and stems of the apples.","Quality control is strict.","At each stage of the process, they draw off samples of juice to evaluate its quality and to make sure that fabrication parameters are well adhered to.","The juice is filtered a first time.","The very smallest undesirable particles are held back by this sieve.","The fabrication process continues.","Juice flows from one stage to another via these immense reservoirs.","The next step will be pasteurization.","Juice enters this exchanger at 72 degrees and is heated up to 190 degrees, then cooled back down to 122 degrees.","Enzymes are then added to hydrate the pectin and facilitate the second filtration.","This is the ultra-filtration process, where filter membranes with microscopic pores retain the smallest of particles.","The apple juice is now perfectly filtered.","Its clarity is verified, as well as its flavor, color, and natural fruit-sugar content.","Since juice is produced in october, it has to be conserved throughout the year.","A portion of the production is stored in this sterile warehouse area to await being bottled during the year.","Each reservoir can hold 29,000 gallons of filtered juice.","No preserving agent is added.","Now we move to the next stage, the filling of containers.","These little drinking containers are filled at the rate of 100 a minute.","The containers are then hermetically sealed.","Two little sprays of hot glue are applied to the containers.","This secures the straws to their sides.","Another automated production line fills bottles with juice.","They circulate in a row on this conveyor.","Bottles are washed and disinfected with hydrogen peroxide in this white, sterile room.","Then they're rinsed with sterile water before being carried to the filling location.","Each minute, 120 bottles are filled with pasteurized apple juice and sealed with a cap in a sterile environment.","Bottles are then labeled and sent to shipping.","Between 20,000 and 40,000 tons of apples are transformed into juice yearly.","Thanks to its perfect preservation, consumers can enjoy this juice at any time of the year.","What goes up, they say, must come down, and when what's up is an airplane, you need dependable landing gear to get you back down safely.","This critical piece of aircraft equipment is the product of expert mechanics combined with sophisticated technology.","This heavy piece of steel is the undercarriage of a kc-135r airplane.","A landing gear comprises a central shaft to which an axle and wheels are attached.","They begin machining the shaft.","This digital lathe machines the exterior surface of the part.","Sprays of water and oil cool the part, which heats up due to friction.","They're now going to pierce the shaft.","This drill head will ream out the inside of the shaft.","Alignment of the head must be perfect, so they're cautious with their work.","The perforating gets under way.","Turnings from the cutting are saved, and these will be sold to foundries, where they'll be recycled.","We see here the cutting tool used to pierce the holes in the landing gear.","To perforate the part, very sharp cutting tools are used.","Here, they complete an attachment hole.","The hole is enlarged on its sides, as required by this machine tool.","The part is cooled with a mix of water and oil.","Cutting is completed, and the hole is now cleaned out with compressed air so that they can proceed with a visual inspection.","Here, three pieces are rough-cut at the same time by this machine.","Because they'll be used in aviation, these pieces have to be machined to perfection.","The machining of the shaft is now almost completed.","This deburring unit polishes the machine's surfaces with a compressed-air tool and sandpaper discs.","And now they have to verify the dimensions of the parts.","This digitally controlled machine has three axes and does the verification with extreme precision.","Here, another unit allows for the machining of parts with greater dimensions.","This facility also reconditions used landing gears, such as this one from a boeing 707.","They strip off the paint with a sandblaster to verify the condition of the parts with great precision.","And here are those parts stripped clean.","But a visual inspection is not enough.","They can detect cracks by magnetic-particle concentration.","They magnetize the part, and any cracks will become visible under ultraviolet light.","Now it's time for the shot-metal procedure, where they spray steel balls onto the metal's surface to increase its resistance to fatigue.","Before repainting the part, they first plate it.","The part is immersed for 10 minutes in cadmium, which forms a protective coating on it that will resist corrosion.","Then the part is quickly soaked in a weak concentration of chromic acid.","Water, agitated by air jets, cleans away the chromic acid, and the part is rinsed with water another time.","The part is now baked at 375 degrees over 23 hours to remove hydrogen induced during the plating process.","Then the part is immersed in liquid nitrogen at -200 degrees before it's inserted in order to reduce its size.","This collar is easily pushed on with a hydraulic jack.","Reheating the collar makes it return to its normal size.","Now the different components and the leakproof joints are inserted into the piston.","The shock-absorber tube goes into the piston.","This part absorbs the shock stresses when an aircraft lands.","The piston is now slid into the cylinder, and they verify that the shock absorber is leakproof.","Fabrication finishes with paint baked in an oven.","Some six to eight months are required to make a new landing gear and between six to eight weeks to recondition a used one.","Perfume, eye shadow, foundation, lipstick-- they're all products of a huge industry driven by our desire for beauty.","Well, \"how it's made\" is about to show you how they manufacture cosmetics, and we assure you, we're not making this up.","During archaeological excavations, mummies were discovered wearing makeup, the egyptian technique of enhancing eye contours with antimony, lead, and metal oxides-- all toxic, lethal substances.","Greek women also adorned their cheeks with a dye made from lead oxide.","In 1910, florence nightingale, under the name elizabeth arden, would change the whole makeup picture, launching the vogue for cosmetics without toxic agents.","Cosmetics have been in existence since the dawn of time.","There are many ingredients that make up a cosmetic formula.","The industry heavily uses iron oxides to color its products in a multitude of attractive tones.","Before moving into fabrication, each ingredient must be carefully and accurately weighed.","These raw materials are often dry, such as powder, but can also be liquid and even oil or wax.","Every ingredient will have first been approved by the quality-control laboratory.","A single formula may contain over 50 ingredients.","The other essential ingredient is water.","The water used in making cosmetics is first purified by an inverse-osmosis system.","When it meets strict company standards, it is put into a stainless-steel tank.","Depending on the complexity of the recipe, between 4 and 10 hours of work are needed to make up a product.","Let's begin with a bubble-bath recipe.","A part of the recipe is prepared in an adjoining container to make certain ingredients more soluble.","A stainless-steel screw propeller mixes all the ingredients thoroughly.","All along its fabrication processing, the product will be subjected to many tests.","Here, an acid-based neutralization-reaction test is performed with a color indicator.","The bubble bath has to be colored.","A fragrance and a color are added, for in this recipe, the final product will be mauve.","Before the filling process, the quality-control and microbiology laboratories make sure that the product meets strict quality standards.","Now it's on to the next step.","This filler can simultaneously fill up to 12 700-milliliter bottles at a steady pace of 50 per minute.","The fill level is adjusted electronically.","Capping remains to be done.","This capper positions and tightens the caps automatically.","Urethane rollers apply the precise tightening force.","The bottles now pass beneath a sealer via induction, which generates a magnetic field, heating the metal piece placed in the cap.","When hot enough, it welds itself onto the neck of the bottle.","Another product made here is the peeling mask.","The mask is poured into this funnel, whose end is attached to the tube-filler pipe.","The product descends via gravity.","The filler pours the peeling mask into 50 tubes each minute.","Then, with heat and crimping, the tube end is sealed, and the tube heads for packaging.","Other products made here--  cologne and perfume.","The liquid is drawn into the bottle by suction.","This rotating filler operates with intermittent vacuum to fill 50 bottles a minute.","Bottles are positioned beneath the 16 filling spouts that seal their opening to allow for the creation of a vacuum, which draws in the product.","Now atomizer pumps are inserted.","Handling two bottles simultaneously, this machine seals the pump, securing it around the neck of the bottle.","We see the white sleeve aligning the pump, while the gray one tightens the pump.","Then there are the sprayers.","This machine applies the spray stoppers and, with a hammer, presses them onto the pumps of the bottles, which are now finished.","And one final product--  roll-on deodorants.","This machine fills 115 bottles a minute, handling 8 bottles at a time.","A filling stem pours the product into the bottle, and here they place the roller ball at 115 per minute.","Then the ball is lightly pressed into the cavity in which it turns freely.","This plant makes over 1,200 different products and yearly sells 32 million items per year."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Statue Restoration","Tripods","Polish Sausages","Welding Guns"]},"text":["People have been crafting religious statues for years.","But time can take a toll on these sacred works of art.","That's where restoration experts come in.","These professionals work small miracles to return statues to their former glory.","This is a wooden sculpture of the christian messiah.","It was originally crafted in the 15th century.","But today, it's riddled with termites and broken.","A major restoration has been its salvation.","Now, this historic work of art is once again on display in an italian church.","Like the messiah statue, this 18th century madonna is damaged.","The plaster on her face is chipped.","Her fingers are broken, and her robes are crumbling.","First, the restorer dusts off some of the surface dirt.","He uses a soft brush and gentle movements to avoid further destruction.","Then, he prepares a cleaning solution.","He mixes a low-acid, perfume-free soap with water.","He uses mild soap because it's gentle on old plaster.","He heats up the mixture to melt the soap.","Then, he starts cleaning the statue.","He applies the cleanser to the madonna's face and body.","He lets it soak into the plaster for 7 to 15 minutes.","He makes sure the statue doesn't absorb too much water because that would cause more deterioration.","Next, the restorer wipes the statue down with a damp sea sponge.","Centuries of dirt and grime come off.","For serious stains, he combines alcohol and ammonia.","He applies the cleansing mixture using a cotton swab.","He lightly scrubs off the deep stains.","The alcohol evaporates quickly so it's not on the surface of the statue long enough to do any more damage.","This madonna statue is starting to look like her old self.","The restorer uses rabbit glue for the next step.","It's a strong and flexible adhesive that won't chip or crack.","He dissolves some glue in distilled water.","He applies it to the cloth exposed underneath the broken plaster.","Then, he mixes a special plaster called gesso with the rabbit glue.","The mixture is 80% plaster and 20% glue.","He dabs the plaster mixture onto the glued sections to fill in the gaps in the madonna's robes.","He repairs her chipped nose using a thicker version of the plaster solution.","He applies it with a small spatula.","After the first coat of plaster on the robes dries, the restorer adds another thicker coat.","He adds more layers until he has enough material to work with.","Then, he sculpts the robe's contours using a surgical scalpel.","He blends the repair into the original plaster and sands it until it looks seamless.","He mixes water-based paint to match the original colors.","Then, he carefully covers the repaired sections, blending the old with the new.","He mends the brocade by pressing gold leaf onto the border of the robes.","The gold leaf sticks to the glue applied earlier, matching the original pattern.","He seals the paint with carnuba wax-- it gives the surface of the statue a hard and resilient finish.","It can take up to 4 months to restore a damaged statue.","A sculpture that's hundreds of years old can look as good as new in just a few months.","Then, churchgoers can enjoy it for centuries to come.","Humans have been making three-legged objects for thousands of years.","The third leg gives these structures extra stability.","Some of the earliest photographs were taken with cameras mounted on tripods.","In fact, the tripod has been called the most important photographic accessory ever invented.","Early tripods were made out of wood.","They were heavy and cumbersome.","Their design and materials have improved over time to meet the needs of both hobbyists and professionals alike.","Today's state-of-the-art tripod is lightweight, collapsible and equipped with precision adjustments.","Contemporary tripods are made from aluminum tubes that have four different diameters.","The tubes are electrowelded and anodized for precision, hardness and durability.","A machine cuts the tubes to the required lengths.","A press expands one end of the d-shaped tubes to keep the smaller diameters in place.","Here are two of the different-sized diameter tubes.","A worker inserts a tube into this machine.","It uses a high-precision laser to etch the company's name into the aluminum.","The laser process turns the etched aluminum white.","They coat aluminum castings with powdered paint.","The casting is part of a component called a spider.","It connects the tripod's legs.","Once painted, the components are taken to a cnc machine.","The machine shapes the parts to the designer's exact specifications.","A worker puts foam sleeves called leg warmers on two of the tripod's three legs.","The sleeves allow photographers to easily handle the legs in extreme temperatures.","The worker uses a pressurized air device to open the sleeve, then she inserts the leg.","She uses a specialized machine to add the top hinge collar to the upper leg section.","The parts were designed to work together and click neatly into place.","Next, she applies the locking collars.","When a photographer adjusts the legs, the locking collars will hold them in place.","She threads a bolt through the collar ends and adds a quick-release lever to the assembly.","Then, she fastens all the components in place.","The levers are ergonomically designed and can be opened with one hand.","She presses bushings into place on the upper collar to complete the leg assembly.","Now, the tripod is ready for the next phase.","But first, the worker performs a quick quality control check.","She makes sure the legs slide in and out correctly.","Then, she checks the locking collars.","Next, she brings the legs together to form the tripod.","She positions the bottom of the spider component on a specially-designed support mechanism.","She installs the legs and caps them with the top of the spider, then she bolts everything in place.","Next, a worker assembles the tripod head.","This state-of-the-art component can be adjusted in three directions.","She places plastic rings between the three main parts to ensure smooth and accurate adjustments.","She installs leveling bubbles to help photographers accurately position their cameras.","She adds the upper plate and the adjustment knobs.","The plate screws into the camera, which conveniently mounts onto the tripod.","The knobs also adjust for easy storage and transport.","She labels a knob to indicate the scale of friction intensity.","Once the entire head assembly is complete, a worker carefully threads it onto the tripod column.","The final step in the assembly process is to slide the column and head down through the spreader.","A worker checks to ensure the mechanism is working correctly, then tightens the locking knob.","The finished tripod is lightweight, compact and durable.","This tripod is ideal for both professionals and hobbyists.","It'll keep the camera steady for anyone who wants to take portraits, profile architectural features, or capture panoramic landscapes.","Polish sausage isn't necessarily made in poland.","Also called kielbasa, the term refers to the style of sausage rather than its location.","It's usually made entirely of pork, or a mix of pork and veal.","The meat is seasoned with salt, pepper, and garlic.","These sausages might be made in canada, but there as polish as warsaw.","This kielbasa is 100% pork, traditionally seasoned and cooked by natural wood smoking.","This company uses the hind leg meat leftover from the hams they sell.","Each sausage recipe calls for specific portions of lean, medium, and fat meat.","Workers fill three separate meat carts with the required quantity of each.","They grind the contents of each cart separately.","The three types of meat are ground to different sizes.","The lean meat will be the largest, and the fat meat will be the smallest.","The small chunks of fat meat will fill the gaps between the large, lean chunks.","They also add whole garlic cloves to the grinder with the fat meat.","Then, they prepare a spice mix that includes garlic powder, white pepper, coarsely-ground white, red, and black peppercorns, and a proprietary blend of dried herbs and spices.","They also add pickling salt as a preservative.","They blend the spices, pork, and cold water in a mixer.","The mixer also vacuums air out of the meat.","This helps the seasoning thoroughly saturate the pork.","It also makes the sausage denser and concentrates the flavor.","They mix the ingredients for 15 minutes, then let it rest and marinate for several hours.","After marinating, the meat is ready to be put into sausage casings.","The casing is made out of hog intestine.","The filling specialist controls the fill speed with a knee-operated lever.","He applies the right amount of pressure with his fingers to stuff the fragile casing without tearing it.","No two hog intestines are identical, so this process can't be automated.","The filling specialist constantly adjusts the speed and pressure as he works.","The filling specialist takes the finished casing and gently loops it over his arm.","Then, he puts the loops on the rack of a smokehouse trolley.","A fully-loaded trolley holds about 550 pounds of raw sausages.","They roll the trolley into the smokehouse chamber, shut the door...","And light the fire.","They feed maple and hickory logs into a 10-foot fire pit located directly below the chamber.","They monitor each sausage while it's smoking and adjust the heat exposure as needed.","The smoking period lasts for 6 to 8 hours.","The meat cooks at about 160 degrees to kill off all the bacteria.","The smoke infuses it with additional flavor, naturally curing the sausages.","After the sausages leave the smokehouse, they're cleaned with hot water.","Then, the sausages are rinsed in cold water and sent to a blast fridge.","This minimizes the amount of time the sausages are warm enough for bacteria to grow.","The rapid cooling procedure eliminates the need for additional chemical preservatives.","A worker cuts the sausage into 4 1/2-pound portions.","He places each portion in the bottom tray of the plastic package.","Before sealing the tray, a machine sucks out the air and replaces it with a mix of 80% nitrogen and 20% carbon dioxide.","This extends shelf life because mold and yeast can't live without oxygen.","The carbon dioxide also inhibits bacterial growth.","The nitrogen fills the package to protect the sausage during transport.","Every sealed package passes through a metal detector.","Then, a scale weighs each package and prints out a label indicating the weight and the sell-by date.","A sealed and refrigerated package of sausage can stay fresh for up to 35 days.","Once opened, these sausages taste best if eaten within 7 days-- and even better with a little sauerkraut.","Welding guns are regulars on \"how it's made\".","They're used in many factories all over the world.","They have copper claws that hold parts together with high force, then weld items together.","The guns are designed to do precision work at a steady pace.","A welding gun is designed to make the same weld over and over again.","They're programmed to accomplish a repetitive task with pinpoint accuracy.","Production starts with the gun's electrode caps, which are made out of copper rod.","The rod uncoils and travels to a forming machine with a series of punches and dies.","Mechanical fingers move the rod from one die to the next.","The punches drive the rod into the die cavities to shape it into electrode caps.","The electrodes come in thousands of different shapes and are made it many different ways.","The make this electrode, automated tools taper a thick copper rod at one end.","Then, a drill bores a hole in the other end for cooling water.","Smaller electrodes are made of partially-hollowed blanks.","They shave down the blank so that it will be able to weld in small areas.","They also shape it so that the electrode cap will fit on top.","They use another drill to make an entrance for cooling water.","The entrance intersects with the hollowed part of the cylinder.","Then, another machine bends the electrode into its final shape.","Next, they make the shunt adapter.","A worker uses a hydraulic machine to bend a copper bar around a die.","He measures it to confirm that the dimensions are correct.","A high-pressure water jet carves through a thick copper plate to create the welding arms.","The water jet can precisely cut out the part without scorching the copper.","At the next station, computerized tools shape a solid block of steel into a mount for the welding machine's motor.","It's a substantial transformation.","An employee bolts steel plates to the end of the copper arm.","He places a washer over the plates and then tightens the bolts.","He inserts the electrode in the other end of the arm.","Then, he places the cap on and hammers it in place.","The worker uses a crane to move the second weld arm into place.","He aligns the holes and joins the arms with the temporary metal pin.","The transformer delivers electricity to the electrodes.","A worker attaches the robot welding arms to it.","He replaces the temporary pin with a permanent one.","Then, he bolts the arms to the transformer.","Now, the welding gun is ready for the motor.","He joins the motor to the arms and tightens the bolts on each side.","The mechanics of this robot welding gun are complete.","Now they need to add the plumbing.","An employee cuts plastic tubing and connects it to the welding gun.","The tubes will supply a constant flow of water to the gun.","Without it, the gun would overheat and the electrode tips could melt.","He bundles some of the hoses and ties them together for neater installation.","They test every robot welding gun to confirm that it's fully operational.","This gun is a slightly different version that the one that was just assembled.","The technician also confirms that the tips have sufficient force for a good weld.","Too much force could damage the tips.","Too little force would result in a poor weld.","It takes about an hour to assemble a robot welding gun.","This gun is ready to leave the factory and be part of the action at another one."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Javelins","Cuckoo Clocks","Hearts of Palm","Windshield Wipers"]},"text":["The sport of javelin throw dates back to the olympics in ancient greece.","The athlete sprints down a runway and just before reaching a line on the ground, hurls the javelin forward.","For the throw to count, the athlete can't step over the line and the javelin has to land point-first in the ground.","This modern javelin consists of a long, hollow tube and a point.","The tube portion is called the shaft.","This company uses strong, lightweight aluminum, but javelin shafts can also be made of steel or carbon fiber.","The tube is 1.2 inches in diameter.","It first goes into a taper machine, where forming dies narrow the back end to very specific dimensions.","The taper profile varies by model but has to conform to international rules.","After making the exact end of the taper, they slice off the excess tubing.","The shaft is now its final length-- 7.2 feet for a woman's model and 8.5 feet for a men's.","A straightening machine sandwiches the shaft between two hydraulic cylinders.","They apply extreme pressure, straightening any large bends.","This is just a preliminary straightening.","The final one comes later.","Next, working strictly by eye, a specially trained technician sands the shaft, fine-tuning it to a very precise diameter and weight.","The javelin's point section is made of steel tubing that's a hair wider than the shaft.","After tapering the front, they saw off the excess, making the point around 12 inches long.","Now for the point's steel tip that jabs into the ground.","They position it in a holder, place the point body behind it, then weld the two parts together.","To make the point more aerodynamic, they sand down the weld line until it's flush with the surrounding steel.","Using progressively finer grits of sandpaper, they polish away any imperfections until the point is perfectly smooth.","Now for the final assembly.","The shaft is sporting two coats of paint, and the point is nickel-plated to rustproof the steel.","They mark how far up the shaft the point will go and slip it on temporarily.","As the javelin pivots precisely where international rules dictate, they add pieces of lead until the javelin balances.","Then all the components go on a scale to ensure their combined weight abides by international rules-- 1.3 pounds for a women's javelin, 1.8 pounds for a men's.","Next they squirt a little glue inside the point and drop the chunk of lead inside.","They drop in some knotted cord and ram it in with a metal rod.","This packs in the lead so it won't rattle around.","They use glue to adhere the point to the shaft.","They drive home the point, so to speak, by throwing the javelin against a lead slab.","The force of impact pushes the point into its final position.","Now they recheck the javelin's overall weight.","If it's underweight, they simply tape some sheet lead to the center of gravity, where the handgrip will hide it.","Using a gauge to measure the grip's permissible length, they mark the grip position at the center of gravity, then mount the javelin on a lathe and coat the marked area in glue.","They wind cotton cord around the shaft over the glue.","Before cutting the end, they verify the length of the grip with the gauge.","They apply two decals-- one bearing the company name, the other a safety warning.","But no seal of approval just yet.","The javelin still has to undergo a final straightening.","This takes an expert eye and a small hand-operated press to straighten out any bends.","It's all a question of aerodynamics.","The straighter the javelin, the more likely it is to go the distance.","The black forest region of southwest germany is world-famous for its cuckoo clocks, which have either one-day or eight-day movements, meaning that's how long they run on one winding.","The standard feature is a little bird that emerges and cuckoos when the clock strikes.","Some clocks also play music and have moving figures.","the intricate carvings that decorate many cuckoo clocks start out as a block of linden, a soft wood that's easy to carve.","An artisan first outlines the basic shape using a stencil and paint, then cuts it out with a jigsaw.","Here he's cutting three blocks at once.","To steady the piece, he mallets it to nails protruding from a block of wood.","Then he begins carving, using up to 50 different knives to sculpt exceptionally fine detail.","The clock cases these carvings decorate are made of pine or plywood, depending on the model.","Often a case has no carving at all.","Instead, an artist paints an elaborate design.","Some cases feature a combination of painting and carving.","The technical artistry is on the inside.","The clock's brain, called the movement, is a system of brass and steel gears.","It keeps time and triggers the cuckoo function.","The components and configuration vary according to whether it's a one-day or eight-day movement.","Workers sandwich the movement between two brass plates, connecting them at the corners with long screws.","Then on the outside, the install the mechanism that times the chime.","Next the steel wire on which the cuckoo bird will perch.","Then last but not least, the reels that will move the clock hands.","The factory runs every finished movement for two days straight to ensure it functions perfectly.","The first part that goes on the clock case is the dial.","They tack it with tiny nails.","Next, the wooden cuckoo bird.","They insert the movement's perch wire through a hole in its foot, then secure it with a screw so he doesn't fly off.","After trimming his tail so he'll fit, they screw the movement, bird and all, inside the case.","Next, the steel wires that operate the components that produce the cuckoo sound.","We'll see them shortly.","And, finally, the dial's wooden hands.","Every cuckoo clock has two chains that regulate the speed at which the movement gears turn.","As we see here in slow motion, an automated machine makes these chains one link at a time by first cutting, then bending pieces of brass wire.","Each chain goes into the case through a hole in the bottom, then onto a wheel in the movement, then back out through another hole in the bottom of the case.","\"s\" hooks go onto the ends.","These will hold cast-iron weights that pull the chain.","Workers rig up a small wire connecting the bird and the door.","This opens the door when he comes out to cuckoo.","as this demonstration shows, the bird's cuckoo is actually the sound of air pumping in and out of two miniature bellows.","Before each cuckoo, the hammer on the end of this steel wire hits a tiny gong.","The number of gong cuckoos indicates the hour.","After connecting the bellows to the movement, there's just one step left-- running a wire from the movement through the bottom for the pendulum.","The technical choreography can now begin.","Winding up the clock raises the chain, pulling up the weight on the end.","As the weight falls back down gradually, it pulls the chain, which turns the movement, which drives the hands of the clock.","The pendulum regulates the pace.","At this factory, a clock gets the seal of approval only after a two-day test run during which it must perform impeccably.","It's this attention to detail, both artistic and technical, that makes these traditional german cuckoo clocks such timeless treasures.","heart of palm is a vegetable that comes from certain species of palms.","It doesn't grow on the plant the way fruits and vegetables usually do.","Rather, it's the soft, edible inner core of the stems.","Harvesting palm stems and then processing them to extract the heart is very labor-intensive, which is why this delicious vegetable is a delicacy.","Life for this tropical vegetable begins in the farm's nursery, where they plant a palm seed in a pot of soil.","After a couple of weeks, they transplant the seedling into a bag, and the seedling grows.","Life in the nursery is one of routine-- scheduled feedings of fertilizer, regular weeding, and a daily shower.","After about three months, that little seedling has matured into a plant that's strong enough to go into the field.","Workers remove it from the bag gently, careful not to harm the roots.","Then they plant it in loose soil.","After about a year and a half of field growth, it's time for the first harvest.","Using a machete, the harvester grabs and chops off the main stem.","One of the remaining smaller stems will become the new main stem and be ready for harvesting in about six months' time.","This cycle continues for about a decade.","After cutting off the stem, the harvester strips the bark.","This exposes a shell underneath that protects the palm heart at the core of the stem from damage and dehydration.","Later the factory will slice off this shell like so to extract the heart.","Once the stems arrive at the factory, they go into a basin of water immediately.","This prevents dehydration.","Next workers load them on a conveyor belt, lining the bases right up against the edge.","Someone else, meanwhile, clicks a counter to tally the number of stems passing by.","The conveyor belt transports the stems to a circular saw that slices off a portion of the base.","Next workers slide each stem across a razor-sharp blade, slicing open the shell that encases the heart.","With a quick twist, the shell comes off, and they place the heart on a conveyor above.","Further down the line, the hearts run against another circular saw, which slices off what's left of the base.","Next a row of saws spaced six inches apart cuts each stem into pieces.","Now the hearts of palm are just the right size for packaging.","In the field, the stems' bark and outer shell acted as a dirt barrier.","Still, the hearts get a rinse in cold water before going into the jar.","Each jar has to contain a specific weight and number of pieces, so it goes on a scale, and, if necessary, a worker adjusts the weight by swapping a piece for one of a different size.","The jars now move onto a machine that fills them with brine, a special recipe of water, salt, and citric acid that acts as a preservative.","The brine-filled jars then go into a hot-steam machine.","It heats the liquid for about 10 minutes, almost to the boiling point.","This forces all the air out of the hearts, preparing them for pasteurization.","On the way to the pasteurization chamber, the jars pass through a capping machine, then under an ink-jet printer head, which applies the lot number and product expiration date.","Now it's into the pasteurization chamber for an hour and a half.","This intense heat, 207 degrees fahrenheit, kills off any microorganisms lurking inside the jars.","After a one-week quarantine period to ensure the hearts of palm don't deteriorate in any way, the jars are ready for labeling.","The brine and pasteurization combined give the sealed container a four-year shelf life, so whether served alone, in a salad, with pasta or rice, these hearts of palm are guaranteed to be as fresh as they are tasty.","The first windshield wipers were invented in the early 1900s by a woman who got the idea from watching a trolley driver wipe the sleet off the windshield with his hands.","After 1920, wipers became standard equipment on all cars.","Today, even the space shuttle has them.","These windshield wipers all have a rubber wiping blade.","To make it, workers load natural rubber into a mixer that breaks it down into fine grains.","Then they add powdered carbon to the rubber and leave it to mix.","After several hours, a worker cuts the rubber away from the mixer and feeds it into a heat-treating machine.","Next the natural-rubber strips enter an extrusion machine, which will combine them with the strips of synthetic rubber.","The rubber extrudes through this steel die to form a continuous profiled band.","The rubber band cools in a salt bath before it's cut into lengths, then split in half to form two wiping blades with a clean, sharp edge.","The blades go through a spray of graphite to reduce friction, then drop onto a grate to dry out.","The rubber is so smooth, it's hard to grasp, so workers must insert each blade by hand into an assembling machine.","In the center of the wiper blade is an opening into which a machine will insert a metal tension strip.","It serves to press the blade on the windshield and hold its shape.","The machine applies pneumatic pressure to literally blow the strips through the length of the blades.","This steel coil feeds into a stamping machine that repeatedly cuts and bends it to form brackets.","These brackets connect the windshield-wiper blades to the wiper arm and give them the shape they need to wipe on curved windshields.","The brackets come out of the machine in rows, still attached to the edges of the coil.","Next, the rows of brackets dip into a vat of paint to receive a base coat, followed by two more coats of black paint that will protect them from corrosion for several years.","Assemble all these pieces together, and you'll have this complete windshield wiper.","Thanks to this machine, it's a fully automated process.","First it sets a plastic joint on the smallest brackets, then clips them two at a time onto a larger middle bracket.","Next the machine sets an adaptor onto the top-center bracket so the wiper can attach to a variety of car wiper arms.","Finally, all the trays on which lie the assembled wiper parts come together as the machine proceeds with the final assembly.","Four brackets held by joints branch out from the main center bracket.","They hold the wiper blade in eight different places.","This design allows a full range of movement to the wiper while applying an even pressure all along the blade-- the key to a clean wipe with no streaking.","The completed wipers come off the assembler two at a time.","Workers visually inspect the wipers and then test the performance of the blade against a rotating sheet of wet glass.","They monitor the amount of friction the blade applies to the glass and gauge its durability.","Finally, they test the wipers on an opaque black windshield that reveals just how well they work.","With a life-span of more than a million wipes, they're surely the most reliable device on any car."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fish Rubbings","Clay Shooting Machines","Almonds","High"]},"text":["today on \"how it's made\"...","Fish rubbings.","Clay shooting machines.","Almonds.","And high-end motorcycles.","fishermen like to exaggerate about the size of their catches.","In 19th century japan, fish rubbings were used for actual documentation.","Fishermen coated the fish with non-toxic ink and rubbed it on paper to transfer the image.","They called this form of record-keeping gyotaku.","Over time, the practice of fish rubbings has evolved into an art form.","Why paint a picture when you can print one using the real thing?","The artist traces the outline of the fish onto a foam block.","Following that outline, he cuts out a fish-shaped cavity.","He sets the fish in the cavity.","The foam will keep the fish level and stable during printing.","He tucks paper wadding into the mouth to keep it open for a more interesting print.","He also inserts wadding under the gill flaps to impede the flow of fluids from the fish.","He props up the fins with pins and leaves them to dry overnight in this elevated position.","This will give the rubbed image the illusion of action.","He wraps cosmetic sponges around wine corks and tapes them at the base.","These improvised ink applicators will eventually provide a smooth finish with no brush strokes.","He makes one for each color, plus a few extra for blending.","Next, he selects different ink colors to create a bluish green shade that's close to the one on the bluegill.","He adds poppyseed oil to thin the inks a bit and blends it all with a palette knife.","With the fins now dry and stiff, he removes the pins.","With a metal probe, he pulls up a fin that hadn't been raised earlier.","He places a paper towel between the foam support block and the fish.","He pats a greenish black color onto the gills and tail using a foam brush.","This process leaves some smears on the paper towel, but that's what it's there for.","Switching to one of the improvised applicators, he applies the bluish green ink to the upper part of the fish's body.","He dabs a yellow color onto the belly of the fish.","He adds a bit of red to the chest because during spawning, it usually turns this color.","He places a piece of paper under a fin as he coats it with green ink.","Then he removes the paper towel that has protected the foam support block from smudges and places the fish back in the cavity.","He lightly sprays a sheet of rice paper with water.","This makes it easier to manipulate, as he drapes the damp paper onto the inked fish.","He rubs the paper onto the inked fish to transfer the image.","This takes skill and the right touch.","Once he's finished, the artist peels the paper away from the fish and examines the rubbing.","After the ink has dried, he lightly sprays the rubbing with water and then a water-based dye.","The dye provides background color but doesn't affect the oil-based ink guard.","He brushes wheat paste onto a second piece of rice paper.","This paper will serve as an extra layer of reinforcement for the fish rubbing.","He wets the rubbing thoroughly.","An assistant slowly lowers the wet print onto the paper as the artist smoothes the rubbing, ensuring there are no wrinkles as it adheres.","The image of the fish's eye doesn't transfer during rubbing, so he paints one.","He defines the pupil with black watercolor and paints the iris yellow.","The painted eye adds a soulful expression to the print.","The fish rubbing is now ready to be mounted to a more rigid paper backing for extra support.","He trims the borders, ensuring that they're symmetrical and the correct measurements.","He then tapes the fish rubbing to the mounting board and signs it.","With numerous and extensive dryings between steps, it has taken several weeks to produce this fish rubbing.","Clay shooting machines launch the flying targets used in the sport of clay pigeon shooting.","The saucer-shaped targets are called clay pigeons because they replace the original targets, live pigeons.","Shooting machines can launch the targets at various intervals, angles and velocities.","This company has been building clay shooting machines since 1927.","Older models like this one were heavy steel clunkers that ran on high voltage, were difficult to move around and weren't terribly precise.","Today's machines weigh from just 88 to 220 pounds.","Not only are they easily portable, they run on just 12 volts and perform with great precision.","The machine's sturdy base is constructed from thick steel.","Its parts were cut by a computer-guided laser then welded together.","The base design enables the machine to move both laterally and vertically.","The first component the worker attaches to the base is the frame.","Made of durable epoxy-coated cast aluminum, it supports all the machine's key components.","One of them, the main shaft assembly for the throwing arm, is already installed.","A technician connects the frame to the base with heavy-duty bolts.","This slot in the frame allows the machine to tilt vertically, up to 65 degrees.","He attaches a steel extension for the throwing plate across which the throwing arm moves the clay pigeon.","This extension enables an optimal positioning of the throwing plate.","Before installing the throwing plate, he installs the indexing shaft assembly.","The indexing shaft is the finger that moves the carousel forward one column at a time.","He mounts the steel throwing plate.","It has three steel springs on its underside.","One goes over the bolt, attaching it to the far end of the extension.","The other two go over the bolt, attaching it to the frame.","These springs keep the arm parallel to the throwing plate.","Next, he screws the throwing arm to the main shaft assembly.","He checks the gap between the arm and plate to make sure the arm makes contact with the clay pigeon at just the right level.","If the alignment's off, he adjusts the height of the plate.","Then he manually turns the main shaft to make sure the throwing arm rotates smoothly.","The machine runs on a powerful electric motor that has an integrated gear train.","The technician installs the motor on the frame beneath the main shaft assembly.","Next, he attaches the steel arming spring which can withstand up to 440 pounds of pull force.","Its sudden release generates the propulsion to launch the clay pigeon of a flying speed of more than 62 miles per hour.","He mounts the support base for the carousel that holds the clay pigeons, then he screws the arming spring to the main shaft assembly.","As the shaft swings back and forth, it stretches and releases the spring.","He links the indexing shaft assembly to the motor's gear shaft.","He installs the carousel, made of cast aluminum, on the support base.","This model has a different type of motor design that enables the base to pivot automatically, launching random trajectories.","This patented system increases the carousel's capacity.","By clicking retractable extensions onto the rods that separate the columns, the operator can stack 50 percent more clay pigeons in the carousel.","When the operator presses a button on the remote control, the throwing arm rotation begins.","When the arm passes a specific point, the stretched arming spring releases, launching the pigeon.","As the arm continues its rotation, the linked indexing shaft moves the carousel forward, dropping a new clay pigeon onto the throwing plate.","When the arm comes full circle, re-stretching the arming spring, a sensor cuts power to the motor until the next press of the button.","This entire cycle takes just 2 seconds.","Almond consumption dates back to biblical times.","They're even mentioned in the old testament.","Around 100 a.d., the ancient romans showered newlyweds with almonds.","This ritual came from the belief that they increased fertility.","But today, it's the nutritional value of almonds that keeps us coming back for more.","Almonds are a guilt-free snack.","They're full of vitamins, minerals and protein.","More than 80 percent of the world's almonds come from california where growing conditions are ideal.","Upon arrival at a processing facility, the almonds are still encased in leathery hulls.","They flow through equipment that combs out debris.","The next machine, called a destoner, targets any rocks.","Air blows through it to separate the lighter almonds from the stones.","The almonds travel between a rubber roller and belt.","This spins off the hulls and releases the almonds.","The operator periodically examines the de-hulled almonds.","Vibrating decks with slots sort the almonds by size.","The system also shakes off hull material and vacuums it up.","The almonds head to a gravity table for finer separation.","The spent hulls and other material float to one side while heavier contaminants float to the other.","The in-shell almonds tumble down channels.","Cameras examine the shells for imperfections and look for contaminants, then a blast of compressed air knocks them out of the flow.","These are some of the contaminants that have been removed.","At another facility, machinery will now grade the almonds according to the condition of their shells.","Once again, the almonds fall through the open air, and a computerized camera scans them for broken shells and other flaws.","A compressed air gun then knocks the flawed almonds out of the mix.","The almonds bounce along a vibrating grid and any kernels or missed shell fragments fall through.","Finally, people sort through the almonds and reject any that don't have perfect shells.","They also toss out any contaminants the mechanized sorting system missed.","Some buyers will pay a premium for the best nuts.","The almonds with broken shells will have the shells removed.","These raw almonds are also sorted by size.","They flow onto a vibrating conveyor.","Further along, the conveyor has holes.","The smaller almonds fall through these holes and into bins.","The larger almonds continue forward.","These larger kernels are worth more and will be sold separately from the smaller ones.","As with the in-shell almonds, good looks are important.","A camera photographs the cascading almond kernels, and a computer scans the images.","The system knocks the less-than-perfect almonds out of the production stream.","Next, the almonds head towards a robot.","Along the way, another camera sends the images to a computer scanner.","This one has been programmed to find chips, scratches and even small broken bits.","The computer sends the coordinates of the damaged almonds to the robot.","The robot then finds them and plucks them out of the mix.","A human inspector now picks out any imperfect almonds that the robotic system missed.","Their flaws are just superficial.","They still taste the same, so these almonds will be processed into chocolate bars, almond butter or milk, baked goods and cereals.","The perfect almond kernels travel forward.","Just ahead, machinery moves cardboard boxes into an open position on a packaging carousel.","Sprayers apply glue to the bottom flaps, and pushers close them, sealing the boxes.","The almonds now arrive at a scale.","It releases them into the boxes in approximately 50-pound batches.","These big boxes of almonds will be shipped to other facilities to be processed into other products.","Smaller amounts will be packaged for consumer use.","A snack anyone can crack or enjoy pre-cracked, almonds are a natural and nutritious choice.","No wonder they're consumed by the handful.","During the great depression, motorcycles were an inexpensive transportation option.","They were a cheaper way to get around town.","But these days, a motorcycle can be an expensive machine.","Not for the penny-wise, high-end motorcycles are engineered and crafted for the rider with discriminating tastes.","This is not a standard mass-produced motorcycle.","This performance cruiser takes things in a different direction.","The high-end design is executed with precision, with most parts machined specifically for this bike.","Production starts with a conceptual layout.","The designer draws the motorcycle on a digital pad, producing a blueprint for the manufacturing process.","The manufacturer uses aircraft-grade aluminum to make most of the parts.","Computerized tools carve the solid aluminum into the desired shape.","This part will be the motorcycle's belt drive cover.","The carved patterns make it more visually appealing, and they reduce the cover's overall weight.","The company builds the exhaust system using stainless steel.","A technician welds the exhaust pipes together.","He then attaches several spring hangers to the steel pipe assembly.","The next part is an ignition coil mount.","A ruby probe scans the part to find the center.","Once it's been located, a software-driven cutter descends, and etches brand information and artwork into the black anodized aluminum.","This steel structure will serve as the motorcycle's skeleton.","The technician installs the 100-horsepower, fuel-injected v-twin engine.","He then mounts the six-speed transmission system to the engine.","It's equipped with a high torque shaft that's shorter than usual to make the system more compact.","He bolts it in place.","The steering stem has a framework at the base with three openings known as the triple clamp.","He slides the stem into the tube on the frame and screws a bearing onto the top.","He fastens it with a nut that will keep the bearing pressurized.","He installs a second triple clamp on the top of the assembly.","The center hole fits onto the nut.","He secures it with a steering head nut.","He inserts the suspension fork into the other two openings in the triple clamps and makes some adjustments.","He places a carbon-fiber wheel between the fork tubes.","He installs the axle that links the suspension to the front wheel hub and tightens the titanium nuts on the axle for a better fit.","Next, he connects a six-piston brake system to the suspension fork and tightens the bolts that hold it in place.","This completes the front wheel assembly.","He now attaches the handlebars, complete with dashboard gauges, controls and side-view mirrors.","He makes the final connections for the electronics.","He encases the gauges and wiring with a part called the front cowling.","The shape diverts air over the rider and away from his or her face.","A two-piece gas tank will provide more capacity.","The tanks have been carved from a solid aluminum bar, a process that's taken over 60 hours.","The tank on the right side becomes part of the frame structure, providing additional strength.","He loops belt drive pulleys around shafts to transfer power from the transmission to the rear wheel.","The motorbike is now ready for the belt drive cover we saw produced earlier.","While protecting the belt drive, this cover also gives the motorbike a distinctive look.","He mounts the left foot peg to the frame through a hole in the pulley cover.","This high-end motorcycle is now ready to hit the open road.","Making it has taken 2 weeks.","Preproduction fittings with the client have dictated the position of the foot pedals, handlebars, and the seat.","It's been tailor-made for a precision ride.","It costs more than many mid-range cars, but this high-end bike isn't for the budget crowd.","It's for those who want a one-of-a-kind ride."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Orthodontic Retainers","Orange Juice","Retractable Saunas","Sawmill Blade Knives"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made,\" orthodontic retainers...","Orange juice...","Retractable saunas...","And sawmill blade knives.","After spending a fortune on braces to straighten your teeth, you don't want that new beautiful smile to shift back to its original position.","So, orthodontists recommend wearing a retainer for several months after the braces come off, to avoid any shifting.","Oftentimes, an orthodontist advises their patients to wear a retainer for about a year after their braces are removed.","Retainers are custom-made for each person using a model of the patient's mouth.","The orthodontist scans the patient's teeth and palate, and sends the 3-d images to a lab.","A 3-d printer builds each model by printing approximately 750 layers of material, which takes about 4 1/2 hours.","The printer prints resin and a support material.","The support material prevents the model from shifting during the printing process, and provides structural support for the resin in complex areas.","The support material is water-soluble.","Once a model is printed, they soak it in water for 10 minutes, then remove the material with a pressure washer.","A technician places the model in a vice.","Using preformed clasp made of stainless-steel wire, she fits the wire around the first molar, bending it with pliers to fit snugly around the tooth.","Then, she bends the end in a specific shape.","This step will help to anchor the wire in the retainer's acrylic palate at a later time.","She clips off excess wire, and repeats these steps for the opposite side.","Once both clasps are in position, the technician secures them with sticky wax.","Next, she assembles the front of the retainer, called the \"labial bow\".","To do so, she bends a piece of wire against a form.","Then, she marks where to bend the wire to create an adjustment loop on each side.","The labial bow is secured to the model with wax.","Using a pulse welder, a technician tacks the labial bow and the clasps together.","He applies flux, a chemical that preps an area for soldering.","He also applies a heat-shielding product to prevent the wires from overheating.","Next, the labial bow is soldered to the clasps with a silver-based solder that's safe to wear.","He steams off the wax, removes the finished retainer wire from the model, and polishes the solder joint.","The retainer's palate is made of acrylic, and comes in multiple colors.","A technician waxes the wire onto the model, then, applies the acrylic to the palate, embedding the ends of the wire.","The acrylic is made up of liquid and powder, which react when mixed.","She applies about three layers of each the the palate, producing an 1/8-inch thick mold.","The excess acrylic is trimmed off with a knife.","Then, she the model is placed into a pressure cooker for 10 minutes.","The pressure removes air bubbles in the acrylic, while the heat speeds up the curing.","When the acrylic is ready, the technician uses a steam gun to melt the wax holding the wire to the model.","She removes the fully formed retainer off the model.","She trims the acrylic with a grinding wheel to smooth out rough areas and refine the shape.","With a hand tool, she smoothes the entire surface, so it won't irritate the patient's mouth.","Another technician runs the acrylic palate against a muslin-rag wheel with pumice, a natural abrasive.","This makes the surface glossy.","He applies a greaseless polishing compound to another muslin-rag wheel, and polishes the acrylic to a high shine.","Finally, he drops the retainer into an ultrasonic cleaning machine containing mild acid.","The combination of acid and sonic waves removes the pumice and polish residues.","Once the retainer has been rinsed with water and dried, it's placed it in a storage case.","Now, it's ready to be shipped to the orthodontist.","No one knows who came up with the idea of squeezing oranges to make juice.","The popularity of orange juice increased dramatically in the middle of the 20th century, as techniques were developed to extend its shelf life.","Today, many people start their day with a tall glass of o.j. in its purest form, orange juice fresh-squeezed and made with no preservatives or other additives.","The appeal is indisputable.","Fresh-squeezed o.j. contains vitamin c, and the flavor is authentic.","Orange juice production starts in groves.","The trees take several months to bear fruit, and are harvested in early november.","Picking oranges a job that's done entirely by hand.","An automated picking system could damage both the trees and the fruit.","The picker uses a bag made of vinyl composite that's lightweight and heavy-duty.","There are multiple types of juicing oranges.","This one is called \"the hamlin\".","Hamlin oranges are small and juicy, the trees they grow on are productive and resilient to cold.","The picker plucks the fruit from the trees before they turn orange.","They may be green on the outside, but they are still sweet on the inside.","The fruits' size and condition are indications of maturity and flavor.","As the picker empties the bag into a bin, he examines the oranges.","Anything with tears or punctures may also have internal degradation, but superficial flaws won't affect the quality of the juice.","The oranges are taken to a processing facility, and transferred to a sloped chute.","The gradient of the chute prevents damage as the oranges tumble into a wash station.","A sprayer rains soapy water onto the oranges as spiraling nylon brushes scrub and clean, while simultaneously moving them forward.","After the wash, another sprayer rinses them off as the spiraling brushes continue scrubbing.","The oranges transition to a roller conveyor that takes them up and under drying fans.","As the oranges exit the dryer, an inspector checks them for any missed damage.","The oranges then travel across more revolving brushes.","The bristles on these brushes are gentler than on the first group.","They buff the skin of the fruit, and remove any residual dirt.","Finally, the oranges fall off the conveyor line into a bin.","Now cleaned, the oranges can be juiced with no contaminants that could spoil either the product or juicing machinery.","As a final precaution, the juicing operator performs one last inspection.","If she's completely satisfied with their cleanliness and general condition, she loads the oranges into the extractor.","There's no need to slice them beforehand.","She feeds them to the juicing machine whole.","The system feeds the oranges one at a time to the extractor.","The extractor punctures the fruit, and metal teeth peel away the skin.","It squeezes out the juice while simultaneously filtering out the seeds and the membrane between the flesh of the orange and the skin.","The juice flows into a vat.","A screen in the vat filters the pulp to the desired consistency.","There are different filters for different amounts of pulp.","The juice is bottled in jugs.","The plastic jugs will accommodate any expansion of the unpasteurized juice due to fermentation.","Instead of pasteurizing this fresh-squeezed juice, it is chilled immediately.","The unpasteurized orange juice won't have an extended shelf life, but the trade-off is an unaltered flavor and color.","Refrigeration will preserve the juice for a few days-- and after all, fresh-squeezed orange juice is a drink that's best served cold.","There's nothing more relaxing than sitting in a hot sauna.","Our ancestors figured that out at least 1,000 years ago.","Today, saunas are a substantial part of finnish culture, but they also have a long history in other parts of the world, especially in korea.","When you live in a city, it's hard to find the space to fit a sauna.","Luckily, this retractable indoor sauna solves the problem.","The manufacturer uses high-strength laminates from sustainably sourced wood products.","Laminate wood is not only strong, it's torsion-resistant, which is an important factor when you're constructing something that will undergo significant shifts in temperature.","To cut the laminate, a craftsman uses a chop saw, which contains a computerized system that positions the fenced tolerances within a tenth of a millimeter.","At the next station, the craftsman positions the laminate so that a cnc machine can drill end holes before assembling a pair of dowels.","Meanwhile, another craftsman preps several wood components for assembly.","After placing them on an edge, he fills a set of open holes with high-strength glue.","He assembles the laminate by inserting dowels into openings and gently hammering everything into position.","This part will form the framework for one of the highly engineered insulated panels.","The framework is placed into a press that exerts a calibrated amount of pressure to every side.","This steps ensures a solid and durable connection at all points.","This is high-performance insulating material.","Thanks to specialized engineering, it insulates more effectively than many other sauna materials.","This material also allows the manufacturer to maintain the sleek design of the sauna system.","With the insulation in place, a craftsman feeds the panels into a precision planer, to ensure the wood contains a uniform thickness.","A technician begins a process called \"frame-stability construction,\" this method adds a series of layers to each panel, including exterior sheathing, insulation material, a vapor barrier, and interior plywood paneling.","These will add up to a thickness of only 30 millimeters, achieving a high-insulating value while remaining lightweight.","A specialized adhesive is applied to attach each layer.","Then, a customized press applies heat and pressure to bond all the layers securely together.","After a quick inspection check, a technician carries the panels to a cnc milling machine, where they position it for trimming.","The cnc machine gauges the dimensions of the panel, and runs a bit around the perimeter, trimming the edges to a uniform width at high speed.","Once complete, the panels advance on conveyor belts.","An automated machine uses an adhesive to add a veneer to the perimeter then, it applies heat and pressure to secure the bond.","The process is known as \"zero joints,\" because it covers up the panel's visible joinery.","The machine can apply a range of different veneers, depending on customers' specifications.","The control panel allows users to customize the temperature and duration of a sauna session.","Customers can also choose from a variety of pre-installed programs.","Two drive buttons control the extension and retraction of the sauna.","To extend and retract, the manufacturer custom-made this track-wheel system, the system includes durable guides, self-lubricating components, and industrial-strength ball bearings.","A craftsman carefully joins the structured wall, ceiling, and floor panels.","Thanks to precision machining, they fit together perfectly, making it easy to assemble the parts wherever a customer wants their sauna.","Then, the craftsman installs the heart of the sauna.","The manufacturer has engineered this compact powerful heater with a specialized finish that makes the usual safety guard unnecessary.","Retractable saunas-- for the most efficient sweat possible.","After years of carving wood into lumber, sawmill blades eventually lose their cutting edge.","So, craftsmen are salvaging the discarded carbon steel, and making them into knives for hunting and outdoor use.","When it comes to sustainability, this is a new kind of cutting edge.","What was once an old sawmill blade is now a sleek, new brush-cutting knife-- proof that the future doesn't have to be dull for discarded mill blades.","A sawmill blade lasts 5 to 10 years.","But when it jagged edges wear thin, it can't cut logs anymore.","Luckily, the carbon steel can be salvaged.","A computerized high-pressure water tool cuts into a stack of three sawmill blades.","In doing so, it carves out numerous knife blade blanks.","The computerized tool also cuts holes for the handles and a tab for attaching the knife sheath.","Next, the blades are transferred to a vibratory tumbler.","The tumbler is filled with triangular ceramic stones and a soapy solution.","For several hours, the vibrating stones smooth and clean the blades.","Once complete, a technician secures the blades in a fixture with screws.","The screws hold the blades down flat, and lock them in position for the next step.","This tool's spiral bit carves into the steel to shave small amounts from around the edges.","This improves the shape of the knife and ensures that the knife handle will fit perfectly on the tang.","The trimming also removes the lines left by the water-jet cutting.","One of the blades is placed in a fixture that holds the knife with the cutting edge in an upward position.","A technician ignites an automated torch.","The torch follows the blade, exposing it to intense heat.","The torch doesn't touch the blade's spine.","This selective heat treatment hardens only the blade.","An operator places the blade into a bucket of quenching oil.","This rapid cooldown completes the hardening process.","Next, the cutting edge is beveled, and the entire blade is coated with a thermoplastic polymer, which provides a hard finish and prevents rust.","Then, the knives are transferred to a laser-emblazoning chamber.","Another technician closes the chamber doors and activates the laser.","The computerized laser etches the company logo, the knives' model number, and other information into the steel.","At the next station, a technician moves a blade against and abrasive belt held in by a special fixture along a track.","This angles the blade precisely to the abrasive belt to grind the cutting edge and complete the bevel.","This brush-cutting blade is now almost razor-sharp.","He sharpens the tip of the knife by gentling pressing it against another abrasive belt.","Next, he applies an abrasive compound to a buffing wheel.","He presses the cutting edge of the knife against the wheel, and the abrasive compound works its magic, honing the edge to its final sharpness.","He presses threaded fittings into the tang of the knife.","He installs them so that the fittings protrude from both sides of the tang.","The fittings in the tang have been spaced to match holes in a handle.","This handle is made of composite glass and resin.","There are two parts, one for each side of the tang.","Due to the precision prep work, the two parts fit together perfectly as one.","Screws hold the handle parts together.","He dips the tips in a thread-lock solution.","When the thread-lock solution cures, it stabilizes the screws.","With multiple thread-locked screws, the composite handle now has a solid handgrip.","It's taken several hours to transform a blunt sawmill blade into a sharp brush-cutting knife.","Through recycling, steel that lost its edge now has a new one."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Rally Cars","Pork Pies","Floating Fountains","Artificial Stone Ornaments"]},"text":["A rally car is a compact vehicle that's had a radical makeover.","It's been stripped to the steel core and completely rebuilt.","International rally regulations govern the process.","In the end, that efficient little vehicle becomes a lean, mean racing machine.","Fresh out of the factory, this compact car is about to be ripped apart and put back together again.","The rebuild will pump up the power and transform a quiet road car into a vehicle that roars on the rally racing circuit.","Bold graphics will also make this compact car look fierce.","As they dismantle the car, they get rid of some superfluous brackets and panels to shed weight.","They blast off the paint.","Then they weld a tubular steel roll cage to it to protect the driver and co-driver in a rollover or crash.","The roll cage also stiffens the chassis for better handling on hard turns.","They widen the back end slightly to accommodate an upgrade to a 4-wheel transmission and a larger fuel tank.","Then they paint primer onto the modified body shell.","They're now ready for the rear transmission.","This will convert this compact car to 4-wheel drive.","The technician bolts the transmission to the rear floor panel.","Upgrading from 2-wheel drive to 4-wheel drive adds traction and allows the car to handle more precisely.","Now the seats.","They're individual survival cells made of carbon fiber, a virtually indestructible material.","It's also extremely light, and this helps offset the extra weight added by the rear transmission and roll cage.","The new dashboard fascia is made of lightweight fiberglass and covered with a velvety fabric to block the reflection of light.","With the dashboard in place, the car gets the steering column and wheel.","The car is now ready for the fiberglass bumper.","It's been redesigned slightly to accommodate new fenders that are flared for bigger tires.","The technician then equips the rally car with heavy-duty dampers to absorb the shock of high-speed bumps on the rally course.","He slides the stiff spherical bearings into the car shell and secures them.","He links the dampers and the driveshaft to the hub carrier and bolts them into place.","He inserts brake pads into lightweight aluminum calipers and mounts them to the rotors.","This braking system is extra large for serious friction, allowing the rally car to be slowed efficiently when needed.","Using a crane, they now lift the engine into the chassis.","This is the original 1.6-liter engine, but seriously ramped up to boost performance.","They've upgraded the pistons and camshafts, among other things, and added a turbocharger.","This takes the compact-car engine from 90 horsepower to 300.","Instead of a metal fuel tank, they install a rubber one.","It's pliable and expands, so it's unlikely to split or crack in a crash.","The rubber fuel cell fits perfectly under the trunk floor.","Strapped to that floor is this little tool kit.","They've lightened these tools by drilling holes into the handles.","As the race heats up, so will the engine and its fluids.","They custom-designed this u-shaped radiator to keep the power-steering oil cool.","They tie it to the front of the supersized engine radiator.","Without this substantial radiator system, overheating could kill the engine, and that would be the end of the rally for this car.","The mechanics of the rally car have now been completely rebuilt.","They now install windows.","They use double-sided tape to bind the rear side windows to the car.","Taping the windows means they can be easily kicked out in the event of an accident.","The windows are made of shatterproof plastic.","So there shouldn't be any cuts or scrapes when busting them out.","Instead of painting the car, they glue on graphics from bumper to bumper.","The graphics are made of plastic film that is much lighter than paint.","The crew saves about 11 pounds by not painting the rally car.","Saving weight and redistributing it for better handling, while adhering to tight weight regulations, is just part of the challenge.","And a good finish in the rebuild shop could lead to a strong finish in the rally.","British pork pie is made of chopped pork and pork jelly nestled inside a crust pastry.","Mass-produced versions contain cured pork in a soft pastry.","Premium pies are handmade with fresh, uncured pork inside a pastry that's hard and crisp on the outside, soft on the inside.","Among the best-known premium varieties of pork pies is melton mowbray, named after an english town which has produced this british snack since the 19th century.","Only manufacturers situated within a defined radius of the town can legally call their product melton mowbray pork pie.","And they have to follow the traditional recipe, which begins with blending hard bread flour.","Then workers put lard into a pot of cold water...","Sprinkle with sea salt, then bring the water to a fast boil, dissolving the lard.","Then they add this hot mixture to the flour.","They blend for a few minutes until the ingredients form a medium-soft golden dough.","Unlike dough made with cold water, which bakes soft throughout, hot-water dough bakes hard on the surface, but soft within.","They roll the dough into balls of approximately half a pound each...","Then roll half the balls flat into a layer roughly 2/10 of an inch thick.","With a round pastry cutter, they slice circles.","Each one will be a pie top, called a lid.","The other dough balls will later become the base of the pie, called the case.","The pie filling is made from fresh pork shoulder, white pepper, and sea salt.","They prepare the filling in small batches in order to better control the distribution of ingredients.","After cutting the pork into small chunks, they sprinkle with salt and pepper...","Mix by hand...","Then form balls the same size as the pastry balls.","In the assembly area, workers lay a plastic sheet over the hoop of a pie press to prevent the dough from sticking.","They put a pastry ball in the hoop and cover it with another sheet...","Then plunge a round metal die into the hoop to form the case.","Now they drop a pork ball inside, pushing it down to force out some of the trapped air.","They brush water onto the edge of the case to make it sticky.","Then they apply the lid, lightly thumb-pressing all around to adhere it to the sticky edge of the case.","Then with a different hand press, they score the perimeter of the pie...","And gently run a wooden block across the top.","This removes the excess dough without unsealing or ripping the pie.","A ventilation hole in the middle lets just enough steam escape to prevent pressure from building up and bursting the lid.","The steam that remains helps tenderize the pork.","A pie decorator crimps the edge inward.","Then the pies go onto a baking sheet and into the oven for an hour at just under 400 degrees fahrenheit.","Earlier, workers prepared the pork jelly by boiling pigs' feet in a large pot of water...","Then simmering for nine hours to release the natural gelatin from the bones.","Now they strain the pot's contents to isolate this natural jelly.","They've timed this perfectly so that the jelly is still warm when the pies come out of the oven.","When they do, their pastry crust is a golden color.","The pork, as meat tends to do, has shrunk during cooking, creating empty spaces inside the pastry.","It's into those voids that workers now inject the warm pork jelly until it starts bubbling out the hole at the top.","This indicates the jelly has filled all the nooks and crannies.","The pies go immediately into a fridge set at 43 degrees fahrenheit.","They remain inside for about 90 minutes until the jelly sets.","From now on, the pork will remain moist thanks to this congealed jelly surrounding it.","Each pie is wrapped in a see-through package bearing a \"best before\" date.","Kept refrigerated, a pork pie stays fresh for about a week.","You take it out of the fridge and let it warm to room temperature before digging in.","No self-respecting brit ever warms up pork pie.","A floating fountain adds visual interest to a pond or pool.","It continuously shoots water several yards high, producing ribbons of cascading water.","A submersible pump generates the effect.","And all you have to do is just sit back and enjoy the show.","A floating fountain is a pleasant sight, but it's also practical.","The constant pumping action aerates the water, preventing stagnation that breeds mosquitoes and causes algae growth.","Production begins with the floatation ring, which they cast a section at a time.","A worker pours a measured amount of plastic powder into the bottom half of a clamshell mold.","The mold is attached to an arm that swings it into an oven and rotates it on two axes.","The mold heats up.","The powder melts and adheres to the walls of the mold, forming a hollow part.","The mold now moves into a cooling zone, where it first rotates in front of a fan, then under a cool spray of water.","The constant turning minimizes sagging or buckling in the plastic as the hollow part cools and solidifies inside.","The mold opens, revealing a quarter section of the flotation ring.","Stainless-steel inserts for attaching it to the other sections have been embedded into the plastic.","They now mechanically push the hollow part underwater.","This is a test.","They pump air into it and check for bubbles that would indicate a hole.","The fountain ring must be leakproof because water will eventually be added to it to level it.","A worker now bolts the four quarters together using brackets and the steel inserts molded into the plastic earlier.","Next, they focus on the framework for the submersible pump.","A mechanical saw cuts the stainless steel parts to size, and a welder pieces them together.","Another worker now attaches the completed framework to the brackets protruding from the bottom of the floatation ring.","Using a press, they bend steel to create brackets to hold the fountain's lights.","They bolt the light brackets to the pump frame in a position to illuminate the upward spray of water.","They slide the long, tubular casing for the pump and its motor through brackets on the bottom of the frame.","This is the pump.","It's open to display the inner workings.","Those steel disks are the impellers that will force water upward.","The next employee applies pvc glue to attach a flange to the pump assembly.","The flange will be used to connect the pump to the fountain's plumbing.","He now inserts the pump and motor assembly into the casing.","The motor has been hermetically sealed to keep water out.","Using a special gripper, he pulls the assembly all the way through the tube to complete the installation.","He spreads more glue onto the flange and attaches a pvc elbow that links it to the rest of the plumbing.","The entire assembly is painted black so the fountain workings will seem to disappear underwater when viewed from the surface.","With the assembly now flipped right side up, they install the lights.","Then a worker screws a circle of eight brass nozzles onto a pvc base.","These nozzles will split the flow of pumped lake water into a eight sprays and configure them in a circle.","He tightens each nozzle to ensure the connection will withstand the powerful and perpetual pumping action.","He places the nozzle assembly on the plumbing protruding from the fountain raft and twists the threaded ends together.","The connection must be extremely tight.","Another worker then rolls a sheet of perforated steel to build a tubular screen to filter the water as it flows into the pump.","The screen fits perfectly onto the intake end of the pump and motor tube.","With the floating fountain now complete, it's ready to be wired to the control panel.","This panel will be positioned lakeside for onsite activation and programming of the timer.","The floating fountain is now ready for launching.","This particular one is a larger version of the one we saw being built, but big or small, it's all about going with the flow.","Artificial stone is a cast material that looks just like sculpted natural stone.","Since the early 18th century, manufacturers have cast stone in molds, producing beautiful garden and landscape ornaments, as well as architectural components designed to enhance buildings.","Classical-style statues and other garden ornaments came into fashion in england in the 1700s.","It was trendy for the upper classes to tour italy and admire ancient roman art and architecture.","Not every noble was wealthy enough to haul home a solid stone antiquity by stagecoach, so english factories began producing facsimiles in artificial stone.","The production process today is much like it was then, beginning in the studio, where a sculptor makes a plaster model of the ornament.","This one's a copy of an antique bust of pan, the greek mythological figure.","They use this intricately detailed model to make the production mold.","After coating the plaster with a sealer, they cover the entire model with thin strips of clay, making certain divisions between strips to create the production mold's various sections.","Over the clay, they apply six or so layers of fiberglass cloth saturated with resin.","The resin cures, producing a 3/10-inch-thick multi-sectioned case around the clay-covered model.","Next they open the case and remove the clay, which leaves a gap around the model.","They close the case and fill that gap with their specially developed rubber.","When the rubber cures, they open the case and remove the model, revealing a rubber mold that bears all the model's intricate details.","They send this cased mold off to the production facility and put the model in storage until the rubber mold wears out and it's time to pour a new one.","The artificial stone is a natural-looking off-white color.","It's made of fine sand, white cement, and limestone, plus plasticizers, waterproofers, and a few secret ingredients.","The factory adds stone pigments into the mix to produce terra cotta and other colors.","A computer-controlled system feeds the ingredients into the mixer in all the right proportions, then adds a small amount of water to activate the cement that binds everything together.","On the production floor, a caster repeatedly shovels a bit of stone mixture into the fiberglass-encased rubber mold, then, using both hand and pneumatic tools, compacts it in the mold.","The quality of the ornament depends greatly on the caster's technique.","The trick is to ram enough stone mixture into every nook and cranny of the mold, but not compact too much at a time, as this mold would produce unattractive layers in the finished ornament.","They trowel the open side of the mold by hand and smooth the surface.","The stone mix takes 24 hours to reach an initial set.","Then, section by section, they unbolt the case and peel off the rubber mold.","This may be artificial stone, but its surface texture closely resembles carved limestone.","The final step is a vapor curing.","The ornaments go into a chamber overnight.","The steam forces moisture into the pores, curing the cement inside.","This type of artificial stone is called dry cast limestone.","Other ornaments are made of wet cast limestone, a mixture of similar ingredients, but in larger particle size and containing much more water.","Because you can embed stainless-steel reinforcement bars in it, wet cast is the better material for making objects such as garden benches or large fountain bowls that require structural strength.","Wet cast doesn't have to be vapor-cured because of its high water content.","However, unlike dry cast, which is finished when it comes out of the mold, wet cast does require finishing.","Workers have to grind away excess material that sometimes seeps out of the joints in the mold and hardens.","The wet cast surface is smooth and sealed, so it's normally easier to clean.","Dry cast stone, by contrast, has a textured surface and weathers to an antique look."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Mobile Concert Stages","Mascara","Continuous Miners","Wood Gift Boxes"]},"text":["The mobile concert stage was invented in canada in the 1980s.","It uses hydraulics to fold into a trailer for transport and then unfolds upon arrival at the event venue.","It takes 45 minutes for a crew to set up a mobile stage, and then it's show time.","No stage?","No problem.","Just order a mobile hydraulic stage, and in less than an hour, you're ready to rock 'n' roll.","The convenience means it has plenty of fans in the event-production industry.","A mobile stage starts with the trailer framework.","A worker saws aluminum beams to length.","At the same time, another member of the team pieces together aluminum tubing for the roof.","He welds the joints to complete the roof's skeleton.","He then welds the trailer support structure together.","With the girders assembled, the trailer's substructure is ready for the axles and wheels.","Each axle can support 10,000 pounds of weight.","They install hydraulic cylinders on each corner of the trailer.","These cylinders are the extendable legs that will stabilize the stage trailer on the ground.","Next up is a panel with valves to control the flow of hydraulic fluid.","They bolt the panel to the back of the trailer and connect hoses to the valves.","This network of hoses will circulate fluid for the hydraulics.","They cover the valves and hoses with a metal plate.","The plate has slots for control levers.","They screw the levers to the valves.","He then installs a hydraulic pressure gauge.","The team now lowers the tank for the hydraulic fluid into the base frame and secures it.","They run the hoses for the hydraulic fluid through a filter at the entrance to the tank.","They're ready for the extendable supports for the stage mast.","Using a forklift, they maneuver the parts into place at the ends of the trailer.","They return to the floor and bolt six hydraulic cylinders into the framework.","They'll be used to lift and lower the floors.","The roof structure is next.","A crane does the lifting, and a worker guides the panels onto the beams.","They secure the panels with hinges, torquing them tightly.","The team transfers the floor panels to both sides of the main chassis.","The install leg jacks to support them.","There are eight jacks for each floor panel.","They install more hydraulic cylinders for raising and lowering the floor.","This mobile concert stage is ready for the outer skin.","An employee glues fiberglass sheeting to the sides.","A team then lays the plywood floors sheet by sheet.","The plywood is marine-grade.","It has a laminate composite surface.","The laminate is textured for skid resistance.","It's also waterproof for outdoor events.","Once all the paneling is in place, this mobile stage is ready to go on tour.","Eight weeks in the making, it will be a time-saver on the road.","One way to enhance eyelashes is to coat them with mascara.","Early mascaras were made of petroleum jelly and coal or soap cake tinted with black dye.","Today's liquid mascara comes in a tube with an applicator brush built right into the cap.","Mascara formulations vary.","The basic ingredients are wax, water, pigment, and binders.","Additional ingredients produce features such as water resistance.","Every formulation is comprised of an oil-soluble phase and a water-soluble phase.","To prepare this mascara's oil phase, a technician combines four types of wax-- carnauba, from a brazilian palm tree; candelilla, from a plant that grows in parts of mexico and texas; beeswax; and glyceryl stearate, an emulsifier which helps ingredients blend well.","Next comes vitamin \"e,\" which conditions lashes and gives the mascara a smooth texture.","After that is a chemical compound called pelemol d-2000, which makes the mascara water-resistant.","The technician heats this oil phase of the formulation.","Once the waxes begin melting, blends the ingredients.","Wax is a thickener.","This calculated combination of four different waxes produces a semiliquid gel that coats lashes with a shiny film.","The technician now prepares the water-soluble phase of the formulation separately, first, heating up cold water, then adding an emulsifier.","This will bind the water and oil phases when they're combined later on.","Without an emulsifier, oil and water solubles would naturally separate.","The next ingredient is a cosmetic-grade iron oxide pigment.","The color is black because she's making black mascara.","She blends the mixture until the color is uniform.","Then she adds t.e.a. this organic compound balances the mascara's ph level so that it isn't too acidic or alkaline.","Next, she adds a cosmetic powder to make the mascara silky and a chemical to provide additional water resistance.","Finally, she completes the formulation by adding the oil phase to this water phase.","Heating the mixture while blending prevents the waxes from solidifying.","Before packaging, the factory's chemist runs quality-control tests.","Using a viscometer to measure thickness, he makes sure the mascara isn't runny or gooey.","He also tests the ph level.","If the sample meets specifications, the lab gives the go-ahead to package the mascara, and a worker pours the batch into a filling machine.","The machine continuously mixes the mascara and keeps it hot so that it remains liquid.","Otherwise, the mascara would begin to cool and jellify and clog the filling nozzle.","A mascara bottle typically contains about 2 ounces of mascara.","As it cools in the bottle, it transforms into a semiliquid gel.","She seals the bottle by pressing in a plunger-style plastic stopper.","The stopper has a hole in the middle for inserting the brush applicator that's built into the bottle's cap.","The lip of the stopper hole is designed to wipe off excess mascara as you pull the brush out of the bottle.","This helps prevent the mascara from clumping.","This manufacturer fills small orders manually, like this one for a private-label brand.","Its automated production line is reserved for large orders.","Regardless of quantity, clients specify the characteristics they want in their brand of mascara, such as lengthening or water resistance, and the manufacturer tailors the formulation accordingly.","The continuous miner is always on the job.","This machine constantly bores into deposits of coal, salt, or pot ash to break them into little pieces.","Its invention in america in the 1940s was an earth-shattering development.","The continuous miner is a force to be reckoned with underground.","A spinning drum is spiked with tungsten carbide teeth.","It tears into the rock face and spits the pieces out onto a conveyor.","The continuous miner can remove 24 tons of minerals per minute.","That's more than a human miner can dig in an entire day.","The work is hard on the equipment, and, so, eventually, the continuous miner undergoes a complete rebuild.","It starts with an extensive cleaning.","After a steam wash, a worker aims a torch at the bolts of the drum.","The heat causes the bolts to expand and move away from the hole.","This makes it easier to pull them out, using a pneumatic impact wrench.","Once all the bolts have been removed, the drum can be pried from the shaft.","Once free, a crane lifts the heavy drum, and workers guide it to the next station.","Here, a worker in protective gear blasts the drum with tiny steel shot.","This removes any remaining dirt and grime.","Some parts, like these centrifugal loading arms, are beyond repair, so they build new ones.","Connected to a hub, these arms will move mined material onto the machine's conveyor.","A worker reinforces each one with a wear plate.","He then heats the wear plate and loading arm before welding them together.","Preheating reduces the possibility of the weld cracking.","They lower the loading-arm assembly into the machine framework.","Then a computerized cutter carves a sheet of steel to make new access panels for the continuous miner.","The slicing force comes from a pressurized mixture of water and garnet granules.","No blade is necessary.","The operator of the machine hoses off the filings.","He retrieves the cut part with a magnet.","Over to the conveyor part of the continuous miner now.","They had built up the hole for the pivot pin because it had stretched from wear.","A tool mills the built-up hole to return it to the correct diameter.","The team then focuses on the main frames of the continuous miner.","They weld the cracks and grind them smooth.","Now beginning with the conveyor tail, a worker spray paints the continuous miner one piece at a time.","Another member of the team inserts new plugs into an electrical control box.","He bolts the panel, holding electrical controls to the machine casing.","He then installs heavy doors that swing open so the electrical can be easily accessed.","There are a total of 25 covers and doors on the continuous miner.","Some protect hydraulic hoses.","Others encase the wiring or gear boxes.","They can all be removed if maintenance needs to be performed.","It's taken several months for this massive overhaul, and they're ready to put this rebuilt continuous miner to the test.","Using the machine's remote control, a technician checks the function of every component.","With his approval, the continuous miner goes back underground to pick up where it left off.","A product presented in a beautiful, high-quality, wooden box is sure to stand out.","Companies use them as special-event displays or as corporate gift boxes.","Because they're handmade, the boxes can be customized to showcase each product.","Wood gift boxes make wonderful cases for spirit bottles, collectible coins, watches, or christmas ornaments.","Not only do they display the product beautifully, they also protect the contents inside.","Today, they're making a box with maple boards, which are cut on an automated saw.","A mortiser's parallel blades cut square-shaped notches at the end of each plank.","These will serve to finger joint the sides of the box later on.","The pieces of wood are pressed against the corner so that the resulting fingers are perfectly aligned.","The factory usually makes fingers that are 6 millimeters wide.","Wider fingers would be unsightly, and thinner ones would be too fragile.","They now prepare the top of the wood box.","A press uses heat and pressure to stamp the company's logo on the surface of the wood.","They brand the wood with a magnesium plate, heating to 840 degrees fahrenheit.","The process takes just two seconds.","Next, they assemble the sides, interlocking the pieces manually.","They use a rubber mallet to avoid damaging or denting the wood.","When the four sides are end to end, they apply a small amount of wood glue on the inside of each joint.","They form the corners at a 90-degree angle.","Once the box is assembled, a press will finish pushing in the fingers on each joint.","When the box comes out of the press, they check the square.","They apply wood glue for the bottom of the box.","Since the bottom is less visible, clients sometimes choose plywood instead of solid wood to save on costs.","They glue a solid maple top, and the boxes go into press for 35 minutes until the glue dries.","After sanding, a router shapes the edge of the box's top.","By changing the router-bit, they can create all kinds of decorative profiles.","This one is simply rounded.","They sand the whole box again with 120-grit sandpaper, and finish with 180-grit sandpaper.","Now they can cut the box open, starting at the back.","They create a wide angle so the lid can open freely on its hinges.","Next, they make a straight cut through each of the three remaining sides, sawing the box in half.","They separate the body from the lid, and the two match up perfectly.","Each half of the box goes on an automated milling machine called a slotter.","It cuts the slots in the wood on the back of the box.","These slots will receive the hinges.","The bottom of each slot is rounded to cradle the rounded ends of the hinges.","These hinges are made of nickel-plated metal.","They're designed to be pressure fitted, so they won't need any screws to stay in place.","The worker uses a rubber mallet to insert the hinges in the body of the box.","Once the hinges are aligned with the lid, he squeezes them tight, using the hammer again if necessary.","The angled cut creates enough space for the hinges and helps to open the lid.","They apply a coat of sealer, lightly sand the wood, and finish with a coat of lacquer.","When the lacquer is dry, they install the magnetic closure in a pre-drilled hole.","Another magnet goes into the lid, and that makes for a nice-closing box.","They stick a piece of self-adhesive felt to the bottom of the box and trim the excess.","Next, they line the box with foam in order to protect its contents.","Some clients prefer thermoformed plastic trays molded to their product's specific shape.","You can choose the size, shape, type of wood, color, and hardware of the box.","The only limit is your budget and your imagination."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Clay Liquor Jugs","Poultry Deli Meats","NASCAR Engines"]},"text":["The clay liquor jug is a product with an elicit past.","In 19th-century america, this distinct stoneware jug was used to contain backwoods brew, moonshine whiskey that was produced under the cover of night to avoid scrutiny from the authorities so it could be sold tax free.","Today they still uncork the little brown jug to serve up old-time corn whiskey.","Replicas like this one add an authentic touch to the traditional brew.","The jug starts with raw clay dug out of the ground and crushed into little particles.","They also break up defective and damaged pottery and recycle it into the process so nothing is wasted.","Next, a shaft with protruding knives mixes the clay with water and fortifying chemicals.","When the clay reaches a doughy consistency, a vacuum sucks out the air pockets, and then machinery forces it through a dye to form a long log.","In log form, the clay is easier to handle.","The potter pulls off some chunks of clay and shapes them into patties.","He presses the patties into molds of the top and bottom parts of the clay liquor jug.","He inserts each mold in a holding ring and spins it.","A wooden tool now sculpts the jug's top section from the inside.","Clay migrates up the walls of the mold and takes its shape.","The potter pokes a wooden dowel in the neck of the jug to round it out.","As tools shape the lower body of the liquor jug, the potter sprays water on the rim.","This makes the rim sticky, which will allow the bottom portion of the jug to adhere to the top.","Still in the molds, he presses the two parts of the jug together, and the moistened clay bonds.","Once the clay is dried, the next craftsperson pries it from the molds, and it comes out in one piece.","She removes any unwanted bits and transfers the jug to the workbench.","She levels the lip of the jug with a stick and spins the jug on a pottery wheel to scrape off surplus clay at the seam.","She smooths down rough spots on the exterior surface with a wet sponge.","At this point, the clay is still fairly supple and responds to moisture.","Meanwhile, jug handles are taking shape in this tub.","Steel paddles force the clay through holes in the bottom, producing ribbons of clay that will now be shaped into curved handles.","The potter moistens one end of the clay ribbon and presses it to the neck of the jug.","She must apply just the right amount of pressure, or it will fall off.","She pulls the clay ribbon into a distinctive curve and presses the other end to the side of the jug.","The curvature must be similar from jug to jug, and producing a consistent shape every time takes practice.","At the glazing station, an operator tests a pump that spurts glaze upwards, creating a brief fountain of glaze.","With a paddle, he swishes the solution around to keep the glaze particles suspended.","Then he immerses the top of the jug in the liquid to give the clay liquor jug that familiar two-toned look.","He pumps glaze inside the jug, giving it a leakproof lining that will allow it to hold liquids.","The next worker stamps product information on the side of the jug using ceramic inks.","Next, they prepare a different glaze.","The worker dips the bottom portion of the jug in it, and it appears to completely obscure the carefully applied product information.","But when the glaze dries, it will become transparent, and the stamp will be visible again.","The next worker scuffs off the glaze on the base to keep the jug from sticking to the shelves in the kiln.","They fire the whiskey jugs at around 2,200 degrees fahrenheit for eight hours.","This hardens the clay and deepens the glaze.","It's taken a total of 19 steps and one week to transform a couple of lumps of clay into a little brown jug.","And it's sure to add a touch of nostalgia to cocktail hour.","Man cannot live by bread alone.","But add a few slices of chicken or turkey deli meat, and you've got a meal.","Poultry deli meat is a popular alternative to corn beef or salami, and that's because it's less fatty any way you slice it.","When it comes to making deli meats, it's all in the seasoning.","From fiery southwestern turkey to hot-sauce-marinated chicken, they really know how to spice it up.","They begin with plenty of filtered water.","It will be used to disperse the specially formulated seasonings.","There's a different blend for every product, and they include salt and different herbs and spices.","They add honey because this is a honey maple recipe.","And while that's all being mixed, they check the temperature of the raw poultry to confirm it's in the safe range.","If it's even slightly off, there's a risk of bacterial growth, so the whole batch would have to be rejected.","But this poultry has been well-chilled.","The stitch pump machine's long steel needles repeatedly inject seasoning solutions into the breast meat.","Excess liquid drains through the conveyor as the chicken is transferred to a holding area to marinate for at least two hours.","Next, numerous lumpy rollers massage the chicken and break down fiber to tenderize the meat.","Then, in a tumbler, metal paddles vigorously knead the meat.","This tenderizes it even more and releases a natural protein that will eventually bind several breasts into one big piece.","Meanwhile in the turkey kitchen, workers shape and season previously marinated meat and apply strips of bacon to the top.","The employee arranges them in a crisscross pattern for full coverage.","He dusts it with a mix of seasonings and then wraps it in thick plastic.","Once enclosed in the plastic, he can press the turkey breast into a more perfect shape.","For a different flavor, they drench some turkey breast in a spicy southwestern marinade.","After folding the turkey meat to the desired shape, the worker adds salsa and seasonings to complete the recipe.","A little more hand shaping and it's ready for the oven.","Back on the chicken line, it's the same idea but with a different twist.","Chicken breasts are too small to shape by hand, so they funnel them into thermoformed plastic molds.","As the molds move forward, a worker sprinkles spices onto the meat while another swabs juices to test for pathogens as part of a quality-control program.","Equipment heat-seals the plastic molds and then cuts them free from the matrix.","Then they're on their way to the smoke oven.","They spend six hours smoking at 165 degrees fahrenheit.","The protein released earlier by kneading causes the chicken parts to adhere and take the shape of the mold.","Once they've been temperature checked, it's on to the next station.","Here, workers peel off the cooking mold and drain the excess juices.","Then the molded breasts go through a fryer.","The hot canola oil browns the outside of the chicken meat for a more appealing and tasty effect.","Meanwhile, workers swish other cooked chicken breasts in hot buffalo-wing sauce to really kick up the spice a few notches.","And after extra seasoning, the chicken travels through a long arc of electric heat rods.","This is a special convection oven.","Fans blow the heat from the rods onto the meat to complete the cooking process.","By now the turkey deli meat has also been thoroughly cooked and crisped.","They transfer the turkey-filled bags to clam-like devices that close around them.","Inside, a vacuum sucks out the air to shrink the packaging around the turkey and keep it fresh.","It has taken about eight hours to produce this poultry deli meat.","Refrigerated, it should last about 35 days, unless there's a hungry crowd.","Nascar, an acronym for the national association for stock car auto racing, is one of the most popular spectator sports in north america.","Nascar vehicles are modeled after certain american-made four-door passenger cars, but with far more powerful engines.","No overhead camshaft engines on this track.","For tradition's sake, nascar rules require an overhead valve engine, an older type of configuration also known as a push rod engine.","Designing the engine takes about a year and a half.","It culminates in a detailed computer model, an anatomical rendering of the engine in full detail, right down to every last nut and bolt.","The computer model guides a stereolithography machine to produce a plastic prototype of each engine component.","The machine repeatedly outputs paper-thin layers of photosensitive liquid resin, which an ultraviolet laser instantly solidifies.","Over the course of several hours of resin layering, their prototype component takes shape.","Technicians test it in conjunction with other prototype components and make any necessary adjustments to the design.","Then, computer-controlled machining equipment produces a metal prototype.","When every component has gone through this process, the engine design gets the go-ahead to move into production.","The factory first casts the basic shape of certain components in a mold, then machines that shape to its final form.","Here, computer-guided hones finish the engine's eight cylinder bores, the chambers in which the power-generating combustion cycles will occur.","Technicians take very precise measurements to ensure the bores' diameter and roundness meet specifications.","Then they flip the engine block upside down, oil the crankshaft bearings, position the crankshaft on those bearings, and lock it in with bolted-on caps.","As the pistons inside the cylinders move up and down, they rotate the crankshaft, driving the clutch and transmission, which propel the racecar.","With this little black component called a wrist pin, they join the piston to a connecting rod.","Next, they fit two rings on the piston.","The top one seals the cylinder, maximizing the pressure inside, which optimizes combustion.","The bottom ring skims excess oil off the cylinder walls between combustion cycles, which prevents the car from burning oil.","After inserting a piston all the way down into the cylinder bore, they grease the upper portion to prepare for measuring the compression ratio which must comply with nascar rules.","The compression ratio refers to the volume of space in which the piston compresses the gas and fuel mixture entering the cylinder.","To take this critical measurement, they raise the piston all the way to the top dead center point, then verify the positioning with gauges.","They seal the top of the cylinder with a see-through plastic plate.","Then, with a syringe, inject alcohol into the space in between.","The markings on the syringe tell them how many ccs-- cubic centimeters-- filling that space requires.","This volume measurement indicates the compression ratio.","The higher the compression ratio, the more horsepower the engine produces.","They repeat this test with each cylinder.","They flip the engine block upside down and put each piston's connecting rod in the corresponding position on the crankshaft.","Then lock the piston in place with bolted-on connection caps.","Now the technician closes up the bottom of the engine.","Meanwhile, a device called a profilometer inspects the camshaft.","The camshaft moves the intake and exhaust valves at the top of each cylinder, allowing the fuel and air mixture in and the combustion gases out.","This testing ensures the camshaft is straight and that its surface is slightly rough so that lubricating oil will cling to it.","The engine build is now about halfway there.","In a push rod engine, the camshaft is located, as we've just seen, above the crankshaft.","It opens and closes the valves with a system of lifters, rods, and rocker arms.","In the more modern overhead camshaft configuration, the camshaft sits on top of the cylinders, moving the valves directly.","Building the nascar engine continues with the installation of this aluminum motor plate by which mechanics will mount the engine in the car.","Next, the timing belt, which links the camshaft to the crankshaft, ensuring they turn in sync and maintain the correct timing.","At the core of the belt is a woven material that's five times stronger than steel.","Other technicians use a gauge to measure how much force it takes to compress the valve springs.","This quality-control check ensures that spring tension is within a specific range.","Each cylinder has an intake valve and an exhaust valve.","Technicians use a compression tool to squeeze a spring over each one.","Then they secure the spring with a locking clip.","The valves are located in the top section of the engine, called the cylinder head, that technicians now bolt on to the engine block.","Next, they assemble the push rod system by which the camshaft opens and closes the valves.","First, rocker stands.","Then push rods.","These insert into lifters which connect to the camshaft.","And finally rocker arms.","One end of each arm goes on the push rod.","The other sits on the valve.","When the camshaft turns, the system opens and closes the valves.","Technicians close up the cylinder head with a valve cover.","Next, they install the engine cooling system, starting with a water manifold.","After mounting a cover to protect the cam belt from rocks and other debris, they install the water pump.","It circulates cold water through the engine to prevent overheating.","Having absorbed the heat, the water exits the engine via the manifold, then travels to the radiator which cools it back down.","Then the pump, driven by this pulley, sends the water back into the engine to repeat the cycle.","Next, technicians mount the alternator.","It generates electricity to run the engine and other components, such as the air-conditioning, the dashboard gauges, and fans which cool the brakes, tires, and rear end.","This belt drives both the alternator and water pump pulley.","Next, technicians install the oil pump.","It sucks hot oil out of the engine, sends it to the oil radiator for cooling, then pumps it back into the engine.","Now the distributor.","It sends electricity from the alternator-charged car battery to the spark plugs.","The spark plugs fire, igniting the fuel and air mixture in each cylinder, producing a mini explosion that drives the piston.","This component, the intake manifold, feeds the air and fuel mixture to the cylinder intake valves.","The carburetor regulates the mixture ratio by metering the right amount of fuel to the amount of air coming in.","Technicians install the numerous parts that make up the clutch.","Next, the starter ring, which engages with the starter to fire up the engine.","Finally, they mount the bell housing, a cover that protects the clutch from debris and connects the engine to the transmission.","The factory hooks up every engine it produces to a testing machine.","The machine starts up and runs the motor, analyzing some 300 performance criteria, from revolutions per minute to fuel flow.","At the same time, three remote-controlled cameras shooting from different angles enable technicians to zoom in and view on a monitor anything they need to visually inspect.","All this to ensure the engine they've built will have a winning track record."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wooden Bowls","Chainsaws","Stackable Potato Chips","Jet Compressor Blades"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Wooden bowls...","Chain saws...","Stackable potato chips...","And jet compressor blades.","There was a time when bowl making was a cherished trade passed down through generations of woodworkers.","But today, with so much mass-produced tableware, handcrafted wooden bowls have become a specialty item, and this centuries-old traditional craft is practically a lost art.","Each of these exquisite bowls is made from a solid piece of hardwood-- beech, maple, walnut, or cherry.","Logs arrive at the bowl mill fresh from the forest, so they're still very damp, and that's an advantage because the moisture lubricates the cutting tools.","The first step is to divide the log into blocks with a chain-saw operator measuring and inspecting as he goes.","Defects such as knots or scarring dictate the length of each block.","Any cracks or other flaws are marked with a red crayon.","Next, a rip-saw operator uses different-size bowl patterns to determine the best way to cut the block.","The goal is to get the biggest bowl-size pieces possible without including any defective wood.","Each bowl-sized piece is called a bowl blank.","This block is large enough to yield three blanks, each of which will produce a 17-inch bowl and a series of progressively smaller bowls that nest inside it.","The blank is mounted onto a woodworking lathe.","From this point on, production is entirely dependent on the lathe operator's skill.","As the block spins, he carves out the bowls using a series of specialized knives designed and forged at this very mill.","First he uses this curved knife to shear off the outer portion of wood.","It takes great expertise to know exactly how to angle the tool and when to pull it out and release the wood shavings and prevent a jam.","After two or three minutes, the exterior bark shell has been sheared off.","The bare wood that's left represents the outside of the largest bowl that he'll mill from this blank.","With a finer blade, he sculpts the wood to just the right thickness and smoothes the surface.","Now he switches to a smaller curved knife and cuts into the wood.","This forms the inside of the largest bowl and the outside of the next smaller one.","The lathe worker repeats the smoothing and cutting process with progressively smaller knives, making bowl after bowl at a rate of about one a minute.","This one bowl blank produces four nested bowls, the smallest measuring about nine inches in diameter.","The bowls are steamed for about four hours to draw out the sap and hydrate the pores of the wood uniformly.","Once a bowl is dry--  about a month later-- workers even out the top rim on a sanding table.","Then, using a belt sander, they smooth the outside and inside surfaces.","A motorized saw shaves off the bottom of the bowl, giving it a flat base on which to sit and a place to inscribe the company name.","Businesses can order custom-made bowls featuring their company logo.","Artists burn the design into the wood or paint it on.","The bowls now go for a bath in food-safe mineral oil.","This nourishes the wood, preventing dryness and cracks.","Oiling also brings out the natural beauty of the wood grain, and because all raw wood is unique, no two bowls are ever alike.","Up next...","High-tech production at a chain-saw factory.","It's loud, it's powerful, and it rules the forest.","The chain saw has revolutionized the logging industry by replacing simple muscle power with mechanical might.","The chain saw can fell a tree and quickly turn logs into lumber.","Production begins with the plastic housing.","Three aluminum inserts must be molded into the housing to provide solid anchors for other parts.","A robot picks up the inserts one at a time and delivers them to an injection molding machine.","Then it places the inserts into a mold at the front of the machine.","The machine injects melted plastic into the mold to make the chain saw's engine cover.","During the molding process, the metal inserts become integrated into the housing.","It takes just seconds to transform these plastic pellets into a chain-saw engine cover.","The robot carries each engine cover to an automated cutter that removes any unwanted bits of plastic.","The scraps drop into a bin below.","The hot covers cool for about 10 minutes.","Then the robot moves them to the next station.","There's one more piece of plastic housing-- the fuel tank.","The sonic welder melts and fuses it to the engine cover using high-frequency vibration.","Now it's time to move on to the engine and install a spring system for the starter cord.","The two-stroke engine slides into the plastic casing.","And a spark plug is popped into place.","After the crankshaft is lubricated, the chain saw's automatic oiling system is installed.","The carburetor is attached, along with a pull-cord starter system.","This saw gets an air filter.","Then the chain bar's stud bolts are dipped in adhesive and screwed into the inserts molded into the plastic housing.","The rear handle goes on...","Along with a safety-release trigger.","The front handle is screwed into place.","And the oil line gets a filter attachment that lubricates the bar and chain.","That will strain out any impurities.","Next, workers install bearings and the crankshaft clutch system.","The clutch is the link between the engine and chain.","When it's engaged, the chain will move around the cutting bar.","The engine is now ready for a test run at typical speed-- 8,000 rpm.","Technicians adjust the carburetor so that it mixes the right amount of gas and air and check the exhaust to make sure it doesn't exceed pollution standards.","Workers attach the company's logo and other operational information.","Then the brake system goes into place.","Finally, the metal bar and chain blade are packed in a protective sleeve.","Once the saw's chain blade is installed, the owner has a power tool with teeth for almost any job.","When we return...","Get the skinny on stackable chips.","It's a snack that's made to stack.","Unlike other chips that come in irregular shapes and sizes, these chips have a uniform concave shape that allows them to tightly interlock and fit neatly in a tubular container.","The process for making these tubes starts with big rolls of plain brown paper and foil-backed paper that help keep the chips fresh.","The streams of paper travel across rollers that apply a coat of glue.","The paper layers then twist around the mandrel that's turned by a big belt.","The belt also presses the glued layers together.","Next, the label paper gets a coat of glue.","This helps it stick to the paper on the mandrel.","A camera photographs the white edging on the label paper, then relays its location to a set of circular knives.","They make a precise cut just below the white edging.","Cued by the camera, the carriage then moves the knives into position for the next cut.","You the tubes then head into a turning station...","A box with a pathway inside that flips the tubes right side up.","Hot metal heads curl the tops to accommodate lids.","A roller pulls foil-backed paper into a cutter that punches out the lid shapes.","Little vacuums take the lids to the tubes and heat-seal them on.","Plastic lids go over the paper ones.","The lidded tubes are now turned upside down, ready to be stacked with chips.","The chip recipe is 1/3 water to 2/3 potato flakes with a little cornstarch mixed in.","A conveyor delivers the mix to an auger, which disperses it.","Then it sets out on the production line.","Using four tons of pressure, the mix is rolled into one long potato sheet.","A rotary cutter then punches out oval shapes.","A device pulls away the scrap dough, leaving flat, uncooked chips.","This scrap dough goes back into the chip-making process, while the potato chips head for the fryer.","As they travel through the fryer, rolling molds give the chips their uniformly concave shape, making them more easily stackable.","The chips spend 11 seconds in hot oil, crisping.","Then they travel under blowers to get rid of excess oil.","The chips get a coat of seasoning, then do a backflip off one conveyor and onto another, falling into neat piles.","A worker inspects the rows of chips.","Then it's onto another conveyor that shakes them up to loosen the stack.","They travel over scales to be portioned out for packaging.","Automated spoons shove the chips into the open ends of the tubes.","Guides tap the tops of the tubes to nudge the chips into position.","Grippers then lower the stacks of tubes to a station, where spinning heads force metal bottoms onto them.","Now they're ready for shipping.","It takes about 20 minutes to make a tube of stackable chips, but it takes less time to polish them off.","Up next, jet compressor blades that really make the cut.","Compressor blades are key components in a jet's engine.","Thousands of them whirl inside the engine, rotating 400 times per second and whipping air into small hurricanes.","Large compressor blades made of titanium compress the air in front of an engine's turbo chamber.","In the back of the chamber, smaller blades made of nickel alloy compress it even more.","The air heats up to more than 1,000 degrees, then combines with jet fuel, creating a powerful mix that explodes out the back of the engine.","The blades start off as metal pellets called slugs.","A ceramic layer prevents their surfaces from oxidizing when exposed to intense heat.","The slugs are heated for 15 minutes in an 1,800-degree oven.","Meanwhile, a robot sprays lubricant on two dies inside a press.","The robot retrieves the slugs and loads them in the first die.","The press applies over 1,000 tons of pressure to preform the metal.","The robot then transfers the slugs to the second die, where they take the initial shape of the blade.","The blades are dipped in water to cool.","Another robot cleans the metal burrs off the edges.","The blade is now an airfoil.","Robots will shape the rounded base of the blade, called the dovetail, later.","The airfoil has gone from this to this.","After a new ceramic layer is applied, the blade is heated again.","Each heating and cooling cycle tempers the metal, making it more resilient.","Almost 1,800 tons of pressure gives the airfoil its final shape.","A trimmer shaves off the excess metal.","The searing heat has turned the protective ceramic layer into glass.","That will come off later.","It's taken an hour to shape the blade's airfoil.","The dovetail, that nub on the right, is next.","But first, this measuring machine inspects the airfoil.","If any measurement is off by just half the thickness of a human hair, the blade doesn't make the cut.","This casting machine will encase the airfoil in a matrix, a coating that protects the airfoil during work on the dovetail.","The matrix is molded from liquid tin and bismuth.","It solidifies into a metal cast around the airfoil.","The future dovetail sticks out at the end.","The cast is then loaded into what is called a broach machine.","Its series of teeth carve the dovetail into its final shape.","Now the cast can come off.","A worker loads it onto the removal machine, and a hydraulic cylinder hits the cast at its weakest point, breaking it in half.","The finished airfoil emerges unscathed.","A dot-matrix machine punches identification numbers onto the blade.","Next, the blades are submerged in a fluid that penetrates any flaws in the metal.","This inspection is critical because even the tiniest nick can spell disaster when a jet's engines are working at full speed.","Inspectors examine the blades under a black light.","This one's perfect, but spots of fluorescence on this one indicate microscopic cracks and weaknesses.","This one gets rejected.","The dovetail gets two strips of rubber silicone that ensure an airtight seal when the dovetail slides into the slot on the compressor drum.","A final check, and the blades are now ready for takeoff."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Belts","3D Metal Printers","Detectable Warning Panels","Model Stirling Engines"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" belts...","3-d metal printers...","Detectable warning panels...","And model stirling engines.","Belts have been worn with different types of garments since the invention of clothes.","Made to cinch your waistline, this accessory is worn with pants, shirts, robes, or dresses, making a fashionable addition to any outfit.","Durable and flexible, leather is the classic material used for belt making.","This production facility manufactures stylish, high quality belts at top speed.","A designer creates a belt pattern on her computer and sends the design electronically to the in-house laser etching machine.","A craftsman places a cowhide on a large table.","He examines the hide for any flaws and carefully marks each one.","The cowhides are made from meat industry byproducts, and most are sourced from italy.","A device scans the shape of the hide and the craftsman digitally marks the location of the flaws.","A specialized cutting machine uses the marked information to create an efficient series of cuts.","This process results in a high quality product with minimal waste.","Another technician sorts the various belt lengths into containers, preparing them for the next step.","The cutting machine is capable of slicing up to 2,400 belts per day.","The cutting machine creates straight, sharp-edged strips.","The technician feeds the belts into a machine that bevels the edges at the rate of 6,000 per day.","At the next station, a series of small suction devices quickly lift and place each belt on a conveyor system.","A stamping machine accurately cuts the shape of the belt tip and the holes for the prong.","The craftsman stacks a group of belts and packs them tightly together, then he dyes the edges with ink and sands them down.","These steps complement the edge dyeing machine process, which can add color to the belt edges.","Then the belts are transferred to a drying machine.","The edges must be completely dry before they move to the next step.","Powered by world war ii jeep engines, a rotating wooden drum tumbles the belts, while simultaneously burnishing the leather.","This type of machinery comes from italy's famous leather working region.","This imported machine, from milan, rapidly punches out the pattern of perforations, which make up the belt's signature design elements.","Since the machine's die is less than 20 inches long, the complex pattern along the belt can't be stamped at once.","Instead, the machine punches out a section at a time resulting in a production rate of 1,400 belts per day.","A laser etching machine burns a second pattern into the leather surface.","This pattern was created by the designer prior to production.","At the next station, a craftswoman fills the holes of a specially crafted two-part metal die with nail heads.","The nail heads are made of zinc with a brass finish.","Using a press, an operator places the die in a waiting repository.","She removes the top half, ensuring that all of the holes are filled with nail heads.","Then she turns the belt around and places it over the die before sliding the belt inside the press.","The press affixes the nail heads to the leather.","Before attaching the buckle, the belts go through a process called skiving.","This device shaves off a section of the leather so that when it's folded over, it won't be too thick.","A loop is attached on to the end of the belt, followed by a buckle.","The craftswoman uses the loop to temporarily hold the buckle and tag in place.","The tag contains the belt's size, price, and brand information.","Another craftswoman sews the belt buckle and tag in place, using 69 weight thread and a bar tacking stitch.","This facility manufactures nearly 10,000 belts per day.","This intricate leather fashion accessory might be a cinch to wear, but not to make.","3-d printers generate metal parts for spacecraft, cars, and medical devices, to name a few.","3-d printing technology allows for the production of complex design structures which can't be achieved using traditional manufacturing methods.","The 3-d metal printer could truly break the mold.","Thanks to advancements in technology, it's now possible to print metal parts.","This 3-d printer melts and layers metal powder and a part materializes.","This part will become a rocket nozzle heat exchanger.","At the core of the 3-d metal printer is the deposition head, which feeds and melts the the metal powder.","So far the designing process has taken hundreds of hours.","Tools guided by the design software transform a brass cylinder into the nozzle cone.","The profile of the nozzle cone can vary slightly, depending on the parts the 3-d metal printer will be used to produce.","Next the powder inlet component is added.","Metal powder will flow through this part to a mixing chamber and, eventually, the nozzle cone.","Computerized tools cut angled channels, delivering different metal powders to the mixing chamber with an angular velocity, creating a vortex to help blend the powders.","The part has been nickel plated and fasteners are installed.","The technician aligns the laser delivery channel to the powder inlet part, and screws them together.","The laser will melt the metal powder as it flows through the inlet.","She installs latches on the rim of the powder inlet part and tightly torques the screws that hold them in place.","Using the latches, she locks the mixing chamber to the inlet.","The latches will help make further assembly and disassembly of the 3-d metal printer head a snap.","Next, a laser nozzle is screwed onto the mixing chamber.","Then, the technician places the main nozzle cone over the laser nozzle and connects the threaded rim to the mixing chamber.","The deposition head is now complete.","Next, another the technician mounts the laser system to a vertical axis in the printer housing.","He runs coolant lines for the laser and attaches the deposition head, screwing it in place with a threaded brass collar.","The laser system and deposition head are now integrated.","First, the powder feeder is assembled with a substantial base to accommodate a feed drive system.","The technician installs the feeder shaft in the upper half of the base.","Then, he screws a disc to the shaft.","The disc will spin to move the metal powder into the printer head system.","He slides a spring on to the shaft which helps maintain its position.","Then, he connects the upper half of the base to the bottom half.","He installs an inlet for carrier gas that will be used to move the powder through tubing to the printer head.","He assembles windows to a lid.","They'll provide a view of the metal powder swirling in the feeder disc, so that any problems can be identified.","He press fits the hopper cone into a ridged hole in the lid.","He attaches the hopper to the cone.","He clamps the feeder motor to the hopper using long screws, which seals the hopper and turns it into a pressure vessel.","The resulting pressure will help force the powder through tubing to the deposition head.","He installs the lid and hopper assembly on the base.","Once assembly is complete, the technician sets the base on a mount, sliding protruding pins into corresponding holes in the lid.","This completes the powder feeder.","The powder feeder now ready to supply the raw material for 3-d printing.","An operator connects it to the printer and pours metal powder into the hopper.","The system delivers the powder to the printer head.","The dispensing and melting of the metal powder, as well as the layering, are all controlled by a computer generated program.","This 3-d printer can manufacture a part in a few hours, so you can sit back and watch it materialize.","Detectable warning panels are cautionary signals for the visually impaired.","Their specific pattern of domed bumps are detectable by touch or with walking aid equipment.","They also serve as warning systems at intersections or on transit platforms, alerting all people to proceed with caution.","For the visually impaired, these little bumps on the road aren't a problem.","They're a solution.","Embedded in surfaces at intersections, detectable warning panels help people find their way through touch.","Making a fiberglass polymer version of the panels starts with a carefully calculated formula.","Technicians add pigment to resin paste keeping a close eye on the scale to confirm the amounts are correct.","Next, a chemical thickener is added, this ingredient will increase the viscosity to a syrupy consistency.","Then the ingredients are blended together.","The agitation from the blender causes the mixture to heat, starting a chemical reaction which will eventually cause solidification.","As the mixture thickens, it turns a vivid color that people with compromised vision can still perceive.","The technician gauges the temperature to confirm that the chemical reaction isn't too advanced.","Then, the mix is set aside, so technicians can prepare other ingredients.","Rams punch the bag of mineral fillers to break up any clumps as they flow into a hopper.","Stearic acid is added to cut the thickening.","A computer dispenses the mineral filler and resin into a large mixing tank.","An operator adds an inhibitor to delay the chemical reaction as the mixing blade blends the ingredients into a paste.","Zinc stearate is added to the mixture, which will allow the completed panel to release from the mold.","Glass bundles, known as rovings, then unwind.","A blade chops them into toothpick sized pieces.","The pigment mixture, which has been blended into the resin paste, flows on to a plastic liner.","Shards of glass fall down on to the yellow resin mixture.","As the machine pulls the mixture forward, the liner takes the glass-encrusted resin to the next stage.","More resin and a top plastic liner, create an encasing with the glass in the middle.","Rollers squeeze the encasing together, forcing the resin to flow around the glass shards.","The material is compacted to the desired thickness.","Then, the glass and resin material cures for 24 hours.","This allows the materials to thicken, so it can be cut into panels.","A circular cutting wheel moves on a carriage across the mat slicing it to length.","The mats are retrieved from the machine and stacked.","The plastic liners on both sides are still intact.","Next, the material is weighed to confirm the specified amount.","If more is needed, a technician will adjust accordingly.","He then peels off the liners.","The glass and resin material are transferred to a heated mold.","The mold applies 500 tons of hot pressure.","The material liquefies and flows into the crevasses of the mold, forcing air out.","As the bumpy panels take shape, a chemical reaction causes the material to solidify.","A worker trims the freshly molded panels to give them a cleaner line.","And sands the edges smooth.","He clamps the panel to a fixture at both ends.","The clamps keep the panel in position and prevent it from bending.","As mounting holes are drilled into the panel.","The technician uses an air gun to blow off drilling residue and dust.","This detectable warning panel is now ready for installation.","Two craftsmen pipe adhesive into channels at the back of the panel.","The panel is installed in a recessed part of the curb and screwed into anchors in the concrete.","For people with limited vision trying to navigate their way around, these tactile panels will make a difference they can feel.","A stirling engine produces power by circulating hot and cold air, or other types of gas, at different temperatures.","Heating expands the gas, while cooling contracts it.","These alternating reactions move up to four pistons at a time, driving the machine and the pulleys attached to the engine.","This german company manufactures model stirling engines and accessories, like this marble tower.","The engine parts move by a closed loop of air that circulates inside the engine, expanding and contracting as it repeatedly heats and cools.","A specialist designs the engines and produces digital renderings for each component.","The dimensions must be accurate within 1/1,000 of a millimeter.","A computer guided turret machine shapes the engine's cooling cylinder out of a solid piece of brass.","Heat escapes brass quickly, making it ideal for a component to rapidly reduce its hot air temperature.","The cooled air contracts, producing a vacuum that draws the engine's working piston downward.","When reheated, the air expands, pushing the piston up.","This repetitive motion drives the crankshaft.","The cooling cylinder has fins to help diffuse heat, a hole on top for the working piston and another hole on the side for the displace piston.","After cleaning the cylinder with compressed air, a technician performs a quality control check.","First, he inserts multiple test pins into the hole for the working piston until one is the right fit.","This tells him the diameter measurement.","Using a digital caliper, the technician measures a series of aluminum working pistons until he finds the one that's the correct size for the hole's diameter.","He inserts the piston into the cylinder, then holds the cylinder upside down.","If the piston falls out slowly, it's the right size.","The fit must be precise to prevent the circulating air from leaking out of the cylinder.","In the assembly area, another technician superglues a crankshaft ball bearing into each of the engine's stainless steel side frames.","She glues the displace axle to the displace piston.","The part should fit loosely in the cooling cylinder to allow the air to flow around it, while moving back and forth between the engine's heating and cooling zones.","She inserts the displace piston into the side hole of the cooling cylinder.","Then the heating cylinder is mounted over the piston.","The heating cylinder draws heat generated by the flame into the engine.","She attaches it to the cooling cylinder with four screws.","A connecting rod is attached to the working piston and the piston is inserted into the cooling cylinder.","Next, the technician mounts one of the side frames to the cylinder, attaches a rocker arm to the side frame, then puts one end of the crankshaft through the side frame's ball bearing.","She attaches the second side frame, by inserting the other end of the crankshaft through its ball bearing.","She mounts what has been assembled so far on to a wooden base plate, then she connects one end of the rocker arm to the working piston's connecting rod.","The other end of the rocker arm is joined to the crankshaft connecting rod, which is connected at a 90-degree angle to both the rocker arm and the crankshaft.","On each end of the crankshaft, a heavy brass flywheel is mounted.","The flywheels increase the momentum of the engine.","To power an accessory with the stirling engine, one end of a drive belt is run around a pulley on the accessory, and the other end of the belt around a plastic drive wheel.","The finishing touch is an engraved brass identification plate.","Here's how this engine works.","First, the burner case is filled with denatured alcohol and the wick is attached.","The burner case is placed under the heating cylinder, light the wick, and let the engine preheat for 10 to 15 seconds, then turn a flywheel to kickstart the engine.","The flame heats the air inside the heating cylinder.","The hot air expands into the cooling cylinder, causing the cylinder to cool and contract.","This moves the working piston up and down, turning the engine's crankshaft."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Sanders","Solid Terrain Models","Stucco","High"]},"text":["Most experts will tell you that the key to the perfect paint job or wood-refinishing job is to prep the surface properly before applying the paint or wood stain.","That requires sanding to remove old finishes and to level uneven areas.","The easiest way to do that is with a motorized sander.","Professional-caliber sanders are typically pneumatic, meaning you plug them into an air compressor.","Air-driven tools are more powerful than tools than run on electricity.","This type of sander is called a straight line, because the pad to which you attach sandpaper moves in a straight line back and forth.","Many of the tool's components are made of powdered metal, then machined to exact dimensions on a computer-guided lathe.","Powdered metal is iron powder that's compacted with high pressure and heated in a furnace to bond the particles into a solid part.","Sometimes they further strengthen the powdered metal by infusing it with copper in the furnace.","Using an induction welder, which heats the metal with an electric current, they fuse a powdered-metal gear to each end of a steel shaft by melting on silver.","This constructs the sander's timing driveshaft, the regulating component that makes each stroke of the sanding pad just under an inch long.","Heating the metal softens it, so they now cool the timing driveshaft in oil.","This quenching hardens the component.","Meanwhile, they coat a sheet of aluminum rectangles with industrial-strength contact adhesive.","Each rectangle is a base for a rubber sanding pad.","The rectangular pad, which they coat with the same adhesive, is 6 1/2 millimeters thick, the same dimensions as the base with identical holes for the mounting screws.","Once the adhesive becomes tacky, they mate the base to the pad.","Using a small pneumatic press, they force out trapped air to ensure a thorough bond.","Elsewhere in the factory, they paint the recessed lettering of the polished aluminum plates, two per sander, which bear the manufacturer's name.","Once all the remaining components are prepared, technicians begin the assembly.","First, the motor's piston.","They place the piston rack in an arbor press and push a plastic piece onto each end.","Then, on each end piece, they mount a piston ring made of a proprietary wear-resistant material.","They insert the now-assembled piston into the sander's aluminum motor block.","The ring creates a tight seal to prevent air leakage.","Next, a technician installs the timing driveshaft and the idler gear shaft, pressing the gears of both into the piston rack's teeth.","The powdered-metal counterweight goes on each side to balance the piston rack, then guides made of that proprietary material to align and lubricate the counterweights.","A second set of anti-wear guides goes in the lower part of the motor block.","These help balance the sanding pad.","Then the start of the valve system, which controls the entry of compressed air into the sander.","At the front of the motor block, they install a paper gasket to prevent air leakage, then seal it with an aluminum end plate.","Continuing with the valve system, they install the components, which control the timing of the pistons' back-and-forth motion.","After sealing the top with a cap, they install the air-valve block, then the handle, which contains the inlet to which the air compressor connects.","The handle squeeze trigger is mounted to the cap above the handle.","They install the counterweight for the pad.","Here, you can see the two shafts the piston rack rotates.","Workers connect them to an aluminum drive shoe, which will move back and forth.","A pair of side rails holds the drive shoe in place.","Where the air exits the tool, they install a muffler made of porous plastic.","Finally, when the technician screws the base to the drive shoe, the chain is complete.","Compressed air moves the piston, which rotates the shafts, which moves the drive shoe holding the rubber pad with sandpaper.","This pneumatic sander is ready to level and smooth a surface in seconds flat.","A solid terrain model, \"stm\" for short, is an exact, three-dimensional, miniature replica of a geographic area.","Stms are indispensable tools for museums, visitor centers, and for planning everything from industrial projects to military operations.","To create a solid terrain model, the first step is to gather data via satellites and aircraft.","Two types of data--  color photographs of the surface showing the precise location of vegetation, rock, buildings, and so on, and elevation measurements, taken with lasers and other equipment.","A cartographer digitally merges the black and white elevation diagrams with the color photos and adds artwork for roads and place names.","He produces a 3-d computer model of the area.","This model will guide the machines that manufacture the physical model out of a block of polyurethane foam.","Foam is a durable material and lightweight, making the model easy to transport.","A computer-guided cutting machine first shapes a ledge around the block's perimeter.","This is for mounting the model on a frame.","Then the machine reads the computer model's elevation files and carves a miniature replica of those elevations into foam.","The machine first does a rough cut.","Then--  and this takes much longer-- it carves the fine details.","Depending on the complexity of the terrain, cutting the elevations into the foam can take just a few hours or several days.","When the cutting's finished, the technician cleans off the foam dust with compressed air and a brush.","The foam goes into a spray booth where it first receives a coat of primer to seal the porous surface, then multiple layers of special coatings to make images printed on the surface sharp and vibrant.","Once the coating's dry--  that takes about a day-- technicians put the model into a custom-designed inkjet printer, which reads the computer model's photograph file.","Just like an ordinary printer, this printer produces a multitude of shades from just four basic colors-- black, yellow, magenta, and cyan.","The jets pass just a few millimeters above the model, emitting one microscopic drop of ink at a time at precisely the correct location.","The end result is a miniature replica of what the surface looks like in real life.","Other workers, meanwhile, construct a sturdy frame for the model by gluing, clamping, and nailing together four lengths of oak.","This frame will protect the model from damage and make it easier to lift and move.","Once the glue dries, they remove the clamps, and with a saw, trim each corner to a 45-degree angle.","Then they round the edges with a sander.","They complete the frame by protecting the wood with a coat of clear polyurethane.","When that dries, they spread glue onto the frame's inside edge.","Then they position the model so that the ledge along its perimeter sits on top of the frame.","After printing, they spray the model with clear polyurethane or lacquer.","The protective finish allows people to now touch the model without damaging it.","Sometimes, an area they're modeling has buildings, bridges, or other structures.","When that's the case, an engineer designs a computer model of the object.","Then, guided by this model, a 3-d printer produces a physical model out of plastic, building the miniature replica from the bottom up one thin layer at a time.","These mountaintop castles in portugal are the finishing touch on this model that's set to go on display at the local tourist center.","Solid terrain models are a creative and valuable tool for educating people young and old.","By translating complicated technical data into a unique and scientifically sound visual aid, a solid terrain model delivers a fascinating bird's-eye view from the ground.","Stucco is one of the oldest construction materials on the planet.","The earliest formulations date back to ancient greece and mayan mexico.","Stucco has stuck around, and as an exterior siding, it's come a long way.","Modern stucco is more attractive and offers better protection.","Whether cement- or acrylic-based, stucco always starts out as a sticky paste, and that's the great thing about stucco.","In this wet and gooey form, it can be worked as it's applied to the exterior of a building to achieve a variety of textures.","It hardens to provide a tough exterior that shields the building against the elements.","To mass-produce cement stucco, they start with tons of silica sand.","They unload it into a conveyor and elevator system, which delivers the sand to silos for storage until needed.","They select sand with various grades of coarseness for different stucco finishes.","They mix it with cement, lime, and other ingredients to create the stucco base.","A technician demonstrates how the ingredients come together using this research lab mixer.","She blends all the ingredients dry, achieving a consistency that's similar to cake mix from a box.","Cement stucco is sold in dry form.","Water will be added to liquefy the ingredients on the job site.","In this demonstration, she also adds pigment.","With the stucco pre-colored, there's no need to paint the building.","To mass-produce cement stucco, they use this mega-mixer.","The operator adds three or four different pigments to create a custom color in the dry stucco batch.","Large paddle blades spiral vigorously.","Usually, this is a closed operation, but they've opened it up for our camera.","After three minutes of mixing, the dry stucco mix is ready for scrutiny.","An employee takes a sample and sends it to the quality control lab for evaluation.","At the lab, the technician weighs the stucco mixture and adds water.","He keeps an eye on the scale to ensure that the amounts are proportionate.","He mixes them and visually checks to confirm that the pigment and raw materials are well dispersed.","Acrylic stucco, on the other hand, calls for an entirely different recipe.","They use calcium carbonate instead of silica send and acrylic as a binder instead of cement.","They mix it with water and sell it wet in a bucket instead of dry.","To color it, they use a computerized tint machine, similar to what you find in a paint store.","They load the machine with liquid pigments and enter a color formula into the computer.","It mixes the pigments to produce the exact color.","And it releases the precise amount needed.","They blend the color into the acrylic stucco, and the batch ends up looking like blue mud.","It's now ready to apply to a home.","No prep required.","They also sell acrylic stucco with no color at all.","It's called tint base.","The pigments will be added on the job site, where they can be adjusted if needed.","An airtight seal keeps the stucco in its viscous state.","Acrylic stucco dries quickly, like paint, while cement stucco takes 28 days to totally cure into a more durable finish.","Over on the cement stucco line, a rotating machine handles all the packaging.","A suctioning device pulls a paper bag into position under a spout, which then fills it up.","It takes just 8 seconds to fill a 90-pound bag.","That works out to over 1,300 bags per hour, enough material for 30 houses.","The machine transfers the bag to the conveyor belt.","This stucco is now ready to provide a strong finish to building projects.","Applied to a building's exterior, stucco can be textured to suit the homeowner's taste, and it will harden to provide the building with a tough skin.","That's why stucco continues to be part of the urban landscape.","An industrial roll-up door opens and closes at least three times as fast as your average residential garage door.","That means machines and products can be moved in and out quickly.","These heavy-duty rubber doors are also engineered for a good seal, so they're weathertight.","In many workplaces, doors are always opening and closing.","A high-speed roll-up door is designed for heavy traffic.","Coal mines, parking garages, and large food freezer rooms are just a few of the places you will find them in action.","They start with rubber panels.","Their number and size depends on the width of the door being manufactured.","Workers brush high-strength epoxy onto the edges to bind the panels together.","The epoxy will take a couple of hours to cure, so there's time to smooth out the air bubbles by applying pressure to the seams with a heavy roller.","After the epoxy cures, they map out areas with masking tape to contain glue for the application of extruded rubber strips.","The horizontal one is a stiffener, and the vertical strips at the sides are wind blocks.","They'll secure the curtain to the building even in bad weather.","The employee also applies synthetic fabric to both sides to prevent wear.","He adds reflective yellow strips to the front and back to make the black rubber door visible at night.","A machine now drills holes in a steel tube.","This tube is the header that the rubber curtain will be rolled up on to.","The holes will be used to attach the curtain to it.","He tack-welds axles onto both ends of the tube.","The axles will be attached to mounting plates, so these are critical welds.","He measures the axles to confirm that the assembly is level and won't wobble.","Satisfied, he welds them permanently to the steel tube.","Next, he assembles and welds the side frame for the rubber curtain.","He assembles a hinge cover to the front of the frame, creating a compartment for the curtain that can be opened when needed.","Then it's on to the paint booth.","Here, an employee primes the frame components to protect them from rust and then gives them a coat of paint.","A worker assembles the bottom beam now.","He bolts an aluminum track for the rubber edging to a heavy steel frame.","He screws the box for the wireless transmitter that opens and closes the door to the beam.","Two workers now pull the rubber edging through the aluminum track.","The edging is equipped with an electric safety wire to detect movement and abort a door closing.","This will keep the door from hitting anyone who walks under it.","It's now time to pull everything together.","The team screws the rubber curtain to the steel tube, making use of those pre-drilled holes.","They move down and position the bottom beam on the curtain.","They attach it to the curtain with numerous nuts and bolts.","They roll up the rubber curtain to prepare for assembly to the mounting brackets.","With the attachments, the curtain now weighs over 1,100 pounds.","A crane transfers it to the end mounting plates and holds it steady while workers slide the end brackets onto the axles.","They build a steel support structure around the brackets and the rolled-up curtain.","They attach the motor to one of the axles.","This roll-up door is now ready for delivery.","Two days in the making, it's ready for whatever comes its way."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Lace","Antique Frame Replicas","Orchids","Unicycle Wheel Hubs"]},"text":["Lace began as a fringe fabric.","Back in the middle ages, it was handcrafted by european women to trim fashion finery.","The ladies' fingers got a break with the advent of lace-making equipment in the 19th century.","With mass production, lace moved from the fringe to the mainstream.","In the material world, lace used to be a luxury, handcrafted for decorative rather than practical reasons.","Machines now produce lace quickly, and you don't have to be wealthy to afford it.","To manufacture lace, hundreds of nylon and polyester threads unwind simultaneously into a separator.","It arranges the threads in a configuration for manufacturing and keeps them from tangling as they move forward.","To maintain the formation, the the threads pass through a comb-like apparatus.","Still in that neat configuration, the threads wind around a large spool.","This spool is known as a ground beam because the threads on it will be used for the lace's ground, or mesh.","These smaller spools supply the threads for the pattern.","They all unwind into the lace-making machine, which will interweave them to create a pattern on the ground.","Here's how it happens.","A long thick card with holes punched into it defines the pattern and guides a system of hooks and needles.","It's called a jacquard card, and the technology has been around for two centuries and was actually the inspiration for computer technology.","Each hole on the card corresponds to one hook, and the hooks are attached to these guide bars.","If the hook encounters a hole in the jacquard card, it loops a thread, and if it encounters the solid card, it stops.","The guide bars shuffle back and forth to move the hooks in concert with needles and weave the design on the ground.","This is the lace-weaving action in slow motion.","The punch-card system allows for the same pattern to be woven repeatedly without error.","It's all perfectly choreographed, and this complex lace design comes together quickly with no snarls.","The result is a thing of beauty-- an intricate floral pattern on a mesh background.","The lace rolls by inspectors, who scrutinize the needlework for flaws.","It then heads into a station with high-speed knives.","They cut the loose threads that run between the floral patterns on the front of the lace.","A worker finishes the job by hand, removing what the knives miss.","Here you can see the difference the trimming makes.","The mesh between the needlework is now completely transparent.","They mend the lace when needed, and then it's into a dying machine to add some color.","After rinsing, the now bright-yellow lace travels over bars under tension to wring out the water.","The lace, still damp, lands and accumulates in a bin, which they wheel over to a finishing machine.","The finishing machine is equipped with rollers.","The first ones remove the curl from the lace.","The others take it through a chemical bath for a treatment that both softens the lace and prevents shrinkage.","A trip through a dryer removes the water from the fabric and cures the finishing chemicals.","Now complete, the lace exits onto a network of rollers.","The final one swings the fabric to and fro so that it lands neatly folded for transfer to the packaging line.","Heavy industrial machinery has produced this delicate lace in a matter of minutes.","They roll it and wrap it, and it's on its way to the fabric store or another factory.","No ordinary textile, the factory-made lace will add beauty to things of necessity like curtains, a tablecloth, or a dress.","Its sheer good looks will add visual appeal to these ordinary items.","It's important that the frame around a painting be stylistically consistent with the period in which the artist created the work.","When you're dealing with a centuries-old painting, however, the original frame has often been replaced with a newer one.","The solution is commissioning an historically accurate antique replica.","When a painting's original frame is lost, a specialist can produce an exact replica or a historically accurate alternative.","Basswood is the wood of choice because it's relatively soft and even-grained.","First, they saw the length required for the frame.","Then they plane the sides to smooth the rough edges.","Next, they saw the piece to the required dimensions.","Once pieces for all four sides of the frame are cut, workers set up a machine called a molding planer.","As its contoured steel blade spins, they run each piece against it, carving the blade's profile into the wood.","The workshop has thousand of blades, each with a different profile.","They all began as a flat bar of steel, which the shop milled to shape following a profile drawing.","Once each side is contoured, workers saw the ends at 45-degree angles...","Then cut a slot in each one.","They spread glue in the slot and over the entire surface, then insert a beechwood biscuit.","The biscuit goes in just halfway.","They insert the other half into the glued slot of the adjoining frame piece.","Once the glue dries, the master carver gets to work.","With a pencil, he draws the frame's design onto tracing paper, then lays the paper upside down on the replica and retraces the design, which transfers it in graphite onto the frame surface.","Then he turns to his arsenal of 40-plus chisels and begins carving out the design.","Each chisel has a different shape and sized tip and therefore makes a very specific type of cut.","He first cuts straight down along the outline to sever the wood grain.","This prevents the angled cuts, which follow, from splitting the wood beyond the outline.","Interchanging chisels, he repeatedly removes small chunks of wood until the design emerges.","He clears away the wood chips with a wire brush.","Now the master gilder takes over, brushing on up to 20 coats of gesso-- a traditional mixture of water, calcium carbonate, and a very flexible glue made from rabbit skin.","Flexibility prevents cracking when the wood expands and contracts.","He brushes on four coats of another traditional mixture called bole.","The ingredients-- ultra-fine particle clay, water, and, again, rabbit-skin glue.","Bole provides background colors.","It also provides a cushion between the gesso layer and the gold leaf.","Next, a coat of what's called gilder's liquor-- a combination of water, alcohol, and either gelatin or rabbit-skin glue.","Then he cuts a piece of gold leaf-- a sheet of genuine gold a mere 1/10,000 of a millimeter thick.","He applies it with a fine brush made of squirrel hair, which he has lightly oiled.","As soon as he taps the frame, the water in the gilder's liquor grabs the gold leaf, pulling it away from the oil, adhering it to the bristles.","This is the tricky part, because too much oil on the brush or too little water in the gilder's liquor can hinder this delicate transfer.","Next, the master gilder rubs select areas with a polished agate, a natural stone.","This burnishing process compresses the gold leaf, making it smooth and shiny.","Now he'll make the frame look old.","He removes some gold from the high points to create the appearance of wear.","Then he applies a tinted glaze to simulate patina-- natural darkening that develops over time due to the accumulation of airborne dust and dirt.","He works in the glaze with a brush to distribute it strategically so that the fake patina looks perfectly natural.","For this frame, he uses 23-karat gold leaf.","Gilders will also use 6-, 12-, 14, 18-, and 22-karat leaf to achieve different shades of gold.","The higher the karat, the yellower the color, due to the greater proportion of gold in the composition and lesser proportion of copper and silver alloys.","Orchids are a standout.","Their exquisite beauty even caused a frenzy in the mid-19th century when wealthy british collectors hired orchid hunters to search the world for new species.","Today, the fascination with orchids continues, and cultivating them is a growing industry.","In thailand, orchids grow wild, but the wild orchids have been tamed.","They've been hybridized and domesticated to satisfy a global demand for this fantastic flower.","At this farm, cultivation starts with bud cuttings, mixed with nutrients and water in glass bottle.","The bottle provides a germ-free growing environment, keeping the cuttings disease-free as they grow into baby orchids.","This takes a year or more.","When the plants have developed a strong root system, they're ready to come out into the world.","The worker deposits the baby orchids in a tub of clean water and swishes each one around to give their roots a good rinse.","She transfers the baby orchids to a perforated plastic basket.","A wad of coconut fiber soaked in water provides the next growing environment.","The worker places the roots of each baby plant in one of the wads.","She wraps the fiber snuggly and ties the wad.","She places the fiber-wrapped orchids in growing cells.","The team waters and fertilizes them for four to six months.","The orchids grow to midsize, and the plant's root system flourishes.","The plants are now ready for the next phase of growth.","They transfer the mid-sized orchids to coconut husks.","The husks act as a kind of plant pot and growing media in one.","They absorb water to provide a constant supply to the plants.","The plants grow on the husks.","No soil is needed.","In nature, orchids flourish on tree bark or cracks in rocks, and coconut husks are the next best thing.","Overhead, a nylon-fabric roof diffuses sunlight to simulate conditions found in a shady rainforest.","Too much light and the heat would harm the plants.","Gardeners regularly observe the growth of the orchids.","They're on the lookout for disease or other problems.","Not all of the plants will thrive.","They'll lose about 10% of the crop.","They fertilize and water the orchids over a period of several months.","Many of the plants are hybrids, created by crossing species to achieve a certain color or shape or to improve the plant's vigor.","With thousands of species available in nature, the potential combinations are never-ending, and the results are always stunning.","With the orchids in full bloom, it's time for the harvest.","Workers cut the orchids at the base of the stems, with an eye to making them approximately the same length.","In the packing room, they tweak the length of the stems until each bunch is perfectly uniform.","They make this final cut on an angle.","This creates a larger surface for absorbing water so the orchid will stay fresh longer.","They sort the flowers by the size of the bloom.","They insert the stems in plastic capsules that contain a flower-food and water mixture.","This should maintain the orchids' freshness during shipping.","It's time to wrap up each stunning display.","The plastic sleeve will preserve them on the journey ahead.","This particular orchid is a hybrid species known as mokara.","Extremely desirable, cut mokara orchids should bloom for up to three weeks.","En route to the airport in a climate-controlled truck, they'll soon be on an international flight.","Thai orchids are sold around the world.","Chances are they'll end up at the center of a big event in someone's life, and whether it's a wedding or a birthday, these stunning orchids will add something special to the party.","The key part of a wheel is its hub, the central point to which all the spokes attach.","It's comprised of a body which receives the spokes and houses an axle and bearings.","If the wheel has a gear system, then those gears and a clutch are also integrated into the hub.","This is the only commercially available unicycle with a gearing system.","Located on the wheel hub, it enables the rider to push a button to shift from regular gear into high gear and reach 25 miles per hour-- twice the speed of a regular unicycle.","The geared wheel hub contains six identical small gears, rotating around a large central gear.","The central one is called the sun wheel and the small ones, planetary gears, because they revolve around the central gear the way planets revolve around the sun.","Each of the small gears begins as a disk-shaped steel blank.","A conventional, 1950s-era gear-cutting machine cuts teeth into it as a shower of oil washes away the shards of metal.","The oil also cools and lubricates the tool so that it doesn't overheat or jam.","After about 30 seconds of machining, the blank is a fully shaped gear.","An even older machine, circa 1930, mills a larger blank into the central gear.","However, because this gear is bigger, cutting the teeth into it takes much longer--  about two minutes.","Once all the gears are machined, they, along with the hub's other steel components, undergo a complex heat-treatment process to strengthen the steel.","Elsewhere in the factory, workers assemble the two halves of the clutch, the component which locks into regular or high gear when the rider shifts.","Using a cylindrical tool called a broach, the machine grooves in the center of the clutch.","Slots on the axle will fit into these grooves.","Next, they unscrew the two halves of the clutch and mount eight hollow pins in each one.","In one half, they also install three longer alignment pins and a greased spring inside each hollow pin.","Then they thread the two halves of the clutch onto the axle, aligning the axle slots in the clutch's grooves and the pins on one half with corresponding pins and holes on the other.","After fastening the halves together once again, they mount the six planetary gears on a ring called the planet carrier, then install it on the axle.","The spring-loaded pins on the clutch click into corresponding slots on the planet carrier.","These slots are engineered to fit the pins with no more than .","01 millimeters of clearance.","After securing the planet carrier to the axle with a retaining clip, they insert ball bearings with a spring in two holes on opposite sides of the axle.","A retaining ring holds these spring-loaded bearings in place.","Meanwhile, a laser engraver etches the company logo and product identification on the wheel-hub body.","The body is made of high-strength aluminum that's undergone an electrochemical treatment to make it corrosion-resistant.","They mount the hub body on a hydraulic press and insert the sun wheel, surrounded by a large ball bearing.","Then they activate the press, which forces the sun wheel into the body.","They install the body on the axle, positioning the sun wheel right in the center of the planetary gears.","A cover protects the gears from dust, dirt, and precipitation.","On the opposite end of the body, they install additional bearings and affix a cover with nine screws.","Now the shift buttons-- a chrome-plated one for shifting down, a gold-plated one for shifting up.","Both screw into a shaft running through the center of the axle.","The two spring-loaded bearings workers inserted in the axle earlier hold that shaft in place.","This cross-section model shows how everything comes together.","The shift button moves the shaft, which moves the clutch to lock into the selected gear.","In regular gear, pedaling one revolution makes the wheel turn one revolution.","When the rider shifts to high gear, pedaling one revolution makes the wheel turn 1 1/2 revolutions.","The unicycle moves 50% further as a result of the same action.","Riders use the regular gear for climbing and the higher gear for flat or downhill terrain.","They hit the shift button with their heel or ankle while pedaling-- a quick, slight movement that won't throw them off balance."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Springs","Pavers","Pianos"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Springs...","Pavers...","And pianos.","A spring is a flexible metal device that returns to its original shape or position after it's stretched, squeezed, or twisted.","Springs were first used in clocks during the 16th century and, starting in the late 1800s, in chair seats and bedding.","Today springs pop up all over.","They're crucial components of modern technology.","Different types of springs include compression, on the right, and extension, on the left.","During use, these torsion springs will twist at one or both ends.","Workers start with rolls of steel cord.","The cord diameters range in size depending on the type of springs being made.","A machine called a dereeler unwinds the roll, feeding it to a computer-guided forming machine.","This forming machine forces the cord through a channel, shapes it into a coil, and then cuts it into segments.","Small wheels and a metal shaft guide the cord into shape.","These are torsion springs for use in the automotive industry, which relies heavily on a variety of springs.","The average car, for example, has about 350 of them.","A cone-shaped yellow sensor detects the correct angle of each spring.","A good reading is required so the machine can move the next spring forward through the channel to be formed.","This machine can produce up to 2,000 springs per hour, depending on their size.","Here another larger forming machine creates extension springs that are over 6 inches long.","A mechanical arm grabs the coil and chops it into segments after it's formed in a channel.","As the coil emerges, another mechanical arm steadies it to prevent it from vibrating.","This keeps the spring tension constant, enabling the machine to produce at top speed.","In slow motion, you can see how the machine grabs the coil's first ring and bends it to form a hook.","This all takes place as the coil emerges from the channel.","A vise then secures the last ring on the end of the coil, while another arm twists it to make the spring's other hook.","Slowed down, you see how two arms surround the coil being held in the vise.","One arm then grabs the last ring while the other arm twists it upward.","This machine makes compression springs-- a model with tapered ends that's often used in seat belts.","A metal probe detects the correct length of the springs after they're formed.","The machine has four rotary shafts called cams.","A computer ensures each spring has the desired specs.","The springs are also heated to relax the metal.","This gives them the ability to retain their shape after flexing.","Another machine creates longer, thicker torsion springs.","It shapes the cord into a coil with a shaft and then passes it over a tube to steady it.","This ensures the spring will have the required tension.","Springs can be as thin as a human hair or as thick as a broom handle.","Train wheels, for instance, include some of the industry's thickest compression springs.","This machine makes another type of spring, often called wire forms.","They're flexible steel cords curved or bent at an angle.","These ones, shaped like a \"w,\" are used in ovens.","Here, a worker places a spring into a machine that makes its hooks.","He uses an adaptor to avoid hurting his fingers.","He places each one individually because specs for springs can vary by minute amounts.","This company makes some springs with hooks made of two rings instead of one.","Clients order them this way because the hooks are more durable.","Custom orders for springs can range from just a few to many thousand.","This is another type of wire form.","It'll be used in a firearm.","A worker assembles it by hand because it's so intricate.","After joining two base pieces, he places them into a small die.","Using a foot pedal, he controls the die to bend the segments and complete the assembly.","To check the compression spring's tension, a worker tests it with a weight gauge.","The correct tension varies depending on what the client wants.","A 1 1/2-inch long spring, for example, might need to withstand 5 pounds of tension when compressed to 1 inch.","To test an extension spring, workers just add hooks to the weight gauge.","Whether they're extension, compression, torsion, or wire form, and whether they're inside pens or satellites, springs prove that some old ideas definitely still work.","You could say that interlocking concrete pavers came out of the rubble of world war ii.","In post-war holland, there weren't enough clay pavers to rebuild city streets, so the dutch began making concrete pavers.","The germans refined the technology and exported it to north america, and they found a quick road to success.","These pavers are solid, and the interlocking design disperses weight, easing the load on the road.","To make these pavers, a conveyor belt delivers concrete sand to a weigh belt that weighs the coarse sand as it falls onto it.","The weigh belt carries the sand forward, while another conveyor belt unloads stone chips to be weighed.","These chips are no longer than an 1/8 inch.","The ratio of sand to stone chips varies depending on the type of paver being made.","The weigh belt transports the stone chips forward along with the coarse sand.","Both are en route to the skip hoist.","They spill off the conveyor into the skip hoist, which is essentially a bucket on rails.","Cables pull the loaded bucket upwards.","It stops about 30 feet up, just above a big concrete mixer.","A trap door opens and dumps the sand and stone chips into the mixer.","Six giant steel paddles mix and then rotate and mix again, while cement is added automatically through several nozzles on the side of this enormous mixing bowl.","Making pavers is a bit like baking cookies.","Too much or too little liquid in the batter, and it won't bake properly.","Water is added until the consistency is just right.","Nozzles also shoot a pigment into the mix to tint it.","The mixture looks dry and crumbly, but the recipe gives it just enough moisture to form the concrete.","Now a filling wagon spreads the mix over a steel mold containing up to 50 paver-shaped cavities.","The mold presshead applies 11 tons of vibrating pressure.","This pulsating force compacts the mixture in the paver mold and removes any air pockets, which could weaken the pavers.","Hydraulic cylinders lift the mold, leaving the pavers on the press board.","The press board slides out, and the mold once again gets filled in and makes another 50 paver stones.","It only takes about 10 seconds to mold, compact, and release a batch of pavers.","The press boards filled with pavers slide into a rack.","A hydraulic chain hoist lifts each board into a large holding rack.","There, a special moving wagon, called a finger wagon, picks up all the boards from the rack in just one move.","The electrical wagon moves along a rail to a curing kiln, where it's almost 100 degrees fahrenheit.","The pavers actually generate the heat, due to a chemical reaction from the combination of cement and water.","About 12 hours later, the finger wagon carts the pavers out of the kiln.","They are now 70% cured as a result of the chemical process that binds the cement, sand, and gravel, causing the pavers to harden.","The rest of the curing will happen over the next 28 days.","The pavers are now sturdy enough to handle, so four steel arms with rubber pads move in and straighten the stones on the board.","These alignment arms are hydraulically driven.","They arrange the concrete pavers so they interlock snugly.","Now hydraulic clamp arms lift the pavers off the board and begin to pile them up.","They're making a cube of stone.","This stacking machine is called a cuber.","It packs 9 or 10 layers of pavers on top of one another to make this cube.","The cube is actually called a bundle.","It will be strapped and shipped out to the jobsite.","These concrete pavers will be on the road soon building and rebuilding our streets.","Piano keys were once made out of ivory.","This sought-after material isn't used anymore because it's banned to protect elephants who were killed for their ivory tusks.","Pianists now play plastic keys, but the techniques involved in manufacturing a piano haven't changed much and still rely on handcraftsmanship, just like a century ago.","beautiful music is a triumph, but so is the piano itself...","Made of inner and outer rims, a soundboard, treble and bass bridges over which the strings are stretched, and a heavy cast-iron plate.","To make a piano rim, automated rollers spread glue onto sheets of hard rock maple, coating both sides.","Then they layer the glue-soaked sheets 5 to 8 deep, depending on the model of piano.","Workers feed the wet layers of wood to a rim press.","An impact wrench, powered by compressed air, turns the clamp screws.","The screws bend the wood into a piano rim form.","They measure the pressure on the layers with a torque wrench.","Steel arms reach across the wood, holding the shape while the glue dries.","After 24 hours, workers loosen the machine's grip, and the rim now holds its contour.","Now it's into what's called the conditioning room for more drying out.","The piano rims stay in this warm, arid room for 30 days.","It's time to make the bracing structure.","They place glued struts inside the rim, then apply pressure with a clamp.","The framework remains in this embrace for an hour while the glue dries.","This piano will have a tension resonator for extra support.","Steel turnbuckles attach to a center hub.","A worker tightens the turnbuckles with a wrench.","Then he thumps it to make sure it's tight and won't rattle.","Next, they'll install the soundboard made of spruce and the two bridges.","Strings will straddle the bridges and transmit vibrations to the soundboard, which is the amplifier of the piano.","A worker glues ribs onto the soundboard.","He lowers wooden clamps over each rib to apply pressure while the glue dries.","That takes about an hour.","Next, he thins the ribs around the edges with an automated stagger-tooth shaper cutter.","This will allow the soundboard to resonate freely when the piano is played.","Now they position the soundboard in a bridge press.","Then they place a bridge-locating fixture on top of the soundboard.","This device holds the bridge in place while it's glued to the soundboard.","After the two bridges are glued down, they lower the soundboard onto the piano rim.","Then they hoist a cast-iron plate onto it.","It's a critical fitting.","If they don't get it right, the piano will never function properly.","Then the plate is removed for finishing.","A worker cuts notches in the bridges, which are now topped with a lubricant.","This very sharp chisel cuts through the hard maple like butter.","Each notch will cradle three piano strings, giving them the freedom to vibrate.","Now they roll glue onto the outside case of the piano, which is made of rosewood veneer on maple.","They fit it snuggly over the rim structure.","A mechanical clamp holds it in place for an hour while it dries.","Then they stand the entire piano on its side.","Spinning cutters shape the arms that sit next to the keyboard into an elegant curve.","This is called a vertical stroke sander.","A worker runs it along the side of the piano to smooth out the wood.","After a black polyester paint is applied, they buff it up with this electrical cloth polisher.","Then they hand-rub a mirror glaze cream into it until you can really see yourself in this half-finished piano.","To play a piano, you need time to practice and lots of money because a grand piano can cost about the same as a luxury car.","And like a luxury car, when you lift the top of a grand piano, you'll see that a lot has gone into its construction.","the bass and treble bridges are now fixed to the soundboard of this half-finished piano.","Then to add glamour, they spray gold paint on the cast-iron plate.","The next step involves the pin block, which holds all the stress.","It bears 45,000 pounds of tension from the strings and transfers it to the iron plate.","He drills into the maple pin block, through holes in the iron plate over it.","The holes are for the tuning pins, hence the name-- pin block.","They unfurl pieces of steel wire from big coils.","Using a vise grip, the worker twists the end of the wire into a neat loop.","Then he hooks it onto a hitch pin on the back side of one of the bridges, making sure it runs between the guide posts over the bridge.","Now he threads the wires through another guide called an agrafe.","Using wire cutters, he snips the wire to the exact length that he needs.","Then he wraps the wire on the tuning pin using a device called a stringing crank.","He taps it into a hole in the pin block.","Then, using a pneumatic hammer, he drives the tuning pins into the pin block.","Now the string stretches from above the bridge to the pin block.","Each string is under a tension of up to 425 pounds, again, a force that will be kept in check by the heavy cast-iron plate.","Now he places little felt-covered blocks called dampers above the strings to stop them from vibrating when a note is played.","Using pliers, he makes parallel bends in the damper wires, so they're aligned.","He pounds the key frame, checking for gaps that could cause knocks under a pianist's vigorous blows.","He smoothes out the gaps, shaving off bits of wood with a strip of sandpaper attached to a handle.","Now another worker presses the piano keys in between steel guide pins that have been installed in rows on the key frame.","She uses an air cylinder to push the backcheck into the end of a piano key.","The backcheck is a piece of wood covered with felt and buckskin that will catch the piano's hammer after it strikes a string.","It's time to make those hammers.","She glues the felt-covered top onto a thin piece of hornbeam, a species of very strong wood.","When a pianist hits a key, it will catapult the hammer into the string, and that produces a note.","Now she aligns the hammers to be perfectly parallel, using a plastic square as a guide.","This is called \"squaring it up\".","Next, she sands the tail of each hammer with a file so there'll be no sharp edges to damage the backcheck.","Then she attaches the hammers to the top of the keyboard with screws.","Now she places weights on each key and then gently taps the rail to get the hammers moving.","She's testing the amount of effort it would take for a pianist to push each key down.","This is called \"the weigh off\".","After she determines how much weight is needed, she marks a place on the side of the key and drills one or two holes.","She plugs each hole with a piece of lead.","In a process called swedging, she pushes a divot into the lead so it expands and fits snugly into the key.","The lead will counterbalance the weight of the hammers and give the key the required amount of weight.","Next, this technician checks each hammer and each key, making subtle mechanical adjustments so they move smoothly and fluidly.","It's the piano's first big tune-up.","He fine-tunes the hammer action by using a let-off tool to adjust the driving mechanism.","The piano is now ready for the hands of a skilled pianist and the ears of an appreciative audience."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Padlocks","Hair Clippers","Wooden Shoes","Synthetic Leather"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Padlocks...","Hair clippers...","Wooden shoes...","Wooden shoes...","And synthetic leather.","And synthetic leather.","As long as there have been thieves, there's been a need for locks.","Padlocks date back to roman times and were likely first used to protect cargo in transit.","Thousands of years later, the padlock continues to keep burglars at bay.","The modern padlock's strongest feature is its lock body.","The process begins with a stack of 24 steel plates that are laminated together, the same technology that's used to make doors for bank vaults.","A punch press cuts and shapes pieces of steel into caps that will be riveted to the lock bodies.","The rivets tumble down a feeder.","While below, an operator places a lock body and a cap into a fixture.","A powerful press then drives the rivets into the assembly, securing the top cap to the lock securing the top cap to the lock body.","Body.","At another station, cutters contour steel rods so they'll fit into the lock body's holes while lubricant keeps things while lubricant keeps things cool.","Cool.","The finished rods are now ready to be shaped.","Workers load them into a form press.","This machine bends the steel as easily as you could bend a pipe cleaner to make a u-shaped shackle.","Then the shackles roll into a furnace for tempering, a process that makes the steel even stronger.","After a little more machining, the shackle is ready to be installed.","This shackle will need to move up and down as the lock is opened and closed.","And that's where these ball bearings come in.","Two of them are slipped into the lock cavity.","Lubricant gel aids the process.","Workers use it to grease the inside of the lock while they push the ball bearings to either side of the cavity.","A cylinder extension is inserted between the ball bearings, then a protective casing and bumper slide over the lock.","Now it's time for final assembly.","A machine loads copper-plated shells onto mandrels.","Plugs, pins and springs funnel into the lock assembly station.","A device installs pins and springs in a lock shell.","The shell slides onto a brass plug.","A key-shaped groove is cut into the plug, transforming it into a lock cylinder.","A carbide cutter notches the matching keys.","There are tens of thousands of key profiles.","This sorting station holds just a few.","The keys and lock cylinders are all numbered.","This worker matches them up, making sure there are two keys making sure there are two keys for each lock.","For each lock.","She selects a padlock and pushes one of the lock cylinders into it.","Then she tops it off with a retention plate.","A machine press fits the plate to the bottom of the padlock.","This secures the lock cylinder.","A spring for the shackle is inserted, and the bottom cap goes on next.","Then the entire assembly is riveted together.","Each key is tested to make sure it matches.","A computerized system opens and closes a randomly selected padlock thousands of times to make sure it's up to the job.","The lock also has to hold up to force.","Weights are dropped to replicate a hammer blow.","And the padlock withstands the strike.","This day's work is done.","It's time for the folks at the factory to \"lock up\" for the day.","Up next, making the cut at a up next, making the cut at a hair-clipper factory.","Hair-clipper factory.","The electric hair clipper was invented in 1919.","It was the first clipper with a motor in the actual unit, allowing the barber to cut hair allowing the barber to cut hair at quite a clip.","At quite a clip.","Hairstyles may change, but this device is still on the cutting edge.","These days, hair-clipper casings are made out of heavy-duty plastic.","An automated mold melts and shapes the plastic material into shapes the plastic material into casing parts.","Casing parts.","Meanwhile, a robot picks up brass contacts and places them in fixtures.","A plastic switch is then attached to each contact.","A blast of air sends the assembled piece to a bin.","Here, a robot slides a plastic spool onto a mandrel, then anchors copper wire to it.","The wire is wound around the spool more than 2,000 times to make part of the electric relay that will drive the blades.","Police keep the wire fed at an police keep the wire fed at an even tension.","Even tension.","Next, robots work on the clipper's lower casing.","One installs a blade slide for adjusting the blade, and another attaches the lever that controls attaches the lever that controls that slide.","That slide.","An automated screwdriver fastens everything together.","The clipper assembly is then on its way to have a metal arm installed.","This piece will move the cutting blade.","And for that, it will need a couple of springs.","Next, the switch assembly goes in.","And then the arm is screwed into place.","Workers install a screw for adjusting the power setting.","And now they fit the copper wire coil into the lower housing where it will drive that metal where it will drive that metal arm.","Arm.","A power cord is run from the switch to the coil.","And now the clipper's inner workings are complete.","Over at another station, a punch press stamps out clipper blades.","The blades are toothless to start.","But after a good washing and heat treatment, they head over to another station to get some to another station to get some teeth.","Teeth.","A worker pops a blade into a fixture to hold it steady, then a jagged cylindrical cutter carves the teeth.","Coolant keeps the process from overheating and compromising the overheating and compromising the integrity of the steel.","Integrity of the steel.","Each hair clipper has two blades.","The first one has cutting teeth which moves over the second, a larger, stationary blade that ensnares the hairs so that they can be cut.","Next, the company's logo is printed on to the clipper's lid.","And the lid is attached to the casing that holds the electrical components.","Workers mount the blades on the head of the clipper for that double-edged cutting action.","And finally, each clipper is tuned for optimum performance by adjusting that power screw that was installed earlier.","These clippers come in a kit that includes some additional accessories for those consumers who want to try their hand at a little home grooming.","Now these electric hair clippers are ready to get buzzing.","With those sharp blades, they'll make short work of any \"hairy\" make short work of any \"hairy\" situation.","Situation.","Coming up, the art of the wooden coming up, the art of the wooden shoe.","Shoe.","Call them the poor man's answer to the rubber boot.","Centuries ago, farmers chipped out holes in wooden blocks to keep their feet dry.","Over the years, the blocks were refined into inexpensive but durable footwear.","Today they're most commonly associated with the history and tradition of the netherlands.","How they're made remains as basic as the shoe itself.","Most wooden shoes are crafted from poplar, a wood that's easy to carve and generally free of knots, so the wearer won't knots, so the wearer won't encounter any splinters.","Encounter any splinters.","A worker feeds pieces of poplar into a band saw, careful to toss any pieces with defects.","The blade slices the wood into blocks called blanks.","The factory uses vinyl patterns like this one to create the shape of the shoe.","There's a pattern for each size of every clog style.","A worker locks the pattern into a duplication machine called the shaper, then right next to it, shaper, then right next to it, two blanks.","Two blanks.","As this tracer moves over the shape of the pattern, the wheel on the left copies its movements exactly, its blade shaving the exactly, its blade shaving the wood as it moves up and down.","Wood as it moves up and down.","There's only one pattern loaded, yet the machine carves out a pair of shoes.","That's because the wheel on the far left spins in the opposite direction.","So as the blade saws away, it's creating two mirror image copies.","That allows the machine to carve out both a right and a left shoe out both a right and a left shoe simultaneously.","Simultaneously.","Now for the instep.","A worker positions the blanks on to what's called a dual-action boring machine.","The center rod is called a tasker.","Its rolling head follows the curves inside the pattern.","Spoon bits on either side of it copy the tasker's movements, gradually carving out the inside of the shoes.","Now workers shift the angle so the spoon bits can get in deeper, boring all the way to deeper, boring all the way to the front of the shoe.","The front of the shoe.","All that carving makes for a lot of wood chips.","After a drying period, the toe knobs are cut off with a band saw, and the clogs are inspected saw, and the clogs are inspected for any flaws.","For any flaws.","A disk sander grinds down the knob on the heel and refines the shape of the toe.","The shoemaker uses a barrel sander to smooth out the opening then they switch to a balloon sander.","This sander has an air-filled sack inside it that flexes to the shape of the shoe.","Now for the final step.","An artist lays carbon paper on the shoe and a pattern on top of that.","Then she traces the pattern.","The carbon sheet transfers the the carbon sheet transfers the design to the wood.","Design to the wood.","Now she goes over the design with a woodburner.","She changes tips and varies the temperature according to the size and depth of the lines she's burning.","This design commemorates holland-- holland, michigan, that is.","The artist now uses water-based paints to enhance the scene with paints to enhance the scene with color.","Color.","She applies three coats of a water-based varnish to preserve the artwork and help keep the the artwork and help keep the shoes clean.","Shoes clean.","While most clog-wearing farmers opt for a plainer version, true clogaholics appreciate a little pizzazz.","But they'll leave crafting the clogs to the experts, because they've got some pretty big shoes to fill.","When we return, the know-how when we return, the know-how behind faux cow.","Behind faux cow.","Is it leather or is it pleather?","It's not always easy to spot the fake.","Synthetic leather, or pleather, can look and feel very much like real cowhide.","It may not be the genuine article, but today, plenty of good-looking products are made good-looking products are made from this popular material.","From this popular material.","The recipe for synthetic leather begins with a petroleum-based plasterizer dumped into a mixing tub.","An ultraviolet-light stabilizer is added to provide protection from the sun's rays.","And then a flame-retardant solution for a little fireproofing.","Powdered vinyl is added until the mix reaches the consistency the mix reaches the consistency of pancake batter.","Of pancake batter.","Next, different dyes are poured into another tub, following a formula for a specific shade.","The liquid-vinyl mix is then piped into the tub with the piped into the tub with the coloring agents.","Coloring agents.","Now a big roll of paper with a leather-like texture unwinds into the coating machine.","As tinted liquid vinyl flows into the machine, a mixing arm agitates it, and rollers below apply it to the paper.","The vinyl-coated paper then travels through an oven.","The vinyl hardens, taking on the paper's texture.","This first layer is a thin one to establish the surface grain.","A second batch of vinyl will contain a thickening agent.","That's why they call it \"the foam\".","It will give the fabric shape it will give the fabric shape and structure.","And structure.","Workers pour this second vinyl concoction into the coating machine, which rolls it on top of the first layer.","The double-layered vinyl then travels through another oven.","The heat activates the thickening agent causing the second layer to expand.","Once the expanded vinyl is hardened, it gets a fabric backing.","A machine then peels away the paper to reveal the textured first layer.","Sometimes a pattern is printed onto the vinyl to make it look burnished or two-toned.","Then workers mix a solution to build up the material's durability.","Rollers apply it to the synthetic leather, finishing off this production run.","But this pleather isn't quite ready to be shipped out.","Samples from every run undergo a battery of tests.","This machine rubs the fabric up to three million times to see how it wears.","Then there's a stretch test.","A weight is fastened to a strip of synthetic leather.","The weight pulls the swatch to double its length, but it doesn't tear, which means this fabric has a lot of give.","Next, a trial by fire.","To pass this test, the fabric must self-extinguish in two seconds.","And it does...","Thanks to the flame retardant thanks to the flame retardant that went into production.","That went into production.","Next, a cutting is placed in a framework...","And heated in an oven to and heated in an oven to increase its pliability.","Increase its pliability.","A vacuum mold sucks the fabric to its form, proving this sample also has some thermoplastic qualities.","You can't do this with real leather.","With so many prints, textures and colors now in production, this product seems to have everything \"covered\"."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Storage Sheds","Industrial Fans","Parchment Paper","Climbing Walls"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Throughout history, people have needed a place to store their personal belongings.","Early storage sheds were basic huts.","Today, factories produce substantial structures that can be easily assembled from a kit.","This means finding extra storage space should be no problem.","Storage sheds provide a home for things that don't belong or fit in the house.","They're made from plastic panels embossed with a wood grain.","Making one starts with a computer design.","Once they have a plan, machinery rolls into action.","High-density polyethylene plastic flows into a big mixer.","Some of the plastic pellets are new material, while the rest are pellets recycled from previous processing.","This is called regrind.","An automated scale measures out the correct amounts of ingredients as they enter the mixer.","They add a cooling accelerant and a colorant to the polyethylene pellets.","Thorough mixing ensures that the final product will be evenly colored and have structural integrity.","A vacuum pump moves the blend out of the mixer and through a network of pipes along the factory ceiling.","The pipes deliver the polyethylene mix to a machine called a blow molder.","It will blow melted plastic into a two-part mold-- in this case, a floor panel mold.","The blow molder melts the plastic into a tubular shape.","The plastic emerges hot and malleable.","In manufacturing lingo, this is call a parasin.","The mold closes around the parasin as little needles pierce and inflate it.","The parasin swells against the walls of the mold, taking its shape.","The mold embosses a tread design on one side and a ridged one on the back for strength.","A long, automated clamp extracts the hollow panel.","At this point, the plastic is partially cured but still hot.","When the panel is ready to be handled, a team trims the overflow.","This material is called flash.","The flash is warm and has a taffy-like consistency.","The team leaves it to cool and firm up before feeding it to a grinder.","The grinding process produces the pellets known as regrind that will be used to make more panels.","Next, the team cuts slots and tabs that will be used for assembling the floor panel to the walls.","They stack the panels.","It's quite a pile.","They manufacture several thousand panels a day.","Now, it's over to another blow molding machine.","This one creates roof panels, complete with cedar shingle detail.","Once again, they trim the flash and grind it up to make new panels.","Very little polyethylene goes to waste.","The next machine molds door panels with a tongue-and-groove beadboard look.","Although all of the shed panels are made of plastic, they look like a variety of materials: cedar shakes, siding, beadboard, and even treaded vinyl flooring.","A worker randomly pulls panels off the production line for testing.","She verifies that the assembly holes are the right size.","She also weighs and measures the panel to confirm it meets specifications.","Another member of the testing team dabs gel onto the panel in various locations.","This gel allows an instrument to measure the thickness of the plastic.","Once the panels pass the tests, it's time to pack up the kits.","There are 15 to 20 panels per kit.","Employees pack the parts in the order that they are to be assembled.","On the computer, the parts come together in seconds.","But in the real world, it takes up to three hours to assemble this plastic storage shed.","However, it's a lot easier than building one from scratch.","And in the end, you have a place to store things.","Industrial fans are extra large to provide air circulation in a large factory or a warehouse.","They whip up a breeze to keep workers cool, and in the process, they clear the air of dust and other harmful particles.","Almost 3 feet in diameter and a body tough enough to survive a run-in with a forklift, this is no ordinary fan.","It's an industrial fan.","They're designed to circulate air in large spaces like warehouses and factories.","Production starts with the motor.","A worker slides the fan's aluminum hub onto it.","Then, he inserts wing-like blades known as airfoils into notches in the hub.","Using a hammer, he taps the ends to set them in the hub.","He places a part known as a taper lock into a hole in the center.","The taper lock will fasten the motor shaft to the hub.","He screws the lip of the lock to the hub.","He confirms that each screw has been set to the desired torque.","Next, he installs a blast-reinforced plastic cone on the hub.","This one secures the ends of the blades in the hub.","He snaps a cap onto the center of the nose cone.","Now, he transfers the motor and hub assembly to a mount that's in a heavy-duty plastic ring.","He adds an upper mount and screws it to the lower one.","This completely encases the motor and hub assembly.","He trims the outer ring of the fan with rubber molding.","The rubber will reduce vibration noise.","He lowers a steel yolk onto the plastic surround and attaches it with a screw.","He wires a speed control mechanism to the fan motor and fastens it to the outside of the plastic surround.","He installs a plate with a control knob on the front of the speed control mechanism.","He screws on two metal screens to the fan's yolk.","This forms a safety cage around the fan.","He plugs the fan into a power source and turns it on to test its function.","Satisfied that it's in good working order, he tightens the screens to the yolk.","A two-person crew bolts a wheeled pedestal to the stem of the fan.","They set the 108-pound fan upright.","It's now ready to circulate.","Designed to move large volumes of air, this industrial fan generates a considerable breeze inside a factory.","To make an industrial ceiling fan, they use long, aluminum airfoils.","Their wing-like profile will generate lift to produce more air.","A punch cuts holes to assemble them to a hub.","A worker then attaches the main fan assembly to the end of a long post in order to facilitate the installation of the long airfoils.","He activates a lift that raises the hub assembly, then slides the airfoils onto spars that protrude from the hub.","This ceiling fan has 10 airfoils.","He reinforces the installation with boomerang-shaped metal retainers.","High-strength bolts secure the retainers and airfoils to the spars.","He attaches plastic winglets to the ends of the airfoils.","The winglets will direct air downward.","He installs a trim ring on the hub.","This completes the assembly of the industrial ceiling fan.","Using a remote control, he tests its operation at multiple speed levels.","From this vantage point, it seems pretty cool.","Lining a cooking or baking pan with culinary parchment paper instantly makes cleanup a whole lot easier because nothing sticks to the pan.","With parchment paper, there's no need to grease the pan with messy butter or oil.","This culinary parchment paper comes in a standard sheet roll or an assortment of specialty shapes.","It's heat resistant to a temperature of 450 degrees.","Making paper begins with pulp, which is pulverized wood.","This parchment paper manufacturer uses eucalyptus because it's a sustainable resource.","They mix the pulp with water in a huge, industrial mixer.","This special recipe of eucalyptus fibers produces tan-colored paper.","Once the consistency is just right, they pump the soggy pulp out of the blender and into a machine that spreads it evenly across a metal mesh belt.","The water drains through the openings in the mesh.","By the time the pulp rolls into the first drum of the next machine, it is formed into a sheet of paper.","Sprayers rehydrate what's trimmed off the edges so it can be recycled.","The paper travels through a long line of heated rollers.","They squeeze out the remaining water and dry the paper.","A high-resolution scanner looks for imperfections as the paper exits the machine.","Workers unwind the bolt and conduct a visual inspection against backlighting.","Next, the bolt undergoes the first of two critical operations, which transforms this regular paper into culinary parchment paper.","First, the sheet passes through two baths in a proprietary water-based solution.","This eliminates air pockets and renders the paper heat-resistant.","After a series of rinses, another long line of heated rollers squeezes out the rinse water and dries the paper.","The next station sprays both sides of the sheet with food-grade silicone, then bakes on the coating in a gas-fired dryer.","Silicone withstands heat up to 1,500 degrees, so even at the highest cooking temperatures, there will be a barrier that prevents food from sticking to the paper.","Silicone also repels water.","This is the paper before the treatments make it heat-resistant, nonstick and waterproof.","And here's how the paper performs after those treatments.","Because it's waterproof, you can wet the paper to make it malleable enough to line a pan of any shape.","The factory cuts the bolts to consumer widths, then shrink-wraps and ships them to factories that supply restaurants and supermarkets.","Here, machines unwind the bolts, then wind specific lengths of parchment paper onto cardboard tubes.","Winding a 165-foot roll takes just three seconds.","The factory also applies its logo to the paper at regular intervals.","However, that operation is top-secret.","The automated packaging equipment tapes down the edge to prevent unraveling, then places and seals the roll in a cardboard box.","The machine stamps the box with a lot code so, if a problem arises, the factory can trace the roll back to the large bolt from which it originated.","This parchment paper, cardboard tube, and box are all made from sustainable resources.","The box edge is rigid enough to tear off a sheet, so there's no need for an unrecyclable metal cutting edge.","You can throw the used parchment paper in your compost bin or rinse off the food remnants and put it along with the box and tube in your recycling bin.","A climbing wall is an artificially constructed wall with grips for hands and feet.","These walls mimic the experience of outdoor rock climbing but in a more controlled environment, allowing people of all ages and abilities the opportunity to climb.","A climbing wall can have a flat surface, studded with hand holes that the climber grabs or steps on.","Or it can be what's called rock-realistic, designed to look like a natural rock wall.","That type can also have hand holes, or just cracks and fissures like the real thing.","The factory builds the wall structure out of thick steel bars.","Workers weld them into frames.","Each frame will hold a panel that's one portion of the wall face.","They reinforce the corners of the frame with gusset plates.","Each frame is a distinct size and shape.","To make the panels for a flat-surface climbing wall, workers trace the frames on plywood or engineered wood particle board.","After spray-painting the corresponding part code, they cut out each panel to match the wall plan.","Then they screw in t nuts.","These nuts have a larger-than-standard flange for extra strength.","They screw a bolt in the middle of the t nut to protect the threads from the cement finish they will spray onto the wood.","To make a rock-realistic wall, they mold cement panels to attach to the steel frames.","To mix the cement, they combine ice and liquid polymer.","Ice keeps the cement from overheating in the mixer.","The polymer is a binding agent.","It also makes the cement flexible so the wall doesn't crack or chip.","While they mix the cement ingredients, they monitor the temperature with an infrared thermometer.","Correct temperature is critical for the cement to properly set.","They pour the cement through a sieve to filter out large pieces.","Then, they pump the cement into a spray gun.","With slow and even strokes, they shoot the cement onto a silicone mold of the mountain face.","After brushing it into the mold's nooks and crannies, they spray two more coats.","This time, they simultaneously shoot a gun that chops and sprays fiberglass string to reinforce the cement.","They compress the fiberglass-reinforced cement with rollers to even out the thickness.","Then, they embed rebar loops.","Rebar is a steel rod used for reinforcing cement.","They embed thick, steel rods 1 to 2 feet long along the perimeter.","Then, they let the cement set overnight.","The next day, they extract the panel from the mold.","A cement panel like this can weigh more than 600 pounds.","They knock off jagged edges with a mallet and check for any weak areas caused by air pockets.","After drilling numerous holes for the hand-hold t nuts, they grind the edges smooth.","They weld the wall panels to their corresponding steel frame and fill gaps between panels with cement.","When they're building a flat-surface wall, they spray a cement finish on the wood, then a coat of paint.","Once the paint dries, they mount the hand holds.","They're made of molded polyurethane.","Then, they attach the wall panel to the steel frame with a nail gun.","Flat surface walls are more versatile because they can hold far more t nuts than rock-realistic walls.","The more t nuts, the more locations for hand holds.","This enables a gym to create a greater range of climbing routes, suiting both experienced climbers and rookie mountaineers."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Dial Thermometers","Hummus","Spent Fuel Containers","Straw Sombreros"]},"text":["In the world of temperature-gauging, the dial thermometer is a lot easier to read than a glass-stem thermometer.","A needle points to bold numbers on a dial, and even from a distance, it only takes a quick glance to confirm an initial impression that things are heating up.","All the highs and lows are plain to see on the face of a dial thermometer.","It often comes with lengthy tubing to measure temperature from afar.","It's a handy feature for power plants and heating and refrigeration systems.","To begin, rollers straighten very narrow metal tubing.","Then a blade cuts it to length depending on the application.","As the blade makes the cut, a mechanism pries open the ends.","Next, a worker inserts a fitting into a much wider tube that will become the thermometer's sensor bulb.","He secures the tube in a fixture and welds the narrow tubing machined earlier to the fitting on the end of the bulb.","With the bulb and tubing now linked, production moves to the next stage, the making of the burden tube, which is a kind of a spring.","A worker cuts flat, wafer-thin tubing to length.","Down the line, they clamp the flat tubes in a device that's on a track.","It moves past an arc welder that melts and closes one end of the flat tubes.","Here's a before-and-after comparison.","A worker now encloses the tube in a die and drives a pin into its open end.","This widens and redefines the opening from inside and outside.","He slides it over another pin and activates a mechanical punch press.","This fine-tunes the shape and dimensions of the opening.","The next worker clamps the tube in another device.","He operates a roller to wrap it around a mandrill, bending it into a \"c\" shape.","This completes the thermometer's burden-tube spring.","The next worker clamps a bracket to the bottom of the burden tube.","He inserts a small piece of connector tubing in the burden-tube hole and applies liberal amounts of a flux compound.","The flux prevents tarnishing of the metal as he melts silver solder to braise the parts together and to seal the opening.","Now a test.","He pumps gas into several burden tubes and immerses them in water.","If no gas bubbles out of the tubes, it means the tubes are perfectly sealed.","The gas pressure also causes the tubes to spring into action.","It's this action that will move the pointer on the dial of the thermometer.","The next worker attaches a brass connector to the tubing.","He braises them together to create a solid bond.","He folds the braised parts into the curve of the burden tube and pushes it into place with a mechanical press.","He installs the gear assembly that will translate the linear movement of the burden tube into the rotational movement of the thermometer pointer.","He screws the dual-temperature dial to the burden-tube assembly.","The more detailed and extensive the scale, the bigger the dial.","This one is mid-sized.","And now everything comes together as he tethers the sensing bulb, along with a short fill tube, to the back of the burden-tube assembly.","Using a braising torch and solder, he seals the connection.","He then steam-cleans the braised joint.","He buries the bulb in a hot sand bath that causes any moisture in it to evaporate.","Through the fill tube, he fills the bulb with nitrogen gas.","To calibrate the thermometer, he plunges the sensing bulb in boiling water and adjusts the pressure of the nitrogen gas until the dial reads 212 degrees fahrenheit.","The fill tube's job is now done, so he crimps it to seal it off.","He tests its accuracy by immersing the sensing bulb in numerous controlled baths, each one a different temperature.","And if it's on the mark, he encloses the inner workings in the stainless-steel case.","He protects the joint with a special metal spring...","And snaps a clear window to the case.","A gasket between them ensures a dustproof seal.","He screws a part called a well to the sensing-bulb connector.","The well will protect it in high-pressure situations.","And this dial thermometer is now ready for the ups and downs of temperature-gauging.","Hummus is the original snack food.","People have been eating this chickpea dip for thousands of years.","Countries from the mediterranean to the middle east lay claim to its invention.","But one thing is beyond dispute-- as an appetizer or side dish, hummus has real staying power.","Hummus is a vegetarian form of protein, which could be why more and more people are choosing to take a dip.","The word \"hummus\" is actually arabic for \"chickpea,\" which is of course the main ingredient.","The chickpeas arrive at the factory in dried form.","They ride a conveyor upward and then spill down onto a long, vibrating tray.","It shakes out heavier contaminants like pebbles or twigs.","The contaminants fall into a bin below, while the chickpeas bounce off the tray and into a tub of filtered water to be rinsed.","Still dripping wet, it's onto a conveyor with perforated buckets.","The water drains from the chickpeas as they're transferred to big tanks.","Each tank holds thousands of little chickpeas.","They add clean water and soak the chickpeas.","After 14 hours in the tank, they swell to twice their size and soften up.","They pump the softened chickpeas into big trays, which they stack on a cart.","Then it's into a huge, cylindrical steam cooker that's been preheated to around 255 degrees fahrenheit.","They bake the chickpeas for just over half an hour.","This softens them even more and darkens the color.","From dried beans to soaked and then cooked.","They now transfer the cooked chickpeas to the next conveyor, and they're on their way to being ground to a pulp.","This is the grinder, now being reassembled after cleaning.","It has two sharp-toothed, circular blades.","One is stationary, and the other revolves.","A big turn screw will force the chickpeas through these toothed blades to grind them up.","A quick test confirms this grinder is in working order.","Meanwhile, the chickpeas have arrived at a hopper above the grinder.","As the chickpeas spill into the hopper, they add water and a blend of sunflower and olive oil, followed by salt, garlic, and other dry ingredients.","The chickpeas and other ingredients flow into the grinding device below and are turned into a paste.","The next ingredient is tahini.","It's a thick paste made from ground sesame seeds.","Three powerful pumps pulverize the tahini to evenly disperse the particles so it can now be blended with the chickpea mix.","Big, steel blades revolve to thoroughly mix all the ingredients in a tank and produce hummus.","For different-flavored hummus, they add red pepper, more garlic, or other ingredients.","After the blended product is pasteurized, a technician takes samples for lab testing, for mold, shelf life, and other tests.","She also does her own taste test.","If the flavor seems even slightly off, they'll put the product on hold and tweak the ingredients.","But this batch gets the nod.","Meanwhile, plastic containers are queuing for a fill-up.","Machinery moves them forward toward piston fillers.","The pistons push the creamy hummus out of nozzles and into the tubs.","Now filled to the brim with hummus, the tubs travel under a sheet of plastic film.","Hot, round irons melt the plastic to seal it to the rims.","Suctioning devices swoop down to apply the lids, and the hummus heads towards a roll of adhesive-backed labels.","A sensor detects the approach of the tubs and triggers a device with little air jets to slap the labels on the lids.","This hummus production has gone very smoothly indeed.","Spent fuel containers are designed to take the heat, the kind caused by the most radioactive of waste-- used nuclear fuel.","These fuel rods are too dangerous to be casually disposed of, but encased in special spent fuel cannisters, the risk should be contained.","Nuclear waste sits in a holding pattern, and that means storing it in massive cylinders until there's a way to dispose of it.","These containers start with a big, rectangular sheet of stainless steel.","A special circular cutter carves a beveled edge onto it.","They feed it to rollers which curl the sheet into a cylinder.","It takes four trips through the rollers to really round it out.","They tuck a template inside the curve to check the radius.","Next, a welder joins the neatly beveled edges to complete the cylinder.","This cylinder will be the outer wall of a cannister.","The cannister will fit inside a big cylinder called an overpack.","Its outer shell is just under an inch thick-- about the diameter of a quarter.","As you can see, building a container to hold used nuclear fuel is a many-layered process.","The next step involves the lid, made of multiple steel disks with concrete placed between the steel layers like a sandwich.","Incredibly, high-pressure water jets easily cut through the thick steel to produce the disks.","A computerized tool cuts a groove profile along the edge of each disk.","They also machine the top of each disk to the correct profile and then measure to confirm it's exactly right.","Next, a computerized laser slices through more stainless-steel plating to produce long, narrow panels.","Each is designed to fit together to create a grid of storage cells inside the cannister.","They line each panel with an aluminum alloy that's neutron-absorbent, and they place a piece of steel sheeting on top of that.","They weld the steel sheeting to the steel panel, encasing the neutron-absorbent material.","Working within a metal framework for guidance, they weld four of the lined steel panels together to create a fuel-cell grid for one used nuclear fuel bundle.","They then build a 68-cell grid.","With that complete, they're ready to piece together all the parts of the spent fuel cannister.","They first lower the inner shell onto the base plate.","The shell is held steady by a supportive structure as they weld it together at the seams.","Moving inside, they install numerous bars to support the fuel-cell grid.","With the cannister now wrapped in plastic to keep it clean, an automated cutter gradually shaves down the rim to trim it to the correct height.","Precision is everything.","Using a level and a laser, they ensure that the trim job is even and exact.","Once they're satisfied, a crane carries the fuel-cell assembly over to the cannister and then suspends it above the open cavity.","It dangles briefly as workers inspect the assembly.","They give it the thumbs-up, and the crane then lowers the fuel assembly into the cylinder.","It's a snug fit, with about 4/10 of an inch of clearance between the inner assembly and the wall of the cylinder.","This technician inserts a camera into each cell of the grid and scrutinizes the image.","He's looking for any debris that could hamper the installation of the nuclear fuel bundles.","Both the cylinder and the fuel cells have been meticulously cleaned, but the camera inspection confirms they haven't missed anything.","So it's time to put a lid on this nuclear-waste cannister.","It's a trial fit.","The lid will be permanently welded to the cannister later once the used fuel rods are safely inside.","The cannister will then be placed inside the overpack, with concrete poured between the walls.","That should keep the hazards of nuclear waste entombed indefinitely.","The word \"sombrero\" is derived from the spanish \"sombra,\" which means \"shade\".","The expansive brim of these mexican hats is designed to cast a wide shadow over the face, neck, and shoulders.","Fancier sombreros are made of felt.","Regular ones are woven out of straw.","this workshop makes traditional, straw sombreros in many styles.","This model's called a winston.","This one, an americano.","Here's the speedy, after the cartoon mouse speedy gonzales.","And the casidy.","These sombreros are hand-crafted.","The straw is white palm leaves purchased from a supplier in the region.","First, workers soak a bunch in water for a minute or so to soften them up.","Then, using a needle, they tear strips about 2/10 of an inch wide.","Then they take three strips at a time and braid them together into a single strand.","They intertwine several braided strands, making a long, braided straw rope.","Then they feed this rope into a manually operated press.","The press flattens the rope until it's just about 4/100 of an inch thick.","This flattening makes the coarse rope soft enough to sew.","With the raw-material prep work done, hat construction can begin.","They take the rope and wind it in concentric circles, sewing one circle to the next.","They first make a flat base, then turn the base on its side and keep sewing until they've formed the cup-- the part of the sombrero that sits on the head.","They place the cup over a form to check the size.","Then they resume sewing on more straw rope, working outward now to form the hat's brim.","Brim width varies by style.","They measure to make sure it's the correct size.","Once the sombrero is finished, they boil water, pour in gelatin...","Stir until it's completely dissolved...","Then soak the hat for about a minute.","The gelatin penetrates the straw fibers.","Then they hang the sombrero out to dry in the sun for about three hours.","The workshop has a steel mold for each sombrero style it produces.","Workers place the sombrero on the appropriate one in a hot press, then close the press for three minutes.","The heat and pressure combined form the straw to the mold's shape.","The heat also hardens the gelatin, locking in the shape permanently.","Many sombreros have a decorative band encircling the base of the cup.","This band, called a scarf, is hand-crafted, typically out of leather, or like this one out of magee, a fiber from the stalk of a tropical plant native to mexico.","A few dabs of glue hold the scarf in place.","Once a sombrero is finished, the workshop tags it with a certificate stating the model and serial number.","Sombrero shapes can vary significantly, but they all share a common characteristic-- a wide brim to protect from the blazing sun.","Certain models have an extra feature-- a cord or leather drawstring so the hat doesn't fly away in windy weather."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Steel Safes","False Teeth","Airplanes","Maple Syrup"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Steel safes...","False teeth...","Airplanes...","And maple syrup.","The first bank safes were made of wood reinforced with sheet iron.","Thieves would just smash them open.","Then came safes made of solid iron.","Thieves would just blow them up.","But then, to the crooks' dismay, came safes made of steel.","It all starts with sheets of solid steel up to 1 1/2 inches thick and an automated machine with an oxygen-and-gas-fueled flame.","The flame slowly cuts the plates that will form the walls of the safe.","The cutting creates gases that are doused with water.","A welder with a manual version of the same flame frees up the plates with a few last cuts.","Then, using a large magnet, they stack the plates.","Each one is labeled so the workers will know in what order to assemble them.","They're assembled by a welder who uses a machine called a mig welder.","The welding wire is made of several different metals.","It rolls off a spool as needed.","Elsewhere in the factory, a semiautomatic saw cuts flat bars of steel.","These bars will form the frame that will surround the steel plates.","Meanwhile, another machine, called a turret, fashions steel bars into moving parts for the locking mechanism and also into hinges.","That milky liquid is a lubricant.","Normally, you see raw material move on an assembly line from tool to tool.","This is just the opposite.","The steel bar stays on the turret from start to finish.","The tools come and go.","Workers take pieces of sheet metal cut into shapes by laser and bend them in a press to make various parts and mechanisms.","Meanwhile, the large steel plates they cut earlier go into a hydraulic press to make them perfectly flat.","It's finally time to put all the components together.","They construct the frame in an assembly jig, then insert the plates for the sides, top, and bottom.","Using the mig welder again, they fuse the pieces together.","They measure the angles, then use a giant clamp to square the safe.","Finally, they install the plate for the back of the safe and weld the joints.","They stand the safe upright and grind down the welding lines until they're smooth.","This factory also produces what's called a composite safe, made of soft materials such as copper, aluminum, and low-grade steel.","But it has a cement core, making this safe harder to break in to.","The finished safe gets three coats of paint.","Then, in the finishing department, they install the mechanical or electronic locks and locking mechanisms, as well as the internal time-lock mechanism.","The time lock allows access to the safe only at certain times of day, such as a bank's business hours.","Even if someone picks the outside combination locks, the door won't open outside those set hours.","The machines that sterilize medical instruments use ethylene oxide, a highly toxic gas.","Now there's a new method that's safer, more effective, and less expensive.","This new machine uses ozone as the sterilizing agent.","Ozone is a form of oxygen.","Until the 1800s, false teeth were made of animal bone, ivory, or actual human teeth.","They came from poor people, who sold their teeth, and from dead bodies.","Today's dentures are usually ceramic.","They start by heating a sheet of wax over a flame.","They press it onto a rough plaster model of the patient's mouth, sent in by the dentist.","The lab technicians use this model to prepare what's called an impression tray, what the dentist will use to make a rubber mold to cast the dentures.","They apply an acrylic material over the wax lining, forming a handle so they'll be able to remove it afterwards.","Once the acrylic hardens, they pull it out of the model and discard the wax.","The dentist fills this new acrylic tray with rubber to take a final impression.","The lab uses the hardened rubber as a negative mold of the patient's mouth.","They fill it with plaster to make a new, more precise plaster model.","Then they use the new model to make the part of the dentures that fits on top of the patient's gums.","They take special orthodontic acrylic and press it into the model to form what's called the baseplate.","Then they heat a sheet of wax to form a rim on the base.","This new acrylic-and-wax model now goes back for another fitting in the patient's mouth.","The dentist takes a series of measurements to show the lab exactly where to place the teeth.","The model goes back to the lab, where technicians select the teeth that'll best suit the size of the patient's mouth.","They install the teeth one by one into the model's wax rim.","Then they send the model back to the dentist for the final fitting.","The dentist checks that everything is centered and that the patient's bite is properly aligned.","If the model fits well and looks good, the lab can finally begin to manufacture the dentures.","They position the model in a special holder called a flask, then attach channels through which acrylic will later be injected.","This acrylic will replace the wax holding the teeth in place.","But first, to get rid of the wax, they have to cast a plaster mold to hold the teeth in place.","Once the plaster dries, they submerge it in hot water for five minutes to melt the wax inside.","They rinse the plaster mold with warm water to remove any wax residues.","Then they apply what's called a separator, a chemical that will keep the acrylic from sticking to the plaster mold-- just like greasing the pan when you're baking.","They position a cylinder of acrylic right over the flask.","Using an air-pressure piston, they force the acrylic into the plaster mold.","They submerge the mold in boiling water for 35 minutes to harden the acrylic.","Once the flask has cooled down, they break the plaster.","The false teeth are now securely rooted in acrylic gums.","A bit of finishing, and they'll be done.","An ultrasonic bath gets rid of any remaining plaster.","They polish the acrylic with pumice, then shine it up with a polishing compound.","The set of false teeth is finally ready.","When a patient doesn't need a full set of dentures, just a few teeth, they get what's called a partial-- made much the same way, but hooked on at either end to the patient's natural teeth.","Aviation was once the exclusive domain of commercial and military pilots.","Not anymore.","Today many amateurs get their pilot's license and take to the skies in light aircraft not for a job, but for the sheer pleasure of flying.","To construct the body of these light aircraft, they start with two types of cloth, one woven from glass fibers--  fiberglass-- the other from carbon fibers.","Carbon is a chemical element that's stronger than steel.","Both materials go through a laminating machine that coats them with an epoxy resin.","To begin forming the various parts that make up the body, workers lay strips of the laminated fabric into molds.","The engineering plans dictate the precise positioning of the strips, which is critical for strength and durability.","They lay in carbon-fiber cloth where they need to have extra strength without additional weight, areas such as this-- the passenger compartment of the cockpit.","To make the fuselage, they sandwich a foam core less than 1/2 inch thick between two layers of the fiberglass cloth.","The foam also insulates against heat, cold, and noise.","Workers coat the edges and joints with resin, filling any voids.","Once all the fabric is in the mold, it's time to vacuum-bag it.","First, they cover everything with a layer of perforated plastic, then with a breather cloth, which looks like a white wool blanket.","Then comes another layer of plastic.","They attach a vacuum to suck out all the air.","The excess resin exits through the tiny holes in the plastic and soaks into the breather cloth.","Now that the mold is airtight, it can begin to cure.","They put it into an oven at 40 degrees celsius for 8 hours.","Once the molds come out of the oven, workers install the internal structure.","Then, using the same epoxy resin they used earlier to laminate the fiberglass and carbon-fiber fabrics, they bond the tail's upper and lower shells together.","They do the same with the wings.","The parts are left to cure overnight.","The next day, they finally come out of the molds.","Next stop, the trim shop.","Workers remove the excess fiberglass and cut out the windows.","The parts go back for a final curing.","The oven is around 175 degrees.","18 hours later, out they come for painting.","Workers sand the parts and coat them with an epoxy primer.","The finish coat is polyurethane, which resists weathering.","Meanwhile, other workers assemble and test various components, such as the electrical system.","A computer guides a machine to cut all the metal parts, such as the instrument panel.","The cutting machine doesn't have a blade, but rather a sand-and-water jet that's powerful enough to cut through metal.","A certified aircraft welder prepares the engine mount, the base that will hold the engine in place.","It's made of high-grade carbon steel.","At the final assembly stage, workers install the engine and other previously assembled components into the fuselage.","Workers position the wiring and plumbing, then hook them up.","They screw on the wing tips, which already have their navigational lights.","An avionics technician powers up the airplane for the first time to function-test everything.","The final inspection takes place where it really counts-- in flight.","How do maple trees make sap?","They accumulate starch during their growing season.","With the spring thaw, enzymes transform the starch into sugar.","When the trees absorb water through their roots, it mixes with that sugar to make sap.","Long before the white man came to north america, the native indians revered the maple tree.","In early spring, they'd pierce its trunk with a tomahawk, then place a wood chip under the hole to channel the sap into a bark container.","Then they boiled the sap over a fire in clay pots.","The indians introduced maple syrup to the european settlers.","Today most producers use tubing instead of sap buckets-- no more trudging through the snow from tree to tree.","The time to collect sap is in the early spring, when the maple trees are still dormant and when the temperature hits 3 or 4 degrees above freezing.","The freeze-and-thaw cycle alters the pressure inside the tree and starts the sap flowing.","The first step is to tap the trees.","They drill a hole 1/2 inch in diameter, 2 inches deep, then gently insert a spout made of metal or plastic.","It's important not to damage the bark.","That not only harms the tree but also lets air in the sap, which ruins the flavor.","You don't see too many sap buckets around anymore.","Today sap is pumped through polyethylene tubes to larger collector tubes...","Then into the pumping station.","Sap is 97.5% water and only 2.5% sugar.","To transform the sap to syrup, they have to boil it down.","It takes 35 gallons of sap to make just one gallon of syrup.","When the tank fills up, the sap is automatically pumped to the sugar house into a stainless-steel tank.","The more advanced producers use a specialized machine that partially concentrates the sap by reverse osmosis.","This more than triples the sap's natural sugar level and means they'll have less boiling to do.","From there, the sap flows to the evaporator.","They heat the sap to the boiling point and keep it boiling however long it takes to evaporate 66% of the water.","If the water evaporates too slowly or too quickly, that'll adversely affect the color, flavor, and texture of the syrup.","However-- and here's where expertise is everything-- there's no set cooking time.","Experienced maple-sugar producers can tell when it's ready just by looking at it.","They test the sugar level using a device called a hydrotherm.","When the syrup is just right, they run it through a pressure filter to remove calcium residues and other impurities.","They store the syrup in steam-cleaned barrels.","The lab at the central warehouse tests a sample from each drum.","Using sophisticated instruments, technicians classify the color from dark to extra light.","They also assess the quality.","Lower-grade syrup is for industrial use, higher-grade for the retail market.","They pasteurize the syrup, then put it into huge stainless-steel storage tanks.","The tanks are vacuum-sealed with a nitrogen barrier to preserve the flavor and color and to prevent fermentation.","It also keeps the syrup from crystallizing.","The lab then uses an instrument called an atomic absorption spectrophotometer to analyze the syrup's mineral content, making sure it meets market standards.","Next, they warm the syrup in stainless-steel heaters...","And run it through industrial-sized filters.","This step ensures the syrup will be perfectly clear.","Then, just before bottling, they heat the syrup again, this time to 180 degrees.","This not only sterilizes the bottles but also guarantees the syrup will have a 4-year shelf life.","Maple syrup is high in sugar but has somewhat fewer calories than honey or brown sugar.","It's 100% pure and natural, and it's a good source of three essential nutrients-- calcium, potassium, and magnesium."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Paper Fans","Walnut Oil","Copper"]},"text":["The oldest existing chinese fans, made of woven bamboo, date to the 2nd century b.c. the folding fan was invented in japan between the 6th and 9th century.","Fans were typically made of paper or silk, and famous artists were often commissioned to paint them.","The traditional asian fan-- an object of beauty with a practical purpose.","The structure is comprised of bamboo sticks, called ribs.","The paper surface is called the leaf.","In this fan workshop in northern thailand, they begin with narrow poles of locally harvested bamboo.","With a sharp knife, workers cut them to the approximate length of the ribs, then split them down the middle.","Using traditional blades, they shave each bamboo strip to the shape of a rib.","Ribs are typically about 7/100 of an inch thick and perfectly flat so that they can smoothly slide on top of one another.","Workers drill a hole in each rib 2 to 3 inches above the base, depending on the fan size.","Then they assemble the ribs on a bolt.","The number of ribs and their length are what determine a fan's size.","The two ribs on the extremities are wider and thicker than the others and are rounded on the outside.","These are called thumb guards because you flick your thumb on them to open the fan and they guard the ribs in between from damage.","To make the leaf, they begin by spreading the ribs, spacing them out evenly.","They lay this onto white cotton and cut out the semicircular shape of the leaf with the fabric extending 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches beyond the rib tips.","This fabric will be the leaf's structural backing, giving the paper rigidity and strength.","They make that paper just as their ancestors did-- mixing the fibrous bark of the mulberry tree with natural dyes-- the marigold flower for yellow, for example, or, as we see here, the root of the madder plant for vibrant red.","They mix the dyestuff with the mulberry bark fibers, then gather a thin layer of dyed fibers onto a rectangular mesh screen.","They keep repeating this process, adding layers until they build up the paper thickness they need.","Then they let the fibers dry in the sun into a finished sheet of paper.","When the paper's ready, they cut a piece to match the shape of the cotton backing and iron them together.","The two layers naturally adhere to each other, thanks to the paper's moisture and a compound in its fibers, called lignin, which acts as a natural glue.","They fold the leaf in half and trace a template in the shape of the lower section of the fan, where no paper is required.","Then they cut this part off.","They brush homemade glue made with white flour onto the parts of the ribs that will be in contact with the leaf.","They lay the ribs on the paper and, with an upward sweeping motion, press them down, at the same time wiping away the excess glue.","Next, they trim the leaf, leaving about 7/10 of an inch beyond the tips of the ribs.","They glue the edge...","And fold it back over the ribs.","Then they trim the edges along the thumb guards.","Now for the most delicate step of the entire process-- folding the fan for the first time.","Each fold is permanent and will give the fan its form, both open and closed, so precision is everything.","Now the fully constructed fan is ready for decoration with water-based acrylic paints.","Sometimes the customer requests a certain theme or scene, but usually it's left to the artist's creativity.","The artist can manipulate the paints to produce a range of effects, modifying with acrylic gels, media, or pastes to create the bold effect of oil paint and diluting with water to varying degrees to create a transparent effect much like watercolors.","The final touch is what's known as piping-- paint applied through a cone-shaped tip to produce a raised line.","This highlights the artwork with raised details.","The paint becomes water-resistant once dry, protecting the artwork from damage and ensuring this ancient objet d'art will always be simply fantastic.","Walnut oil has a distinctive, mild, nutty flavor and aroma.","It's also nutritious because it's high in omega-3 fatty acids, which are crucial for brain function, reduce inflammation, and may even help lower the risk of heart disease, arthritis, and other chronic conditions.","Walnut oil is sometimes used for sautéing, but it's more often consumed cold, typically in salad dressings.","Walnut oil for nonculinary purposes goes through a refining process which removes the flavor.","Walnut oil produced for gastronomy is unrefined, so it retains its nutty taste and scent.","Walnut oil has one ingredient and one ingredient only-- english walnuts.","The oil factory buys them from the supplier already shelled.","Production methods are much the same as they were 150 years ago.","The first step is to shovel the walnuts into a grinder.","The grinder pulverizes this combination of full kernels and broken pieces until everything's fairly uniform, roughly 1/10 of an inch in size.","Next step-- roasting.","Workers pour the ground walnuts into a cast-iron kettle on a gas burner.","For 30 minutes or so, a rotating arm continuously stirs them to ensure they roast evenly.","Roasting enhances both the flavor and aroma.","The shelled walnuts have gone from large pieces to ground pieces to roasted pieces.","Now they're ready to have the oil squeezed out of them.","This cast-iron expeller press dates back to the early 1900s.","Workers line the bottom with a mat made of natural fibers.","This will prevent the walnuts from leaking out under pressure.","After loading the press with the walnuts, they close it up and set the press in position.","Then they release the piston.","It descends and applies 2,800 pounds per square inch, crushing the walnuts and expelling the oil in the process.","The oil exits the press through small slots around the perimeter, flows down to a trough, which channels it to a spout, which pours it into a collection vat.","4 1/2 pounds of nuts yields 1 quart of oil.","What's left in the press is walnut meal.","It's used by pastry chefs to add a nutty crunch to cakes.","It's also sold to farmers who use it for cattle feed.","The extracted oil, meanwhile, moves on to the last phase of the process-- filtration.","The filter press is comprised of 16 grooved plates made of food-safe plastic, with paper filters in between.","Workers compress the plates and filters...","Then start up a powerful pump, which forces the walnut oil from one end of the press to the other.","Along the way, the filters trap all the miniscule particles of walnut, wax, and other natural materials, clarifying the oil.","This process takes a few hours, at the end of which the once-cloudy oil is clear.","Packaging walnut oil in clear glass bottles would look appetizing but would actually shorten the product's shelf life.","That's because walnut oil is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which, while good for you, are sensitive to light.","Therefore, walnut oil is traditionally bottled in tin.","After the automatic equipment fills the tin container, workers loosely apply a snap-on cap, which the next machine presses into position.","Last stop-- labeling.","As the tin spins, the machine wraps it in an adhesive-backed label, neatly aligning the label's seam with the welded seam on the tin.","Now the oil's ready to drizzle a rich walnut taste onto your pasta, grilled meat or fish, or salad.","Humans have been making things out of copper longer than any other metal.","Archaeological digs around the world have unearthed copper vessels, tools, weapons, and jewelry dating back at least 10,000 years.","Fast-forward to today and copper is one mineral we still really dig.","Peel back the layers of modern civilization, and there's a lot of copper.","It's used for electrical motors and wiring, high-tech gadgetry and plumbing.","The metal known chemically as cu is essential to modern living.","Pure copper is rarely found in nature.","It usually occurs with other elements, like iron and sulfur.","To mine the copper-bearing rock, a huge drill chews into this arizona terrain.","It drills around 130 holes at least 50 feet down.","A truck pumps explosives into them.","It's a powerful mix of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil.","A mine worker lowers the electronic detonating devices into each of the 130 holes.","From a safe distance away, he actives the detonators, staging the explosions milliseconds apart.","It's an explosion sequence designed to fracture as much of the copper-bearing rock as possible.","Shovels scoop up the blasted rock, lifting 55 to 88 tons in one bite.","The rock is less than one half of 1% copper.","Freeing the copper from it involves different techniques.","The technique depends on whether the ore is iron-oxide-based or sulfide-based.","To process copper from oxide ore, they pile the rock in specially prepared leeching areas.","They irrigate the rock with a diluted sulfuric-acid solution.","Over months, the solution percolates down and dissolves the copper.","The copper solution drains into a pond.","A pump transfers this solution to the plant.","In this channel, the copper solution binds with an organic agent and floats to the top.","They add an acidic solution that increases the concentration of the copper and makes it electrically conductive.","They transfer the copper solution to a series of tanks that contain starter sheets of pure copper, called cathodes.","They pass an electrical current through the tank, and the copper migrates to the cathodes.","At the outset, the cathodes are wafer-thin, but over a period of 10 days, they thicken substantially.","They're now an inch thick.","Each one weighs about 275 pounds.","The purity is now 99.99%.","That's important if the copper is to be processed into electrical products.","Freeing copper from the sulfide rock is more difficult.","It starts in a massive tumbler, called a sag mill.","Inside, steel grinding balls smash wet rock to pieces.","Exiting the mill, the smashed rock travels over a perforated conveyor to screen out smaller, pebble-sized rocks.","These smaller rocks continue on to different grinding mills.","The larger rocks circle back to the sag mill for another round.","Once all the rock has been sufficiently ground, they add chemicals which coat the copper particles and mix in a frothing substance.","The slurry flows into floatation tanks.","Air blasts create bubbles that the chemically coated copper minerals attach to.","The bubbles carry the minerals to the top of the tank, and they overflow.","After filtering the overflow, they have a concentrate that's now 25% to 30% copper.","They transfer the concentrate by rail to a smelter facility.","Here, it goes into several large beds.","Each one is the size of two basketball courts.","They add silica sand, creating a layer cake of sand and copper concentrate.","The silica sand is known as a flux.","It will serve as a purifying agent as the concentrate is smelted.","In the intense heat of the furnace, the silica sand melts to form a slag that absorbs the iron and other unwanted minerals.","The slag floats up, and the copper sinks.","Its purity is now 60%.","Then it's into a second furnace, where they up the copper content to 98%.","Coming up, there's much more to the story of copper.","There are networks of copper in the walls of modern buildings-- wires and pipes that supply utilities and keep the household humming.","Hidden behind drywall, it's easy to overlook the contribution of this thermally and electrically conductive metal.","But behind the scenes, copper is a big player.","With the copper now extracted from the ore, they pour the residue onto a heap.","This molten slag flows down like lava from a volcano.","As it cools, it becomes part of the landscape.","Meanwhile, in the smelter, a crane delivers the fiery liquid copper into another furnace for further purification.","Inside this furnace, the purity level increases from 98% to 99.4%.","The molten copper flows out of the furnace and into rotating molds.","The molds shape the copper into big, rectangular slabs, called anodes.","The slabs will serve as positively charged electrodes in the electrorefining process that's still to come.","That process will take the purity level up one last notch.","The copper begins to cool in the molds.","A sprayer douses them with water to speed the cooling process, and the copper hardens into the anode shape.","A hydraulic cylinder pops them out of the molds.","Then a carrier system retrieves them and takes them for a rinse.","This gets rid of any traces of a nonstick substance applied to the molds earlier for easy release of the copper slabs.","Hooks formed during the molding make it easy to rack up the slabs for shipment to a texas refinery hundreds of miles away.","At the refinery, the copper slabs shed any lingering impurities in this tank as an electrical current is applied.","The current causes the copper to gravitate to thin starter sheets.","The impurities fall to the bottom.","The copper deposited on the starter sheets is 99.99% pure, the purity level required by wire manufacturers.","They load it into a furnace that's essentially a tall shaft.","Midway down, the pure copper melts and flows to the bottom of the furnace.","From there, they transfer it to an insulated metal channel, which keeps it molten as it now travels into a vertical mold.","This mold shapes it into rectangular forms known as copper cakes.","Copper cakes are used for manufacturing things like copper sheeting and plumbing parts.","Fresh from the mold, the copper cakes are roughly 20 feet long.","A conveyor serves them up to a circular saw that slices them to lengths required by the customer.","Stacked and labeled, this pure copper cake is now ready to ship to the manufacturer.","They also process pure copper into rods, a form more suitable for manufacturing electrical wiring.","Molten copper moves through an opening in a mold, and, cooled by water, the copper forms a continuous rectangular bar.","These grooved rollers will now take it from rectangular to round and reduce the diameter substantially.","As the copper travels through the grooves, it becomes a 3/10 of an inch thick copper rod.","The rod exits, and the machine loops it into coils.","They land neatly onto a steel spool.","Machinery compresses the copper coil, squeezing it down so it will take up less space when it's transported.","There's one last squeeze from an overhead press.","And an employee ties the tightly coiled copper with extra-strong plastic banding.","From the earth's crust to the factory floor, it's been quite a journey.","Shipped to manufacturers, it will now be drawn into electrical wiring, and the future is sure to be high-voltage."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fishing Line","Industrial Mixers","Natural Baking Soda","Tow Trucks"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Early fishing lines were made of vines and braided horsehair.","But today, fishermen rely on braided synthetics to reel in their catch.","With a higher tensile strength than steel, these lines are unlikely to snap when they hook the big one.","This fishing line may be thin, but that doesn't mean it's not strong.","It's made of a synthetic called ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene.","This same synthetic is used in milk jugs, water pipes, and even bulletproof vests.","To make these fishing lines, numerous microfibers are braided into a single, tight cord.","An employee starts by threading fibers through needles.","She pulls the needles through spring-loaded devices.","The devices keep the fibers at an even tension as they unwind onto small bobbins.","These bobbins are designed to fit in the braiding machines.","The machines are called maypole braiders because the spools spin like dancers around a maypole.","As they spin, they weave the strands into a tight braid.","There are 4,500 braiding machines in operation at this factory.","Producing a tight braid is slow work.","It takes about 10 days to braid a 7,500-foot section of fishing line.","Big spools overhead slowly revolve to take up the braided polyethylene line.","At the same time, a worker fills a metal tank with hot water...","And adds yellow dye to it.","A pump at the bottom of the tank keeps the water moving to evenly distribute the dye.","He stirs it a bit while he inspects the mixing job.","They heat and pressurize the dye in a tank filled with fishing line.","The dye penetrates all of the strands for an even dye job.","These fishing lines go through a different process.","They unwind through metal eyelets into a tray of yellow silicone resin.","This proprietary resin makes the line abrasion-resistant.","It will be less likely to break if dragged across a surface like a rock.","Next, the line travels through an oven to cure the resin.","It travels over a series of tensioning rollers as it exits.","Then, the line goes through an abrasive eyelet, which removes external contaminants.","Finally, it's rolled up by a spool.","Now it's over to a test station.","A technician clamps a piece of fishing line in a testing apparatus.","It pulls the fishing line from both ends until it breaks.","A gauge measures the line's breaking point.","It snaps at 118 pounds of pressure, exceeding requirements.","With the test piece of fishing line approved, an automated system now transfers the line to retail-sized spools.","It loads about 450 feet of line onto each one.","A worker applies a label with product details and packages it in a cardboard box.","It takes about 17 days to braid, color, and process a single spool of synthetic fishing line.","Strong but very thin, it can be cast and reeled in with ease.","If the fish take the bait, they may not be able to get away.","The applications for industrial-grade mixers are limitless.","From construction and recycling to food processing and medical supplies, mixers chop, crush, and blend any combination of dry and wet materials into a variety of products or compounds.","This mixer consists of a bin called a u-trough and an agitator.","It's controlled by an interface module with simple start and stop buttons.","The agitator shaft is the main component.","Its arms and paddles turn at a speed of 10 to 50 rotations per minute.","A discharge valve underneath the u-trough controls the unloading of the mixture.","First, a hydraulic 40-ton press roll-forms a carbon steel sheet.","The sheet rolls back and forth under the press until it takes a \"u\" shape.","An overhead crane brings the sheet over to the end plate for welding.","A worker spot-welds the sheet to the end plate.","Then, he makes a continuous weld on the end plate along the inside and outside of the sheet.","A high-definition plasma cutter burns paddle shapes into a stainless-steel plate.","The extreme heat of the plasma cuts right through the steel, making very precise lines and angles.","Then, the paddles go to a forming press.","The 150-ton press pushes the plate down on a die.","Steel is a formable metal, so it can bend without cracking or breaking.","A slight curvature in the paddles will maximize the lifting and scooping effect of the agitator.","A machinist turns the agitator main shaft.","It takes a very hard and resistant material to machine such a massive steel shaft.","This tungsten carbide insert can resist high temperatures and maintain a sharp cutting edge.","The machinist measures the diameter.","He cuts a groove into the end of the shaft using a stagger-tooth side-mill cutter.","This groove, called a keyseat, is designed to lock the agitator to the mixer's drive gearbox.","Machining of the agitator requires extreme precision.","The shaft must fit into the drive gearbox and match its drive key slot.","A worker assembles arms and paddles to an agitator shaft mounted inside a u-trough.","He bolts the arms onto the shaft.","He tightens the nuts with a pneumatic torque driver and assembles paddles to the arms.","Both the paddles and arms are angled.","Machine slots in the paddles allow clearance adjustment.","Next, a worker rotates the assembled shaft and arms to check the clearance between the paddles and u-trough walls.","A welder creates a solid stainless-steel agitator shaft for a larger mixer.","He welds the base of the arms to the shaft and grinds down the welding profile to obtain a uniform shape.","Welded agitators are often used in food processing because they make cleaning easier.","Now, workers attach an electric motor to the mixer.","They mount the drive assembly on the agitator shaft.","A taper bushing centers the drive gearbox on the shaft.","Fasteners secure the bushing in place, locking the agitator shaft into the drive.","A worker installs a safety grate on top of the mixer and closes the covers.","Then, he installs air-pressure regulators.","These supply air to the main shaft seals.","Air purge seals prevent product loss or contamination.","Air lines connect the pressure regulators to both ends of the main shaft agitator.","The mixer fits on a support frame for easy access to the discharge valve.","It's equipped with clamps, safety latches, and a control panel, which includes an emergency stop button.","Baking soda is a white crystalline powder.","When added to dough, it reacts with the acidic ingredients to form bubbles, giving cakes and cookies a light and fluffy structure.","It's also used in livestock feed, fire extinguishers, and detergents.","Baking soda is also known as sodium bicarbonate.","It can be produced through a chemical process, or it can be mined from the ground.","Large mineral deposits exist in northwest colorado, left behind as lakes evaporated millions of years ago.","Mine operators dissolve the sodium bicarbonate underground using hot brine.","The brine is a mix of the minerals and water left over from prior processing.","They pipe the higher-concentration brine to a processing facility about a mile away.","The brine collects in a holding tank outside and flows through pipes into the facility as needed.","Inside, a technician tests the liquid and confirms that the level of sodium bicarbonate is adequate.","Then, the brine flows through several tanks, where heat exchangers gradually cool it.","This causes the sodium-bicarbonate brine to crystallize, making the granules larger and heavier.","The crystals sink to the bottom of the last tank.","This forms a mixture of brine and crystals.","They pump this mixture into a device called a hydroclone.","The hydroclone spins out the brine through the center.","The crystals gravitate to the sides and sink to the bottom.","This creates a sodium-bicarbonate slurry.","It has a meringue-like consistency.","The slurry is about 40% sodium bicarbonate at this point.","A lot of water has been removed, but there's still work to be done.","As the dewatering continues, the system recaptures spent liquid and pipes it back into the mine to dissolve more minerals.","The slurry goes for another spin, this time in a centrifuge.","It wrings out more water, transforming the slurry into something called wet cake.","Wet cake is 95% sodium bicarbonate.","Next, the wet cake travels to a mixer that blends dry sodium bicarbonate powder into it.","The dry powder brings the moisture content down to 3%.","Next, the wet cake makes a quick trip through this dryer to remove the remaining moisture, leaving pure baking soda.","The baking soda now shakes through three tiers of vibrating screens.","The crystals are sorted by size, producing several different grades.","From brine to powder, it's been quite a journey.","It's time to determine how this naturally mined baking soda measures up.","A technician dissolves some of the baking soda in water.","He adds an acid to neutralize the sodium bicarbonate.","This allows him to measure its purity.","He also places the different grades of baking soda in a screening device.","It vibrates to shake the granules through perforations, verifying that the crystals have been correctly graded by size.","With the lab's approval, this baking soda is ready for the marketplace.","A robotic arm picks up the bag and transfers it to a fill station with a scale below.","The scale signals when there's 55 pounds of baking soda in a bag, prompting the fill nozzle to shut off.","These 55-pound bags will be sold to commercial bakeries and companies that use large amounts of baking soda daily.","It will no doubt rise to the occasion.","When an 18-wheeler has an accident or construction equipment breaks down, you need to call in the big guns to haul it away for repair.","Large tow trucks are equipped with specialized tools to recover and transport massive vehicles.","This tow truck can haul a vehicle as large as a semitruck.","The towing apparatus is called the underlift.","This is one of four outriggers.","These legs stabilize the tow truck when the using the recovery boom.","This extendible boom is equipped with dual-wire ropes and hooks to retrieve a vehicle that's gone off the road.","These hydraulically powered towing and recovery machines are made up of 2,500 parts cut from steel sheets.","The parts are cut by one of two types of computer-guided machines-- a high-pressure water-jet cutter, as we're seeing here, or a laser cutter.","Workers position the parts in an assembly fixture...","Then tack-weld them together.","Tack welding is an initial welding in select spots, just to hold the parts together until a robot does the final welding.","Next, workers sandblast the welded component.","This preps the surface for painting.","They apply one coat of epoxy primer...","Then one coat of polyurethane automotive paint.","The paint dries in about two hours and fully cures in about two days.","Workers hook up all of the hydraulically powered components to this testing machine.","If everything functions properly, workers connect permanent hydraulic lines.","To assemble the recovery boom, they install hydraulic cylinders that will move it up and down, a winch that winds and unwinds the thick wire ropes, and an enormous ring gear that enables the boom to rotate 360 degrees.","Then, they attach the extendible boom.","It's secured with massive steel pins.","Workers also attach he underlift at the back and the four stabilizing outriggers underneath.","This completes the towing and recovery unit.","Now they attach it to a prebuilt truck.","Steel mounting plates are bolted to the truck's frame.","The towing-and-recovery unit is then welded to those plates.","Workers bolt aluminum tool cabinets to the side of the truck's frame.","Inside the cabinet, they make the wiring connections for the emergency lights and other electrical components.","They install the electronic control panel that the driver uses to operate everything.","The control panel monitors oil temperature, hydraulic pressure, and other important indicators.","They also install a set of control handles to give the driver the option of manual operation.","Once everything is hooked up, they perform a quality control inspection.","This factory makes several models, ranging from a light-duty tow truck...","To one like this, designed to haul the heaviest trucks and machinery."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pharmaceutical Blister Packs","Deli Slicers","Oysters","Weathervanes"]},"text":["While the pill bottle isn't yet passé, we're seeing many medications being sold in blister packs-- those cards on which each pill is lined up in a row and encased in a packaging bubble.","To take your medication, you simply press the blister and push out the pill through the breakable backing.","Blister packaging prevents moisture and air from coming into contact with the medicine.","The package is comprised of two layers-- typically, an aluminum foil sheet called the lidding and a pvc plastic sheet with rows of blisters.","Once the manufacturer designs the packaging format, the engineering department tailor-makes the tools to produce it.","This computer-guided mill creates the die that will form the blisters in the pvc sheet.","They mount the die on a machine called a thermoformer.","As the pvc sheet enters the machine, an oven heats it up, making it soft and malleable.","The die then strikes it, imprinting the pattern of circles.","A split second after the forming station closes, a blast of air forms the circles into raised blisters.","Refrigerated plates then sandwich the sheet, setting the new shape.","The pills arrive at the packaging facility in bulk containers.","Workers sift off any pill dust that may have formed, give the pills a preliminary inspection, then load them into a large hopper.","If they were shipped with any moisture-absorption packets, an employee now removes and discards them.","The hopper feeds the packaging machine.","The blister sheets move through open side up so that the pills fall right in.","Rotating brushes and paddles dispense the pills into the passing cavities, which are designed to fit no more than one pill per blister.","An inspector fills any empty blisters while a sophisticated vision system detects any broken or chipped pills, flagging them to be rejected later.","The blisters enter a seal station, where they're mated with the foil lidding.","One side of the lidding is printed beforehand with product information.","To make the printing plate, technicians mount a blank rubber mat on a cylinder.","As the cylinder revolves, a powerful laser cuts away at the rubber until the information to be printed appears in raised lettering, just like a traditional rubber stamp.","They transfer this rubber plate to the packaging line's printing station, where the rubber plate picks up ink and rolls it onto the lidding.","The ink dries by the time the lidding reaches the sealing station, where lidding and blister sheet meet.","The next station simultaneously applies pressure and heat.","This activates an adhesive on the lidding, heat-sealing the sheets together.","Then, refrigerated plates cool the surfaces to set the adhesive.","Here a die punches the hole through which the blister pack will lock into a childproof case.","Then another die punches the individual blister packs apart.","Vacuum arms transfer the packs to a single-file conveyer belt, dropping any packs which the vision system identified for rejection.","This automated arm sets childproof cases on a track moving in parallel to the conveyer that holds the blister packs.","Then a loading arm slides a blister pack into each plastic case, mating the hole in the pack to the case's internal lock.","Finally, an applicator places an adhesive label, bearing all the required identification and safety information onto each passing case.","Random samples undergo a series of quality-control checks.","In this test for water- and air-tightness, technicians submerge the blister pack in blue dye and apply a vacuum.","Any dye penetrating the pack would indicate a hole in a blister or a flaw in the seal between the plastic and lidding.","Should a particular medication require extra protection, the blister pack can, for example, be made of light-resistant materials or contain an extra moisture barrier.","Invented in holland in 1898, the deli slicer launched a revolution behind the meat counter.","No longer was it necessary to carve meats and cheeses entirely by hand.","With a turn of a crank, the deli slicer produced precise cuts in a jiffy.","The modern deli slicer is powered by electricity, with a manual override for the carriage that delivers food to a spinning blade.","Production begins with a cast aluminum base.","A worker installs a cam mechanism that is part of a system for adjusting the thickness of the slice.","He threads wiring, connected to an on/off indicator light, through holes in the base.","Then he screws an index knob onto the shaft protruding from the cam mechanism installed earlier.","An important warning label comes next.","Then he seals the gap around the blade shaft with silicone and removes the excess with soapy water.","Next up is the wiring for the slicer motor.","She clamps the wires together and bolts the clamps to the inside of the aluminum base.","She inserts the on/off switch and the plastic trim, then attaches a device that will slide to adjust the gap between the gauge plate and the blade, thereby controlling the thickness of the cut.","The deli slicer is ready for the slide rod and carriage sub assembly that will deliver food to the spinning blade.","The carriage will move across a track that she now attaches to the lip of the base.","She tests the carriage assembly to confirm that it's on track.","The next worker secures the blade motor to the wiring with bolts.","He connects the motor to the blade shaft with a drive belt.","Operating the motor allows him to observe the drive belt and pulleys in action, confirming that they operate smoothly.","Once the gauge plate is installed, they move on to making the blade.","Computer-guided cutters slope the steel surface and carve a precise bevel onto the rim.","It goes from a rough blank to a precisely shaped blade in just minutes.","The next worker etches the company logo and production date into the blade metal.","Another lathe pre-sharpens the blade to the point where it could cut through something as fine as several thousandths of an inch.","A worker slides the blade onto the drive shaft and secures it in place with a nut.","He now checks the alignment of the gauge plate in relation to the blade.","He turns the thickness mechanism to close the gap and checks it again.","With a dial indicator, he measures the position of the blade even more precisely.","This tool confirms that the blade is in the exact position for cutting and that it won't lose that position once activated.","This deli slicer comes with its own sharpening system, a grinding wheel in protective casing.","He mounts the grinder and activates it to hone the edge to razor-sharpness.","When the blade cuts through tissue paper cleanly, it's ready for real slicing action.","A worker screws the arm for the sliding tray to the carriage.","He uses a spacer disc to establish the correct distance between the food tray and the blade.","He sets the food tray on the arm and checks the gap between it and the blade.","Once the two are correctly aligned, he removes the spacer and latches the safety guard to the blade.","And now for a test, verifying that the tray doesn't drag or scrape against the blade guard.","Below, they've installed rods to move the carriage on the track.","The system can be manually operated or driven by a second motor.","Finally, a worker cleans the slicing machine until it gleams.","At 135 pounds, this deli slicer is no lightweight, so they use a crane to lower it into the packing box.","Hefty and heavy duty, this deli slicer should have what it takes to cut it at the meat market.","Oysters are a versatile shellfish.","You can bake them, boil them, smoke them, or eat them raw right from the shell.","Over the years, wild oyster stocks have declined due to overfishing and pollution.","So today, 95% of the oysters we consume come from oyster farms.","Oysters are filter feeders, meaning they draw seawater over their gills to trap and eat the phytoplankton-- microscopic aquatic organisms.","An adult oyster can filter more than five quarts of seawater per hour.","Oyster farms are located in or by the sea because the oysters need to feed off seawater to survive.","The hatchery keeps the oysters in upwellers-- mesh-bottom buckets sitting in seawater.","Oysters can reproduce once they're six months old.","However, the ideal breeding age is between two and 10 years.","At breeding time, workers put the oysters into breeding trays, oscillating the temperature between 68° and 86° to stimulate spawning.","The females squirt out eggs, the males squirt out semen, and 16 hours later, the fertilized eggs hatch larvae.","Right from birth, the oysters feed on a blend of the phytoplankton they'd eat in the wild.","The hatchery dilutes this plankton mix in seawater and pumps it to the oyster containers.","Marine biologists manage the ponds in which the hatchery grows its phytoplankton supply.","The larvae are so tiny, you can't see them in the water.","They're visible only under a microscope.","Right from the time they hatch, they already have a shell and can swim.","By about the two-week mark, they've grown to the size of a speck, about 1/64 of an inch long.","However, now they act like miniature adults and stay put.","The hatchery keeps them in suspension in circulating water so they have an ample supply of food and oxygen.","As they grow, they're transferred to progressively larger bottles.","By the time they're four to six weeks old, they're ready to leave the hatchery and move to the oyster farm.","The farm floats in a harbor.","The baby oysters arriving are a tiny fraction of an inch long.","They go into upwellers.","Pipes circulate seawater, and the babies filter-feed on the natural phytoplankton.","Over the next six weeks or so, they quadruple in size to about 2/10 of an inch in length.","Workers then pack them in plastic mesh bags, stack the bags on metal racks, and suspend the racks in the sea.","The oysters live like that for three months, getting transferred into progressively larger mesh bags as they grow.","Halfway into it, the oysters are this big-- about 8/10 of an inch long.","By the end of three months, they're double this size, grown up enough to leave home and venture out into the real world.","Workers lay them on the sea floor and leave them for six months to reach harvest size, which is determined not by length anymore, but by weight--  just under three ounces.","To finally harvest the oysters, they lower a custom-built machine that's part dredger, part conveyer.","It generates jets of water that blow the oysters off the sea bed onto the conveyer.","They travel up out of the water into the boat.","That conveyer dumps the oysters onto another conveyer that leads to the picking station.","There, workers select the correct size oysters and put them into baskets.","Whatever they leave on the conveyer-- smaller oysters, rocks, and such-- continues to the end and drops back into the water.","Of course, the harvesting machine misses some three-ounce oysters.","Those remain on the seabed sometimes for years, growing larger like this guy, weighing about 2.2 pounds.","Prior to sale, the harvested oysters go through a cleaning process called depuration.","For 42 hours, they sit in tanks filled with seawater sterilized by ultraviolet light.","The oysters draw this clean water through their gills.","This flushes out all the bacteria.","Thanks to this depuration process, it's safe to eat raw oysters.","It's taken a good 18 months to grow from microscopic organism to dining delicacy, which has a refrigerated shelf life of about a week.","Long before satellites and doppler radar, people relied on weathervanes for storm tracking-- a folk-art figure balanced on an axis turns with the wind to indicate both its direction and speed.","Though more ornamental than practical, it's still a great way to find out what's in the wind, weather-wise.","As it swings with prevailing winds, a weathervane offers important clues.","Northeast winds, for example, could mean a storm is brewing.","Learn to read the signs, and the weathervane offers up-to-the-minute weather information.","To make a weathervane the old fashioned way, a craftsman starts with a sheet of soft copper.","It can be easily cut, bent, and shaped.","Using electric shears, he slices the copper to the appropriate size.","Then he clamps it to a steel mold of a rooster body and head.","With a rubber mallet, he now carefully pounds the copper into the crevasses of the mold.","This is a critical first shaping of the copper, and he has to hit it with just the right amount of force.","If he's too heavy-handed, he could break or tear the copper.","Too little force, and the shape won't properly transfer to the metal.","With a basic rooster shape now established, he reaches for an air hammer that's equipped with a plastic tip.","It beats the copper into the mold thousands of times per minute.","This transfers finer details, like feathers.","And with its smooth plastic tip, the air hammer inflicts no damage.","It takes less than 20 minutes, and the rooster comes to life in copper.","He unlocks the clamps and removes the molded copper rooster.","He'll make another one just like it for the other side of the weathervane.","This will distribute its weight correctly and make it look good from all angles.","He then pounds copper into the shape of the rooster's tail.","It has generous plumage for just the right balance.","With a band saw, he slices around the molded shapes to remove the excess copper.","This liberates the molded rooster from the matrix.","He now trims the rooster with a set of clippers to give it a cleaner edge.","Using long clippers, he snips copper from inside the beak.","This opens it up.","Once the ragged bits have been trimmed, he's ready to match the two sides of this weathervane rooster.","He secures it in a vise and cleans the seam with a solution called flux.","He tacks it with solder and then checks the evenness of the seam.","When the two molds match perfectly, he solders the entire seam.","This weather rooster is now ready for its tail.","It will give the weathervane a larger surface on one side, offering greater resistance to the wind.","This will cause the front of the weathervane to point into the wind.","He inserts the weathervane axis through the rooster's foot, into the cavity, and it emerges from the back of the neck.","He pounds the top of the shaft flush to the surface and then solders it in place for a permanent installation.","For some extra pizzazz, he slides a decorative copper ball up the turning rod, resting it just below the rooster foot.","He secures it with solder.","He now cuts out the feathered end for an arrow.","It's known as the fletching, and it will help balance the weathervane.","He turns the crank of a press to roll numerous creases into the fletching.","The creases mimic feather lines.","He solders the feathered end to the pointed shaft.","It has a hole for installing it onto the weathervane's turning rod.","As the weathervane spins with the prevailing wind, the arrow will point in its direction.","A waddle below the beak and a comb atop his head, and this rooster is ready to rule the roof.","Exposure to the elements will weather the copper and give it a blue-green patina.","For customers who don't want to wait a few years for this to happen, instant results can be achieved by applying a special acid.","Depending on its complexity, a copper weathervane can take up to two days to build.","With luck, it could last a century or more.","Like the weather, predicting a weathervane's long-term viability is not an exact science."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Amphibious Vehicles","Putters","Model Ships","Drumheads"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Amphibious vehicles...","Putters...","Model ships...","And drumheads.","A vehicle is amphibious when it travels on land and water.","This one's used mainly by hunters and fishermen, but also by utility companies and the military.","Wide, rugged tires easily trek through mud, snow, and bushes.","When the vehicle's in the water, the tires' deep treads also function as paddles.","This eight-wheel model can carry six people on land and four in the water.","Buoyancy requires a lighter load.","They begin production by welding 8 steel sections together to make the driver's seat, then 12 other parts for the vehicle's main frame.","This frame will later house the seat, a gas tank, the battery, and a storage box.","Next, a worker assembles what's called the axle hub.","A robotic press punches five bolts through the components to fuse them.","This design keeps the hub lightweight and strengthens the axle for driving on rough terrain.","Next, a worker inserts what's called the axle shaft through the hub.","A robotic welding machine then fuses the shaft to one side of the hub.","After he flips it, the machine welds the shaft to the hub's other side.","This company uses a robot for this important step because it's faster and more precise.","Here, a worker reveals some of the vehicle's secrets to functioning in water.","Each axle's bearing has rubber and steel collars called flanges.","They form a waterproof seal over the axle.","The worker greases these flanges to lubricate them and to keep dust and water from infiltrating.","He inserts one of 16 gaskets between the flanges.","They're made of cork to keep moisture out and grease from escaping.","After adding another flange and a gasket, he applies a liquid compound to rustproof the steel shaft.","Here, a computer-guided cutting tool carves teeth on a steel ring to create one of the vehicle's 17 gears.","Lubricant cools the heat this generates so that the machine doesn't overheat and break down.","When the cutting's complete, robotic arms remove the gear and replace it with a new, unshaped ring.","The gears range from about the size of a coin to the size of a dinner plate.","Here's how the shift lever changes the gears from neutral to low to high and into reverse.","And here's how the clutch will transfer power, via a component called the input shaft, into the transmission.","A worker hooks up the transmission to the engine, then he slides two clutches onto the input shaft.","He attaches each one with a bolt and two washers, then connects the engine to the transmission with a rubber drive belt, encircling the clutches.","Two brake calipers connect the brake system to the transmission.","Now he tests the drive belt, clutch system, engine rotations, brakes, and steering.","The wheels don't turn.","The driver steers the vehicle by slowing or braking either set of wheels and skidding to one side.","To make the vehicle's lower body, they take a sheet of polyethylene, a heavy-duty plastic, and heat it in an oven.","After 4 1/2 minutes at 450 degrees fahrenheit, the sheet emerges, softened by the heat.","An aluminum mold drops down, and a vacuum-forming machine stretches the plastic around it, sucking out the air from between the two.","After the plastic cools for 4 1/2 minutes, the machine lifts the mold, leaving a cavity about the size of a large bathtub.","Two workers then move the lower body to an assembly line.","They insert the vehicle's main frame, now painted black.","Then, on the outside, they mount four extensions that will carry the vehicle's two front and two rear axles.","These will enable the axles to withstand greater punishment.","They install eight drive chains onto sprockets on the axle shafts, then two more linking the transmission to the components that propel the vehicle-- what's called the drive system.","A worker then attached an end plate to complete the link.","Workers lower the 26-horsepower engine into the carriage and attach it with three bolts.","Next, the polyethylene upper body, and then the wheels.","They test the drive chains for tension and sprockets for vibrations.","The wheels are twice as wide as most car wheels but 10 times softer, to cushion the ride.","On land, this $16,000 vehicle travels up to 21 miles per hour.","Top speed in the water is only 3 miles an hour.","But, hey, it's easier than swimming.","Golf players in 17th-century scotland were the first to hone their game by using differently shaped clubs for specific tasks.","Today, you use what's called a putter to gently roll the ball into the hole using the fewest number of strokes.","The club's high-tech, streamlined design is crucial to any golfer's putting strategy.","This company uses a robotic tester to spot-check its putters for quality.","The club passes if the balls roll along a straight line into the hole.","That means the putter's striking with just the right impact.","Production begins with bars of aluminum, a metal that's lightweight and easy to sculpt.","A band saw slices them into 4 1/2-inch-long pieces.","Each piece will become a putter head, the part of the club that hits the ball.","A computer-guided cutting tool sculpts the heads by shaving away up to a third of the aluminum.","The machine first mills one side of the head into tiny steps.","Another cutting tool then shapes this area into a smooth curve.","The process takes 10 minutes.","Then the four-sided platform revolves, and the cutter begins working on the next putter head.","Another milling machine carves blocks of copper-nickel alloy into what's called the insert.","This part will fit into a cavity in the putter head, making the area that strikes the ball firm yet resonant.","It's why the golfer feels the impact reverberate through the putter-- what's known as feedback.","This device performs random quality checks of the insert cavities in the putter heads.","A vise holds the head as the probe gauges the cavity's width and depth.","Next, these chunks of copper go into a chemical bath with putter-head models made of different metals.","The material from which a putter head's made determines the weight and feel of the club.","This 10-minute bath removes any contaminants from the surface of the metals and coats the heads in copper.","This ensures that the plating they're going to get will stick.","After that, the heads are plated in a different metal.","This determines how the club looks.","For this, chunks of mat-finished nickel go into a second chemical bath.","They'll provide one of this company's four finishes, ranging from mat to shiny.","During this 15-minute step, a mechanical arm occasionally shifts the rack to disperse the chemicals and thoroughly plate the heads.","To fit the insert, a worker first positions the head in a vise.","He applies four drops of epoxy glue inside the rim of the insert cavity.","This provides additional bonding once they force the inset all the way in.","After placing the insert in the cavity by hand, a worker uses a press to force it inside.","They cover the press with paper so it won't scratch the insert, which must be flush with the surface of the head.","Any air under the insert escapes through a hole underneath, where they'll insert the club shaft.","A worker first applies glue inside the hole, then he inserts the shaft and secures it to a template with rubber bands.","The shaft is made of stainless steel.","They usually come in standard lengths of 33, 34, and 35 inches.","They're set at the angle most players prefer-- 18 degrees.","The next step is to mount a handgrip at the top of the shaft.","First, a worker wraps the top in double-sided tape.","Then he pours water over the tape to dilute the glue on its surface.","This will enable the grip to slide on more easily.","He pours water inside the grip, as well.","The grip is a rubber sleeve that's just under 10 inches long.","Once lubricated, it shimmies over the shaft for a snug fit that lasts up to three years.","He lines up the flat part of the grip at a 90-degree angle with the flat part of the putter head.","This helps the player strike the ball properly.","Next, a worker colors the club's engraved logo.","Using a tiny nozzle, she applies minute amounts of epoxy paint inside the groves of the design.","She controls the amount of paint with a foot pedal that released pressurized air into the nozzle.","This company makes putter heads in some fairly luxurious materials, including beryllium copper.","That's one for players wanting a club with a softer feel and who don't mind paying up to $500 to get it.","Model ships are made for naval gazing.","They're representations of real ships.","Some are built meticulously to scale with extreme attention to detail and are truly museum pieces.","You can buy model ships preassembled or in kits.","But be careful.","These are truly delicate works of art.","The portlandsteamer sank in the atlantic in 1898, all lives lost.","But its image survives in models.","To make a model like the portland, the worker selects some wooden pieces from a stock room.","Model ships are actually made of thousands of parts, big and small.","These are just a few, and some are to be cut down.","A computer guides a laser beam as it carves the larger, flat pieces of wood into many parts.","They'll be components for the ship's deckhouse.","Next, a worker shapes a hull, or main body, using a machine called a duplicating carver.","Holding the machine's stylus on the left, he traces around a master shape.","This motion guides two routers on the right as they chisel into basswood, making exact copies of the master hull.","To make resin parts, they mix polyurethane with some plasticizer and pour it into a mold.","A chemical reaction causes it to harden.","This take up to a half-hour, and then they pull a newly shaped lifeboat out of the mold.","Next, a worker cleans up another mold.","It's to be used to shape cast-metal anchors.","He places the mold in a centrifuge and pours a melted mix of tin, antimony, and copper into it.","The centrifuge spins, and this causes the metal to fill the cavities in the mold and solidify.","He opens the mold and finds the anchors formed like spokes around the hub.","It's anchors away as he snips them free.","Now a worker sands smooth the bottom of the hull.","Then he positions the first of the ship's five decks.","He glues wooden spacers between the decks.","A special glue that dries in about 10 seconds allows him to work quickly as he builds the tiers.","Next, he submerges a deckhouse sidepiece in water to soften the wood.","He cuts the little tabs to free other deckhouse parts from a matrix.","After that, he carves out the center of two of the pieces.","Then he glues a block between them and applies more glue to the edges.","He bends the deckhouse side, which is now wet and supple, around the structure.","The moisture causes a chemical reaction in the glue which strengthens it.","After he positions the deckhouse starboard side, he sticks a strip of clear acetate to the back of a band of windows.","The acetate simulates glass.","He paints the front of the windowed wall white and then turns it around to paint red curtains on the acetate.","Other detailing has been laser-etched into the wood.","He glues the wall of windows between deck tiers, and the look is authentic.","He positions paddle wheels on each side.","These have 57 wood paddles held in place by brass radials.","Remember the anchors cast in the centrifuge mold earlier?","He now positions some on the ship deck.","Then he prepares the lifeboats.","The larger plastic one goes on the upper deck.","This golden eagle is the finishing touch.","Here, another worker rigs up a four-masted schooner.","Using surgical clamps, he pins the ropes down so they don't get in the way.","Then he measures a piece of decking to make the top of the deckhouse.","He glues it to a base...","And then positions it on the ship.","Next, a jeweler's lathe spins a piece of brass as a worker manipulates a cutter, milling parts for the ship's bell.","Once it's mounted, this ship model is ready for everyone to admire.","A drum's playing surface is called the drumhead.","It's the part of the instrument that vibrates, creating sound.","Some drumheads are still made the traditional way, from animal skin.","But a natural skin is very susceptible to temperature and humidity changes, so most drummers today prefer heads made of modern, synthetic materials.","The drumhead surface is often called the skin because, traditionally, it was made of calfskin.","This synthetic skin is a flexible plastic film called polyethylene terephthalate, the same polyester-based plastic they use to make soft-drink bottles.","Workers load several sheets of it into a press that applies 75 tons of force onto sharp, circle-shaped dies, pushing them upward through the film sheets.","The die-cut film circles become the skins.","A skin could be made up of just one film circle or several taped together.","Workers assemble the layers using a vacuum turntable.","The suction keeps the bottom film steady while they apply tape to its outside edge and then adhere another film on top.","Each layer is called a ply.","The more plies a skin has, the more bass frequencies it'll produce.","Now the skins go onto a computer-guided drill press.","The machine drills tiny holes all along their perimeter, about 1/8 of an inch in.","The holes are roughly the size of a nailhead.","They're spaced about 1/4 inch apart.","The next machine heats the edge of each film to soften it, then applies pressure to mold it to shape.","The skin comes out with a fluted edge, like what you see on a paper cup.","This shape keeps the tension even when the musician tightens the skin to tune the drum.","Meanwhile, this roll-forming machine uses a series of pressure rollers to gradually shape an aluminum strip into a hoop.","The hoop will hold the skin tightly over the drum's body, called the drum shell, creating the tension you need to produce sound.","This machine also imprints tiny dimples onto one side of the strip.","When the factory later glues together the skin and hoop, this rough texture will improve the bond.","Now the machine folds the edges of the strip inward to create a channel on the inside of the hoop.","That's where the glue will go.","Once the machine finishes forming the hoop, a small, built-in circular saw cuts the end.","A worker then loads each hoop onto a rotation soldering jig, positioning the ends together.","The rest is all automated.","A glob of silver solder on the joint...","Then natural-gas torches fuse the hoop closed.","After water cools off the hot metal...","The jig ejects the finished hoop.","Drumhead hoops can be as small as 6 inches or as large as 40 inches in diameter.","Finally, it's time to fit the skin into the hoop.","This is the tricky part, because the film must be perfectly level and centered.","Otherwise, when you tighten the skin to tune the drum, the short side would tighten before the rest, and that uneven tension would throw the tuning off.","So they do this critical assembly step on a specially designed table, placing the skins on circular vacuum fixtures that are perfectly level.","As suction holds each one steady, a robotic arm runs glue in the hoop's channel all the way around.","The glue drains downward through the tiny holes along the skin's perimeter, then dries, anchoring the skin securely in the hoop.","Some drumheads go on to get a textured coating.","By adding weight, the coating muffles the higher sound frequencies, enhancing the lower ones.","This produces a warmer, deeper tone.","It also produces that swooshing sound when jazz drummers play softly with brushes.","Once the coating dries, a pad-printing machine stamps on the company name.","Only about 30% of drumheads on the market are coated.","The rest are what's known as clear heads.","And that's how drumheads are made."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wood Windows","Woven Cashmere Fabric","Plastic Recycling Machines","Architectural Glass"]},"text":["When it comes to windows, there's a variety of materials to choose from.","Wood windows are typically the most expensive option, but they are also the most versatile.","They can be constructed in any style, stained any shade, or painted any color.","Wooden windows can be custom made to match the home's existing windows.","This style is called a traditional double hung.","Its upper and lower sections open independently of each other.","Manufacturers make windows from a variety of woods.","This company uses mahogany, a premium rot-resistant hardwood.","This computer-guided saw cuts pieces of wood to the required length.","The next machine, called the jointer, squares the edges and smoothes the surfaces.","Now, they mill each piece to the final shape.","A vacuum holds it steady while a computer-guided router works at it from all angles.","The router uses up to 33 different tools from its on-board magazine.","This piece will be part of a curved window.","One tool cuts the basic shape, another tool profiles, and the other bores holes for the dowels.","Twelve different tools later, this is the final shape.","An assembler pours glue in the holes...","Then inserts wood dowels.","Their unique shape allows the glue to surround the dowel, maximizing adhesion.","Using the dowels as a guide, he connects the two vertical pieces of the window, the rails, with the horizontal pieces, the stiles.","This forms the window's sash.","He clamps the sash in a hydraulic press.","It's calibrated to join the parts together with just the right amount of pressure.","He dries the glue with a radio-frequency heating device.","They return the piece to the computer-guided router for the final milling.","This sideways saw cuts a slot down each side for weather stripping.","For double hung windows, another tool cuts openings along the edge.","These openings will hold weighted cords that counterbalance the sash.","Then, they put the finished sash through a sanding machine.","The machine removes tool marks and preps the surface for a paint primer.","They install the muntins, short pieces inside the sash that form decorative squares.","First, the horizontal muntins, then the vertical ones.","Each square will contain its own pane of glass.","They sand the muntins by hand to smooth the surface for finishing.","Then, the sash is sprayed with a water-based primer.","Once the primer dries, the sash goes to the glazing department.","This is where they cut the glass panes to size.","Windows can have single, double, or triple panes, separated by an aluminum spacer bar.","This is a single-pane window.","The glazer applies a bead of caulk to the inner ledge of the sash...","Then sets the glass on it.","He secures the glass in place by one of two methods-- either by driving in tiny, flat nails called glazing points, or by caulking the perimeter and applying small moldings called glazing beads.","The glazing beads are fastened to the sash with small nails.","Once the glass is secure, the worker removes the excess caulk, cleans the glass, and inspects it for any marks or scratches.","The final step is to install the hardware.","It varies by window style.","A double-hung window has a bar lift on the bottom and a latch that locks together the two sashes.","You release the latch to open either one.","Once the sashes are installed, they can be painted to match any home's exterior.","The art of weaving has been around since the stone age.","Traditional weavers use techniques and designs that reflect their cultural origins.","Today's fashion industry has built on this tradition to produce fine wool garments.","Designers keep a record of the fabrics they have created over the years.","They pin samples in books based on quality, colors, and patterns for their customers to choose from.","This is what cashmere goat hair looks like when it arrives at the wool mill.","Short fibers, called flocks, go through a carding machine.","This machine opens up the fibers and mixes colors together.","The carding process removes impurities and reduces the fibers to a flat layer.","The machine combs and twists the layer of fiber in preparation for spinning.","The spinner separates the layer into threads and winds each one on bobbins of over 40 pounds.","An operator loads yarn into a dyeing machine.","The entire fiber-drying process takes about two hours for a reel this size.","Uncarded locks of hair called wool tops are used to make worsted yarn.","A worker feeds the ribbon-like thread into a blending machine.","The blending process merges twelve threads into one large strip.","The machine re-combs and twists the blended fibers, then spins them into a single strand.","The coning machine winds the single thread around a cone by pulling it through a tensioning device with a series of spindles underneath.","This machine can comb 20 pounds of wool in about one hour.","Another spinning machine slowly unwinds worsted-wool bobbins.","It accelerates as the threads run through a tensioning device and onto spindles.","Even though the machine processes dozens of bobbins simultaneously, this process will last several hours.","The set of threads that will make up the woven cloth is called the warp.","Hundreds of parallel threads wind up on this roll, called the warping machine.","These rolls can stretch several miles long.","The warp is now ready for weaving.","This shuttle loom holds the warp under tension while it interweaves the over and under threads using two sets of weaving needles.","This moving part, the beater, keeps the fabric under tension as it comes out of the loom and onto the cloth beam.","This rapier loom can weave fabrics four or five times faster than an automatic shuttle loom, and about 200 times faster than a hand-operated loom.","The completed fabric goes to quality control.","A worker performs a visual check, looking for any defects in the fabric.","If she finds a broken thread, she repairs it by hand.","Using a sewing needle, she replaces the broken thread with a new one.","Once the fabric passes quality control, it goes through a two-hour cleaning process.","Then, the cloth rolls through a steaming machine before accumulating at the end of the production line.","The finishing process for a woven cloth can take up to a week.","Designers study the fabrics and choose arrangements to make a collection.","They mark selected patterns with codes and cut out samples.","Then they make a sample booklet of their fabrics for customers to choose from.","The fabric collection changes twice a year, providing a wide variety of styles suited to the season.","Plastic is a convenient form of packaging, but can be harmful to the environment.","Most plastics don't decompose, so they litter the landscape forever.","Machines called granulators can help ease this pollution problem.","They grind the plastic waste into tiny chips that can then be recycled.","Granulators greatly reduce the amount of waste we humans produce.","Instead of throwing plastics like these milk crates away, they can be tossed in a granulator.","They chop the waste into little pieces, which can be used to make new plastic containers.","Making a granulator starts with star-shaped rotors that will hold and rotate the blades of the granulator.","A worker machines the center hole of the rotor so that it will fit a steel shaft.","Employees slide the shaft through the center of the rotor.","Multiple rotors are machined and installed on the steel shaft.","The rotors are spaced evenly apart.","A member of the team welds the rotors to the shaft.","These welds will stop the rotors from sliding out of position during grinding.","Next, steel blades are exposed to intense heat for 12 hours.","Once they're red hot, an employee plunges them into cooling oil.","This removes stresses and strengthens the metal.","Next, a grinding wheel refines the shape of the blade so it will fit nicely to the rotors.","It also hones the cutting edge until it's extremely sharp.","They transfer the rotor-and-shaft assembly to a metal cradle.","This rotor system is smaller than the one assembled earlier.","It also has triangular rotors designed to chop up plastic jugs.","A worker screws six blades to the rotors.","He then attaches four blades to the casing, placing them at different angles than the rotating blades.","Together, these blades will chop plastic very effectively.","But, the gap between the blades needs to be fine-tuned.","A worker adjusts the gap to the optimal width.","Now, it's over to the granulator's lower casing.","A rotating blade shaves the edges to specification.","The next worker spray paints the outer-casing parts.","This protects the steel from rust.","After the paint dries, they install the blade system in the outer casing and add a wire-mesh screen.","The screen acts as a sifter, allowing only plastic small enough for recycling to travel through the holes.","Now, the upper housing is lowered onto the blade unit.","A long hinge is added into the holes so the plastic granulator can be opened for maintenance.","They give the blade system a test spin, and it turns freely.","Another employee assembles a hopper for the granulator.","He drapes a steel curtain over the opening to keep in any flying plastic chips.","Using a crane, the team lowers the hopper onto the granulator.","They confirm that the two components are correctly aligned, and bolt them together.","Next, a 50 horsepower motor is installed below the blade shaft.","Then, they loop a pulley from a flywheel on the blade shaft to the motor.","Now, the workers cover the pulley system and motor with the steel housing.","Then, a drawer is installed to collect the plastic chips as they fall.","They're now ready to power up the granulator.","Every machine is tested before it leaves the factory to confirm that it's fully functional.","This plastic granulator is now ready to take on the growing problem of plastic waste.","Glass lends a sparkle to any interior.","From a bathroom sink to a staircase, architectural glass is both functional and artistic.","The glass can be either handmade or mechanically formed.","It's called architectural glass because an architect usually designs its aesthetic features and the objects the glass will be paired with.","This company fuses multiple sheets of glass, each about a quarter of an inch thick, to create a finished product of any thickness.","For example, this soon-to-be kitchen countertop uses 5 sheets of standard glass.","Grabbing one at a time with handled suction cups, they gently place it on a pneumatically operated cutting table.","They measure and cut the correct size using a square angle with a diamond tip blade.","Diamonds are the only material that can cut glass.","This kiln is a specialized oven for baking glass.","A craftsman sprinkles white powder onto the base of the kiln.","The powder will leave a texture in the sheet of glass.","Next, he sprinkles ground-up, colored glass across the glass sheet to give the kitchen countertop a unique color scheme.","They sandwich the glass with another sheet of glass, repeating this coloring process with each of the remaining layers.","Once the last sheet of glass is put in place, they clean the top surface.","Now, it's time to close the kiln and bake the glass.","Inside the kiln, the five layers fuse into one unit.","At another kiln, a stack of glass has been fused together and is ready for the next step.","Workers open the kiln and carefully transfer the newly formed glass countertop onto a rolling cart.","They take the counter to the polishing machine.","With stones and water, the machine grinds down the edges until the layering is no longer visible.","The finished glass countertop is strong enough to span over nine feet without structural support.","And because of the heating-and-cooling process, the glass is now scratch-proof and chip-resistant.","You can even chop food directly on the surface.","At a different kiln, they're making a sink.","First, they use a textured glass stamp to press a pattern in the powder.","Then, they place three layers of glass over the pattern, carefully aligning the edges.","After baking, the three layers are fused into one thick circle of glass.","The bottom of the glass has taken on the pattern of the powder, leaving a unique look.","This will be the outside surface of the sink.","They place the glass over a sink-shaped mold in a different type of kiln.","Over several hours, the glass melts into the sink-shaped mold.","Once the glass cools, they extract what is now a sink.","They carefully measure and mark where the drain hole goes, then they drill the hole with a diamond bit.","This generates a lot of heat, so they must continuously cool the bit with cold water.","Otherwise, the tool could overheat and jam.","The glass sink is finished.","They use the same technique to produce glass sinks in various colors and shapes.","Sometimes, these sinks are even integrated with glass countertops.","Countless other interior-design components can be made from architectural glass."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Graphene","World's Smallest Car","Force Testers","Composite Cans"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","In 2004, british scientists extracted a substance called graphene from graphite, which is the material used to make pencils.","They won the nobel prize for this discovery and left their mark on physics history.","Scientists continue to explore graphene's extraordinary potential.","These silicon chips are dyed with thin flecks of carbon, known as graphene.","Just one atom thick and transparent, graphene can sniff out chemicals in the air and disease enzymes in blood.","This lab manufactures graphene using a process known as chemical vapor deposition.","A technician loads a capsule containing a copper foil sheet into a furnace.","He screws a cap on the end of the capsule and shuts the furnace.","He activates a system that uses argon gas to drive out oxygen.","When the furnace reaches about 1,800 degrees fahrenheit, methane gas and hydrogen are added.","A reaction occurs that deposits graphene onto the foil.","Graphene can't be seen with the naked eye.","A technician applies tiny gold contacts to a silicon wafer and then submerges it in solvent to rinse off the excess gold.","The remaining gold bits serve as electrical contacts.","A dip in acetone cleans off more of the loose flakes, and a final rinse in alcohol removes the rest.","Using a diamond-tip scribe, he scores the silicon wafer and breaks it along the score lines, creating rectangular chips.","Another technician deposits liquid plastic onto the transparent graphene on the copper foil.","He locks the foil in a machine called a spin coater.","It spins at 3,000 r.p.m. this spreads the plastic evenly across the graphene film on the foil.","It also accelerates the plastic's curing process.","He then separates the plastic-coated graphene from the copper foil.","To do this, he clips a wire to set of tweezers.","Using the tweezers, he picks up a small piece of the plastic, graphene, and copper sandwich and plunges it in the water.","The tweezers apply an electrical charge through the copper, causing bubbles to form in the water.","These bubbles lift the graphene and plastic film away from the copper.","The graphene now clings only to the plastic backing.","He scoops the plastic-backed graphene square out of the water using a large piece of plastic.","To remove contaminants, he immerses the square in a series of solutions.","In the last solution, he slides the square off the carrier.","And the square floats freely.","He picks up the silicon chip with tweezers and uses it to retrieve the floating graphene and plastic square.","It now sits on the silicon chip.","After taping metal stencils over three of the graphene-covered chips, he suspends them above gold pellets in a machine known as the evaporator.","He closes the evaporator, then turns up the heat.","A vacuum pulls the gold toward the stencils as it evaporates.","The gold and exposed graphene adhere to one another as they cool and solidify.","The technician removes the stencils from the chips, revealing gold horizontal runners between the gold contacts.","He transfers the chip to a plasma etcher.","He activates the chip, and plasma gas floods the chamber.","The gas strips off any graphene that's not protected by gold.","Only the gold contacts and gold-covered graphene runners remain on the chip.","Solvent dissolves the plastic backing on the graphene runners, taking the protective gold with it, leaving only graphene.","The technician now has a graphene sensor chip.","It's time to test its sensory powers using antibodies for a certain disease protein.","The antibodies attach to the surface of the graphene.","She tests the signal from the chip to confirm that it reads the protein correctly.","This graphene chip is ready to act as a high-tech sixth sense.","The world's smallest car has held the guinness book of world records title for more than 50 years.","Designed and manufactured in the u.k., it's about 6 feet long and 3 feet wide.","It fits one driver but no passengers.","Intended as a commuter vehicle, the world's smallest car travels up to 40 miles per hour.","Technicians craft the body in molds section by section.","First, they spread an epoxy resin in the customer's color choice.","Once the resin cures, they lay a sheet of fiberglass matting and impregnate it with resin.","This bonds the matting to the gelcoat layer.","Narrower strips of matting are applied around the perimeter.","Certain areas are reinforced with a more porous fiberglass matting to absorb more resin.","Finally, a second layer of fiberglass matting and resin is set over the entire mold.","The molds cure for a day.","When they're ready, the body sections are extracted from their molds.","This is the main section.","The gelcoat forms a smooth and shiny finish on the sturdy fiberglass underneath.","Using a saw equipped with a small blade, technicians smooth the edges of the fiberglass.","Elsewhere in the factory, technicians weld together the car's lightweight aluminum gas tank.","It holds 1 gallon of gas.","They drill a hole through it...","Then weld on the filler tube and screw on the cap.","The car runs on three wheels-- two at the front and one driven by the engine at the back.","Technicians assemble the wheel hubs, then mount them onto the triangular suspension of the axle.","They flip over the steel chassis and install the disc brakes on each wheel.","On the rear wheel, they mount a sprocket, which allows the engine to drive a chain that rotates the wheel.","They connect the shock absorber on the rear wheel to a mount underneath the body and install hydraulic brake lines and brake calipers on all three wheels.","They bolt the wheels and tires onto the wheel hubs.","Each tire is about 6 inches in diameter.","After installing the one-cylinder engine in the middle of the body, technicians bolt on the chassis.","They connect the shock absorber on the rear wheel to a mount underneath the body.","They install all the electrical components, such as the headlight, the brake lights, the turn signals and the wiper.","The car can be ordered with an electric engine, in which case they install four 12-volt rechargeable batteries.","The car has a rack-and-pinion steering system.","The steering column is attached to a circular gear, called a pinion.","When the driver turns the steering wheel in one direction, the pinion moves in that direction along the rack.","The rack is a track with teeth, connected by rods to the front wheels.","It moves and turns the wheels, steering the car.","The vehicle is mechanically complete.","Now, they install the windshield and windows, sealing the aluminum frames with silicone.","Inside, they mount the steering wheel and the dashboard, which houses the speedometer, turn signal light, and high beams.","They hang the door, which has been fitted with chromed hinges and a handle.","The style is consistent with the 1960s design of the car.","They finish the job with the installation of a vinyl driver seat, gas tank, and windshield washer fluid reservoir.","The world's smallest car is ready to hit the road and make a big impression.","Force testers pull and compress products to their breaking point.","They're used in labs and factories to evaluate a product's quality.","A force tester verifies that an object meets the manufacturer's required specifications.","Force testers are built to pull and compress.","Here, a tester arm bears down on a pencil.","It determines how much force can be applied before the pencil bends or breaks.","Measurements are displayed on a screen.","In the 1930s, basic force gauges were attached to cranes to measure a product's strength.","Today's force testers are high-tech.","They have digital displays and computerized controls.","An assembler starts by screwing brackets into a steel base for the main computer board.","The computer board comes next.","He uses nuts, called standoffs, to raise it above the steel plate.","This creates an air space between the two, preventing electrical shorting.","Throughout the assembly, the technician wears an electrostatic discharge band on his wrist.","This arrests static electricity to prevent damage to the parts.","He screws the motor drive board to the force tester base and moves on to the next batch of parts.","They include the power supply board, a mechanism to turn the unit on, and an emergency stop assembly.","He routes the wires for the power switches and installs the push buttons.","He connects a ribbon cable to the main circuit board.","Then, he attaches the other end of the cable to the motor drive board.","This allows them to communicate.","Finally, he completes the power supply connections.","Another member of the team assembles a vertical support rail to an aluminum base.","This rail is the backbone of the tester.","It supports the force arm and the track it moves on.","He attaches the track to the support rail.","Using an alignment tool, he slides the shuttle into the grooves of the track, then confirms it moves freely.","He's ready to mount the force arm to the shuttle.","A long, threaded rod, known as a lead screw, is fastened to the force arm.","The lead screw rotates, allowing the force arm to move up and down.","He lowers an aluminum cover over the force arm assembly and secures it to the base.","One side of the casing is open.","He'll install an accordion-style rubber curtain to it later.","Next, he threads a rubber belt around a pulley, which is attached to the end of the lead screw.","He installs the motor and wraps the other end of the rubber belt around the motor pulley.","The motor drive assembly turns the lead screw to move the force arm.","The base is now mounted with the electronics to the force tester frame.","After connecting switches that limit the force arm's range of movement, he installs an encoder on the motor to provide feedback on speed and power.","The electronics are covered with a tough plastic casing.","Next up is a slotted table.","He clips a computer tablet to the tester.","An adjustable bracket is attached, which is used for changing the screen's position as desired.","A force tester doesn't just bear down on things.","It also pulls things apart.","A technician conducts a pull test on a piece of nylon cord.","He activates the force arm.","The force arm pulls the cord as it grips the base.","The tester measures the peak force required to pull the cord apart.","The results are displayed instantly on the control screen.","There are different force testers for different applications.","But the purpose is always the same-- pull and compress objects in order to test their limits.","One of the ways a manufacturer can package a product is in a composite can.","It's a cylindrical container made of cardboard with a moisture barrier lining.","Composite cans are less expensive to produce than glass or metal containers.","And they're recyclable.","Many products are packaged in composite cans, everything from automotive grease to parmesan cheese.","The cans are cardboard with an interior lining that prevents it from absorbing moisture.","The top can be a sifter, a pull-tab cap, a ring and plug, or peel-off foil.","To make composite cans, they begin winding a strip of thin paper over a long steel rod, called a mandrel.","The machine applies glue to the top of the strip.","Simultaneously, two strips of cardboard wind off rolls and pass over a glue applicator, which coats their underside with adhesive.","Then these overlapping twin strips wind around the coated paper-wrapped mandrel.","The adhesive binds the layers, producing a two-ply cardboard tube with an interior moistureproof lining.","The machine pushes the tube off the mandrel to an automated circular saw.","The saw cuts the tube into shorter pieces.","They fall into a bin, which feeds the labeling machine.","Suction cups pick up the sheet of labels and run it over a glue roller.","It applies adhesive to the back side.","A vacuum carpet carries the label onto another set of mandrels.","The machine slips the tube onto the mandrel, then wraps the label around the tube.","Next, knives cut the spinning tube into seven cans.","The can-making line has been slowed by our camera.","At the regular output speed of 250 cans per minute, all you'd see is a blur.","A pusher moves the cans toward a device called an upender, which stands each can upright.","The cans then spin through a gluer, which applies a bead of adhesive along the top rim.","Meanwhile, another station lines up the closures in single file.","These cans are for parmesan cheese, so the tops are plastic sifters.","They go one by one onto a carousel.","The tops align with cans on another carousel with perfect timing.","A plunger pushes the top about a 1/2 inch into the glued rim of the can.","As the cans exit the machine, a conveyer turns them upside down.","The cans reach the end of the line, where workers stack them on shipping pallets.","The parmesan cheese producer will receive them like this-- open end up, ready for filling.","To make the metal bottom for the can, a punch press stamps circles out of a strip of tin that's been coated with a food-safe lacquer.","The gold-colored coating prevents the tin from rusting when it comes into contact with the moisture in the cheese.","The next machine uses forming rollers to shape the rim that will grip the can.","This production line is making composite cans for grease cartridges.","Mechanics use them in a device similar to a caulking gun.","For this product, the cardboard tube has a plastic-coated liner.","The liner is heat-sealed to the cardboard to prevent grease from leaking out.","The closure is a rigid aluminum top that you remove with a pull tab.","This machine, called a seamer, crimps the metal edge tightly around the can's rim.","As the cans exit the machine, a computer takes measurements of each top.","If it doesn't meet specifications, the machine ejects the can from the line.","The cans that pass inspection continue on to the packaging area, where an employee does one last visual inspection before shipping to the grease manufacturer.","Once a composite can is empty, the cardboard can be separated from the metal and tossed into a recycling bin."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Potash","Leather Bracelets","Wild Rice","Hex Key L Wrenches"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\": potash, leather bracelets, wild rice and hex key l-wrenches.","Potash is used primarily as an agricultural fertilizer.","It's extracted from underground by either conventional mining or by injecting hot brine into the formation to dissolve potash in salt crystals.","It then pumps the solution back up and separates out the potash in settling ponds.","Potash is potassium chloride, the chemical compound kcl.","It can be processed into a granular agricultural fertilizer or into a higher grade product for industrial use.","At this canadian potash mine, the deposit lies just over a half a mile underground.","The ore is comprised of three materials: kcl, clay and sodium chloride, the chemical compound nacl, better known as table salt.","The big machine manufacturers use to cut the face of the rock is called a continuous miner.","It has two rotors, each with three arms.","Each arm has six pairs of bits with carbide tips that grind the face of the rock, flaking off the ore.","The rotor arms sweep the ore into the machine, which feeds it off the back onto bridge conveyors, a series of conveyor belts that lead to a main conveyor belt.","Miners fasten sheets of polymer to the rock above to erect walls which direct the flow of fresh air that's pumped down into the mine for ventilation.","The bridge conveyors transfer the ore to a main conveyor.","At this particular potash mine, up to 10 machines work simultaneously at different locations.","All those main conveyors, nearly 22 miles of moving belts, converge at the skip, a gigantic elevator bucket which hoists up to 49 tons of ore at a time to the surface and dumps it into a storage bin.","A conveyor transfers the ore to the mill for processing.","First the ore tumbles down a series of vibrating screens.","Smaller particles drop through the openings and move on to the next station while larger particles stay on top where they are whisked off with the flow of brine into a crusher.","The finer particles flow to the fine flotation tank while the larger ones sink to the bottom, drain out, then travel to the course flotation tank.","The particles are treated with chemicals.","Over the course of five minutes in flotation, the chemical treatment makes the kcl particles attach to air bubbles and rise to the surface.","In the course flotation tank paddles skim the surface, pushing the floating kcl into a collector.","The clay and nacl particles drain out the other end.","Similarly in the fine flotation unit, the kcl particles attach to air bubbles and rise to the top where they overflow into a collector.","The collected potash then goes through a centrifuge and a dryer to remove all the moisture.","The dryer feeds this vibrating screening machine, which separates the kcl particles into three categories.","Oversized particles go back to the crusher.","Undersized particles go to machines which compact them into boards then break the boards into new particles which then go back to the vibrating machine for another round of screening.","The final product size particles go directly to the shipping warehouse.","This granular potash is the type used as agricultural fertilizer.","It's kcl concentration is 95 percent because there's some residual clay and nacl.","Technicians regularly test product samples to verify the kcl content.","They grind each sample into a find powder and compress it inside a stainless steel cap to form a pellet.","Then the workers load the pellet into an x-ray fluorescence analyzer.","The pelletized sample absorbs that energy then releases energy as fluorescent radiation.","The analyzer measures the fluorescent radiation to determine the sample's concentration of kcl.","The mill also processes potash for industrial use.","This higher grade potash with a kcl concentration of 99 percent is a white powder manufacturers make it by dissolving the 95 percent kcl granular potash in hot brine to remove more of the residual nacl and clay.","Then workers crystallize the potash by evaporation and cooling.","The result, potash that's almost pure kcl.","Handcrafted leather bracelets are an unconventional jewelry choice.","Traditional bracelets are chains or bangles made of metal or stones.","But these fit like a cuff and are eclectic in design.","Each one is an original.","So the wearer can express individuality.","Handcrafted leather bracelets are substantial pieces designed to draw attention to the wrist.","They can also complement an outfit in a big way.","Making one starts with a strip of stainless steel that will serve as the bracelet's base.","The artisan bends it by hand into a round shape.","Using pliers she closes the gap a little more.","This bracelet is meant to be large, so the loose fit seems right.","She sorts through a collection of leather pieces and ideas for the design begin to take shape.","She selects a piece to cover the inside of the bracelet.","She draws an outline of the bracelet on paper to create a pattern and she cuts it out.","She sticks the pattern to the leather.","Using a utility knife, she follows the pattern to cut the shape in leather.","The edge of a triangular ruler serves as a guide for a straight cut.","She peels the cut leather away from the paper pattern and applies a textile adhesive to the back of the leather.","She curls the leather and inserts it, glued side down, into the steel bracelet form.","She applies pressure for a strong adhesion.","For the bracelet's outer materials there are many colorful options, from dyed exotic leathers to luminous semi-precious stones.","She sorts through the different leathers and stones, looking for inspiration.","She selects a quartz stone and a piece of fish scale leather.","Once tanned, fish skins can be surprisingly tough.","She cuts the fish leather to size using a paper template of the front of the steel bracelet base.","She wraps it around the bracelet band to check the fit.","She applies glue to the back of the quartz and then positions the stone in the center of the leather.","The glue tacks it in place while she now stitches a beaded surround to permanently secure the stone to the leather.","She selects special beading needles for this.","The heads of these needles are tiny enough to pass through the mini beads.","She'll use beading cord made of a tough polyethylene to string and stitch the beads.","For the first three rows she uses silver beads that are two millimeters in diameter.","She pulls the beading snug to the quartz stone as she stitches the beads to the fish leather.","In addition to securing the stone, the beaded surround also serves as an embellishment to it's beauty.","She completes the three rows of silver beads and switches to glass beads.","At 1.7 millimeters diameter, they're a little smaller and trickier to work with.","She pulls the thread through the eyelets of the beads a total of for times to form a tight pouch around the perimeter of the stone.","She now applies strong glue to the steel exterior of the bracelet base.","And it's time for the next decorative elements, black lace.","She glues the lace to the base so that the flowery border overhangs.","She now spreads glue onto the back of the fish leather.","She wraps the leather around the lace-covered base and presses it firmly to it.","She then stitches silver beads around the edges to join the leathers and encase the steel base.","The beaded stitching matches the quartz stone surround for another decorative touch.","This handcrafted leather bracelet is now complete and ready to add something completely different to someone's jewelry collection.","Wild rice is the grain harvested from four species of aquatic grasses that grow in many freshwater lakes in northern united states and canada.","Historically, indigenous people harvested this plentiful and nutritious food which they considered to be a sacred gift.","Wild rice was a vital food source for thousands of years.","It also became a valuable commodity, which indigenous people exchanged with fur traders who traveled the territory by canoe and needed portable, nutritious food that didn't spoil.","Beds of wild rice plants still grow today in the shallow areas of rivers and lakes.","People still harvest the rice by traditional means, in a canoe using two cedar flails and winnowing baskets.","The baskets are made from bark pieces laced together with dried roots of black spruce trees.","Harvest time is usually in early september, once the plants are protruding from the water at least half a yard or so.","Paddling through the rice beds would uproot the plants so one person propels the boat with a forked pole while the other gently bends the plants over the canoe with one flail and gently knocks off the mature kernels with the other.","The harvested kernels pile up at the bottom of the canoe.","Harvesting wild rice is a delicate operation.","You have to knock just hard enough to dislodge the kernels, yet not break the plant stalks.","Each kernel is comprised of a fibrous hull encasing a rice grain.","Back on land, harvesters transport the harvested kernels by a winnowing basked or a grain sack.","The harvesters dump them onto either birch bark sheets, a tarp, or smooth bedrock then spread them out to cure in the sun.","Sun curing takes anywhere from several hours to several days depending on the weather.","The next step is to parch the kernels over an open fire.","This evaporates addition moisture, enabling the rice to be stored indefinitely without spoiling.","It also gives the rice a roasted nutty flavor.","For centuries indigenous people parched the kernels on a woven willow rack above the fire, letting the rising heat and smoke permeate the rice.","Once the trade began with the europeans, the indigenous people began using cast iron kettles set directly on the flames.","Fresh rice grains are green and flexible.","After parching they're brown or black and snap cleanly into two when bent.","Next comes threshing, removing the grains from the hulls.","Harvesters cool the kernels in the basket, then pour them back into the parching pot.","Before acquiring cast iron implements, indigenous people would pour their kernels in a hole in the ground lined with wood or animal hide.","Threshing doesn't require any special handcrafted tools, just a pair of feet.","The pressure of each step forces the rice grains out of their hulls.","This is what the rice looks like before threshing and after.","The last step is winnowing, separating the rice grains from the now-empty hulls.","There are two traditional techniques: repeatedly flipping the rice in a single winnowing basket like this or pouring it from one basket to another.","The movement creates wind that blows away the feather-light hulls.","Eventually only the rice grains remain in the basket.","Today, instead of deerskin pouches, harvesters store wild rice in containers or plastic bags.","The grains range in color depending on the body of water from which they were harvested and how long after harvesting the grains were parched.","Wild rice is high in protein in fiber, low in calories in fat, contains all essential amino acids and is rich in b vitamins, potassium and phosphorous.","Hex key l-wrenches are designed to turn screws and bolts that would otherwise be tricky to reach.","They have ball-shaped hexagonal heads that take an angled approach to installing threaded fasteners.","The long arms of these l-shaped wrenches also extend the user's reach into tight spots.","Hex key l-wrenches often come in sets to provide tools for almost every job, big or small.","Making these wrenches starts with 13-foot long steel bars formed to a hexagonal profile.","A technician tests the short piece to confirm it could be bent without breaking.","The steel must be hard, yet elastic.","A diamond-tipped tool presses into another piece.","The depth of the indentation is a measure of the steel's hardness.","After the steel passes all tests, workers slice the just over 13-foot long bars into smaller lengths using a die cutter with a hexagonal profile to prevent any distortion of the shape.","Each steel piece then spins in a lathe as a computerized tool carves a gentle slope into the end.","This is before and after the contouring.","A second computerized tool shapes the end rounder to create a sphere shape that retains the hexagonal angles.","An automated loader serves up the steel pieces to a spiral copper heating element.","The element heats a specific spot on the piece to 1,112 degrees fahrenheit to soften it.","A mechanized tool then bends the steel at this softened point to give it an l shape.","The hex key l-wrenches have now taken shape.","In the next operation, workers heat treat the wrenches to make the steel even harder.","Workers fire the parts in an electrical furnace, quench them in oil and then heat them in a second furnace that's not as hot as the first one.","The heat treatment strengthens the steel but leaves a residue.","A wash and then a sand blast cleans them up a bit, but the wrenches are quite tarnished looking so it's into a vibrating machine with ceramic stones and polishing solution.","This cleans and brightens the steel.","A magnetic conveyor extracts them from the mix and takes them to a revolving drum.","Here the wrenches bounce around with corn grains that absorb residual moisture from the polishing.","What a difference the cleaning has made.","On racks now, the wrenches take a dip in different nickel and chrome baths.","The rack delivers an electrical charge to the parts, which attracts the nickel and chrome.","The metals coat the wrenches for a shiny rust-proof finish.","Next a device spins the wrench in front of a sensor.","The sensor detects and crookedness in the wrench's long arm.","If needed, he straightens the steel with a special tool.","The wrenches are now ready for a spray of powder coat.","It will provide a durable finish and the color will indicate the wrench's size.","After powder coating a robot transfers the wrenches to a printing station.","A mechanized tool nudges the wrenches forward to put them in alignment.","Another robot moves in.","It picks one of the wrenches and moves it under a printing pad.","The pad stamps brand information and a serial number on the wrench.","The robot retrieves the wrench and places i on a conveyor.","They now make the plastic holders for the wrenches.","This machine melts and molds plastic under pressure to produce them in seconds.","A robot removes the plastic holders from the machine and deposits them in a bin.","A worker now places two of the holders under a laser.","He lowers the protective shield and the laser etches company information onto the plastic.","Another member of the team inserts the color-coded wrenches into the correct slots in the holders.","They now have a full kit of hex key l-wrenches.","It should have all the angles covered."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Aluminum Pots and Pans","Artificial Limbs","Peanut Butter","High"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Aluminum pots and pans, artificial limbs, peanut butter, and high-intensity light bulbs.","There are several different ways to manufacture aluminum pots and pans.","Some factories have giant machines that simply stamp out or mold the cookware, while other factories use a technique called metal spinning.","To make cookware that's safe for food use, the aluminum must be pure--  no other metals mixed in.","It all starts with a round aluminum sheet called a blank.","They stamp the pot size and the company name on what will be the bottom of the pot.","They clamp it onto a lathe, centered against what's called the chuck-- a metal mold shaped like the inside of the pot they're going to spin.","The lathe spins at 2,000 revolutions per minute.","Guided by computer software, the spinning tool-- a round wheel made of special plastic-- pushes against the chuck, stretching and shaping the aluminum blank much the way potters stretch and shape clay against their hand on a pottery wheel...","Except that metal spinning works sideways, not up and down like pottery.","The machine trims off excess aluminum as it rounds the edges.","The factory has no use for these very sharp metal leftovers, but it doesn't throw them out.","Aluminum is difficult to mine and, therefore, very expensive, so scrap aluminum is sent off to be recycled into other products.","After the final trim to the finished size, another trimmer moves in to take the sharpness off the edge.","It's taken 4 minutes to spin this 8 1/2-gallon pot.","Now it comes off the lathe.","They punch out handle holes...","Then rivet on aluminum handles.","The pot is now finished.","Items that aren't as large and heavy are spun on a hand lathe.","This is where you need an experienced metal spinner because this trade isn't a mechanical science.","You've got to have a feel for it.","Besides cookware, many other aluminum products are spun on a lathe.","This is a light reflector-- that round aluminum fixture that covers light bulbs in factories, stores, and arenas.","When working the hand lathe, the metal spinner uses what's called a scissor tool.","It's the equivalent of the plastic wheel on the automated lathe.","As the blank spins, he moves his tool further and further down to stretch the aluminum into the right shape.","This is a sausage funnel.","And this will be the inside tube of a cake pan.","He makes the body of the cake pan on a different lathe using a variety of tools to get a variety of effects.","This beading tool creates an edge, for example.","Almost all metals can be spun, though some are better suited for the technique than others.","Aluminum and steel are very formable metals, so they provide the best results.","Can a baking ingredient be the answer to global warming?","Researchers have found a way to transform harmful carbon dioxide into harmless sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda.","They mix co2 with water then force it through plastic balls treated with an enzyme from alfalfa.","Today's artificial limbs are a far cry from the wooden leg of yesteryear.","They look very realistic.","And thanks to advances in prosthetic technology, artificial limbs function more and more like the real thing.","They start by measuring the amputee's stump-- what doctors call the residual limb.","First, they measure the circumference at different points...","Then the diameter at different points.","They protect and lubricate the residual limb by coating it in petroleum jelly.","Then they immerse it in algin, a gelatinlike substance that comes from algae.","After about 5 minutes, they remove the residual limb.","The algin has already begun to stiffen and maintain the limb's shape.","A couple of hours later, it's stiff enough to be used as a negative mold.","They pour in plaster of paris then insert a metal rod.","The rod is what will later allow them to mount the dried plaster to work on it further.","The plaster takes about an hour and a half to harden.","They cut off the algin.","Then, using sandpaper and files, they refine and smooth the surface.","This plaster copy of the residual limb will now be used as a positive mold to cast the artificial limb.","Sometimes they use a different technique to make the positive mold.","They build a negative mold using strips of plasterized cloth, much the same way they make a plaster cast when you break your leg.","Then a scanner takes a detailed 3-dimensional reading and programs it into a computer.","A technician then makes any necessary modifications.","They put a plaster block on a cutting machine.","The computer guides the blade to carve out the positive mold.","With either technique, once the positive mold is ready, they can make the artificial limb.","The process they use is called lamination.","First, they cover the mold in fabric socks-- some made of nylon, others of a material that contains fiberglass.","They layer 6 to 10 socks in all, depending on how rigid they want the artificial limb to be.","Then they coat the socks with a liquid resin made of either polyester or acrylic.","Here they're using acrylic tinted to look like caucasian skin.","It's important to ensure the surface is evenly soaked.","It's a meticulous process that takes about an hour.","The acrylic solidifies in about an hour.","Polyester takes about 12 hours.","They then break the plaster mold inside, leaving a durable plastic shell called a socket.","That will be the basis of the artificial limb.","The socket connects to another plastic shell containing the mechanics, or, like this artificial leg, the mechanism can be modular and covered in just a skin-colored foam.","If the muscle at the site of the amputation still emits a good electrical signal when contracted, the patient can get a myoelectric prosthesis.","It has an electrode that captures and amplifies the signal, triggering the artificial hand to open and close.","As early as the 1400s, africans made peanut stews.","Peanut butter, as we know it today, was invented in 1890 by an american doctor.","He used it as a protein substitute for people whose teeth were so bad they couldn't chew meat.","The best peanuts for making peanut butter are runner peanuts.","Because they're uniform in size, they roast more evenly than peanuts that vary in size.","They arrive at the peanut-butter factory already shelled.","To make an 18-ounce jar of peanut butter, it takes 20 ounces of peanuts.","That's about 1,100 peanuts.","The first step is to roast them.","The nuts travel through a hot-air roaster heated to 399 degrees fahrenheit.","The shaking motion moves them around so they roast evenly.","Almost 4 tons of peanuts go through this roaster per hour.","When they come out, they've turned from white to light brown.","Next, they go into another machine, which fast-cools them at room temperature using suction fans that circulate air quickly.","This rapid-cooling process is critical.","It halts the cooking and prevents the peanuts from losing too much oil.","Next, the peanuts go through a machine called the blancher.","It removes the outer skins by rubbing them between rubber belts.","Then it splits the kernels and removes the heart of the peanut, which has a slightly bitter taste.","But what's discarded doesn't go to waste.","The skins go to farmers for pig feed, and the hearts go into bird feed.","The peanuts land in a big stainless-steel hopper.","From there, they drop down into the grinder to be ground into a paste.","At this point, the other ingredients go in-- salt, sugar or another natural sweetener, and a small amount of hydrogenated vegetable oil, which acts as a stabilizer to keep the peanut oil from separating and floating to the top of the jar.","Peanut butter contains no artificial coloring or artificial sweeteners.","It has no preservatives either, yet doesn't need to be refrigerated.","The peanut butter is finally ready.","All that mixing has heated it up to 140 degrees fahrenheit.","It goes through a cooling system to bring it down to 100 degrees.","Now it can go into jars.","Peanut butter is a healthy, protein-rich food with plenty of vitamins, minerals, and fiber.","It has no cholesterol, but it does contain fat.","The good news is that more than 80% of that fat is unsaturated-- in other words, good fat that may actually help lower certain cholesterol levels in the blood.","The bad news is that the rest of the fat content is trans fat, or bad fat.","It comes not from the peanuts themselves but from the hydrogenated vegetable oil that's used as the stabilizer to keep the peanut oil from separating.","If you want to avoid that, you can eat all-natural peanut butter, which doesn't contain a stabilizer.","You'll just have to stir the peanut oil that collects at the top of the jar.","Once the jars are filled with peanut butter, they go through the capping machine.","The caps have an aluminum seal inside.","As the caps pass through a heat machine, the seal drops down and adheres to the top of the jar, creating an airtight seal.","A machine prints the production date and the expiration date.","These unopened jars of peanut butter will stay fresh for one whole year.","A household light bulb creates light through a metal filament.","A high-intensity industrial light bulb uses not only a metal filament but also coils, electrodes, and mercury vapor.","It's more durable but needs a cooldown period before relighting.","In 1809, a british chemist invented electric light.","Over the next few decades, other inventors produced electric lamps and bulbs, but the light didn't last very long.","The big breakthrough came in 1879, when thomas edison invented a carbon filament that burned for 40 hours.","Then, just a year later, he produced a bulb that burned for more than 1,200 hours.","That finally made electric lighting feasible.","They start by making the coil support.","Later, they'll thread the filament through the support.","They take a glass rod about a half an inch long and heat it up enough to insert a pin just 1/1,000 inch thick.","The pin is made of tungsten, a hard metal that won't melt under high heat.","The rod and pin go into a machine that heats the glass and pressures it into a mushroom shape.","They insert 3 or 6 wires just .","0005 inches thick, depending on the model of light bulb.","They cut the wires to the required length, which also depends on the model.","Then they curl the ends into little circles.","The coil support is finished.","Next, they build the mount onto which several other parts will be assembled.","They weld on the arc tube-- a quartz tube containing a coil, electrodes, gas, and mercury.","Next, they weld on the bimetal switch, which cuts the current to the coil and the arc tube.","Then they weld on the coil support they prepared earlier.","They bend the coil support down to receive the filament, which is made of tungsten.","Now they weld one end of the filament to the mount and feed the other end through the little circles of the coil support...","Then weld it to the other side of the mount.","The mount is now fully assembled.","Next, they apply a specific amount of pressure to the bimetal switch to calibrate it.","They submerge the finished mount in alcohol to remove any dust or other contaminants.","They let it dry for 10 minutes then apply a liquid called zirconium getter.","This draws moisture away from the filament.","It's finally time to put the mount in the glass bulb.","The sealing machine cuts off excess glass from the bottom then melts what's left until it attaches to the mount.","How will this light bulb work?","The electric current travels through the filament to the coil inside the arc tube.","The coil warms gases, which then vaporize the small amount of mercury.","The mercury vapor then conducts the current from one electrode to another, creating light.","The bulbs are made into different shapes and sizes.","A machine blows air in the hot glass while a mold creates the form.","A special flame lets the glass cool slowly so it won't become brittle from the stress.","They print the wattage and voltage on the bulbs, then run them through an oven at 932 degrees fahrenheit to draw out any humidity or impurities that may be caught inside.","Then they go through what's called the tipping torch.","It seals in nitrogen gas, which prevents the filament from overheating.","Now the bulb is ready for its first test-- a 10-minute burn to make sure it operates properly and there's no air inside.","Finally, it's time to attach the socket.","They apply cement on the base then hook up the bulb.","The bulb passes through a flame that cures the cement.","The next machine cleans the socket with acid...","So it can be soldered at two points.","The finished bulbs are put aside for 48 hours then retested before being shipped out."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Oil Pressure Sensors","Large Format Printing","Heavy Equipment Simulators","Head & Neck Restraints"]},"text":["In motor vehicles, an oil pressure sensor is a critical part of the engine.","As oil lubricates, cools and cleans the motor, this sensor constantly measures the pressure and signals a problem before it causes serious damage to the engine.","Screwed to the engine block and connected to the car's computer, the sensor can detect the smallest change in oil pressure.","The computer relays the information to the gauge on the dashboard.","It allows the driver to tell at a glance if there's a pressure problem under the hood.","To manufacture motor oil sensors, a robot picks up a perforated ceramic board and transfers it to a carriage.","The carriage shuttles the board into a screen printing machine.","It squeegees palladium silver paste onto it, creating a pattern for a sensor around each of the holes.","The silver will serve as an electrical conductor.","A trip through a long oven bakes the silver paste onto the ceramic.","Then it's back to the screen printing machine.","This time, the squeegee applies a green glass glaze onto the silver.","The pattern leaves some of the silver exposed for the attachment of components like capacitors and diodes.","A robot then applies those components faster than you can blink an eye.","The next robot transfers terminals to the sensors.","To align the prongs of the terminal with exposed silver on the sensor, the robot takes a picture and sends it to the computer.","The computer then guides the positioning.","It all happens in a flash.","Once the terminal has been soldered to the sensor, another robot dispenses adhesive around the components.","This seals the circuitry from the oil that will flow through the center hole.","The next robot places a silicon chip on the sensor, covering and sealing the center hole.","This chip will react to changes in oil pressure.","Another robot bonds the silicon chip to the circuitry using aluminum wire that's thinner than a human hair.","This completes the electrical connection.","An employee now inserts the ends of the sensors in a fixture and breaks them along score lines.","This separates them into strips of five.","She transfers the strip to a machine that bends the terminals to a precise shape.","She snaps the ceramic along more score lines to separate the strips of five into single sensors.","Next, she connects the terminals to posts in plastic housing.","After soldering them in place, she folds the rest of the sensor over them.","She then places brass shells in a carrier.","She inserts two rubber o rings in the shells-- a large one and a smaller one around the center hole.","The robots take it from here.","The first one picks up the sensor assembly, and using a camera as a guide, transfers it to the brass shell.","Then it's over to a press and crimp station.","The top tool applies pressure to compress the o rings as forming tools crimp the shell around the sensor.","An applicator coats the threads of the brass shell with sealant.","When dry, this sealant will enhance the sensor's fit to the engine to prevent oil leakage.","A test hit probes each sensor, performing a full electrical evaluation.","It also applies air pressure to test for leaks.","After passing the test, the oil sensor is complete.","Businesses looking to advertise will often commission a printing company to produce a large poster or banner.","The quality of large format printing is better than ever thanks to digital technology.","Commercial equipment can typically print a banner up to 16 feet high by 150 feet wide.","If the required size is larger, it's printed in sections, then joined together.","A prepress technician preps the clients' design for printing-- adjusting colors, sectioning, and adding a bleed.","This is a blind border around the design because the machines can't print all the way to the edge.","Then it's time to load a roll-to-roll printing machine with weather resistant vinyl mesh.","They feed the leading edge of the roll into the machine and pull it through the output end.","This aligns the vinyl so that the printing won't come out crooked.","They slip a cardboard tube over the roller which will receive the printed vinyl and tape on the leading edge.","If this job required printing on a ridged material, they'd be using a flatbed printer rather than the roll-to-roll.","Both machines print with ink-jet technology, similar to a home computer printer.","However, rather than using dye-based inks, they're typically solvent-based.","They're designed to withstand outdoor conditions for three to five years.","The machine uses the standard ink-jet colors-- black, yellow, cyan, and magenta.","It also includes light cyan and light magenta to provide additional shade variations.","The machine has 12 print heads, 2 per color.","Each head has 256 nozzles.","Once daily, they're put through a full cleaning procedure to prevent clogging.","The print head moves back and forth across the vinyl.","The computer guides the individual nozzles to deposit dots of ink at specific spots.","All those colored dots together form the printed design.","The first 6 inches the machine prints are a color bar test to make sure that every nozzle is working properly.","The printing of the actual design follows.","The printed vinyl banner exits the machine and winds around the receiving roller.","Then they mount the roll onto another machine, which trims off the excess vinyl and the bleed with rotary blades.","When the banner is compromised of sections, workers connect them.","First they align the edges, then they bond the joint temporarily with masking tape.","They flick a switch to project laser lines, which indicate the width and center of the weld.","The weld will permanently connect the sections on the reverse side.","Turning the banner facedown, workers align the joint with the center line.","A magnetic strip secures the banner to the table to prevent it from shifting, and a vacuum pulls the banner taut.","At the same time, a hot air welder fuses the joint with heat-activated adhesive tape.","Then they flip the banner faceup again and remove the temporary tape.","The last step is to reinforce the perimeter with webbing-- the material used for seat belts.","This gives the banner a nice finished edge.","It also creates a strong border in which to secure grommets for hanging the banner.","Workers apply the grommets manually with a pneumatic press.","A banner typically has a grommet every 24 inches, plus 3 in each corner.","To hang the banner, you run bungee cords through the grommets, pull taut, then hook the ends to plates affixed to the building facade.","A few screws for reinforcement, and you're done.","Wind passes right through the tiny holes of the vinyl mesh so the banner doesn't billow.","When you're learning how to operate heavy equipment, one wrong move can cause damage or injuries.","That's why it's becoming more common to train on a simulator, which can replicate real-life scenarios from typical maneuvers to emergency situations.","Whether learning to operate a crane, backhoe, or excavator, it's safer for a trainee to make rookie mistakes at a virtual work site.","The instructor simply installs heavy equipment controls and loads the appropriate software.","Then the simulator is all set to replicate how the equipment maneuvers.","A heavy equipment simulator begins life as a series of 3-d technical drawings.","Mechanical engineering technicians plug in the details of the customer's order, including foot pedals and joysticks to control the equipment's various movements.","Then assembly can begin.","Following the plans, technicians build the steel motion platform which replicates the movement of the cab.","Its base has wheels for rolling the simulator from one location to another.","This drive controls the three actuators which raise, lower, and tilt the platform.","Once the technicians have installed and wired up all three actuators, they install the platform cover.","Next, they mount the height-adjustable seat.","At its base, enclosed in a bellow, is a pneumatic suspension system.","This enables the seat to realistically bounce or jerk in response to the action being simulated.","Meanwhile, another technician assembles the simulator's control box.","He mounts the joystick controller and connects its wiring to a cable inside.","The cable leads to a connector on the base of the box.","That connector simply plugs into the motion platform right next to the operator's seat.","The box attaches securely with large screw knobs, making it easy to disconnect and switch to different kinds of simulations.","The foot pedals are mounted to a separate platform.","Technicians attach it to the motion platform with two screws.","Like the control box, the idea is to be able to switch this pedal platform easily for a different one.","The simulator's cab is now fully assembled and it moves just like a real one.","The virtual view from the cab, spans five l.c.d. screens to give the trainee a realistic perspective of the work site.","After installing the screen supports, workers mount the screens.","The configuration mimics the window layout of the typical cab.","The simulation runs on software that's designed in-house.","However, the client can further customize the program for a specific make and model of heavy equipment or to simulate specific scenarios that might arise on a particular work site.","The simulator has five different computers.","Three of them run the seat movement, the screens, and a small touch screen to the trainee's right.","That screen displays the buttons, knobs, and levers of the heavy equipment's dashboard.","The fourth computer calculates the physics of the simulated environment such as the excavator's digging movement and the corresponding soil movement.","The fifth computer manages the training scenarios.","For instance, an instructor can program adverse weather conditions to make the exercise more difficult.","To simulate a different piece of equipment, the instructor simply switches the joystick and pedals if necessary and loads the appropriate software.","In the simulator, the trainee has the same perspective he or she would have in the real-life cab.","Three reflective markers on the helmet enable an infrared camera mounted above the screens to track the trainee's head movements.","This prompts the software to display the corresponding view.","Tragedy on the racetrack led to the development of the head and neck restraint in the 1980s.","Investigations had revealed a deadly trend in motor sports.","With the driver's body restrained, the head moved violently in a crash, causing fracture to the base of the skull.","Clearly, more restraint was needed.","Attached to a helmet, a head and neck restraint is designed to save the racer's skull.","It has become required equipment in many racing organizations.","To make these restraints, they mix plastic and carbon fiber pellets.","The carbon fiber fortifies the plastic, which is made from castor bean oil instead of petroleum products.","A machine melts the mixture and injects it into a mold under pressure to produce the base structure for the restraint.","The operator breaks off what's known as the sprue-- plastic that's solidified in the channels leading to the mold.","He trims the plastic and carbon fiber overflow from around the edges.","This overflow is known in the industry as \"flash\".","He hangs the parts to cure over a 24-hour period.","The next day, the employee clamps the part in a jig and activates computerized tools.","The first one drills holes for tethering restraint to the helmet.","Another trims it to its final size.","An automated hot knife now cuts nylon tether material to the correct length.","Then it's over to a computerized sewing machine to stitch the tether around a chrome fitting.","The stitching pattern has been designed by an engineer to withstand the force of impact.","The operator then stitches on a label, which says the tether's design has been sanctioned by both american and european racing organizations.","Next, using a dye powered by bursts of air, a worker punches out shoulder pads from cushion foam.","The next member of the team slides the shoulder pads into casings made of fire-resistant cotton.","It's a snug fit, and without a special installation tool, the job wouldn't go smoothly.","By folding the pad into the tool and then inserting it into the long case, there are no bunch ups.","Some head and neck restraints are adjustable so drivers can find a more comfortable fit.","They assemble those restraints in three pieces with the adjustable fittings in the joints.","The employee then paints adhesive primer onto the base structure of the head and neck restraint.","He coats most of the plastic and carbon fiber surface with it.","He applies neoprene padding to the primed surface.","The padding is adhesive backed and it bonds instantly.","He attaches the tether to the back of the restraint with plastic clips and screws.","Using hook and loop tape, he secures the shoulder pads to the other side of the restraint's yoke.","Another worker applies more certification labels.","They signify that the actual structure of the head and neck restraint meets standards.","They now test a randomly selected restraint.","A hydraulic arm pulls the tethers until the restraint snaps, mimicking the force of a violent impact.","The restraint withstands more than what's required and breaks in the right place.","Next, an employee attaches a head and neck restraint to the helmet using the tethers.","Two crash dummies put the restraints to the test.","The one on the left isn't wearing a restraint while the right one is.","Steady nerves and a steady head could save a racer's life, and a head and neck restraint definitely improves the odds."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Electrophoretic Displays","Dry Erase Boards","Air Rifles","Quartz Countertops"]},"text":["Electrophoretic technology mimics the effect of ink on paper.","The screens reflect light, unlike conventional back-lit displays that emit light.","Also known as e-paper, this technology has changed the way we see our screens.","Mobile devices, e-readers, smart watches, and credit cards all contain electrophoretic displays.","With its print-like readability and bluetooth capability, it's easy to see the attraction.","To make an electrophoretic screen, polyethylene film is placed on a sheet of glass, which holds the film as its processed.","Production takes place in a filtered room, to keep the area contaminant-free.","Inside the room, robots move the glass carrier through processes that transform the film into the backplane.","The backplane is the main structure of the screen.","It carries the organic transistors that drive the electrophoretic display.","Machinery builds up micro-thin layers of metal, organize solutions, semiconductors, and isolators.","This spin coder evenly spreads the material across the film.","Nozzles apply an organic solution that acts as a booster for the semiconductors.","The spin coder closes and rotates the glass carrier to spread the deposited material by centrifugal force.","The automated system adds layers of semiconductors, electrical isolators, and metal.","A rinse of de-ionized water cleans the coated film, and a blast of air blows off the water.","Rollers apply gentle pressure to ensure the film sticks to the glass even when positioned vertically.","Once the photoresist chemical has been applied, the film goes into an exposure chamber.","A patterned mass is placed in front of the film to block out lighting in some areas.","The exposure defines the structure of the metal layers so that, when combined with the other materials, they'll serve as transistors.","The backplane film is removed from the glass carrier.","Now the film is ready for the electronic-ink-sheet placement.","A technician places the backplane in a laminator.","He uses a camera to magnify and position the backplane.","A vacuum in the laminator chuck holds the backplane in place.","He places the electronic ink sheet on the chuck beside the backplane and peels off the liner, exposing the adhesive.","Then the ink sheet and the backplane are fused together.","A roller presses the assembly for full adhesion.","Once the lamination process is complete, a technician removes the screen from the chuck.","This is the backplane before and after the electronic ink lamination.","An automated system bonds the electronics to a circuit board that's attached to the display screen.","The system mechanically seals the circuit board.","Polymer resin is applied for stability.","U.v. light cures the resin.","This is the electrophoretic display before and after the electronics have been added.","This particular display screen will be an e-reader.","They load a graphic with black strips onto the screen.","The strips serve as reference points, as a printer applies a combination red, green, and blue filter.","The filter adds the option of colored text or pictures.","The primary colors can be combined to create other shades, expanding the visual possibilities of the electronic ink.","A machine bends a sample screen repeatedly to confirm that the sample is flexible enough to be formed into a bracelet or credit card.","Additional tests are conducted to confirm that the electrophoretic display has the desired clarity and color.","Display patterns can be sent from a phone to a bracelet that has an electrophoretic screen.","With electrophoretic technology, there are many different ways to enjoy screen time.","A dry-erase board is a non-permanent surface most commonly used in professional or classroom environments.","You simply write on the board with the dry-erase marker and use a specialized cloth to wipe away the markings.","These effective tools are an easy way to get your message across.","Dry-erase boards are also known as whiteboards.","The boards wipe perfectly clean due to its non-porous surface and the dry-erase ink.","Dry-erase ink contains release agents which prevent the pigments from permanently adhering to the surface.","Green and black dry-erase boards can also be used as chalkboards, while gray and low-gloss white double as projection boards.","The surface material is a porcelain-coated steel sheet-- flexible enough to be rolled up, but also pressure sensitive.","To start, the roll is mounted on a cutting machine.","A technician programs the machine to cut the roll to a specific length based on the board's dimensions.","Workers verify the length and check that the piece is square.","The surface material will be applied to one of seven types of substrate, ranging from cardboard to medium-density fiberboard known as mdf.","The next step is to cut the large sheet of substrate-- in this case, mdf--  into board-size pieces.","Another technician enters the length and width into the cutting machine.","Once complete, the machine ejects the substrate, which is now cut to the exact size of the board.","Next, the substrate is put through a hot-glue machine.","The machine applies polyurethane adhesive to what will be the back of the dry-erase board.","As the substrate exits, a sheet of foil is applied to the glued surface.","The foil prevents moisture from entering, which would warp the substrate.","The board moves through two steel rollers which flatten the foil and press out any trapped air.","Next, the surface material is applied to the other side of the substrate.","A craftswoman uses an air hose to clear away any dust from the side of the board.","Once cleaned, the board goes through the glue machine.","The porcelain steel sheet is placed on the glued surface.","Technicians work carefully to ensure they don't touch the pressure-sensitive surface with their fingers.","Then the board moves through the steel rollers to press the porcelain steel flat and remove any trapped air.","Once 50 boards are stacked, technicians put them in a press for half an hour, until the glue cures.","In another part of the factory, a machine cuts material to create the board's frame.","It punches \"v\"-shaped notches in a length of aluminum trim.","The trim bends at each notch to form a wraparound frame.","Some boards come with a marker tray that runs along the bottom.","To make these trays, a technician cuts board-length pieces from a piece of \"l\"-shaped metal trim.","Since the tray ends are sharp, a technician attaches plastic covers for protection.","He secures the plastic end covers with screws on both ends of the part.","Meanwhile, technicians peel off the protective film covering the writing surface.","Then they flip over the board to assemble the parts from the back.","This model doesn't have the traditional wraparound frame.","Instead, it has a frame comprised of four straight \"c\"-shaped pieces that fit over the board's edges.","To add stability, technicians attach screws through the trim into the substrate.","Once assembly is complete, the dry-erase board is placed into a box, ready to be shipped to a business or classroom near you.","Air rifles are not toys.","They're serious weapons.","Used primarily for hunting, air rifles should only be handled by trained, licensed professionals.","Chemically, air rifles use one of three types of power depending on their design, all of which utilize compressed air instead of an explosive charge.","Handling air rifles should always be treated in a serious manner.","It is very important to follow proper storage and operating safety guidelines to ensure it does not go off accidentally.","Air rifles are made out of pre-machined parts for the trigger assembly.","To build one half of the trigger housing, a craftswoman uses a jig to align the end pieces to the side plate.","Then she screws the parts together.","She attaches the release latch to the inside of the trigger housing and installs a base for the trigger shoe.","She hooks one end of a spring to the side plate, and the other end to the release latch.","A second spring links the first spring to the trigger-shoe base.","Next, a lever is installed which releases the firing pin.","Once the trigger shoe and the trigger are attached, the assembly is complete.","This part absorbs the recoil effect from firing.","A technician inserts the recoil spring in a cylinder and adjusts the tension.","He slides the recoil assembly into the bolt housing.","The bolt housing seals the end of the gun barrel.","He installs the recoil system and the housing, a lever for cocking the rifle, and inserts a lever pin.","This end screw will enable the user to adjust the cocking position.","He attaches the firing pin and the spring system...","And builds the air-pressure regulator by joining metal rings with rubber seals to create the housing.","He stacks washer springs on a shaft.","He inserts the assembly into the regulator housing and attaches an air-pressure adjustment mechanism to the end.","Using a special measuring device, he connects the regulator to an air cylinder.","The cylinder feeds compressed air to the pressure regulator.","The measuring tool indicates the regulator's performance.","If needed, he'll adjust the pressure setting.","A technician inserts the pressure regulator in the firing chamber housing and places a rubber seal in another opening, followed by a spring.","The spring will open and close the one-directional valve that supplies compressed air to the firing chamber.","Once the valve is installed, he joins the firing chamber to the recoil assembly.","The two units are held together with substantial screws.","Assembly of the air rifle's mechanics are now complete.","A metal cover is screwed on top of the trigger system.","Meanwhile, automated drills bore into steel cylinders to convert them into rifle barrels.","A technician aligns one of the barrels to the firing chamber.","Using a spacer tool, he tweaks the barrel's placement against the firing chamber and tightens the bolt to the barrel.","The trigger system is run through a test using a special machine that measures the force it takes to open the valve.","An inspector fires the air rifle to measure the pellet's velocity and the accuracy of the shot.","He adjusts the tension on the firing-pin spring.","He loads the rifle again and fires it once more to confirm the accuracy of his adjustments.","Another technician attaches the stock, also called the shoulder stock, to the rifle.","He screws the compressed-air cylinder to the pressure regulator, securing it in place.","Quartz is one of the most abundant minerals on earth.","It's no wonder artisans are crafting this plentiful crystal, mixed with polymer resin, into kitchen and bathroom countertops.","These engineered countertops have low porosity, are resilient, and can be enhanced by pigments, sparkles, or other minerals.","Quartz countertops offer more creative designs than other stone surfaces.","Some are fused with flecks of mother of pearl, metal for a more dramatic look...","Or speckled with materials like glass, porcelain, and granite for visual effect.","Quartz rock arrives at the factory broken up into small, sharp-edged crystals.","They're stored in outdoor bins until production.","The crystals tumble into a hopper that follows them into the factory.","The glittery quartz crystals cascade onto a conveyor, heading to a rinsing station.","The crystals enter a revolving drum, known as the tumbler, and are tossed in the fire burning inside the drum.","The intense heat removes residual moisture and sanitizes the crystals.","Then the crystals are transferred to sifter machines.","The sifter machines shake the crystals through screens fitted with smaller mesh.","The particles flow into separate bins.","The ingredients for the quartz countertop formula are loaded into feeder bins.","The formula calls for a black countertop with shiny flecks and green undertones.","The ingredients include two different sizes of quartz crystals--  green glass and mirror chips.","A computer releases specific amounts of the ingredients into a hopper.","As the hopper opens, a conveyor takes the ingredients to a blender.","Black pigment is mixed into the blender, along with powdery filler quartz.","The mix is over 90% quartz.","A polymer resin will act as a binder and add strength.","Down the line, a large mold moves into position...","And an overhead mixer disperses the quartz blend into the mold.","The mixer repeats the process twice to build up the materials to the desired thickness.","Then the mold vibrates, shaking the mixture into a more level state.","This will be the back of the quartz countertop.","For additional strength and flexibility, nylon mesh is added to the countertop mixture.","A device pulls the mesh over the mix.","Once it's aligned with the mold contents, the machine drops the mesh into place.","An automated dispenser spreads granulated limestone, filling any voids in the countertop mixture.","Next, the ingredients are placed in a kiln for two hours.","A blade scrapes off the loose limestone from the slab backing.","Polishing heads studded with industrial diamonds will now give the top of the slab a serious shine.","Simultaneously, an operator adjusts the tension of the polishers.","The polishers spin as water flows across the countertop to produce the desired level of gloss.","This particular quartz slab is about 1/4 inch thick.","Its thin, flexible profile means the quartz can be shaped to different structures if needed.","A technician preparers the transfer of pattern onto a white quartz slab.","He drapes a long sheet of paper, pattern side down, onto the slab and tapes it to the work surface.","He activates a heat press, which turns the ink on the paper into a gas that penetrates the resin in the slab.","The pattern becomes intrinsic to the engineered stone.","With this process, any design can be part of a slab, including some that give the illusion of marble.","But unlike marble, engineered quartz won't stain.","With quartz countertops, the possibilities are almost endless."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Kitchen Accessories","Central Vacuums","Papier"]},"text":["When it comes to kitchen accessories, many cooks choose to forgo metal, plastic, and silicone in favor of a more classic material, wood.","Wood is not only elegant, it's lightweight and very durable.","And its look fits in with traditional, contemporary, or modern kitchen decor.","Rolling pins, meat mallets, cutting boards, trivets are some of the many items this czech company makes out of beech, a hard and durable type of wood.","The first step is to dry out the logs.","This prevents the wood from expanding and contracting with humidity changes and eventually cracking.","The factory air-dries the logs outdoors for about seven months, then heat-dries them in a kiln for three to four weeks.","When the moisture level is down to between 8% and 10%, the wood is ready.","Each log first goes through a large automated hacksaw.","It slices vertically, cutting the log into several pieces of the specific thickness required for the kitchen accessory in production.","Next, a dimensioning saw cuts the pieces to the required length.","The final saw cuts the pieces to the required width.","To make a cutting board, they run one edge of the cut piece through a gluing machine.","Then, they assemble the pieces edge-to-edge in a press.","The number of pieces they put together depends on the size of the cutting board they're making.","After an hour clamped under pressure, the pieces bond into a large panel.","Workers then cut the panel into the smaller pieces, each of which will become a cutting board.","A computer-guided milling machine cuts the shape of the cutting board, which, in this case, is a model with a recessed middle designed to catch crumbs.","They submerge the cutting boards in vegetable oil, then let them air dry for a day.","Oiling nourishes the wood, which prevents it from drying out.","The oil also enhances the color and brings out the beauty of the wood grain.","To make rolling pins, workers feed the cut wood through a planer.","It finalizes the dimensions to 2.8x2.8 inches wide by 10.2 inches long.","Then they mount several pieces at a time onto a machine which has multiple lathes.","As each lathe spins over the course of about 30 seconds, successive tools turn the wood to a cylindrical shape...","And sand the surface.","One cylinder at a time, workers drill a half-inch hole right through the middle.","Meanwhile, a small lathe turns 1.2x4.2-inch blocks of wood into rolling-pin handles.","Workers saw off excess wood at the outer end of the handle...","And sand the area flat.","The finished handle goes into a revolving barrel of varnish for about an hour.","All the parts are now ready and assembly can begin.","After giving the ends a quick sanding, they hammer a nylon ring into the hole on each side of the pin.","The ring diameter is slightly larger than that of the hole so it locks in.","Next, they insert a zinc-coated steel rod all the way through, position the rolling pin in a press, fit a handle on one protruding end of the rod, then a second handle onto the other end.","They activate the press, which forces the handles all the way onto the rod.","The pin rolls smoothly thanks to the nylon rings.","These kitchen accessories showcase the natural beauty of wood, wood that's fsc certified, meaning it comes from a forest that's managed according to standards of environmental protection.","A central vacuum doesn't have to be pulled or carried from room to room and up and down stairs.","Its power unit containing the motor and dirt receptacle is mounted on a wall, usually in the basement or garage.","This stationary unit connects to plastic ducts that run inside the walls to inlets in different parts of the home.","You plug the attachment hose into the nearest inlet and the central power unit suctions the debris through the wall ducts.","Being stationary, weight isn't an issue.","Therefore, central-vacuum motors are larger and more powerful than those in portable vacuum cleaners.","A factory makes the main body of the power unit out of a steel sheet about 4/10 of an inch thick.","A press punches out the openings required for the various components.","A forming roller rounds the sheet into the unit's circular shape.","They close the circle by tack-welding a few key spots.","Then, they weld the entire length.","This continuous seam makes the unit air tight for optimal suction and to prevent the collected dirt from escaping.","They use the same material and technique to form the sides of the power unit's large dirt receptacle.","Then a hydraulic press rolls a rim at the top, making the receptacle safe for the user to remove, empty, then put back in place.","They make a rim on the bottom edge as well, sealing it over the bottom plate of the dirt receptacle.","Then they put the power unit's main body on a hydraulic press and shape a rim that connects to the dirt receptacle.","Next, they make a support for the motor and tack-weld a mesh basket under it.","The basket supports the vacuum cleaner's filter.","The power unit's main body goes on top of the dirt receptacle.","The motor support and filtration basket fit inside.","And a cover goes on top.","Now the unit gets a coat of high-quality epoxy paint.","The application system is electrostatic, meaning it charges the unit with a negative current and the powder paint particles with a positive one.","This magnetically draws the particles onto the unit in an even layer.","Then 45 minutes in an oven bakes it on for extra durability.","They seal the connection between the dirt receptacle and the power unit main body.","This must be airtight for two reasons-- to prevent air from leaking through, which would lessen suction power, and to prevent collected dust from escaping.","Next, they line the main body's motor compartment with soundproofing foam.","An adhesive backing holds it against the compartments walls, and dabs of liquid adhesive secure the corners.","They install a filter on the outside to capture carbon dust.","Carbon dust is a fine black dust which electrical motors emit.","Now they apply decals bearing the series name and model number.","They use a laser level to position them perfectly straight in just the right spot.","Back to the motor compartment now.","The electric motor sits on this rubber-foam gasket and rubber legs, both of which absorb vibration.","They also prevent metal-to-metal contact between the motor and body, the secret to the vacuum's quiet operation.","Whereas portable vacuum cleaners have a lightweight motor with a single fan, this motor is a large, heavy-duty, long-life steel motor with three fans.","The electronic components go into the neighboring compartment.","Then workers use a variety of equipment to test suction, voltage, and other specifications.","They connect an lcd display on the outside, cap the compartments with a motor-cooling insulated disk, then the unit's cover.","The factory's lab selects a certain percentage of units at random for quality-control testing.","During operation, the lcd screens on both the power unit and hose handle display the power level.","They also indicate when the unit needs technical maintenance, when to empty the dirt receptacle, and when to remove and wash the filters.","They're a bold option for people looking to go a bit wild with their home decor.","Large, colorful animals made of paper-mache-- inanimate, exotic pets that make quite the conversation piece.","Sold in galleries or upscale design boutiques, each creature is a unique work painted by an artist.","These large-scale paper-mache animals are hand-crafted by artisans in tonala, mexico, a town renowned for colorful, decorative arts.","They cast the animal shape in plaster and fiberglass molds.","There's a two-part mold for each of the animals' main body parts.","The artisans dampen pieces of recycled cardboard...","Then glue them onto the walls of the mold cavity.","They continue until they've fully lined the cavity five layers thick, three layers if it's a small-sized animal.","Then, they close the mold and set it aside to dry.","Depending on the size, this takes from three to six days.","Then they open the mold and extract what is now a hollow cardboard shell of the body part.","They assemble the animal by adhering all the body-part shells, reinforcing the joints with strips of newspaper.","Then they paper over the entire surface to even it out.","The paper dries in 3 to 12 hours, depending on the size of the animal.","Next, they mix together talc, water...","Glue...","And wet cardboard.","This recipe produces a thick adhesive paste that they spread evenly over the entire animal.","The paste takes about 40 minutes to dry and harden.","Then they apply a second coat.","When that dries, they water down the paste to a thin, runny consistency and apply a third coat.","Once that dries, they send the animal to the detailing department.","There, using the thick paste, artists sculpt and apply raised body and facial features.","Once the paste detailing dries, they sand the entire animal to prep for painting.","In the art department, they first apply a primer coat, white or beige.","This seals the surface.","Once the primer is dry, they paint the animal's background color.","Now the true artistry begins.","Using water colors, artists make the animals come alive with expressive eyes and fanciful features.","No stencils or predetermined designs.","The artists follow their imagination and create a unique work of art.","The last step-- four coats of transparent lacquer in either a high-gloss or matte finish.","The lacquer dries hard as a rock, forming an impenetrable, protective layer over the paint.","The paper-mache surface is now durable and moisture-resistant.","These hand-crafted animals are sought after by collectors around the world, which might explain why it's a jungle out there.","When the pressure is on, that's when a lot of machines really perform.","We're talking about the kind of pressure that comes from hydraulic fluid as it's pumped through cylinders.","From crane claws to snowplows to a lot of manufacturing equipment, hydraulic cylinders are truly a driving force in the world.","This is fluid power in action.","Pressurized fluid pumped into cylinders does all the heavy work, making this forklift actually lift.","Production begins with the cylinder barrel.","A band saw cuts steel tubing to the correct length.","Then computerized tools carve a solid cylinder to transform it into the piston rod.","It's this rod that will be moved by hydraulic pressure to transfer force to a machine like the forklift.","The tools cut threads in one end and also carve various diameters.","This will have a cushioning effect as the machine the cylinders powers cycles down.","The other end of the rod will be attached to the piston which is now taking shape as a special tool bores through the center to create a threaded hole.","Using a special gauge, a worker measures the hole's dimensions to confirm the piston rod will fit into it exactly.","Another computerized cutter then carves grooves on the outside wall of the piston.","With the piston now complete, they install a web of sealer rings on both it and the cylinder head, which has been machined in a similar fashion.","These sealers will prevent leaking of the pressurized fluids as the piston rod moves through the center holes of these parts.","This blue sealer will also act as a wiper, removing dirt from the piston rod and keeping contaminants out of the cylinder.","This \"o\" ring installed on the outside of the cylinder head will stop fluid leakage between it and the cylinder barrel.","With the sealers installed, a worker now lubricates the mouth of the cylinder head.","This allows for the a smooth installation of the part to one end of the piston rod.","He then slides the piston onto the other end of the rod and secures it with a nut.","He tightens the nut to the rod using an impact gun.","Production now returns to the cylinder barrel as a robot welds a cap onto it.","The opening fitting adjacent to it was installed earlier to attach the hose that delivers the fluids.","The worker now clamps the cylinder barrel in a device to stabilize it.","He lubricates the threaded open end so he can easily slide a metal sleeve into it.","This sleeve prevents snags so those critical sealer rings remain intact as he now inserts the piston-rod assembly into the barrel.","Once the piston is safely in the barrel, he removes the sleeve.","He then shoves the rod further into the barrel and screws the cylinder head to the threaded lip.","Using a spanner wrench, he tightens the assembly to the required torque.","He dabs adhesive onto a screw.","He inserts the screw in the cylinder head.","The adhesive dries and expands to lock the screw tightly in place.","They now etch the client name, part number and other information onto the assembled cylinder using a computerized engraving tool.","This cylinder is now ready for fluid-- hydraulic-grade oil specifically formulated to operate under pressure.","The technician attaches hoses to the cylinder to fill it with pressurized oil.","As the pressure builds at one end, the piston rod extends.","He then supplies fluid to the other end and the rod retracts.","He runs a finger around the fittings and sealers to check for leaks.","He gives this hydraulic cylinder the all-clear.","After a good wash, a worker spray-paints the hydraulic cylinders to protect the metal against rust.","Now complete, these hydraulic cylinders are ready to leave the factory.","They'll soon be under a lot of pressure to keep machines and mechanisms operating.","But it's the kind of pressure they've been made for."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Grapples","Flavorings","Dog Sleds","Athletic Shoes"]},"text":["At many work sites, grapples do all the heavy lifting.","Dangling from crane booms, these huge mechanized claws move mountains of material one load at a time.","Some are equipped with powerful electromagnets for gathering small bits of metal along with the large ones.","Not much can escape the grasp of the mighty grapple.","A magnet at the center pulls metal from the scrap heap, while four fingers dig into the pile.","It then transfers the load of steel for recycling.","It actually takes some of that recycled steel to make a grapple in the form of steel plate.","A computer-guided flame burns through the steel to cut out the various part shapes.","It will take approximately 50 pieces in a range of shapes and thicknesses to make one grapple.","A press brake repeatedly rams one of the parts while an operator adjusts it forward between thrusts.","The process curls the part to give it a claw-like profile.","It's the basic shape of a grapple finger.","Using a template, he checks the curvature to confirm it's on target.","He'll curl four fingers per grapple.","Meanwhile, a welder pieces together the grapple's core, working within a special fixture that allows him to assemble it precisely.","After he tack-welds them together, it's over to the robot.","It does the permanent welds as the core slowly rotates in a special device.","They hoist the welded grapple core over to the magnet and feed its main wire up through the core.","They lower the core, and it fits onto metal dowels protruding from the magnet.","This allows them to align the two precisely.","They thread high-strength bolts into the dowels to secure the assembly.","Next, they place a turntable bearing on the grapple's top flange.","This bearing is an important part of the claw-rotator mechanism.","They fasten the bearing's outer ring to the flange with numerous bolts, torqueing each one tightly to withstand the spinning action of the bearing's inner ring.","As demonstrated here, the bearing turns in both directions to give the grapple's claw movements a lot of flexibility.","A worker now lowers the upper rotator assembly onto the turntable bearing.","This assembly holds the rotator's motor and the manifold that feeds hydraulic fluid to the cylinders that power the claw.","They now slide the hydraulic cylinders into their slots and lock them in place with pivot pins.","They install a total of four cylinders.","Each one will power one grapple finger, and together, they'll open and close the grapple claw.","They connect the hydraulic feed lines to the cylinders and reinforce the connection with a four-bolt flange that can handle the pressure of the hydraulic fluid.","They guide each steel finger into slots in the grapple core and align them correctly.","They slide a pivot pin into the attachment holes to link the two.","This pin will also act as a kind of hinge as the finger opens and closes.","They fasten the pivot pin to the grapple with a nut that's split in one spot.","This split enables it to be squeezed tightly around the large pin with a small bolt.","They attach the hydraulic cylinders to the claw fingers with more large steel pins.","And they're now ready to power the grapple claw and test the gripping action.","The four tines, or fingers, open and close in unison.","The tips mate correctly.","There's no overlap.","They roll paint onto the company emblem, and this grapple claw is now ready for the jobsite.","It weighs 4.5 tons, and just dropping it on a car will crumple it like a piece of tissue paper.","It takes about 150 hours to manufacture a grapple claw that can get a grip on the really big jobs in a matter of seconds.","Whether it's boysenberry in your muffin, hazelnut in your coffee, blue cheese in your salad dressing, or spearmint in your chewing gum, the source is usually a prepared flavoring.","Food and drink makers typically approach a flavorings company to custom-design and produce whatever flavor they need.","Not only do flavoring companies produce ingredients for commercial use, they also manufacture stand-alone flavoring products for retail sale, such as those syrups you squirt into coffee, fountain drinks, and other beverages.","In the company's research and development laboratory, flavor chemists create each recipe, drawing from an elaborate arsenal of ingredients.","If they're designing an orange flavoring, for example, they might combine orange essence and orange peel with extracts from other citrus fruits, tweaking the proportions until they achieve exactly the taste they're after.","This chemist is designing flavoring for a soft drink.","He pours a specific amount of his trial recipe into water, then carbonates the mix by adding pressurized carbon dioxide.","Then he bottles the drink and sends it to the client for approval.","Once the client gives the okay, plant technicians mix a production formula, following very precise weights and measures set out in the recipe.","Once they combine the formula's key ingredients, they add them to the liquid fillers-- such as fruit juice and water-- and solvents such as ethanol.","The solvents trigger molecular changes that transform the oil-soluble key ingredients into a water-soluble state.","Without this conversion, the finished flavoring would simply float on top of any liquid to which it's added.","At several points throughout the process, the company's quality-control lab performs an array of tests to assess color, flavor, viscosity, and other characteristics.","The last ingredients to go into the production formula, when the recipe calls for them, are colorings.","Sometimes a client wants a powdered flavoring rather than a liquid one.","So chemists develop a liquid recipe that a machine called a spray dryer can process into a powder.","In the production plant, workers pour the required quantity of production formula into a large processing kettle.","They add whatever additional ingredients the recipe may call for, and if required, heat the mix.","If they're making a powdered flavoring, then from the kettle, they pour the liquid into a mixer containing water, gums, and starches.","These keep all the ingredients evenly blended.","Then they open a hatch and drop the mix directly into the spray dryer.","The machine uses high pressure to transform the liquid into a fine mist, then heat to dry the mist particles into powder particles.","They put the powder into a machine called a ribbon blender and add whatever dry ingredients the flavoring recipe calls for.","Then mixing blades slowly blend all the powders together.","The plant sends a sample from the blender to the quality-control lab.","Among other tests, lab technicians put the sample under a microscope to analyze the particle size, which indicates how thoroughly the ingredients are blended.","Exiting the ribbon blender, the finished flavoring passes through a vibrating screen, a magnet, and a metal detector.","The packaging equipment weighs a specific quantity and dispenses it into cartons lined with polyethylene.","A suction hose vacuums what dusts up in the process, because airborne powder is an explosion hazard.","The plant sends a sample from every batch it produces back to the lab.","Trained testers smell and taste the sample and compare it to the model lab batch.","The testers flag any production sample that's even the slightest bit off the mark, in which case they alert the flavor chemists, who then diagnose and fix the problem.","This procedure, along with the various quality-control measures throughout the production process, ensures taste consistency, which is absolutely critical, whether the prepared flavoring is an ingredient in a commercially produced food or beverage or a retail flavoring that you squirt into or sprinkle onto a drink or snack.","For centuries, dog-driven sleds were a lifeline across the frozen north, delivering medicine and other supplies to far-flung communities.","Today, aircraft and snowmobiles have mostly taken over that work, and dog-sledding has become a sport.","And a well-made sled is behind every winning team.","A dog-sled race is an endurance test for the dogs, the driver, and the sled itself.","A good sled is both flexible and sturdy enough to go the distance.","At this factory, they make sleds from white ash.","A worker angles the ends of vertical bars so they can be fitted to the sled's top rail and handlebar.","These bars are called stanchions.","He shapes the other end of them so they'll fit into grooves in the sled's runner.","All the parts of this sled are designed to fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.","A worker now screws aluminum rails onto the bottom of the two runners.","He slides plastic strips into those aluminum rails, which gives the runners a smooth base for gliding over ice or snow.","He secures the plastic strips at each end with screws.","The crew is now ready to assemble all the pieces of the dog sled.","They attach metal screw eyes to the runners.","They'll thread rope through them when they're ready to tie the parts of the sled together.","All the parts of the framework fit into notches made specifically for them.","The location of those notches has been precisely mapped out.","If one is even a fraction of an inch off, the sled would collapse like a house of cards.","They measure the space between the runners to confirm they're perfectly aligned, and now tie the joints together with nylon rope.","These ties are called lashings, and there are 22 of them on this dog sled.","Historically, lashings were made of moose hide, but nylon is tougher.","They cut the rope with a hot blade, which seals the fibers so that they won't unravel.","They tie the midpoint joints together...","And the focus then moves to the dog-sled handlebar.","A worker glues strips of ash together.","The strips are thin so they can be easily bent, allowing him to curl the glued layer around a u-form.","He clamps the wood to the form, and the glue cures for three hours.","It hardens into the u-shape, creating the dog-sled handlebar.","He secures the handlebar to the dog sled with the nylon lashings.","The team then assembles the bed of the sled.","They clamp the slats into place, and then screw them to the framework.","They install the sled's front bumper, called the brushbrow.","Next, a worker cuts off the metal bead of a bicycle tire and discards it.","He uses the remaining tire tread to create foot pads by wrapping it around pieces of thick plastic and screwing it into place.","He installs a treaded pad on each runner to keep the driver's feet from slipping off.","Then they install an aluminum bar brake.","These pivot bolts will allow this bar brake to be raised when not needed, and lowered to engage the metal talons.","He loops a bungee cord on each side of a cross bar and burns off an end.","He hooks the other end of the cord to the brake.","This simple bungee-cord mechanism will enable the dog-sled musher to activate the brake.","He heat-shrinks rubber tubing around the base of the cord to protect it.","They now weave the back of the sled, using nylon cord to create a basket for carrying things.","It's big enough to hold a tired animal.","The worker then loops and ties the bridle to front stanchions beneath the sled.","He forms a \"v\" as he threads it from the back of the sled to the front.","He paints urethane onto the wood, and even over the lashings.","This will protect them against wear.","It's taken about three days to make this traditional basket dog sled, and now it's ready to mush.","Athletic footwear dates back to ancient times, but the concept gained traction with the development of treaded rubber soles in the early part of the 20th century.","These rubber-soled shoes were lightweight, comfortable, and hit the ground quietly, earning them the name \"sneakers\".","Design improvements have broadened the appeal of athletic shoes.","People wear them everywhere.","The athletic shoe has definitely gone main street.","Using a hydraulic press, this employee forces a die through synthetic fabric to cut out patterns for the upper part of the shoe.","At the next station, he punches out leather toe tips.","The toe tip is one of numerous cut-outs that add shape and structure to the synthetic upper.","After arranging the tip parts on a nonstick tray, this worker places strips of thermal resin onto them.","She drapes a nonstick sheet over the tray, then slides it into a hot metal press.","The resin melts into the leather to stiffen and strengthen it.","Another worker stamps the model number onto the heel cutout.","Then it's over to the sewing department, where a worker stitches a reflector onto the athletic shoe upper.","Other accent pieces call for more intricate stitching, so she arranges the parts on a computerized platform.","The platform moves back and forth, allowing the needle to do a perfect job of stitching the accent pieces to the upper.","This stitching would be difficult to execute manually.","Once some of the more substantial pieces have been applied to the shoe, it's time to sew on a reflective logo, and the needle is once again guided by computer software.","This athletic-shoe upper is now ready for its resin-fortified leather toe tip.","She stitches it in place, and then pieces together the collar and sews it to the back of the shoe.","She installs thick foam padding on the inside of the collar, and then turns it right-side-out to tuck the padding neatly inside and hide the seam.","Putting on the collar has obscured the top lace holes, so she clears them with a compressed-air punch.","Down the line, more computerized needles embroider brand information onto the tongue panels.","The next worker sews a liner and padding to the panel, again working inside-out to hide the seam.","Another worker then stitches a fabric base onto the athletic shoe.","She applies a rigid plastic to the heel.","That adds structure and support to the back part of the shoe.","Further down the production line, a worker tugs the shoe onto a foot form called a last.","They heat it to make it malleable enough for this machine to pull it to the shape of the last.","At the same time, nozzles apply cement to glue the overlap to the fabric base.","Then a machine heats both the upper and the rubber sole.","The heat activates glue applied to the sole earlier and also prepares the upper for bonding to that sole.","They initially use manual force to press the two together, and then the shoe is subjected to mechanized pressure.","Inside this machine, a rubber bladder expands to force the two together for a complete seal.","The shoe then gets a foam insole with an arch support.","The worker laces it partially and then pairs it up with the other shoe.","An inspector examines the pair for defects.","It has taken about 21 minutes to make this pair of athletic shoes.","And they should be able to take a real workout."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Custom Shoe Trees","Clay Targets","Squeeze Chutes","Composite Boat Propellers"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Custom shoe trees...","Clay targets...","Squeeze chutes...","And composite boat propellers.","Shoe trees are a device placed inside leather shoes to preserve their shape.","They also absorb foot perspiration by wicking away leather-damaging moisture from the inside of the shoe.","Shoe trees are a worthwhile investment because they extend the life of footwear.","Shoe trees can be purchased at any price.","Some are mass produced and inexpensive, while others can be handcrafted and custom ordered like these from a small workshop in france.","The customer can select their preference of tree style as well as the type of wood and color.","A craftsman uses a model in the customer's size and marks its length on a piece of wood.","Using a band saw, the craftsman cuts the wood to the marked length.","He saws one side flat to be able to lie the piece on its side.","Then he traces the general shape of the model and saws along his previously marked lines to remove excess wood.","Once complete, the block is roughly shaped like the model.","Next, the block is mounted on one side of a pantograph, a milling machine that copies the form of one object to shape another.","He mounts the model on the other side of the pantograph.","Once the machine is turned on, both model and block begin rotating.","The machine's tools, a tracer and a cutter, are linked.","As the tracer runs across the model, the cutter moves in identical carving motions across the block.","By the time the tracer finishes, the block is an exact copy except for those extra inches on the ends for mounting the block to the machine.","The craftsman takes the copy off the pantograph and uses the sanding belt to remove any excess wood.","He repeats the process to make a second copy.","The craftsman measures and marks where he'll drill a hole on each piece of wood.","For this style, he drills a hole right through the wood.","Next, he measures the front of the customer's shoe and measures the length of each shoe tree.","He does this to ensure that he has the correct dimensions.","If the shoe tree is longer, he marks how much wood he needs to remove.","Then he uses a template to create the top opening and traces the design on to the wood.","With the band saw, the craftsman cuts along the marked line.","The top opening is now complete.","He drills holes in the bottom of each shoe tree to hollow it out.","The drill bit is replaced with a different tool, to carve out the remaining wood in the cavity.","With another tool, he smoothes the the surface of the bottom and top openings.","With a band saw, he slices the shoe tree in half to create a hinged style.","On each piece, he makes markings for the hinge, which will connect the two parts and cuts out a notch.","After drilling holes for the hinge screws, he files the notch smooth and attaches the polished brass hinge.","To ensure there are no rough edges, the craftsman sands the shoe tree.","Depending on the style, the craftsman may apply a stained wood finish or a coating of liquid wax.","Finally, the shoes are ready to be shipped back to the customer with the custom shoe trees rooted firmly inside.","Clay targets are made to be destroyed the very first time they're used.","Manufactured in multiple colors, these inverted saucers are used as practice targets and can be launched by hand or through automated machines.","Also referred to as clay pigeons, these targets are not actually made of clay.","They're made with pitch, a ceramic-type material, or resin.","Since the 1920s, this french company has been producing clay saucers for both target practice and competitions, including the olympics.","The founder invented the first automated target molding machine in 1947.","Pitch targets are made from petroleum pitch, a substance derived from crude oil, and calcium carbonate, commonly known as talc.","Talc is the filler while petroleum pitch is the binding agent, which solidifies into a hard, brittle material.","The talc arrives at the factory heated at 176 degrees fahrenheit.","A technician transfers the talc from the truck to a heated storage silo.","A screw conveyor moves the talc from the silo to the blender tank, mixing it with the pitch.","The petroleum pitch arrives to the factory heated to 392 degrees.","The pitch is transferred to a heated storage silo and pumped into a blender.","Every 10 seconds, 22 pounds of petroleum pitch and 64 pounds of talc are released into the blender.","The materials cool as soon as they leave the heated silos.","A gas boiler reheats the ingredients in 509-degree oil.","The hot oil circulates in pipes around the blender, heating the pitch talc mixture to about 390 degrees.","This process changes the consistency to a paste.","The paste flows from the blender to the automatic molding machine.","This valve cuts the flow at regular intervals to time the injections into the target-shaped molds.","The machine compresses the paste while cooling it with water so that it solidifies.","A transfer distance moves the targets on to a conveyer belt one at a time.","As they move to the next conveyer belt, the molds are flipped right-side up.","Even though the molds are still hot, they've remained soft and pliable.","As the targets continue to cool and harden, a separating device lines them up for the conveyer belts that go to the paint chambers.","The paint is made primarily of carbonate and biodegradable powdered pigment.","A technician pours a pre-measured amount of water...","And a bag of pigment into a mixer.","The mixer combines the ingredients together.","Once the water and pigment have blended together, a pre-measured amount of carbonate is added to the mixer, along with a binding and thickening agent.","After additional blending, the paint is ready.","The targets move from the conveyer belt onto spinning holders, which carry the targets through the paint chamber.","Inside, a sprayer coats the spinning targets with paint.","The targets exit the chamber wet and cooled.","Another separator divides the targets on to two conveyer belts, which carry them through a hot-air tunnel for 30 seconds to dry the paint.","The conveyer belt feeds the targets to a machine, which piles them in stacks.","Clay pigeons can be manufactured in several sizes.","Olympic regulation size is the largest, containing a width of four inches.","A smaller target is used for training purposes and contains a width under four inches.","Regardless of their size, all targets are engineered to remain stable in flight while following the intended trajectory.","And, finally, shatter when shot.","The average cow weighs up to 2,000 pounds.","During medical procedures, due to its size, a device called the squeeze chute is used to hold a cow steady.","The walls of this stall immobilize the animal, allowing a veterinarian access to administer treatment.","A squeeze chute holds an animal still for medical and other procedures so that no one gets hurt.","The key to the design is a front gate that closes around the animal's head and a cage-like structure with a squeeze wall that contains the rest of the body.","Production starts with a big coil of steel.","As it unwinds, rollers straighten the steel and the blade cuts it into sheets.","The sheets move to a laser-cutting station.","The laser cuts out the same part multiple times, producing many parts from one sheet.","The part that's produced is a component of the side exit gate.","The steel is formed into tubing.","An operator loads the tubing into a bending machine.","The machine wraps the tubing around dies, shaping it into one of the chute's access hoops.","The machine cuts the ends of the hoop and ejects it.","An automated system transfers the hoops to a rack.","A technician arranges the hoops on the upper half of one of the chute's side frames.","The jig serves as a template for the placement of the hoops.","The bottom of the hoops are welded to hinges on the frame.","These clips are for opening or locking the hoops.","He welds one to the top of each access hoop.","The operator can reach through the hoops to gain access to the animal.","The hoops can also be opened if needed.","Another technician assembles a panel to the bottom of the second side frame.","He welds clips to the top so the panel can be opened for access to the lower part of the animal.","He hinges the panel to the base of the frame.","Next, an operator uses a machine to bend steel tubing against a circular form.","After the first bend, the operator repositions the tubing so the machine can make the second bend in the specified location.","The tailgate frame has taken shape.","With the frame and a jig, a technician installs vertical bars and diagonal linkages and welds a metal shield to the lower half.","This part keeps the cow's hooves safely inside.","Meanwhile, holes have been drilled in both ends of the chute floor.","They'll be used to move one wall inward to tightly contain the animal.","Then the chute's skeleton is constructed.","Using a hoist, a technician transfers the tailgate to the structure.","The technician guides the top on to the squeeze chute framework and welds the structure together.","Next, he attaches the squeeze wall to the structure.","He opens the tailgate to test the clearance and assembles a steel panel to the lower half of the squeeze wall.","He mounts the other side panel with the exit gate to the structure.","He places hinges into the tailgate frame and welds the panel to the frame at the top.","To verify the side gate is operating smoothly, the technician pulls the lever.","Then he opens the tail gate to check its clearance.","He moves the squeeze side to various settings, making adjustments if needed to ensure that the squeeze wall is properly aligned at each notch.","Next, the entire structure is dipped in a paint vat, providing the structure with even coverage.","The head gate has been especially contoured to hold the animal's head in position.","Then a worker slides rubber grippers on to the operating handles.","This squeeze chute is now ready to assist veterinarians and ranchers with a safe way to lock an animal into position.","Until nearly 30 years ago, boat propellers were normally made of steel or aluminum.","Today, developers have since tested the waters with composite propellers.","Made from nylon resin and fiberglass, composite propellers are light weight and don't corrode.","And, in certain models, broken blades can even be replaced.","Composite propellers provide boaters with another way to move on the water.","These props are the latest way to convert rotational motion into thrust.","Production starts with a computer design.","This one is for a houseboat propeller.","The design will drive the machinery that manufactures the molds.","Pellets that are half fiberglass, half resin are placed in a dryer to remove moisture.","An operator takes a sample of the dried pellets.","First, he weighs the pellets.","Then he heats them to evaporate any additional moisture.","The change in weight indicates how much moisture has been removed.","These two-part metal molds form the pellets into propeller blades.","This process takes just a minute and a half to complete.","A technician starts a molding machine that melts the pellets.","A large feed screw forces the molten material into the mold.","The composite material solidifies, and the operator removes the newly formed propeller blade.","The process leaves a piece of unwanted material known as the sprue.","The sprue is composite material that hardened as it flowed into the mold.","Once cut, it falls into a bin to be recycled into the next composite propeller.","The trim propeller is now a functional part.","Next, composite material is molded around an aluminum core to create the hub.","A band saw cuts an extruded bar of aluminum to size.","Each piece will serve as one core.","Using a tool with a sharp-curved blade, the technician trims the rough bits left behind by the saw.","These rough bits are known as burrs, so this process is known as deburring.","Once the edges are smooth, the technician attaches clips to the three wings.","These clips will be used to center the core in the mold.","The technician slides the core into the mold.","The clips hold it in a precise position.","Then the machine is activated.","The machine allows molten fiberglass and resin material to flow into the mold cavity and encapsulate the aluminum core.","It also forms channels for the insertion of the propeller blades.","A computerized milling machine moves the hub into position for trimming.","A drill cuts into the center to widen the hole.","The next operation called broaching will carve teeth into the hole, which will help connect the hub to the motor shaft.","A machine pulls a spiraling tool called a broach through the center hole of the hub.","The tool carves through the composite layer and into the aluminum core to cut the teeth.","Here's a close-up look at those teeth.","Now it's time for all the parts to come together.","An assembler slides the blades into grooves in the hub.","The grooves help hold the blades in place.","Using a hammer, the assembler makes sure the blades are connected accordingly.","Finally, a part called a rear cap is attached.","For an inside look, the propeller has been cut open.","The cut-out reveals how the composite material has become one with the aluminum core.","And now a test.","The technician attaches a chain to a blade.","Using a hydraulic ram, he applies pressure.","He measures the breaking point.","At 1 1/2 tons of force, it's significant.","This composite boat propeller has taken about 20 minutes to produce.","Once attached to the motor shaft, it should last for years.","Now this boat is ready to provide boaters with a ton of fun while out on the water."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Railway Bridge Ties","Membrane Filters","Hydraulic Post Drivers","Bi"]},"text":["The deck of a railway bridge is typically built of wood-timbers called bridge ties.","They're bolted to steel support beams located on concrete piers over the water or gully below.","The rails on which the train travels are bolted to the wooden ties.","Wood absorbs the noise and vibration of the passing train.","The load the railway bridge will carry determines the size of its ties.","To calculate the load, engineers factor in the number of tracks, volume of traffic, weight of the transported cargo, and whether the bridge is straight or curved.","A curve will put additional stress on the structure.","The wood of choice is oak because it's hard and strong.","When the logs arrive at the sawmill, they come face-to-face with a menacing-looking device called a debarker.","A conveyor moves the shipment toward the debarker, then drops a single log in front of it onto spinning rollers.","The rollers rotate the log, while the debarker makes its way from one end to the other.","It chews off the bark with its sharp-toothed blades.","What the debarker shaves off is put to good use.","The bark gets processed into gardening mulch and they burn the sawdust in the wood-fired boiler that runs another part of the plant.","Next, one log at a time drops into a mobile carriage that runs it through a circular saw.","The carriage has sensors which detect the log's extremities and report its dimensions to a console located in the operator's cab.","The operator interprets the data.","Using a joystick controller, he flips the log into whichever position maximizes the yield.","The first few runs trim off the rough surface and square the shape.","The next runs cut boards, which the sawmill sells to flooring plants.","This continues until the log is the exact dimensions of the bridge tie.","Again, nothing is wasted.","The sawmill processes the cutoffs into wood chips, which it then sells to companies that make particle board, strand board, and similar construction materials.","The sawmill stacks the ties for transfer to the bridge mill next door.","The role of the bridge mill is to frame the bridge, also known as dapping.","That's the process of making the specific holes and notches in each tie for attaching it to the steel beam on which it will sit.","At the bridge mill, the bridge layout supervisor processes one tie at a time.","He carefully reviews the engineer's blueprints, which assign a number to each and every tie.","These numbers specify precisely where the saw has to cut notches and where the drill has to bore holes.","The locations of these notches and holes vary, depending on the tie's position on the bridge.","So, he must follow the blueprints meticulously.","After measuring and marking it all out, he sends the tie to the dap saw.","The operator sets up each cut, lining up the mark with laser-lights, which indicate the location and the cutting depth of the blade.","The notches are just the right size to fit over the steel beam on which the tie will lie.","Next, a worker using a drill press bores holes for hook bolts, which go through the tie to secure it onto the steel beams.","Each tie receives a metal identification tag, which includes the bridge and tie numbers.","On each end, workers nail on a mesh plate, made of rust-proof galvanized steel.","The plate has teeth designed to grasp and hold together the wood fiber to prevent the end from splitting.","After nailing the id tag to one of the end plates, workers force in both plates with a press.","The tie's last stop is the adjacent treatment plant.","They spend 24 hours inside a high-temperature, high-pressure chamber which penetrates them with a creosote-borate solution.","This protects the wood from rot and insect damage and extends the tie's life-span from about a decade to at least 25 years.","When filtering liquids, it's all about thinking small.","Membrane filters can separate the tiniest solids from fluids, which purifies the liquids and recovers the solids.","Once separated, the two substances may then be reused so that nothing goes to waste.","Membrane filters can turn murky water clear, almost magically.","To demonstrate, a technician installs a spiral-wound membrane in the housing of a pumping system, which is a small-scale version of what you would see in a factory.","She turns on the tap, and water flows into a tank.","She adds latex paint to purposely sully the water.","The system pumps the contaminated water through a strainer and then the membrane filter while meters measure the flow.","Within minutes, the paint has been filtered out, and the water is clear.","The making of a membrane filter begins with polypropylene mesh.","An automated system unwinds the mesh and cuts it to length.","These mesh sheets will be used as spacers.","They'll create gaps for the liquid to flow through the filter and over the membrane.","Next, the system cuts sheets of polyester fabric.","These will form channels through which the filtered material will travel.","These sheets are known as permeate spacers.","An employee stacks the polyester fabric sheets.","Using high-frequency sound waves, she welds one sheet to the next at just one end.","She layers and welds a total of 15 sheets, and then applies double-sided tape.","The tape is for attaching the packet to a central tube, and it will also serve as a guide to correctly align it.","Next, the membrane soup flows into a long trough.","It's a mix of melted plastics and solvents.","Paper backing unwinds into the trough and is coated with the soup on one side.","The coated paper then travels through two quench tanks, and the plastic components solidify as the solvents are drawn out.","The exiting solvents create a unique core structure in the remaining white plastic membrane.","The membrane now travels by a light box, which illuminates any visual defects.","An applicator also drips a preservative onto the membrane.","A team unrolls the membrane onto a work table.","They lay a sheet of the polypropylene mesh, which we saw cut to size earlier, on the membrane.","The employee then cuts the membrane to twice the length of the mesh.","They fold the membrane over the mesh, creating a membrane envelope.","The mesh serves as a pathway for fluid to flow between the membranes.","Meanwhile, another worker applies epoxy to perforated plastic tube.","He attaches the permeate spacers to it with the double-sided tape, giving the epoxy time to cure for a permanent seal.","He and a colleague apply more epoxy to the perimeter of the bottom sheet.","They transfer the membrane envelope to it and continue to layer, making a permeate fabric and membrane sandwich.","The worker then winds the glued layers snuggly to a perforated plastic core, forming the spiral membrane filter.","He tapes the multi-layered wad from one end to the other.","The tape holds everything tightly in place as the epoxy cures overnight.","They leave the tape on after the cure, and a machine winds epoxy-drenched fiberglass rope around the entire filter.","As the epoxy cures, the rope will form a hard shell around the membrane filter.","Partway through, they apply the label with a company name.","The operator captures the glue runoff during the wind.","And it's a wrap, so he cuts the rope.","From the side, you can see the flow channels between the layers.","Concentrated contaminants will travel through them and out.","The filtered liquid will seep into the core and exit, clearly improved.","The invention of the hydraulic post driver in the 1960s allowed workers to drop their shovels and sledgehammers and let a machine do the job of pounding fence and sign posts into the ground.","When it comes to labor-saving inventions, this one is definitely a striking example.","The post driver raises hefty fence or sign posts into position, and then slams them into the ground.","Inside a vertical case, a hydraulic system drops a 300-pound weight to drive the post, and then lifts it for another hit.","This machine does the work of two or more brawny humans with just one person at the controls.","To make it, they start with a vertical case for the weight.","A high-precision plasma torch cuts steel into a rectangular shape and makes holes for components.","They insert the rectangle into a break-press repeatedly to bend it into a three-sided part.","The profile includes flanges for welding it to the back wall of the case.","He fits the part to the back wall and welds them together, completing the post driver case.","An employee builds the post driver weight working within a weld fixture.","It's a box-shaped weight, and he welds it at the seams.","He taps the corners between the welds to maintain a tight configuration.","This 300-pound weight can later be filled with steel shot to make it even heavier for greater impact.","The next worker assembles yellow steel jaws to a hub to produce the grapple.","This is the part that grips the fence post and raises it into position.","He sticks a danger label onto the hub to warn people to stay clear of these powerful jaws.","He attaches a hydraulic cylinder, which will make the jaws open and close.","He connects the cylinder to the grapple jaw.","Next, they move on to the metal plate that will be used to mount the post driver to a vehicle, like a skid-steer loader.","It includes a hydraulic mechanism for tilting the fence post left or right.","The employee installs a control valve next to the cylinder and links the two with hoses.","He'll also connect the grapple and weight hydraulics to this valve.","Back to the post driver case now-- it's been painted, and they're ready to install the hydraulic motor.","The worker connects it to the sprockets and chains that will lift the weight.","He pins the sprockets into place and installs tensioning rods on either side.","Next, a cover plate protects the sprockets.","The tensioning rods protrude through it.","He slides springs onto those tensioning rods and compresses the springs to maintain the tension.","He now attaches the grapple to the post driver case.","He locks it into place with a long pin.","He links the grapple hydraulics to the control valve.","And it's ready to grab big fence posts and hold on tight.","They attach the metal mounting plate to the post driver case.","The work table tilts back to move the post driver into an upright position.","With the help of a crane, the next worker moves the weight into position and lowers it into the case.","He slides a pin into the top end to keep the weight from falling out when the post driver is on an angle.","One day in the making, this hydraulic post driver is ready for years of heavy labor, taking over for humans so they don't have to move a muscle.","A biplane is a vintage-style aircraft with two pairs of wings sitting one above the other.","The top wings are typically raised above the fuselage with vertical struts bracing them to the bottom wings.","Dating back to the earliest days of aviation, they're still popular for performing aerobatics.","A biplane's lower wings have ailerons, which bank the airplane to the right or left.","On the plane's tail, elevators pitch the plane's nose up or down while a rudder steers it left or right.","A propeller provides the propulsion.","The plane has four wings.","Each wing has two spars, wooden beams at the front and rear, which form the perimeter structure.","A craftsman skillfully fashions these spars out of sitka spruce.","This wood is exceedingly light, yet exceptionally strong, making it one of only a few woods approved for structural use in airplanes.","After sawing the wood to the spar's shape, he mounts attachment plates made of sitka spruce and mahogany plywood.","These are the end struts, steel vertical bars which will connect the upper and lower wings.","He finishes the spar by refining its contour, first with a hand plane, then an electric plane.","Using strips of sitka spruce, he constructs 15 structural ribs for each wing.","He begins with long strips, which have been soaking in water for a week to make them pliable.","He inserts one end into a curved fixture and leaves the strips to dry.","When he removes them a couple of days later, they have a permanent aerodynamic curve.","He glues two curved strips together to form the perimeter of one rib.","In between, he glues short diagonal strips called trusses.","He reinforces both sides of each intersection with a rectangular piece called a gusset.","An assembler mounts the 15 ribs crosswise on the front and rear wing spars, then installs three aluminum tubes called compression ribs.","These absorb air load hitting the spars, keeping the wooden ribs from flexing under pressure.","The craftsman connects the compression ribs with criss-crossing metal rods.","After applying more glue to critical areas, he nails an aluminum trim over the front spar and nose of the ribs.","This is called the leading edge.","It's the first part of the wing to hit the wind, so it takes the brunt of the air load.","Finally, he laces reinforcement tape through the ribs in an x pattern.","The completed structure now moves to the covering department where technicians drape it in heat shrinkable polyester fabric.","They cut the fabric to size, glue it to the wing perimeter, and heat the surface with an iron to shrink the fabric until it's taut.","Then, they stitch over the glued areas with polyester cord.","They brush on a chemical which seals the pores of the fabric.","This primes the surface to receive a spray coat of polyurethane paint, which is a special formulation designed for aircraft bodies.","Technicians construct the fuselage frame out of high-strength steel alloy tubes.","They use an electric torch to slightly melt adjoining pieces so they fuse to each other.","Because there's no filler metal bonding the pieces, the welds don't add any weight to the structure.","After painting the frame, technicians install aluminum floor panels and bulkheads.","In the tail, they add lighter weight bulkheads made of mahogany plywood and sitka spruce.","Then it's time to bolt the engine to the front of the fuselage frame.","The engine drives a propeller made of either wood, aluminum, or a composite material.","Painted aluminum body panels cover the frame.","Technicians install the fuel tank between the front cockpit and the engine.","Then they bolt the wings to the fuselage.","Vertical steel struts connect and reinforce the two levels of wings bolting to those attachment plates on the wing spars.","Next, technicians mount the painted aluminum ailerons, the tail, with its elevators and rudder made of painted fabric over welded steel, and then the engine cover.","They install a windscreen and instrument panel for each cockpit.","The front screen can be replaced with a cockpit cover to keep the pilots warm when flying in cold weather."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Zip Line Brakes","Silk Fibre Lamps","Round Balers","Comfort Shoes"]},"text":["Many thrill-seekers find zip lines exhilarating.","But without the proper braking system, they can quickly become terrifying.","Magnetic brakes are hands-free and engage automatically.","So there's no need to panic.","Just hang on, enjoy the ride, and let the brake take care of the landing.","In early human history, zip lines were used to transfer supplies across dangerous terrain.","Today, zip lines are popular with tourists and adrenaline junkies all over the world.","As the rider approaches the landing, the brake engages using magnets that induce eddy currents instead of friction.","This creates enough drag to stop the ride.","To make a zip line brake, they start with a drum.","It's made of zinc-coated steel to prevent rust.","A worker sends off the zinc so they can add the magnets.","He hammers locating pins into the metal.","He applies adhesive to the sanded areas, then places magnets onto the adhesive.","He uses steel pins as a guide.","As the adhesive cures, the magnets bond to the metal.","Next, he applies a bonding agent to a shaft bearing and inserts it into the hole in the center.","Using a hydraulic press, he drives the bearing further into the hole.","These rotor arms will spin in the magnetic field to create the braking force.","A worker fits gears into two plates and bolts the plates to each side of the rotor assembly.","He tests the rotor arms and slides the rotor gears onto the shaft already installed in the brake drum.","He opens the rotors and spins them.","He adds a ring of magnets to surround the rotors in a magnetic field.","Satisfied with the fit, he removes the rotor assembly from the drum temporarily and clips springs to the rotor.","These reaction springs will cushion the braking action.","Now a worker reinstalls the rotor device in the brake drum.","He places the magnetic ring back on top.","The strong magnetic attraction secures it to the assembly.","The next part is a large ring with more gears inside it.","He hammers and then screws it in place.","He spins the assembly again to confirm it's functional.","He installs the final two gears on the end of the shaft.","This completes the core of the zip line brake.","Another employee stitches a nylon hand grip to tough, synthetic webbing.","When this webbing is pulled out of the brake, it will set the rotor arms in motion to create the eddy currents that are the braking force.","After protecting the brake core with a metal plate, a worker puts the unit in a plastic case.","He installs a plate on the shaft for the webbing to sit on, then loops the webbing around it.","He also places a drum on top for the retraction spring.","He applies silicone adhesive around the drum.","This secures the aluminum base plate.","He now inserts the retraction spring.","He caps the spring with a metal plate and reinforces the clips with metallic tape.","Using a crank, he winds more of the webbing into the brake.","He tightens the metal shackle that holds the two sections of webbing together and winds the rest of it into the device.","He inserts a guide roller for the webbing and adds a two-part retaining clip.","He secures the clip with a rounded metal pin.","This next part is a plastic insert for the top of the case.","He screws a nut onto the shaft to lock down the insert.","He places the top half of the case onto the brake assembly and secures it to the lower half.","He snaps a dust cover onto the case.","They're now ready to test this zip line brake system.","A motor pulls out the webbing to simulate different body weights and different zip lining speeds, while a computer analyzes the brake's performance.","With magnetic zip line brakes, riders can come down at a wide range of speeds but still slow down at the same rate, ensuring that everyone has a fun but safe ride.","Silk fibres can be creatively crafted into a variety of artistic objects, from paper to fabric or even items like lamps.","The fibres are translucent, so they can take bright, white light and diffuse it into warm, beautiful mood lighting.","This lamp doesn't have shades.","Instead, it has natural-looking silk flowers which conceal its lights.","The lamp base is made of branches.","To create this functional artwork, the artisan begins with a roving.","A roving is a bundle of fibres harvested from a silk moth caterpillar's cocoon.","They've been cleaned and straightened.","She places the roving in a nylon mesh bag, then submerges it in a specially formulated dye.","She heats the dye to 185 degrees, then sprinkles in more powdered dye to produces splashes of bolder colors.","After a couple of minutes, she removes the roving...","And rinses off the excess dye.","She hangs the roving on a rack until it's completely dry.","Roving is typically spun into thread to make silk fabric, but this artisan has a different technique.","She spreads a sheet of tulle on her work table.","Then she gently separates the fine, hair-like fibres and lays them out on the tulle.","Each pile will be turned into a flower for the lamp.","She folds over the tulle to create a barrier that keeps the fibers from sticking to her hands.","She prepares the fibres for the textile medium she'll apply next, a polymer adhesive.","She saturates each pile with water containing a few drops of dishwashing detergent to open up the fibres.","Then she sponges up the excess water and soaks up any other remaining moisture with a towel so the medium does not become diluted.","Now she's ready to apply the polymer adhesive.","As the fibres absorb the medium, they fuse together, forming a sheet of silk fibre paper.","After folding back the tulle, she begins molding each paper into a flower.","She spreads the paper over a balloon and lets it dry overnight.","With a few simple steps, she has transformed a colorless roving into colorful sheets of moldable silk fibre paper.","The next day, she pops the balloon.","The silk fibre paper holds its round shape.","Using the textile medium again, she glues her silk fibre flowers to juniper branches.","She secures them with a needle and thread, matching the thread color to the silk so that it blends in.","She further sculpts the flowers with a stitch or two in select spots.","And dabs textile medium on the thread to secure it.","Then she glues in a second, slightly smaller flower, creating two layers of petals.","She takes some fibres she dyed green and glues them under the blooms to form wispy leaves.","Finally, to turn this sculpture into a functioning lamp, she places a battery powered l.e.d. push light in the center of each flower.","The lamp needs no inner wiring and doesn't need to be plugged into an outlet.","You simply press the middle of each flower to turn its hidden push light on or off.","A simple sculpture by day, and a gentle light by night.","Round hay balers automatically roll hay into large bundles.","They can also wrap the rolled hay in twine or plastic.","This american invention allows farmers to put down their pitchforks and leave the work to the machines.","The invention of the round baler was a farming breakthrough.","Round bales of hay stayed drier than square ones.","Making a round hay baler starts with a computerized fiber-optic laser.","It cuts steel sheaths into the shape of the side panels and makes holes for hardware and machine components.","Once the cuts have been made, workers remove the leftover materials.","They'll be recycled into new steel sheets.","Next, the baler side panel goes to a computerized hydraulic folder.","It bends the edges of the panel to prepare it for assembly.","With the side panel clamped in a fixture, a worker slides bolts into a part called the doubler plate.","This plate will be used to reinforce the panel.","He welds the heads of the bolts to the doubler plate.","The bolts protrude up so bearings and other parts can be attached later.","He adds other reinforcing parts, supports for rollers, and a box for twine.","Then it's over to the paint department.","They prime and paint both sides of the panel with an epoxy finish in order to protect the steel from corrosion.","After the paint dries, cranes lift two panels over to a fixture that holds several baler rollers.","Workers insert the ends of the rollers into holes in the side panels.","They add an auger for moving the hay away from the sides of the baler.","They secure all of these components with bolts.","Next, they install a belt-tightening assembly.","The bars will hold the hay-shaping belts at the correct tension.","After adding a bearing to the bottom feed roller, a worker installs sprockets.","He also loops chains around them.","The sprockets and chains will drive the 14 rollers in the baler.","The next part is known as the hay pickup, because its steel teeth lift hay from the field and into the baler.","It fits on the front of the machine.","Now a worker installs the wheels.","He brushes a lubricant onto spindles and inserts them in the wheel axles.","Bolts secure the spindles to the axles.","Then he mounts the wheels to the spindles and locks them in place with nuts.","Once the two wheels are installed, a crane lifts the machine into an upright position in order to install the rear chamber.","A crane lowers the rear chamber onto the baler assembly.","As the hay is shaped with a round bale by the machine, it will gradually expand in this chamber.","These rubber belts will roll the hay into round bales.","The team loops them around tensioning rollers, arranging them closely together.","A worker joins the ends of each belt by pushing steel pins through riveted lacing.","An employee applies vinyl decals to the outside of the baler.","The decals display the company name and the machine model in bold graphics.","The machine is equipped with hydraulic cylinders so the rear chamber can be raised and lowered.","A technician syncs the tractor cab monitor to sensors added to the baler during the assembly.","The sensors indicate the position of the back gate, the status of the bale wrapping equipment, and the moisture level in the hay.","After a complete operational check, this baler is ready to give farmers or ranchers a break by automatically creating round bales of hay.","With footwear, extremely comfortable used to mean extremely ugly.","Not anymore.","Today's comfort shoes don't look anything like they used to.","They can be just as stylish as any other shoe, but also provide sturdy, cushioning foot support.","These comfort shoes come with two interchangeable insoles.","One is an anatomically shaped footbed with good arch support.","The other is a reflexology footbed that massages your feet while you walk.","The top of the shoe is made of leather.","An operator spreads the cowhide on a cutting table and positions a part-shaped steel die over it.","With a press, he forces the die through the leather.","The die has blades on both sides, so after cutting a part for the right shoe, he flips it over and cuts the same part for the left shoe.","They stencil on guide marks for stitching and stamp on a production number.","Due to the natural variations between hides, they cut parts for a pair of shoes from the same piece of leather.","A production number keeps the parts from being inadvertently used on a different pair of shoes.","They place the part under a template and run it through a lateral knife.","This thins the leather where it will overlap adjoining parts so the thickness of the upper shoe is uniform throughout.","They apply reinforcement fabric to the most wear-prone areas of the shoe.","This machine bonds these adhesive factory enforcements with pressure and heat.","Now sewers begin assembling the upper.","They glue the parts for the lining together because stitches that are on the inside of the shoe can sometimes irritate the foot.","The lining is made of soft calf leather, except for a small piece of rougher goat leather at the back to grip the heel.","They sew in the lining one section at a time.","This is the rear section of the upper, called the heel cap.","After sewing one side, they insert a foam padding to cushion the back of the foot.","Then they fold the lining over to encase the padding.","This machine punches holes and embeds eyelets into the upper.","Then a sewer attaches two more parts of the upper, the tongue and the vamp.","Another sewer finishes the upper by stitching on the vamp ring.","They put the upper into a mold on a forming machine.","The machine works like an iron, applying both heat and pressure to form the heel cap into the perfect shape.","The next forming machine uses the same process to round the toe cap.","Now a sewer stitches a hole to the upper.","Then they steam the upper and insert a last.","A last is a foot-shaped plastic form that matches the specific shape and size of the shoe.","They place the upper into a heat setter.","The heat forms the upper to the shape of the last.","They roll out wrinkles and flatten any bulges with heat and pressure.","They place the upper in a template of the shoe's outer sole and trace the top.","They grind the leather below that line.","This roughens the surface to help with adhesion.","They apply heat-activated glue to the roughened area and the sole, which is made of molded polyurethane.","They let the glue dry.","Then they activate the glue with a heater and join the upper and sole.","They place the shoe in a vacuum press.","The press sucks out the air while drawing the upper and sole tightly together.","Next, they add an anatomically shaped footbed insole.","It's made of a moisture absorbing combination of cork and latex with leather on top.","Then they lace the shoes and insert cardboard to support the shape during transport.","They spray the upper with a chemical solution that makes the leather water-resistant.","The second set of insoles goes in the shoe box.","These shoes are designed with enough room to insert a custom orthotic device, if needed."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Bead Wire","Mini Pepperoni","Irrigation Sprinklers","Leather Gloves"]},"text":["The bead is the lip of the tire that fits to a wheel rim.","High-tensile steel wires inside the bead pull the tire tightly and uniformly to the rim.","These bead wires provide stability so the wheels can start turning.","These bronze-coated steel wires are the muscle in the bead of a tire.","They're a source of hidden strength that we don't usually think about.","But without them, tires wouldn't properly grip the rim, and riding on wheels would be dangerous.","Production starts with coils of high-carbon steel.","A forklift slides the coils onto metal cones.","A worker cuts the ties around the wire.","Then the cone moves into an upright position on the carousel.","A motorized system uncoils the wire and pulls it up through the cone.","At the top, a guide positions the wire to enter a descaler.","The device has a revolving sandpaper belt which smoothes and refines the wire.","Next, the wire travels through a channel filled with powdered soap, which acts as a dry lubricant.","Then, the system pulls the wire through a series of dies, each with progressively smaller openings.","The process is called drawing because it draws down the diameter of the wire, stretching it longer and thinner.","The process reduces the wire's diameter by almost half.","A carriage lifts the thinner wire onto a spool that winds it up.","The table the spool sits on turns to deliver the wire to the next operation.","The spool of wire is one of 40 that now unwind simultaneously at a controlled speed.","Large cones keep them separate so they'll be ready for the next stage of the journey-- a trip through a long oven.","It's heated to an incredible 1,800 degrees.","Inside, intense heat recrystalizes the microstructure of the wires.","This reduces brittleness.","Then spools take up the wires.","The wires take a dip in a tank filled with hot water and phosphate solution.","A floating foam blanket keeps the solution hot.","The phosphate solution and a subsequent rinse lubricate the bead wire for the next process-- a second drawing that squeezes the wire even longer and narrower.","The holes in a series of dies become progressively narrower to reduce the wire's diameter even further.","After each trip through a die, a drum winds up the wire.","Each drum turns a little faster than the one before it.","That's because longer wires need to be wound up quicker to prevent slack in the system.","This final drawing process brings the wire's diameter down to less than 1 millimeter.","The bead wires are now at the correct width.","Next, the bead wires receive their bronze coating.","Bronzing the steel wires allows them to adhere to the tire rubber.","After the bronze solution dries, two rollers straighten the wires.","Then a spool winds up the bead wire.","They produce bead wire in different thicknesses and metal coatings for a variety of tire sizes.","They test the wires before they leave the factory.","If it can withstand up to 1,500 pounds of force before it breaks, then it's ready to be shipped to the tire factory.","Once they're installed in rubber tires, these bead wires will be an important source of strength, doing their part to keep your vehicle moving forward safely.","Mini pepperoni makes a great portable snack.","It's made of red meat or poultry.","This protein-packed snack can alleviate even the most serious hunger pains.","The meat sticks are fermented and dehydrated, so they don't need to be refrigerated.","This brand of mini pepperoni is made entirely of pork.","It comes in a variety of flavors, each made with different seasonings.","First, they prepare the raw meat.","They combine different cuts in specific proportions to attain their target meat-to-fat ratio.","The meat comes from the pig's back, shoulder, and belly.","The butcher loads the pork into an automated grinder.","It grinds the pork until it's the right texture for mini pepperoni.","The meat was frozen, then partially thawed before entering the machine.","As a result, the pork grinds cleanly.","The seasoning recipe includes paprika, cayenne pepper, dextrose, anise, and salt.","They also mix in sodium nitrate, a preservative that prevents bacterial growth and gives the meat a cured flavor.","They load the ground pork into a mixer and pour in some lactic acid bacterial culture, which will kick-start fermentation later.","Next, they add the seasoning mix and a premeasured amount of concentrated liquid paprika.","They continue mixing for a couple of minutes, distributing the ingredients evenly.","Then they transfer the ground pork from the mixer to a meat buggy.","They roll the meat buggy over to the filling machine...","And empty the contents.","A worker loads a tube of sausage casing.","The casing is made of bovine collagen.","The filling machine pumps out 1.6 ounces of ground pork then twists the casing between each one to form a link.","The machine feeds 25-link chains onto a hanging line.","The line spaces them out to preserve their perfect sausage shape.","One casing tube makes 100 links.","Next, they ferment, smoke, and dry the meat.","Workers hang three dozen 25-link chains on each smokehouse rack.","Then they roll the rack into the smokehouse.","First, they humidify and heat the links to approximately 77 degrees, triggering fermentation.","The lactic acid bacterial culture starts feeding on the dextrose in the seasoning.","The process increases the acidity in the meat, preventing harmful bacteria from growing.","It also produces a fermented flavor.","After about 14 hours, they lower the temperature and humidity to halt fermentation.","Next, they start up the smoke generator, which they've loaded with maple and beechwood chips.","They run several smoking cycles until the links change color and acquire a slightly sweet and smoky taste.","Then they raise the heat again to cook the meat thoroughly.","Finally, they dry the links in a temperature and humidity-controlled room for a couple of days.","Workers separate the links and put 10 into the bottom of each tray.","The trays go into a vacuum-packing machine, which sucks out the air then seals the top with plastic.","The pepperoni is tested by an in-house lab before packaging.","They confirm that the moisture content is sufficiently low and the acidity reading is sufficiently high.","If it is, the final product is considered shelf-stable, meaning that it isn't perishable and doesn't require refrigeration.","Where mother nature fails, a center-pivot irrigation system can succeed.","If you can't afford to wait on the rain, these systems can water your crops.","They're essentially a huge sprinkler on wheels that pivots around a central point in a slow, circular path.","Developed in the 20th century, center-pivot sprinklers have become a staple on large farms.","They can be up to a half-mile in length and sprawl across fields, ensuring there isn't a dry spot in sight.","They custom-design each sprinkler for the field it will be irrigating.","Then, they transform flat, high-strength steel into a water pipe for the sprinkler system.","The steel travels between forming tools and then a series of rollers.","They curve the steel upwards, taking it from flat to cylindrical.","More rollers squeeze the pipe to close the gap.","Then an automated induction welder can fuse the joint.","A carbide blade trims excess metal from the welded seam.","The metal is collected on a spool to be recycled.","Next, they douse the pipe with coolant.","A plasma torch then moves along the pipe to cut it into 40-foot sections.","The pipes fall off the cutting line and roll into a holding area.","After the pipes have been inspected for flaws, a team clamps flanges to the ends.","These flanges will be used to link the water pipes in the field.","They weld the flanges to the pipes.","Next, the welder uses a plasma torch to cut outlets for sprinkler heads.","He welds a threaded fitting onto each outlet.","The water pipe is complete.","They'll use dozens of these pipes for a single irrigation system.","Next, a progressive die stamps hook plates from steel.","Hook plates hold the spans of the sprinkler together.","They also keep the sprinkler flexible as it moves.","Robots weld mounting plates and other parts to a pipe, creating a base for the sprinkler system's wheeled towers.","Then they dip all the parts in molten zinc.","The zinc hardens as it cools to give the pipes a glossy, rust-proof finish.","Next, an employee assembles the sprinkler heads.","She screws a weight to the plastic sprinkler body to stabilize it.","Then she snaps on a spray nozzle.","The nozzles come in various sizes for different applications.","Finally, she adds a pressure regulator.","The next member of the team lubricates the wheel rims with soapy water.","Then he installs the rubber tires.","The tire size and tread are selected based on expected field conditions.","These tires should allow the sprinkler system to rotate freely.","They ship the parts of the sprinkler system to the field.","They arrange the pipes on the ground in the correct configuration...","And set all the structural components beside them.","Then they start assembling the immense sprinkler system, beginning with the triangular supports for the water pipes.","They hoist the ends of two pipes onto the supports and bolt them at the flanges.","They repeat this process until the structure stretches across the field.","A crew member screws the sprinklers to hoses.","He connects the hoses to u-shaped fittings screwed into the pipes.","Next, they complete the electrical wiring.","Then they roll the wheels to the end towers and bolt them to the gear motor hubs.","It takes a full day to assemble a center-pivot sprinkler system in the field.","By tapping into an underground source, the system can pump out water through the sprinkler heads.","During a drought, this irrigation system can provide a long, cold drink for crops on a hot summer day.","Gloves have long been a part of human history.","Up until the middle ages, most people ate with their hands.","So, ancient romans wore silk or linen gloves to protect their hands from hot food.","Today, leather gloves are mainly used to provide warmth, but they can also make a fashion statement.","These gloves are made of high-quality lambskin.","The tanneries process the hides to make the leather smooth, supple, and very durable.","The gloves are then handcrafted in france.","Making a fine pair of leather gloves starts with a master glove-cutter.","Cutting expertise is just as important as the quality of leather they use.","First, he adds water to make the leather supple.","Then he stretches the skin in a single direction.","This prevents the glove from stretching and losing its shape after it's made.","He uses a rectangular template to make indentations in the leather, then cuts them with shears.","He produces two rectangles, one for each glove in the pair.","He stretches the leather again.","A master glove-cutter knows how to optimize the natural stretch in the skin.","He deliberately leaves room in certain areas for comfort and eliminates stretch in other areas to preserve the glove's fit.","Using the template again, he marks and makes his final cuts.","The rectangle is for the section of the glove that covers the hand, called the trank.","He marks the glove size with a white pencil.","He follows the same procedure to cut pieces of leather for the other parts of the glove.","They include the thumb, the pieces that go in between the fingers called the fourchettes, and the decorative trim.","He uses a die to cut each part.","There's a separate die for each part of every glove model.","There's also a different die for each size.","The cutter places a few pieces into a trank die.","Then, he covers the leather with a resin block to prevent damage from the press.","The press quickly cuts the pieces.","Then, all the cut pieces are sent to the sewing department.","The head seamstress makes a paper pattern.","This model has three rows of stitching and three circular openings on the back of the hand.","She places the pattern on the leather then uses talc to transfer the design.","She uses specialized tools to punch out the openings and perforate the stitch holes.","Then another seamstress sews the glove together.","She starts with the three rows of decorative stitching.","They form three raised lines and stretch the round openings into ovals.","The rest of the glove is machine-sewn.","The seamstress turns the trank inside out and stitches the fourchettes to the fingers.","Then she sews on the thumb and the trim on the cuff.","She finishes off the cuff with an engraved rivet.","Another seamstress attaches a silk jersey lining to the inside of the glove.","There are also linings made of cashmere, wool, fur, and polar fleece.","She hand stitches the lining to the leather in each fingertip.","She turns the glove right-side out, using a wooden tool to gently push out the fingers.","A final seamstress slips the gloves onto heated hand forms.","She rubs the leather with a downward motion to manually iron out all the wrinkles.","The packager wears a pair of cotton gloves to ensure the leather remains pristine.","These leather gloves were artisan-crafted using century-old techniques and nothing more advanced than a simple sewing machine.","Now they're ready to stylishly warm up even the coldest hands."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Rubber Balls","Motion Chairs","Montreal Smoked Meat","Motorized Scooters"]},"text":["today on \"how it's made\"-- rubber balls.","Motion chairs.","Montreal smoked meat.","And motorized scooters.","A lot happens when an inflated rubber ball hits the ground.","The rubber compresses and quickly snaps back to its round shape.","That snapping back makes the ball bounce.","In addition, the air inside the ball acts as a tightly coiled spring increasing the rebound.","When an inflated rubber ball falls to the ground, it bounces back, and players catch it on the rebound.","This type of ball is at the heart of many games, from basketball to soccer to volleyball.","At the core is an inflated rubber bladder.","Making it starts with a sheet of natural rubber.","The factory worker folds it in a specific configuration.","He places a die on top and activates a press to force it through the layers, which cuts out the shape.","He now has the bladder of a sports ball.","He brushes an adhesive around the hole in the bladder and inserts a plug.","Another worker inflates the rubber bladder as she places it in a spherical chamber.","It heats and cures the rubber for 5 minutes at a temperature of 284 degrees fahrenheit.","The rubber bladder spins on a revolving cylinder, causing it to take up nylon threads.","The threads twist around the bladder and form a layer that both strengthens it and keeps it round.","The material that will form the exterior of the ball is made using colored synthetic rubber, natural rubber, magnesium carbonate, and mineral oil.","Once it cures, a worker rolls it into thick sheets and slices it to a specific width.","He folds it several times.","This blue rubber will be used for volleyballs.","The folded rubber now travels between a series of rollers.","They flatten it and press it extremely thin, and it becomes both lightweight and formable.","An automated blade slices the rubber into shorter pieces.","A metal pattern cutter will now be used to cut the rubber into strips, which will fit together to form the outside of the ball.","These particular strips are for a basketball.","The worker places the pattern on several pieces of rubber.","A press forces the sharp-edged pattern through the rubber to cut out fish-shaped strips that are designed to fit around the round bladder.","She lines the two halves of a bonding shaper with the strips.","She inserts the bladder and re-inflates it.","She closes the bonding chamber and activates it.","Inside, heat and pressure cause the strips to stick to the bladder.","To make a medicine ball, which is used for exercising, a different pattern cutter is used.","The forming process is the same, but this ball has a unique visual impact very different from that of the basketball.","Back at the basketball station, a worker applies the brand name to the outer skin in two places.","Glue helps the decals stick to the rubber.","This mold will now transfer a pattern onto the rubber ball while also baking the lettering into it.","Another worker places the ball in the mold and pumps more air into the bladder.","He closes the lid.","The mold applies heat and pressure to emboss the pattern onto the rubber.","The lettering has penetrated the rubber, and the worker peels off the decal plastic.","Another worker replenishes the air that's been lost to make the ball completely full and round.","The ball is now ready to receive its stripes.","The worker paints black rubber into grooves that were formed during embossing.","This rubber quickly cures to become part of the ball.","Another worker inserts a fill valve into the hole.","Then, mechanical fists squeeze the ball to deflate it.","This prepares it for packaging.","With the valve inside, it can be easily re-inflated by the customer.","A worker wraps it in plastic and ships it to the retailer.","Making this rubber basketball has only taken a couple of hours, but it should be able to take a lot of knocks and bounce right back.","Having a desk job doesn't mean one has to sit still.","With a motion chair, the office worker can keep moving while staying seated.","The support structure is engineered for flexibility, so while sitting, a person can bounce, tilt, and sway.","Motion chairs redefine the act of sitting.","The stem is springy, and the connection to the seat is elastic.","This allows the office worker to be active while sitting.","Making a motion chair starts with glass-reinforced plastic, which is a strong and lightweight material.","These granules will be used to make the core of the seat.","A robot inserts a steel fastener in the center of the seat mold.","The mold closes, and the machine melts the plastic and injects it into the mold.","The plastic quickly solidifies around the steel fastener, and it becomes part of the seat core.","A robot with suctioning grippers pulls the convex-shaped seat core out.","A worker assembles a height-adjustment lever in the hole beside the one for the seat stem.","A molded plastic top completes the seat core.","He anchors it to the core with numerous screws, so even with heavy use, the top should stay firmly in place.","He visually inspects the seat core and confirms that it looks solid.","Cushioning foam and fabric complete the seat.","A worker assembles roller mechanisms that will facilitate the vertical movements of the chair's stem.","Using a special assembly tool, she presses the plastic roller and two end brackets on a metal cylinder.","She then applies an index to an aluminum support column that serves as a guide for setting the tension of an outer spring.","She inserts the roller mechanisms in slots at the other end of the column.","Strips of fabric tape keep the rollers in place.","An air cylinder presses the outer sleeve onto the column so that it sits above the tension index.","A screw between the inner and outer cylinders keeps them in position.","Next up is a compression part for setting the position of the outer seat spring.","A worker slides a metal ring between the compression part and the support column.","He inserts a gas spring into the double-walled seat stem.","He now slides the outer spring onto the assembly.","He installs a plastic casing over the gas spring.","Then he puts the seat stem inside a press chamber.","He adds a top collar to the center of the gas spring as well as a snap ring.","He activates the press, and it squeezes everything together.","Next is a stand with flexible rubber parts that will make lateral movement possible while sitting.","The worker attaches the flexible stand to a circular base.","He confirms that holes for rolling casters or gliders in the base are the correct dimension.","He screws a dial for setting lateral movement onto the protruding fastener.","He secures it with a nut and tightens it.","He covers the nut with a rubber cap.","A tester will now evaluate the motion chair's performance.","He attaches the stem to the base, and he fastens the seat to the protruding rod.","He sits down and bounces around to test the range of movement.","These tests are done intermittently to confirm that the the product consistently meets requirements.","This motion chair is now ready for shipping.","The packer plugs a hole in the base ring.","This hole is for attaching an optional backrest.","He applies a sticker with the product name.","All of the parts of the motion chair can be easily assembled on location.","Designed to discourage rigid sitting and encourage movement in any direction, it will compel the person using it to use his or her core muscles and be less sedentary on the job.","With the motion chair, it just may be possible to get fit while you sit.","For at least a century, montreal's jewish delis have been serving smoked meat on rye.","The exact origins of this particular deli meat are a matter of debate with many claims to its invention.","The juicy details have been lost to time, but montreal smoked meat continues to have an enduring appeal.","A cross between corn beef and pastrami, montreal smoked meat has attracted a foodie following around the world.","Montreal smoked meat starts with brisket, which is a cut from the cow's upper chest.","A worker thaws the previously frozen briskets in a refrigerator for 10 hours.","A team slices off the biggest chunks of fat using round, air-powered blades.","The excess fat will be shipped to another factory and used to make soap.","The workers use a sharp butcher's knife to remove smaller pieces of fat, leaving just enough for flavor.","Next, they prepare the brine.","Along with salt and sugar, there's a secret recipe of spices that includes peppers, mustard seed, allspice, and cinnamon.","The operator combines the salt and sugar with ice-cold water in a high-speed mixer.","The spices have been premixed in water to produce a spice concentrate.","The next worker loads the trimmed briskets onto a conveyor.","It takes the briskets under an array of long needles that inject the brine into the meat repeatedly.","Laced with brine, the briskets then fall into a bin.","A worker transfers the juicy briskets into a vacuum tumbler.","It pulls air from the chamber, causing the briskets to absorb more brine.","The tumbler tosses the briskets for 10 hours, massaging the brine into the meat.","A layer of protein also forms on the surface.","This holds the brine in place.","In the meantime, a worker mixes the ingredients for the dry rub.","It's comprised of the same spices that were used in the brine along with clumps of fresh garlic.","After the briskets have been well marinated, the operator adds the dry rub.","He turns on the tumbler for another half hour.","The dry rub mixture coats the surface of the meat.","This system is an alternative to rubbing the spices onto the briskets by hand.","It's faster and very efficient.","Coated with smoked meat spices and injected with flavorful brine, the briskets are now ready for roasting.","An employee rolls racks of the spicy briskets into a huge oven.","The briskets steam-roast at 210 degrees fahrenheit for 8 to 10 hours, but the workers don't actually smoke the briskets.","It's the spices and brine that give them that montreal smoked meat flavor.","After the briskets have been chilled, workers transfer them to plastic bags and place them on a conveyor.","Moving forward, a vacuum-sealing head drops down to shrink-wrap the plastic to the meat.","The vacuum seal and the smoked meat spices combined give the meat a long shelf life.","Refrigerated, it will stay fresh for up to 45 days.","This plant ships the entire brisket to restaurants.","At the restaurant, they will re-steam and slice the brisket before serving.","Next, the smoked meat is pre-sliced to sell in supermarkets.","An automatic meat slicer carves it into thin pieces in seconds.","A worker retrieves the sliced smoked meat and sets it on a tray.","Transferred to a weigh station, workers divide the slices into 6-ounce portions.","Then they roll up the smoked meat slices.","A worker places the rolled meat into plastic pouches on a rack.","The racks move forward, and a vacuum sealer applies a top film, creating little packets of sliced smoked meat.","After a quick bake to pasteurize the meat, he puts six packets into compartments on a conveyor.","A pusher moves the six packets of smoked meat into an open box.","The system seals the ends of the boxes.","Workers weigh the box of smoked meat slices.","It has taken about 30 hours to produce this batch of montreal smoked meat.","It's time to slice it thin and pile it thick between slabs of mustard-slathered rye.","Now, that's a deli lunch, montreal-style.","A motorized scooter is a souped-up version of an ordinary scooter.","Instead of propelling the wheels by pushing off the ground with one leg, an engine does most of the work.","Some motorized scooters are kids' toys, but others are sturdy vehicles suitable for commuting, utility, and recreation.","This motorized scooter has wheels large enough and tires wide enough to drive on any surface, even off road.","The manufacturer contracts this factory to make the frame components.","Machines cut hollow steel tubes to the required length.","Then workers program an automated bending machine to bend each one to the required shape.","They make five tubular frame parts per scooter, strictly following the technical drawing supplied by the manufacturer.","The scooter company subcontracts the frame assembly to another factory.","There, a welder mounts the components on a jig, which positions them correctly while he welds them together.","The non-tubular, flat-frame parts are prepared in house, cut from sheet steel by a computer-guided laser cutter.","These flat crossbars support the footboard on which the rider stands.","This flat plate supports the battery, and these arms support the rear wheel and motor.","After applying a coat of anticorrosion paint, workers install the side reflectors and the knob that secures the battery.","The paint is baked on for maximum durability.","The scooter manufacturer subcontracts the wheel rims to another factory that specializes in high-precision metal spinning.","A worker there mounts an aluminum disk onto a computer-guided lathe, positioning it right next to a rim-shaped steel mold.","Two rollers push and stretch the disk over the mold, forming the aluminum to the rim's shape.","Another worker mounts the rim on a manual-spinning lathe to finish the shaping.","First, with a cutting knife, he trims the edge.","After lubricating the edge with soap, he uses a forming bar to turn it inward to form a lip.","Then, with the forming roller, he stretches the lip to shape a flange.","Back at the scooter factory, a worker begins installing the vehicle's silent electric motor.","Its cable will plug into the electronic module that runs the motor, accelerator, and battery.","The motor is actually located inside the hub of the rear wheel.","This mounting ring holds it in place.","He installs a brake disc on top of the motor and another on the front wheel.","A mechanical cable connects each handlebar brake lever to the brake calipers.","When the driver pulls the levers, the brake calipers clamp the discs to the wheels, stopping rotation.","Now the final assembly-- workers bolt the rear wheel to the frame's support arms.","They insert the height-adjustable fork, made of steel and aluminum, into the steering column.","Next, the worker installs the handlebars, which have a thumb-operated accelerator throttle, an lcd monitor and two hand brakes, each with a mechanical cable for the calipers.","Each hand brake also has one electrical cable.","He connects the throttle line and the electrical cables to the monitor.","Then he connects the monitor to the controller.","When the rider brakes, the controller also cuts power to the motor, which allows the scooter's 48-volt lithium ion battery to regenerate.","This screw knob holds the battery securely against the battery support plate.","He connects the battery to the controller, then the mechanical cable from one hand-brake lever to the front brake calipers and from the other hand brake lever to the rear calipers.","Charging the battery takes four hours when plugged in to a regular household outlet, and a full charge lasts 31 to 37 miles.","The scooter can climb an 11% incline and reach a top speed of 20 miles per hour."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Ice Cream Cones","Tent Trailers","Shoe Polish","Pliers"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Ice-cream cones...","Tent trailers...","Shoe polish...","And pliers.","The ice-cream cone is the original edible container.","Invented over a century ago, it adds crunch to the melt-in-your-mouth taste of ice cream.","And it's one container that doesn't end up in the trash can, so you could say it adds a bit of virtue to the guilty pleasure of the double scoop.","The first ice-cream cones were rolled waffles.","And today's cones are simply modern versions of that.","Waffle-cone batter starts with a lot of dark brown sugar.","Caramel coloring is added...","Along with some secret flavoring ingredients.","Water is piped into the blender.","It's ice cold to keep the batter from getting too sticky.","A computer controls the addition of flour from a tank on the floor above.","Vegetable oil is added as a giant beater mixes all the ingredients.","The batter then flows out of the blender and into a refrigerated tank.","An agitating blade keeps the blend at the consistency of pancake batter.","Next, nozzles deposit batter onto baking plates that look like moving waffle irons.","Top plates flip down, and the baking plates roll through a glass heated oven for a quick bake.","The top plates lift up, revealing the cooked waffle patties.","Automated arms help transfer the patties to rolling tools.","The tools grab the patties and twist them into cones.","The cones fall down a chute and ride an open elevator up and down to cool and harden.","The waffle cones slide down another chute and move into lanes on a conveyor.","Automated fingers help guide them into paper jackets.","A computer with a camera eye counts the cones and sends a message to a machine that stacks them in the right increments.","Here, a technician activates a device that pushes on a ball inside a cone to test the cone's breaking point.","Looks like this waffle cone can hold up to some heavy licking.","Over in the sugar-cone department, the baking-plate system is designed differently.","It makes patties that are fan-shaped and have a flat edge.","This shape, along with a firmer batter, means sugar cones are stronger than waffle cones, so they're a more popular choice for hard ice cream.","Packers stack the cones in styrofoam trays.","Then the packages travel through a curtain of high-density, polyethylene film.","A heated sealer finishes the wrapping job.","An x-ray machine sends information about the contents to a computer that counts the cones and alerts inspectors to any problems.","Next, automated arms pick up cartons and open them so the packs of cones can be inserted.","But there's still one more cone variety in the works-- colorful cake cones.","Cake cones are less sugary than other varieties and have a more cake-like texture.","Batter is pumped into upright molds.","Cake cones are shaped differently from waffle and sugar cones, because they have flat rather than pointed bottoms.","Metal cores plunge into the molds to complete the shape.","This action also enhances the cake cone's flaky texture.","The cones are baked as they pass by a gauntlet of gas heaters.","Then it's down a chute and off to the packaging station.","Unlike the other cones, cake cones come out flaky and crispy without a cooling-down period.","A mechanical arm picks up paper sleeves and drops them in front of the cones.","These cones are now on their way to an ice-cream stand near you, where they'll be used to scoop up ice cream lickety-split.","When we return, building a tent trailer from the bottom up.","Tent trailers allow you to travel without reservations.","Who needs a hotel if you can park the pop-up?","Besides, you don't get fresh air and campfires at a hotel.","Tent trailers have been around since the early part of the 20th century.","And you could describe them as an overnight success.","Today's tent trailers are equipped with modern conveniences that would make anyone a happy camper.","Workers begin production by welding tubular steel components together to establish a solid framework.","Once it's painted, plumbed, and partially wired, wheels are bolted into place.","The water-storage tank goes in next.","Then aircraft-grade steel cables are strung from corner posts to a central bar.","This bar is called a \"whiffletree\".","Cranking up the whiffletree will cause the cables to lift the corner posts, raising the trailer's roof.","The trailer is wheeled to the next station, where workers lower a vinyl-covered wooden floor onto the chassis...","And secure it with screws.","Then they connect a cluster of wires to those already installed on the chassis to run things like kitchen appliances and stereos.","The interior front wall is riveted to steel bulkheads and the trailer chassis.","More wiring is threaded through the bulkheads to the trailer's side lights, and then the exterior panel is installed.","Workers slide the roadside panel over the lift posts and secure it.","The curbside exterior panels come in two pieces to create a space for the trailer door.","Corner molding completes this assembly.","Next, workers move inside and install the framework for some bench seating.","They install the lower cabinetry for the kitchenette, then join it to the upper cabinet with a long, metal hinge for easy pivoting.","A mini fridge is inserted in the lower cabinetry, and this folding kitchenette is complete.","This is the pull-out platform for one of the mattresses.","It slides into channels in the exterior walls.","But there's a lot more work to do before anyone can take a nap.","The trailer's tent is made out of water-resistant fabric.","The five sections are sewn separately, then zipped together at an inspection station.","Inspectors scrutinize every seam for flaws.","Once the tent passes inspection, it's fit onto the trailer one section at a time.","Now it's time for a little roofing.","The trailer's roof is made by sandwiching together many materials.","And that takes a lot of industrial adhesive.","The glue is rolled onto these plywood slats.","These foam insulation boards also get a generous coating.","Workers place the glued foam onto the roof's fiberglass outer skin.","They position the wooden slats along the perimeter and add bands of metal for more reinforcement.","The final layer is vinyl-coated plywood.","It will be the ceiling of the trailer.","A large roller compresses the glued layers together.","After grooves and notches have been cut into the roof, it's wired up, and 12-volt interior lights are installed in the ceiling.","Trim is added to the roof's edges along with a gasket to keep it watertight.","The roof's flaps are folded in a tray-like configuration, and the corners are capped.","Workers are now ready to raise the roof and install the tent.","The assembly is inserted into grooves in the trailer ceiling using a pneumatic hammer.","This tent trailer is now ready to pop up anywhere.","It can accommodate a small family and is equipped to feed them outdoors or inside.","It even comes with a screen door, because you never know when adventure will come knocking.","Coming up, a production line you can really take a shine to.","Mud and scuffing have long been the bane of shoes and boots.","In mediaeval times, wax was used to soften and waterproof leather footwear.","But it had a dull finish.","It wasn't until the early 20th century with the invention of shoe polish that footwear really started to shine.","All it takes is a bit of polish and a lot of elbow grease.","A vigorous brushing can enhance the job and help transform shoes from drab to fab.","Shoe polish starts with mineral spirit solvent and different combinations of carnauba wax.","The waxes go into a melter, where they're heated to 260 degrees.","The mixture cooks for 15 minutes, while beaters keep everything blended together.","This is dye fluid in a deep-black shade.","In another tank, the dye fluid and waxes are added to the solvent blend.","Agitators mix it for three minutes.","Tin-container bottoms tumble down a chute and up a magnetic conveyor belt.","A worker flips the tins right-side up then pushes them onto another conveyor.","Once they're lined up, they're ready to be filled.","Automated arms space the tins as they arrive at the filling head.","The filling heads inject hot, liquid shoe polish into the tins.","The polish is precisely doled out so there is no spillover.","The polish now needs to solidify, so the tins travel through a cooling tunnel.","When they emerge, the polish is a thick paste.","Workers perform a breaking-strength test to be sure the final product has the right consistency.","The polish-filled tins now funnel onto a conveyor that merges with a lid feeder.","The feeder lowers the lids onto the tins.","A compression wheel presses the lids in place with just the right amount of force.","And this polish is now ready to shine.","There's a different packaging system for liquid shoe polish.","A blow molding machine forces hot air into plastic to form containers.","Then the mechanized rack holding the containers rotates and places the newly formed bottles on another conveyor.","It moves them under a flame, which melts the rough edges.","Revolving conveyors move under filling heads, which pump in liquid polish.","Workers insert valves into applicators.","Then this machine press-fits the applicators onto the polish-filled containers.","Using hydraulic pressure, another machine snaps clear domes onto the applicators.","Rollers affix labels onto both sides of the bottles.","The bottles then move through an inspection station.","A mirror helps workers scrutinize the labeling job.","A technician now takes a preliminary reading of the gloss on some leather.","He applies some paste polish and rubs it in with a horsehair brush.","He takes another reading, and the gloss on this leather has increased by a factor of 2, which means this polish passes muster and is ready to add some high luster to your footwear.","When we return, plier production-- the gripping truth.","Pliers date back to around 2,000 b.c. ancient drawings show greek gods with pliers at the forge.","Today, forgers still make pliers, but these days, they use automated tools to shape the metal.","Without them, a lot of electricians, plumbers, and mechanics would be out of a job.","Pliers have three basic parts--  handles, a rivet, and jaws.","All the parts are made from steel that metal workers forge into shape.","First, a powerful electric furnace heats the steel red hot in just a few seconds.","Then a metal worker sets one sizzling rod at a time on a forming die.","A massive die forger hammers the rod against the die with tons of force.","It takes up to four strikes on separate impressions for the rod to acquire the die's shape.","Then the forging is placed onto a press that trims off any excess steel.","Two forged rods are needed to make one pair of pliers.","This pair will be for gripping, so the next step is to machine the teeth into the jaws.","Workers set the plier halves into the broaching machine.","Its tiny cutters, dozens of them, shave away steel under a shower of lubricant.","When the cutters pull away, the jaw of each plier half now has a nice set of teeth.","The factory must heat-treat the steel to harden it, a process called \"austempering\".","The plier halves travel through a gas-fired furnace for about 2 hours at a blazing 1,500 degrees.","Then the steel is dunked in salt water to cool rapidly and evenly.","The teeth on these pliers will have to take a lot of abuse, so they get a laser-heat treatment to make them even harder and more durable.","Now the pliers are ready for assembly.","For gripping pliers, a worker inserts a single piece ribbon and joins the two halves.","He then sets the joint onto a machine that spins at high speed, generating the force and friction needed to set the rivet.","Cutting pliers are also held together with a rivet, but the setting process is different.","The parts go into a press that applies both heat and pressure to secure the rivet firmly.","Next, workers insert the cutting pliers between two stone grinding wheels.","Again, lubricant prevents the steel from overheating as the wheels wear down the rivet until it lies flush with the plier surface.","The cutting pliers go into a gas oven for another two hours of heat treating, a process called \"martempering\".","When they come out, they cool in an oil solution rather than the salt solution that cools the gripping pliers.","Steel is a finicky material, so it's critical to manage the heat-treating process meticulously.","Otherwise, the metal will be substandard.","After heat-treating, the pliers go into a bath of rust inhibitor that helps protect the steel from corrosion and lubricates the riveted joints.","A robotic arm runs one pair of pliers at a time against a grinding belt, polishing all surfaces except the handles for a sleek finish.","Then a laser engraves the company logo and product number.","Automated bars now lower hundreds of pliers handle deep into a tank containing liquid vinyl.","No messy drips here.","Before dipping, the factory heat the pliers to help this coating stick to the steel.","Next, the pliers go into an oven.","The heat hardens the protective coating, cushioning the handles so they're easier on the hands.","Whatever their shape or size, pliers are a toolbox essential for anyone looking to ply their trade."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Steamer Baskets","Three"]},"text":["People have been steaming food for thousands of years.","Once upon a time, steamers were made out of clay pots with perforated floors.","Today, we've come up with all sorts of metal and plastic innovations.","The traditional bamboo steamer is a perfect balance between the old and the new.","Perfected by generations of craftsmen, traditional bamboo steamers are lightweight, strong, and durable.","They look like simple cooking tools, but building them requires enormous artisanal skill.","The craftsman buys lengths of bamboo from local farmers.","He uses a traditional planer he crafted himself to smooth the bamboo joints.","A customized chopper tool helps him split the bamboo lengthwise.","He inserts a bamboo stick to hold the split open.","After removing the chopper, he pulls on the stick to split the entire length of the bamboo.","The craftsman splits the sections again.","To assemble the steamer base, the craftsman will split the bamboo into 32 pieces.","The cover will require 128 pieces.","A custom-made knife knocks down the intersections of the bamboo.","For the steamer's cover, the craftsman splits the bamboo horizontally.","Next, the craftsman uses this slicing tool to cut the wood.","He sets the desired width and slices a thin sheet of wood lengthwise.","He uses this section of wood to form the base of the steamer and slides a bamboo ring over it to hold it in place.","Then he punches small holes with a drill...","And reinforces the joint with stainless steel wire.","The installation process begins.","First by installing a series of inner rings which will serve to reinforce the structure of the steamer and to support multiple levels of steamers inside it.","The craftsman uses special techniques to ensure that each joint is perfectly aligned for maximum strength.","Working almost entirely by hand with skills acquired over time, he meticulously creates a strong, yet lightweight piece of kitchen equipment.","The basket still needs a bottom to rest dumplings in.","The craftsman begins building the basket floor by custom fitting a series of rugged cross pieces.","He ensures that each piece fits perfectly before proceeding.","Then he inserts thin, more pliable pieces of bamboo to hold the cross pieces in place.","Next, he lays the final layer on top, placing the pieces with their outer sides facing up to form a smooth surface for food to sit on while steaming.","With the floor of the steamer in place, it's time to secure the upper pieces by binding them to the support pieces.","To do this, he threads a stainless steel wire through the cracks, twisting the ends tightly to the base.","Then he gives the inner support rings under the steamer floor a few taps, securing them in place.","The basket's base is now complete.","Next, the craftsman begins weaving the bamboo pieces together that will form the cover.","He uses a traditional pattern called a twill weave.","Then he inserts paper before adding a second layer of bamboo.","The paper will help prevent steam from escaping the basket too quickly.","He then snaps in a series of carefully sized reinforcements to keep the layers in place.","Finally, he custom fits another interior ring under the reinforcements to hold everything together, tapping it carefully into position.","The steamer cover is now complete.","A three-wheel motorized scooter provides the rider with more stability than a two-wheeled scooter.","By utilizing three points of contact with the ground, this scooter is less likely to skid or fall over when making a sharp turn, or while driving on an unpaved surface.","This high-end, three-wheeled scooter has the look and comfort of a motorcycle without the high price tag.","It can reach speeds of up to 85 miles per hour and travel about 186 miles on a full tank of gas.","At the factory, mechanics begin assembling the engine by pressing two ball bearings into the left side of an aluminum crankcase.","They insert a third ball bearing that's assembled to the gear shaft.","Then the crankshaft is installed on the opposite end.","In between the two cases, a gasket is mounted to prevent oil from leaking out.","Mechanics fit the right side of the crankcase to the left side and bolt them together.","They place one end of the drive chain around the crankshaft, and then another.","This gear is installed for the oil pump.","As the crankshaft rotates, the interior of the engine is greased with oil.","This gear rotates the crankshaft, which starts the engine.","And this gear, assembled to a generator, goes on the crankshaft.","When the generator rotates, it provides electric current to run the scooter's lights and other electrical components.","Technicians close up the right side of the crankcase with a cover...","Install the water pump...","And cap the generator.","Next, mechanics install reduction gears onto the ball bearings that were placed in the left side of the crankcase.","Reduction gears lower the rotation speed of the crankshaft to make it more manageable for the drive shaft which turns the wheels.","A pulley-based automatic transmission system called a cvt is assembled.","It's powerful, fuel-efficient, and runs smoother than a standard, gear-based, automatic transmission.","Technicians attach the piston to the piston rod and place it into the engine's single cylinder.","The bottom of the piston rod is linked to the crankshaft.","They place an aluminum cover over the transmission and install the cylinder head, which is equipped with several sensors for fuel injection and other functions.","Next, mechanics mount the rear wheel onto the drive shaft.","This aluminum swing arm supports the wheel and engine.","The steel frame is pained black and is engraved with the scooter's vehicle identification number.","Technicians bolt the frame to the front of the engine and to a pair of shock absorbers at the back.","They install part of the front suspension system, one on each side of the frame.","Then they mount the three wheel hubs and install each integrated brake disc with a brake caliper.","Back to the front suspension system, mechanics connect a shock absorber to each triangular arm.","They install the handlebars, brake levers with hydraulic cables, and switches for the lights, signals, and horn.","Once the ignition switch and vinyl seat is built in, mechanics install the rear lights and turn signals, the l.e.d. headlights...","And mount the three wheels and tires.","The last step is to run the scooter through a series of tests.","The test evaluates the functionality of the lights, turn signals, front and rear brakes, acceleration, and the accuracy of the speedometer.","There is no question this scooter provides a ton of stability.","With a front suspension system designed to keep both front wheels on the ground, the rider is guaranteed a smooth and enjoyable ride.","A conservatory is designed to let in sunlight.","It's often referred to as an extension of the home, allowing people to enjoy the warmth of the sun without ever having to step outside.","A prefabricated conservatory can be assembled in three days, so you can quickly have an indoor place in the sun.","Producing a prefab conservatory starts with a customized computer-generated design.","First, a designer selects the parts for the framework.","This piece of vinyl cladding will be part of a decorative ridge.","Then all the materials are placed on racks.","There can be 50 to 500 pieces, depending on the size of the conservatory.","Using a circular blade, the metal cutter trims aluminum components to various lengths and angles, according to his measurements.","Another designer welds aluminum parts to build a gutter system.","He makes tight welds for waterproof joints.","Next, a team assembles the frame to confirm that the parts connect together.","If successful, the framework will be taken apart for reassembly on site.","After the roof's ridge beam is set on stands in the center of the frame, technicians bolt one end of a load beam to the eaves and the other to the elevated ridge.","More beams are added to create a truss system to support the roof.","The stands supporting the ridge beam are removed.","A designer measures and maps out roof panels on polycarbonate.","The polycarbonate has a hollow, waffle structure that gives it insulating properties.","He cuts out the panels according to his measurements.","After sealing the edges with felt, the panels are mounted to the roof.","Vinyl cladding on the exposed structural bar secures the panels.","The designer tapes the vinyl with a hammer to flare it against the polycarbonate.","Then he installs the vinyl ridge gap.","The elaborate, molded finials make a statement while stopping water from dripping into the top of the roof.","He peels off the protective liner to reveal the translucent polycarbonate panels.","On another production line, an automatic saw cuts vinyl components for the walls at the specified length.","Routers carve holes for hardware.","Saws cut notches in specific locations, enabling them to join the rest of the building framework.","A technician arranges the vinyl posts and beams in a thermal welder.","The machine melts the parts where they intersect and fuses them together.","Each part of the wall frame is welded separately, and then joined together.","The welding leaves the seams a bit rough, so a machine trims off any excess vinyl.","A circular saw moves in and cleans up the exterior corners.","To customize the color, designers spray the wall frame with an acrylic paint that chemically bonds to the vinyl to prevent chipping.","Back to the white frame.","A team inserts a glass panel in the ridged rim.","Strips of vinyl around the edges hold the glass in and keep water out.","The team assembles a factory display model.","The wall panels are installed into grooves on the frame and connected by aluminum posts.","Next, the doors are installed.","A technician tightly pulls the wall frames to the aluminum posts using nylon composite devices.","Vinyl casings cover the posts and any nylon locks.","Using a crane, the team lowers the roof onto the structure and bolts it in place.","The conservatory is complete.","Now it's time to relax while sitting indoors.","People have used copper pots and pans for thousands of years.","Copper is an ideal heat conductor, allowing food to be cooked quickly and evenly.","Copper pots allow for more precise temperature control, which means dinner is less likely to be served burnt.","In the culinary world, copper is a precious metal.","Besides being a great conductor of heat, copper pots look good on the cooktop.","To cut out a round blank, a craftsman places a centering disk on a copper sheet.","He links it to a plasma torch using a metal spindle.","The spindle holds the torch at a specific distance so that, as the torch cuts out the circle, the radius is exact.","The coppersmith ensures that the cutout is as close to the edge of the copper sheet as possible to minimize waste.","Next, he examines the circular blank.","The plasma cutting has left the edges frayed, so he smoothes them by clamping the copper blank in a lathe.","He taps the blank with a rubber mallet and centers it between the clamping chucks.","The coppersmith uses a tool to check that the blank is positioned correctly.","Then he adds oil to the cutting tool and moves it against the spinning blank.","It trims the circumference, creating a cleaner edge and removes any flaws.","He files the rim of the copper blank to make it smooth and even.","Using sandpaper, he finishes the edge.","With the imperfections removed, the copper blank is formed into a sauce pan with sloping sides.","Two craftsmen press a roller against the copper blank so that it conforms to the shape of a mold.","That's part of one of the clamping chucks.","This process is called metal spinning.","While one craftsman moves the roller across the copper blank, the other applies pressure.","This shaping method takes eight to ten rounds.","Finally, the pan has taken shape, but the forming process has left fine lines on the surface.","So as it continues to spin, the coppersmith smoothes it down.","He applies lubricant to a cutting tool and trims the rim of the saucepan.","This gives the pan the desired height.","The cutting leaves the edges very sharp, so he files them down again.","The copper saucepan is ready for the cast-iron handle.","Cast iron has less thermal conductivity than copper, so the heat from the pan will travel more slowly up the handle.","The craftsperson clamps the handle to the saucepan.","This holds it tightly in place as he drills rivet holes through both the iron handle and the copper pan.","The craftsman removes the clamp and bolts the handle to the pan temporarily.","This stabilizes it for the drilling of the second rivet hole.","A rivet is inserted in the second hole from the inside of the pan.","The coppersmith heats the tail of the rivet to soften it.","Then the pan is transferred to an anvil.","Using a pneumatic hammer, the coppersmith flattens the first rivet, removes the temporary bolt, and installs the second rivet.","He heats the pan over a flame and melts a tin bar to the bottom.","He spreads the molten tin up the sides of the pan using a rag that's been soaked with a flux chemical.","The flux cleans the copper and allows the tin to flow more smoothly.","The tin lining will prevent acidic foods from leeching raw copper into the food.","The heat from the tinning flame has caused some discoloration.","The coppersmith removes the stains by using a cotton buffing wheel and polishing compound.","As he continues, the polishing takes the copper to a high sheen.","This copper saucepan is now ready for the stovetop.","But first, the craftsman pounds a steel stamp into the bottom of the pan, imprinting it with the company logo.","For cookware that only takes a couple hours to make, a copper pan can last for decades.","And if it's well cared for, it won't even show its age."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Witness Samples","Pressure Washers","Bee Hives","Cast Iron Cookers"]},"text":["today on \"how it's made\"...","Witness samples.","Pressure washers.","Bee hives.","And cast iron cookers.","Special coatings applied to optical glass change the way it transmits light, so that it becomes more or less reflective or even electrically conductive.","Testing beforehand on little glass discs known as witness samples bears witness to the quality of the coatings.","With witness samples, it's all about the optics.","They must be flawless on the surface in order for optical coatings to be applied and properly evaluated.","A diamond drill cuts solid cylinders out of a block of optical glass.","Each one is an inch in diameter.","A worker glues the cylinders together to a glass plate.","This keeps them in a tight pack so that they can be cut into discs.","The worker suspends the cylinder pack above a grid of piano wire.","The wire moves back and forth to grind a silicon carbide slurry into the glass cylinders, to cut them at intervals about a tenth of an inch.","The sliced cylinders then go into a hot bath for 15 minutes.","This dissolves the glue.","The glass discs separate, and are released from the base plate.","The worker rinses each disc individually to remove any remaining glue.","She sets the discs on a cardboard surface to dry.","Once loaded into slots, a robot collects the disc using suctioning fingers.","The robot inserts a disc into a suctioning clamp, and nudges it to further establish it there.","A diamond cutting wheel meets up with the disc held in the clamp, and machines a bevel into the disc.","A technician places plastic carriers with disc-size slots on a pad in a polishing machine.","The carrier's gear-style teeth intermesh with teeth on the machine's hub and outer frame.","She transfers the glass discs to the slots in the carriers.","The upper polishing pad descends, and the carriers rotate as the pads buff the discs on both sides.","The glass goes from frosty to transparent.","She rinses off the polishing compound.","Then, for an intensive cleaning, an automated rack system lowers the discs into a series of tubs.","In the first one, they undergo another rinse.","In the next tub, a special cleaning solution has been added to water-- one that won't leave a soapy residue.","Sound waves bubble through this washtub to gently scrub the disc.","After another rinse, it's into a dryer.","It blows hot air onto the glass samples to dry them without leaving streaks.","A worker tests one witness sample from every production run.","Both a camera and a laser scan the sample, and a computer analyzes the information.","The witness samples are now ready for coating.","The technician loads the sample into fixtures in the coating machine.","Using a lift, he elevates the fixtures to the top of the coating chamber.","He inserts small crucibles of coating material in the base of the coating machine.","The materials are metal oxide compounds that make glass less reflective.","For demonstration purposes, the chamber remains open, and he sets the fixtures in motion.","As they spin, the coating materials will be heated to the point of evaporation, forming a cloud that will condense on the samples at a certain thickness.","The technician closes the chamber, and the process begins.","An intense electron beam heats the coating materials.","Once the coatings have cured to the glass, they can be evaluated.","A computerized machine takes measurements to confirm that the reflective properties are correct.","The witness sample has done its job, and the coatings are ready for production.","Armed with a pressure washer, it's easy to get carried away and go on an outdoor cleaning spree.","It can be used to wash down the driveway, clean the siding on the house, remove dirt from the deck, wash the car, and much more.","A pressure washer contains an electric motor, which drives a pump that propels water at high pressure down a hose, and out a trigger-operated nozzle.","The machine's mechanics and electronics are hidden from view by a two-part plastic cover.","The two main parts of the electric motor are the rotor and the stator.","To make the stator, this automated station winds 1,640 feet of copper wire-- or, for certain models, aluminum wire-- then inserts the winding into the slots of a steel cylindrical frame.","The rotor is also a steel cylinder.","It will sit inside the stator, attached at one end to the motor shaft.","When the power washer is turned on, the a/c current passing through the stator winding creates a rotating magnetic field.","This turns the rotor, driving the motor shaft, which drives the pump.","At the next station, a worker prepares the stator's electrical connections, securing them with a cable tie.","She contains and protects the copper winding with tape.","Then, the stator moves on to receive the rotor.","On another assembly line, a worker mates the guide for the motor's three pistons with the aluminum cylinder head and the motor, now in an oil-filled aluminum housing.","The motor drives a rubber plate which moves the pistons, which move various internal components that pressurize the water.","A worker places a new stator on the carrier to prepare it for motor assembly.","Then on the pumpset, he installs a plastic water inlet pipe.","He places the bottom section of the motor housing around the new stator that's heading to the motor assembly.","The automated handling system removes the completed pumpset and transfers it to another carrier, which transports it to the final assembly line.","A worker installs a rubber tube, which keeps water out of the motor.","He pulls the stator electrical connections through it, then installs a watertight plastic box containing all the electronics and the power switch.","He plugs the power cord into the circuit board inside the box, then screws down the stator's ground wire.","A worker connects both power and water.","Then a test machine automatically runs the unit through all the functions.","Remember that two-part plastic cover?","An injection-molding machine makes the parts in separate operations--  a yellow top and a black bottom.","The automated handling system extracts the part and places them on a carrier headed to the pad printer.","The printer stamps the model name in quick-dry ink on the top cover.","Workers will later attach the company name to the front of the machine.","The next station takes the top to the final assembly line, where the handling system turns it upside down and places the pumpset inside.","At the next stop, a worker installs a guide for the machine's water hose, then positions the bottom cover.","An automated machine screws the covers together.","Another worker installs a galvanized-steel axle and two rugged plastic wheels.","He applies a decal with safety instructions, plastic wheel covers, and a 33-foot-long rubber water hose wound on a plastic reel.","The pressure washer then goes off to the packaging area, where it's boxed with the handle, accessories, and detergents.","In the product-development stage, a sound engineer tests the prototype at a sound lab to make sure the noise the pressure washer emits isn't too loud and shrill.","He runs the machine amid nine microphones, each positioned three feet away in a different direction.","To pass the test, the noise must be a low bass-range hum.","To operate the pressure washer, the user connects a garden hose to the water-inlet pipe, connects the handle to the machine's hose, turns on the water and power, then pulls the trigger to spray.","For centuries, beekeepers used dome baskets called skeps as hives.","But to harvest the honey, the skeps had to be destroyed.","In the mid-19th century, they came up with a box hive with removable frames.","Bees built their honeycombs on the frames, which beekeepers could remove without destroying them.","A hive is home for thousands of bees.","The queen resides on the bottom level.","Worker bees have the run of the house and move around making honey.","Construction of this beehive starts with the inner cover of the hive.","A worker cuts a piece of pine plywood to the correct dimensions.","He places the plywood in a jig, and carves an oblong-shaped hole into it using a hand-held router.","This hole will provide both ventilation and an upper exit point for the bees.","For the body of the hive, he uses cypress wood because it's resistant to insect damage and rot.","With a table saw, the worker trims one edge of the wall panel, taking it from rough to smooth.","He cuts a little more off the other side of the panel to make it the correct width.","This gives this side a clean edge, too.","A circular saw automatically carves a drawer pull into the panel.","This pull is known as a handhold.","There will be handholds on all sides of the hive box for easy access.","The panel, front-side down now, rides a conveyer to the next operation.","Numerous saws cut long grooves along the bottom and the sides of the panel.","This creates joints that will fit the hive panels tightly together.","A worker stacks the panels to await the next stage of assembly.","Meanwhile, at another station, the next worker notches pieces of wood to make a part called the entrance reducer.","It's the doorway to the hive.","It will allow the bees to enter, but keep intruders like mice out.","He makes a wide entranceway on one side and a narrower one on the other.","A worker then cuts tongue-and-groove joints in wood that will be used for the bottom and the cover of the beehive.","Moving to the beehive stand, he cuts a 45-degree angle on both sides of a piece of wood.","This part will serve as a landing strip for the bees.","A team slices a sheet of galvanized steel to the desired length.","Using a press brake, a worker bends the edges of the sheet against a die.","This forms a cover that will fit over the roof of the hive.","At another station, a worker pipes glue along the inside groove of the roof frame.","He arranges the tongue-and-groove boards in a tight interlock and inserts them in the glued groove of the frame.","He applies pressure to further entrench them, and drives nails into the wood frame to secure the boards.","He fits the metal cladding over the wood roof.","It's been made to fit like a glove, so it takes a bit of maneuvering.","He now joins four of the panels to make a box.","And thanks to the grooved joints, the corners fit together neatly.","He glues them, and then secures the joints with nails.","This assembly will be the brood box that houses the queen bee.","He now builds the frame for the inner cover of the hive ceiling.","He applies glue to the frame.","He inserts the cover and pounds it to drive it further into place.","It's now time for the final assembly.","They install the floor on the stand and position the entranceway piece at the front.","The brood box is next.","They hang frames with starter honeycomb beeswax on the inner ledges.","They place a wire mesh excluder over the brood box to keep the queen bee out of the upper chamber.","The smaller worker bees will be able to move through it to deposit honey on more honeycomb frames.","They stack the inner cover on top, followed by the metal-clad roof.","This empty hive will soon be a-buzz with activity and honey.","humans have been cooking over fire with iron implements since, well, the iron age.","Today, most outdoor cooking requires some type of appliance.","And because of iron's superior ability to retain and diffuse heat evenly, a cast-iron cooker is sure to get everyone fired up.","This cast-iron cooker may look like an ordinary barbecue, but it does so much more than grill.","It also slow-smokes, caramelizes, sears, and even bakes.","To produce the cast iron, the company buys scrap pieces of new steel from steel mills and from factories that use steel to make their products.","Manufacturers heat the steel in a pre-heat furnace.","This evaporates any residual moisture and speeds up melting in the main furnace.","The main furnace operator adds a powdered chemical that solidifies the impurities so that he can scoop them out.","He also adds carbon, silicon, and other alloys to transform the steel into iron.","The molds are made of a sand, clay, finely ground coal, and water mix compressed at high pressure.","The molten iron causes the moisture in the mold to evaporate.","The resulting steam escapes through vent holes at the top.","This machine lowers the top half of the mold over the bottom half.","The furnace empties the molten iron into a ladle, which contains additional alloys.","A worker positions the ladle over an opening at the top of the mold and pours in the molten iron.","After about two hours, he breaks the sand mold and extracts the casting.","Workers use a sledgehammer to break off excess metal.","The cast-iron parts are still encrusted in sand, so workers load them into a shot-blasting machine.","Shot blasting is like sandblasting, except instead of sand, the machine pummels the surface with tiny steel balls.","The shot-blasting cycle thoroughly cleans the surface.","The surface is still quite rough, however.","So workers refine it with hand tools, hammering off any remaining excess metal and grinding the surface smooth.","The top half of the cooker has a handle on the front and half a hinge on the back.","The bottom half has the other half of the hinge.","A worker drills a hole through each hinge half for the shaft that will connect them.","He drills holes in the fire box that will let in air to feed the fire.","Using a template and laser cutter, he cuts an opening in the bottom for the ventilation-draft door.","He drills mounting holes around the vent, and installs the draft door.","Its perforated hole cover lets air in.","Its solid sliding door shuts it out.","The air intake feeding the fire regulates cooking temperature.","The cooker sits in a hand-crafted steel cart.","A welder places the parts for the cart's frame in an assembly fixture, which positions them correctly.","After welding the frame, he files down the welds so that they'll be virtually invisible once the frame is painted.","This computer-guided lathe machines the cart's cast-iron wheels to the final dimensions.","The sand molds used to cast the wheels were designed using century-old patterns for cast-iron pulleys.","Once workers have mounted the two wheels, the cart goes off to be painted.","Then, a worker installs shelves made of either stainless steel, hardwood, or composite decking planks.","Workers bolt the bottom half of the cooker to the cart.","Then they lower in the fire box, which holds the fuel for cooking.","The recommended fuel is hardwood lump charcoal.","Next, a worker mounts the cooker's temperature gauge.","Then he installs the top vent.","It consists of two cast-iron discs which rotate to let in more air or less air.","Having adjustable ventilation at both the top and bottom of the cooker enables more precise temperature control.","They position the top of the cooker over the bottom, and mate the two hinge halves with the steel shaft and two stainless-steel springs.","Fiber gaskets ensure good seal when the cooker is closed over the cast-iron grates.","Those grates are reversible, with one side higher than the other, providing a choice of cooking heights above the fire."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Plasma Gems","Special Effects Snow","Piano Restoration"]},"text":["These gemstones aren't mined.","They're made from garbage.","Using plasma technology, organic waste can be turned into energy, and inorganic waste can be made into a hard black glass.","Artisans then turn the glass into beautiful jewelry.","Black jewels glitter like genuine gemstones and are as hard as quartz.","But they aren't precious or even semiprecious.","They're pure garbage.","They're called plasma gems because of the plasma technology that creates them from waste.","This patented system converts almost any type of waste into clean energy without creating any harmful byproducts.","The process produces two useful materials-- energy and a hard black glass that artisans can cut into gemstones.","The process begins by shredding waste and placing it into the system's plasma reactor.","Inside the reactor, two electrodes generate an electrically-conductive gas.","These plasma arcs create temperatures exceeding 2,900 degrees, converting the carbon-based matter into a gas that can be used to produce electric power.","At the same time, the plasma arcs melt the non-carbon-based matter, such as glass, metal, and ceramics.","The gas fuels engines that produce electric power.","Once melted, the waste separates into two layers.","Metal oxides float to the top, and metals sink to the bottom.","The company casts the metals into ingots, which go to a recycling facility.","The metal oxides seen here solidify into glass rocks as hard as granite.","The company sells these glass rocks to artisans who use it to make gemstones for jewelry.","First, the artisan grinds a chunk of the rock down to a smaller starting shape with a flat side.","Then she glues on a brass dowel called a dob stick.","She activates the glue with a u.v. light.","She returns to the grinding wheel to further reduce the size of the stone and round it as much as possible.","Then she mounts the dob stick on a fastening machine.","She presses the stone against an abrasive disc called a lathe to file down the diameter.","The lathe's surface is made of diamond dust.","It's the only material strong enough to cut through hard black glass.","The artisan measures the stone numerous times as she works, ensuring the diameter is consistent all around.","Once the diameter is perfect, she adjusts the dob stick diagonally and begins cutting symmetrical facets that will reflect light.","You cannot set this machine to cut and polish at an exact angle, so the artisan has to work by feel, sensing how hard she must press the stone against the disc.","She checks her work with a magnification loupe to make sure all the facets meet at a precise point.","Once she finishes faceting the bottom of the stone, she glues a dob stick to the top of the stone.","Then she removes the first dob stick by softening the glue with a propane torch.","Now the artisan begins faceting the top of the stone, called the crown.","Once the sides are faceted, she flattens the pointed top, forming what's called the table.","She repositions the dob stick horizontally to polish a flat edge around the middle called the girdle.","She removes the dob stick and cleans off any glue residue with acetone.","She carefully centers the stone in a sterling-silver pendant.","The pendant is being held upright in a wad of shellac.","She uses a prong pusher to bend the prongs securely over the girdle, then rounds off and softens the prongs with a file.","To remove the pendant, she softens the shellac over a flame, then submerges the pendant in acetone to remove any shellac residue.","On the hardness scale used in gemology, plasma gems are equivalent to many varieties of quartz.","Not bad for garbage that would otherwise be in a landfill.","Mother nature does not deliver on cue.","So when a film or television script calls for flurries, they use a snow machine to generate fake snowflakes.","The flakes are actually tiny soap bubbles that look surprisingly realistic on camera.","It's a sweltering day outside, but inside on the film set, it's winter.","These soapy flakes look like real snow.","They hang around just long enough to show up on screen before they evaporate.","To create these snowflakes, workers start with the same chemicals that are used in soap and shampoo.","A chemist combines the chemicals in a big mixing vat and adds purified water.","This produces a snow-making concentrate.","A machine pumps the concentrate into jugs.","Each jug contains enough base material to make it snow for up to 16 hours.","Now work begins on the snow-making machine.","A worker drills holes into the back of the snow head using a template as a guide.","He threads plastic tubing and wires through the front part of the snow head.","The wires are for a blower, and the tubing will be used to deliver the snow solution.","He applies silicone caulking around the rim and places the blower in the cavity.","This blower will introduce air to mix with the snow solution.","The caulking acts as a sealant to keep the air from escaping.","Next, he routes the wiring and tubing through the back part of the snow head.","Then he joins the two components.","He secures the two components with eight long bolts.","He encases the wiring and tubing in a polymer jacket that shrinks when heat is applied.","Next, a worker carves a hole in the center of a pre-manufactured blower guard.","He inserts the snow head in the hole so that the blower guard surrounds the back.","He ties the wiring and snow-solution tubing to the guard.","Next, he maps out screw holes and drills them into a big fan that will blow the fake snow around.","He screws in brackets that will be used to hang the machine high above a movie set.","He installs a metal guard in the front of the fan...","And attaches more brackets to the side.","These brackets act as a holder for the snow-solution pump.","Now he assembles the snow-head unit to the fan.","He ties the snow-solution hose to the snow-head nozzle using wires.","He flattens the wires to the nozzle and covers them with vinyl tape.","He fits a specially-designed fabric sock over the nozzle.","Liquid snow will be forced through the pores of the sock to form fake snowflakes.","He connects the snow-solution tubing to the pump and pulls the wiring through the top of the fan.","Next, a metal box that contains the controller for the electronics must be installed.","He runs the snow-solution tubing through it and makes all the necessary wiring connections.","The controller box is lowered onto the fan assembly and screwed in place.","He installs a weight on the end of the snow-solution tubing.","The weight will keep the tubing submerged in the snow-solution container.","This snow machine is now fully assembled.","It's over to the test station.","Here, a technician runs it for hours.","He checks that it generates a sufficient number of snowflakes and that the flakes are the right size and shape.","With his approval, these machines are ready to whip up a snowstorm when the director says \"action\".","A piano is a complex instrument.","The inner workings operate with exact precision.","Regular maintenance is required to ensure its longevity.","But even with proper care, a piano deteriorates with age.","This is where a talented team of specialists come in to restore a piano to its former glory.","a piano that's untunable, has sticking keys, or malfunctioning pedals is a pianist's worst nightmare.","These problems are quite common in older pianos, and the only cure is through a major restoration.","After decades of use, wood, leather, and wool felt components naturally deteriorate.","Metal pins develop cavities, screws rust, dust and dirt inhibit moving parts.","An old piano may require anything from minor touch-ups to a complete rebuild.","It takes up to two days just to take apart the piano.","This component, called the action, is the heart of the instrument.","It has thousands of parts, including 88 piano keys and the felt-covered hammers the keys activate.","Behind the action is the damper action.","The dampers stop the strings from vibrating, ending the piano note.","The restorers begin removing the dampers.","Every component must be laid out in an organized fashion.","This is so they know how to reassemble the instrument.","They separate the keyboard frame from the action.","The self-contained part that remains is called the action stack.","Like the dampers, the other wooden parts of the action stack deteriorate with age.","The felts are usually worn, and everything's caked in dust.","The restorers replace these components with custom-made replicas.","After cleaning and polishing the ornate brass structure, they begin reassembling the action stack.","Next, the restorers remove and discard any worn parts on the keyboard.","They clean the wood thoroughly and install replacement parts as needed.","The black keys are made of ebony wood.","They can be refinished to look brand-new.","Older white keys are covered with ivory, which is no longer used.","So instead, they install new synthetic coverings made of white acrylic or a similar material.","The steel and copper piano strings have rusted, tarnished, and fatigued with age.","The tuning pins can no longer maintain the tension on the strings.","This can change the sound of the instrument, so both the strings and tuning pins must be replaced.","The piano will also receive a new pin block.","The pin block is a laminated piece of wood that holds the pins in place.","To access the pin block, they have to remove a heavy cast-iron plate.","The plate holds the strings at a tremendous amount of tension.","Once they've removed the plate, they can take out the pin block.","They restore the ornate cast-iron plate by stripping off the old paint finish with chemicals.","Then they prime, repaint, and apply a protective coat of clear polyester.","Back in the reconstruction area, a restorer removes the piano's wooden soundboard and its support structure.","They use these original parts as a template for the new ones.","If the action is the heart of the piano, then the soundboard is its soul.","When the strings vibrate against the soundboard, it resonates with sound.","On every soundboard, the strings pass over a wooden bridge staggered by pins.","The height and positioning of the bridge and pins are critical for producing fine tone.","After removing the pins, the restorers use the old bridge to make a template for a new one.","Now they install all of the replacement parts-- soundboard, bridge, bridge pins, pin block, and tuning pins.","They install the newly-refurbished cast-iron plate and are ready to perform some cosmetic restoration.","A piano's wooden cabinet or case is constructed from hardwood.","To give the piano the look of fine furniture, the surface is covered in a thin layer of fancier wood such as mahogany, rosewood, or walnut.","This veneer usually requires restoration in older pianos.","Over time, paint peels and varnish darkens.","There's often fading from exposure to direct sunlight or cracking due to dry indoor air.","To restore the veneer, they begin by using a chemical stripper to remove the old finish.","Once they've stripped the piano-case parts down to the bare veneer, they sand away any imperfections.","Then they apply aniline dye.","It's a type of stain that penetrates deep into the veneer and enhances the grain of the wood.","Several coats of clear lacquer are applied over the aniline dye.","This piano was originally black, so they sand, stain, then paint the wood black.","They apply several coats of paint, letting each one dry overnight before sanding the surface and applying the next coat.","After the final coat, they let the paint cure for two weeks, then do a fine sanding.","To make the painted surface glossy, they use a high-speed buffer and a series of progressively-finer polishing compounds.","This is a slow and painstaking process.","It takes two or three days to complete work on a concert grand piano like this.","With the 20-plus parts of the case now refinished, the restorers are now ready to reassemble the piano.","They start by hooking the looped end of each new string onto a hitch pin.","Then they run the string over the bridge to the opposite end of the cast-iron plate, winding it around a tuning pin.","Restorers must wear gloves while restringing.","Natural oils and perspiration on the hands can tarnish the wires.","Next, they install the refurbished dampers.","The original wood has been sanded and refinished.","They also have new felts and new wires.","The dampers go into a brand-new damper action.","The restorers make minute adjustments and alignments, a meticulous process that can take a few days to complete.","But that's nothing compared to regulating the larger and more complex action, which can take several weeks.","They make more than a dozen precision adjustments to each of the 88 notes.","After they reinstall the action, they bookend the keyboard with wooden cheekblocks.","These are the originals, stripped, sanded, and stained.","The cheekblocks help align the keyboard so that the hammers strike in the right place.","The restorer checks the action one last time to ensure it's performing perfectly.","Then he's ready to tune the piano.","He weaves a strip of wool cloth through the strings to mute all but the one string they're tuning.","once he's tuned all the strings, the inner workings of the piano are as good as new.","restorers finish reassembling the piano case and give it a final dusting.","Except for the legs, all of the piano-case parts have a solid wood core covered in a newly-restored veneer.","This veneer isn't just for aesthetics.","It prevents the wood core from expanding and contracting with changes in humidity.","restoring an old piano is part technical challenge, part labor of love.","After many weeks of hard work, this instrument looks and sounds just as it did in its heyday."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Car Engines","Flour","Recliners","Envelopes"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Car engines...","Flour...","Recliners...","And envelopes.","Car engines work by internal combustion, a process that happens in each of the engine's cylinders.","Air and a drop of gasoline enter the cylinder.","The piston moves upward, compressing the mixture.","The spark plug ignites the gasoline causing an explosion that drives the piston downward, powering the engine.","Engine components are housed in what's called the engine block.","It arrives at this plant partially made.","Here, they finish it off by machining the cylinder bores, the holes in which the pistons move up and down.","The tool carves a crisscross pattern on the cylinder bore walls.","Lubricating oil will cling to the grooves in this pattern enabling the pistons to move smoothly.","After machining, the engine block travels upside down to the engine assembly line.","When it arrives there, a scanner records the block's traceability code, a barcode that enables the factory to track the block through every stage of production.","As the engine block travels down the line, error-proofing devices ensure that each component is installed properly.","Elsewhere in the factory, the crankshaft is slowly taking shape.","The crankshaft is a bar that's rotated by the up-and-down motion of the pistons.","As it turns, it transfers power to the transmission.","The crankshaft starts out as a roughly shaped steel forging.","Robotic arms pass it down the line from station to station until, 20 tooling machines later, it's fully formed.","Now they install a steel disc with teeth called the reluctor ring.","They heat it and press it onto the crankshaft.","As it cools, it shrinks to a tight fit.","This ring helps time the combustion cycle.","As it spins, its teeth pass in front of a sensor, which reads the crankshaft's position and tells the engine to fire the spark plugs at precisely the right moment.","Now they balance the crankshaft.","If it's off-kilter, the engine will vibrate.","A computer analyzes the spin and determines whether they need to drill out metal at certain points to achieve equilibrium.","Back on the engine assembly line, the engine blocks are still upside down.","A robot lubricates the four bearings on which the crankshaft will turn, then it drops the crankshaft into position.","The pistons come next-- six per engine because these are six-cylinder engines.","The pistons are made of aluminum.","Robots install them into the cylinder bores of the engine block.","A steel connecting rod attaches each piston to the crankshaft.","Now workers can close up the back of the engine block.","A robot applies sealant to the rear cover.","They bolt it on manually with a tool called a multi-spindle torque gun.","On another line, they assemble the two heads that'll cover the top of the engine block.","This robot is applying sealant to spark plug tubes before inserting them into the heads.","The heads cap off the cylinder bores.","They provide each cylinder with a spark plug and four valves-- two for allowing the fuel mixture in and two for releasing the exhaust.","The black tubes running front to back are the cam shafts, the components that open and close those valves.","There are four per engine.","A robot applies sealant and then bolts a cover onto the front of the engine block, the head, and a component called the timing chain.","This chain connects the crankshaft to the cam shafts so that they rotate in unison.","This ensures the valves open when the pistons are in the right position.","Finally, they spin the engine mechanically to make sure the components function properly.","The grain most commonly ground into flour is wheat.","Flour mills use high-protein or hard-wheat species to make bread flour and lower-protein or soft-wheat species to produce cake and pastry flour.","All-purpose flour is a compromise with medium protein.","As soon as the wheat shipment arrives, a grain probe vacuums up samples from throughout the load.","If the samples pass quality inspection, the mill gives the truck the go-ahead to dump the wheat onto an underground conveyor.","From there, the grain goes into a cleaning machine, where a system of sieves removes impurities such as straw, sticks, and grain dust.","The wheat then goes into storage silos until milling time.","The protein content of wheat varies by species, so the first step is to blend together the right varieties of wheat for the type of flour they'll be making.","From the blender, the wheat goes through a second, more intensive cleaning system that removes the tiniest of impurities, such as weed seeds and dust.","On the way to the milling machines, a scale tracks production quantities.","This mill's vertical-production line is five stories high.","Gravity carries the wheat downward through a succession of milling machines.","Each one grinds the grain between steel rollers and then sifts it.","Particles too large to pass through a sieve continue downward into the next milling machine and so on.","By the time the wheat hits the last machine, anything that's not fully processed gets vacuumed up to the top to begin the cycle again.","Mills make white flour by grinding only the wheat kernel's soft inner part, called the endosperm.","This requires removing the bran, the kernel's hard skin, and the germ, its seed.","That separation begins as soon as the wheat kernels enter the very first milling machine.","Rollers break off the germ and bran and crush the endosperm into pieces called semolina.","Sifting removes the germ and loose bran pieces, but much of the semolina remains covered in bran particles.","So between each milling station is a purifier, a machine that uses controlled air currents to float the lighter bran above the heavier semolina, enabling sieves to separate the two components.","The semolina goes through repeated grind, sift, and purify cycles until it's completely clean.","Only then can it be finely ground into flour.","The ground semolina passes through a series of sieves.","This ensures it doesn't leave the final milling machine until it's been ground to the right powdery texture.","There are three main types of white-wheat flour.","Bread flour has high protein, enabling dough to rise well and bake to a firm texture.","Cake flour has low protein, which produces a crumbly texture.","All-purpose flour is the compromise-- its medium-protein content makes it suitable for baking both bread and cakes.","By the end of production, the flour mill has produced three distinct products-- bran, used for animal feed and baking...","White-wheat flour...","And wheat germ for the health-food market.","Leftover by-products go into livestock feed.","In the mill's quality-control lab, they bake the product for which the flour is designed and then examine its appearance, texture, and taste.","They use specialized equipment to calculate the volume, the density, protein, and moisture contents.","With baked goods destined for retail sale, like these cookies, it's especially important to measure the dimensions.","If dough overexpands, the cookies won't fit in their package.","Just prior to packaging, the mill enriches its white flour with vitamins and minerals.","This replaces the vitamins and minerals lost when the milling process removed the bran and germ.","They shake the bags to settle the flour.","Bagged flour in various sizes goes out to supermarkets, restaurants, and commercial bakeries, while tanker trunks ship bulk flour to large industrial bakeries.","The first reclining armchair was introduced by the la-z-boy company in 1928.","Today, many companies make motion furniture, as the industry calls it, and the term \"recliner\" no longer refers to just armchairs.","You can buy reclining couches and even reclining sectionals.","This factory makes reclining chairs and couches in both fabric and leather.","The furniture construction is the same, regardless of the material, but leather upholstery requires a few extra steps.","They begin by inspecting the hide, marking serious defects with one color of tape and minor imperfections with another.","A computer-programmed cutting machine scans and registers the tape markings, then automatically cuts and discards the defective parts.","It cuts upholstery pieces for hidden areas, such as the undersides of seat cushions, from the imperfect leather and visible parts from flawless leather.","Once all the pieces are cut, they sew together the back, seat, and arms.","Then, they stuff the arms and back.","They position the open end against a blowing machine that fills it with polyester fiber.","Workers weigh each part before and after filling.","This ensures they've blown in the right amount of fiber and that both arms have equal filling.","Next, they'll fill the seat with foam.","A compression machine squeezes it, then a worker sprays on silicone lubricant.","This enables the seat cover to slide on easily.","Foam is made of a chemical mixture, the formulation of which determines the density-- the higher the density, the higher the quality.","Elsewhere in the factory, they cut the frame components from plywood using a computer-guided band saw.","These long pieces will form the seat frame.","A 3-seater couch has 3 separate frames, enabling each seat to recline individually.","A machine lines one side of each piece with steel spring clips.","A worker then dabs the ends in glue and assembles the pieces, reinforcing them with long, glue-coated staples.","As the staples enter the wood, friction-generated heat melts the glue.","The glue then dries, securing the staples.","Now comes the step known as \"springing the seat\".","They hook five thick, steel springs into the spring clips, then hammer the clips closed to lock the springs in place.","They connect the springs with a plastic-covered wire so that, when you sit on the seat, all the springs react in unison.","They assemble the frame pieces for the arm, using glue and glue-coated staples, plus a few screws at strategic points.","They screw the arm to the seat and begin upholstering.","First, a layer of felt to cushion the springs, then wood, cardboard, and foam to form the rounded shape of the armrest.","After lubricating with silicone spray, they slip on the leather and staple it in place.","They upholster the backrest and sides in the same manner.","The reclining mechanism arrives at the factory with the sides preassembled.","Workers install the connecting pieces, then a bushing that reduces the noise the mechanism makes.","Finally, they install a spring to control the recline speed.","They screw the mechanism to the seat frame...","Then hook up the operating handle and test it out.","To cover the back of the furniture, they attach metal tacking strips to the leather...","Then turn the edge under and hammer the tacks into the frame, using a pneumatic hammer.","The last step is to attach the back to the seat.","There's the detachable flap at the bottom, providing access to a locking spring inside.","The locking spring lets you remove the back if you have trouble getting the furniture through a doorway.","At this factory, workers are encouraged to lie down on the job, but only to inspect the furniture.","After examining the fabric and sewing, they assess the comfort and test the reclining motion.","Talk about a cushy job.","We rip it open with barely a thought, more anxious to read its contents than to take a moment to truly appreciate its form and function, and then we ruthlessly discard it.","The humble envelope just doesn't get much respect despite its distinguished 4,000-year history.","As early as 2,000 b.c., the babylonians baked special clay wrappers to transport documents.","Eventually, people made envelopes from lighter materials, such as animal skins and leaves.","By about 1,000 a.d., it became the custom to simply fold a letter and seal it with a drop of wax.","But everything changed in 1837 with england's new penny-postage system.","To mail a letter, the sender now had to buy a postage-paid paper wrapper that folded into an envelope.","One of the many envelope styles this factory makes is a 12-by-18-inch envelope made of natural-colored kraft paper.","A machine, appropriately called the sheeter, cuts the roll into 21-by-25-inch sheets.","A worker selects the cutting die for this style and installs it on an automated press.","As each stack of sheets passes underneath, the press applies 11 tons of pressure, forcing the die right through like a giant cookie cutter.","The shaped sheets are called \"envelope blanks\".","Workers now load the blanks into the feeder of an automated piece of equipment called a blank-sheet envelope-folding machine.","As we see here in slow motion, revolving steel blades first make scorelines, four in all-- one down each side, creating the envelope's side flaps, one across the top, creating the seal flap, and one across the lower end, creating the bottom flap.","Folding blades hold the paper down along the scorelines, while arms push up from underneath, folding the side flaps toward the center.","Just before the flaps meet, the machine runs a line of glue down their edge.","The flaps adhere to each other, forming the center seam that runs down the back of the envelope.","The machine then glues the bottom flap and folds it closed.","You can see in slow motion how it also applies glue to the seal flap at the top, keeping that flap open so that the glue will dry.","The sender has to just remoisten the glue to seal the envelope.","The finished envelope exits the folding machine and enters another machine that counts them and stacks them upright.","This more sophisticated piece of equipment is called a web-roll envelope-folding machine.","They feed the roll of paper directly into the machine and, as we see here in slow motion, it does everything from cutting, scoring, folding, and gluing the blanks to counting the finished envelopes.","For this style, a die even punches out an address window in the front of the envelope.","This all-in-one machine goes through all the steps at lightning speed-- 20 envelopes per second.","The thin, transparent film that covers the address window is usually made of polypropylene.","The machine cuts it to size and glues it to the envelope.","This machine doesn't have folding blades to hold the paper down along the scorelines.","Instead, the blanks roll through a series of rotating cylinders with air holes.","A suction system vacuums the blank to the cylinder while the operation is being performed, then releases the vacuum to transfer the paper to the next cylinder, where it's vacuumed on for the duration of the next operation.","Internal-mail envelopes are opened and closed repeatedly, so they don't have a lick-and-stick seal flap like regular envelopes do.","As we see here in slow motion, an automated machine rivets a cardboard button to the back of the envelope.","At the same time, it rivets another button, with a piece of string, to the flap.","Envelope factories use many different types of paper, from top-quality vellum to kraft paper.","With printing equipment incorporated right into the folding machines, they can print return addresses, even elaborate custom designs."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Gut Strings","Absinthe","Belt Buckles","Lever Locks"]},"text":["The instruments in the violin family have a distinct sound created in large part by the type of strings they have.","While there are strings made of synthetic materials or metals on the market, traditional strings are made of a specific part of a certain animal.","Stay tuned for the details.","Playing an instrument in the violin family takes guts-- literally.","That's because the instrument's four strings are made of sheep intestines.","The two thinner, higher note strings are made of plain gut.","The two thicker, lower note strings have a gut core wrapped in silver wire, then silk thread wound around the extremities.","The intestines, each roughly 65 feet long, come from local slaughterhouses and arrive already emptied, cleaned, and salted.","The first step is to soak them in cold water for one to two days.","This starts a controlled, very smelly decomposition which helps loosen up the intestines' components.","Next, using a half piece of wood cane, the string maker scrapes off the outer layers of fat and mucosa membranes.","Then, five times a day for a week, he softens the gut in an alkaline potash bath and pulls it against a handmade copper thimble.","This gently scrapes away the waste remnants until the gut is a tube of pure, transparent muscle, at which point he slices it with a splitting horn into two gut ribbons of differing widths.","The thinner, right one for making violin strings, the thicker, left one for making cello and double bass strings.","During the scraping phase, guts sometimes break apart.","Rather than discard these pieces, the string maker knots them together to produce full-length strands.","The string maker's assistants cut the gut ribbons into 23-foot lengths and bleach them for four days.","This prevents the gut from turning brown.","Then they count out the number of strands required to produce the various size strings-- from six to make the thinnest violin string all the way up to 120 to make the thickest double bass string.","They tie the ends in a loop and hook them up to a twisting machine, then turn the machine's crank and tightly twist the gut ribbons together to form one strong, single string.","Then, since the guts have begun to dry out a bit, they rehydrate the string to restore a consistent level of moisture.","Then they twist it again and transfer it, along with additional strings, to a drying frame.","There's no set drying time.","They monitor each string individually around the clock.","As a string dries, it shrinks in diameter but grows in length, creating slack.","So, they repeatedly remove and retwist until it dries completely, at which point it stabilizes.","This drying and retwisting process can take up to seven days.","The string is ready when it's hard and stiff and slightly yellowed.","At that stage, they rub it with horsehair-- the traditional equivalent of coarse sandpaper.","It makes the string smooth and even throughout.","Next, they fine-polish the string with abrasive, dried grass in a cloth that's been moistened with olive oil.","Some string makers use almond oil and pumice or powdered glass as the abrasive.","They sever the strings from the drying frame and cut them to standard lengths.","These strings will be for a child-size violin, so they're 100 centimeters long.","To produce the correct sounds, the instrument's two lower-note strings must be considerably thicker than the others.","The problem is this thickness in gut alone would produce a dull sound, so they wrap the string in sterling silver wire-- silver being seven times denser than gut.","This gives the string the right sound and a loud, brilliant tone with minimal thickness.","Next, for decoration, they wrap the top and bottom of these gut-core strings with silk thread.","On a violin string, the silk runs about a centimeter long on each end.","On a longer cello string, like this one, about 5 centimeters.","The finished string is ready to be inserted into its retail packaging.","There are less expensive synthetic strings on the market, however, particularly for early music, many musicians prefer the sound and feel of traditional gut strings-- made by hand today just as they were centuries ago.","Absinthe is a strong alcoholic drink with a colorful history.","During the late 1800s and early 1900s, drinking this anise-flavored spirit was the rage among european bohemians.","Conservatives of the day saw it as dangerous and immoral and succeeded in getting absinthe banned in several countries.","The traditional way to drink absinthe is to pour one part into a glass, straddle a specially designed slotted spoon holding a sugar cube over the glass, then, very slowly, drip three to five parts ice water directly onto the cube, dissolving the sugar into the diluting spirit.","This transforms the drink from clear to cloudy and draws out the subtle flavors and aromas of the herbal ingredients.","You can do this with a single glass or several using a traditional absinthe fountain-- a large mounted glass vessel which dispenses the ice water through multiple spigots.","This 180-year-old french distillery makes both white and green versions of absinthe.","Each is made from a different combination aromatic plants.","However, for both, the primary ingredients are green anise and grand wormwood.","Both also contain fennel.","The white absinthe has more of it.","And only green absinthe contains additional plants, such as petty wormwood, hyssop, mint, and chamomile.","The distillery workers pour the recipe ingredients into a copper still.","They pump in highly concentrated alcohol made from white grapes.","The plants soak in this alcohol base overnight, gradually imbuing the alcohol with their respective flavors and aromas.","This process is called maceration.","The next day, distillation begins.","They heat the still with pressurized steam.","After about 45 minutes, the spirit reaches the boiling point, and a floating gauge monitoring its alcohol level slowly rises and flows out the neck of the still.","However, what comes out during the first 10 minutes or so has to be discarded.","It's white, oily, and has a 90% alcohol level.","What follows is the good stuff-- crystal clear, with an average alcohol level of 78% to 80%.","This streams steadily out of the still for about three to five hours, followed by a weak tail-end flow that they discard like the first flow.","Then they dilute this distilled spirit with water to reduce the final alcohol level of this white absinthe to 60%.","To make green absinthe, before that final dilution, they pump the white absinthe through a burlap bag containing a specific plant-- the identity of which the distillery won't divulge.","They let the plant soak in the absinthe for a specific length of time.","This draws out the plant's chlorophyll, which colors the spirit bright green.","Then they dilute with water to obtain the target alcohol level of 62%, slightly higher than white absinthe.","That extra bit of alcohol helps preserve the chlorophyll.","In the distillery's in-house laboratory, quality-control technicians test a sample from each batch to verify the alcohol content.","Absinthe contains about 20% more alcohol than most spirits.","The lab monitors the level of thujone, a chemical compound in wormwood, the drink's second key ingredient.","Thujone content is regulated to varying degrees in many countries.","The european union permits up to 35 parts per million, for example, while canada, no more than 7 parts per million.","The distillery, therefore, bottles several versions of absinthe, tailoring the wormwood portion of the recipe to the export destination.","White absinthe has a strong anise taste, well balanced with wormwood, whereas green absinthe, containing more plants, has a more complex flavor.","While white is typically bottled in clear glass, green is always bottled in dark-colored glass.","That's because chlorophyll, the plant pigment that produces the green color, is highly sensitive to light.","Without dark glass shielding it from exposure, the green absinthe inside would turn yellow and eventually brown.","This would have no effect whatsoever on the taste, however, the potent drink known in 19th-century france as la fée verte, the green fairy, would lose some of its magic.","There are reports of archaeologists finding evidence of belts and buckles dating back to the 6th and 7th centuries in britain.","Decorative belt buckles appear to have been worn for the first time as symbols of status in the 1500s throughout regional spain.","Today, hand-engraved belt buckles are prized not only as fashion accessories but as inspired examples of workmanship and art.","The buckle maker welds small stainless steel rods together to form the back of the buckle.","After placing them in a welding fixture, he precision-welds them.","Using another fixture, the buckle maker adds a center pin to the back of the buckle.","After precision-welding it into place, he melts the tip of the stainless steel pin into a smooth ball.","This locating pin centers the belt in the buckle.","The buckle maker uses a jeweler's saw to cut the shape of the buckle from heavy gauge solid sterling silver.","He stamps the company logo into the back of the buckle.","Using pure silver, he solders the welded rods onto the back of the buckle, along with a stainless steel keeper tongue.","He uses a jeweler's saw to cut out initials, using the font, material, and size selected by the customer.","The buckle maker uses a soldering gun to apply solder to the back of the letters, which are made of gold fill, a thin layer of gold on top of brass.","He carefully positions the initials on the sterling silver buckle, which has been covered with flux for the soldering phase to come.","Too much solder on the back of the letters, and it could flow out onto the buckle surface.","Heating the belt buckle causes the solder on the back of the letters to attach firmly to the sterling silver surface.","The attachment process happens very quickly.","With a polishing compound and cloth polishing wheel, he gives the buckle a brilliant shine.","The buckle maker hand-engraves the buckle using assorted engraving tools.","He uses a shading tool to add depth to lines.","He follows guidelines drawn in felt pen.","The pattern engraved is chosen by the customer.","The belt maker rolls out a piece of tan strap leather.","Using a gauge knife, he cuts the width of leather needed to make the belt chosen by the customer.","The belt maker uses a variety of tools to cut and shape the leather.","He cuts the tip of the belt.","He places the leather in room-temperature water for about five minutes.","When bubbles stop rising, the leather is saturated.","After the leather has dried, he transfers a pattern from the design strip to the leather.","Stamping tools allow him to stamp intricate designs.","Using a swivel knife, he cuts to a depth of between a quarter to a third of the way through the leather.","The initial pattern has been carved.","With a beveler, he deepens and shapes the carved lines.","He chooses a bar backgrounder to create leaf in the background.","With a swivel knife, he makes the final decorative cuts.","The belt maker applies dye to the background sections of the carved leather, completing the most intricate part of his work.","He stamps in the maker's mark.","Using a piece of sheepskin, he applies an oil finish to the belt.","A thin paste highlights the cuts and gives the belt an antique finish.","A final tanned coat waterproofs the belt and helps protect it.","He makes holes in the belt.","The belt has a bend in it where the buckle will be attached.","With chicago screws, he attaches the buckle firmly to the belt.","Ideally, the belt and buckle complement each other.","Strong and stylish, meticulously handcrafted belt buckles and belts have managed to make a clear fashion statement out of belt-tightening.","The lever lock was invented in the late 18th century by an englishman.","At the time, the ward lock, with its simple, concentric plate mechanism, was the main kind of lock in use.","It was medieval technology and fairly easy to pick.","The lever lock took security to a whole new level.","More than two centuries after their invention, lever locks are still on security duty.","The mechanism hasn't changed much, except instead of two levers, there can be many inside.","They fall into slots, locking the bolt until a key lifts the levers.","This lever mechanism is very rugged.","It will continue to function even if dirt or moisture infiltrates the lock.","It's why many armed forces will only use this kind of lock.","To make the two halves of the lock body, they uncoil a narrow band of heavy steel.","Rollers straighten it.","Then a punch press shapes and cuts out the part.","Four punches produce a fully formed part.","The front half includes the side flange, the keyhole, a post, and rivet holes.","The parts tumble with wood chips, and the friction removes unwanted bits called burrs.","The chips also absorb residual oil from punch pressing.","They punch out the lock levers and other parts.","They plate all 23 parts with yellow zinc.","Next, rivets funnel into a network of tubing.","They tumble four at a time into an assembly device.","There are different-sized rivets to fit different-sized holes.","The delivery system pushes the rivets up through holes in the assembly device.","A factory worker places the back of a lock body on the rivets, and a hydraulic press squeezes them into place.","He keeps a stash of rivets at the workbench in the event that the tubing doesn't deliver.","The back of the lock body is now ready to receive the lock mechanism.","There are 240 different lever combinations.","The next worker determines which one to use.","She places the bolt lever in the casing and slides all the other levers onto a rivet.","There are a total of six levers in this particular padlock.","Some locks have more, some have fewer.","The more levers there are, the tougher the lock is to pick.","She wraps a metal spring around a rivet...","And then hinges the shackle to a third post.","She sets the back half aside and assembles the keyhole cover to the front part of the lock.","She winds a spring around a post and places the cover over it.","The spring will allow the cover to be swung open and shut.","A rivet secures the keyhole cover.","She now brings the two lock body halves together, so the rivets from the back protrude through the front.","She flattens the rivets to hold the parts together.","The next part is the clevis.","It's a u-shaped attachment for a chain to make the lock easier to hang onto when not in lockdown mode.","Another worker now categorizes the locks in separate boxes, according to the key code.","He leaves a key code i.d. card in each box.","When transferring a lock for painting, that i.d. card goes with it.","This system prevents mix-ups, so that later they'll be able to make keys to match.","They spray the locks military green and give them four coats for corrosion resistance.","It's time to rev up the key cutter.","There are 240 key profiles to match the 240 lever lock combinations.","The operator sets the blades in the desired sequence and carves the keys to give them the right geometry.","With the correct profile, the key lifts and lowers the levers in the lock to open and close it.","A standard padlock comes with two keys.","If the owner loses them both, the lock will usually need to be replaced.","That's because the keycode is never written on the lock body to avoid tipping off thieves.","The technician confirms that both keys work, and this lever padlock is now ready to thwart criminals and safeguard possessions."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Surfboards","Stickers","Sandwich Cookies","Concrete Roofing Tiles"]},"text":["Surfing is an ancient polynesian pastime, first documented by europeans in the 18th century.","In the 1920s, the sport spread from hawaii to the beaches of california.","Back then, surfboards were made of solid wood.","Today, they're made of lightweight synthetic materials.","Serious surfers have their boards custom-made and engineered for the types of waves they'll be riding.","At the board's core is a piece of polyurethane foam with a wooden strip down the center.","The factory's shaping specialist inspects the board and checks the foam for defects.","If all is well, he cuts the board to the right length.","Then he chooses a board shape template from his library and traces it.","Then he saws along his pencil line.","Using a planer, he refines this starting shape to the customer's specifications.","When he finishes, he checks to make sure everything's symmetrical.","Next, he shapes the edges.","With a power sander, he flattens and smoothes out the surface then follows with a fine sanding by hand.","Before releasing the foam core to the next department, he checks the dimensions-- thickness, contours, and the smoothness.","A lamination specialist preps the board to receive its first layer of fiberglass.","He masks the top, called the deck, to shield it from the resin he'll now apply to the bottom.","He lays down the first fiberglass cloth, leaving a 3-inch overlap along the perimeter.","Next, he spreads polyester resin that's tinted to whatever color the customer ordered all over the fiberglass cloth.","He folds the overlap onto the deck...","Then grinds the corners flat.","He flips the board deck-side up and trims the overlap.","Next, he covers the deck in two layers of fiberglass.","In between them, he pours clear polyester resin then positions company logos printed on rice paper.","The resin soaks the paper, embedding the logo.","Then another layer of resin-coated fiberglass.","Once that dries, he applies yet another coat of resin on both sides of the board.","Using a router and template, he cuts a hole for the box that'll hold the surfboard's fin.","He fills the hole with black resin then inserts the fin box.","Now a sanding specialist takes over.","He grinds the box flush, which opens its fin slot.","Then he gives the board an overall sanding to smooth the surface.","Next stop is the paint room.","The painter uses masking tape and an acrylic paint pen to decorate the surfboard with black pin lines.","Once they dry, he masks the board and air-brushes in a white pin line.","Once dry, he applies a finishing coat of resin over the entire board.","Now a polishing specialist steps in.","After a fine sanding, he buffs the entire board with polishing compound, producing a slick high-gloss finish.","The factory ships the board to the surfboard shop, where the customer chooses a fin from the many models available.","The fin screws into the fin box, and, dude, the board is ready to go.","Stickers have long been used in merchandising.","But in 1979, they took a crafty turn with the introduction of decorative stickers.","Sticker art soon became a popular hobby, allowing anyone to engage in a little creative embellishment.","Stickers can be used to accent greeting cards, photo albums, or add a certain flourish to any project.","Every sticker begins with a work of art.","The artist transfers the image to a computer and manipulates it until the desired effect is achieved.","Next, a sheet of photopolymer goes onto an exposure machine.","The technician places a negative of the art on top of the photopolymer sheet.","He pulls plastic over the two and closes the machine's lid.","Inside, a vacuum pulls the negative to the photopolymer.","Intense ultraviolet light transfers the art to the photopolymer in seconds.","He makes several photopolymer printing plates, each one a variation of the original artwork.","They will be used to layer pattern and color.","Before they can print, they have to make the art stand out from the background.","This machine removes material surrounding the transferred images using a special chemical and a heavy-duty brush.","Because the images were hardened during the exposure, they withstand the chemicals and abrasion.","The process leaves the images slightly raised against a clear backdrop and ready for the printing press.","They wrap the printing plates around cylinders.","The press operator examines the seam under a magnifying glass to confirm that the edges are perfectly aligned.","He loads the cylinder into the printing press.","Then he pours yellow ink into a reservoir below.","And it's time to roll the printing press.","Rollers transfer the ink to the printing cylinder, and it prints the art onto adhesive-backed sticker paper.","They use a different printing plate for each color to create variations in the design.","As a result, each of these hearts ends up looking different.","It's all about layering color and pattern to give the sticker artists plenty of options.","Next, the press operator prepares a cutting cylinder.","It cuts around the designs, but only penetrates the top layer of the sticker paper.","Rollers pull off the surrounding material.","They wind it up for recycling offsite.","Only the stickers remain on the backing, but they aren't ready for the scrapbook just yet.","First it's over to another press, which hot-stamps foil to the designs.","This process is carefully choreographed.","A sensor on the press detects the hearts which are to be given the metallic finish.","Those get shiny swirls, glossy ribbons, or other trimmings while others are left untouched.","The next machine cuts the stickers into sheets.","Then it's over to a packaging machine where an operator loads the sheets into a hopper.","Wheels with little grippers collect the sheets and drop them in piles of two onto a backer car.","The packaging machine then wraps plastic film around the stickers and seals the package with a static charge.","A hot knife then cuts and seals it at both ends.","When it comes to other designs, there's no shortage of choices, giving sticker artists of all ages plenty of ways to express themselves.","Early in the 20th century, an american biscuit company introduced a cookie sandwich.","It was two chocolate cookies with rich vanilla icing at the center.","This sandwich cookie created an instant sensation, and almost a century later, it hasn't lost its appeal.","People still crave this sugary fusion of crunch and cream.","Dipping the sandwich cookie in milk is a tasty tradition, and whoever started it must have been one smart cookie.","Sandwich cookies start with pure granulated sugar.","This worker heaves bags of it into a mixer as he prepares to whip up the batter for the wafers.","He adds two kinds of cocoa.","The combination will give the wafers the desired taste and color.","A premix of salt and other ingredients follows.","A specially formulated canola-oil mixture will transform these dry ingredients into a batter as huge beaters blend everything together.","They add water, and the batter starts to look like a bubbling chocolate soup.","They add dry ice, which chills the batter as it evaporates.","The lower temperature is key as they add flour to thicken the batter into a dough.","The dough will turn out less crumbly than it would have been if it had been kept at room temperature.","A premix of leavening ingredients goes in next.","One final mix, and this chocolate dough is ready to go.","The worker shovels it onto a grate, which protects his fingers as he presses the dough down into a molding machine.","This machine shapes the dough into cookie wafers while pressing intricate designs and the brand name onto them.","It churns out an impressive 5,000 chocolate wafers an hour.","The freshly molded cookie wafers now move from the silicon conveyer to a steel one.","It takes the wafers into a gas oven, where they travel in a continuous loop for several minutes to receive an even baking.","After that, fans cool the wafers to the desired crispiness.","The chocolate wafers then move to another conveyor, which feeds into a series of chutes.","Then the wafers travel over ramps designed to make them fall into a certain position.","One row lands plain-side up, and the next lands with the embossed side up.","This correctly orients them to be sandwiched around a cream filling.","It's a high-speed operation, as a cylindrical pump deposits the vanilla cream on the plain side of the wafers.","The cream-coated wafers head over to the next station.","Here, machinery moves the top wafers onto the cream-coated ones.","The cookies move up for the count.","Mechanical fingers separate them into bunches of 11.","Then grippers swing into action to move each little bunch forward.","They release the cookies neatly into plastic trays.","The trays full of sandwich cookies move on to the wrapping station.","Here, metallic film unwinds and wraps around the trays.","Hot jaws move in to seal the package at both ends.","Finally, they're shipped to retailers.","But once these sandwich cookies are in the pantry, it might be tough to keep them under wraps.","In moderate climates, tile roofs are the norm.","The tiles are typically rounded and terra-cotta in color, characteristic of mediterranean architecture and made of clay or concrete.","Today, concrete roofing tiles come in a wide variety of colors and styles from traditional to contemporary.","While concrete roofing tiles can emulate wood or asphalt shingles, they have a far longer life span-- more than 50 years.","The tile-making process begins with smooth sand from natural sand deposits combined with sharp, jagged sand made from pulverized rock.","The factory regrinds any concrete tiles that failed quality control and adds them to the mix, as well.","Technicians analyze the composition of the mix, measure the moisture, and assess the silt content.","Too much silt will weaken the concrete.","They measure silt by shaking the sand in a test tube.","Heavier particles settle to the bottom, water at the top, and silt in between.","The amount of silt must not exceed 10%.","The sand mix runs through a vibrating screen, which filters out large objects, such as rocks and sticks.","To make concrete, you mix sand with cement.","The cement-truck driver hooks up a hose to blow its contents into a huge silo.","From the silo, the conveyor system metes out a specific amount of cement into the sand.","It's critical to get the ratio just right.","Roof tiles come in a choice of colors.","They tint the concrete a specific shade by pumping in natural iron-oxide pigments and water.","A cement screw mixes everything until it's evenly blended.","The concrete is now ready to be molded into roof tiles.","This machine sprays the aluminum molds with vegetable oil, which will make it easy to extract the finished tiles.","The concrete drops into an extrusion machine, which squeezes it out in a continuous sheet onto the passing molds.","Knives descend, cutting the sheet to tile lengths.","This is what the process looks like in slow motion.","Real-time production moves at a rate of 110 tiles per minute.","The tiles now run past rollers that finish the edges nicely.","Then an ink-jet printer applies product information along with the date and time.","The next stop is a giant oven.","The factory meticulously controls the temperature and humidity inside so that the concrete dries and cures properly.","The tiles come out of the oven, depending on their size, 5 to 24 hours later.","An automated separator extracts each tile from its mold.","The conveyor then sends the empty molds back to be refilled with wet concrete.","Nozzles spray sealer onto the top of the tiles.","This will force moisture and calcium to exit thorough the bottom, preventing discoloration on the tile's surface.","Workers do a final visual check, removing any tiles with cracks or other flaws.","Automated equipment stacks and straps 36 to 39 tiles into a group called a sleeve.","The factory subjects random samples to rigorous quality-control testing for strength...","Permeability...","Even hail.","To pass this test, the tile must be left unscathed by a 2-inch ice ball flying at 35 yards per second.","This fire-safety test ensures that heat or flames can't penetrate the tile.","Roofs made of concrete tiles can even withstand winds of up to 150 miles per hour, making them ideal for regions prone to hurricanes."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Carpets","Drinking Water","Laser Eye Surgery","Acoustic Guitars"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" carpets, drinking water, laser-eye surgery, and acoustic guitars.","People use the words \"rug\" and \"carpet\" interchangeably, but they're not the same thing.","A rug covers just part of the floor.","A carpet goes wall to wall.","Today most carpets on the market are made of synthetic materials.","The first step is to make the carpet yarn.","They start by feeding bales of nylon or polyester fiber into the opening and blending machine.","The carding machine then untangles the individual fibers, lining them up in neat rows, then gathering them into wider bands.","The bands go into cans.","From the cans, they go into a machine called a drawing frame...","Which draws out five threads to make one rough, loose thread.","That thread goes onto spools.","Then they twist threads from two spools to make a stronger and thicker thread.","Next they twist two of those threads together to form a two-ply yarn.","To ensure the two plies don't untwist, the yarn goes through a heat-setting machine at almost 270 degrees fahrenheit.","The continuous heat permanently sets it, much the way a curling iron sets hair.","After 45 seconds of heat-setting, the yarn is rewound on spools.","Those spools then go to the tufting department, where the carpet-making begins.","A standard 144-inch-wide carpet is made from 1,440 spools of yarn.","Each spool feeds into a plastic tube, which feeds into the tufting machine, where the 1,440 lines of yarn feed 1,440 tufting needles.","The needles stitch the yarn into a canvas backing made of polypropylene.","With slow motion, you can see the yarn being hooked on the canvas then cut underneath into carpet pile.","Up to 12 needles work each inch of canvas.","The result is a pile carpet in the standard 12-foot width.","Next they dye it.","For multicolored carpets, they use a machine called a chromojet.","It works much the way a computer ink-jet printer does, forcing streams of dye in different colors into the carpet fibers.","The more complicated and colorful the design, the more often the machine passes over the carpet.","For solid-color dyeing, there's a mixer in each dye reservoir to keep the color even.","They soak the carpet for four hours in a hot bath of dye and water heated to 212 degrees fahrenheit.","Another method uses heat and air pressure in an autoclave.","What the bath method does in four hours, this method does in just 30 minutes and with more carpets at a time.","Once the dyeing is finished, they apply a water-based glue to a polypropylene backing then put the backing over the original canvas backing, locking the carpet fibers in place.","Then it's on to what's called the marriage roll, a roller press that marries the two backings together.","After a quick run through an oven to make the water and the glue evaporate, they cut the finished carpet into rolls.","A standard roll is 100 feet long.","Researchers have invented a pollution-free car that runs on hydrogen.","The research team modified the standard car engine to burn hydrogen instead of gasoline.","Now they have to figure out how to prevent the hydrogen tank from blowing up in a collision.","Drinking water that's fresh, clean, and crystal-clear is something many of us take for granted.","We might not give it a second thought, but between the source and our tap, a lot happens to make that water fit to drink.","Our water may come from mother nature, but it's far from pristine.","It starts its journey to the treatment plant through a water-intake pipe.","On the wall of that pipe, about 6 1/2 feet down, is a 6-inch hole.","Covering that hole is a metal grill designed to keep out large debris, such as tree branches.","The water flows to the pumping station, where it goes through a preliminary screening.","A giant revolving screen removes fish, garbage, and grass.","Once they remove the debris, a low-pressure pump moves the water into the treatment plant.","The untreated water, called raw water, is dirty and smelly.","They first add a powerful form of the chemical element carbon called activated carbon.","It absorbs contaminants such as solvents and pesticides.","That rids the water of bad taste and odor.","From there, the water then goes through a series of mixing tanks.","The first tank holds a chemical called aluminum sulfate.","It acts as a coagulant, a substance that thickens liquid into globs.","In the raw water, the aluminum sulfate forms tiny, sticky globs called flocks.","Bacteria, mud, and other impurities stick to those flocks.","Then the flock-filled water moves on to the second mixing tank.","The second tank holds a chemical called polymer, which is essential to the next step of the process, called sedimentation.","Five pipes inject the water with superfine particles of sand, called microsand.","The polymer coats the sand, making it sticky.","The grains of sand then stick to the flocks in the raw water, weighing them down even more.","The water then flows into a settling tank, where the flocks, because they're heavier, settle to the bottom.","You can see the result in this demonstration.","The water is finally clear, but it's far from drinkable because it's still full of bacteria, viruses, and other organic matter.","So, on to the next step--  filtration.","The water flows onto the top of the filter then trickles downward, passing through a layer of anthracite, a type of coal, then through a layer of sand.","This filters out any remaining particles, which then flow to the middle.","But the water is still teeming with bacteria and viruses, so it has to be disinfected.","They add 1.9 milligrams of chlorine for every 4 cups of water, enough to kill off those germs and bugs.","Then they add a mineral called silicate to prevent calcium buildup from blocking our water pipes.","The treatment plant sends water samples to a government inspector, who continuously monitors the water supply to ensure it meets safety standards.","The amount of chlorine remaining in our drinking water is 20 millionths of an ounce per liter.","The chlorine gas the plant uses is highly toxic.","Should any leak out, emergency teams would have to evacuate a 6-mile radius.","So the plant stores the drums of chlorine in a high-security area.","It's taken about 45 minutes to turn raw water into treated water.","Now these electric motors will pump it through underground pipes, right to your tap.","Short-sightedness, far-sightedness, and astigmatism are all due to light not focusing precisely onto the retina.","Surgeons can correct this by using a laser to reshape the curvature of the front surface of the eye, called the cornea.","The surgeon operates on one eye at a time.","He cleans the eye, the lid, and the lashes with antiseptic...","And administers anesthetic drops to freeze the eye and lid.","He opens the lid wide with a speculum then rinses the eye with a saline solution.","Everything's frozen, so the patient doesn't feel a thing.","Next-- antibiotic drops to prevent infection.","Before every operation, the surgeon tests the equipment.","He fires the laser on a metal plate to test its energy level.","The surgeon administers a few more anesthetic drops...","Then inspects the microkeratome, the device he'll use to lift a very thin layer from the outer surface of the eye.","He also measures the patient's cornea using an ultrasonic instrument.","The cornea must be a minimum thickness for it to be safely reshaped.","The surgeon uses the speculum again to prop the lid open.","Then he begins the operation.","He marks the eye with sterile ink, reference marks he'll use later.","Next he positions a metal ring around the cornea.","The ring is attached to a suction pump so it clings to the eye.","Like holding a tomato steady while you slice it, it holds the eye steady while the surgeon cuts the tissue.","The surgeon lubricates the eye with sterile water then mops up the excess water with a small, absorbent sponge.","Then he takes the microkeratome and slips it into grooves in the metal suction ring.","In a matter of seconds, the device moves across the eye, cutting open a flap of tissue, the same way a carpenter's plane shaves a layer of wood.","The surgeon uses a sterile sponge ring to keep tears from contaminating the cornea.","He folds back the flap of tissue, exposing the cornea.","He mops up the excess liquid...","Then starts up the laser.","Meanwhile, a tiny sponge keeps the flap moist.","The laser, an invisible light, fires in pulses--  50 pulses per second.","Each pulse vaporizes an area of corneal tissue 100 thousandths of an inch thick.","The laser has been computer-programmed beforehand so it knows exactly how to reshape the cornea to give most patients 20/20 vision.","In less than a minute, it's done.","The surgeon removes the sponge and then using those little ink marks he made earlier as reference points, folds the flap back to its original position.","If the flap isn't precisely where it was before, the patient will have distorted vision.","Using a syringe that flushes the area with sterile water, the surgeon carefully smoothes the flap the same way you'd smooth out a tablecloth.","Then he removes the sponge ring.","Within 45 seconds, the negative pressure inside the cornea sucks the flap back on.","The flap literally seals itself.","With a sponge, the surgeon dabs up any excess water.","He applies antibiotic drops as a preventive measure then inspects the microkeratome again before moving on to the other eye.","He takes the speculum off, tapes the eye closed, then performs the same operation on the other eye.","When that's done, the surgeon uses a high-powered microscope to make sure the flaps are wrinkle-free.","The patient wears protection shields until the next morning then overnight for a week.","The best guitars come from trees about 800 years old, trees with enough rings in their trucks to provide wood with a tight and straight grain, wood flexible enough to vibrate, yet strong enough to withstand the pull of the guitar strings.","The guitar traveled from north africa to europe with the moors, who invaded spain in the 8th century.","In time, the guitar became the signature instrument of spanish flamenco music and the trademark of the singing cowboy.","In the 1930s, the acoustic guitar debuted as a jazz instrument.","By the 1960s, as the electric guitar took over rock 'n' roll, the acoustic guitar remained a staple of the folk-music scene.","They use spruce or cedar because those woods are lightweight and vibrate well.","Using a 30-ton press that works like a cookie cutter, they punch out the shape of the guitar.","The size of the sound hole affects how the guitar will sound-- the larger the hole, the more treble, the smaller the hole, the more bass.","Then they glue on a wood inlay decoration called a rosette.","Next they make the sides of the guitar.","They first immerse wood pieces in boiling water for about 15 seconds...","Then place them in a heated press to make the curve.","The press applies heat from both the top and the bottom for about a minute.","Then they connect the two sides with blocks of wood made of either mahogany or poplar.","One is glued and clamped at the bottom, the other at the top.","Then they glue on and clamp a wooden lining which will connect the sides to the top and back.","Those little cuts give it flexibility around the curves.","Then with a hand router, they carefully notch the lining to receive four wooden braces to support the back of the guitar.","Strategically placed braces help the top of the guitar withstand the tension of the strings.","They also equalize sound frequencies by controlling vibration differently at different spots.","After a vacuum press makes the bracing adhere evenly, they glue on the top and bottom.","The body of the guitar is now assembled.","It goes into a press, then a drying rack for several hours.","Next they glue on a plastic binding to protect the guitar's edges.","Then comes a fine sanding.","Next a machine with a special sensor measures the precise angle at which the body and neck of the guitar will later be attached.","The angle is critical for sound quality.","It drills the holes and sands the pieces accordingly.","Next they apply lacquer-- four to eight coats, depending on the finish.","The fingerboard is made of rosewood or ebony.","The metal frets separate the halftones on the musical scale.","An adjustable rod goes inside the neck.","This lets the neck adapt to the different tensions that different types of strings require.","They glue the fingerboard on the neck...","Then vacuum-press it to make sure it adheres evenly.","Next they install the machine heads on which the strings will be wound.","The rod in the neck slips into a groove on the body.","The neck is then bolted and clamped until the glue dries.","Next they glue on the bridge, securing it with temporary screws and a clamp.","Then they glue on the headstock nut, a hard, plastic piece that spaces the strings evenly.","Next comes the saddle, then the bridge pins, which lock the strings in the bridge.","Finally they string the guitar using an electric winder.","Because of all the glue-drying time, it takes three weeks to make a guitar.","The wood will become suppler the more the guitar is played, so as the guitar ages, the better it will sound."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Drill Bits","Photo Booths","Stamps"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Drill bits...","Photo booths...","And stamps.","Drill bits are attachments you fasten to drilling tools.","A taper-point drill narrows to a point so the threads of the screw grab the wood.","A countersink makes the top of the hole the same diameter as the screw head so that the head lies flush or below the surface.","A plug cutter removes a round piece of wood with which you plug the hole afterward to hide the sunken screw.","Countersinks and plug cutters start out as steel bars.","To make a countersink, this computer-guided tooling machine uses what's called a center drill to pierce a starting hole, then switches to its main drill, which bores right through.","Next, it uses what's called a rough turning tool to shape the countersink's angled nose, then its body.","The machine now switches to a milling cutter.","This tool shapes the countersink's four blades.","A cross-drilling tool bores a hole for the two screws that'll hold the countersink to the drill.","A tap cuts threads into the hole.","Next, a tool called a dovetail cutter sharpens the blades.","Then, finally, a cutoff blade removes the tool.","The same machine makes plug cutters.","Its center drill makes a starting hole, but this time, the main drill doesn't bore right through.","It stops at the depth that the plug cutter is designed to cut.","Just as before, the rough turning tool shapes the body, and the milling cutter sculpts the four blades.","Some plug cutters on the market have fewer blades.","This company makes four so the cutter will clear the wood chips more efficiently when it tunnels into the wood.","After the dovetail cutter sharpens the blades, a tool called a boring bar refines the hole in the center, making it the proper size.","Another turning tool now forms the shank, the stem of the plug cutter that you insert into the power tool.","Then the cutoff blade slices the tool off.","Now for some manual touch-ups.","First, they grind the plug cutter against an abrasive wheel to remove excess metal from the cutoff.","Then they do what's called side-chipping, grinding the sides of each blade to a particular shape that'll clear the wood chips.","Here's how the plug cutter looks before and after grinding off the excess and before and after side-chipping.","And now for making the drills to which the countersinks attach.","It all starts with a tapered piece of steel because this will become a taper-point drill.","Straight drills begin with a straight piece.","A mechanical arm inserts this drill blank, as it's called, into a computer-guided grinder.","The machine has two wheels made of boron nitrite granules, a natural material that's tough and abrasive.","The first wheel shapes the smooth blank into lengthwise spirals called flutes.","A second wheel then grinds sharp cutting edges on the flutes and shapes the tip of the drill to a point.","Back to the countersinks now.","The steel is still relatively malleable, so a worker runs each one through a stamping machine that imprints the size of the tool and the company name.","Whereas the drills are made of a different type of steel that's already hard enough, the countersinks and plug cutters must undergo a heat-treating process to harden-- about 20 minutes in a fiery oven along with a secret recipe of chemicals.","The intense heat--  1,750 degrees fahrenheit-- transforms those chemicals into gases which then permeate and harden the steel.","After cooling in warm water and oil for about 15 minutes, workers submerge the tools in an industrial-strength cleaning solution that removes all the oil grit, then a bath in acid to remove soot from the oven.","Then, finally, 20 minutes in a blackening solution, the ingredients of which are, again, a closely guarded company secret.","This last step is purely cosmetic.","So, how do the three drill bits we've seen all work together?","First, you use the plug cutter to make the plug.","Then you pop out the plug with a screwdriver.","Next, mounting the countersink, that black tool, onto the taper-point drill.","You drill a hole for the screw.","Then you drive the screw into the hole, sinking it below the surface.","Then you cap the hole with a plug.","These tools come in an extensive range of sizes and grades for both amateur and professional woodworkers and for industrial machines.","Photo booths were first introduced in the 1920s in the united states.","Today, the small, private cabins still enable us to be kooky in several snapshots or one large picture.","The booths are quaint reminders of our pop culture, but they use the latest technology to make portraits worth treasuring.","This model simulates a painting or a drawing based on the photo it takes of you.","To customize the preassembled cabin, a worker applies stickers to the outside.","These advertise local businesses or the booth's eventual location, such as a shopping mall or amusement park.","Inside, there are five shelves for equipment.","Two layers of plexiglass glued together will act as safety glass, protecting the equipment from vandals.","It fits over an opening in the wall that divides the seating area from the camera and a tv monitor.","The worker installs a metal plate in another opening.","It will cover the coin acceptor and give the booth operator access to the money people pay to have their photo taken.","The coin acceptor attaches to brackets on the back of the door.","They'll program it to accept tokens or specific currencies.","A black-and-white photo usually costs $3.","Color is $5.","This 15-watt bulb provides some light for your photo.","It goes in a panel that fits into the wall.","Next, a motorized tripod to hold the camera.","In this model, they use a digital camera with an 8-millimeter lens.","\"up\" and \"down\" buttons on the control panel adjust the camera angle.","A computerized voice from a speaker will prompt you to make selections.","A fan attaches to the ceiling to vent the cabin and keep the equipment from overheating.","And two 40-watt florescent lights will provide most of the frontal lighting for the subject.","Another 15-watt light behind a frosted panel provides some diffuse light.","The booth's power panel has connections for up to 19 pieces of equipment.","Here, a worker plugs in the camera...","Then a tv monitor...","And an ink-jet printer.","Software will process the photos, and the printer will print them on photo-quality paper.","A plexiglass window protects the 15-inch monitor that's used for viewing and making selections.","Two other monitors fit in windowed panels on the outside of the cabin.","The monitors all connect to the computer and show the same images at the same time, including what stage of development your picture is at.","They install a dispenser that sells optional cardboard frames for your portrait.","Money from these sales falls through a slot into a metal coin box inside the cabin.","The dispenser holds up to 100 cardboard frames, each large enough to hold one portrait measuring 8 by 11 inches.","If the dispenser is out, a sign reading \"out of frames\" drops into the tray.","For security, the two doors enclosing the equipment each have two key locks, one at the top and one at the bottom.","The worker installs four signs on the cabin roof.","They're plexiglass boxes with vinyl posters and florescent lights.","The cabin's curtain lets you make goofy faces in private, but is short enough to let people know you're in there.","Inside the cabin, the control panel helps you guide the camera.","You press \"up\" or \"down\" to adjust the camera angle.","Then you choose one of three photos the camera has captured.","The computer bases its portrait on this photo.","You can tell it to make a caricature, a simulated work of art, or four small portraits in different artistic media.","You can choose an oil painting, a pencil sketch, or a drawing in charcoal or pastel.","Now you've got a masterpiece starring you.","The world's first postage stamp was introduced in england in 1840 as part of a major reform of the postal system.","Until then, the letter recipient had to pay the postage.","This first stamp was called the penny black because it cost one penny and featured queen victoria's profile on a black background.","Today's postage stamps feature all types of illustrations.","A graphic artist produces a design concept, working the computer cursor like a paintbrush on canvas.","The concept goes to the postal service's design authority for approval.","Once approved, the design goes to the printing company.","The printer produces one type of stamp using two different types of printing presses, one of which requires an engraved printing plate.","The company's master engraver draws his artistic interpretation of the concept using photographs of real subjects for inspiration.","Then he paints his drawing in watercolors.","The shading is key because it indicates where the engraving will have depth.","This helps him envision the end product.","Once he's happy with the result, he scans the image into a computer and shrinks the digitized image to the actual stamp size.","Then he lays a sheet of clear acetate over the reduction.","With a tool called a point, he etches the main elements into the sheet.","This etching process is known as scribing.","Now he tapes the scribed sheet onto a piece of soft steel.","He lifts the sheet and coats the metal surface with beeswax.","Then he lays the sheet down again and, rubbing with a burnishing tool, transfers the scribed image to the wax coating.","Now, under a microscope that magnifies the image seven times, he etches the design using what's called a pointing-in tool.","Then he sharpens another tool called a lozenge graver.","With that, he deepens the etched lines of the design's focal point.","This adds depth, which will make the deer appear almost three-dimensional on the finished stamp.","Once complete, the engraving will be copied multiple times onto a plastic master plate.","Workers coat the plastic with silver so that it will conduct electricity, then submerge it into a bath containing baskets of nickel.","They run an electrical current in both the bath and plate.","This dissolves the nickel and draws it onto the plate in a thorough and even coat.","With a nipping tool, workers remove the excess nickel along the perimeter, then extract their nickel printing plate.","Then they plate the nickel plate in chrome.","Now it's ready to go on to the intaglio printing press, a specialized machine used to print only select elements on certain types of stamps.","We will explain why later.","This machine, meanwhile, produces the templates for carving what are called chablons, the rollers on the intaglio press that transfer ink to the printing plates.","Here, the machine traces a pattern for one of the stamp's intaglio elements, guiding a router on the other end to reproduce it in half the size in thick plastic.","At another machine, meanwhile, a worker makes the chablons.","He takes several ingredients-- what they are is a closely guarded company secret-- and pours them into a roller forming machine.","The mix heats to about 350 degrees fahrenheit, and over about an hour and a half, it thickens and hardens.","Now an automated router machine with multiple heads goes to work.","Following the plastic template, the heads carve away at the rubber, leaving behind a raised design in the shape of the elements the intaglio press will print.","It's this raised area that transfers the ink to the printing plate.","Why do they print some parts of a stamp using one type of press and other parts of it using another type?","Simple.","Off-set printing presses are widely available, so if the entire stamp will be printed using that technology, counterfeiters would have it easy.","Intaglio printing presses, on the other hand, are harder to come by, making fake stamps harder to produce.","The sheets first run through the offset press.","It prints one color at a time, making a separate printing plate for each color.","The plate is wrapped around a cylinder.","As it revolves, the plate transfers or offsets the ink image to a rubber cylinder rotating against it.","As that cylinder turns, it transfers the image to the paper passing underneath.","A postal-service official inspects the press output.","Using a magnifying glass, she scrutinizes the color and print quality, circling any problem areas for the press operator to investigate and correct.","Now the offset printed sheets move on to the intaglio press.","The intaglio's chablon rollers spread ink over the printing plate the factory produced from the engraving.","The ink fills the recessed lines of the image.","The press runs the plate against the paper sheets, transferring the image.","Intaglio printing leaves the ink slightly raised above the surface of the paper.","This gives the image height, a third dimension.","Once again, the inspector checks the result.","It's up to the press operator to correct any error.","The cause can be as complicated as a printing plate problem or as simple as a speck of dirt in the machine.","The printing now done, a worker loads the stamp sheets into a computer-guided perforating machine.","Grippers pull the sheets forward one section at a time.","Down comes a die with rows of steel pins, each just a fraction of an inch in diameter.","They punch through the sheet, framing each stamp with tiny holes spaced less than 1/16 of an inch apart.","The machine knows just where to punch these perforations by reading the line of florescent ink that runs along the borders of each stamp.","This ink, called tagging, is visible only under ultraviolet light.","Tagging also plays a role later on.","The automated machines that process mail at the sorting plants are programmed to scan for tagging.","They reject all envelopes without it.","Those letters are either missing a stamp or bear counterfeit postage.","After stacking the perforated sheets, workers trim them down to the finished size, usually sheets of 10 called panes.","Their trimming machine is appropriately called the guillotine, but unlike the head-chopping version, this one slices with a sideways shearing action.","That puts less wear on the blade.","The machine holds the stack in place with more than 8,800 pounds of pressure so that it doesn't budge under the weight of the blade.","The blade rings in at almost 71 pounds.","Now it's time to group the panes into manageable-sized packs for post offices and other stamp retailers.","This machine is called a vacuumatic counter because it uses suction to draw the panes across a paddle wheel which counts them.","This stack adds up to 503 panes, so the worker removes three to make an even 500.","The counter inserts a tab between every 50.","Some stamps go through what's called bursting, the process of manually separating pairs of stamps for different post office product lines such as gift sets.","Some burst stamps go onto first day cover envelopes, one popular collector's item.","An automated pad picks up the stamps and runs them against a wet roller that activates the adhesive on the back.","After a worker positions an envelope against the guide bar, the pad places the stamps in a precise spot and applies even pressure over them so that they'll lay flat and adhere securely.","Many stamps are still the old lick-and-stick type printed on paper that's coated with a moisture-activated adhesive on the back side.","However, the most commonly issued stamps, known as definitives, are printed on what's called pressure-sensitive paper.","That's a technical term for peel-and-stick-- no water or saliva required."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wood Slat Baskets","Bells","Gyroscopic Stabilizers"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Traditional wood slat baskets are containers used to carry and gather food during a harvest.","They're also used in retail settings to display produce, providing the consumer with a farm-fresh marketing aesthetic.","Since the 1800, farmers have used wood slat baskets to hold and transport food.","Today, they still come in handy at harvest time.","Wood slat baskets are made out of american sweet gum trees.","First, the freshly cut logs are sprayed with water so they don't dry out and decay.","One at a time, spiked rollers grab the logs and turn them, as knives shave off all the bark.","The de-barked log rolls down a conveyor to be cut to the specified length.","The wood spins on a lathe as a blade cuts into the wood, producing long, thin sheets.","Technicians pull the sheets forward and stack them.","The sheets move through rollers.","The rollers feed the stack to a long guillotine-type blade which chops them into slats.","Once all of the slats have been cut, the slats are stacked and checked for quality.","Technicians use these patterns to configure the wood slats and form a web.","The technician distributes the slats in a specific order, which will add strength when the web is formed into a basket.","He uses a staple gun to place staples into the center of the web to hold it together.","At another station, workers evaluate and grade narrower strips of wood that will be formed into bands to hold the baskets together.","Then, using a basket machine, technicians form the web into a basket.","The machine wraps bands around the basket and staples them to reinforce the shape.","In seconds, the basket takes shape.","Once it's complete, the baskets are removed from the machine and placed on a conveyor belt.","At another station, technicians build a basket with a base made of solid wood.","This base will provide the basket with additional strength.","Workers arrange slats to build the basket.","Automated staplers secure the slats to the solid-wood base.","Bands are attached to hold the basket together.","A technician places the rim of the basket into a machine that drives thick wire into the basket.","The machine's formers bend the wire into a handle and cut the ends.","The technician turns the basket over for a matching handle on the opposite side.","The baskets now take a slow trip through a dryer.","This step removes the majority of the moisture in the wood.","Once complete, the produce baskets slide down a steel slope.","A technician evaluates their quality and stacks them accordingly.","Next, the lids are constructed.","Technicians place wood slats in the slots of a conveyor.","This positions them to be formed into squares, known as mats.","The conveyor takes them forward, and a device creates staples from wire, punching them into the mats to secure the arrangement.","Meanwhile, a worker prepares the lids' hoops.","First, he steams gum wood strips, which makes the wood pliable.","Then he tucks one end of the wood into the revolving wheel of the machine, which shapes the wood into a hoop.","The ends are then secured with staples.","An assembler fits the hoop around a circular platform...","And places the mat on top.","The platform rotates as a stapler attaches the hoop to the slats.","The mat must now be trimmed flush to the hoop so that it will fit more neatly on the rim of the basket.","To do so, another assembler places the corners of the mat under a semi-circular blade, chopping off the excess wood.","The wood slat lid is now ready to be put on the basket.","A device bends wire into a loop that will be used to fasten the lid to the basket.","This factory can make up to 6,000 wood slat baskets a day.","That's a lot of empty baskets to fill.","For thousands of years, we've used bells to make noise.","The concept behind them is simple.","A clapper or hammer strikes the bell wall creating vibrations that disturb the air.","The disturbance causes the ringing sound.","It's not high tech, but it can be high-pitched.","Every bell has a distinctive ring.","From the festive jingle of sleigh bells, to the clang of the boxing bell that marks the beginning of a fight.","Even the cow bell has a sound that's not quite like any other.","The bell's shape and the material it's made from affect the ring's pitch.","To make a cow bell, an assembler uses two flared steel components to form a cone.","He inserts a handle between the two parts at the top...","And welds the seams of the bell shell to hold the two parts together.","Then he welds the handle to the cow bell body.","The handle contains a small loop that extends inside the bell body to hold the clapper.","This strip of steel is about to be transformed into sleigh bells.","An upper die forces the steel strip into dies on a rotating platter.","The dies form the metal into a shape that resembles an open flower.","Ball bearings funnel into a shoot.","The ball bearings land in the open flowers on the platter.","The upper die closes the petals of the flower creating a round sleigh bell.","The rattle of the interior ball bearing will create the sound.","A device pops the bell out of the die and the sleigh bells fall into a bin.","Once the sleigh bells are plated with nickel, they are ready for rattling.","At another station, a boxing bell begins to takes shape.","An assembler transfers the bell to a punch that cuts a hole in the center.","The punch forces it on to a form that contours the area around the hole.","Oil keeps the metal lubricated as it's forming.","The gongs tumble around in a machine with vibrating ceramic stones, detergent, and water.","The stones scrub off the oil and rub off rough edges.","After about 10 minutes, the gongs emerge smooth and clean.","They land in the tub of ground corn cobs.","The corn absorbs residual water as it pulsates in this vibratory machine.","A technician places the gongs in an oven.","This heat treatment rearranges the crystalline structures of the steel and hardens it.","Making the steel more resilient will also make the gong sound more resonant when struck.","The gongs are sprayed with a powder coating.","When baked on, the powder particles will form a protective skin on the metal and provide the gongs with a uniform finish.","A powder coat is sprayed on the bell's baseplate, and an adhesive-backed company logo is applied to the back.","Posts have been installed on the front for assembling the other parts.","A brass lever for operating the bell hammer and the mechanism that will swing it, called a dog.","The assembler rivets the dog to the lever and hooks one end of a spring to the mechanism.","He fastens another spring to the hammer and then hooks the end to the baseplate.","He installs the hammer on one of the posts.","Using a push nut, he secures the hammer to the post.","He hooks the lever spring on the baseplate and slides the lever onto a post just under the hammer.","Another push nut locks the lever in place.","The assembler pulls the lever, examining the movement, adjusting accordingly.","He now adds the gong, aligning the center hole to the threaded post in the middle of the backplate.","He screws on a fastener to hold the gong in place.","He pulls the lever to confirm that the hammer hits the gong and makes a noise.","Finally this boxing bell is now ready for the ring.","at the turn of the 20th century, gigantic gyroscopes were used to stabilize ships.","Even though they were effective, the devices were large and heavy.","Today, gyroscopes are smaller, lighter, and are highly effective stabilizers.","The boat on the left has a gyroscopic stabilizer that counteracts wave action.","Different boats require different sized gyroscopes.","This complex device includes a flywheel and a hydraulic brake which controls its movement.","A large hammer forge has pounded the flywheels into this shape.","The process begins on a cnc lathe that shapes this aircraft quality alloyed steel to perimeters with very small tolerances-- roughly one third the diameter of a hair strand.","The shafts, or bearing journals, are put into a machine which form the axis on which the flywheel will spin.","A diamond wheel grinds the journal to the specified size and shape.","Once complete, the flywheel is balanced.","A state of the art balancing machine i.d.s exactly which spots need adjustment.","Highly trained technicians carefully grind off small quantities of steel in the identified spots before putting the object through more tests.","With tolerances of just a fraction of an ounce, even a tiny particle of dust can throw off the flywheel's balance.","A probe locates this aluminum cast hemisphere so that a machine can begin processing it.","The hemisphere will form one half of the enclosure that will house the flywheel.","It must be precision machined so that it can form a perfect airtight seal.","Made of aluminum to decrease overall weight, the airtight enclosure is one of the crucial elements of this gyroscope.","Once it's completely sealed, all the air will be vacuumed out and helium will be pumped in.","Because helium is so much lighter than air, the flywheel will be able to spin much faster due to radically diminished friction.","Machining with horizontal and vertical cnc tools and a vertical grinder brings the bearing housing within reach of the required parameters.","A technician attaches the vacuum valves which will allow air to be removed from the enclosure.","Then he installs some of the sensors that carefully monitor the gyroscope's status.","He applies a specified torque to tighten the component in place.","A generous amount of grease is applied to the large o-ring that fits perfectly into a groove in the lip of one hemisphere.","The o-ring will ensure a vacuum tight seal when the two hemispheres of the enclosure come together.","These heavy duty eye bolts form an attachment point for lifting, which helps move the gyroscope in and out of position.","Once everything has been put together, the technician connects the flywheel to the enclosure.","He begins bolting an inner and outer set of retainer rings in place.","These rings will support the flywheel assembly.","Faster spinning in its vacuum containment will allow the gyroscope to achieve the same stabilizing effect as a much larger, heavier flywheel spinning at a slower speed.","The technician joins the sub-assembly to the second hemisphere, carefully lifting and lowering it into place before bolting the enclosure securely together.","But the gyroscope stabilizer isn't done yet.","It still needs to be mounted to a specialized foundation assembly.","Early attempts to use gyroscopes for stabilizing boats weren't successful because the gyroscopes were too big and heavy.","But thanks to some state of the art technical innovations, a new breed of lighter, smaller gyroscopes can easily keep a boat deck steady, even in rough weather.","A technician uses a specialized device to measure three important factors of the flywheel's performance.","Concentricity, eccentricity, and clearance.","This means he's checking to see if the component is spinning smoothly and consistently without any wobbling.","He spins the flywheel slowly on its axis, evaluating the meter accordingly.","The gimbal shaft will allow the sphere to tilt back and forth, stabilizing the boat.","A technician installs a set of steel dowel pins that will hold the brake cylinders in place.","He uses a press to install the spherical bearing and urethane that will permit the sphere to shift its axial rotation and absorb vibration.","With the bearing and protector in place, he mounts the gimbal shaft securely to the gyroscope enclosure.","A total of 10 heavy duty bolts are tightened to the specified torque value.","Next, the technician installs the cover and bolts it in place, sealing the enclosure and fully rounding out its exterior.","Once the valve is installed, he checks for leaks by spraying helium outside of the enclosure.","This meter will register the presence of helium if the lightweight gas sneaks in through any cracks.","This magnetically mounted sensor will allow the technician to conduct final trim balance, ensuring a vibration-free operation.","It's vital to keep vibration to a minimum to make sure that the gyroscope provides a smooth, stable boat ride.","Now it's time to attach the cooling components.","When the flywheel spins at 9,000 rpms, it generates heat.","Sea water mixed with glycol is used to keep it cool.","The enclosure will sit in a framework known as the foundation, which is made of cast aluminum.","Once the gimbal shafts are set within their lower housings, which are situated on either side of the foundation, a technician installs the upper housings and bolts them securely in place.","This aluminum section of the foundation will support the hydraulic brake arm, a key component of the gyroscope's function.","The brake support piece also doubles as a support structure for the heat exchanger, which is an important element of the gyroscope's cooling system.","The technician installs the brake arm cylinder.","This helps the gyro perform in all weather and at all speeds.","He installs the hydraulic lines for the brake system.","They manage the flow of hydraulic fluid to and from the cylinders.","The solenoids that make up the major elements of this assembly dictate braking pressure to the hydraulic cylinder.","The drive box controls the brake, the start up, and speed of the flywheel and the angle sensors, which detect the roll rate and angle of the boat.","The drive box receives data from the rest of the gyroscope.","This wiring harness serves as the conduit of information to and from the components of the unit.","Once assembled, the technician installs the remaining support arm on the other side of the gyroscope.","Before the assembled gyroscope gets its aluminum cover piece, it must undergo a thorough factory assessment test.","The test ensures that it's fully functioning and meets all design parameters.","There is no question that gyroscopic stabilizers help maintain level heads on deck."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Custom Knee Braces","Ductless Air Conditioners","Window Film","Motorcycle Exhaust Systems"]},"text":["If you suffer from osteoarthritis of the knee, your doctor might prescribe a knee brace.","Osteoarthritis is when the cartilage cushioning the knee joint wears out, causing bone to painfully rub on bone.","A brace relieves some of that pain by realigning the leg to shift weight off the knee joint.","This dual-action knee brace rotates the foot, which moves the thighbone, the femur, off the most painful area of the shinbone, the tibia.","It also creates what's called a distraction, pulling the femur and tibia slightly apart to further reduce stress on the joint.","The brace is custom-made for each patient.","An orthotist takes the measurements by passing a sophisticated 3-d scanner approximately 12 inches above and below the knee.","The scanner translates the data into a 3-d computer image with highly specialized medical-device software, then processes that image into anatomical blueprints for a 3-d model.","The computer then reads the plans and guides this carving machine to create the model from a block of high-density foam.","The carving process takes about 10 minutes.","The finished model is an exact replica of the patient's leg, which technicians now use to construct a brace that fits the patient perfectly.","After wrapping the model in plastic film to protect the surface and marking the main anatomical landmarks of the knee, they lay a thick foam band over the tibia and begin marking where they'll install the two articulation hinges, which rotate the foot and distract the femur and tibia.","This template is for the lateral hinge, the primary rotator.","It's situated on the outside of the leg.","Next, taking an aluminum bar and bending it on special tools, the technicians form the brace's tibial crossbar, the band that crosses the shin and holds the two hinges.","The foam band takes up the space of a silicone lining that will go under the tibial crossbar-- critical cushioning to prevent pressure points that can cause skin irritation.","Once the cross bar fits perfectly, they reapply the template and mark where rivets will attach the lateral hinge.","Then, using the same metal bending tools they used to shape the crossbar, they contour the hinge to follow the shape of the leg.","They attach the lateral hinge to the tibial crossbar with copper rivets.","Copper is a soft metal, so they can compact it to produce a solid joint, which won't loosen up over time with repeated use.","At the other end of the crossbar, they affix the medial hinge, which produces the distraction.","When the knee is extended, this hinge lengthens the brace by approximately 3/4 of an inch, pulling the tibia and femur slightly apart to eliminate pain.","It's time to mold the plastic shell, the upper part of the brace that fits onto the thigh.","First, they soften a foam sheet in a low-temperature oven and wrap it around the model.","This takes up the space of the fabric lining that will go under the plastic.","After covering the foam in a cotton heat barrier, they soften a plastic sheet in the oven, wrap it around the model, staple the ends together, then coat the surface in talc, which prevents their gloves from sticking when they apply pressure.","Once the plastic cools, they trace the shell's shape and cut it out.","Then, they wrap it in a protective vinyl finish, heating the material so that it becomes sticky and adheres to the plastic.","They also wrap the tibial crossbar in vinyl.","Then they apply a strip of velcro to the underside, where they'll later adhere padding.","They install a cover over each hinge to protect the mechanism.","Then they cut a fabric lining for the upper part of the brace.","It adheres to the plastic with velcro so that it's removable for washing or for replacement when worn out.","The brace applies the greatest amount of pressure at the tibial crossbar, so they line the crossbar with silicone padding for comfort.","The pad attaches to the velcro strip.","The brace fastens to the leg with three adjustable straps and works only when the knee is extended, which is when osteoarthritic pain hits the most.","The ductless air conditioner, invented in japan in the 1970s, transforms homes into cool spaces.","This system consists of an outside condenser and refrigerant lines that run to a fan in the wall.","In homes without ductwork, it provides cooling without renovations.","No central air?","Ductless air conditioners, also known as mini-splits, are a cool option.","To manufacture the condenser, they start with copper tubing.","It will be used to make the coils that cool and condense the refrigerant.","A machine unwinds six reels of tubing simultaneously and pulls them between rollers.","They iron out the kinks.","Little rotating knives cut the tubing to the correct length.","The cut tubes exit into a device that bends them around a mandrill.","This creates hairpin bends in the center of each tube, and they end up looking like big copper bobby pins.","Next, a sheet of aluminum feeds into a progressive die.","A press moves up and down to drive the metal into the die.","With each stroke, the aluminum is shaped into a part known as a fin.","They'll use a hundred or more fins in one air conditioner coil.","The fins fall out of the press into neat stacks.","A worker slides metal rods into the stacks to maintain the alignment of the fins and adds a steel end plate.","She now inserts the hairpin copper tubing following a precise pattern.","The fins will act as a kind of web for the tubes.","They're an important part of the coil, allowing heat from the refrigerant gas to be dissipated more quickly.","Next, a press drives mandrills into the tubes, expanding them so they'll fit tighter to the fins.","The coil has really taken shape.","At the next station, they load it into a hydraulic bending machine.","It bends one section of the coil around a metal form.","This gives the coil a more curved profile on one side so it will fit in the condensing unit later.","They close the open end of the copper tubes with u-bend connectors.","They brace the connectors to the tubes for a leakproof fit.","This ductless air conditioner coil is now complete.","They're ready to test it for leaks.","A technician pumps compressed air into the unit to simulate refrigerant.","By using compressed air, they're playing it safe, because unlike refrigerant, it won't damage the environment if they're actually is a leak.","Once the coil is full of compressed air, he immerses the part in water.","Air bubbling out would indicate a leak that needs fixing.","A worker keeps a close watch on each coil as it floats by for signs of trouble.","They're now ready to assemble the entire condenser.","The team screws the compressor to the base.","They install the coil and attach a motor and fans to cool the refrigerant.","The next part is the filter dryer.","It contains chemicals to remove moisture and filter out contaminants.","They install the wiring and control panel for the compressor and fan motor.","The team connects the pump to the coil to suction out air and create a vacuum inside, creating a perfect environment for the refrigerant gas.","He closes the service valves and sends the ductless air-conditioning unit down the production line to be charged with refrigerant.","After that, all that's left is the packaging and the installation.","On a hot day, all the consumer needs to do is grab the remote control and activate the ductless air conditioner for some cool air.","Developed in the 1960s, window film is a product with transparent benefits.","Applied to the windows of vehicles and buildings, this tinted film lets light in while shutting out some of the sun's harmful rays.","And depending on the darkness of the tint, it also provides a measure of privacy.","Tinted window film allows drivers to see things in a different light, one that can be a lot less harsh.","Not only does the tinting mean less squinting, it also reduces the amount of heat that permeates the vehicle's cabin.","This film will also hold glass together if it shatters.","Because dark tints can make it hard for the driver to see the road or to be seen, the use of window film is regulated in many jurisdictions.","The laws vary depending on the region, so the factory makes different window films for different markets and applications.","There are numerous formulations for the tinted coatings.","It all starts with the acrylic adhesive that will hold the layers of plastic film together.","The adhesive will also serve as the base for the tint and other additives.","The technician thins the adhesive with solvent, which will make it easier to blend in the other ingredients.","Those ingredients include chemicals to absorb ultraviolet rays...","Initiators to make the mix cure faster...","And finally the colorant.","It's carbon-based, and as a result, it's highly soluble and disperses well.","Achieving the right shade of colorant is truly an exact science, one that started beforehand in the lab.","A technician mixed up test batches combining one or more dyes with the adhesive base until satisfied with the results.","Once the adhesive has been mixed, they add a chemical catalyst to activate it.","They're now ready for the plastic film.","There are various grades and thicknesses.","The type used depends on the type of window film being manufactured.","The plastic film unwinds over rollers into the coating machine.","At the same time, the tinted adhesive flows into a pan in the machine.","A roller soaks up the adhesive and applies it to the plastic.","The coated film travels over a narrow cylinder with fine grooves etched into it, and the excess formulation collects in the grooves and drips back into the tank.","This gets rid of the excess and ensures an even application.","The film then moves through a long dryer, and the heat causes the coating to cure.","The film exits under a glare of blue u.v. light.","The light activates the initiator chemicals in the adhesive to further cure the coating.","Next, a second plastic film unwinds and meets up with the coated one.","They travel between rollers that apply heat and pressure to laminate the two films together.","A computerized system checks for defects, and a worker does a double check as the film passes in front of a bright light.","After a third film, mounting adhesive, and release liner have been applied to the product, a technician tests a sample.","She pulls it off a piece of glass, and a sensor measures the amount of force it takes.","The test confirms the window film grips the glass adequately.","The production run gets the green light, so next blades trim the sides and cut it to width.","The width of the film can be customized to the job.","At the end of the cutting line, a worker slides a plastic core onto a cylinder.","He sticks the end of the window film onto that core.","He activates the cylinder, and it revolves to wind the film up onto the core.","Sold in rolls, the film will later be cut for an exact fit to various windows by an installer.","Window film comes in a range of colors with a variety of characteristics.","The choice is up to the customer.","But no matter what, window film is sure to change one's view of things.","Motorcycle racers typically replace their bike's standard exhaust system with a high-performance one, which emits exhaust gases faster, clearing the way for new fuel and air to enter the engine's combustion chamber, generating more power and better traction, which produces greater speed on the racetrack.","This high-performance, aftermarket exhaust system isn't any louder than your standard exhaust system, yet it delivers up to 30% more power due to its more efficient design.","Rather than steel construction, it's made primarily of titanium, which is more durable and weighs half as much.","The exhaust system has two main components-- the muffler, which dampens sound, and the header, which routes exhaust gases from the engine to the muffler.","The header's tubing is made from a super-thin strip of titanium that's six inches wide.","It enters a forming machine, in which 14 stations of rollers apply tons of pressure to progressively curve the edge of the strip upward until they meet at the top.","The formed tube, two inches in diameter, then enters a chamber.","Inside, a welder heats the top until the edges fuse together into a solid seam.","After the 330-yard-long tube exits the welding chamber, a powerful, carbide guillotine blade chops it into several shorter tubes.","Then, workers mount each of those shorter tubes onto a computer-guided machine, which bends it to the shape required for several exhaust systems.","Workers then separate each system's tubing with a circular saw.","Like the guillotine before, the saw has a carbide blade.","An ordinary steel blade isn't hard enough to saw through titanium.","A welder assembles the tubes to the other header components, among them the collar and flange, which connect the header to the engine...","And the bulbous resonance chamber, also made of titanium.","It does a pre-muffler sound dampening.","Once the parts are welded and inspected, the header is finished.","They begin assembling the muffler by joining the two halves of its resonance chamber.","The parts must fit with a tight seal to prevent exhaust gases from leaking out.","They set the resonance chamber on a welding fixture, take a ring made of perforated titanium, and weld it to the chamber opening.","This ring allows a specific amount of gases to enter the resonance chamber at a time.","Next, they weld a sound-absorption tube to the resonance chamber.","They wrap the sound-absorption tube in a fiberglass blanket.","The muffler's housing is made of a titanium sheet which a machine shapes into a cannister.","At each edge, they peel back the film protecting the surface from scratches, then, with an automated welder, join the edges with a strong seam.","Then they remove the protective film entirely and electrically charge the cannister in a mild chemical solution for about a minute.","This anodizing, as it's called, changes the color of the titanium and hardens the surface, making it more durable.","After attaching an aluminum mounting bracket to the cannister, they insert the sound-absorption tube, then secure the cannister to the resonance chamber with screws.","They apply the manufacturer's sticker, and the muffler portion of the exhaust system is finished.","To install the exhaust system, you bolt the header to the motor, which is toward the front of the motorcycle, then mount the muffler to the other end of the header.","The muffler bolts to the bike chassis via a bracket on the cannister.","Now the bike is ready to hit the racetrack."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Robotic Hunting Decoys","Canned Tomatoes","Scoreboards","Lassos"]},"text":["The latest taxidermy trend is motion.","Today many museums and nature centers feature wildlife models that move.","These robotic replicas look so lifelike that hunters use them as decoys and game wardens set them out to catch poachers in the act.","Activated by remote control, the robotic decoy's head turns and its tail wags.","More elaborate models have additional moving body parts.","The decoys can be set up directly on the ground or installed on a track system, which moves it along as though it is walking.","At the decoy factory, they begin by waxing a two-part fiberglass body mold.","This one's for a deer.","Waxing the mold cavity will make it easy to extract the casting.","Next, they put steel reinforcement bars in the legs.","The bars stick out the bottom of the hoofs as stakes to prop the decoy on the ground.","They apply the other half of the mold and clamp around the perimeter to hold the two parts together.","They prepare the mold for the deer's head the same way, then pour in a bit of liquid casting material.","They pour about three quarts of it into the body mold...","And clamp on the head mold.","This casting material is expanding polyurethane foam.","It begins swelling immediately and within two minutes reaches full expansion, transforming from a liquid to a flexible solid.","Over the next hour and a half, the foam cures to a hard, inflexible state, at which point they remove the clamps and extract the casting.","Some foam seeped out between the two halves of the molds and between where the head meets the body, producing seams which workers now sand flat.","Using a round drill bit, they make one-inch sockets for eyes.","Then, with a miniature router bit, they drill out nostrils.","They glue a glass eye into each socket with a bit of wet clay.","When the clay dries, the eye is set securely in place.","No faux fur for these decoys.","Workers scrape any remnants of flesh off a real deer hide, then wash the hide and apply a preservative.","Then they slip the hide over the foam deer.","They fit the fur to the form snugly using a combination of staples, glue, and stitching.","Once the deer is fully dressed, it is put aside for four to six weeks.","This gives the preservative ample time to penetrate and do its job, which is to dry and harden the hide.","This is essential to ward off insects and prevent the hide from decomposing.","The taxidermy phase of production is now complete.","Now off with his head...","Because it is time to install the robotics, which will make the head move.","The first step is to drill out a cavity inside the neck.","This creates a pocket in which to install the plastic housing which contains the robotic components.","The first of those components is a compact motor.","It drives this hard plastic gear.","Next, the receiver for the remote control...","Then a aa battery pack that powers both the motor and the receiver.","All this goes into the neck pocket.","They drill out a cavity in the head and install a gear and shaft.","The final step is to mount the head on to the body, inserting the shaft into the gear on top of the motor.","So now when the motor runs, it rotates the gear, which turns the shaft, which moves the decoy's head.","Each moving body part has the identical mechanics, its receiver corresponding to a dedicated switch on the remote control.","The remote works for more than 3/10 of a mile away.","You can even program it to put the decoy through a pre-set motion routine.","Often considered to be a veggie, the tomato is actually a fruit.","It is developed from the ovary of the plant and it has seeds.","It is also the most popular one on the planet.","Mechanization of canning in the last century has made that possible, ensuring that tomatoes are preserved when they are ripe and ready.","All you need is a can opener to unlock the juicy flavor of the field tomato.","There are more than 2,000 varieties.","For canning purposes, they grow a type with a thick skin and firm consistency so machinery can pick and sort them without damaging the flesh.","Rotating clippers cut the vines as the harvester drives over the crop.","Once cut, the plants ride an elevator belt up into the harvester.","Inside the harvester, metal prongs shake the tomatoes to free them from the vines.","An electronic color sorter rejects the green ones.","A conveyor transfers the red, ripe tomatoes to a trailer traveling alongside the harvester.","Once they have a load of 24 tons, they deliver the tomatoes to the canning factory.","Here they fill the trailer with water to float the tomatoes out through a door at the side.","The tomatoes land on a slatted conveyor.","The water, dirty from residual soil, drains away through the slats.","The tomatoes land in a clean, water-filled channel, and here any rocks sink to the bottom and are removed.","The tomatoes float on into a big tank where jets churn up the water for more gentle cleansing action.","The tomatoes then head up to a sorting line.","They travel over metal bars and smaller tomatoes fall through the gaps.","They will be used to make tomato juice.","The others fly forward past 60 tiny cameras that detect pale or yellowish tomatoes.","Pneumatic fingers knock those tomatoes out of the batch.","It all happens in less than a second.","Looking for a damaged or broken fruit now, humans inspect the tomatoes.","They send any rejects to another part of the factory to be used to make juice.","The rest take the plunge into a very hot bath.","This scalds the tomatoes and loosens the skins.","The tomatoes then travel on a moving bed of rubber disks, and this gently pulls the skins away from the tomatoes.","A spray of water washes away the skins and they fall through the rubber disks so there is no mess to clean up after peeling.","The now-peeled tomatoes wash up on to another conveyor where sprayers give them another rinse.","This conveyor controls the flow of peeled tomatoes into the processing room by metering the produce as it moves forward.","Ahead, the dicer awaits.","It has three sets of cross-cutting blades for some serious slicing action.","The tomatoes tumble down a shoot into the dicer and are quickly chopped into small cubes.","The diced tomatoes ride by workers who pick out pieces that aren't perfectly red.","They also remove any core pieces.","Exiting a cleaning station, the cans cue up for a fill-up.","Ahead, the diced tomatoes flow into metal pockets.","This portions them out for the cans.","The pockets rotate forward to meet the cans now moving in sync below.","The bottoms of the pockets open to release the contents into the cans.","And it all happens with perfect timing.","They add hot tomato juice and flavorings...","And lids advance towards the open cans.","They land on top and a machine crimps the lids to the cans, creating a double seam for a complete seal.","Now in airtight cans, the tomatoes head into a hot oven for a quick cook.","This sterilizes them, eliminating the need to use preservatives.","The cans are now ready for labeling.","They spin across wheels that apply glue to the sides.","They roll over paper labels that adhere to the glue-covered cans.","Here is the labeling action slowed down for the camera.","The label contains brand and nutritional information as well as the exact time of production.","This means it can be traced if there is ever a quality issue.","It has taken about one hour for these field tomatoes to be harvested, canned, and labeled, preserving a taste of summer to be enjoyed year-round.","In every sport, fans need to know the score.","In the early days, scorekeepers climbed ladders to scrawl numbers on a chalkboard.","By the time they were done, the score might have changed, and it was time to start again.","Modern scoreboards serve up the numbers in an instant.","Today's digital scoreboards light up within seconds of a game change, delivering results fast and leaving fans cheering in the stands.","They start with the front of the board.","A computer program guides a plasma torch to cut out precisely-sized slots in a sheet of high-grade steel.","The slots will house the illuminated numerals and indicators like arrows.","A worker then feeds narrower strips of steel to a press that bends back the edges to create tabs.","These strips will serve as the sides of the scoreboard, and the tabs will be used to install them.","Using a special compressed air tool, a worker clinches the tabs to the back of the scoreboard.","This tool punches and stretches the steel to interlock it, joining the parts without using screws, rivets, or welds.","He fastens four strips to the back panel.","He then attaches the plasma-cut front panel to complete the basic structure of the scoreboard.","The next worker sprays a powder-paint coating on to the entire scoreboard.","Then it is into a giant convection oven for about 14 minutes to cure the powder paint.","The result is a tough powder-paint skin that will make it possible for the scoreboard metal to weather the elements.","They are now ready for working parts like l.e.d. light-studded digit boards, a data transmitter and receiver.","He connects the receiver to the power source and installs it inside the cabinet.","He pulls the antenna through a hole so it protrudes from the front, and he bends it out of the way for now.","There are several light-studded digit plates on a scoreboard.","Each can flash any number.","He wires them in a loop, interconnecting them in what's known as a daisy-chain configuration.","He also plugs in a ribbon-style cable to link the digits to the scoreboard's processing module.","He inserts the digits in the slots on the front and shields them with a sheet of transparent polycarbonate.","He screws a metal framework around each digit assembly to secure it.","He confirms that the wiring is good and that all the numbers light up.","He connects the wireless computer processing module to the numbers and also wires it to a power source.","He mounts the module to a panel that will then be installed through the back of the scoreboard cabinet.","An evening inkjet printer reproduces the company logo on adhesive-backed paper followed by some fierce-looking team graphics.","Later, a weatherproof coating will be applied to the paper graphics.","They also use vinyl decals.","The worker peels away the unwanted material from around the lettering.","This is called weeding.","After transferring the decals to applicator tape called the pre-mask, she carefully positions the grouping on the front of the scoreboard.","Satisfied that it's in the perfect spot, she tapes it at the top.","She then peels off the backing, and the letters cling to the pre-mask.","Using a squeegee, she presses the decals to the metal board, smoothing any messy-looking bubbles or buckles.","She removes the tape...","Then lifts the pre-mask very carefully so as not to lift any of the decals in the process.","With all the lettering now in place, the numbers on the board will mean something to the crowds in the stands.","They equip the scoreboard with a speaker and horn that will sound off in the event of a touchdown.","And no need to run cable from the scoreboard to the keyboard.","It is operated by remote control.","Using that system, a worker now tests all the functions of the scoreboard.","This test is thorough and takes about 20 minutes.","When it is done, he declares the scoreboard ready for game action.","Today's sports scoreboards come in any shape or design the customer desires.","When it comes to drumming up a little team spirit, a modern scoreboard can be a game-changer.","A lasso, also called a lariat, is a classic cowboy tool designed for catching running cattle.","On one end, there is a moving noose you throw over the animal's head.","This loop tightens around the neck or horns safely stopping the animal in its tracks.","Working a lasso requires tremendous skill...","So much so that rodeos typically hold roping contests and feature performances of jaw-dropping maneuvers.","The ropemaker starts by looping five nylon threads around a bushing mounted on a traveling box.","He ties the end onto the first of three spinning eyes...","Then runs the five threads around the bushing and the second spinning eye, then back to the bushing.","He then hops on his cart and drives the traveling box to another traveling box, pulling the threads for this lasso to a length of 15 yards.","He transfers the threads from the bushing to a spinning eye on this second traveling box...","Then pulls the threads back to make the other half of the rope.","When he arrives at the starting point, he loops the threads through a third spinning eye.","Then he pulls all the threads to equal tension, cuts them from their spools, and ties them off.","This completes what's known as the stringing process.","Next comes the twisting process.","A motor turns the three spinning eyes, twisting the 10 threads on each one into a strand and the three strands together into a lasso rope that's around 2/10th's of an inch in diameter.","The twisting force pulls the two boxes toward each other.","The ropemaker puts a certain amount of weight in each box.","That determines the stiffness of the rope, which can range from extra soft to medium hard.","A rope this length takes about five minutes to twist.","The ropemaker now wraps the end with electrical tape so that the rope won't unravel when he cuts it loose.","He pulls the rope at the center to release some tension...","Then just beyond the taped end snips the strands free.","He knots them, then trims the ends with a hot blade that slices the nylon threads by melting them.","He lays the rope in piping-hot wax.","It seeps into the nooks and crannies, permeating the threads deep inside, setting the twist.","After suspending the rope for a while to let the excess wax drip off, he connects it to a pulling mechanism inside a heated room, or, in summertime, outdoors under the hot sun.","Stretching for a couple of days pulls out any waves, ensuring the rope lies perfectly straight.","Next, he cuts off the knot and unravels just enough rope to tie a knot for what's called a hondo.","That's the eye in the rope which lets him build the loop that catches the animal.","On the other end, he ties a different type of knot, one which will keep the rope from unraveling.","Using pliers and a vice, he pulls both knots tight...","Slices off excess with the hot blade of the rope cutter...","Then burns the ends with a propane torch to seal them.","Now, he ties the hondo.","The hondo slides along the rope, loosening and tightening the loop.","He hangs the hondo on a hook and, using a specially designed wheel, pulls it tight.","Then he sews a piece of rawhide into the eye of the hondo.","This piece of leather is called the burner.","It prevents the eye from burning through, meaning wearing out, as the rope slides through it.","He bangs it with a hammer to seat it in the rope grooves...","Then stamps the company name on it and marks the rope's stiffness.","Lassos come in various degrees of stiffness for different types of animals and purposes, such as roping cattle by the head or by the heels."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Multi"]},"text":["Having a multi-tool on hand is like having a toolbox in your pocket.","It contains anywhere from 5 to 21 basic implements, from screwdrivers and scissors to can openers and pliers.","They all fold in and out of the handles, forming a case that's compact enough to be carried in your pocket.","This multi-tool contains 14 different tools, including scissors, a knife, wire cutters, two types of pliers, three different screwdrivers, and much more.","Most of these tools and the handle into which they conveniently fold are made of stainless steel.","The strip of stainless steel winds off a reel and moves through a 300-ton punch press.","It works like a giant cookie cutter, striking a series of dies against the passing metal, progressively stamping out, in this case, one part of the multi-tool's two-part handle.","17 strikes later, it's fully formed and ready to go through a heat-treatment process to strengthen the stainless steel.","Next, a polishing robot runs the handle against a grinding wheel.","It does so with specific programmed movements which produce a delicate lined pattern on the metal surface.","Certain tools, like knife blades, are made of premium steel that is too hard for the press to punch through, so they have to be cut out by a computer-guided laser.","The laser's heat literally melts through the metal.","The knife blades go into a polishing machine, where they vibrate among ceramic stones for several hours.","This smoothes out the rough edges by abrasion.","A magnet then removes the blades from the machine.","The knife blades, still dull at this point, go onto a motorized table that runs them back and forth under a grinding wheel.","This finalizes the dimensions.","The two jaws that form the plier head are cast in steel.","Workers assemble them with a spring...","A pin...","And a rivet.","Then a robot performs a two-stage polishing, first against a grinding belt with the rough grit, then against one with a finer grit.","The plier head is at last ready to be assembled to the multi-tool's two-part handle.","They align the holes of the handle with holes of the plier head, slipping a spacer in between.","They put a pin and screw fastener through the aligned holes to connect handle to head.","Back to the knife blade now.","Until this point, the blade's cutting edge has been dull.","Now a robot sharpens it against two grinding wheels.","This is what the knife blade looks like before...","And after.","With the handle and all 14 tools formed, heat treated, and polished, and the pliers connected to the handles, final assembly can begin-- the remaining tools stacked together inside the two handles with the stainless-steel ring to fill up the excess width.","The assemblers thread a rod all the way through the holes of the base of the handle and tools to hold the alignment until they secure the setup with the stainless-steel pin and rivet.","They repeat this process in the other handle with the remaining tools, except for the knife blade and scissors, which go in later.","They apply a few drops of thread lock to immobilize the pins in each handle.","A bronze washer makes the handle housing the knife blade open smoothly to prevent injury.","They install a safety cover on that same handle to shield the sharp knife when it's not in use.","Now the knife blade itself.","They rivet the scissors to the other handle, and the assembly is finished.","This multi-tool, with its 14 different implements, is ready to be folded up and tucked in a pocket or unfolded, offering up the right tool for the task.","Jojoba oil isn't actually an oil.","It's a liquid wax from the seed of the jojoba plant, native to the sonoran desert areas in arizona, california, and mexico.","Jojoba oil is a common ingredient in soaps, shampoos, moisturizers, eye makeup, lip products, and color cosmetics.","Cosmetics manufacturers buy refined jojoba oil from a processing facility.","Jojoba in its natural state is golden and has a slightly nutty odor.","Once refined, it can be rendered colorless and odorless.","The jojoba farm takes selected cuttings from mature jojoba shrubs, roots and grows them for 18 months to 2 years in a greenhouse, then transplants them into the fields.","The wind carries pollen from the male plants to fertilize female plants, after which the female seed starts developing.","Each seed is housed inside a hull that gradually dries out and separates, dropping the seed to the ground.","The fallen seeds are mature for harvest.","The mechanical harvester works like a giant vacuum cleaner, sucking the seeds off the ground, along with a lot of sand, twigs, and rocks.","The harvester then dumps its collection into a large hopper that feeds an elaborate seed-cleaning machine.","In it, the seeds and debris move from conveyor to conveyor through a series of vibrating screens, each made of increasingly smaller mesh.","The process gradually sifts out smaller and smaller bits of debris...","Until only the seeds are left.","They go into huge polyethylene bags, then off to the processing plant where workers empty the bags into a holding area called a seed pit.","From here, conveyors take the seeds to the presses.","The liquid wax is contained within the hard, white flesh, called the cotyledon.","They expel the liquid wax with conventional expeller press.","A long screw conveyor feeds the seeds into the press, then crushes them against a shaft.","This forces out the liquid wax that makes up about half a seed's weight.","The mashed seed-solids, called cake, are put to good use.","Some are used for compost.","Some will be processed into exfoliates-- abrasives used in face and body products to remove dead skin cells.","Meanwhile, a second screw conveyor moves the expelled liquid wax into a holding container, and from there, a pump pushes it through a filter press.","This press consists of several plates and frames, each one covered with a filter cloth.","As the liquid wax passes through, the cloth catches the last remaining solids.","This buildup of seed particles and other minute debris is biodegradable waste.","To make exfoliates, machines grind the cake into particles, then vibrating sifters divide the particles by size.","What's too big or small goes back to the farm for compost.","The extracted liquid wax isn't yet fully refined.","It's still cloudy and yellowish, so workers add natural powdered absorbents, then filter them out.","This clarifies the jojoba oil to its finished state.","The company lab runs extensive quality tests on every batch.","Technicians analyze several criteria, including color, odor, and chemical composition, ensuring the oil meets strict product specifications.","As the jojoba oil flows from storage tanks into shipping drums, it passes through a final ultra-sensitive cartridge filter that removes any minute particles that might have slipped through the filter press.","This processor makes two varieties of refined jojoba oil-- one golden, with a mild, nutty aroma, the other, colorless and odorless.","The texture and consistency are identical.","Manufacturers buy whichever variety better suits their product.","String puppets, also known as marionettes, are an ancient form of performance.","It's not known exactly when or where the first string puppets made an appearance, but it was thousands of years ago.","Today, they've still got what it takes to entertain audiences worldwide.","digitized characters may rule in the movies, but onstage, there's no doubt that string-animated ones can still dazzle audiences.","A few movements of the puppeteer's hands, and some fantastical characters are brought to life.","Behind the scenes, making these marionettes is a major production.","Each one is painstakingly hand-crafted in a process that takes weeks.","It all starts with an idea.","The puppet maker draws several sketches of the character, tweaking the features until he's satisfied.","He then draws a full-scale version of the marionette.","Referring to that scaled drawing, he sculpts the head in clay, building it into a wooden framework known as the armature.","The clay is oil-based.","It doesn't dry out as fast as the water-based kind, so there's time to tweak the sculpture and perfect it.","Lines drawn for reference make it easier to position the nose, eyes, and mouth.","He defines the mouth a little more to give it a petulant expression.","He smoothes the top of the clay head, using a looped sculpting tool and his thumb.","With a caliper tool, he constantly compares the dimensions of the sketch to the sculpture to ensure the head won't end up too large or too small.","Once the lips and other features have been smoothed out, he prepares to make a plaster mold of the sculpture.","He divides the head into four sections, and he outlines a trap door at the back of the head for easy access later.","He now inserts metal shims along the dividing lines.","He's essentially building walls to contain molding plaster.","The shims will also ensure that the plaster, once hardened, can be removed from the clay sculpture in four intact pieces.","The plaster has been mixed to the consistency of cake batter.","He scoops a generous amount into a walled-in section of the clay sculpture.","The plaster generates heat as it hardens and sets.","It then cools for about half an hour.","He removes the shims that surround it.","He then uses those shims to wall-in the next section.","He adds more plaster to build up this part of the mold.","When all four sections are complete, he gently chisels them at the seams to separate them.","He opens the mold and removes the sculpture.","Its image has been transferred to the inside of the mold.","The sculpture is no longer needed, and he's ready to cast the puppet head, using the mold.","For that, he uses plastic-infused cloth squares, softened by solvent.","He transfers the squares to the mold sections and layers them papier-mâché style.","A release agent applied to the mold keeps the squares from sticking to it as they begin to adhere to each other, and, in the process, conform to the mold's curves and crevices.","With squares now applied to all four sections, he puts the mold back together and joins them at the seams.","After 10 hours, it's time for the big reveal.","All those little squares are now one solid marionette head.","The casting looks pretty rough at this point, so he covers the entire surface with plastic wood.","What a difference sanding the plastic wood makes.","He then paints the head and cuts holes for the eyes and mouth.","From the inside of the puppet head, he attaches springs to enable the mouth and eyes to open and close.","Over in the paint department, with every stroke of the brush, the puppet becomes a more colorful character.","Coming up next, the marionette gets its moving parts, and, of course, they come with strings attached.","With their string-operated limbs, marionettes can imitate almost every human or animal gesture.","The more joints and strings the puppet has, the wider the range of movement and the more lifelike the character becomes.","Before the head of the penguin puppet can be attached to the body, it just needs a few more dramatic touches, like curly fur.","Yes, in the fantasy world of puppetry, anything is possible--  even fur on a penguin.","He traces the pattern on the reverse side of the furry fabric and cuts it out from that side, too, to prevent any snipping of the fur on the front.","He stitches the darts together to conform to the shape of the penguin head.","This process must be repeated for each fur-covered part.","He checks out the fit and confirms that it achieves the desired effect.","Satisfied with the results, he moves on to the eyelashes.","He traces the pattern onto rubber and cuts the lashes out.","To accentuate the eyes, the lashes are substantial.","He inserts a pair of lashes into slits in each wooden eyeball.","From head to toe, no detail is overlooked.","Here, he glues rhinestones to shoes for some serious onstage bling.","He's now ready to build the torso and limbs of the marionette.","He traces the pattern of those parts onto blocks of poplar wood and then carefully cuts them out with a band saw.","This particular part is a hand for the penguin character.","The initial cut is rough and needs fine-tuning, so he chisels away at it to remove excess wood and define the shape.","He files it with a rasp to round the profile.","It takes about five hours to produce just one puppet hand.","The other parts receive an equal amount of attention, because with ball-and-socket-style joints, each limb must fit smoothly to the next.","He attaches the two limb segments with a hinge made from a kind of fiber board-- the same material used to make steamer trunks.","He confirms that the joints will move freely under the costume.","When the marionette body has all its moving parts, it's time to stretch those limbs.","So they suit him up and thread the strings from the puppet to the correct spot on the controls.","The control bars are shaped like an airplane.","They're known in the world of puppetry as an airplane control.","The thread they use is fishing line because of its strength.","They run nine strings or more, depending on the complexity of the marionette.","Some of these strings are for support, some for movement, and others for effects like nose growing or ear wiggling.","Of course, the string placement is crucial for proper movement.","With the strings strung and well knotted, the marionette body comes to life.","And now the defining moment.","They attach the head to the body.","It's a good fit.","This new character is almost ready to meet his audience.","All that's left is to run the strings for controlling his head and facial expressions.","And a little accessorizing.","They now manipulate the strings to check his limb dexterity and the movement of his mouth, eyes, and eyebrows.","This marionette is now ready for the stage.","Between shows, he reclines.","After all, you can't always be on.","Incredibly, it takes up to 1,500 hours to create each one of these marionettes.","After all that work, they're ready to cue the talent."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Police Badges","Muffins","Car Washes","Pressure Gauges"]},"text":["Ever since the days of the american wild west, badges have been a way to tell the good guys from the bad.","Sheriffs don't raise posses to maintain law and order anymore, but a badge continues to be a powerful symbol, and simply flashing one can still stop a suspect cold.","The badge comes with the uniform.","It identifies the officer's rank and unit.","So it's an accessory that makes a statement.","Each one is custom-made.","The client spells out the specifications on an order form, right down to the metal finish and the color of the lettering.","This machine delivers a powerful punch to cut sheriff star shapes from a coiled sheet of brass.","They place a star shape in the steel mold of a press.","It applies about 170,000 pounds per square centimeter to make an impression on the badge.","A punch press trims the ragged edges to make it look neater.","A mechanical stamper then inscribes the company name on the back of the badge.","This computerized engraver then marks the rank and other information on the front.","They apply a couple of dabs of silver solder to the back of the badge.","It's the substance that will hold the catch and pin joint in place.","They blast the back of the badge with a torch, and it reaches a temperature of over 1,400 degrees fahrenheit.","This causes the solder to melt, fusing the parts to the badge.","They then position the badge under a hydraulic press.","Like a steel fist, it punches the badge to give it the correct curvature.","Here they spray a mix of water and tiny glass beads onto the back.","This is called wet blasting, and it makes the finish cleaner and more textured.","A technician now hooks the pin in the joint that was soldered onto the badge.","He slides the assembly onto a rivet automatically served up by this machine.","The machine applies pressure to expand the rivet and lock everything in place.","The pin now fits in the catch, which will enable the badge to be fastened onto the police officer's uniform.","Next, they brush enamel into the engraved lettering.","The enamel is a mix of glass and water, which comes from an ancient metalworking technique called cloisonné.","They fire the badge in a kiln, and the glass enamel melts into the lettering.","After it hardens, they grind the enameled sections against a stone to expose the inscriptions.","They then polish the badge to a mirror finish.","This automated rack immerses the badges in a electroplating solution to give the brass a protective layer of nickel.","They plate some badges with 24-karat gold.","Now they apply a strong adhesive to the back of a medallion...","Then attach it to the center of the badge.","The medallion has an official emblem.","It's specific to the police force's jurisdiction.","They adjust the catch and its hardware to ensure it moves freely and is in good working order.","After all, no officer wants to lose his or her badge.","They give it a shine and check for surface imperfections.","And now it's ready to report for duty.","It takes three weeks to make one of these police badges, and they should be good for a lifetime of service.","The word \"muffin\" appeared in britain around the 11th century.","In victorian times, muffins were bought in the street from the muffin man, made famous in the popular children's nursery rhyme.","In america, cooks began to experiment with english muffin recipes, and the modern muffin was born.","These muffins are a lot like homemade, except to make this many, you need some pretty big equipment and a heap of ingredients.","At this commercial bakery, they make them with flour, then add salt, baking powder, and a prepared mixture of dry ingredients.","Finally, they add vanilla flavor and start up the barrel mixer.","It's a big one-- large enough to hold a ton of batter at least.","Next, they add oil and water, then vegetable shortening.","Now here come the blueberries.","They go into the mix once they're thawed.","Berries are delicate, so workers take care to pour them out slowly, weighing each bucket to add just the right amount.","Down below, workers pour out close to a ton of batter from the mixer.","That's a whole lot of batter.","Just one batch makes about 7,000 muffins.","They cover the trough to protect the batter until it goes on to fill baking pans like these that can hold 54 muffins, each with its own paper liner.","A conveyor advances the pans towards a machine called a batter depositor.","Prepared batter pumps in from the trough and into the pans as they pass below it.","The depositor fills the pans one row at a time, measuring out the batter by weight.","At the next station, blueberries pass through a funnel equipped with a turning gear and drop right onto the muffin tops.","A bar placed across the conveyor blows filtered air to remove any stray berries from the pans as they advance to the gas oven.","A metal arm pushes them right in to bake for about 30 minutes.","The oven, open on both sides, has dampers to keep in the heat.","The muffins come out of the oven baked a golden brown.","The pans cool for a few minutes and then continue on to a custom-designed machine that's pretty handy.","It removes the muffins from the pan and packages them all automatically.","Suction cups seize cardboard flats two at a time and push them onto a tray former.","The forming head pushes down on the preglued cardboard and voilà--  out comes a perfectly square box that falls right onto the conveyor belt.","Pans full of baked muffins follow alongside on another conveyor.","At the next stop, suction cups lift the muffins out of their pans.","With military precision, they set them down into neat rows in the cardboard boxes that wait on the back conveyor.","The conveyor carries the filled boxes to a station where they're covered, top and bottom, with a sheet of clear plastic.","Heated blades cut and seal the plastic at both ends.","Then the boxes pass through a heat tunnel that shrinks the plastic snugly over the trays.","They're now ready for shipping to customers in the food-service industry.","On another line, preprinted plastic film wraps the individual muffins as they flow along the conveyor.","Rotating brushes keep them moving forward while blades come down to separate the continuous roll into individually wrapped muffins ready for retail sale.","Blueberry, bran, pecan strudel, lemon poppy.","With so many flavors to choose from, why not try some of each?","The best car washes tackle everything from road grime and dead bugs to bird droppings that eat away at the paint and metal of your vehicle.","Car washes help you preserve your investment and increase its resale value.","They save you time and help you feel proud about the vehicle you're driving.","A state-of-the-art car wash can be an eye-opening experience.","Assorted soaps and waxes clean and pamper every part of the vehicle like never before.","This effective, yet gentle, cleaning power is made possible using the latest car-cleaning technology.","It starts with welding together the steel frame that travels inside the bay of the car wash, then adding the steel and fiberglass walls.","Using a milling machine, the worker then makes the wheels on which the frame travels.","The machine first prepares the center hole where the axle goes, then makes a groove in the wheel so it can ride on a track.","Before long, a steel blank becomes a finished drive wheel.","He then welds the wheel onto a drive shaft.","He places the wheel assembly in the bottom of the steel frame and bolts it in place.","He then connects a hydraulic motor to the end of the wheel assembly and makes sure it couples together perfectly.","Here a worker puts together the brush assembly that cleans the sides of the vehicle.","The brushes are made of material called poly-flex.","It comes cut to various lengths so that it gets into those hard-to-clean places.","Poly-flex won't trap in dirt particles.","It's smooth and very gentle on the vehicle.","The finished side-brush assembly consists of seven alternating columns of poly-flex.","A worker puts together the pneumatic regulators and gauges that control many aspects of the car wash, including the brush assemblies and the distribution of soaps and waxes.","He then bolts the hydraulic pump to the frame.","He screws on the system's hydraulic filter...","Then connects the hydraulic pressure line and makes certain it's secure.","The hydraulic power system moves the car-wash frame and rotates the brushes, but a computer controls everything.","He hooks up the system wires that connect to the computer.","The computer makes it possible for the car wash to run without an operator.","Workers then install the rack that supports an overhead curtain.","A worker attaches a shaft to the rack...","Then a heavy-duty bearing.","When the bearing assembly is in place, he secures the rack to the frame.","He tests the rack to make sure its computer-controlled pneumatic cylinders manipulate the overhead curtain correctly.","He tests the oscillating high-pressure nozzles.","Then he makes sure the wheels move the frame properly.","He turns on all the brush assemblies that clean and polish the car and makes sure they spin and oscillate in perfect harmony.","The definitive test, of course, is an actual car wash that proves the system works flawlessly and that every part of the vehicle gets the best washing and waxing possible.","After a quick drying, this vehicle drives out of the car wash sparkling clean.","Life without pressure gauges would be pretty rough.","Figuring out everyday things like oil pressure, air pressure, and blood pressure would be almost impossible.","Without pressure gauges, we'd even have trouble taking a proper shower because getting the correct water pressure in our homes would be a hit-and-miss affair.","For a pressure gauge to be trustworthy, whether it's measuring gases or liquids, it must be exceptionally well-made and accurate.","To start, a worker loads an aluminum faceplate into a printing press.","It applies a colored scale used for measuring pressure in pounds per square inch.","The type of scale it prints depends on the measuring unit being used.","Then a worker puts a copper tube into a bending machine that bends, cuts, and flattens sections of the tube.","The amount of flattening and bending determines the pressure range the gauge can measure.","Each piece becomes a pressure-sensing tube known as a bourdon tube.","Then a worker cuts lengths of brass that he machines into connectors.","They will link the bourdon tube to an inlet pipe.","He melts zinc solder in the connector's receptacle, and he mounts the bourdon tube in the correct position.","He fills the gap between the connector and the bourdon tube with solder.","Then he flushes the heated piece with water to cool it down, sealing the tube in place.","He puts the cooled piece on a mounting fixture and solders the other end of the bourdon tube to the gauge's internal mechanism.","He seals the gap and cools it down.","Then he puts the finished pieces, or pressure-system assemblies, as they're now called, into a cleaning machine.","Its hot, soapy water washes away any dirt and loose solder particles.","The pressure-system assemblies then go on to a leak-testing machine that pushes air into the tubes.","A stable pressure reading indicates there is no leakage.","Another worker takes a gear mechanism, which controls the mechanical movement inside the gauge, and places it on the connector.","A machine screws the gear mechanism in place.","He then takes the gear's connecting link and rivets it to the pressure-system assembly.","He fits the pressure-system assembly inside a protective stainless-steel housing.","A machine screws it all together.","Next, a worker calibrates the assembly.","She loosens up the connecting link slightly to prevent friction, puts on the indicator needle, and runs a test.","After a bit more adjusting, she puts the faceplate and the indicator needle back on.","She ensures the gauge reads accurately at three key positions and then screws the faceplate onto the gauge.","A final test confirms it is calibrated properly.","Then she puts a glass cover over the faceplate and adds a steel ring to hold it in place.","A crimping machine evenly folds the ring's edge until it makes a perfect seal.","Now she fills the gauge with glycerin.","Glycerin lubricates the internal mechanical parts and increases the lifetime of the gauge.","Glycerin also absorbs vibration well, which helps the indicator needle remain stable during operation.","A worker completes the pressure gauge by sealing off the fill hole with a rubber plug.","But, of course, not all gauges are built the same way.","As accurate and dependable as a swiss watch, a trustworthy pressure gauge also has a pretty face."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pasta Dies","Blueberries","Composting Toilets","Surge Arresters"]},"text":["today on \"how it's made\"...","Pasta dies.","Blueberries.","Composting toilets.","And surge arresters.","Industrial pasta machines produce noodles by extruding dough through a die.","The die has holes in it, which are shaped to produce a specific type of pasta.","As the dough comes through the holes in a continuous stream, a knife cuts the pasta to the correct length.","This industrial pasta die produces fusilli, up to one and a half tons of it per hour.","And this is just a midsize die.","The largest ones can produce four tons of pasta per hour.","The die block is made of a bronze-aluminum alloy.","A computer-guided machine drills holes for inserts through which the pasta dough will be extruded.","The front of the block is then chrome plated to protect against the sharp knife that cuts the extruded pasta off the die.","The next step is to make inserts that go in the holes in the block.","An insert is comprised of male and female parts and a nonstick plastic lining.","A computer-guided mill cuts the linings from a plate of nonstick plastic.","Another computer-guided mill machines the female part of the inserts in a more than quarter of an inch-thick brass plate.","Then a worker places a lining in each female part.","He taps it into position with a mallet and punch.","The plate then goes back on the mill, which cuts an extrusion slot in the lining.","The slot shape determines the pasta shape.","A mill machines the male part of the inserts in another brass plate.","A worker detaches the male parts from the plate with a punch and mallet.","He detaches the lined female parts the same way.","Then he assembles the male and female parts by forcing one onto the other with the help of a steel punch.","He finishes the die insert by cutting off the protruding excess plastic with a blade so that the lining is flush with the top.","The factory makes die inserts in thousands of different shapes-- some standard, others in the client's custom-made pasta shape.","This computer-guided lathe makes brass locking rings which will secure the inserts in the block.","Now, final assembly begins.","A worker places the block face-down, and from the back drops an insert top-first into each hole.","Next, he places a locking ring in each hole.","Then, with a hydraulic press and punch, he forces down each locking ring to within approximately 1 millimeter of the insert underneath.","In this position, the ring holds the insert in the hole but doesn't prevent it from spinning within the hole.","The next step is to adjust the inserts to make their orientation uniform.","He inserts a pin into each insert slot.","Then he rotates the pin to rotate the insert.","Once the insert orientation is correct, he forces the locking ring down all the way to immobilize the insert.","Once he has all the inserts oriented the same way, he sands the chrome-plated front of the die, first with a medium-grit disk, then with a fine-grit sandpaper.","The die surface must be smooth as silk for the knife to slice off the extruded pasta cleanly.","He verifies the width of every extrusion slot with a gauge.","This ensures every piece of pasta will be the correct thickness.","Then on the back of the finished die, he stamps the manufacturer's name.","The die is ready to be mounted on an industrial machine that extrudes dough into perfectly shaped, ready-to-boil pasta.","Blueberries are one of nature's healthiest foods.","They're low in calories, packed with vitamin c, and full of antioxidants.","And freezing blueberries doesn't compromise any of that nutritional value.","North and south america grow most of the world's blueberries.","The length of the harvest varies by climate.","In the south, it spans april to september.","Further north, mid-june to mid-august.","At this state-of-the-art blueberry farm, a mechanical harvester straddles the row of blueberry plants and shakes the leaves with vibrating fingers.","The berries fall to a sloped floor below and roll down into side conveyor belts.","The belts dump the berries into onboard bins which trucks transport from the field to the on-site packing plant.","The plant has two separate production lines-- one for berries to be shipped out fresh, and this one for berries to be shipped out frozen.","Workers empty the bins into a hopper, which feeds the berries onto a conveyor belt.","A vibrating conveyor belt then ferries the berries under a blower that suctions up loose leaves and twigs.","Then the blueberries tumble down a waterfall.","Stones and debris settle in the ledges.","The berries land in a wash tank.","Most of the ripe ones sink to the bottom while most of the unripe ones float on top where workers can easily scoop them out.","The berries exit the wash tank with fewer unripe ones among them.","The mesh belt vibrates to gently shake off water.","Then it runs the berries through the first of two color sorters.","The machine's camera is preset to ignore the color blue and detect only green and red.","Whenever a green or red berry passes, the camera sends a signal to the computer identifying its exact location so that one of the 136 air jets blows it off the belt to a collection trough below.","The ripe blueberries fly over the top onto a conveyor belt that takes them to the freezer tunnel.","The temperature inside is minus 29 degrees fahrenheit.","Five to 7 minutes later, the berries exit the tunnel frozen solid.","Workers perform a final visual inspection.","After passing through a metal detector, the berries drop into a preprogrammed scale that weighs out the specific quantity being packaged.","Meanwhile, in an on-site lab, government-trained inspectors pull samples off the line every 20 minutes for grading, which they determine by assessing factors such as color, aroma, and defects.","The frozen berries go into a freezer until shipped out by freezer truck.","The fresh berry production line is similar to the frozen line, minus the wash tank and, of course, the freeze tunnel.","However, the color sorters on this line are even more high-tech.","Not only are they set to detect red and green berries, but they also have a firmness detector, which by bouncing each berry on a pad can identify blue ones too soft to have at least a 12-day refrigerated shelf life.","Air jets blow those soft berries off the conveyor so they can be transferred to the frozen-berry line.","The rest continue to a final visual inspection.","The fresh berries are ready for packaging.","This electronic fill machine is preset to weigh out the specific quantity they're packaging, in this case, nearly 2-pound containers.","It drops that quantity of berries into an awaiting plastic container.","The final stop on the packaging line is the flat-seal machine.","It applies a printed plastic film to the top of the container, melting and bonding it to the perimeter without a touch of heat.","The film has ventilation holes because fresh berries require air.","From here, the containers go off to a refrigerated warehouse to await shipping to the store by refrigerated truck.","And provided they remain refrigerated, the blueberries remain fresh and juicy for 10 to 12 days.","There's a new john in town.","Composting toilets are the greatest thing since indoor plumbing.","In fact, they don't need any plumbing at all.","So they can go where traditional toilets do not.","They are little waste treatment machines.","They turn the unpleasant business of sewage into something more agreeable-- garden fertilizer.","This composting toilet works a bit of magic with sewage.","It transforms the solids into compost and makes the liquids disappear.","Making these toilets starts with a composting tank.","A worker sprays fiberglass into a mold of the tank.","Then he and another member of the team press out air trapped between the fiberglass and mold surface.","Once the part cures, a blast of compressed air loosens it from the mold.","And he lifts it out.","It's a bit ragged around the rim.","So they do a basic trim.","He drills holes in the tank for installing fittings.","Using a pneumatic circular blade, he slices a hole for the compost drawer.","And he grinds the rim to precise measurements.","He screws two overflow fittings into a threaded hole on the back of the tank.","He seals the fittings with epoxy from the other side of the tank wall.","This epoxy seal will prevent leaks.","Moving down the line, another worker sprays adhesive on the bottom of the composting tank.","He presses an aluminum panel to it.","This panel will radiate heat from a heating element he installs over it.","It will heat the evaporation chamber in the tank to dissipate liquids.","He places fiberglass insulation over the heater and encases it with a molded fiberglass cover.","He wires the heater and installs a thermostat that will regulate the heat and also shut off the system if the temperature drops below or exceeds the threshold.","He turns the composting toilet tank right-side-up to await further assembly.","Meanwhile, another worker assembles the fan for exhausting the evaporated fluids and any odors.","He inserts the motor shaft in a hole in the fan door so that it protrudes inside.","He then screws the motor to the outside of the door.","Next, he assembles the centrifugal blower to the motor shaft.","He installs a plastic shroud.","It surrounds the fan, protecting the blades' interacting airflow.","At the next station, a worker prepares the drum in which solid waste will be converted to compost by aerobic decomposition.","He fastens a stainless steel screen to an opening in the drum.","Liquid waste will drain through this screen and into the evaporation chamber.","Once evaporated, the fan will expel it through the vent stack.","He now places the drum in the tank, bearings elevated, so it sits just above the evaporation chamber.","He fits a plastic top to the tank and screws the two components together.","He inserts a metal shaft with gears, engaging them with grooves on the outside of the drum.","He inserts the fan into an opening at the back and secures it.","He wires the fan to the power source.","He installs a cover to protect the wiring.","And he connects the shaft to a handle at the front.","It rotates the drum to mix the contents and introduce air so that the aerobic microorganisms will thrive.","After electrical and other tests, a worker installs the drawer for the finished compost.","She fastens the seat to the base with nylon nuts and bolts with caps.","She inserts a plastic liner in the bowl.","And this completes the composting toilet.","By turning human waste into compost, things will eventually end up smelling like roses.","Electrical systems are vulnerable to voltage spikes from lightning or switching surges.","Surge arresters take over in these high-voltage situations.","When lightning strikes, surge arresters handle the fallout.","They divert the ensuing power surges to the earth, where they won't cause damage.","At their core are discs that act as switches.","They turn on and off to divert voltage spikes.","The discs are known as m.o.v.s, which is short for metal oxide varistors.","A worker loops fiberglass strapping onto aluminum endcaps to prepare the casing for the m.o.v.s.","He places a spacer on one end of the end caps.","He then packs numerous m.o.v.s on top, equipping this arrester to divert a 60,000-volt power surge.","He adds more spacers to fill in any gaps because the m.o.v. stack has to sit tight within the casing.","With the stack complete, he loops more fiberglass strapping around the m.o.v.s to complete the casing.","He torques the set screw to compress the stack.","The set screw also pushes back the end caps.","This pulls the fiberglass strapping tighter.","He now clamps the surge arrester assembly between two mandrels.","He ties a resin-reinforced thread around the fiberglass loop at one end.","He lowers a guard as a safety precaution.","The mandrels then spin the surge arrester module as a computer-programmed dispenser winds the thread around it to strengthen it.","It creates gaps between the windings.","This will allow sparks and fumes to escape in the event of a power overload.","With the winding complete, he cuts the end and tucks it under the last winding.","He hangs the module on a rack conveyer, which takes it into a chamber.","Here, a tank filled with an adhesive-promoting solution rises up and immerses the module.","This leaves a coating that will help silicone rubber housing bond to the module later.","He removes the hook used to hang the module on the rack conveyer and installs mandrels at both ends to be used at a later stage of processing.","He sets the module between the rungs of a chain-driven conveyer.","It takes it through an oven set at 302 degrees fahrenheit.","This cures the resin in the thread, causing it to harden around the fiberglass strapping.","It also preheats the surge arrester module in preparation for the next process-- the molding of the outer housing.","Using the mandrels, he locks two of the surge arrester modules in a platform and slides it under a mold press.","A lift takes it to the press.","It injects silicone rubber into the mold.","And using pressure and heat, it forms insulating jackets around the arrester modules.","The primer coating enhances the adhesion of the silicone rubber to the modules.","He clips off unwanted bits of silicone rubber from the molded housing and cleans up the ends with a wire brush.","Surge arresters come in a range of voltage ratings for different electrical systems.","He now lubricates the threaded bolt holes in one end.","He aligns those holes with the ones on a terminal connector.","He bolts the connector to the surge arrester.","He installs a base on the other end.","This base will allow the arrester to be mounted to the ground to send excess voltages to the earth.","He now puts the surge arrester to the test.","He connects electrodes to the terminal connector and to the base.","He runs different voltages of electricity through the arrester and confirms that it adequately discharges them.","This surge arrester is now ready to join others on the grid, forming a defense against lightning strikes and power spikes."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["NASCAR Car Bodies","Hurley Sticks","Tube Power Amplifiers","Thermal Coffee Pots"]},"text":["The first stock cars were souped-up family sedans.","But today, they're custom-built for the racetrack.","Each car body must match the contours of templates set by nascar, the national association of stock car auto racing.","On the racetrack, the shape of a car can give it an aerodynamic edge over the competition, so in nascar races, car bodies must have uniform curves.","The regulations put the focus on driver skill and make the race a fair one.","They mold some of the car's body parts from a carbon fiber and kevlar material.","First, a technician applies a release agent to a mold for the car's front end.","Then he sprays a paint undercoat into it.","This undercoat will eventually transfer to the completed panel.","A computerized cutter slices the carbon fiber and kevlar fabric into strips.","It produces 22 pieces, each one cut to fit a different section of the mold.","The technician rolls epoxy resin onto the fabric one strip at a time.","Once the strip has been completely coated, he transfers it to the mold.","He tucks the fabric into the contours and smooths out any big wrinkles.","He layers the strips three deep in a crisscross configuration for structural integrity.","A co-worker covers the carbon fiber with perforated plastic.","They add layers of absorbent polyester and thick plastic, which they glue to the edge of the mold.","They insert a fitting and connect a vacuum, which sucks out air and excess epoxy resin.","The polyester material soaks up the resin as it flows through the holes in the first plastic layer.","This both smooths and compacts the carbon-fiber layers.","Then it's into a hot oven to bake for three hours.","This activates the epoxy and combines the layers of carbon fiber and kevlar fabric.","An employee removes the completed stock-car panel and inspects it.","Then it's over to a weigh station.","At just under 8 pounds, the part is lightweight yet virtually shatterproof.","Meanwhile, at another factory, work begins on the stock-car chassis.","They build it from square steel tubing that's super strong.","An employee welds the pieces together to create a support structure for the car.","At the next station, a worker forces narrow steel tubing against a spiral bit to carve notches in it.","This tubing is for the roll cage, the structure that protects the driver if there's an accident.","The notches will help form better joints.","He grinds the rough edges, creating a smooth surface to weld the tube to the rest of the roll cage.","Once complete, the team transfers the roll cage to the main frame of the chassis.","They tack-weld it before doing the final welds.","The next part is called the rear clip.","It holds the fuel tank and has mounts for the rear suspension.","With the car framework now complete, a technician scans it using a digital measuring probe.","The scan confirms that the dimensions are correct.","They now assemble the various steel and carbon-fiber body parts to the stock-car framework.","They measure the completed car body by laying template grids on it.","The biggest one sits over the center of the car.","They pull a gauge through the gaps between the templates and the car body.","The gap cannot exceed the tolerances set by nascar.","They often must tweak the shape of a body part to meet regulations.","Once the car has been painted, they apply headlight decals where the real ones usually are.","Real headlights would add too much weight and pose a safety risk if they shattered.","It's taken three weeks of intensive work, but this stock-car body is now ready for the mechanics.","Things are about to pick up speed.","The game of hurling has been played in ireland for at least 2,000 years.","Players swing a stick called a hurley to hit a ball the size of a hockey puck into a net.","Winning takes skill, quick reflexes, and, of course, the luck of the irish.","Pass the ball and pass on the tradition.","Hurling is a game that's older than the recorded history of ireland.","In ireland, hurleys are still made the old-fashioned way-- by hand in small shops.","Ash is the wood of choice.","They use only the part of the tree near the root because the grain flows in a natural curve there, making the stick less likely to break during play.","The hurley maker slices the trunk into planks that are one inch thick.","He'll make one hurley from each plank.","He stacks the planks and then picks through them to select one for shaping.","He scrutinizes the curve of the grain on the boards.","It needs to be suitable for the size of the hurley he'll be making.","His selection made, he places a see-through plastic pattern on the board.","The transparency allows him to find the curve of the grain and position it within the striking surface of the hurley.","He draws an outline around it with a pencil.","After a rough cut and some initial shaping, he re-pencils the pattern and cuts it with a band saw.","The striking surface of the hurley is called the bas.","It's the most substantial part of the stick.","He sculpts the stick to various thicknesses with a planer.","He keeps it thick at the bas and thins it at the stem to give the stick some elasticity when striking the ball.","This will allow the player to hit the ball farther.","He sands the edges to make them more even.","He tapers the bas to the very end, creating a sloped surface so the ball can be picked up easily.","He then switches to a finer grid abrasive belt and sands the handle and the rest of the stick until it's super smooth.","Next, he cuts steel banding to a length that's a little more than twice the diameter of the bas.","He loops the band around the end of the bas and clamps it snugly to it.","He drives large nails into the band to puncture it.","He hammers smaller nails into those holes and all the way through the wood.","He clips the protruding nails.","He then flattens the cut ends to turn the nails into rivets.","He folds the ends of the looped band together at the rim of the bas and nails them to the wood.","Now securely attached, the steel band will reinforce the hurley at its most vulnerable point--  the end of the striking surface.","Not every player wants their hurley banded.","This is an optional feature.","He now winds rubber tape just under the handle for better gripping.","He continues to twist it partway down the stick because players sometimes grip it there with both hands.","He finishes the wrap at both ends with electrical tape, which has stronger adhesive backing.","It will prevent unraveling of the rubber tape.","It's taken about 20 minutes to craft this hurley stick.","How long it will last is anyone's guess.","There's no warranty on hurleys, and it's sure to break at some point because hurling is a rough game.","Some players go through several hurleys in one season.","It doesn't matter if you lose a stick as long as you win the game.","In an audio system, the amplifier is the component which makes the sound louder and sends it to the speakers.","While most amps on the market are powered by transistors, many audiophiles swear by tube amplifiers, which use older vacuum-tube technology.","many believe that tube amplifiers produce a warmer, more natural sound.","This factory makes the amp's main chassis from a sheet of polished stainless steel.","A computer-guided punch press cuts openings for the power switches, control knobs, and other components.","The press prepares eight chassis per sheet.","Workers separate them with a few strikes of a mallet.","Then they place them one at a time in a bending machine called a press break.","Once they position the sheet with the help of metal guides, they activate a foot pedal, releasing 90 tons of pressure to bend the edge of the sheet.","Then they remove the adhesive film which has been protecting the mirror-finish surface of the chassis.","They clean off any remaining adhesive residue with alcohol.","Then they put the chassis into an offset press.","Using a silk-screen printing process, it labels the controls and connections.","Next are the speaker terminals, which connect the speaker wires to the amp.","These connectors are made of gold-plated brass, which are nonmagnetic metals.","Magnetic ones would react to the electric current and cause distortion.","The terminal's circuit board, installed next, carries the amplified signal from the main circuit board to the speaker terminals.","They install and connect the power switch and the circuit board for the vacuum-tube illumination.","This indicates the tube's status.","Meanwhile, this machine winds strands of copper wire around plastic bobbins to begin making the amp's output transformers.","Output transformers match the amp's circuitry to the electronic specifications of different types of speakers.","The number of wires, their different gauges, and the number of revolutions around the bobbin create this unique compatibility.","After taping the wires to prevent unraveling, they join, then solder the ends to additional wiring.","They will later connect to the amp's main board.","A fiberglass sleeve insulates the connection.","They place the bobbin in a lamination machine.","Laminations are thin plates of carbon steel.","The machine stacks them all around the bobbin.","Then workers put a bolt in each corner to hold them together.","They place the laminated bobbin in an aluminum housing and pour in hot black tar.","This immobilizes the laminations so they won't rattle when the amp is amplifying low frequencies.","Then workers install the two output transformers into the chassis, along with a third transformer to power the amp.","They take the amp's main circuit board, plug in ceramic sockets for the vacuum tubes...","And solder the sockets' leads to the board.","Then, after feeding the transformer leads, they mount the main board in the chassis, screwing it to posts to hold it in place.","Then they connect the transformer leads.","They plug the vacuum tubes one by one into the sockets.","The tubes are made of glass with a heat-resistant base.","The interior contains a combination of metals but no air, hence the term vacuum tube.","The amp has 11 tubes in all-- seven small ones to power input signals from a source such as a cd player and four big ones to power output to the speakers.","Then they attach the chassis' ventilated bottom cover made of painted steel.","They affix decals to differentiate the output transformers from the power transformer.","L.e.d. lights turn green when the amp is powered up and ready to deliver that warm, natural sound that many believe only traditional vacuum tubes can produce.","People generally like their coffee either hot or iced, hence the need for the thermal coffee pot.","Pour in hot coffee, and the pot holds in heat, keeping the coffee at that temperature for a good half-hour.","The trick to a thermal coffee pot is in the construction.","Both the body and lid have a double wall, two layers of stainless steel.","Between them is a tiny gap just 5 to 6 millimeters.","The air in this gap insulates the inner wall, trapping the heat inside the pot.","They start with a stainless-steel sheet just 1.2 millimeters thick.","The first step is to cut it into smaller pieces on a mechanical press.","To make the coffee pot's body, they cut it into strips, then each strip into squares measuring 8x8 inches.","Then they put each square in another mechanical press.","It stamps the square onto a circular die, which cuts it into a disk.","They'll now use this disk to make the outer wall.","They run the disk through a lubricator that coats the surface with oil to aid the next step on a machine called a hydraulic deep drawing press.","The machine's molders draw the flat disk into a three-dimensional shape.","This stretches the stainless-steel fibers to a very fragile state.","They strengthen the piece by what's called thermic normalization, heating the metal to 1,800 degrees fahrenheit, then letting it cool to room temperature.","This process restores the original molecular structure of the stainless steel so it can be shaped further without breaking.","But first, they even out the jagged rim with a trimmer.","Then they return the wall to the deep drawing press outfitted with a differently shaped molder.","The second drawing tapers the wall to a more rounded shape and forms a base to make the bottom perfectly flat.","Then it's back to the trimmer, outfitted with a different tool this time, to smooth the rim.","They repeat the same steps to make the coffee pot's inner wall.","The deep drawing press pulls the stainless-steel disk into a slightly different shape with a lip protruding to one side.","They heat the wall in the induction oven to restore the molecular structure before shaping the metal further.","Then they place the wall in a mold and release a press.","This shapes the protruding lip into a spout.","Then they transfer the wall to another press, which stamps it with a die, cutting off excess metal.","They check to make sure that the inner and outer walls fit together properly.","If everything is fine, they polish both walls inside and out.","A little polishing paste applied with a sisal brush on the polishing wheel has the surfaces glistening in no time.","The surface is now perfectly smooth and ready for welding.","The first part they weld is the coffee pot's stainless-steel handle.","They shape it with two strikes of a press, then polish.","They use a spot welder to fuse the handle to the pot's outer wall.","Then they turn the wall upside down to stamp the manufacturer's logo into the bottom.","Now the assembly.","They place the inner wall on a fixture, then the outer wall over it.","A press pushes the inner to the correct depth.","Then they weld along the rim of the outer wall, fusing it to the inner one.","The coffee pot's lid also has double walls for insulation.","They weld a hinged lever to the lid and the adjoining part of the hinge to the coffee-pot body.","Then they gently hammer a pin through the hinge, riveting the ends of the pin so that it can't fall out.","After a thorough cleaning in a dishwasher, the coffee pot is ready to use."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Wood Garage Doors","Sand and Salt Spreaders","Animatronic Dinosaurs"]},"text":["A garage door is more than just a functional component of a house.","It's part of the curb appeal, especially when the garage is prominently located at the front of the home.","Garage doors are made from a variety of materials, wood being the high-end option.","A wood garage door is pricier than standard steel, aluminum, or vinyl panel doors.","But they offer the most design flexibility.","Wood can be customized to any style and painted or stained any color.","Western red cedar, mahogany, and hemlock are popular choices because they hold up particularly well outdoors.","Garage doors start with the core structure.","For the core surface, they use exterior-grade plywood so that the indoor-facing side of the core can be stained to match the decorative wood on the outdoor side.","They build the core's internal structure out of finger-jointed yellow pine.","Finger-jointed means each piece is made of several short, connected pieces.","It is structurally stronger and less prone to twisting and bowing than a solid piece of wood.","They build a core for each section of the garage door.","The core structures can be designed to accommodate windows or other unique features.","They insulate every core structure with pieces of polystyrene.","This helps keep the garage warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer.","Now they run two sheets of exterior-grade plywood through a machine that coats the top and bottom with glue.","They lay the sheets onto a core structure and place a second core structure on top of the first.","They repeat this process until they've stacked up enough core structures required for the door they are making.","They put the stack into a press for a half-hour.","The press applies 130,000 pounds while the glue cures.","Then they load each section onto a machine, which cuts it to the width required.","The machine also makes a lip to direct rain away from the door so that water doesn't run back into the garage.","When a core section has windows, they cut the openings for them with a router.","Using a template as a guide, they drill holes through the front of the core.","With a countersink tool, they cut a wide opening around each hole.","They insert \"t\" nuts into the holes.","This enables hardware to be mounted on the inside of the garage door.","At this point, the connected core sections can function as a structurally sound garage door.","However, there's still aesthetic work left to do.","The plywood on the front of the door serves as a blank canvas.","They glue decorative wood trim to the front door to produce the design specified in the customer's order.","For this door, they're using african mahogany.","They've already cut pieces to the required dimensions, with tongue-and-groove edges that enable adjoining pieces to connect.","Once the glue dries, they cut off the excess wood with a router.","Then they sand the surface and prepare the wood to be stained or painted.","They line up the remaining core section and glue on the corresponding wood trim.","They secure the wood trim to the core with nails.","After cutting off the last pieces of excess wood, they install the glass for the windows.","The dealer will install the hardware upon delivery.","Prior to installation, either the dealer or the customer will stain or paint the wood the desired color.","Sand-and-salt spreaders were developed in the united states in the middle of the 20th century.","Before that, crews kept winter roads safe by shoveling sand and salt from trucks.","Things got easier when mechanical spreaders took over the heavy lifting.","Winter storm brewing?","Sand-and-salt spreaders have it covered.","They distribute salt to melt the ice and sand for traction.","They start with two big sheets of stainless steel.","Computer-driven plasma torches carve the steel into the four panels that will be used to build the hopper.","Next, the operator transfers the panels to another computerized machine.","This one has numerous punch tools.","They cut holes for nuts, bolts, bearings, and other components.","Then it's over to a hydraulic press brake.","It bends the bottom of the hopper panel to create a wide rim.","This wide rim adds rigidity to the part.","The team flips the hopper panel around so the press brake can bend the top.","Computerized stops control the location of each bend.","A worker clamps the hopper panel in a fixture to prop it up while he welds ribbed supports to the outside.","He adds two or three ribs to each side panel, depending on the size of the spreader.","Once all the ribs have been welded, a team joins the four hopper panels together.","They clamp a bar across one end to square up the structure.","Once it's aligned, they weld the spreader hopper at the seams.","These tight seams create a rugged structure that will hold up under the burden of heavy road salt or sand.","Now a worker builds the steel chute that the sand or salt will flow through.","He attaches several brackets to the inside and outside of the chute.","These brackets are for the adjustable steel flaps that direct the flow of salt onto the highway.","Here he installs the adjuster bar for one of the flaps.","He swings the flap to confirm it moves freely.","A pin is inserted in the adjuster bar to set the flap at the desired spacing.","He attaches a bearing to each side of the chute.","He slides a long steel shaft through the bearings until it protrudes from the bottom.","He secures the shaft to the bearings...","And mounts a flexible plastic spinner to the protruding shaft.","This spinner will spread the road salt or sand evenly across the road.","Customers on tighter budgets sometimes choose salt spreaders made of mild steel instead of stainless.","They spray a dry powder coat onto these units.","Then they roll the part into an oven to bake it on.","This durable finish will protect the hoppers from corrosion and general wear.","Now back to the stainless-steel spreader.","The team fastens a gearbox to the side of the hopper.","It will drive the conveyer that delivers salt or sand to the chute.","A worker temporarily powers the gearbox with a drill to assist in the installation of the conveyer.","He pushes the conveyor forward until the gearbox takes over.","He installs a feed gate at the opening and screws the lever to the side of the hopper.","They stockpile hoppers, chutes, and motors separately until an order is placed.","This allows the customer to choose individual components before the final assembly.","For example, the customer way want a specific gas motor, or they may choose a hydraulic one.","Once they've bolted the chute to the hopper, this sand-and-salt spreader is ready for an icy highway.","It can spread material thick or thin, depending on the road conditions.","Dinosaurs have long been extinct.","But animatronics make models look, sound, and move like the real thing.","Developed by walt disney in the 1960s, this technique is a combination of art and technology.","The slit eyes, rows of sharp fangs, and a long, purposeful snout all look stunningly real.","With his razor-sharp claws, this velociraptor figure looks ready to leap right at you.","First, a designer uses 3-d sculpting software to create a detailed digital model of the raptor.","Key features, such as the size, shape, and number of the teeth are thoroughly documented.","The art director approves a small-scale 3-d printed model of the figure before an industrial robotic arm sculpts the full-size figure in four-pound foam.","The density of the foam allows for very precise styling.","An artist adds details by hand.","He uses precision sculpting tools to draw wrinkles and lines.","He brushes melted clay on top of the foam to bring out details and give more realism to the sculpture.","The clay needs to solidify before the sculpture can be molded.","A figure finisher prepares a mixture of monomer and polymer that is commonly used to make acrylic teeth.","He pours the mixture into a mold shaped like the jaw of the raptor.","He places the mold in a vacuum chamber.","He seals the vacuum-chamber lid and starts the vacuum pump.","The vacuum pump will lower the pressure inside, forcing air bubbles out from the acrylic mixture.","This process makes for an even and consistent casting.","These are sharp and strong velociraptor fangs.","The figure finisher separates the teeth by hand, then takes a dremel tool to file down the excess around the base.","The acrylic teeth accurately reproduce the shape of the predator's fangs.","The figure finisher places the teeth back in the jaw mold.","Massive teeth up to an inch long fill the reptile's ferocious mouth.","The figure finisher covers the teeth with flesh-colored dental acrylic to form the gums and palate of the creature.","Once the mold is filled with acrylic, he puts it in a vacuum chamber, where the gums and palate cure.","During the vacuuming process, the gums and teeth bond together to form a complete velociraptor denture.","To make the reptile's eyeballs, he places a transparent sheet in a vacuum thermoforming system.","The vacuformer heats the plastic to make it malleable.","The figure finisher pushes the sheet down on an eyeball shape and activates a vacuum pump.","Thermoformed eyeballs come in various shapes and sizes.","Now a plastics technician prepares the fiberglass mold.","He uses a chopper gun to cover the inside of the plastic mold with flexible fiberglass strands.","The technician bonds the strands together with resin.","Once the resin has cured, the hard fiberglass shell takes the shape of the initial foam sculpture.","Using a jigsaw, a worker cuts the shell at various articulation points.","This will allow the figure to move seamlessly once it's assembled on its animated mechanical structure.","The technician applies a primer coat with a spray gun.","This shell will house the mechanical components, animating the dinosaur's long tail, its strong upper body and neck, the birdlike head, the handlike front limb, and its powerful hind legs.","An encounter with a life-size animated dinosaur is quite an experience.","An elaborate range of advanced special-effects techniques and animatronic technology brings them to life.","A technician covers the fiberglass inner shell with a ripstop fabric lining.","It will support and reinforce the silicone skin.","She installs zippers on the liner to easily take off or put on the skin.","The liner fits tightly over the fiberglass and takes the shape of the inner shell.","Technicians use liquid-silicone rubber to make the figure's skin.","One technician connects a tube to the shell's mold-injection port while the other technician operates a high-pressure injector.","The machine pumps silicone into the mold.","The silicone cures inside the mold for a few hours.","Then a technician unfastens the bolts that are holding the shell tightly closed.","Technicians take the silicone skin out of the injection shell mold.","They inspect the skin to make sure there are no defects and that it mimics the features of the initial foam sculpture.","They take the skin off the inner shell for manual touch-ups.","A technician cleans up the edges of the skin by trimming off small silicone strips called flashing.","With small precision scissors, she meticulously trims off all the flashing to make clean, seamless joints.","A figure finisher inserts the molded acrylic denture to check its fit in the lower jaw skin.","He checks the fit of the thermoformed eyeball between the skin and the shell.","A character painter uses an airbrush to paint the skin with silicone paint.","He adds multiple layers of paint, giving the finish much more detail and realism.","A machinist mills a mechanical part for the metal frame.","Thousands of stainless-steel and aluminum pieces need machining.","He bores out holes for bearings inside each shaft.","Each piece can be customized to suit virtually any design and assembly requirement.","An electronics engineer tests a control card.","Each animated component of the figure is controlled by a card like this one.","The electronics engineer connects the card to an oscillator tester to verify that the cylinder responds accurately to the electronic-input signal.","A program on the card allows precise control over the motion of the cylinder.","The cylinders create motion, while the aluminum frame functions as the skeleton supporting the movement.","An animator assembles various parts into the mechanical assembly.","He connects a cylinder to the metal frame.","Each cylinder is dedicated to a specific function in the mechanical assembly.","This cylinder activates a finger in the hand assembly, allowing it to curl up in a smooth, seamless motion.","The animator attaches the hand assembly to the arm, bolts it on at the elbow, and screws claws on the tip of each finger.","The full frame of the figure is assembled on a test bench.","A hydraulics-and-plumbing engineer opens the compressed-air valve, which powers the pneumatic cylinders.","The show controller runs random programs to test the response of the animatronic dinosaur.","They check air-pressure variations in the hydraulic-cylinder tubes, as well as electronic direction and amplitude commands.","A creative director finally puts his seal of approval on the figure.","A lot of effort goes into making such a complex machine look like a living creature."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Car Tires","Silk","Art Conservation","Scuba Tanks"]},"text":["Historically, wheels were made of metal or wood.","With the invention of air filled car tires in the early part of the 20th century, the ride was revolutionized.","The inflated rubber tires could better absorb the bumps on the road and the addition of tread gave the invention serious traction.","Car tires have come a long way in the last century.","The modern summer tire is made of 10 to 15 different components, which include natural and synthetic rubber, chemical additives, and carbon black-- a pigment.","Giant blenders mix these ingredients under heat and tremendous pressure.","There are various formulations for different parts of the tire.","In each case, the result is gummy rubber dough, which machinery then rolls into sheets to await further kneading and processing.","Polyester fabric unrolls into a machine called a calender.","The calender is equipped with rollers that apply warm rubber to both sides of the fabric.","This produces a rubberized fabric that will be used to reinforce the tire.","This fabric ply is needed because rubber alone isn't sturdy enough to make a tire.","Numerous cotton cords now spin off bobbins simultaneously.","Machinery pulls them onto the warm, rubberized fabric.","They land on a bit of an angle and adhere.","This cording creates channels that provide pathways for venting air during the actual tire building.","Making rubber for tread requires three different rubber formulations.","Extruders shape the three streams of rubber and then they enter a die that forms them into one.","Mini paint rollers apply different colored stripes.","It's a coding system for identification of the ingredients during processing.","To avoid tension, the system creates slack in the feed.","A blade slices the tread rubber to length.","Next, many steel cables uncoil at once to make the bead-- the part of the tire that gives it the strength it needs to stay on the wheel rim.","Machinery arranges the cables in the desired configuration and encases them in rubber.","More equipment rolls the bead material into hoops sized to fit the wheel rim.","They're now ready to build the tire.","Using a special rotating drum, a worker arranges the two bead hoops on it.","Next up is an airtight piece of rubber that will act as an inner tube followed by the corded ply.","Inflated bladders roll the rubber around the bead on both sides and then retract.","A server applies side walls to the beads.","Little rollers fold the side walls over the beads.","This completes the inner part, or skeleton, of the tire.","They assemble the outer layer separately beginning with strips of rubber embedded with steel cord.","The system wraps this rubber around a second tire-building drum.","Next up are narrow strips of rubber ply.","The computerized system winds them with just the right amount of tension for a graduated effect.","They're now ready for the last layer-- the tread rubber.","Machinery applies it to the ply.","It's time for the two tire fabrications to become one.","A transfer ring collects the assembly and transfers it to the inner part.","Compressed air inflates the tire to shape it and all the sticky layers adhere together.","The machine rolls the edge of the tread rubber over the side walls.","They now have what's known in the industry as a green tire-- an uncured tire without tread pattern.","Next, it's into a mold to bake and shape the tire.","The two parts of the mold come together like a waffle iron.","Inside, hot steamy bladders expand to shape the tire and transfer the tread pattern to it.","This specific tread pattern is designed for summer tires.","This cutout of a car tire demonstrates how all the layers have been fused together.","The time in the hot, pressurized mold has caused the rubber to vulcanize-- a chemical reaction that transforms it from a weak and sticky substance to one that's strong and elastic.","A worker trims excess rubber.","After final inspections confirm the tire shape is uniform and geometrically correct, the tire is ready for shipment.","It's time for the rubber to hit the road.","Silk fabric originated in china at least 5,000 years ago and became a coveted luxury.","Silk thread is produced by silkworms when they make their cocoons.","Sericulture, or commercially breeding silkworms for silk production, is practiced in several asian countries.","From home goods to accessories and clothing, there are few textiles as elegant and luxurious, or as prized throughout the ages, as silk.","It's hard to believe this beautiful fabric comes from worms.","The female silkworm lays up to 400 eggs in one shot then promptly dies.","Each egg, about two weeks later, hatches into a larva.","The larva feeds on fresh mulberry leaves continuously, increasing its body weight 10,000 fold and growing to a length of about three inches.","Then, as it enters the pupa phase of its life cycle, it excretes liquid raw silk from salivary glands in its mouth.","When that liquid silk contacts with the air, it hardens into a single thread.","Pupating larva winds that thread around itself into a thick, cozy cocoon.","Normally, the pupa inside becomes a moth and the cocoon breaks as it emerges.","However, this severs the continuous silk thread.","So to keep the thread intact, they boil the cocoon for about three minutes to kill the pupa inside before it transforms into a moth.","Boiling the cocoons also makes the wound thread easier to unravel by melting away most of the sericin-- the gelatinous protein that binds it.","To harvest the silk, they take threads from 30 to 50 cocoons at a time.","They feed them all together through a hole in the bamboo stick onto a hand-operated reel.","Then, slowly and carefully, they turn the reel, unraveling the cocoons.","As the thread passes together through the stick, the remaining sericin glues them together forming a single, thicker thread.","The silk threads coming together are so fine-- only about one one-hundredth of a millimeter in diameter-- that it takes 2,000 to 3,000 cocoons to produce a pound of silk thread.","Unraveling cocoons is a time-consuming process, because a single thread can be as long as nine professional soccer fields.","To make this feather-like silk thread easier to handle, they weigh it down with sand before rolling it into a bundle.","Next, they wash away the sand and remaining sericin, then bleach the thread so it will uniformly absorb the synthetic dye.","It's critical to monitor the ratio of dye to hot water, as well as water temperature and soaking time, as all these factors combined effect the quality of the color.","After rinsing away the excess dye with lukewarm water, they hang the thread to dry.","They mount the bundles of dry, dyed silk thread on a big machine, which transfers them to smaller rollers.","Those rollers then go on an automated machine, which transfers the thread to small bobbins.","To craft silk fabric, weavers will pass bobbins of thread horizontally between vertical threads on a traditional, hand-operated loom.","Another machine, meanwhile, winds thread around spools.","A worker then installs a set number of spool threads on a mechanism, which aligns them vertically on the loom parallel to each other.","Fabric that's about three feet wide typically requires 4,000 vertical threads.","By stepping on the loom's foot pedal, the weaver repeatedly raises every second vertical thread, and with a tug of a cord, passes a shuttle containing a bobbin of thread horizontally in between.","This intertwining of horizontal and vertical threads weaves the silk fabric.","To create a pattern, the weaver uses multiple shuttles containing threads of different colors, thicknesses, and textures.","Some patters, such as an intricate weave called brocade, are so intricate that even the most experienced weavers produce just two to six inches of fabric per day.","Now, that's wearable art.","A centuries-old painting is actually easier to restore than a decades-old painting.","For hundreds of years, artists used pure oil paints, but by the 20th century, artists began using different types of paint, making restoration more challenging.","A traditional painting is typically oil on canvas, protected with a layer of natural resin varnish.","Over time, a linen canvas can become brittle, distort, and sometimes tear.","Varnish yellows and dirt and dust accumulate, rendering the once-vibrant painting dark and dull and in dire need of professional conservation.","The conservation process is multi-faceted.","They have to strip away any previous restoration, then perform a new restoration, yet make it entirely reversible to allow for future restoration.","The conservators begin with spot tests to observe how different colors in the painting react to cleaning.","They dip a cotton swap in mild detergent and rub gently, testing for discolored varnish and any previous restoration.","When all that's done, they swab on some solvent to neutralize the detergent residue.","Next, they spray the back of the canvas with water and lie the painting on a vacuum hot table.","The heat turns the moisture to steam, which relaxes the paint and linen as the vacuum pulls the bumps and puckers flat.","If the canvas isn't structurally sound, they apply adhesive, a synthetic backing, then a new linen canvas.","With thermometers monitoring the temperature, the heat activates the adhesive and the vacuum draws everything taut against the hot table, bonding old linen to new.","And the conservators can turn their attention to the artwork.","They begin by mixing a cleaning solution-- 1% chemical-grade ammonia, 20% strong detergent, and 79% water.","They dip a swab in the cleaning solution and another in the solvent.","Working a small area at a time, they gently glide the cleaning-solution swab over the surface.","It's critical not to rub, as any abrasion could harm the painting.","Next, they gently roll the solvent swab over the same area to neutralize the cleaning-solution residue.","They repeat the solution-solvent procedure area by area until they've removed surface dirt from the entire painting.","Then they start all over again, this time removing old, yellowed varnish, embedded dirt, and previous restoration.","The cleaning completed, they can now address the tears and damages.","Using a small pallet knife, they fill the cavities of the tear with gesso, material that's used as a background for paintings.","This gesso is reversible, meaning it can easily be removed, if required, during a future restoration.","Once the gesso dries, they wipe away the excess with a damp cloth, leaving a repair that's flush with the surrounding surface.","Then they seal the gesso with varnish.","This creates a barrier between the existing paint layer and the one they're about to add, making it removable for future restoration.","They retouch the repaired area, expertly matching colors to the original and blending them seamlessly with the surrounding area.","This process, called inpainting, is where the conservators' fine-art training is put to the test.","Rather than use oil paints, they mix pigments with acrylic resin.","This produces paint that looks just like oils but is removable with mild solvents in the event of a future restoration.","They brush varnish over the inpainting so that the sheen matches that of the surrounding area.","And now, the final step.","They spray the entire painting with a light coat of removable synthetic varnish that doesn't yellow over time.","This evens out and protects the surface.","Once the varnish cures, the painting goes back into its frame, just the way the artist intended.","Underwater exploration was a shallow experience until scuba tanks were developed in the middle of the 20th century.","Filled with compressed air and attached to a breathing regulator, scuba tanks enable divers to stay underwater longer.","This invention took diving to a whole new level.","Scuba tanks are a way to bottle the air we breathe and take it with us underwater.","To make aluminum scuba tanks, they start with solid, cylindrical chunks called slugs.","The aluminum-alloy slugs tumble around in a perforated, rotating drum, which takes them through a series of chemical baths.","The baths clean and treat the surface of the aluminum to prepare the slugs for forming.","The operator loads the slugs into a feeder system that serves them up one at a time to a hydraulic extrusion press.","An extrusion piston forces the slug into a die inside the press.","It hollows and stretches the slug into the shape of a scuba tank.","It takes about 1,300 tons of force to transform a solid, short chunk of aluminum into a longer, hollow cylinder.","The shaping process itself generates heat, making the aluminum softer and more malleable.","The press establishes the outer diameter of the tank, the inner one, and the base.","The process takes just 20 seconds.","The freshly formed cylinder now spins as a roller applies a lubricant to the open end.","The machine ejects the cylinder.","Then it's over to the hydraulic neck press.","This press forces the opening of the tank into a die to narrow it substantially.","This establishes the basic shape of the scuba-tank neck.","It still needs more work, but first, the tank shape must be firmed up.","They heat treat and then quench the scuba tanks in cool water.","The shock of the rapid cooling hardens the aluminum.","Back to the neck now.","A spinning, computerized cutter shortens it.","Then, another cutter moves in.","Filings fly as it carves excess metal from the outside of the scuba-tank neck.","A computerized drill widens the neck hole and cuts a pocket for an o ring seal.","The next tool carves a thread into the inside wall of the neck.","The threaded profile will allow for connections to an air-fill-up valve and to a breathing regulator.","Every scuba tank undergoes a test to measure tank expansion under pressure.","They fill each scuba tank with water and place it in a test jacket that's also filled with water.","Testing equipment increases the pressure in the scuba tank, and the tank expands, placing water from the test jacket.","By measuring the displaced water, they determine the rate of tank expansion, and if it's acceptable, the tank moves on.","A scuba tank now spins against a sanding belt.","This sanding gives the exterior a brushed finish, which some divers prefer.","They etch the serial number and other information onto the upper part of the tank.","For a more colorful look, the factory applies a vibrant, translucent powder coat to the brushed finish.","The finish is purely aesthetic.","Aluminum doesn't rust, so a natural finish would weather underwater conditions as well as the powder coat.","They bake on the powder coat, giving the tanks a glossy look.","These aluminum scuba tanks are now ready to take the pressure.","Life is sure to be one underwater adventure after another."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Rubber Gloves","Soap Carvings","Aircraft Cabinets","Motorcycle Brake Locks"]},"text":["It was an american nurse's sensitivity to an antiseptic that led to the development of medical rubber gloves.","The year was 1890, and the hospital was johns hopkins in baltimore.","Sympathetic to the nurse's plight, the chief of surgery asked a rubber company to develop protective gloves.","Around the world, healing hands wear rubber gloves to stop the spread of germs and save lives.","To make them, they need a lot of hands, the kind made from ceramic or aluminum.","They'll serve as molds.","First, they need to remove residue from the last rubber-glove production, so they do a thorough washing in soapy water...","And then in bleach.","They must remove every speck of residue because even the smallest contaminate could lodge in the latex rubber gloves and create holes.","Leaving the bleach, the ceramic hands twirl into round, revolving brushes.","Their bristles scour the surface and the hard to reach areas between the ceramic fingers.","After this thorough scrubbing, the hand molds dive into a tub of hot water.","It's the last cleaning before production begins.","As they exit the tub, the hands swivel on the rail carrier to drip dry.","Still slightly damp and spinning, the hand molds head into a chemical bath, which forms a film on the surface.","It's a critical coating because liquid rubber won't adhere to bare ceramic, but it will to this substance.","The ceramic molds now reach into warm, liquid rubber, which has been enhanced for extra strength.","The liquid rubber reacts with the chemical coating on the hands and becomes gel-like.","Coated with the rubber gel, the hands spin to shake off any drops as they head into an oven.","Under intense heat, the rubber dries to the hand form.","It also undergoes a chemical process called vulcanization that makes rubber stronger and elastic.","After a wash and dry, the gloves spin through brushes which roll up the cuffs.","This cuff roll, called the bead, has a specific purpose.","It makes it easier to pull the rubber glove off the mold.","Workers grab the gloves by the beads to peel them off the ceramic forms.","These particular medical gloves were molded from synthetic rubber for people who can't wear natural latex rubber due to allergies.","These synthetic rubber gloves are a bit stickier than the natural latex ones, and they must be removed by hand.","However, the natural latex gloves come off much more easily.","Bursts of pressurized air blow these gloves off the ceramic forms.","At a test station, a worker now stretches and inflates each medical glove to check for weak spots and holes.","Even a pinhole leak would be cause for rejection.","Next, they take a sample glove from every batch and pump water into it, again checking for leaks.","If the sample glove is watertight, they approve the entire batch for shipment.","They color code gloves for strength.","These orange cleaning gloves are thick and reusable.","Others, like the medical gloves, are for limited use and disposable.","Each rubber formulation is customized for color, strength, and other characteristics.","It has taken a lot of fake hands and real ones to make rubber gloves, and it all happens very fast.","They manufacture 200 rubber gloves a minute at this factory.","That's about 12,000 gloves per hour.","They pack them up in batches of 100.","A cornstarch solution applied earlier keeps them from sticking together in the box.","Later, that starch will also act as a lubricant to allow the gloves to slide easily onto hands.","And with all that, these rubber gloves are ready to protect the public.","In northern thailand, the tradition of carving elaborate flowers from soap began in the 1930s with farm workers who were looking for a creative outlet.","In their hands, pieces of soap became little works of art.","And in the process, they carved out a niche market for soap flowers.","Today in thailand, there's a thriving tourist trade in floral soap carvings.","These awesome blossoms are far too delicate for scrub-up duty.","They're made to be admired.","Infused with fruit powders, they also add fragrance to a room.","The carvers start by making their own soap.","Glycerin made of animal fats and oils is the main ingredient.","Other ingredients include fruit powder...","Water...","Food coloring--  in this case, yellow-- fragrance...","And vegetable oil.","He mixes the vegetable oils with the water as he heats the ingredients slowly.","He then adds the glycerin chunks to a separate bucket of hot water.","The glycerin melts on contact, and he whisks it to disperse it in the water.","He now pours the glycerin mixture in to the water and oil.","Using an electric mixer, he blends the ingredients, adding water as needed to achieve the desired consistency.","He blends the mango fruit powder into the soap mixture.","A dash of yellow coloring reflects the aroma of the soap-- mango.","He adds a mango fragrance formulation to enhance the powdered fruit scent.","That completes this aromatic liquid-soap mixture.","He transfers it to a square pan lined with plastic.","After a few hours, the soap solidifies into a big yellow bar.","He pries the hardened soap and the plastic liner away from the pan and flips it over.","The soap slab lands on the workbench.","He peels the plastic liner off.","Now, using a device similar to a paper cutter, he slices the soap into long, uniform bars.","He stacks them in piles of three.","He cuts the stacks of long bars crosswise, producing small soap squares the size of brownies.","Each soap bar will be transformed into a beautiful flower.","This takes artistic vision and skill.","The artist has many years of experience and carves with an expert hand.","As he scoops out chunks, the broad and distinctive petals of an orchid take shape.","He discards the broad base, and from a simple soap bar, a flower has bloomed.","He dips the carving in water to improve the adhesion of water-based paint.","He partially submerges the carving in paint, giving it a two-toned look.","The artist selects color combinations for their visual impact, and authenticity is not essential.","He brushes mauve paint onto the orchid's central column to accentuate it.","He extends the brush strokes to the petals.","These brush strokes mimic the look of veins.","With this colorful artistry, the soap carving seems to come to life.","He dips a toothbrush in paint and flicks his thumb across the bristles to spray flecks onto the center column.","With that final splash of color, the carving is complete.","He glues it to the base of a decorative box.","The box both protects the carving and adds to the presentation.","Taking the lid off reveals a surprise.","The carving could be any flower in any color.","But the most amazing thing of all is that it's been carved from soap.","The world of private-passenger aircraft is all about comfort and luxury.","Big corporations send their top executives to travel in jets with well-appointed interiors.","And the world's super-wealthy spare no expense making their private planes as lavish as their homes.","Just like building or renovating a house, you can choose all the decorative finishings of your new aircraft-- everything from the floor covering and seat fabric to the style, wood type, and color of the cabinetry.","It's critical not to weigh the aircraft down, so cabinets can't be made from particle board.","Even plywood is far too heavy.","The solution-- panels made of honeycomb-shaped hard paper sandwiched between fiberglass sheets, strong like particle board, but 1/4 the weight.","Computerized machines cut the panels to shape and drill holes for threaded inserts, into which bolts and screws for hinges and handles will fasten.","After refining the holes with hand tools, workers hold the inserts in the holes with tape while they inject epoxy glue to bond the inserts permanently.","The panels adjoin with a tongue and groove system, so computerized machines cut the edges accordingly.","The material is fibrous, so the cut edges are rough.","Workers smooth them before gluing and assembling.","Certain panel surfaces are too hard to access after assembly, so they receive their decorative wood veneer facade before being cut to shape.","These pieces are covered in a protective film to prevent damaging the veneer during assembly.","Once a unit is assembled, workers make sure it's square.","They also verify the dimensions.","Meanwhile, an automated belt sander preps the veneer.","Veneer is wood that's been sliced into thin sheets.","For these cabinet facades, these sheets are a mere 0.04 inches thick.","The most typical choices are walnut, ebony, cherry, and birch.","Workers disassemble the unit to access each component for veneering.","They lay the component on the back of the veneer sheet and trace it.","Then they follow the pencil line with a fine-tooth veneer saw.","Next, they spray contact cement on the component surface and the veneer's underside.","A plastic sheet in between prevents contact until the veneer is correctly positioned.","After pressing down the veneer, they place the component in a vacuum bag and suction out the air.","This flattens the veneer evenly over the entire surface.","Eight hours later, the component comes out of the vacuum bag, and with a router, they trim the veneer flush all around.","Then they glue the edges with epoxy and apply strips of hardwood to match the facade.","The epoxy cures in a couple of hours, at which point they sand the edges to remove any excess glue.","Now they reinstall the component and measure to make sure the surrounding gaps are precisely 0.06 inches.","Should some tweaking be required, they simply sand edges or adjust hinges.","They disassemble yet again and touch up any imperfections that sanding the edges caused.","Once the touch-up paint is dry, they spray on the first of nine coats of lacquer.","Each coat has to dry overnight.","They sand it twice before applying the next coat, first with an orbital sander, then with a sanding block to remove any waves in the lacquer left by the orbital sander.","After the last coat of lacquer dries, they do a final sanding with a very fine grit paper.","Then, using a wool pad and polishing compound, they polish the surface to a reflective, high-gloss finish.","Workers now reassemble the components for the last time.","They install the fixtures and accessories, the decorative hardware, and everything electrical.","The cabinetry unit is finished.","Not only does the luxurious look fit a multi-million-dollar private aircraft, it's also, as they say in tech terms, plug and play.","You just install and plug it into the aircraft, and everything runs--  no additional wiring required.","A motorcycle can be rolled into a truck or van and be gone in a minute, leaving an empty space and an angry owner.","To help put the brakes on this parking-lot theft, there are portable locks for brakes.","With the brakes in full lock down, the bike can't be rolled away.","When it's time for a pit stop, a disc-brake lock takes some of the worry out of leaving a coveted motorbike unguarded.","Simply clip it onto the motorbike's brake rotor, turn the key, and the wheels won't budge.","Equipped with an alarm, this handy gadget can also alert bystanders of a crime in progress.","Before they manufacture the lock, they cut the keys.","There are two for each lock.","The employee inserts two blank key blades into milling machines that carve eight different notches into them.","The combination of notches is one of over a million possible key codes.","The machine prints the key-code information onto a card.","In the meantime, the employee inserts the keys into a slot, and little brushes inside clean them.","The assembler slips the matching keys onto a ring along with the key-code card to keep them all together.","She installs batteries to power lights in the key grip.","To make a lock to match the keys, the worker refers to the key-code card to select notched brass wafers.","She stacks them in an assembly unit so that the notches in the wafers match the bits cut into the key blade.","She places the lock cylinder above the wafers and activates a spring that lifts them into the cylinder.","She flips the cylinder and removes it from the assembly device, then caps the cylinder, encasing the wafers.","She tries a key and confirms it's a match.","She brushes grease into two niches in the cylinder.","She inserts locking bars into each one.","The grease holds them in place as she slides a steel sleeve over the cylinder.","She tries the key again to confirm the assembly functions.","For extra protection, she encases the cylinder in a hard lock body.","She plugs the open end and secures the metal plug with two pins.","She now inserts bolts in the lock.","In operation, these bolts will be pushed into the brake disc to lock it.","A metal sliding cover protects the key hole when not in use.","The installer adds a plastic mechanism to slide it open and closed more easily.","They now have a completed lock bolt.","They assemble the outer lock body.","The two parts come together to form a slot to fit over the brake disc.","Using a custom measuring tool, the employee confirms that the hole for the lock mechanism is the correct size.","She then slides an applicator for lubricant into that hole.","It releases the lubricant, and she distributes it more evenly.","She slots steel balls into compartments in the lock mechanism.","When the lock is engaged, these balls will protrude and keep it engaged.","She pops the locking bolt into the outer casing.","She permanently secures it with a plastic spring, snapping it into place between the steel casing and the lock.","Another application of lubricant, and the motorcycle brake lock is ready for an alarm system.","The alarm has been pre-assembled at another factory.","It fits into a tray-like compartment of the casing.","With the help of a mechanized tool, she press-fits the alarm to the casing.","She slides a plastic dowel into the lock to confirm the alarm mechanism and gauges.","She replaces the section of the casing that was removed for the alarm installation and secures it with a screw.","She polishes the lock against a revolving wheel with little brushes.","She rubs some oil on it, and the metal gleams.","Now complete, this motorbike brake-disc lock looks pretty, just don't mess with it."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Ice Cream Treats","Wooden Golf Clubs","Aircraft Wings","Car Battery Recycling"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made,\" ice-cream treats...","Wooden golf clubs...","Aircraft wings...","And car-battery recycling.","Before refrigeration, ice cream was a handmade luxury.","Ingredients went into a mixing bowl inside a tub filled with ice and saltwater.","The salt helped the ice absorb heat, cooling the mixture to below freezing.","In the 1920s, commercial freezers made mass production possible, and the ice cream industry was born.","To make ice-cream treats, you first have to make the ice cream.","It all begins with fresh cream.","The factory stores it in refrigerated silos set just a few degrees above freezing.","The silos feed a high-speed mixer that blends the cream with other ingredients.","The main dry ingredients are powdered skim milk and plant-based stabilizers and emulsifiers.","Stabilizers prevent the ice cream from crystallizing, and emulsifiers allow the mix to bond with air during the whipping process.","The other ingredients are sugar and corn syrup.","After about three minutes of mixing, a pumping system moves the mixture into pasteurization tanks and heats it to 162 degrees for half an hour, killing any bacteria and activating the stabilizers.","Then the factory homogenizes the mixture, a process that breaks up the fat globules, giving the ice cream a smooth texture.","The mixture is cooled, and concentrated vanilla flavoring is added.","Then the concoction is chilled and whipped for about 15 seconds.","Whipping blends the mix with air, transforming it from a liquid to a soft solid.","Without air, the finished product would come out looking like frozen milk rather than ice cream.","The ice-cream sandwich wafers are made of chocolate-cake ingredients.","A filling machine feeds two lines of wafers toward an injection pipe.","Just as two wafers come together, the machine injects a third of a cup of vanilla ice cream in between.","The pipe's head fits the ice cream into a rectangular slab that fits perfectly between the wafers.","All this happens at a rate of 140 ice-cream sandwiches per minute.","As the sandwiches move on to packaging, the filling is still ice cold from the freezing phase, so there is no threat of a meltdown.","The packaging system raises each sandwich into a wrapper, then folds and tucks the ends.","The next machine counts the sandwiches and inserts them into boxes.","Once sealed, the boxes go directly into a storage freezer at minus 22 degrees.","On another line, ice-cream cone production is under way.","A feeder drops prewrapped sugar cones into holders on a conveyor belt.","Sprayers coat the insides with a chocolaty layer, which adds flavor and creates a barrier between the cones and ice cream, so the cone remains crispy until you eat it.","Next, nozzles squirt in the ice-cream filling.","One production line, two flavors.","One row of cones gets vanilla ice cream, the other row chocolate.","Now for a tasty surprise in the cone's core, an injection of liquid caramel.","This factory also makes ice-cream cones with chocolate and strawberry sauce inside.","Next, a chocolate-flavored liquid topping.","Then the crunchy finishing touch, a layer of chocolaty coated puffed rice.","Finally, the cones move under a lid dispenser that applies a wax-coated paper lid to each one.","A heating element instantly melts the wax, sealing the lids to the cone's paper sleeve.","From here, the ice-cream cones go into boxes, then straight into the freezer, ready to take a licking.","Up next, the forgotten art of wooden golf clubs.","High-tech metal clubs rule today's golf courses.","But don't count wooden clubs out of the game yet.","Wooden golf clubs are all about tradition.","Golfers have played with them for centuries.","And some players still prefer the look and feel of these finely crafted clubs.","Go with the grain, and your golf game could be on the upswing.","Each club head starts with a log of persimmon wood, which is a type of ebony.","It's sliced into quarters, and the lower quality center section is discarded.","Each quarter is cut down into a workable shape and size.","Then it's locked into this duplicating machine.","A more sculpted piece of wood, called a \"master model,\" is placed overhead.","A wheel traces the contours of the master model and guides a blade below so that it carves the rough chunk of wood into a duplicate of the master model.","The first master model is swapped out for a more refined version, and, again, the blade below copies the shape.","The duplicate stub is cut off, and it gets a light sanding.","Next, using a spinning cutter, a generous slot is carved into the face of the club head.","Heavy-duty glue is spread in the slot, and then it's plugged with an insert made of rigid plastic.","This reinforcement will protect the club head from the force of the golf ball.","The overlap is trimmed off, and the head is sanded until the plastic insert blends seamlessly with the wood.","Next, a router is used to carve an hourglass shape into the bottom of the golf-club head.","This slot will hold the sole plate, which will add weight and protect the bottom of club.","The club head can't be more than three grams off the target weight.","After factoring the weight of the sole plate that's still to be installed, this club head gets a lead pellet to make it a little heavier.","An extra hole is drilled in case more lead needs to be added later.","Then the lead pellet is press-fit to the club head.","Adhesive is slathered into the slot.","Then the stainless-steel sole plate is installed.","Again, sanding smoothes away any bumps or grooves.","A drill bores a hole in the neck of the golf-club head, and a glue-coated metal sleeve slides into that hole.","Then the neck is tapered with a sanding belt.","A jeweler saw is used to score the face of the golf-club head.","These lines are critical, because they help give the ball spin.","The club head gets a dip in water-based stain that soaks into the wood but doesn't penetrate the metal sole plate.","Then, things get messy, as a pasty substance is rubbed all over the golf-club head, plugging the open pores of the persimmon wood.","It's a crucial step that will insure a mirror finish down the line.","The head is numbered to identify it as a fairway club.","And then the sole plate gets a good scrubbing with steel wool to get rid of any fingerprints.","Five coats of polyurethane are sprayed on.","Next, the glue-covered end of the shaft is pushed into the sleeve and the club head.","The club's weight is fine-tuned with the addition of some pulverized lead into the extra hole drilled earlier.","For a player to hit balls accurately, each club in the set has to feel as if it's the same weight.","So, there's one more weigh-in before this wooden golf club is up to par.","Finally, it's time to hit the links with a club that lives up to tradition.","Coming up, crafting the wings that give us flight.","Aircraft wings provide the lift that takes us to the skies.","They're designed to be very strong and very light.","Producing them requires a strategic balance of old-school production methods and high-tech computer-assisted design.","The wing's frame is made up of three main components, the rear spar, the main spar, and the ribs.","The ribs are crafted from aircraft-grade aluminum.","It's corrosion resistant and has great strength, allowing it to resist extreme wind pressure.","A computer-guided stamping machine punches small holes for rivets and control cables.","It also stamps larger holes to reduce overall weight.","Workers break attachments called microjoints and extract the ribs.","Each rib now goes onto a metal-and-rubber forming die.","A hydraulic press applies 150 tons of pressure, stamping the rib to the die shape.","Using a grinder, workers smooth out the sharp edges left behind by the stamping process.","Then they peel off the plastic film that protected the ribs from scratches.","The factory uses the same process to construct the main spar.","The spars run the entire length of the wing.","It takes even more pressure this time-- 222 tons-- to bend the spars into shape.","That's because this aluminum is three times thicker than that used for the ribs.","To ensure they've aligned the ribs perfectly for riveting, workers push spring clamps into the spar.","These hold the ribs in position.","They hand drill holes for larger rivets and smooth out the sharp edges with a deburring drill.","Then, using a pneumatic riveting gun and bucking bar, they rivet the ribs to the main spar.","A tiny bucking bar is required for some of the tighter spaces.","The completed airframe now goes onto a positioning rack, where it will get an aluminum covering they call the wing skin.","Workers use spring clamps to position the top skin onto the airframe.","They use the same procedure for the leading-edge wing nose.","Once everything's clamped together, workers permanently rivet the assembly.","Meanwhile, welders fuse the wing's fuel tank using an argon gas torch, which contains fewer contaminants than the typical acetylene torch.","They fit the tank into the wing chamber, then secure it by bolting steel belts on to the spars.","Now they position the tank's covering plate and screw it onto the wing.","These holes are for fuel lines and control cables, which run the entire length of the wing.","Finally, the wingtip is fitted and bolted on to the wing.","It's made of a lightweight fiberglass-and-plastic composite.","The completed wing is now ready to be bolted on to the aircraft body.","This wing weighs in at a mere 175 pounds.","But it's certainly no lightweight when it comes to strength.","It can withstand nearly 5,500 pounds of wind pressure.","When we return, turning trash into treasury at a car-battery recycling plant.","Car batteries may die, but that doesn't mean it's the end of the road for their components.","These lead-acid batteries are routinely recycled.","This keeps toxic materials out of landfills and gives those old car batteries a lot more mileage.","This battery may be toast, but it's not trash, because dead car batteries are jump-starting a major recycling industry.","Pallets of old batteries are tipped on to a conveyor belt.","It takes them up into an enclosed machine that has over 30 rotating hammers.","They smash the old batteries to bits, and then a screen filters out the lead-acid paste.","The broken bits of lead and plastic tumble into a vat of water.","The lead and other metals sink, while the lighter plastic pieces float to the surface-- a convenient way to sort and separate the battery components.","Once the plastic pieces have been cleaned, a machine blows them into the back of a truck.","They'll be taken to a plastic-recycling plant and turned into pellets that will eventually be used in the production of new car batteries.","A worm screw now moves the lead and other metals to another part of the plant for further processing.","Remember that lead-acid paste screened out of the smashed-up batteries earlier?","The acid has been neutralized and turned into water.","This press squeezes the water out so all that remains is a lead paste.","It's removed and added to the pile of lead and other metals.","The water from the deacidification process contains some metallic residues, so it's treated with chemicals that cause the contaminants to precipitate, then settle into a sludge on the bottom of the tanks.","Workers sample the water to make sure the particles are settling properly.","They pump out the sludge, then filter the water, which now meets regulatory standards and can be poured down the drain.","The sludge goes into that big pile of lead and other metals.","A few shovels full of refined coal are added to the pile as a processing aid.","Then the battery solids head up a conveyor into a revolving drier.","The metals spend 20 minutes in here to remove any excess moisture.","Then it's into a furnace for 10 hours.","The lead melts into a liquid, and the other metals float to the surface, allowing them to be skimmed off.","The molten lead goes into a steel kettle, where it's mixed with caustic soda.","This cause some remaining contaminants to float to the surface for easy removal.","The liquid lead is now fairly pure, so it's time to pour.","The lead is pumped into bar-shaped molds, and any lingering impurities are skimmed off.","Below, a constant spray of ice-cold water chills the molds, and the lead hardens into bars in just four minutes.","The conveyor winds downward, and the bars are tapped free of their molds.","There's enough lead in one of these bars to make three car batteries.","They'll be remelted and molded into battery components.","And the final product is as good as new...","Proving that recycling can give old car batteries new life while keeping dangerous substances out of our landfills."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Aerospace Fasteners","Cactus Pear Puree","Lab Reactors"]},"text":["today on \"how it's made\"-- aerospace fasteners.","Cactus pear puree.","And lab reactors  an aircraft must be able to withstand extreme conditions and stress, so it's critical that the fasteners holding the parts of the aircraft together are made to precise technical specifications from high-strength corrosion-resistant materials.","This company manufactures fasteners for all types of aircraft.","These screws and bolts are made of aerospace-grade stainless steel.","It arrives from the steel mill as coil.","Certain fasteners are coated with copper, which acts as a lubricant, and the company further lubricates them with powdered soaps and other chemicals.","This prevents the coil from catching as this drawing machine pulls it through a round die.","Wire from the drawing machine enters this bolt-forming machine.","First, it heats the wire and cuts pieces called blanks.","Each blank then passes through five different dies, each of which progressively shapes it into a bolt.","This t-bolt is made from a different type of high-grade stainless steel that doesn't require extra copper lubrication.","The coil goes through the same process as the smaller bolt we just saw.","However, this bolt-forming machine is much larger and uses four dies rather than five to shape the t-bolt.","All fasteners must pass several quality-control checks throughout the manufacturing process.","In this particular test, the factory measures the bolt's head length and diameter and checks the results against the technical specifications.","When the fasteners come off the forming machines, they have sharp edges called burrs, so they have to go for a spin in a deburring machine.","This one is pretty low-tech but highly effective.","Fasteners made of certain types of stainless steel are sent to an outside plant for heat treatment, which strengthens them.","Fasteners made from copper-lubricated stainless steel soak in a bath of nitric acid for about 20 minutes to dissolve the copper without harming the stainless steel.","Workers thoroughly rinse the fasteners with water, then dry them off by spinning them at high speed.","The final step is to form threads on the body of the fasteners.","Forming threads adds even more strength.","That's because this factory does that using a process called thread rolling.","Rather than use machining equipment, which cuts threads into the shank, a process that removes steel and can weaken the bolt, this thread-rolling machine rolls one bolt at a time between two dies, which forms the thread pattern.","This process doesn't remove any material, and compressing the steel to form threads actually increases its strength and ability to handle stress during flight.","The threads undergo a thorough quality-control inspection.","A technician uses a precision gauge to measure them.","Next, he uses ring gauges.","If the fastener screws into the no-go gauge, the dimensions are wrong.","If it screws into the go gauge, they're correct.","This optical imagining system measures the fastener, analyzes the form, spacing and ankles of the threads, then sends the data to the company's computer system.","That system can trace every single fastener back to the batch of steel from which it was made.","Another quality-control test measures tensile strength, how much pull force the fastener can withstand before breaking.","In yet another test, technicians cut the fasteners into pieces, mount them onto a bake-like puck and polish them, then examine them under a digital microscope.","Among other characteristics, they analyze the steel's grain size and structure.","This type of stainless steel has a high nickel and chromium content, making it resistant to extreme temperatures and corrosion.","Another test assesses how hard the steel is according to an international standard known as the rockwell hardness scale.","Such rigorous testing is imperative for safety as these fasteners are what hold aircraft together.","It's a fruit known by many names-- cactus pear, cactus fruit and prickly pear.","It grows on several species of cacti, which are native to parts of north, central and south america.","Some growers, in addition to selling the fruit, produce a puree, which they sell as a flavoring.","Prickly pear martini, anyone?","Cactus pear fruit is high in fiber and rich in vitamins and minerals.","It's sweet and delicious eaten as-is or as a natural flavoring in foods and beverages.","In the salinas valley in california, the cactus pear harvest begins around late august and continues through early april.","The fruit is ripe when its skin begins turning red.","The harvesters wear thick leather gloves to protect their hands from the thorns and safety glasses to shield their eyes from loose thorns that blow through the air.","Tractors haul the cactus pears to the processing plant.","The fruit first passes over brushes and into a vacuum that removes loose dirt, then through a shower of chlorinated water, which kills off bacteria.","The fruit enters a cold-air dryer for about 5 seconds, then passes through a hot-air dryer for 20 seconds.","The fruit exits completely dry.","A quality-control team removes any with bruises or other cosmetic defects and transfers those cactus pears to the puree line.","The fruit that passes inspection falls into what's called a singulator, a machine that lines them up in single file.","The singulator deposits each cactus pear into a cup on a computer-guided weigh-and-sort machine, which classifies each fruit by size, then applies the grower's price code sticker.","The fruit then travels on the conveyor belt that leads to the padded tub designated for its weight classification.","A worker stationed at the tub packs the cactus pears into a lined shipping box.","Another worker removes any less-than-perfect fruit that managed to slip through the previous checks.","Those also go to the puree line.","On the puree line, the dumper drops the cactus pears onto a conveyor-belt system, which transports them to the crusher.","The machine crushes the fruit, separating the skins and flesh, mashing the flesh into puree and extracting the sweet magenta-colored juice.","From the crusher, the pressed skins drop onto the vibrating shaker while the puree and juice flow through it into a tank below.","The shaker separates any puree still caught in the skins.","The skins drop into a bin and are hauled off to be used as compost or sold as animal feed.","Once the tank is filled to capacity with about 400 pounds of puree, a pump transfers it to a large hopper.","A worker releases puree from the hopper to the finisher.","The finisher's fine screens trap the seeds while letting the puree pass through to a holding tank below.","The seeds are sold to businesses that press them into oil for cosmetic and hair products.","From the holding tank, the deseeded puree passes through a second finisher with even finer filters.","Then it flows into a tank for pasteurization, which kills off any remaining bacteria.","The puree is finally ready.","A worker fills a drum, which is double-lined with plastic bags.","She draws four 1-cup samples from each drum for quality-control tracking.","Once a drum contains 400 pounds of puree, the worker zip-ties each bag separately, closes the drum with a lid, safety-seals the lid with a lock, then puts the drum in the freezer.","The cactus pear puree is sold frozen to the food and beverage industry, which uses it to flavor many products, from ice cream, sorbet, and gelato to flavored water, wine, tequila, and brandy.","Lab reactors are vessels of discovery.","Inside these enclosed glass systems, chemical and biological reactions happen.","Useful for developing many products, including medications like cancer drugs, they can also be used to produce these products on a small scale.","A lab reactor is basically a sophisticated blender.","During mixing, it also heats or cools ingredients to start a chemical reaction, and there are ports for attachments like a condenser.","Making lab reactors starts with solid glass rods.","The rods are sometimes a bit crooked, so a worker heats and moves them across rollers to straighten them.","Grinding wheels round their shape to more precise contours, and a wet sanding smooths the surface.","The operator measures the outer diameter of each rod.","A worker heats one end of the rod and forms a rim using a special tool.","He applies dabs of liquid glass just below the rim.","This creates nubs for properly situating the blade hub on the main shaft.","To make the reactor's inner wall, he scores a wide glass tube and exposes the score line to a flame and then water.","Another worker heats the top end.","He supports the glass with a wide paddle until it's malleable enough to shape.","A forming tool gives it a wide lip that will serve as the opening of the reactor.","He aims a flame at the newly formed flange to smooth out any imperfections.","He slides a larger glass vessel over the flask, then fuses them at both ends.","This creates a hollow jacket through which liquids will be pumped to heat or cool the contents of the flask.","A different worker cuts another glass tube to length.","He scores it lightly and again exposes it to fire and water to break it along the etched line.","He shapes the tube into a port for the outside of the reactor jacket.","He'll make two of these ports.","They'll be used to circulate heating and cooling liquids.","Using the torch, a worker softens a spot on the reactor jacket.","With tweezers, he pulls away the softened glass, creating a hole for the port to be installed.","After inserting a ceramic holder in the port, he fuses it to the hole on an angle.","Once the seam solidifies, the port will be an intrinsic part of the lab-reactor vessel.","Abrasive wheels grind another glass tube to make it perfectly round.","This tube will be part of a drainage valve.","An employee then begins work on the rest of the drainage valve assembly.","He forms an internal thread for a plug.","And after cutting it shorter, another worker creates a flange on the other end.","He burns a hole in the side of the valve tube.","The drainage tubing, now also cut shorter, is ready to be attached to the rest of the valve.","He heats the connecting points, and they melt and meld together.","Since we last saw it, the reactor vessel has received a base.","A worker burns a hole in that base and fuses the drainage valve onto it.","Another employee then places the reactor vessel in a special fixture and checks that it sits level.","She adds specific amounts of water incrementally, beginning with 2 cups.","She draws a line on the outside of the reactor vessel to indicate the amount inside.","This will provide a reference for affixing a scale.","Using the markings as a guide, she applies the ceramic scale.","They'll become part of the glass when the vessel is baked and slowly cooled.","Stay tuned for a lot more, as this lab reactor comes together to create a stir.","Making a lab reactor is done for science.","Precision is important because these reactors will be used to develop new drugs, cosmetics and a range of chemical materials.","They can also serve as little factories, producing small batches of products.","A lab reactor needs sturdy impeller blades to generate an effective chemical reaction.","An automated milling tool cuts a notch in a disk made from strong chemically resistant plastic.","Another system carves screw threads into a hub made of the same material.","A tool bores a hole in the center for the insertion of what's called the agitator shaft.","The operator smooths the threads with fine sandpaper and then assembles the blades to the hub.","Next is the condenser.","It's an attachment through which vapor will travel to be transformed into a liquid.","The worker twists the softened glass tube around a rod to form the coil.","Another worker inserts a linear glass tube in the center of the coil.","She melts glass near the bottom to seal the center tube to the coil.","Moving to the top, she heats the glass and, with tweezers, pulls a bit from the end of the coil to pry it open.","With a pick, she opens it up a little more.","She uses a graphite reaming tool to shape the glass opening into a more flared profile.","The condenser body takes shape, and the worker forms a joint on the end.","He inserts a standard joint to test the fit.","The coil can now be inserted into the condenser body.","Another worker fuses the condenser wall to the coil and burns holes in the glass wall to connect hose attachments.","She exposes the seam to a less focused flame to bring down the temperature slowly.","The next worker creates a joint for the lower end of the condenser.","This joint will be used to connect the condenser to the reactor.","Once the basic taper profile has been achieved, grinding tools size it more precisely.","When the connector joint has been cut to length, the worker attaches it to the base of the condenser.","Another glass fabricator makes more joints, one of which will connect the condenser to the reactor lid, or head, as it's known in the industry.","He keeps the glass tube long for easy handling and then cuts it to the correct length.","The worker now seals the center joint to a hole in the reactor lid.","He burns holes in the reactor head for other connectors.","As the glass balloons up, he pulls it away to fully open the hole.","With all the connectors fused to the reactor head, a worker grinds the base of its flange against an abrasive wheel to make it perfectly even.","An employee then applies decals to the head.","These indicate the brand and the connector size.","The decals will be baked into the glass during its final heating.","He places all the parts in the annealing oven.","The temperature gradually ramps up to 1,040 degrees fahrenheit and slowly cools.","This final annealing removes internal stresses and strengthens the glass.","An inspector scrutinizes the head with a tool to confirm that the connector joints are in proper alignment and positioned at the correct angle.","Workers install the vessel on a stand, insert the shaft and blades, attach the head and connect the condenser.","To simulate how it works, a technician pours liquid into the reactor.","He adds colorful plastic solids that will show up better for this demonstration.","He activates the impeller blades.","These blades are designed to lift solids to the top, and they do that effectively.","He also runs cooling liquids through the condenser.","In practice, the cool coil will cause vapors from the vessel to convert back to a liquid.","This lab reactor is now ready to be a lifesaver."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Honey","Fiber Optics","Bricks","Pipe Organs"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Honey...","Fiber optics...","Bricks...","And pipe organs.","It's winnie the pooh's favorite treat.","It's sweet and sticky.","And it's produced by an industrious insect, whose miniature society is one of the most sophisticated in the animal kingdom.","It all begins in a field, where worker honeybees suck nectar from flower blossoms, such as clover.","They store it in their honey sack, then return to the hive, where other worker bees suck it out and chew it, breaking down the nectar's complex sugars into two simple sugars called glucose and fructose.","The bees then deposit the nectar into the cells of the wax honeycombs they've built.","They fan it with their wings until most of its water content evaporates in the warm air of the beehive.","What's left is thick and gooey honey.","The bees then cap each honey-filled cell with beeswax.","That's when the beekeeper steps in.","Bees will sting if taken by surprise, so the beekeeper sprays the hive with smoke from burning pine needles, a scented warning that foreigners are about to enter the hive.","Inside the hive are wooden frames hanging side by side, each holding a honeycomb.","A hive can house hundreds of thousands of bees, all descendants of the prolific grand pooh-bah of beedom, the queen bee.","She's the big one in the middle.","The queen bee lays up to 2,000 eggs a day, creating the work force needed to feed and protect the colony.","But the beekeeper tricks the colony's defenders.","He replaces the hive's cover with a device called a bee escape, that smells like cherries.","Bees dislike the scent, so most fly to the bottom sections of the hive.","Another warning spray, and the beekeeper removes the bee escape.","Now he can escape with the honeycombs.","Inside the honey factory, they put the honeycomb frames on what's called an uncapping machine.","Like a razor, it shaves the wax caps off the honey-filled cells of the combs.","They scrape off the remnants manually.","Then they set the frames on another machine called a honey extractor.","It spins the honeycombs until all the honey is forced out of the cells.","Afterwards, they filter the honey to remove any pieces of wax capping that slipped through.","Then the honey is ready for bottling.","Some beehives contain smaller frames, designed to produce honey that isn't extracted from the honeycomb.","Workers remove the frame and cut the honeycomb into pieces as is with a heated knife.","That seals the wax around the honey inside.","You eat it, wax and all.","The beeswax lining of the honeycomb goes to make candles, furniture polish, lipsticks, and other products.","When producers have more liquid honey than they can sell, they simply let it granulate, develop sugar crystals, and turn hard and white.","Then, when the orders come in, they return it to its original liquid form by heating it to 130 degrees.","They vacuum-clean the jars...","Then fill them.","One beehive can yield up to seven pounds of honey in a single day.","That's much more than the bees need for themselves.","The surplus is what we end up eating.","Honey production today is both efficient and humane.","For centuries, the only way to harvest honey from hives had been to kill the bees.","Then, in 1851, an american beekeeper invented a way to get the honey, yet spare the bees.","His method, with the removable honeycomb frames, is the one we still use today.","American researchers have invented a plastic that repairs itself when broken.","Just apply heat--  a simple hair dryer will do-- and the break automatically mends itself.","This could solve a longtime problem in electronics, because when components heat up and cool down, they weaken the plastic around them.","Every time you talk on the phone or go on the internet, what you say or type travels to its destination through fiber optics, voice and data gets transmitted via pulses of light through hair-thin glass fibers.","Those fibers start out as large glass tubes.","First, workers unwrap the tubes.","Then they submerge them in a corrosive bath of hydrofluoric acid that removes any oil residues.","Then they set a tube into each end of a lathe.","As the tubes spin, they're heated with a hydrogen-oxygen flame.","When the glass turns white, it's getting close to hitting peak temperature.","At about 3,500 degrees, the two tubes fuse together.","They put this new, longer tube onto another lathe.","As the tube spins, they inject a mixture of chemical gases inside, while a traversing burner heats everything up.","The gas mixture contains liquid forms of silicon-- an abundant chemical element found in nature-- and germanium, a chemical element similar to tin that's used as a semiconductor in transistors and other electronic devices.","As the gases heat, they undergo a chemical reaction that leaves a white soot on the inside of the glass tube.","The heat fuses the soot, forming what will eventually become the core of the optical fiber.","The glass tube itself will form the fiber's covering.","When there's enough fused soot, they turn up the heat until the soot itself turns into glass.","Then they heat the glass tube enough to soften it, and to soften the new glass inside.","The intense heat eventually makes the tube collapse on itself to form a solid rod.","The internal structure of the optical fiber has been achieved.","But it's in the form of a big, bulky rod called a preform, so the next step is to thin it out.","First, they excise the preform from the uncollapsed section of the glass tube.","Then they install it vertically into the drawing tower, which will draw out the final shape.","The drawing tower's oven heats one end of the preform to 3,600 degrees.","The glass softens.","Gravity helps pull it down, like honey dripping from a spoon.","Then, using a glob of glass as a weight, they stretch the soft glass and keep stretching it until they've formed a thin glass fiber.","A series of pulleys measures the tension on the fiber as it's being drawn.","A special monitor makes sure the fiber's precisely the right diameter-- just .","005 of an inch.","Then the fiber passes through u.v. lamps that bake on an acrylic coating to protect against dust and other contaminants.","Finally, the fiber is rolled onto a drum.","From here, it's either shipped out as is or put into a cable.","Fiber-optic cables are expensive to produce, but they're smaller and lighter than traditional copper cables.","They carry more information and need fewer repeaters to keep the signal from deteriorating.","And, unlike copper cables, they're immune to electromagnetic interference.","They're also hard to tap without being detected.","And all this is made possible by a complicated process based on a very simple principle-- light traveling through glass.","Those three little pigs knew what they were doing when they built that brick house.","Not only are bricks wolf-proof, they're also fireproof, pest-resistant, and weather-resistant.","No wonder they're one of the world's oldest building materials.","Bricks are often made of shale, a lightweight rock that splits easily into thin layers.","Quarry machines dig 16 inches down to expose the shale to the elements for 2 years.","This weakens it, making it easier to process once it gets to the factory.","A 4-foot-high stone wheel with a steel tire grinds the shale into powder.","It grinds up 50 tons of shale per hour.","A screen sifts out any pieces that need more grinding.","The powder goes to the pug mill that mixes it with water.","This makes a thick paste that will go through the extrusion machine next.","The extruder forces the paste through a rectangular opening to form one long, continuous piece called a slug.","At the same time, it shaves off the crustier top layer to expose what will become the face of the brick.","If this gray shale mixture is fired as is, it will naturally produce a red brick.","To engineer a different color, they coat the slug in sand mixed with an oxide mineral such as zinc or iron.","Next, they texture the surface with a textured roller.","This is just one of many popular designs.","Then a large knife comes down like a guillotine and slices the slug into 5-foot lengths.","You might be wondering where those three holes came from.","Well, remember how the paste goes through the extruder to form the slug?","Inside are three pins.","They make three holes designed to decrease the brick's weight.","Out of each 5-foot length, they cut 20 3-inch bricks.","The ones on the ends are uneven, so they go back into the mix to make new slugs.","Next comes the delicate job of stacking these newly minted bricks-to-be.","A machine first separates them.","Then, using inflating bags, it grasps them, raises them...","Then stacks them.","Meanwhile, the water in the bricks is starting to evaporate.","To hasten that process, the bricks go into a dryer for two days.","The dryer gets its hot air from the heat generated by the kiln, where the bricks go next for firing.","The kiln is really a giant oven.","It bakes the bricks at 1,900 degrees.","1 1/2 days later, the bricks are ready.","The transfer machine takes them out of the kiln.","But before they go to market, a technician does a quality check.","He weighs and measures a sample to see if it meets the design specifications.","Bricks are supposed to absorb some water, but not too much.","Yet, if they repel water completely, they'll also repel the wet mortars the masons use to stick the bricks together.","So to test absorbancy, the technician breaks a brick in half.","He weighs it before and after soaking it in water for 24 hours.","By comparing the weights, he can see how much water the brick has absorbed.","Once the batch gets the okay, they stack the bricks into cubes of 500 to 600.","Each brick weighs 5 1/2 pounds, so each cube weighs in at about 1/4 ton.","Brick is one of the sturdiest building materials around.","It doesn't rot, fade, warp, or dent the way some other materials can.","Bricks are also energy-efficient.","They absorb heat to help cool your house in the summer and hold heat to help keep it warmer in the winter.","The music it makes is as complex as it is majestic.","The pipe organ is one of the largest and most technically sophisticated instruments.","Building one is an incredible feat of engineering and craftsmanship.","Early man discovered he could make music by blowing across hollow reeds of different lengths.","In ancient egypt, an engineer devised what would later become the basic technology of the pipe organ, a steady airflow without mouth-blowing while controlling the air to each pipe to create different notes.","By the middle ages, the pipe organ was a fixture in churches throughout europe.","Johann sebastian bach composed his greatest works for organ while working as the musical director of a church.","a concept artist creates the design.","The design then goes to a draftsperson, who prepares the technical drawings.","The organ's pipes are made of a mixture of tin and lead.","Tin-- the harder metal--  gives brightness to the sound, while lead--  the softer metal-- gives it warmth.","Artisans pour the molten alloy into a tray, then draw it out to form a sheet.","As the sheet cools, the two metals react to each other, creating spots.","The sheet goes into storage to give the alloy time to stabilize.","Two to three months later, it's ready to be formed into organ pipes.","First, they cut pieces of metal in the shape of each pipe using templates and large rulers.","Then they roll each piece using a mandrel.","The larger the organ, the more pipes it has.","Pipes are grounded in sets of 61, corresponding to the 61 black-and-white keys on the keyboard.","And elaborate organ can have more than 10,000 pipes.","The pipemaker carefully seals the body of each pipe by hand, using tin solder.","Next, he solders the body of the pipe to the foot and languet.","The languet is the part that produces the pipe's sound.","The process of giving a specific sound to each pipe is called voicing.","This work is done by a trained musician called a voicer.","He enlarges the mouth of the pipe, called the cut-up, until it's approximately 1/4 of the width across.","He adjusts the pipe some more, blowing air through it to judge how to further refine the tone.","Next come the windchests, also called the soundboards.","These are the large wooden boxes filled with air on which the pipes stand.","Under each pipe is an air channel covered by a valve.","The valve is made of leather and sits on a wooden board.","When the organist pushes a key on the keyboard, the corresponding valve drops down like a trapdoor, releasing air into the pipe to play the note.","they glue the valves to the windchests one at a time, using animal glue.","It's suppler and dries faster than synthetic glue.","The valves are connected to the organ's keys mechanically by long tracks of cedarwood or by electrical wiring.","The electric signal triggers electromagnets to cause a sudden air depression, making the trapdoor valve drop down and let the air in.","The console is the organ's brain.","It contains all the controls for the keys and sets of pipes.","The organ's white keys are made of linden wood covered with bone, the black keys of ebony or rosewood.","An artisan adjusts the keys using a weight.","When the weight rises, the tension is just right.","The console, keys, and all the other components are finally put together in the assembly room.","After testing, they disassemble the organ and ship it to its destination, where it's reassembled.","The voicers come on-site to perform what's called tonal finishing.","They check and adjust each pipe according to the acoustics of the room.","This process can take many months for a large and elaborate organ."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Leather Briefcases","Crop Dusters","Corn Whiskey","Drag Racing Clutches"]},"text":["Briefcases come in many styles today.","The classic type is a rigid rectangular box made up of two hinged sections that close together.","It's often referred to as an attaché case because it was traditionally the type of briefcase used in diplomatic circles by cultural or military attachés.","These luxury attachés are entirely handcrafted, made from english bridal leather, a fine leather traditionally used for horse saddles.","The cutter lays out patterns for the various parts, then trims around them.","Leather, being an animal hide, naturally has scars and blemishes here and there, so he's careful to select blemish-free areas for use as the main surfaces.","Next he uses a punch press to cut out what are called foundation boards, which will reinforce the leather.","At this point, an expert leather craftsman takes over.","He positions each foundation board on the leather.","Using a tool called a bone folder, he marks where the leather will fold over each board.","Then he coats the boards with leather-bonding glue...","And positions them along the fold lines he marked.","With a tool called a sleeker, he pushes out air pockets and excess glue.","This ensures a thorough, wrinkle-free bond.","Next, with a tool called a stitch marker, he perforates the edges of the leather.","This ensures the stitching will be straight and evenly spaced.","It also sets the angle of the stitches, essential for both aesthetics and durability.","Now he bevels the leather.","This leaves what's known as a raw edge, which he then colors and seals with a reddish stain that highlights the tan-colored leather.","The attaché case frame is made of steel.","The craftsman uses contact adhesive to mate the frame to the foundation board and leather.","Now he can sew the leather.","He inserts an awl in each stitch hole to clear a path through the leather and boards.","Then he passes two strong saddle-stitching needles in opposite directions, pulling the pure-linen threads waxed with tallow.","Next he rivets in place two traditional-style locks made of hand-polished brass.","Then he constructs the handle by sewing several layers of leather around a piece of steel.","The handle has a raised rib on the top and bottom.","These risers, as they're called, make the handle comfortable to hold.","He uses the bone folder to fit a piece of finishing leather snugly against the risers.","He glues finishing leather around the handle ends...","Feeds each end through a brass ring...","Then folds over the ends to lock in the rings.","Then he wraps the rest of the leather under and hand-stitches all around.","The rings attach to brass handle plates, which he secures from the inside with washers and bolts.","Next he glues in the lid-pocket assembly...","An all-leather organizer that contains pen loops and pockets for files and business cards.","Finally, he lines the bottom section with sheepskin leather that's been coated with a semigloss glaze so it can be wiped clean with a damp cloth.","The outer leather is strong and weather-resistant because it's been tanned with natural plant and tree extracts, then conditioned by hand with fish oils and lanolin, centuries-old techniques they still use to make luxury leather goods today.","Crop dusters are airplanes specially outfitted for aerial spraying.","Farmers use them to seed fields and apply pesticides and fertilizer.","The aquaculture industry uses them to feed fish, and emergency crews fly them to spread retardant on forest fires and dispersants on oil spills.","Depending on its size, a crop duster can carry up to 2,700 liters of liquid or dry material.","The plane is designed to be able to swoop down low to accurately cover the target spray area.","At the factory, they manually weld lightweight aircraft-grade steel tubes to construct the frame of the fuselage.","Next they use spring-loaded fasteners to affix aluminum panels to the sides.","An anti-rust coating turns the aluminum golden color.","All the plane's aluminum parts require this coating, because many of the chemicals crop dusters carry are corrosive.","The tank that holds those chemicals is called a hopper.","The factory molds it out of many layers of fiberglass, which is deliberately transparent.","This enables the pilot to see at a glance roughly how much chemical remains.","Inside each of the plane's wings is a row of vertical supports called webs.","To make each web, they lay a soft aluminum sheet on a mold, place a rubber mat on top, then load the assembly into a press.","A built-in water bag distributes the pressure evenly.","This helps form the aluminum sheet perfectly.","Next they soak the web for a half-hour in molten sodium chloride at more than 900 degrees fahrenheit.","Then they immediately submerge the web in lukewarm water.","This triggers a molecular reaction that hardens the aluminum.","Each wing contains 32 webs.","Technicians line them up in an assembly fixture in between the wing's horizontal beams called spars.","Once they've riveted the webs to the spars, they cover the structure with aluminum panels using spring clamps for now.","The panels have holes in them to allow regular inspections of the structure inside.","After riveting the panels, technicians screw covers onto the inspection holes.","They also seal the seams between panels with liquid rubber so chemicals can't penetrate.","Next they install the engine and the propeller, which ranges from 750 to 1,400 horsepower.","The prop has from three to five aluminum blades.","Now the equipment that releases the chemicals from the air.","For spraying liquids, they hook up horizontal pipes lined with spray nozzles called booms.","To apply dry chemicals or disperse seed, the flight crew detaches the booms and installs a large stainless-steel funnel called a spreader under the plane's belly.","At release time, the pilot opens a door at the bottom of the hopper, enabling the wind to draw out the contents through the spreader.","To spray liquids, a wind-driven pump moves the hopper contents to the booms.","Technicians now assemble and install the instrumentation panel.","To fill the hopper with liquid chemicals, they connect a pump to a valve on the side of the crop duster.","For dry chemicals, they just lift the hopper's lid and fill 'er up.","More than three centuries ago, american bootleggers made corn whiskey by moonlight to avoid being detected by the tax authorities, and so this whiskey became known as moonshine.","Today, that whiskey has emerged from the shadows of history and is produced legally, but people still call it moonshine.","It was the nectar of outlaws-- clear, fresh corn whiskey that's 50% alcohol, and centuries later, it still has a potent appeal.","In virginia, they still make this whiskey the traditional way, allowing corn to germinate in a process called malting.","They mix a small amount of the malted kernels with regular corn in a big tank, then funnel the mix into a mill.","Inside this mill, automated hammers grind the mix to a cornmeal consistency.","This frees some of the starch and exposes it to enzymes from the malted kernels.","Those enzymes convert the starch to sugar.","They'll use some of this ground corn to make a big batch of yeast.","They add it to water in a tank and boil it until it becomes a thick soup.","Once it reaches the desired consistency, they allow it to cool to room temperature.","They add yeast and blow air into the mix to help the yeast grow, making this one big batch of liquid yeast.","In another tank, a ton of corn is being blended with water and boiled.","This breaks down more of the starch, converting it to sugar.","Once cooled, they pump the mix and the liquefied yeast into the fermentation tank.","Over a period of four days, the yeast turns the sugar to alcohol.","The process also generates carbon dioxide, which is vented into the atmosphere.","Every so often, the brewmaster scoops up some liquid and scrutinizes it.","If it looks too thick, the conversion of sugar to alcohol is not yet complete.","But when the viscosity is just right, they pump the batch into a big copper still.","It's just like the type used to make moonshine in the backwoods centuries ago.","They heat it to 82 degrees celsius.","At that temperature, alcohol will boil, but water will not.","As the alcohol boils off the mix, it's recovered through a condenser.","The recovered liquid is 80% alcohol.","Talk about a stiff drink.","So they add water to cut it down to about 50%, and then it's ready to bottle.","To make a darker whiskey, they steep it with what looks like a big tea bag.","It's actually wood chips wrapped in cheesecloth.","The whiskey absorbs flavor and color from the wood over a period of about two months.","When the whiskey takes on a golden hue, they transfer it into oak barrels.","They allow the whiskey to age for two years in a hot room.","The heat causes the whiskey to expand, causing it to absorb the flavor of the wood, but the pressure can also cause cracks in the barrels, so the brewmaster routinely checks for leaks.","After the whiskey has aged, they adjust the alcohol content by adding a little water.","The water is always softened and filtered to remove minerals that could affect the whiskey's taste.","At the bottling station, machinery pumps the whiskey into the containers.","There's no spillage, and not a drop goes to waste.","Machinery then twists on the caps for an airtight seal that preserves the aroma and flavor of this old-fashioned corn whiskey.","At the next station, robotic arms grab labels, apply glue to them, then press them onto the bottles.","It has taken a combination of down-home methodology and modern technology to prepare this old-fashioned american whiskey for market.","And whether it's aged or fresh, this historic whiskey is sure to set the taste buds ablaze.","This clutch is not for the family sedan.","It's a racing clutch designed for a car with an 1,800-horsepower engine.","Without this kind of heavy-duty clutch, there would be no way to transfer that much power to the wheels, and the racecar would be going nowhere fast.","Racecars use a manual transmission to transfer power to the wheels, so a good clutch is behind every win.","Production starts with a flywheel, which connects the clutch to the engine.","Computerized cutting tools shape this aluminum part, then move on to carve the cover plate for the clutch.","They trim its perimeter to give it the correct profile and reduce its weight.","Next they use a bolt with an industrial diamond tip to level the surface of an iron friction disk.","This will allow for better contact with other parts of the clutch.","There are typically two to three of these friction disks in a racing clutch.","The clutch disks will ride against this steel insert, which they position on the flywheel.","The technician applies locking compound to bolts, then uses them to attach the insert to the flywheel.","Here, the technician sets the bolts to a precise torque.","Next he uses this grinder to flatten the surface of the steel insert, again for better contact with the clutch disk.","These bolts will anchor the clutch assembly to the flywheel.","They're called stand bolts, and there are six.","Here, they sculpt titanium cylinders to act as stands for the bolts that were just installed in the flywheel.","Titanium is strong and lightweight, which is important because of the huge amount of energy the clutch must transfer.","The technician places a stand over each bolt, then arranges the clutch disks and a floater plate on the flywheel.","He presets the height of the stands.","Then he prepares the pressure-plate assembly.","He presses aluminum cups into holes in the cover.","These cups will hold springs that will be used to change the pressure of the clutch pack, but he holds off on inserting the springs in the cups.","First he installs a series of levers on the cover plate.","He slides pivot pins into each lever.","These pins will enable the levers to compress and decompress the clutch pack.","He applies lubricant to adjuster screws for the clutch springs, then threads each one into an aluminum casing.","He inserts an assembly in each cup, followed by a heavy-duty spring.","He now installs the pressure ring on the underside of the cover.","When the driver releases the clutch pedal, the levers cause the pressure ring to compress the clutch pack.","That action transfers power from the engine to the transmission.","He now slips the pressure-ring assembly over the stand bolts and secures it with nuts.","He adjusts each stand with a socket wrench, then checks the height.","He measures the tips of the levers to confirm they're even and makes any necessary adjustments.","He pushes the levers to test this clutch, and the pressure ring responds as it should, creating the necessary pressure on the clutch pack.","Finally, a certification sticker and some strapping to secure it for shipping.","At the track, this clutch will be serviced between every run, and if it's operating at peak performance, a win could be just down the road."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Bacon","Snowblowers","Luxury Cars"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Bacon...","Snowblowers...","And a special 2-part report on the making of the rolls-royce.","When it comes to breakfast, bacon is one of our favorite side orders.","Its popularity actually goes back centuries to the days when people cured and smoked meats in their own homes.","But, today, a quick trip to the store, and anyone can bring home the bacon.","Bacon is now processed and even precooked in factories.","It all starts with a load of pork bellies.","They're tossed into a big tumbler.","The action softens them, so it will be easier to remove the skins.","Each pork belly goes skin-side down on a conveyor belt.","This conveyor takes the pork bellies to a long, automated blade that slices the skin away from the meat.","The skins drop onto another conveyor belt to be processed into pork rinds.","Meanwhile, the meat pieces head toward a flipping device that turns them backside up, so workers down the line can trim off any remaining pieces of skin.","Next, they mix up a brine solution which will cure the pork.","Salt is funneled into a tank of water.","It's mixed thoroughly until the salt dissolves.","Then, liquid smoke and other flavorings are added.","The pork bellies now pass under an injector head.","Its needles repeatedly inject a curing solution into each pork belly.","A metal hanger, called a comb, is pressed into each of the pork bellies so they can be hung on a rack.","Then, it's into the drench cabinet for a shower of liquid smoke.","As liquid smoke bombards the meat, it adds flavor and color to the surface.","The pork bellies are transferred to a big oven.","They'll cook for five hours at a low temperature.","That allows the flavoring to permeate the meat.","Now it's into a blast freezer for a quick chilldown, then into another cooler for a couple of days.","The cooling firms the meat, which makes it easier to slice.","The pork bellies head to a sizing station, where their sides get a quick trim.","They also pass under a metal detector to confirm that no piece of the metal hanger has gotten lodged in the meat.","After that, the pork bellies are stacked and wrapped, then stored in the freezer until they're ready to be sliced into bacon.","This is called the slice line.","Here, workers load the meat slabs into chutes.","The chutes sway back and forth over a blade, which slices the meat into bacon-sized pieces.","The bacon falls neatly onto a conveyor belt.","Another conveyor belt rolls over the bacon slices to secure them for cooking in a browning microwave.","As the fat cooks off the bacon, it drain into a trough.","These drippings will be used to make gravy and pet foods.","The cooked bacon now exits the microwave oven and comes under the watchful eye of an inspector.","She discards slices that are broken or not up to par.","These wheels then roll the brown bacon slices onto parchment paper.","A tiny electronic eye keeps track of the number of slices.","Finally, the bacon is stacked for packaging.","Now, that's a job well done.","Time to put the coffee on and scramble up some eggs.","When we return, making the machine that makes snow shoveling obsolete.","Snowblowers first came on the market in the 1950s, and before long, this alternative to shoveling really took off.","Today's machines come in a range of sizes, from smaller models with 26cc engines to 50cc machines 3 feet wide for plowing through even the deepest snow.","At the heart of a snowblower are rotating blades called augers.","The left and right augers spiral in opposite directions in order to move snow toward the middle.","There, a fan called an impeller swallows the snow and blows it out a chute.","Each auger starts out as a blank-- a partially formed steel disk a little less than 1/8 inch thick.","This press finalizes the shape with about 200 tons of pressure.","The bigger the snowblower, the bigger its augers.","The press forms the left and right augers at the same time.","Then, a blast of air ejects them onto separate conveyor belts.","Next step, workers take a steel tube, called a hub, and mount it upright on an assembly jig.","Then, they take an auger and center it on the hub.","The hub and auger then travel down a conveyor belt to a robotic welder.","The robot fuses the two pieces into a single unit.","Elsewhere in the factory, workers construct the steel housing that will encase the augers.","This housing consists of four parts-- a cup to hold the impeller, a backpiece with a hole for the cup, and two side plates.","This bar aligns the pieces in a holder.","First, everything turns upside down so the robot can access the back and weld the cup to the backpiece.","Then, it flips right-side up again, and the robot welds on the side plates.","Total construction time-- 55 seconds.","The housings now undergo an electrostatic paint process.","Powder paint laced with a positive electrical charge is drawn like a magnet to the housings, which have been negatively charged.","Workers inspect the coat of paint and do any necessary touch-ups.","Then, the housings spend 15 minutes in an oven which bakes on the paint.","In another part of the factory, workers have bolted a gas-powered engine to a painted steel frame.","Inside this frame, they assemble the transmission-- the gear system that transfers power from the engine to the snowblower's wheels and augers.","After bolting on the impeller, that black component in the back, they attach a large, steel axle to the transmission-driven sprocket.","Then, they slide the now-painted auger and hub units onto this axle.","Now the housing arrives.","Workers bolt the auger assembly into it.","The impeller slides into the cup that's centered at the back of the housing.","Then, they screw the housing to the transmission frame.","The last component is the snowblower's handle, where the control panel is mounted.","There's a lever for selecting different speeds and clutch levers that can be locked down to direct the wheels and augers.","There's also a headlight so that you'll be visible to oncoming cars while clearing snow at night or on a snowy day.","And, of course, there's a lever that lets you choose the direction you want to blow the snow.","Coming up, behind the scenes at one of the most luxurious production lines in the world.","If you have one of these cars, you may also have a chauffeur and a pretty big bank account.","This rolls-royce costs more than an average house in some cities.","But a house is just a place to live, and you can really live it up if you have a car like this.","Since the company's inception in 1906, rolls-royce has been going the extra mile when it comes to perks and performance.","For many people, the car they drive is a measure of their personal success, and you don't get much more successful than this.","Each rolls-royce starts with a hand-welded aluminum body shelf that's rigid yet lightweight.","Then, workers handcraft the components for a lavish interior.","This gadget stitches together sheets of wooden veneer.","The veneers have been cut from the same piece of wood.","Workers match the grain so each side is a mirror image of the other.","The technique is called book-matching, and the look is seamless luxury.","There are 40 or more solid, wooden parts in the interior of this rolls.","These are for the dashboard.","Each of these parts is hand-finished.","Workers meticulously polish the wood with a special paste that enhances the grain.","A lacquer job puts a shine on the woodwork.","Inspectors scrutinize the leather for any natural defects and mark them in white.","They'll work around those blemishes so no imperfections will be visible on the car's upholstery.","It will take as many as 18 hides to make all the seats, panels, and consoles.","Leather pieces are carefully stretched onto various components.","The fit is set with a dryer.","Ensuring the sewn leather parts conform to all the curves and crevices on the door panels can be tricky.","But these workers, some of them former saddlemakers, are experts at the job.","They mount the upholstered leather parts to the car's interior and secure them tightly with screws.","They fit handles and control panels into the tailored slots.","Next, they attach switches, wiring, and other controls to the instrument panel.","This framework has been crafted from a single piece of magnesium so there aren't any squeaky joints.","The impressive radiator grille has a purpose besides bringing in cool air.","It houses the rolls' signature hood ornament and its automated platform.","Workers test the platform to confirm that it rises and retracts smoothly.","Then, they mount it under an opening at the top of the grille.","They check the spacing around the opening's cover to make sure there's enough room for things to run smoothly.","The rolls-royce mascot is called the spirit of ecstasy.","With the mascot now locked in proud position, workers are ready to assemble the car's mechanics.","So stay tuned.","This rolls-royce is looking good.","The body shell has the long lines of luxury.","It's been equipped with flawless leather upholstery and elegant wooden paneling.","Plush and posh, this car is now ready for some serious engine power.","It's bumper-to-bumper opulence at this factory as these cars are lined up to receive their engine components.","Workers install soundproofing material on the floor of the car to muffle engine noise.","Then, they run the wiring loom along the length of the vehicle.","This is the car's nervous system.","It transmits huge amounts of information that help run the engine, transmission, even the car's entertainment system.","Next, the engine and transmission system are hoisted onto a metal platform.","This v-12 engine has 400-plus horsepower.","Workers complete the assembly and make some final adjustments.","Then, it's time for the engine and car body to become one.","They call this the marriage.","The platform rolls the engine down an aisle to be joined with the awaiting car body.","Then, it lifts the engine into the cavity of the car.","It's secured with bolts.","Then, the platform moves away to get the next engine for the next car.","Workers double-check the installation and mark parts with yellow to confirm that they've been fitted.","The engine is now installed, but there are still a number of steps before the car is complete.","The instrument control panel is mounted to the dashboard and gets an upholstered leather cushion.","Veneer paneling is fitted around the dashboard controls.","And the headlining, made of cashmere and wool, goes into place.","Workers check the hydraulic cup holders in the rear of the car.","Then, they install two batteries-- one for the engine, the other for the cabin controls.","A rocker cover is fastened to the engine to stifle any noise.","They hook up a large air-intake system because optimum engine function requires a lot of airflow.","There will be no fingerprints on this windshield.","After it's wiped clean, workers use a pulley system with suction cups to lower it onto the car.","It's taped into place to allow the adhesive to set, then it's measured to ensure a perfect fit.","Next, the wheel-arch liners are installed.","These hefty guards will protect the car body from mud, gravel, and debris.","Finally, the wheels are mounted, and this rolls-royce is ready to roll.","It takes several weeks to assemble a rolls-royce, compared to the day or two it takes to manufacture an ordinary vehicle.","That's part of the reason why one of these will set you back a princely sum.","But if you win the lottery, this could be one way to splurge."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Binoculars","Sparklers","Rubber Boots","Circular Saw Blades"]},"text":["A pair of binoculars is essentially a handheld double telescope.","Light rays from the object you're viewing enter the lenses on the far end, the objectives.","This projects an image just behind those lenses inside the binoculars' housing.","The smaller eyepiece lenses you peer through then magnify that image.","The objectives are curved, causing the image to appear upside down.","The turn it right side up, each binocular half needs a glass prism.","Using u.v.-light-activated glue, workers mount several prisms on steel plates that take them through a series of grinding and polishing steps.","Protective paint prevents any dust from contaminating the pristine surface.","Grinding with diamond dust removes mere tenths of a millimeter of glass.","Polishing with an even finer abrasive removes another 1/100 of a millimeter.","At the end of it all, the three sides are perfectly flat.","This minimizes reflection, critical for making the glass see-through.","To make each prism, they glue two pieces of glass together at 90 degrees.","This special machine ensures the angle is precise.","A shot of u.v. light dries the glue.","The first piece of glass rotates the inverted image 90 degrees.","The second rotates it another 90 degrees, completing the flip.","Now for the objectives.","These curved lenses have undergone the same grinding and polishing steps as the prisms.","Now they go through a nine-stage computer-guided cleaning process.","After inspecting the lenses, a technician glues two together.","A double lens limits a type of distortion that causes fringes of color to appear around the image.","It's critical to match them to each other perfectly.","If the alignment's off by more than just 1/100th of a millimeter, the image will be poor.","This alignment machine displays a dot representing the center of each lens, so it's just a matter of matching the dots.","A 2-second shot of u.v. light dries the glue.","Next, a technician loads mineral pellets into a vacuum chamber.","Their exact formulation is a company secret.","The pellets produce an anti-reflection lens coating that lets more light come through the lenses.","Inside the vacuum chamber, a beam of electrons evaporates the pellets into microscopic particles that coat the lenses.","It's time to begin assembling the binoculars.","First, the objectives go into the housing, which is usually made of plastic, aluminum, or carbon.","Workers clean the lenses with a few blasts of compressed nitrogen...","Then secure them in place with threaded holding rings.","Now a few drops of glue behind the objectives, where the prisms will go, another blast of nitrogen to remove any dust, then they insert the prisms.","This optical machine aligns the focal points of the prism and its corresponding objective.","Then, some more glue to lock in the positioning and a blast of u.v. light to dry the glue.","Now they silicone the objectives and prisms to the housing's middle section.","Silicone creates an airtight and waterproof seal.","This holding mechanism presses the parts together while workers drive in the screws.","Onto the opposite end of the middle section go the oculars, the smaller lenses through which you look.","Those also attach with threaded holding rings.","Now, through a valve on each side, a machine sucks air from the housing and injects nitrogen gas.","Nitrogen prevents the lenses from fogging up.","A day after filling, they recheck the nitrogen pressure to make sure there's no leak.","This factory puts all the binoculars it produces through rigorous testing, subjecting them to prolonged vibration, water pressure, extreme heat, freezing temperatures, and other trying conditions.","After every test, inspectors make sure everything still works perfectly, both mechanically and optically.","Sparklers have sizzled on the party scene for decades, adding pyrotechnical glitter to weddings and birthday celebrations.","They evolved from more traditional fireworks and are the only kind that the consumer can handle when lit.","Lighting one definitely means excitement is in the air.","The splash of flash can last a minute or more, depending on the length of the sparkler.","They start with steel wires that are about 19 inches long.","They load bundles of them into slots of a sorting machine.","The machine vibrates, and the wires fall in single file into smaller openings.","The operator then moves a spring-loaded wooden rack into position.","It opens like the bellows of an accordion.","The operator rocks the sorting machine overhead, and the wires drop into the slits of the rack, perfectly aligned.","After 300 sparkler wires have fallen into position, the operator pulls a handle to close the rack.","Now, clamped in the accordion-style rack, the wires are ready to move on to the next station.","Wires for parade sparklers are much longer-- 36 inches, in fact-- which means they're heavier than ordinary sparklers.","The operator loads each of these wires manually into a rack that's larger and sturdier than the last one.","This system of loading is a lot more time-consuming, but parade sparklers are worth the extra trouble because they'll have a longer burn time-- up to four minutes.","Next, an operator loads boric acid and barium nitrate into a big mixing tank.","The barium nitrate is an oxidizer and will help the sparkler burn.","The boric acid is a neutralizer.","He adds water and mixes in cornstarch.","It will bind all the ingredients together.","Next, he pours in some very fine iron filings.","These bits of iron will give the sparklers their gold color.","The operator then suits up in protective gear and closes the door.","He's the only one allowed inside to load the sparklers' most volatile ingredient--  aluminum powder.","Once mixed into the wet slurry, the powder is virtually harmless, and they don't need to take as many safety precautions.","Chain conveyors now move the rack of sparkler wires into position.","An elevator lifts up a tank of the sparkler slurry to dip the wires in it.","The next rack of wires then moves forward for dipping.","286 racks of wires move through this dipping station every hour and 45 minutes.","They go through a second dipping station for one more coating.","The two coatings double the diameter of the wires.","After each dip, wires ride an overhead rail through an oven to bake the sparkler slurry until it's hard.","An inspector then examines each sparkler.","She checks for cracks and defects.","Any wire that's flawed will be rejected because these sparklers have to outshine the competition.","It takes her about three minutes to examine the 300 sparklers on a rack.","They check the diameter of each sparkler by sliding it through a template, and they bend it to check its integrity.","The sparklers have been stored for a week prior to packaging to allow them to cure.","And now they're ready for a party, and they're sure to be the center of attention.","Wellington boots, billy boots, galoshes.","By any name, rubber rain boots owe their existence to a 19th-century american, charles goodyear.","He invented the vulcanization process, a way of keeping natural rubber from deteriorating.","Nowadays, rain boots are made from a synthetic material called thermoplastic rubber, or tpr.","They're functional--  even fashionable.","Making rubber boots begins with spools of polyester yarn for their lining.","A colored spool adds a thin line of color to indicate the foot size of the lining.","A computer-programmed machine crochets the yarn with 242 needles.","As we can see in slow motion, each gate opens completely, then closes on the yarn.","The needles rotate 750 times per second.","They can program the machine to make linings for any size of boot.","For quality control, workers spot-check a few linings from every batch.","Now the action moves to this automated injection-molding machine with six stations.","Each one produces a pair of boots.","Workers carefully roll a pair of linings onto each station's foot form, called the last.","These lasts will create the space inside the boot for the lower leg and foot.","A five-part boot mold closes around the foot last.","Then, a high-pressure injection screw pushes in melted synthetic rubber, first in the soles, then in the upper boot.","The company lab regularly tests samples of the synthetic rubber pellets that feed the injection machine to make sure they melt and flow well.","The lab technician pours in some pellets, melts them, then pushes in a piston to extrude the molten rubber.","The machine measures what's called the melt flow index.","Back on the factory floor, a large suction hose feeds rubber pellets to the injectors-- black for the boot body, red for the soles.","And at this factory, nothing goes to waste.","It recycles rubber leftovers or rejects of all colors into a batch of black rubber.","The suction hose then sends the pellets into a hopper which feeds the barrel of the injection unit.","The heater bands inside the barrels melt the pellets at 200 degrees celsius.","Then, at the precise moment the mold arrives, the injector shoots in the molten rubber.","Giant clamps apply pressure for about 10 seconds, then release.","A hydraulic cylinder pushes up the last, helping to extract the boots.","Then it's quickly on with new linings for the next pair.","Total molding time?","Just 30 seconds.","The boots cool for 45 minutes, then head off to packaging...","Making just one stop along the way at the pad printing machine to get the company's logo.","Elsewhere in the factory, a seamstress carefully constructs a patterned boot lining.","The factory crochets white linings in a continuous roll, then has another company print on the design.","The trickiest part is shaping the toe because she has to curve and cut the material at the same time.","For these patterned boots, the machine injects a transparent synthetic rubber into the mold so that the printed lining will show through.","The mirror-finish surface of the mold cavity produces a high-gloss boot.","The printed boot requires more work and costlier materials and is therefore more expensive.","After the molding, for example, it has to go to the trimming station.","There, a worker shaves off excess material from the top of the boot.","Then he sews on a fabric binding to sandwich the lining.","The factory randomly selects a boot from each batch and puts it through a battery of tests on this flex machine.","It bends the boot in various ways some 300,000 times, ensuring that these rain boots can walk the walk.","When a construction site is buzzing with activity, it's usually the sound of the circular saw.","Its spinning teeth can take a bite out of any job in seconds.","There are many claims to the invention of the circular saw, but there's no doubt that when its design was perfected in the last century, it revolutionized woodworking.","With a circular saw, you can give odd jobs a whirl, and when the sawdust settles, you may have discovered your inner handyman.","To make a circular-saw blade, a laser burns into a sheet of steel to cut out jagged disks in the basic shape of a circular-saw blade.","They feed each disk to rollers that press grooves onto both sides.","These grooves are tensioning rings that will keep the blade from vibrating while cutting.","Without these grooves, the circular blade wouldn't cut straight.","At the next station, the assembler measures sags and buckles before feeding the disks to a machine that rolls them flat like a pie crust.","A grinding wheel polishes the blade.","And then they load barrels of the disks into an oven to bake until they're very hard.","This will take about 24 hours.","Meanwhile, carbide tips for the blades' teeth funnel past a laser that confirms they're properly positioned for the next step.","A robot then picks up one tip at a time and delivers it to nozzles.","The nozzles pump a paste called flux onto it.","Another robot places a piece of solder metal on the flux.","The next robot delivers the tips to the saw-blade body.","Elements melt the solder metal and flux to fuse the carbide tips to the teeth.","It's a technique called brazing.","Teeth with carbide tips last longer without losing their sharpness.","Circular blades for sawmills have a larger and different design.","They brush flux around a side hole and then place soldering metal on an elongated carbide tooth.","They braze the tooth to the flux-coated hole and install several more of these carbide side teeth.","The side teeth will enable this sawmill blade to tear through big logs.","The smaller circular-saw blade now spins on an axle while a spray nozzle sandblasts it.","The sandblasting cleans the surface and gives the blade a brushed texture.","A mechanical finger now moves one of the blade's teeth into position for sharpening.","A grinding wheel tapers each tooth.","A different wheel moves in and grinds the outside diameter of the blade.","The geometric angle of the grinding can vary, depending on the type of blade being made.","The grinding wheel then hones the face of each tooth to give it a sharper edge.","Next, a straightening specialist pounds out any remaining bumps in the blade...","And double-checks it with a straightedge tool.","He wipes off any smudges and then holds the blade to the light and examines it to confirm that it has no flaws.","A laser then etches the company insignia onto the blade.","And now the circular-saw blade is ready for its close-up.","A camera focuses on the teeth and sends the picture to a computer.","It analyzes the cutting angle and the clearance of each tooth to make sure each one measures up.","The result is circular-saw blades that should be able to keep their edge on the job."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Automotive Fuel Pumps","Cricket Bats","Change Machines","Ductile Iron Pipe"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"-- automotive fuel pumps...","Cricket bats...","Change machines...","Change machines...","And ductile-iron pipe.","And ductile-iron pipe.","When you start your car, it activates a pump that's usually located inside the gas tank.","This electrical system pushes the gas out of the tank and into injectors, which aerate the gas and deliver it to the engine cylinders.","Without a pump to get the fuel flowing, your car would be going nowhere fast.","You might think that submerging an electric pump in gasoline would be a risky thing, but liquid fuel can't explode, so it's actually a very safe place to be.","Production begins with the pumping mechanism.","A gear and several rollers are sandwiched between two metal plates.","The rollers will rotate to pull fuel into the pump before pushing it out of the tank.","Each roller assembly is tested by spinning it from the bottom.","A robot then pops it out and moves it to the next station.","Here the electric motor is attached to the roller pumping mechanism.","Then it gets a magnetic sleeve and a plastic cap.","All the parts that make up the pumping mechanism have now been assembled.","Next comes an end cap with a filter made of metal mesh.","A metal sleeve slides over the pump unit, and the whole thing is press-fit together.","Inside this chamber, large magnets generate a very strong force field.","This causes the metal sleeve to collapse, crimping at one end so that it holds everything together.","Next, retainer rings go into slots in the fuel-pump cap.","A metal bracket goes over the pump.","It steadies the assembly and serves as a guide as workers install the brushes and coils which will supply electricity to the fuel-pump motor.","A brass terminal slides onto the end of each coil and brush assembly to facilitate the electrical connection.","Then the terminals are attached to the assembly.","When the job is done, a robot removes the bracket.","They built this fuel pump from the inside out, and now the actual workings are complete.","Inspectors hook each pump up to a power source and run fluid through them to test the pumping action.","Then they check for proper flow and pressure.","If the pump passes inspection, a robot sends it down the assembly line...","Where a tubing system is being assembled to carry the gasoline to the engine.","The joints are sealed with a brazing paste.","Then it's into a gas oven, where the paste hardens and fuses to the tubing.","Workers remove the tubing from the oven and brush off any unwanted bits of metal and unwanted bits of metal and hardened paste.","Hardened paste.","The ends of the apparatus are capped to keep them from collecting dirt and debris during shipping.","Rubber tubing is attached to the pump and secured with metal clamps.","Then the rubber tubing is clamped to the metal tubing system.","Workers wire the fuel pump, then hook up a connector which will attach to the engine's wiring.","This is the sending unit.","It's a float with a metal arm that's attached to an electronic sensor.","The sensor sends information about fuel levels to the fuel gauge on the dashboard.","A computerized system checks the sending unit's accuracy as the sensor is moved up and down.","Once everything checks out, it's time to fill the tank and hit the road.","Up next-- cricket, anyone?","We'll go behind the scenes at a we'll go behind the scenes at a bat factory.","Bat factory.","References to the game of cricket date back to the 1300s.","Historians believe it started as a children's game.","In the 1600s, working men took up the pastime, and before long, it caught on with the upper classes.","By the 18th century, cricket was one of england's favorite organized sports.","Cricket bats are made of a particular species of white willow.","It has stringy wood fibers that are usually long.","These give the wood elasticity, the key to its performance.","Bat makers use as much sapwood as possible because it's moister and more flexible than the heartwood at the tree's core.","Production begins with willow pieces about 2 1/2 feet long.","The first machine trims them down roughly to size.","A few sprays of water limber up the wood fibers.","Then each piece goes through a pressing machine three to four times.","A curved roller applies up to three tons of pressure, rounding the bat's face and compressing the wood by almost half an inch.","This pressing is essential to the bat's performance and durability.","The bat maker draws a \"v\" on the end where the handle will attach.","Then he removes the bulk of wood behind the \"v\" on a table saw.","This minimizes the amount of work he'll have to do by hand later.","Now he cuts out the \"v\".","This creates a joint in which to insert the handle.","The handle is made of cane, dried vine stems, glued together in sections, and coated with rubber.","The grip end has been shaped on a lathe.","The other end will attach to the blade.","The bat maker cuts the block-shape tip into a wedge that will fit into the \"v\" cut, then glues the two pieces then glues the two pieces together.","Together.","A few taps with a hammer ensures a tight fit.","He spreads the excess glue all over the joint to seal it.","Now he shapes the bat's profile using a classic woodworking tool called a drawknife.","This takes only a few minutes but requires years of experience and an expert eye.","Then he completes the shaping with another pressing to curve the bottom third of the bat.","International cricket rules regulate the length and width of bats, but there's no restriction on curve.","Getting it right is tricky, though.","Too much curve, and he'll limit the blade's flexibility and performance.","The bat maker finishes off the shape using specialized tools.","Then he uses a metal hand plane to flatten the blade's edges.","He ensures the bat has good spring by hitting it with a dense wooden mallet.","He also analyzes the sound of the strike.","The softer the sound, the softer the wood, and the better the bat will play.","He smooths the bat against an air-filled drum sander that molds to the bat so it doesn't wear away the shape he worked so hard to achieve.","Then a worker smooths out the rest of the surface with a belt sander designed specifically for cricket bats.","The entire bat is sanded twice, first with a coarse abrasive, then with a fine one.","Next, the bat is mounted on a binding machine, where its handle gets a coat of glue.","A wrapping of twine binds together the sections of cane together the sections of cane that make up the handle.","That make up the handle.","Extra glue prevents the twine from unraveling.","Next, they polish the blade next, they polish the blade using a cotton wheel.","Using a cotton wheel.","Once the wood is shiny enough, brand-name decals go on.","Finally, a rubber grip goes over the binding to prevent the player's hands from slipping.","The bat's two main components complement each other when striking the ball.","The willow-wood blade flexes enough to deliver a good hit, and the cane handle absorbs that energy, protecting the player's hands.","When you return-- making the when you return-- making the machines that make our change.","Machines that make our change.","Change machines were invented in the mid-1950s in response to the vending-machine boom.","They began as simple mechanical coin changers, converting a quarter into nickels and dimes.","Today's modern machines can even convert $20 bills.","Times sure have changed.","It's like magic.","In goes the bill, and presto, out comes the exact change.","But behind the scenes, there's no slight of hand-- just innovative design and some pretty high-tech equipment.","Production begins with the machine's cabinet.","A computer-guided laser cuts the cabinet parts from a sheet of steel measuring 1 by 1/2 yards.","Workers shake the parts free and push out the openings in the panel that will become the cabinet's front door.","The parts are then shaped in a machine called the press break.","This is one of the door panels.","The machine forces it against a die, bending the edge.","These bent edges will strengthen the door and help it fit snugly into the frame.","The laser cutter also makes a series of holes in another cabinet part.","Then workers press threaded studs into the holes.","A vibrating feeder automatically dispenses the studs into the insertion machine.","Now they bend the sheet, again using a press break, and make the three-sided panel that will become the cabinet sides and back.","They attach the top and bottom panels.","Then they position the cabinet on a computerized welding station and rotate the table.","A robot makes precision welds behind a steel partition that shields workers from heat and harmful rays.","Now they assemble the change machine's coin dispenser.","It has two counter-rotating discs fitted to the diameter and thickness of a coin.","They work together to seize and align the coins, then drop them into the coin chute.","Workers set in these metal discs, along with a plastic gear mechanism that rotates them.","Then they secure the parts on a fixture...","And drill holes into the gear and drill holes into the gear mechanism.","Mechanism.","Roll pins are inserted to hold the parts together.","Then workers make sure the coin discs spin freely.","The next task is to assemble the coin-dispenser discs and gears.","This is precision work.","First, they set the parts in a metal casing.","Plastic rings go around the discs to guide and support the gears.","Then they attach the gear-train motor which powers the motor which powers the change-dispensing discs.","Change-dispensing discs.","A plastic guide on the casing helps the coins drop in properly.","Next comes the coin chute that guides the change out of the dispenser and into the machine's coin cup.","The dispenser holds up to $800, which can weigh a hefty 45 pounds, so it needs a strong handle.","It's locked into place with this tool, called a ring fastener.","Now it's time to put the whole machine together.","First, an electric power supply is installed on the inside back wall.","Next comes the bill validator.","And the coin cup.","Then the coin dispenser and electronic control board, the brains of the machine that calculates the change.","Finally, on go the instruction decals.","So, how do bills transform into coins?","Let's open the door and see.","First, the bill acceptor scans the bill's paper and ink, then stacks it in a box.","The processor calculates the transaction, then cha-ching, exact change.","Coming up-- turning iron and steel into the pipes that keep steel into the pipes that keep our cities running.","Our cities running.","Chances are you use ductile-iron pipe every day and don't even know it.","The underground pipes that transport a city's drinking water are cast from ductile iron.","So are the sewer pipes that take away household waist.","Ductile iron is more flexible than ordinary gray iron.","Under pressure, it will bend before it breaks.","Ductile-iron pipes are made of 90% recycled metal and have a life-span of hundreds of years.","Production begins in the pipe factory's scrapyard.","These old cars are on their way to a shredder that chews them up into little bits.","The factory sorts the bits by material.","It discards the plastic, sells the aluminum and copper, but keeps the steel and iron.","The factory also gets scrap steel from demolished buildings and other sources.","The shredded metal is analyzed by its chemical composition and sorted accordingly.","A crane operator uses an industrial magnet to gather precise amounts of steel and iron.","The shredded metals then go into a blast furnace fueled by coke, a form of coal.","At 2,500 degrees fahrenheit, the iron and steel liquefy, while impurities are carried away.","Workers then add magnesium.","This turns the metal from ordinary gray iron into stronger, more flexible ductile iron.","The molten iron travels down a trough into a casting machine.","It enters a spinning mold, where centrifugal force spreads the centrifugal force spreads the iron against the mold walls.","Iron against the mold walls.","A cooling system chills the walls, and the iron solidifies within seconds.","Then an extractor pulls out a 20-foot-long cast-iron pipe, the standard industry length.","Before each casting, workers insert a round form, called a core, into one end of the pipe mold.","The molten iron fills the void between the core and mold, forming a flared edge, called a bell.","The core also seals off that end of the mold, preventing molten iron from flying out during casting.","When it's time to connect the pipes, installers will fit the bell of one pipe over the straight end of another.","A rubber gasket seals the link together.","The casting machine can make pipes of different diameters by changing the size of the mold inside.","After the pipe is extracted, inspectors weigh it and measure the wall thickness to be sure everything meets specifications.","Then, on the bell end, they remove the core.","Since it's made of sand and plastic resin, it simply plastic resin, it simply disintegrates.","Disintegrates.","This factory makes pipes in several diameters, but regardless of size, the casting process is always the same.","It just takes less time with smaller pipes because they harden faster.","A freshly cast pipe is around 1,500 degrees fahrenheit, but it cools quickly after leaving the mold.","Such rapid cooling makes the iron brittle, so the pipe goes directly into a gas-fired annealing furnace that reheats it to 1,700 degrees fahrenheit.","This alters the internal structure of the iron, making it strong and flexible.","The pipe then runs through a cooling chamber that showers it in cold water.","To prevent the iron from corroding, the inside gets sprayed with cement, building up a lining an eighth of an inch a lining an eighth of an inch thick.","Thick.","Then the pipe is spun for a few seconds to smooth out the cement.","The entire pipe is painted inside and out.","This seals the surface, enabling the cement to cure over the next 24 hours.","It also provides some extra rust protection.","Finally, a robot paints a stripe around the straight end of each pipe.","This is a depth guideline so installation crews know when they've inserted the straight end of one pipe as far as it can go into the bell end of another."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fly Fishing Reels","House Paint","Weaving Looms","Ice Makers"]},"text":["Fishing reels date back to 12th-century china.","In the beginning, they were very basic devices used only for storing extra line.","But by the 1800s, craftsmen in britain and america reinvented the reel when they gave it a drag system for landing feisty fish.","These flycasters could hook the big one at any moment, and that's when a precision fishing reel will come in handy.","To make a fly-fishing reel, they start with a solid aluminum puck.","The puck turns on a lathe as a computerized cutter contours it to shape it into a spool.","A different tool machines a center hole.","The focus then moves to the other side as another tool completes the spool shape.","The dimensions must be exact if this fishing reel is to perform flawlessly.","They drill holes to both reduce the weight of the spool and provide some ventilation for wet fishing line.","They cut windows into the other side for an attractive look that further lightens the reel.","Next, another aluminum puck is transformed into a frame for the spool and other parts.","The frame goes into a bath of soapy water and plastic pellets, which rub the part clean.","The final touch is a black oxide finish.","They now transform this aluminum bar into feet, which will be used to mount the reel to the fishing rod.","A laser engraves the company name onto these attachments.","It also does a bit of custom engraving on the frame.","A worker now inserts a bronze bushing into the center of the spool and uses hydraulic force to entrench it.","He then positions a stainless steel ball on top of the bushing.","He activates a press that drives the ball through it to expand the bushing to the correct internal dimension.","Another worker applies a counterweight to one side of the spool.","This bit of stainless steel will offset the weight of the spool handle.","She installs the spool's magnetic locking mechanism.","This molded polymer part has a tiny magnet inside.","She applies a second magnet to it, followed by a release button.","One final magnet and an aluminum cap, and this assembly is complete.","She now installs part of the drag-engagement system.","It's this system that will create the necessary resistance on the fishing line for battling a big fish.","She applies adhesive to screws and then uses them to attach the footing to the fly-reel frame, using a screwdriver to set it to a specific torque.","She then resumes the assembly of the drag system by placing a rubber \"o\" ring in the frame's center groove.","She installs the thrust-bearing ring, which can be rotated by the fly-fisher to adjust the drag setting.","And it's now time to attach the spool to the fishing-reel frame.","She turns it to check the drag setting and adjusts it to its starting point.","She secures the setting by inserting a pin into the bearing.","Then she removes the center locking screw temporarily to assemble the knob base to the thrust bearing.","She reinstalls the screw and covers the assembly with the drag knob.","She turns the spool for a final inspection, confirming that this fishing reel operates smoothly.","And now it's ready to put a positive spin on any fishing experience.","A fresh coat of latex paint is a surefire way to spruce up a home.","Latex is a term for acrylic or vinyl resins.","Latex paint is water-based, so it has less odor than alkaline paint.","It also cleans up without any harsh solvents.","All you need is soap and water.","The paint factory produces an uncolored base.","The store then tints that base to the color ordered by the customer.","Latex paint contains water, latex for adhesion, titanium dioxide, calcium carbonate, potassium, zinc for mildew resistance, and whatever additives the particular type of paint requires.","For example, if it's paint designed for metal, a rust inhibitor.","They pump the water into a large mixing tank.","Then they add a thickening agent and stabilizer to prevent the ingredients from settling to the bottom of the tank and to the bottom of the can once the paint is packaged.","A vacuum duct sucks up the waste.","One at a time, all the ingredients except the latex go in.","There's a specific mixing time after each ingredient because proper blending is critical for quality.","Now they pump the tank's contents into another mixing tank that contains the latex.","After four to six hours of blending, the industrial-sized batch of paint base is finally ready.","The factory subjects a sample from every batch to extensive quality-control testing.","This viscometer measures the thickness of the paint.","This test assesses how well the dry ingredients have dispersed within the mix.","This tells them whether the mix is blended well enough to move into the second tank containing the latex.","Technicians also conduct color tests, adding recipes of liquid colorants to a gallon sample.","This is to ensure the shade comes out exactly the way it's supposed to.","To check if the paint covers well, they brush it onto test paper.","The stripes provide a contrast so that any defects in the paint, such as foam or grit, will show.","This test evaluates tint strength.","Once the paint sample dries, they analyze its color properties with a machine called a spectrophotometer.","Once the batch passes inspection, it proceeds to packaging.","Latex paint contains about 60% water, which corrodes metal, so the steel cans are lined with an anti-rust coating.","The cans run over a glue applicator, then over a label, which instantly sticks to the adhesive.","The next stop is a filling machine.","Each can sits on a scale that's positioned under a dispensing nozzle.","Once the scale detects the correct net weight, it triggers the nozzle to stop.","From the filling machine to a lid dispenser that drops a cover onto each can.","Then it's on to what's called a lid press.","As each can passes underneath, a row of cylinders gradually presses in the lid.","The next machine, called a baler, attaches a curved handle made of steel wire.","It locks the handle ends into metal disks on both sides of the can.","The factory varies its formulations to produce paint in lusters ranging from flat to high gloss and for interior and exterior use, making sure it's got every possible application covered.","Looms for handweaving cloth have become increasingly sophisticated over time.","But the basic concept still remains the same-- weaving horizontal threads, called weft threads, through vertical threads, called warp threads, to create the patterns in the cloth.","The loom lifts selected warp threads.","The weaver passes the weft thread between the warp threads, then uses a beater to pack the weft tightly.","They construct the loom's frame out of ash, which is strong enough to withstand the pulling of up to thousands of threads.","Workers submerge the frame pieces in mineral oil to prevent the wood from drying out.","They assemble the frame pieces with heavy-duty nuts and bolts, then mount high-strength plastic brackets for attaching the various components, such as the cloth beam that grabs and moves the finished cloth.","They wrap sandpaper around the beam's adhesive surface to grab the cloth without damaging it.","Elsewhere, workers make the loom's cables out of high-strength stainless steel.","These cables maneuver harnesses that lift and lower the warp threads.","After cutting each cable to length, she forms a loop through a cable crimp.","Then she locks the loop with this heavy-duty crimping tool.","On one of the frame pieces, they mount a metal plate bearing the loom's model and serial numbers.","They assemble the pulley system on which the harness cables run.","They thread the plastic pulleys onto a steel axle and position the axle with steel disks called stop collars.","A spring lever helps each harness lift its respective warp thread.","After hammering a pin into each lever, they hook a wire to the pin, then squeeze the wire closed so that it can't unhook.","They attach a chain to an eyelet on one side of the spring lever.","Shortening or lengthening this chain adjusts the tension of the harness.","Like the pulleys, the spring levers go onto an axle across the loom's frame.","Another loom component, called the warp beam, has holes which hold metal hoops that guide the warp threads.","A brake drum on the side provides counterforce to keep the threads taut.","At the front of the loom, they install foot pedals called treadles.","The weaver uses them to lift and lower the warp threads.","Next comes the beater, which the weaver uses to pack the weft thread into the fabric.","The pulley system for the harness cables goes on top.","This computer-controlled device, called a dobby head, lifts and lowers the warp threads according to the programmed weaving pattern.","Each harness cable hooks onto the dobby head, goes around one of the pulleys, and attaches to a hook on the harness.","The factory checks every dobby head on a test loom to ensure the device outputs the programmed patterns correctly.","Next, workers install the spring levers that help the harness lift the warp threads.","Each lever hooks onto a spring, which attaches to a chain, which connects to a harness.","They install the warp beam at the back of the loom.","The weaver installs the hoops and warp threads on the warp beam.","As the loom weaves, the cloth beam gently moves the emerging fabric forward.","The weft thread is wrapped around a bobbin called a shuttle.","This pattern requires a two-weft-thread technique that uses a second shuttle suspended in front of the weaver.","The loom keeps the threads evenly taut, producing a consistent and uniform weave-- the hallmarks of a beautiful, quality cloth.","Until the mid-19th century, mother nature was the only producer of ice, and the idea of man-made ice seemed preposterous.","It was a florida doctor who, in need of ice to cool feverish patients, invented the ice machine.","The technology took a few years to refine, and then they were ready to chill.","Today's commercial ice makers churn out ice on demand, allowing restaurants and other businesses to keep things cool at all times.","To make one, machinery folds the edges of stainless-steel sheets so they can be assembled into the icemaker frame and exterior panels.","Meanwhile, copper uncoils over a roller, which removes the curl from the metal.","A machine spiked with blades then punches the copper.","In one action, it cuts numerous slits in the strip and slices it to the correct length.","The notched strips are now ready to be assembled into a grid.","This grid is part of the evaporator.","It's here the liquid refrigerant will evaporate as it pulls heat from the water to freeze it into ice cubes.","This copper tubing is central to that process.","An automated arm bends it into a configuration called the serpentine, producing a coil that will fit on the back with the evaporator.","As liquid refrigerant moves through it, it will draw heat out of the water.","This machine flattens the tubing, giving it greater surface contact with the evaporator to facilitate heat transfer.","Then it's into a big washing machine to remove any oils or oxides on the parts.","A worker now applies strips of tin silver solder to the evaporator's back plate.","This acid solution will act as a bonding agent.","He then places the evaporator, solder side down, on the serpentine tubing and locks the assembled parts in an iron rig.","He hoists the rig into an oven to melt the solder strips between the back plate and tubing, fusing the parts together.","Then it's into an ultrasonic bath, where high-frequency sound waves clean off lingering contaminants.","An inspector now examines the evaporator to confirm that the parts have been solidly fused.","Next, he installs pipes on an icemaker's side panel.","These are the lines that supply refrigerant to the machine.","He turns the assembly around and removes the caps on the compressor to connect it to a network of pipes.","The compressor will force refrigerant through these pipes in a continuous cycle of heating and cooling to eventually produce ice.","He brazes the joints to seal the connections.","He attaches a fan to another side panel.","It will blow cool air onto the radiator to cool the refrigerant and help convert it back into a liquid.","Now he pumps the refrigerant into the system and measures the flow to ensure it receives a precise amount.","Meanwhile, at another station, they assemble the ice bin.","It's time to test this icemaker.","Water flows continuously over the surface of the evaporator grid as the temperature inside the cells drops below freezing.","Impurities, like minerals, are washed away as the water turns to ice, and the result is crystal-clear cubes, almost 6 1/2 pounds in just 15 minutes.","Finally, they install the front panel on the unit.","This job is done, and it's time for a little liquid refreshment...","On ice, of course."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["LED Stage Lights","Apple Cider","Chemical Tank Trailers","Ornate Stone Floors"]},"text":["Today, on \"how it's made\"...","L.e.d. stage lights...","Apple cider...","Chemical tank trailers...","And ornate stone floors.","In the world of stage lighting, traditional incandescent or halogen bulb spotlights are making way for l.e.d.s.","L.e.d.s are light-emitting diodes controlled by electronics.","They use less energy, emit less heat, and can produce a wide array of colors without the use of filters.","Incandescent or halogen stage lights produce just one color.","The only way to create more is to shine the light beam through colored plastic called gel filters.","However, this l.e.d. stage light uses seven different colored l.e.d.s, which can be blended into a variety of different hues.","This computer-guided machine places all the components on the stage light's circuit board, which contains 60 l.e.d.s in 7 different base colors.","Another machine measures and cuts pieces of insulated electrical wire.","Then, the machine strips the insulation off the ends and crimps on terminals.","The machine processes up to 26 feet of wire per second.","Workers manually assemble 10 wires and two connectors into a control harness.","The harness will connect the light's control board to the l.e.d. array.","On the factory floor, they paint the stage light's two-part cast-aluminum housing.","The paint process is electrostatic.","This means the housing and the black powder paint are laced with opposing electrical charges.","This spreads the paint evenly over the housing.","Then, the housing goes through an oven, which bakes on the paint.","Back in the assembly area, workers install the stage light's electronic components, starting with the lcd screen.","It displays the current settings and modes and the menus for changing them.","After covering the screen with a protective plastic shield, they install the control panel.","It has an opening for the screen.","This plastic cover protects the lcd.","It also directs outside air into the housing to the light's cooling fan, which they now secure in place with this bracket.","The fan dissipates the heat the l.e.d.s generate.","This block of aluminum, called the heat sink, absorbs and quickly dissipates some of that heat.","They mount the l.e.d. array on top of this twofold cooling system.","Then, they install the optic assembly.","This plastic component focuses the individual l.e.d.s.","They construct the stage light's mixing tube, lining its interior with adhesive-backed aluminum mirrors.","The mirrors mix the seven l.e.d. colors into a single color.","The assemblers now join the two halves of the mixing tube, adding a glass lens on the front.","The lens focuses the light produced by the 60 l.e.d.s into a single beam.","Then, they install the tube over the optic.","Next, they mount the control card to the side of the mixing tube.","The control card is the stage light's onboard computer.","It processes the commands the lighting technician enters.","Commands can be entered from the control panel or remotely from a computer.","After installing the main power supply, they plug a dmx cable into the control card.","Dmx is the digital network through which the console or computer communicates to the stage light.","They join this completed unit to the rest of the housing, which has the dmx and power connectors.","This stage light is now finished and ready for a thorough quality control check.","They plug it into a testing machine, which powers it up and verifies several functions.","The machine also calibrates every color to ensure consistency in every stage light they manufacture.","Then, they run the stage light at full power for three hours nonstop to simulate strenuous operating conditions.","Once the light passes these tests, it's ready for its stage debut.","Apple cider is also known as sweet cider or soft cider.","It's darker and cloudier than conventional apple juice because tiny bits of apple are not filtered out.","These flavorful fragments are what makes this fall beverage unique.","When the apples on the trees are ripe, it's time to produce apple cider.","They process the apples within days of the harvest to produce a beverage that tastes both fresh and sweet.","It starts with the right mix of apples.","Some varieties are sweet, and others are tart.","This mix of flavors will spice things up.","The apples float to the surface of a water-filled pit and drift onto a conveyor that takes them into the cider mill.","Inside the mill, the apples spill into a washing station.","Water sprays the apples as they bounce across rolling brushes.","Next, the apples take a trip up to a grinder.","Inside, a steel arm pushes the apples against a grater.","It shreds them, pits and all, into a pulp.","This pulp is known as pomace.","The pomace lands in a funnel.","From here, a pump moves it through pipes across the plant, where it arrives at a press.","The apple pomace flows between two porous belts that wind around rollers.","The rollers apply pressure to squeeze out the juice.","The juice drips through holes in the belts.","The process strains out most of the pulp, but some remains as the juice spills from the press into large catch pans.","Then, they pump this chunky apple liquid into a holding tank.","From the tank, it flows through a revolving drum that filters out more pulp, pits, and apple stems.","The fluid seeps through the perforations in the drum and flows into a large trough.","After one more screening, only fine bits of apple and sediment remain.","This gives it the desired cider consistency and flavor.","The cider now flows into channels between hot steel plates.","The heat destroys pathogens and bacteria that would convert the natural sugars to alcohol.","This ensures that the cider is both safe to drink and nonalcoholic.","It's now ready for bottling.","A worker slides plastic jugs into position under nozzles.","The nozzles descend and pump the boiling-hot apple cider into the jugs.","They're filled to the brim so air can't get inside.","Air causes the cider to deteriorate.","Next, the conveyor moves the jugs forward to a capping station.","Plastic caps funnel toward the jugs as they approach.","The caps land on the rims with perfect timing.","Spinning wheels tighten the caps as the jugs ride by, hermetically sealing the hot apple cider, giving it a shelf life of approximately a year.","The jugs then head into a tunnel, where sprayers douse them with cold water.","Next, machinery pulls the liner off of adhesive-backed labels.","An electric eye detects the approaching jugs, queuing rollers to apply the labels.","The filtered-out pomace from earlier is cooked four to five hours.","This caramelizes the sugars in the apples, turning the pomace into a highly concentrated spread known as apple butter.","They bottle it while it's piping hot to preserve it.","Although not technically butter, this fruit spread has a similar consistency.","It takes a full day of processing to produce both apple butter and apple cider.","It's time to raise a glass and enjoy the sweet bounty of the harvest.","Chemical tank trailers roll down our highways every day.","They haul liquid chemicals for manufacturing and other needs.","Chemicals could be hazardous if released into the environment.","Making a chemical tank trailer is serious business.","Chemical tank trailers are built to ensure that a potentially harmful cargo arrives safely.","Their design is tightly regulated because safety is in everyone's best interest.","They build the chemical tank from scratch.","They start with a big sheet of heavy-duty stainless steel.","Pressurized rollers curl it into a cylinder that will become half of the tank's inner vessel.","Using a crane, they transfer the 20-foot-long rounded section to a welding station.","Here, an operator controls a semi-automatic welder with a joystick.","The welder joins the two sides of the sheet to complete the cylinder.","They bring two cylinders together to form a 40-foot-long inner vessel.","This seam is near the midpoint.","It will be subject to significant bending stress in transport.","It's critical that this weld is perfect.","The team caps the end with metal discs known as heads.","They tack-weld the heads to the vessel first and assure that the fit is exact.","Then, a semi-automatic welder does a permanent weld.","Next, they weld three long half pipes along the bottom, again doing tack welds first and then final welds.","The three pipes serve as a heating panel, keeping the chemical cargo at a liquid state.","This is important because, when some chemicals solidify, their purity is compromised.","The team slides the first of many metal rings onto the tank and clamps each ring to the shell.","These rings stiffen the structure and act as an exterior skeleton.","A worker does the initial tack welds.","Then, a semi-automatic welder makes the full welds.","After attaching a steel framework to the bottom, a crane transfers the inner vessel to the trailer.","A worker tucks insulation between the vessel and the trailer.","He secures the tank to the trailer with intermittent welds known as stitch welds.","Another member of the team wraps strips of rigid foam around the steel vessel.","He spaces the foam evenly apart and pulls them tightly against the vessel with metal strapping.","This creates compartments for fiberglass insulation.","He tucks the insulation into the spaces, blanketing the vessels so the chemical freight will stay warm and fluid.","The team now builds the outer shell.","They pull stainless steel sheets around the inner vessel using thick nylon ties.","These sheets are made of thinner steel than the kind used to construct the inner vessel.","They easily conform to the cylindrical shape.","A worker welds the sheets in place, completing the outer shell.","Once a manhole has been installed at the top, the crew builds a metal platform around it.","This platform allows a person to access the manhole without slipping or denting the outer shell of the tank.","A worker attaches a ladder to the tank.","It will be used for accessing the manhole.","Another member of the team connects l.e.d. taillights and inserts them in light boxes at the back of the trailer.","He secures the lights to the light box with screws.","It takes about five days to build a chemical tank trailer.","They last for 30 years or more, so this trailer should be good for the long haul.","Centuries-old churches and palaces have ornate stone floors that took craftsmen decades to create with chisels and other hand tools.","Today, factories can produce similar elaborate designs in a matter of hours thanks to computer-guided machinery.","These floor designs are so intricate, it's hard to believe that each component is an individually cut piece of marble, granite, or other natural stone.","Whether the design covers an entire floor, or it's a single decorative insert, the starting point is a stone slab.","It's massive but extremely thin, so it's actually quite fragile.","Workers use a pneumatic suction hoist to position the slab onto a cutting machine table.","The machine is entirely computer-guided.","It cuts with a jet of water.","The water contains particles of garnet, an extremely hard gemstone.","The jet cuts by eroding the stone rather than by sheer force, which would crack it.","Workers rinse away the stone grit and abrasive residue once the cutting is finished.","They use suction cups to remove the cut pieces one at a time.","They've cut squares for this design.","Some will go into the floor as-is, while others go onto a smaller water jet machine, which cuts them into intricate shapes.","Workers extract these smaller pieces with tweezers.","Every component of the design has a number.","Workers label the back of the corresponding piece accordingly.","Then, they print out a life-size version of the numbered design on a sheet of durable polyester film.","They tape it to the assembly table to serve as a template.","Then, they lay one piece at a time front side down onto the template.","Like a puzzle, the design slowly reveals itself.","Once the design is fully laid out, they tack the pieces together with glue.","This keeps them from shifting or separating.","They lay fiberglass mesh over the entire assembly.","Then, they prepare an epoxy resin specially formulated for stone setting...","And spread it evenly over the mesh.","They let it set overnight.","And the next day, they sand it flat.","The cut stone design is now bonded together in a solid unit.","Now, they can safely flip it face-up.","The final step is to fill the joints with epoxy grout then wash off any excess with a wet sponge.","This ornate cut-stone floor insert is finally finished.","This is just one of several components of a large, elaborate design.","Workers assemble them together to do a quality control check.","Then, they take the design apart and package each component separately for shipping.","Stone must always ship upright on its side because it can crack when transported horizontally.","However, the cut-stone floor will be sturdy enough to walk on once it's properly installed.","Just be careful not to bump into anything while you're admiring the art beneath your feet."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Pistons","Paint Rollers","Parachutes","Chimneys"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Pistons...","Paint rollers...","Parachutes...","And chimneys.","Pistons are key to the internal combustion process that drives engines.","A piston is a plug that slides up and down inside each engine cylinder, compressing gas and air ignited by a spark plug.","The resulting energy turns the crankshaft and drives the engine.","This company makes 9,000 different types of pistons for everything from dirt bikes to car engines.","A piston starts out as a 10-foot-long aluminum rod.","Aluminum is ideal because it's a lightweight and rust-resistant metal that's easy to cut.","A rotary saw slices the rod into slugs, the length of which can be changed by adjusting the feeder machine to push the rod at different intervals.","This piston model requires 2.7-inch slugs.","The factory recycles excess aluminum shavings.","The punch press and die are preheated to 800 degrees fahrenheit, the temperature required to forge the slugs.","The slugs are brought to the same temperature in an oven.","The punch applies 2,000 tons of pressure to form it into the initial shape of the piston.","He dunks about 1 in 10 forgings in water to check for defects.","To make forging easier, they pre-lube the slugs before heating them.","That's why the slug flames up when struck by the press.","It only takes two seconds for the press to do its job, but the forgings are so hot, they need at least an hour to cool before the next step.","Workers heat the forgings twice more, the first time at very high heat to strengthen the metal, the second time at a lower heat to stabilize it.","Now they insert each slug in a lathe to give the forging the correct shape for machines that handle it later.","These small holes allow oil to flow through to lubricate the piston when it's in use.","Another lathe reduces the diameter by an 1/8 of an inch.","The same machine then cuts three grooves, two for compression rings and another for an oil-control ring.","These rings help the piston glide and enable it to provide an airtight seal.","This hole is for the wrist pin that will attach the piston to a connecting rod.","A milling machine then shaves off up to 3/4 of an inch of metal from two sides of the piston to reduce the overall weight.","The white liquid is lubricant to cool the area during cutting.","Another milling machine cuts away part of what they call the dome.","This way it will clear other parts when moving inside the cylinder.","The pistons must be just the right shape and size.","Some of them move up and down as much as 6,000 times per minute when the engine is running.","Next, a lathe shaves a hair width more of the metal from the outside.","This cut enables the piston to expand slightly when heat builds up inside the cylinder.","An automated drill makes two intersecting oil-drain holes to enhance lubrication of the wrist pin.","Another machine now engraves model and production data.","Here, a worker removes sharp edges created during previous operations.","He then uses a belt sander to further smooth out the surface.","Sharp edges could damage cylinder walls.","This cutting machine shaves off a bit of metal inside the pinhole so the wrist pin will fit snugly inside.","Once the cutting is complete, high-pressure jets spray the pistons with hot, deionized water.","This cleaning removes all traces of lubricant and oil.","After a blow-dry with an air gun, the pistons are ready to be installed.","Norman breakey, a canadian, invented the paint roller in 1940.","It revolutionized painting, but breakey never got rich because he lacked the financial means to defend his patent.","Over the next 60-odd years, the paint roller, with its replaceable cylindrical refill, became the primary painting tool, alongside the paintbrush.","The refill is a tube covered in fabric made from either polyester fiber or lint-free acrylic and nylon fiber.","Regardless of fabric, all refills are made the same way.","The fabric is processed into a 2.8-inch-wide strip.","It goes into a machine called an automatic tube winder.","It first applies epoxy glue to the surface of pvc plastic tubes.","As the tension bar pulls the fabric strip taut, the machine winds the fabric around a tube.","An air jet pushes aside the wound fabric to avoid bumps as more is applied.","Once the tube is covered with fabric, the machine simultaneously wraps the end and the start of the next tube in masking tape.","Once the glue has dried for eight hours, the tubes enter a machine that cuts them into several refills.","The tube spins as it passes, so one small cut is enough to sever it.","One tube produces 9 7 1/2-inch-long refills or 7 9 1/2-inch-long refills, the two standard sizes on the market.","The next machine first runs a wire brush against the fabric.","This lifts and fluffs the pile...","Then makes a beveled edge on each end.","To fluff the fabric further, a high-speed spin at 3,500 rpm.","During all these operations, a vacuum sucks away loose fibers.","Meanwhile, the paint-roller handles take shape.","An injection molding machine shoots molten plastic into handle-shaped cavities.","A built-in cooling system hardens the plastic within seconds.","The handles are made of polypropylene, a semi-tough thermoplastic, and some colored polyethylene, a lightweight thermoplastic.","Now that the handles and refills are made, it's just a matter of assembling them.","These plastic bearings hold the components together.","The assembly is entirely automated.","The bottom bearing goes on first.","It rests against the part called the shoulder.","Next, the refill.","The bottom bearing slots right into the open end of the tube.","Now the top bearing goes on.","A metal clip locks the bearings and roller in place.","And, voilà, a three-inch roller for painting windows and trims.","This factory also makes disposable plastic paint trays and tray liners.","They're made of polyethylene terephthalate, p.e.t. for short, a type of plastic that's strong yet flexible.","This thermoform machine heats a p.e.t. sheet, then vacuums it into a tray-shaped mold.","Fans cool and harden the plastic.","This heat mold-and-cool cycle takes just 30 to 50 seconds, depending on the tray thickness.","The molded sheets go into a cutter.","It excises the tray in one slice.","The factory grinds up the leftover plastic and sends it back to the supplier for recycling.","This factory also makes roller refills for applying solvents.","Instead of pvc, the tube inside is made of a tougher material, either a chemically strengthened cardboard or a polypropylene.","Daredevils have parachuted from cliffs or towers for centuries.","When airplanes first took off, so did parachutes as the best escape.","Today's aerodynamic, lightweight chutes enable cargo and people to descend safely and land right on target.","This company makes military parachutes.","Each one has a 30-foot wingspan and carries up to 440 pounds.","Making the chute's canopy starts with a rugged woven nylon fabric with nylon ribbing.","This light table lets a worker detect any flaws in the fabric.","The alignment between the ribbing must be consistent, spaced no more than 1.5 inches apart.","They test the strength of the fabric by pulling the material until it rips.","To pass, the fabric must withstand a minimum of 44 pounds of pulling force.","A laser cuts out the parachute parts, 30 to 100 of them, depending on the model.","A vacuum system stabilizes the fabric by sucking it to the table during cutting.","The fabric is usually silver-colored to blend in against the daytime sky.","A seamstress now sews on nylon tape to attach the parts and reinforce the seams.","Some panels have holes about the size of a dinner plate to funnel air between the two layers of the canopy and keep it rigid during flight.","Once they finish sewing, workers meticulously inspect the stitching.","Every inch of stitching must have between 7 and 10 stitches.","If the stitching is too close or too far apart, the fabric could rip, and that's the last thing you want when your chute is descending at a rate of up to 13 feet per second.","So they mark any problem spots with a red ribbon and resew them.","Here, a worker sews nylon tape to reinforce an area called a flare, which is a triangular patch of nylon reinforced with silicone coating.","She loops the tape at one of the flare's points to later insert what's called a suspension line.","The 60 lines link the 60 flares on the canopy to the jumper's harness.","To reinforce each flare, she sews 42 zigzag stitches in a 1-inch area.","The nylon suspension line arrives on spools, so workers use this machine to stretch it straight.","A worker marks off up to 14 1/2 feet per line and cuts it on an angle to reduce fraying.","Workers later sew the ends into loops so they can attach each one to the loop on the flares.","A worker makes a lark's head knot in each line and ties it to a flare.","This type of knot is easy to undo if a line needs replacing.","Connecting the 60 lines to the canopy's 60 flares takes about two hours.","Only after all these knots are secure can they pack the chute into the backpack and ship it to the customer.","The nylon backpack has two identical parachutes, the main chute and a reserve.","This worker is sewing the panels that will encase the reserve chute.","Extra stitching reinforces the strap connecting the steel buckle, which fastens an extra pack for up to 100 pounds.","It's critical to strictly follow the company's instructions when packing the chute.","You roll the ends, then fold the rest into layers.","Before each jump, you have to untangle the lines and check for any tears from the previous jump.","Then you insert the lines and canopy into the pack.","You pull on this red nylon handle to deploy the main chute.","The yellow handle is for the reserve chute.","There are straps over the shoulders, chest, belly, and legs.","And three buckles attach the harness to the jumper.","Your home's chimney vents hot gases or smoke from your fireplace to the outside.","Some types also channel air to the fire to keep it burning.","Although the concept's very old, today's chimneys have come a long way.","They're energy-efficient and modular, so you can easily assemble them yourself.","This company makes chimneys for gas-fired and wood-burning fireplaces.","A chimney's inner chamber is called a flue.","For a wood-burning fireplace, they make the flue from stainless steel.","Workers unwind a sheet, then slice it to the size of the flue section they're making.","The sections are up to 10 inches wide and 4 feet long.","They assemble as many as they need to make a complete chimney.","Here, a worker folds the edges in opposite directions, which will enable them to interlock.","Rollers then curl the sheet into a cylinder.","The metal is only about as thick as four pieces of paper stacked together.","This keeps the chimney lightweight.","They weld together the top and bottom ends, and a roller flattens the welded seam.","They insert the bottom of the flue between two rollers.","They form a ridge to which a coupler will later attach.","They crimp the metal at the top so it can also hold a coupler.","To make top-end couplers, a die punches the shape from lubricated sheets of stainless steel.","A robotic arm then suctions out the coupler and places it onto another machine that cuts threads into the sides of it.","These threads enable the chimney sections to twist and lock together.","To attach the coupler, the worker mounts it on top of the flue.","A roller then pushes against the flue in the coupler.","This expands the metal and secures the pieces together.","Now to join the flue with the outer casing.","An eight-sided die pushes out against a coupler to attach it to the flue in the casing.","They insulate the chimney with shredded ceramic fiber that can withstand a temperature of up to 2,100 degrees fahrenheit.","Workers feed the fiber into a machine that packs it into the cavity between the flue and the casing.","The machine then moves the chimney to another station where it twists a coupler to the bottom end to close the cavity.","After a quick brushing to remove any fiber dust, a mechanical arm lifts the chimney and moves it to be boxed and shipped.","A gas-burning fireplace generates less heat and fewer corrosive gases, so the chimney flue is made of aluminum-coated steel and a casing of a zinc-aluminum alloy-- more-affordable materials, yet still well above safety standards.","The air space between the flue and casing provides the required insulation.","A worker places the flue inside an automated welder.","It fuses the edges with a laser that's as thin as a human hair.","This is called a butt laser weld because the machine butts the edges together and bonds them.","Next, an eight-sided die indents the section with three ridges.","A component will fit into these indentations later.","Here, a machine creates a star-shaped component called a spacer.","They use two of them to center the flue in the casing.","A worker installs one at each end of the flue.","He then inserts the flue into the casing and twists it to lock the spacers into the ridges.","This connects and aligns the chimney sections properly.","The tops of chimneys have steel rain caps.","They let smoke and gases vent but keep rain out, ensuring that where's there's smoke, there is indeed fire."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Compression & Extension Springs","Micro Drill Bits","Skiffs","Painted Glass Backsplashes"]},"text":["Compression and extension springs...","Micro drill bits...","Skiffs...","And painted glass backsplashes.","Coiled wire springs are designed to change shape when weight is added or removed.","Some coils, such as compression springs, are made to keep components apart.","Other types of coils, like extension springs, hold things together while the spring expands and contracts.","When a load is applied to a compression spring, it contracts, while an extension spring expands when pulled.","Compression and extension springs are made from steel wire.","The diameter and qualities of the wire varies, depending on the use of the spring.","Spooled onto a reel, the wire uncoils, pulled by rollers, which lead to a forming machine.","Guide rollers steer the wire, as does this aperture.","Multiple feed rollers push the wire towards computerized forming tools.","The rollers pause, while the tools do their work, and then resume to supply wire for the next spring.","Meanwhile, other rollers push the wire around a mandrel, where it's coiled into an extension spring.","A side-arm controls the diameter, while another tool cuts it to length.","The forming process has caused internal stresses.","To remove those stresses, the springs are heat-treated.","As the springs move out of the oven, they travel through a cooling chamber.","The heating and controlled cooling improves the physical properties, allowing the springs to withstand repeated compression.","With internal stresses relieved, it's time to work on the outer surface of the steel springs.","A rack conveyer dips extension springs into a vat of water-based paint.","The paint seeps into the crevices of the coils, providing even paint coverage.","Then the rack conveyer takes the painted springs on a ten-minute loop through an oven.","This step bakes the paint onto the steel, providing a corrosion-resistant finish.","This is what the springs look like before and after painting.","These truck suspension springs are made differently.","A machinist heats the end of a steel rod in a furnace, inserting it between forming tools to taper it.","This taper will allow the completed spring to sit upright.","Next, the entire rod goes into a 1,796-degree furnace.","Once the rod in red-hot and malleable, it exits the furnace and is transferred to the forming mandrel.","The mandrel spins to wind the soft, steel wire, transforming the straight steel rod into a spring.","The spring is placed in a bucket and lifted to an oil bath.","The bath quenches and hardens the steel.","Then the spring travels through a furnace.","The heat burns off quenching oil residue.","A technician inserts the compression springs in a revolving fixture, allowing the ends of the springs to extend outward.","As the fixture revolves, grinding wheels remove material to flatten the exposed ends.","This flattened profile is another way to ensure that the springs will sit upright.","Once complete, the technician measures the height of the spring to confirm that the correct amount of material has been ground off.","The grinding has made a substantial difference.","The next machine removes surface flaws.","An operator places the spring inside the machine.","As the spring spins, a fine, abrasive steel shot sands away imperfections.","You can see the difference this step makes in the spring on the right.","The exposure to heat has made the steel wire more flexible.","A technician places the wire in a press machine and sets the compression and height.","The press squeezes the coils until the desired amount of compression is achieved.","After the spring has been painted, the company name and model information is stamped onto the springs.","It takes two hours to make a spring, and now it's finally ready for some flex time.","Thousands of years ago, our earliest ancestors might have picked up a pointed rock and spun it between their hands to bore a hole in something they wanted to modify.","Today, you can buy drill bits in all shapes and sizes.","Drill bits are often associated with carpentry, but from electronics to surgery tooling, there are all kinds of fields that require ultra-thin, high-performance drill bits.","The production process begins with lengths of 100% carbide called blanks.","A diamond grinding wheel lubricated with a specialized cutting liquid is applied to a chamfered edge on one tip of the blank.","This step removes the rough edges left when the blanks were cut down to size.","A vibrating device organizes the blanks inside a rotating bowl.","The vibrating action shifts the blanks into single file so they can proceed one-by-one to the next step.","This machine is called a centerless grinder.","The blanks move between two rotating drums, which grinds them down to a specified length.","The blanks pour out of the machine immersed in the lubricating fluid.","An operator selects one and places it in a quality control gauge to check that it meets the manufacturer's required tolerances.","The blanks now enter a cnc rollomatic.","An operator sets up the tool and programs its work process.","A robotic auto-feeder picks up the blanks one-by-one from a specialized palette.","The robotic arms places each blank carefully and precisely in a waiting chuck, or collar, and then moves them back into position.","The tool moves forward, holding the blank perfectly still as a pair of wheels close in.","Liquid coolant pours over the blank as the wheels precision pinch-grind the tip of the blank, grinding it down to about 1/10 of a millimeter-- the width of a human hair.","It's a delicate process.","The rollomatic produces 48 pieces per hour.","Next, a technician places small sheets of plastic foil in a jig.","The foil is shim stock, color-coded according to its thickness.","The jig raises the metal support to a specified height.","When the blank advances over the support, a mark left in the blue ink determines whether the metal blank is centered.","Once complete, a technician uses a magnifying tool to fine-tune the placement of the blank and ensure that it's perfectly centered.","This process can take four to five hours.","The blank is finally ready for the crucial fluting process that will transform it from a cylindrical length of carbide with a narrow tip into a micro drill bit.","After hours of preparation, this operation takes just a few seconds.","An industrial grinding diamond wheel has sliced a microscopic groove at a precise angle.","The technician inserts the bit, sharp-end first, into a precision machining device.","A steel bushing with a brass insert holds the tip of the bit in place as a cutting wheel slices an angled point.","It's impossible to see the difference between a bit before and after fluting.","Using a magnifying device, the technician conducts a quality control check of the bit.","As the screen reveals the finely-cut flute, the technician ensures the tool's parameters meet manufacturing standards.","Once such parameter has to do with the shape of the flute, which has a forward taper.","This means the flue groove becomes shallower from tip to base at a very precise angle.","This feature simultaneously strengthens the tool while increasing the chip flow along the groove.","Although carbide is incredibly strong, when it's milled to the thickness of a human hair, it becomes fragile.","Needless to say, careful packaging is extremely important.","A skiff is a lightweight motorboat designed for use on shallow water.","Unlike most boats that have a v-shaped hull, a skiff's hull is relatively flat, allowing it to sit high above the water.","This type of boat is known as a poling skiff.","It's designed with a platform set over the engine, which provides fishermen a ledge to stand on while moving the boat along with a pole.","A technician cleans the hull mold and coats it with a release agent, then sprays on a gel coating.","The gel coating forms the glossy outer layer of the boat.","Then the technician measures the gel coat layer with a mill gauge and leaves it to harden for about an hour.","Computer-guided machines cut pieces for the hull, deck, and cockpit floor from four different materials-- woven fiberglass mat, rigid pvc sheet-foam, kevlar-- a high-strength, heat-resistant synthetic fabric-- and stiffer kevlar reinforced with carbon fiber.","Chopped fiberglass saturated with resin is applied onto the gel coat.","With spray-glue, a technician adheres a layer of carbon kevlar, fiberglass, foam, and a second layer of kevlar to the base.","These layered materials create a mold for the boat's deck and cockpit floor.","The flat squares are aluminum-retention plates, where components will be screwed down.","Raised squares are where openings will be cut out for storage compartments.","Each mold is bagged and connected with hoses to a vacuum-infusion system.","The vacuum compresses the layers to 2/3 their original thickness, then the system draws a specialized resin through the materials, which will bond them into a single unit.","The system removes all excess resin so that the ratio of resin to materials creates maximum strength with minimal weight.","Next, another technician assembles the boat's wiring into a unit known as a wiring harness.","He winds the individual wires around a schematic that's custom-designed for this specific boat.","He attaches connectors on the ends that fit into water-tight plugs.","Every wire is labeled for easy identification.","Once the resin has fully cured, the plastic vacuum bag is removed from each mold.","A technician knocks wedges under the flange that formed around the perimeter, and thanks to the release agent, a team can easily lift the flange out of the mold.","The flange is trimmed, and the openings are cut with a diamond saw, which leaves clean, straight edges.","Next, a team begins assembling the boat.","First, they apply adhesive to the hull to prepare the cockpit floor for attachment.","Once the cockpit's in place, white pvc tubes are installed for storing fishing rods under the deck.","Then the wiring harness is installed.","The aluminum fuel tank is mounted in the bow.","These components are made of strong, lightweight materials.","A technician places screws into the metal retention plates that were molded into the structure.","Next, the wiring harness is attached to water-tight plugs connected to the electrically-powered components.","After installing plumbing lines for the aerated live bait compartment, team members glue the deck to the hull.","The lids are installed for the deck openings.","This one covers the forward storage compartment containing the fuel tank and the tubes for the fishing rods.","Next, the console helm is assembled, which is the nautical equivalent of a vehicle dashboard.","Onto the helm, a technician installs the steering wheel, the engine gauge, the panel containing the ignition and switches for electrical components, and the throttle, which controls speed.","Then, two technicians bolt the outboard motor onto the engine mount at the stern.","While this skiff is built with a square stern and pointed bow, its sides are flat.","This enables the boat to move quietly through the water.","Next, technicians mount the poling platform over the engine, securing it with glue and screws.","Finally, a technician installs the finishing touches, and the skiff is ready for launch.","Due to its low profile and light weight, this boat can operate in just mere inches of water.","Painted glass is an un-traditional backsplash choice specifically designed to look minimalistic.","Due to fewer grout lines, these painted panels are also easier to clean so that when grease splatters, the backsplash can be wiped down quickly.","These panels are painted on the back so the neutral color shows through the front side.","Since glass is reflective, this backsplash brings both subtle color and light into the kitchen.","Production starts with an automated loading system.","Suctioning grippers transfer the glass to the rails of a conveyer.","This is low-iron glass, a kind of glass with a very high clarity.","Once color is applied to the back, the color will appear more clearly on the front than regular glass.","For easy identification, a computerized system applies labels to each of the parts to be cut.","A diamond cutting tool scores the glass, mapping out backsplash panels and smaller pieces to be used for showroom samples.","Once complete, rollers move the glass sheet to the next station.","Two technicians snap the glass along the score lines.","This snapping action creates clean cuts, preventing the glass from shattering.","The snap action doesn't work for cuts within the panel.","Instead, a highly pressurized water jet mixed with garnet grit cuts through the glass.","The cutting device makes holes for electrical switch plates and for mounting hardware.","With the cutting done, a technician rinses the residual grit.","The sharp edges are profiled so the glass will be safer to handle.","As this display model demonstrates, there are several choices.","Next, an operator loads the glass backsplash into a slotted conveyer, which transfers it to the edging machine.","Underneath the edging machine, there are a series of grinding and buffing wheels.","As the glass travels over the wheels, the edge of the glass will transform.","Once the machine is activated, the wheels spin, while lubricant flows over the glass.","The wheels profile and buff the edge of the glass that will be the top of the backsplash.","Next, the operator examines the edge to confirm that it's been contoured and that there aren't any imperfections.","Apart from making the glass safer to handle, the profiled edge will reduce the possibility of chipping and breakage.","At the next station, spinning brushes with soft bristles scrub the panel.","The process removes any dust or polishing grit to prepare it for the next steps.","Once out of the washing machine, the glass backsplash travels through a 1,299-degree oven.","The intense heat followed by a quick cooling tempers the glass to make it heat resistant.","Roller conveyers transfer the glass to the painting station.","A technician mixes the acrylic paint.","Since paint doesn't stick to glass on its own, a special adhesion-promoting chemical is added to the mixture.","The technician mixes the colorants into the white base according to the formula.","Specific amounts of red and yellow paint produce a brilliant orange hue.","Next, sprayers apply the paint evenly across the back of the panel as the glass moves along a conveyer.","Then the backsplash enters an infrared oven heated to 302 degrees fahrenheit.","The painted glass bakes in the oven for about four minutes.","Once heating is complete, a technician applies gray paint over the backside of the backsplash.","This coat won't affect the orange hue, but it will protect the backsplash from damage during transport and installation.","Neutral-colored backsplashes make a more subtle statement, while brightly-colored backsplashes can make a kitchen pop."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Fire Extinguishers","Doughnuts","Shock Absorbers","Banjos"]},"text":["Today on \"how it's made\"...","Fire extinguishers...","Doughnuts...","Shock absorbers...","And banjos.","The first fire extinguisher on record was built in europe in the middle ages.","It worked like a giant syringe that squirted water at a fire.","The modern extinguisher uses compressed air as a propellant and douses the fire with flame-retardant liquid, powder, or foam.","Squeezing the lever opens a valve that releases compressed air.","The pressure then propels the chemical through the hose and out the nozzle.","Production of the release valve starts with cylindrical pieces of aluminum called blanks.","A carousel runs each one through 16 different machining stations.","At each stop, under a shower of lubricant, tools shape the blank for 6 1/2 seconds.","As each blank completes the circuit, it comes off the carousel.","From blank to valve in a minute and a quarter.","Now the fire extinguisher's aluminum handle is riveted onto the valve.","It pivots on a pin.","Next, an aluminum lever is riveted onto the handle.","This is the lever you squeeze to use the fire extinguisher.","Then comes the valve stem--  the valve's inner workings.","Workers simply place it inside, and an automated assembly machine does the rest.","It positions a spring over the stem to create resistance when you squeeze the lever.","Then comes a retainer to hold both the stem and spring in position.","Now workers slip on a plastic thimble to position the rubber \"o\" ring that goes on next.","The \"o\" ring acts as a seal between the valve and cylinder so nothing leaks out.","The siphon tube runs from the valve down into the cylinder.","The firefighting chemical goes up this tube, then out the nozzle.","The compressed air inside the cylinder is what propels the chemical.","This gauge shows if there's sufficient pressure for that to happen.","After coating the gauge's threaded stem with sealant to prevent leaks, a worker screws it onto the valve.","The valve unit is now fully assembled, tested, and ready for installation on top of the cylinder.","To attach it, the cylinder needs a threaded collar.","With the help of a press, a worker positions it.","The cylinder also needs a bottom.","The technique this factory uses to fuse the bottom and collar is called brazing.","It's similar to soldering but with a copper ring as a bonding metal.","After positioning a brazing ring at the base of the open cylinder, a steel bottom is pressed into place.","Then workers position a brazing ring over the collar.","Now into a brazing furnace for an hour and 45 minutes.","The 2,000-degree heat melts the two copper rings, boding the parts they connect.","Next stop, the static-paint booth, where workers apply a positive electrical charge to the paint particles and a negative charge to the cylinders.","This draws the paint onto the surface evenly.","Then it's into an oven for 45 minutes to bake the paint.","Once the cylinders cool, automated machinery fills them with a fire-extinguishing powder.","The main ingredient is a form of ammonia.","When it's sprayed on a fire, the heat melts the particles of powder, fusing them into an oxygen-blocking blanket that smothers the flames.","After the cylinders are filled, an automated machine screws a valve onto the collar of each one.","Now it's time to pressurize the cylinder.","The lever is squeezed to open the valve, enabling a compressor to fill the cylinder with air.","They keep filling until the air pressure reaches 13 bars, about six times the pressure in a car tire.","Next, workers screw on the nozzle and install a locking pin.","This immobilizes the lever so the extinguisher can't discharge accidentally.","As the instruction sticker says, in case of fire, you just pull the pin, aim, and spray.","This mounting bracket lets you hang the fire extinguisher in an accessible spot so it's close at hand if you need it.","When we return, frying up one of america's favorite treats.","Doughnuts used to be called oily cakes because they were deep fried in pork fat.","When dutch pilgrims first brought them to america, they were ball-shaped.","But then someone found that removing a nut of dough from the center helped them cook far more evenly.","And so the doughnut was born.","In the world of doughnuts, there are two basic types-- yeast doughnuts and cake doughnuts.","The batter for cake doughnuts drops from the mixer right into boiling vegetable oil.","The nozzles shape the dough as it passes.","The doughnuts fry for about a minute and a half.","Then a conveyor carries them out of the vat to cool.","Yeast doughnuts require more time to make.","A high-speed mixer works the yeast dough, then workers pull it off the machine into bins.","From there, it goes into a hopper that extrudes the dough as a sheet.","Then it's on to another conveyor belt where a series of rollers flatten the dough sheet to just 3/4 of an inch thick.","The sheet passes under a shower of cinnamon...","Then hits a rotating cylinder that rolls it into a log.","A small metal rod sprinkles the dough with water.","This keeps it sticky enough to hold its shape while going under another flattening roller.","A dusting of cornstarch keeps the dough from sticking to the blade that now cuts it into pieces.","A retractable arm drops the blocks of dough four at a time onto wire-mesh trays.","Then it's off to the proofer, a machine much like a large bread box in which heat and humidity help the yeast dough rise.","This leavening process takes about 20 minutes, during which time the trays--  over 300 of them-- go up and down and then out to the fryer.","A gate slows the doughnuts down just before the drop so they slide in without splashing hot oil.","Gas burners keep the oil at a constant boil.","Anything less and the doughnuts would come out partly raw.","Halfway through, they get a flip so they'll cook evenly throughout.","After two minutes, the doughnuts leave the fryer and move through a curtain of sweet glaze.","A strong air current blows off the excess.","And these fry cakes are ready to eat.","They gradually cool as they spiral through the production area on their way to packaging.","Now let's see how they make doughnuts with filling.","A machine separates the yeast dough into little blobs, then sends them rolling down plastic tunnels.","This shapes them first into pucks, then into round dough balls.","Rollers then flatten the balls before they enter the proofer to rise.","There's cornstarch everywhere to prevent the dough from sticking to the machinery or to the conveyor belt.","Row after row of doughnuts fry in hot oil...","Then slide into a large drum that tumbles them around, covering them with a sugary coating.","Now it's time for the doughnuts to get filled.","These nozzles inject just the right amount of jelly.","Each worker fills 45 doughnuts a minute.","After filling, these doughnuts, known as bismarcks, are ready to go on to packaging.","They're just one of the many delicious varieties that this factory turns out on a daily basis.","Next, the shocking truth behind one of your car's most critical parts.","Shock absorbers do more than just smooth your ride.","They counteract the bounce when you hit a bump, holding your tires to the road.","Without that traction, you could lose control.","So by affecting steering, stopping, and stability, shocks are actually a vital safety component.","Wheel vibrations cause a piston inside the shock absorber to force oil through a valve.","This absorbs energy, reducing the vehicle's bounce.","All this happens within the shock's two tubes-- the reserve tube and, inside it, the pressure tube, housing the piston rod and compression valve.","Both of these tubes are made from a steel sheet sliced into strips.","Inside this tube mill, coolant prevents the passing strip from overheating as one forming roller after another gradually rounds it into a tube.","Then, a copper welding wheel fuses the tube closed.","As the 6-yard-long tube comes off the mill, a cutting tool chops it into shock-absorber lengths.","The tube-making process is the same for the reserve and pressure tubes, except that the reserve tubes undergo one extra step-- compressing the ends.","This enables the shock to house a larger reserve tube that can hold more oil.","The reserve tube's final stop is a press.","A die inside stamps the part number, the manufacturing date, and the brand name.","Many components are made of powdered metal-- mostly iron powder mixed with some graphite and copper.","After a press compacts the powder in a die, a furnace fuses the particles.","This powdered-metal part is the valve through which the piston forces the oil.","Steel discs and a spring help control the speed with which the valve operates for varying driving conditions.","A stamping tool crimps the end of the tube, holding the spring in position.","The valve, now fully assembled, seals the bottom of the pressure tube.","Meanwhile, a press punches round steel discs into other components.","These loops mount the shock absorber to the vehicle.","A worker positions a cup on each one, then a robot welds them together.","They insert a cup-and-mount unit on one end of the reserve tube, then weld it on.","This unit is called the base assembly.","The base assemblies now go on a conveyor, open end up so that workers can drop a pressure tube inside each one.","Automated injectors now fill the tubes with oil that's specially designed to maintain its consistency despite changes in temperature.","Next comes the head assembly, which includes the steel piston rod and the mount on the other end of the shock absorber.","Two copper welding wheels fuse the head assembly to the base assembly with a cap.","This closes the unit, sealing the oil inside.","Next, workers weld on a dirt shield-- a steel casing that prevents dirt from hindering the movement of the piston rod.","A piece called a bushing is pressed into each mount.","This helps tone down the vibrations coming from the vehicle.","Now it's on to an automated carousel.","Robots pierce a hole in each shock and inject nitrogen gas to prevent the oil inside from foaming.","After injection, the robot seals the hole by welding on a tiny steel ball.","And now for the finishing touch-- an electrostatic paint job.","A machine runs a positive electrical current through the shocks and a negative one through the paint particles.","Like a magnet, the static electricity draws the paint onto the shocks in a flawless coat.","In the factory's quality-control lab, technicians use sophisticated equipment to evaluate how well a shock dampens movement at different speeds.","The tube-and-valve configuration inside varies by vehicle, so the shocks on a ground-hugging sports car are quite different from those on a luxury sedan or on a light truck.","Coming up, a production line that comes with strings attached.","The twang of the banjo resonates in american country music and bluegrass, but this down-home sound actually has its roots in africa.","Slaves brought to america wanted something that sounded like the instruments from home, so they devised the banjo.","And the rest is music history.","to make a banjo, a lip is carved into wood that's been steamed and bent into a circular rim.","The rim is carefully measured.","It must be a perfect fit for this metal tone ring.","The wooden back of the banjo acts as a sound resonator, and some plastic trim gives it a more stylish look.","A chemical accelerator helps the glue dry so the plastic trim adheres almost instantly.","The surface is then sanded until the plastic is flush to the wood.","This long piece of wood will become the banjo's neck.","Using a table saw, an artisan cuts a long slot into the neck so that a metal adjusting rod can be installed later.","He widens the end of the neck with two pieces of wood to form the instrument's peg head.","Next comes some very delicate work, as tiny mother-of-pearl decorations are embedded in a piece of ebony.","That inlaid piece of ebony is then glued onto the banjo's peg head and clamped to dry.","Now it's over to a saw with 22 blades.","A long piece of ebony is passed over those blades to make the banjo's fret slots.","This is the banjo's fingerboard.","Once it's been adorned with more inlaid decorations, the fingerboard is glued onto the banjo neck.","Next, the edges of the banjo neck and peg head are trimmed down to size.","Using this router, artisans give the back and sides of the banjo neck smoother contours.","The rounded edges will make the instrument easier to hold and play.","They finalize the shape of the neck with a rasp, then give it a thorough sanding.","Here, metal frets are tapped into the slots on the fingerboard, and the overlap is trimmed.","Now it's time for a little color.","Stain is rubbed onto the banjo parts.","When the stain dries, it's followed by 12 coats of lacquer...","And finally, a thorough buffing.","Now all the pieces come together, beginning with the pre-fitted tone ring and wooden rim.","The plastic head through which the banjo's sound will radiate fits on the tone ring.","The head is secured with a tension hoop and a series of hooks.","Tightening these hooks will stretch the plastic head to adjust the instrument's tone.","The banjo neck and its peg head are attached and secured with metal rods.","The tuning pegs are screwed into the peg head.","Then the banjo's strings are attached and tightened.","This little wooden bridge sits on the plastic head and is only held in place by the tension of the strings.","Finally, the back of the banjo goes into place.","And now this finely crafted instrument is ready to strum away."]}
+{"meta":{"things":["Native Healing Drums","Raisins","Stereoscopic Viewers","Ribbon Microphones"]},"text":["For thousands of years, aboriginal peoples have used drums to call on healing spirits.","But the sound of the drum itself can be a source of renewal.","The repetitive beat can induce a meditative state which may actually have healing properties.","today, a new generation beats the drum to heal body and spirit.","These young men are from the tewa tribe of northern new mexico.","Like their ancestors before them, they chant and drum in a rhythmic appeal to heal.","To make a healing drum, they start with pieces of pine or spruce-- soft woods that are lightweight.","The native craftsman creates an octagonal design and leaves the glue joints to dry.","The next craftsman soaks a cowhide in water to make it soft and pliable.","He drapes the wet hide over a drum frame and as he does, he looks for cuts or thin patches.","He arranges it so that any flaws aren't apparent.","He then trims the hide.","This particular drum is for powwows.","So it's extra large.","It's a two-sided version for a deeper tone.","He pulls the wet hide to the desired tension and punches holes in the skirting.","He hammers nails through the holes to tack the hide to the frame and cuts a scalloped edge.","He then tacks a hide to the other side.","He places another piece of wet rawhide on a spiral blade and pounds the hide into it using a hickory mallet.","This slices the leather into a long, thin lace.","He extracts the lace from the cutter.","After softening it with water, he takes it outside.","He wraps one end around a post and pulls, stretching the leather to remove slack.","It breaks at any weak points, leaving the strongest parts.","He now laces the leather drumheads to the frame.","He cuts a slit in the end and pulls the rest of the lace through the slit to knot it to the drumhead.","He zigzags the lacing through alternate holes in the the two drumhead hides.","He tugs the lace as he goes to pull the leather drumheads tightly to the frame.","Once complete, he knots the other end.","He threads the second piece of lace through the remaining holes, creating a crisscross pattern.","Paint applied to the frame early on shows through the crisscross weave.","The leather dries to a dark patina for a stunning contrast to the blue hue.","This double-sided drum is now ready for a powwow.","To make a single-sided healing drum, they bend a piece of wood into a complete circle.","A craftsperson signs and stamps the maker's information on the inside.","Then it's over to the drum maker.","She pulls a wet hide to the wooden hoop and folds it under the rim, smoothing out any puckers.","She punches holes for securing the drumhead to the wooden hoop and slices off the excess hide.","She's now ready to lace the drumhead to the frame.","She ties the skin to the frame in a configuration that looks like the spokes of a bicycle wheel.","She pulls it tightly for the desired tonality.","It's all in the technique.","If she doesn't get it right now, the wet drumhead will warp as it dries.","The leather spokes meet at the center in a cross where the drummer will grip it.","The leather darkens as it dries and the tension sets.","She now weaves strips of tanned leather around the cross at the center.","It's a decorative touch that also gives the drummer something more substantial to hold on to.","The drummer will hook a thumb in the cross section to hold the drum with an open hand.","An artist paints symbolic images on the native healing drum.","She works freestyle.","A few strokes of the brush produce a buffalo...","And then then an entire herd.","for native peoples of north america, the bison is a symbol of strength and unity.","A corn maiden painting on a drum represents abundance.","It's art designed to help one heal to the beat.","incredibly, people have been drying grapes to turn them into raisins for 2,000 years.","Today, there are potato chips and chocolate bars, but people are still snacking on raisins.","Preserved and sweetened by the drying process, they can still be enjoyed anytime, anywhere.","2,000 years on the snack circuit, and raisins still get plenty of nibbles.","They're also a popular ingredient in baked goods, cereals, and salads.","At this california vineyard, they plant grapevine cuttings in late winter.","They're the seedless kind.","These cuttings take three years to grow and bear fruit.","Each winter, they prune the vines, cutting away weaker canes and dead wood.","Pruning reduces the number of buds.","So the plant's energy goes to the ones that remain, resulting in larger fruit clusters.","They twist the remaining chutes around an overhead wire trellis and tie them to it.","Grapevines are natural climbers.","Securing them to the trellis positions them to grow in an arc for maximum sun exposure.","They pipe water between the rows.","It pools there and seeps into the soil and down to the roots of the vines.","These particular vines are growing on t-shaped trellises.","It's an older style of trellis.","When the grapes ripen, they cut the canes.","The fruit continues to hang there and it dries on the vines.","After 6 to 8 weeks, the grapes shrivel up and become raisins.","A harvester with comb-like teeth shakes the raisins from the vines.","They fall onto a conveyer, and a vacuum pulls out leaves and then shoots the raisins into bins.","On this particular harvester, the conveyer and the bins are on board.","The t-trellises require a different harvesting system, and the bins are outside in the next row.","Once full, a loader retrieves the bin, and then it's on its way to the packing plant.","Upon arrival, these raisins undergo extensive scrutiny.","An inspector from the u.s. department of agriculture looks for defects as the raisins bounce by on a shaker conveyer.","Technicians also test the moisture content and general quality of the fruit.","A vacuum removes twigs and stems.","They're lighter than the raisins and so they can be easily pulled out.","Here's a sample of the raisins as they arrive from the field.","And here they are with the plant debris removed.","They often store the raisins for weeks before further production.","And during this time, the raisins stick together and form clumps.","A revolving wheel with paddles now breaks up the clumps and separates the raisins.","They tumble off the conveyer and onto a perforated shaker table.","This separates any raisins which may still be clinging together.","Some cap stems remain.","These bits link the grapes to the vine stems.","The raisins now flow into cone-shaped machines that spin them to knock off the cap stems without damaging the raisins.","Once the raisins have been sorted by size, they travel under sprayers for a rinse, wash, and then another rinse.","They cruise by a laser that detects any missed cap stems or plant material.","A blast of air then gets rid of them.","Next, the raisins go into an inspection station and a worker picks out any material that may have been missed by the laser.","With her approval, the raisins are ready for packaging.","Suctioning devices grab and unfold snack-sized boxes and place them, lid up, on a high-speed conveyer or.","Raisins spill into the open snack boxes, and it's all a blur.","They fill 30,000 snack boxes an hour at this facility.","It takes about a year to grow and dry these raisins and just minutes to package them.","Stored in a cool, dry place, they will last a year-- unless someone eats them first.","Stereoscopic viewers date back to the 1840s.","Then, you had to manually insert one photograph at a time.","In 1939, a new type of viewer was introduced which used a reel of slides instead of printed photographs.","You advance from one to the next by pulling on a lever.","Early stereoscopic viewers gave people a way to see the world.","When viewers with reels came out, travel remained the focus.","You could visit a tourist site, then buy yourself a reel at the gift shop as a souvenir.","Today, 3-d viewers are also a business tool.","Companies use them as a creative way to market products or train employees.","And consumers now buy them as a novelty or gift, going online to order custom reels featuring their personal photographs.","Whatever the purpose, it's all about the pictures.","The manufacturer can use photos shot with a 3-d digital camera or with a standard digital camera.","The company's editor transfers the photographs to a computer and types a caption for each one.","If the photos were taken with the regular camera, he performs some computer magic.","He moves the image backwards, away from the viewer's eyes, then floats the text in the foreground closer to the viewer's eyes.","This little trick makes the photo appear to be 3-dimensional.","He puts two of each photo on a reel template.","You view one with each eye and your brain combines the two, creating 3-dimensional depth.","A photo and title in the center identify the reel.","Then the editor sends the assembled reel file to a photo processing lab and sets up the number of copies to be printed.","The photo processor's lasers print the photographs pixel by pixel on polyester film.","The machine prints a full sheet of 35 reels in exactly 1 minute and 14 seconds.","Then the sheet travels through a series of chemical baths and a dryer.","And 11 1/2 minutes later, the film is ready.","The editor carefully inspects every photo on every reel.","If everything's perfect, he feeds the film through a laminator.","The machine sandwiches the film between two sheets of transparent plastic then uses simultaneous pressure and heat to fuse everything together.","Encased in plastic, the floppy film is now rigid and three times thicker.","They now feed the laminated film into a hydraulic punching machine.","Its cookie-cutter type dies slice the perimeter of the reels, releasing them from the sheet.","The viewer itself is made up of injection-molded plastic.","A worker secures the front part in an assembly fixture then places plastic lenses in the eyeholes.","A machine then expands the plastic, locking in the lenses.","Preparing two viewers at a time now, he places a frosted plastic panel on the back part to diffuse the daylight or artificial light coming into the viewer.","An inner eyepiece goes over the diffuser, then this machine applies heat to fuse it in place.","Next, the lever you pull down to advance from photo to photo.","This spring returns it to the \"up\" position after each pull.","Now he mates the two parts of the viewer.","A high-pressure air press squeezes them together in a permanent bond.","The finishing touch--  a printing pad stamps the front of the viewer with the brand name.","Stereoscopic viewers have come a long way since their invention in the 1800s.","While still offering a dose of nostalgia, there's a new twist-- putting your very own photos on a reel as a unique gift or a fun way to relive those vacation memories.","The ribbon microphone was invented in the 1920s and first commercially produced in 1931.","It's called a ribbon microphone because inside, a thin aluminum ribbon positioned between two magnets converts sound waves into electrical signals.","Introduced in 1931, ribbon microphones revolutionized the broadcasting and audio recording industries with unprecedented sound quality.","This company manufactures a modern version of the rca-44, one of the first ribbon microphones.","This manufacturer handcrafts the microphone, starting with the frame, which holds all the components.","After cutting a flat piece of brass, the machinist makes two bends with a press, then drills threaded holes for the fasteners that will connect the frame to the rest of the microphone.","Then he puts the bar into another press that bends the two ends upward to form a u-shape.","The frame goes off to another department to be chrome-plated and polished.","Meanwhile, another machinist takes a sheet of perforated brass to begin forming the microphone's signature grille.","He secures it to a die with two mounting plates.","The die is the shape of one half of the multisided grille.","He mounts it onto a fly press, a press operated by rotating a heavy counterweight.","As that counterweight spins, the die descends into a forming mold that's also in the shape of half of the grille.","A high-speed automated cutter trims the perimeter to make a neat, even edge all around.","Then the grille halves are sent off to be chrome-plated and polished.","Next, a technician assembles the motor, the heart of the microphone.","First, he snaps on two strong magnets.","The gap between them is where he'll later insert the key component-- the thin aluminum ribbon which gives this type of microphone its name.","After aligning the top of the motor with the bottom, he attaches the frame, which has since acquired a custom-made transformer, electrical terminals, and side brackets.","Now for the all-important ribbon.","A technician crafts it from a hair-thin sheet of pure aluminum.","It's so fragile, he has to handle it with tweezers.","First, using the edge of a razor blade, he glues down the edges to a thin sheet of paper set on a glass cutting surface.","Then, he places a second sheet of paper on top and, with a razor blade, slices lengthwise, dividing it into 4 ribbons, each 2/10 of an inch wide.","When sound waves pass through the microphone, they cause minute differences in air pressure between the front and the back of the ribbon inside.","This causes the ribbon to move in response to the peaks and valleys of the sound wave.","The technician corrugates the ribbon so that it responds to this minute air-pressure changes more accurately.","He removes the protective papers and installs the ribbon in the motor, between the two magnets.","In this position, the moving ribbon is a conductor in a magnetic field, generating a tiny current-- an electrical replica of the sound wave that can recorded, amplified, or broadcasted.","A technician tests the ribbon's tension to ensure it's neither too tight nor too loose.","He hooks up the terminals to an audio signal generator and measures at what frequency the ribbon resonates.","If necessary, he tunes the ribbon by adjusting its tension.","He installs what's called a puff shield.","It prevents puffs of air from stretching or tearing the delicate ribbon.","A two-part metal housing will encase the lower part of the motor.","However, before assembling it, a technician glues on an embossed medal medallion bearing the company's logo.","Then he takes the motor, which by now has acquired an output cable, stands it upside down, and assembles the housing around it.","Then he turns it right-side up and assembles the two halves of the grille.","A sleek-looking chrome-plated band hides the joint.","He fastens the microphone to a u-shaped stand called a yoke.","On each side, there's a thumb nut, which you loosen to tilt the mic then tighten to lock the position.","Although newer technologies have emerged since, the classic ribbon microphone still remains a favorite of sound engineers around the world."]}